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252991	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassar%20College	Vassar College	Vassar College ( ) is a private liberal arts college in Poughkeepsie, New York, United States. Founded in 1861 by Matthew Vassar, it was the second degree-granting institution of higher education for women in the United States, closely following Elmira College. It became coeducational in 1969 and now has a gender ratio at the national average. The college is one of the historic Seven Sisters, the first elite women's colleges in the U.S., and has a historic relationship with Yale University, which suggested a merger before they both became coeducational institutions. About 2,450 students attend the college. As of 2021, its acceptance rate is 19%. The college offers B.A. degrees in more than 50 majors and features a flexible curriculum designed to promote a breadth of studies. Student groups at the college include theater and comedy organizations, a cappella groups, club sports teams, volunteer and service groups, and a circus troupe. Vassar College's varsity sports teams, known as the Brewers, play in the NCAA's Division III as members of the Liberty League. The Vassar campus comprises over and more than 100 buildings, including two National Historic Landmarks and an additional National Historic Place. A designated arboretum, the campus features more than 200 species of trees, a native plant preserve, and a ecological preserve. History Vassar was founded as a women's school under the name Vassar Female College in 1861. Its first president was Milo P. Jewett, who had previously been first president of another women's school, Judson College; he led a staff of ten professors and twenty-one instructors. But after only a year, its founder, Matthew Vassar, had the word Female cut from the name, prompting some residents of the town of Poughkeepsie, New York, to quip that its founder believed it might one day admit male students. The college became coeducational in 1969. Vassar was the second of the Seven Sisters colleges, higher education schools that were formerly strictly for women, and historically sister institutions to the Ivy League. It was chartered by its namesake, brewer Matthew Vassar, in 1861 in the Hudson Valley, about north of New York City. The first person appointed to the Vassar faculty was the astronomer Maria Mitchell, in 1865. Vassar adopted coeducation in 1969. However, immediately following World War II, Vassar accepted a very small number of male students on the G.I. Bill. Because Vassar's charter prohibited male matriculants, the graduates were given diplomas via the University of the State of New York. These were reissued under the Vassar title after the school formally became co-educational. The formal decision to become co-ed came after its trustees declined an offer to merge with Yale University, its sibling institution, in the wave of mergers between the historically all-male colleges of the Ivy League and their Seven Sisters counterparts. In its early years, Vassar was associated with the social elite of the Protestant establishment. E. Digby Baltzell writes that "upper-class WASP families educated their children at colleges such as Harvard, Princeton, Yale, and Vassar." A select and elite few of Vassar's students were allowed entry into the school's secret society Delta Sigma Rho, started in 1922. Before becoming President of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was a Trustee. Roughly 2,450 students attend Vassar, and 98% live on campus. About 60% come from public high schools, and 40% come from private schools (both independent and religious). Vassar is currently 56% women and 44% men, at national average for national liberal arts colleges. Students are taught by more than 336 faculty members, virtually all holding the doctorate degree or its equivalent. The student-faculty ratio is 8:1, average class size, 17. In recent freshman classes, students of color constituted 32–38% of matriculants. International students from over 60 countries make up 8-10% of the student body. In May 2007, in keeping with its commitment to diverse and equitable education, Vassar returned to a need-blind admissions policy wherein students are admitted by their academic and personal qualities, without regard to financial status. Vassar president Frances D. Fergusson served for two decades. She retired in the spring of 2006, and was succeeded by Catharine Bond Hill, former provost at Williams College, who served for 10 years until she departed in 2016. Hill was replaced by Elizabeth Howe Bradley in 2017. The college was listed as a census-designated place in 2019. Presidents Campus Architecture Vassar's campus, also an arboretum, is and has more than 100 buildings, ranging in style from Collegiate Gothic to International, with several buildings of architectural interest. At the center of campus stands Main Building, one of the best examples of Second Empire architecture in the United States. When it was opened, Main Building was the largest building in the U.S. in terms of floor space. It formerly housed the entire college, including classrooms, dormitories, museum, library, and dining halls. The building was designed by Smithsonian architect James Renwick Jr. and was completed in 1865. It was preceded on campus by the original observatory. Both buildings are National Historic Landmarks. Rombout House was purchased by the college in 1915 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. Many original brick buildings are scattered throughout the campus, but there are also several modern and contemporary structures of architectural interest. Ferry House, a student cooperative, was designed by Marcel Breuer in 1951. Noyes House was designed by Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen. More recently, New Haven architect César Pelli was asked to design the Lehman Loeb Art Center, which was completed in the early 1990s. In 2003, Pelli also worked on the renovation of Main Building Lobby and the conversion of the Avery Hall theater into the $25 million Vogelstein Center for Drama and Film, which preserved the original 1860s facade but was an entirely new structure. Libraries Vassar is home to one of the largest undergraduate library collections in the U.S. The library collection today – which actually encompasses eight libraries at Vassar – contains about 1 million volumes and 7,500 serial, periodical and newspaper titles, as well as an extensive collection of microfilm and microfiche, with special collections of Ellen Swallow Richards, Albert Einstein, Mary McCarthy, and Elizabeth Bishop. Vassar has been a Federal Depository library for selected U.S. Government documents since 1943 and currently receives approximately 25% of the titles available through the Federal Depository Program. Since 1988, Vassar has been a New York State Reference Center, part of the New York Depository Program. The library also selectively purchases United Nations documents. A major renovation to Thompson Library was completed in 2001. The interior and exterior of the Van Ingen Art Library was renovated from June 2008 – May 2009 in an effort to restore its original design and appearance. This was the library's first major renovation since its construction in 1937. Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center Vassar College was the first college in the United States to be founded with a full-scale museum as part of its original plan. Matthew Vassar was known for declaring that "art should stand boldly forth as an educational force". The art collection at Vassar dates to the founding of the college, when Vassar provided an extensive collection of Hudson River School paintings to be displayed in the Main Building. Referred to as the Magoon Collection, it continues to be one of the best in the nation for Hudson River School paintings. One of the largest U.S. college or university art museums, the Frances Lehman Loeb Gallery displays a selection of Vassar's 18,000 articles of art in the building designed by Cesar Pelli. Today, the gallery's collection displays art from the ancient world up through contemporary works. The collection includes work by European masters such as Brueghel, Gustave Doré, Picasso, Balthus, Bacon, Vuillard, Cézanne, Braque and Bonnard, as well as examples from leading twentieth-century American painters Jackson Pollock, Agnes Martin, Mark Rothko, Marsden Hartley, Georgia O'Keeffe, Charles Sheeler, and Ben Shahn. The Loeb's works on paper represent a major collection in the United States, with prints by Rembrandt (including important impressions of the Hundred Guilder Print and the Three Trees) and Dürer as well as photographs by Cindy Sherman, Diane Arbus, and others. Students at the college can act as liaisons between the art center and the wider college community through work on the Student Committee of the Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center, to which incoming freshmen can apply. In November 2016, the gallery opened the Hoene Hoy Photography gallery on the second floor, named after Anne Hoene Hoy from the class of 1963. Capital improvements In 2011, Vassar embarked on a $120 million project to improve science facilities at the college, centering on the construction of a new $90 million Bridge for Laboratory Sciences. The project will include renovations of Olmsted Hall of Biological Sciences, New England Building and Sanders Physics Building as well as the construction of a new Integrated Science Center, a bridge building that will connect to Olmsted Hall and cross over the Fonteyn Kill. It is intended both to modernize and to support a collaborative and cross-disciplinary science community. The bridge building was completed in 2016. Davison, one of Vassar's nine residence houses, was renovated during the 2008–2009 school year. During the year of renovation, Davison's residents were absorbed into the college's remaining residence houses. This is the second dorm to be renovated as part of the school's master plan to renovate all dorms, following Jewett a few years earlier. Lathrop was scheduled to be closed and renovated during the 2010–2011 school year, but complete renovation was cancelled due to the economic downturn, with a number of improvements phased-in instead. Improvements were also made to Josselyn in 2011. Academics Vassar confers a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in more than 50 majors, including the Independent Major, in which a student may design a major, as well as various interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary fields of study. Students also participate in such programs as the Self-Instructional Language Program (SILP) which offers courses in Hindi, Irish/Gaelic, Korean, Portuguese, Swahili, Swedish, Turkish, and Yiddish. Vassar has a flexible curriculum intended to promote breadth in studies. While each field of study has specific requirements for majors, the only universal requirements for graduation are proficiency in a foreign language, a quantitative course, and a freshman writing course. Students are also encouraged to study abroad, which they typically do during one or two semesters of their junior year. Students (usually juniors) may apply for a year or a semester away either in the U.S. or abroad. Vassar sponsors programs in China, England, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Turkey, Mexico, Morocco, Spain, and Russia; students may also join pre-approved programs offered by other colleges. Students may also apply for approved programs at various U.S. institutions, including the historically Black colleges and members of the Twelve College Exchange. All classes are taught by members of the faculty, and there are no graduate students or teachers' assistants. The most popular majors, in terms of sheer numbers, are English, political science, psychology, economics and biology. Vassar also offers a variety of correlate sequences, or minors, for intensive study in many disciplines. Admissions For the Class of 2025 (enrolling fall 2021), Vassar received 10,884 applications, a 25% increase over the previous year, and accepted 2,068 (19%). For the Class of 2023 (enrolling Fall 2019), Vassar received 8,961 applications and accepted 2,127 (23.7%), with 691 enrolling. The middle 50% range of SAT scores for enrolling freshmen was 680-750 for evidence-based reading and writing, 690-780 for math, and 1380-1500 for the composite. The middle 50% ACT score range was 28-33 for math, 32-34 for English, and 31-34 for the composite. Students of color (including non-citizens) made up 45.5% of the incoming class; international students were 8.8% of enrolling freshmen. Rankings The 2022 edition of U.S. News & World Report'''s "Best Colleges" ranks Vassar as tied for the 22nd best liberal arts college in the U.S. out of 223 rated, 3rd for "Best Colleges for Veterans", 30th for "Best Value", tied at 32nd for "Top Performers on Social Mobility", and tied for 36th in "Best Undergraduate Teaching". It also ranked Vassar tied for 2nd among top liberal arts colleges for economic diversity as measured by low-income students receiving federal Pell Grants. In its 2021 edition, Washington Monthly ranked Vassar 11th among 215 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service. In its 2020 edition, The Princeton Review rated Vassar 1st for "Best Financial Aid" of all colleges and universities in the United States. In its 2018 edition, The Princeton Review rated Vassar 2nd best for financial aid and 41st best for "best value". In 2019, Forbes rated Vassar 27th among liberal arts colleges and 61st overall in its America's Top Colleges ranking, which includes 650 military academies, national universities, and liberal arts colleges. Kiplinger's Personal Finance places Vassar 11th in its 2019 ranking of the 149 best value liberal arts colleges in the United States. Money magazine ranked Vassar 145th in the country out of 739 schools evaluated for its 2020 "Best Colleges for Your Money" edition. In an article in The Christian Science Monitor, Vassar president emeritus Catharine Bond Hill argued that rankings "will always be limited in what they can tell consumers. Part of higher education's role about the rankings should be to remind students and their families that these are only one piece of information that they should take into account in deciding where to go to college. Intangibles will and should play a role in these decisions, but that doesn't mean we shouldn't also look at the tangibles". After Vassar Over half of Vassar graduates pursue advanced study within five years of graduation, including one-fifth immediately post-graduation. Of the seniors who applied to medical school in 2017, 76% were accepted; to law school, 96% were accepted. Vassar offers a database of well over 30,000 alumnae/i where students may seek career advice and opportunities. Numerous graduates of the college have earned distinction in their fields, garnering Academy, Emmy, Tony, Peabody and Golden Globe awards for work on stage and in film and television, MacArthur Fellowships ("genius grants") for innovation in fields including astrophysics, epidemiology, and medicine, Pulitzer Prize recognition for contributions to American literature, poetry, and investigative reporting, as well as the Presidential Medal of Freedom and National Medal of Science for achievements in astronomy, computer science, and drama. Student life Traditions Founder's Day is an annual campus festival at Vassar College that usually takes place in late April or early May. It started as a surprise birthday party for college founder Matthew Vassar's seventy-fourth birthday and evolved into an annual celebration. Originally, Founder's Day was a spontaneous event consisting of lectures, but was soon replaced with plays, pageants, and more recreational activities. Circus and fair activities followed, with the eventual addition of the modern day music events over the course of two days. More recently themes have been added, including Alice in Wonderland, Dinosaurs, Vintage 1800s Vassar, Nickelodeon, Nintendo, and Candyland. Recent artists at Founder's Day have included The Walkmen, Edan, DJ /rupture, Odd Nosdam, Jel, Toro y Moi, and Odesza. Extracurricular organizations The Night Owls, established in the 1940s, are, as of 2017, one of the oldest extant collegiate a cappella groups in the United States, and one of nine vocal music groups at Vassar. Other groups include the Vastards (specializing in the music of the 2000s), Broadway and More (BAM; showtunes), the Accidentals (the Axies; the sole all-men's a cappella group at Vassar), Beauty and the Beats (focusing on music from Disney movies), Home Brewed (formerly Matthew's Minstrels, the college's first mixed-gender a cappella group), the Vassar Devils, Measure 4 Measure (both themeless groups), and AirCappella (an all-whistling ensemble). Some a cappella groups tour and compete, including the Vassar Devils, who competed in the 2015 International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella. The Philaletheis Society, which was founded in 1865 as a literary society, is the oldest theater group on campus. It has now become a completely student run theater group. Others include Unbound (experimental theater), Woodshed (a troupe focused on devised theater), and Idlewild (an all-female ensemble). Britomartis, Vassar's only theater group exclusively creating devised theater, was founded in 2011. Further groups include the Future Waitstaff of America (for musical theater), Ebony Theatre Ensemble (focusing on Black theater), and two Shakespeare-specific troupes, Shakespeare Troupe and Merely Players. Performances happen throughout campus including in the Susan Stein Shiva Theater, an all-student-run black box theater. The college also hosts the Powerhouse Summer Theater workshop series. Happily Ever Laughter ("HEL") is the college's oldest active sketch comedy group, founded in 1993. Another Comedy Group, No Offense, which was started by two former members of an earlier group called Laughingstock (which was derecognized by the VSA in March 2000 as a result of a controversial skit), was started in September 2000. Another sketch comedy group The Limit was started a few years later. Indecent Exposure, an all-women's troupe performing both sketch and stand-up comedy, was founded in 2004. Comedynormative, which began in 2009, performs exclusively stand-up comedy. Vassar has three improv comedy groups: Vassar College Vassar Improv (VCVI), Committed, and Casual Improv. The Vassar Greens are Vassar's environmental group. This group strives to create real and lasting change on campus and in the greater Poughkeepsie community through initiatives like banning bottled water, on campus composting, and encourage local policy makers to adopt more sustainable waste management practices. Recently, the group opened the 'Free Market' on campus. This a store that students can donate to and take from freely to promote recycling and reduce waste. Vassar College Television (VCTV) is the college's first student-run video production company. Students collaborate to develop, write, produce, direct, edit, and act in video productions, including an annual web series. These productions cover a variety of genres, including drama and comedy. Campus publications The Miscellany News has been the weekly paper of the college since 1866, making it one of the oldest college weeklies in the United States. It is available for free most Thursdays when school is in session. In 2008–09, it became one of the only college newspapers in the country to begin updating its website daily. The Vassar Chronicle is the college's only political journal, which seeks to expand the breadth of political dialogue on campus by publishing long-form opinion columns. The Chronicle is the revivification of a student publication that appeared from 1944 to 1959 and during the 1970s; the modern-day Chronicle has been published monthly since 2010 and currently has a 1,000-copy circulation. The Vassar Student Review is an annual literary and art magazine featuring works (fiction, creative non-fiction, poetry, artwork, photography, essays, etc.) by Vassar students. It is the oldest student-run literary publication in the college's history. Its purpose is to serve the needs and expand the creative voice of Vassar's literary and art community. The VSR also orchestrates events and activities garnered towards the enrichment of Vassar's writers community. Some past events have included regularly scheduled Writing Workshops and Writer's Nights in the Cafe as well as the sponsoring of various relevant speakers brought by other organizations. Squirm "is a submissions-based magazine about sex and sexuality. Squirm seeks to create a sex-positive forum on campus for the artistic, literary, and creative exploration of sex." The magazine, published annually since 1999, typically runs around 60 pages and is only distributed to the campus community. Contrast is the college's art and style magazine. It is published each semester. Boilerplate Magazine is a student-run publication that calls itself an "alternative news source... that aims to publish radical pieces and creative works which address issues through a socially conscious lens." Due to its independence from collegiate funds, Boilerplate Magazine is generally more critical of the college than other student-run outlets. Unscrewed (1 October 1976 - 1 April 1989) was a student-run consumer report on campus residential and classroom safety, local food and drug price comparison, an annual local pizza delivery survey, and long-term topics such as the college's endowment and staffing. Radio station WVKR, 91.3 FM, is the college's radio station, established in 1971. The station's disc jockeys, primarily student volunteers, play an eclectic variety of music genres. Student government In March 2016, in a 15–2 vote, the Vassar Student Association (VSA) passed a resolution calling for the support of the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement and the boycott of Israel. In April 2016, the BDS resolution went to a school-wide referendum, where it was defeated 573–503. Athletics Vassar teams, known as the Brewers, compete in Division III of the NCAA, as a member of the Liberty League. The nickname originates from the college's founder and namesake Matthew Vassar, whose family ran a brewery in Poughkeepsie and would later amass a sizable fortune in the industry. Vassar College currently offers the following varsity athletics: basketball, baseball, cross-country, fencing (competes in the Northeast Fencing Conference), field hockey (women only), golf (women only), lacrosse, rowing, rugby, soccer, squash, swimming/diving, tennis, track, and volleyball. Club sports include Ultimate (Open, Mixed and women's), ski team (competes in USCSA), equestrian team (competes in IHSA), polo team (USPA), cycling team (competes in ECCC), Quidditch, and co-ed U.S. Figure Skating synchronized skating team. Basketball teams play in Vassar's new Athletics and Fitness Center. Volleyball teams play in Kenyon Hall, reopened in 2006. Soccer, baseball, field hockey and lacrosse teams play at Prentiss Fields, which have been completely renovated in 2007 to feature a lighted turf, four grass fields, a baseball field and a track surrounding the turf. Also in 2007, a varsity weight room was opened in the basement of Kenyon Hall, exclusively for the training of varsity athletes. In 2008, the Vassar men's volleyball team made the school's first appearance in a national championship game, beating UC Santa Cruz 3–0 in the semifinal before falling to Springfield in the championship game. In 2007, the Vassar cycling team hosted the Eastern Collegiate Cycling Championship in Poughkeepsie and New Paltz, New York. The competition included a road race over the Shawangunk Mountains in New Paltz as well as a Criterium in Poughkeepsie just blocks from the school's campus. In a controversial move, on November 5, 2009, the Athletics Department decided the men's and women's rowing team would transition over a two-year period from a varsity to a club sport as a cost-saving measure. In 1940, 1941 and 1942, Vassar athletes won national intercollegiate women's tennis championships each year in both singles (Katherine Hubbell) and doubles (Hubbell, Carolyn "Lonny" Myers). In 2018, the Vassar women's rugby team won the school's first team national championship, beating Winona State 50–13 in the final of the USA Rugby Women's Division 2. Notable people Notable Vassar alumni include: Elizabeth Hazleton Haight (1894), notable feminist and Classics scholar Anita Florence Hemmings (1897), their first graduate of African ancestry Edith Clarke (1908), the first female Electrical Engineer Mary Ingraham (1908), founder of the United Service Organizations (USO) Ruth Starr Rose (1910), artist Edna St. Vincent Millay (1917), poet Grace Hopper (1928), computer pioneer Mary McCarthy (1933), critic and novelist Elizabeth Bishop (1934), poet Carol F. Jopling (1938), anthropologist, Librarian, and chief librarian of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Frances Scott Fitzgerald (1942), writer and journalist Beatrix Hamburg (1944), physician Frances Farenthold (1946), politician and activist Vera Rubin (1948), astrophysicist Linda Nochlin (1951), Art Historian Lois Haibt (1955), member of FORTRAN development team Nina Zagat (1963), Zagat Survey co-founder Bernadine P. Healy (1965), physician and National Institutes of Health director Lucinda Cisler (1965), feminist and abortion rights activist Geraldine Laybourne (1969), Nickelodeon President and Oxygen Media founder and CEO Linda Fairstein (1969), author and prosecutor Rebecca Eaton (1969), Emmy award-winning executive producer of Masterpiece on PBS Meryl Streep (1971), three-time Academy Award winner actress Jane Smiley (1971), Pulitzer Prize-winning fiction writer Michael Wolff (1975), author and journalist Richard L. Huganir (1975), Neuroscientist and Director of Johns Hopkins Medicine Brain Science Institute Chip Reid (1977), CBS News Chief White House Correspondent Jeffrey Goldstein (1977), former World Bank CFO and Undersecretary of the Treasury for Domestic Finance Michael Specter (1977), The New Yorker magazine science writer Jamshed Bharucha (1978), Cooper Union President Phil Griffin (1979), MSNBC President John Carlstrom (1981), astrophysicist and MacArthur Award Fellow Mark Burstein (1984), President of Lawrence University of Wisconsin Lisa Kudrow (1985), actress Hope Davis (1986), actress Evan Wright (1988), journalist Jonathan Karl (1990), ABC News Chief White House Correspondent Jeffrey Brenner (1990), physician and MacArthur Award Fellow Jordan Pavlin (1990), editor in chief of Knopf Noah Baumbach (1991), writer-director Jason Blum (1991), film and television producer Caterina Fake (1991), Flickr founder Elisabeth Murdoch (1992), Shine Limited CEO and Chairman Jon Fisher (1994), author Katherine Center (1994), novelist Joe Hill (1995), novelist Jessi Klein (1997), Emmy Award-winning comedy writer-producer Jesse Ball (2000), writer Alexandra Berzon (2001), Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist and Wall Street Journal reporter Shaka King (2001), film director, screenwriter, and producer Victoria Legrand (2003), musician and songwriter Jonás Cuarón (2005), screenwriter and director Sasha Velour (2009), winner of RuPaul's Drag Race Season 9 Lilli Cooper (2012), Tony Award-nominated actress Ethan Slater (2014), Tony Award-nominated actor Raph Korine (2017), and runner-up of Big Brother 18 (UK) Notable attendees who did not graduate from Vassar include: Julia Tutwiler, notable education and prison reform advocate Anthony Bourdain, professional chef and television personality Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, First Lady of the United States Katharine Graham, Washington Post'' publisher Susan Berresford, president of the Ford Foundation Anne Hathaway, actress Jane Fonda, actress Justin Long, actor Mike D, member of the Beastie Boys Mark Ronson, Oscar-winning musician Rachael Yamagata, musician Curtis Sittenfeld, writer Notable Vassar faculty include: Maria Mitchell, pioneering female astronomer Grace Hopper, computer scientist Monique Wittig, philosopher Grace Macurdy, classicist Richard Edward Wilson, composer Uma Narayan, philosopher Mitchell Miller, philosopher Bryan W. Van Norden, philosopher James Merrell, historian Peter Stillman, political scientist Paul Russell, writer Hua Hsu, writer Nancy Willard, writer Frank Bergon, writer Michael Joyce, writer and pioneer of hypertext fiction Robert DeMaria, scholar and editor of Samuel Johnson Gallery References Further reading External links Vassar Athletics website 1861 establishments in New York (state) Educational institutions established in 1861 Former women's universities and colleges in the United States Seven Sister Colleges Universities and colleges in Dutchess County, New York Private universities and colleges in New York (state) Tourist attractions in Poughkeepsie, New York Liberal arts colleges in New York (state)	[ 0.2758970856666565, 0.04242108389735222, -0.194949671626091, -0.16129647195339203, 0.4637041389942169, 0.44766563177108765, 0.6003522872924805, 0.4201699495315552, -0.3306092321872711, -0.405550479888916, -0.22651636600494385, -0.013005007989704609, 0.38386204838752747, 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252996	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZPC	NZPC	The initials NZPC can refer to several things, usually associated with New Zealand, including: New Zealand Performance Car magazine New Zealand Poker Championship New Zealand Press Council New Zealand Prostitutes' Collective Noordwijkse Zwem en Polo Club, Netherlands	[ 0.8140442371368408, 0.31358587741851807, -0.2113448679447174, -0.11354228854179382, 0.02060246653854847, -0.14463457465171814, -0.23080292344093323, 0.2797810733318329, -0.48439058661460876, 0.5758115649223328, 0.011817685328423977, 0.5205915570259094, 0.45312395691871643, 0.10999593138694763, -0.0020973836071789265, 0.2659858465194702, 0.4527879059314728, 0.9250577092170715, -0.18873630464076996, -0.47282570600509644, -0.35358625650405884, -0.2790682911872864, 0.5267696976661682, -0.13292062282562256, -0.3817698657512665, 0.5781142115592957, 0.1899963617324829, 0.3141091763973236, -0.15116934478282928, 0.0782005563378334, 0.09667254984378815, 0.67647784948349, 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252999	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20Spiegelman	Art Spiegelman	Art Spiegelman (; born Itzhak Avraham ben Zeev Spiegelman on February 15, 1948) is an American cartoonist, editor, and comics advocate best known for his graphic novel Maus. His work as co-editor on the comics magazines Arcade and Raw has been influential, and from 1992 he spent a decade as contributing artist for The New Yorker. He is married to designer and editor Françoise Mouly, and is the father of writer Nadja Spiegelman. Spiegelman began his career with Topps (a bubblegum and trading card company) in the mid-1960s, which was his main financial support for two decades; there he co-created parodic series such as Wacky Packages in the 1960s and Garbage Pail Kids in the 1980s. He gained prominence in the underground comix scene in the 1970s with short, experimental, and often autobiographical work. A selection of these strips appeared in the collection Breakdowns in 1977, after which Spiegelman turned focus to the book-length Maus, about his relationship with his father, a Holocaust survivor. The postmodern book depicts Germans as cats, Jews as mice, and ethnic Poles as pigs, and took 13 years to create until its completion in 1991. It won a special Pulitzer Prize in 1992 and has gained a reputation as a pivotal work. Spiegelman and Mouly edited eleven issues of Raw from 1980 to 1991. The oversized and graphics magazine helped introduce talents who became prominent in alternative comics, such as Charles Burns, Chris Ware, and Ben Katchor, and introduced several foreign cartoonists to the English-speaking comics world. Beginning in the 1990s, the couple worked for The New Yorker, which Spiegelman left to work on In the Shadow of No Towers (2004), about his reaction to the September 11 attacks in New York in 2001. Spiegelman advocates for greater comics literacy. As an editor, a teacher at the School of Visual Arts in New York City, and a lecturer, Spiegelman has promoted better understanding of comics and has mentored younger cartoonists. Family history Spiegelman's parents were Polish Jews (1906–1982) and (1912–1968) Spiegelman. His father was born Zeev Spiegelman, with the Hebrew name Zeev ben Avraham. Władysław was his Polish name, and Władek (or Vladek in anglicized form) was a diminutive of this name. He was also known as Wilhelm under the German occupation, and Anglicized his name to William upon immigration to the United States. His mother was born Andzia Zylberberg, with the Hebrew name Hannah. She changed her name to Anna upon immigrating to the United States. In Spiegelman's Maus, from which the couple are best known, Spiegelman used the spellings "Vladek" and "Anja", which he believed would be easier for Americans to pronounce. The surname Spiegelman is German for "mirror man". In 1937, the Spiegelmans had one other son, Rysio (spelled "Richieu" in Maus), who died before Art was born, at the age of five or six. During the Holocaust, Spiegelman's parents sent Rysio to stay with an aunt with whom they believed he would be safe. In 1943, the aunt poisoned herself, along with Rysio and two other young family members in her care, so that the Nazis could not take them to the extermination camps. After the war, the Spiegelmans, unable to accept that Rysio was dead, searched orphanages all over Europe in the hope of finding him. Spiegelman talked of having a sort of sibling rivalry with his "ghost brother"; he felt unable to compete with an "ideal" brother who "never threw tantrums or got in any kind of trouble". Of 85 Spiegelman relatives alive at the beginning of World War II, only 13 are known to have survived the Holocaust. Life and career Early life Spiegelman was born Itzhak Avraham ben Zeev in Stockholm, Sweden, on February 15, 1948. He immigrated with his parents to the US in 1951. Upon immigration his name was registered as Arthur Isadore, but he later had his given name changed to Art. Initially the family settled in Norristown, Pennsylvania, and then relocated to Rego Park, Queens, New York City, in 1957. He began cartooning in 1960 and imitated the style of his favorite comic books, such as Mad. In the early 1960s, he contributed to early fanzines such as Smudge and Skip Williamson's Squire, and in 1962—while at Russell Sage Junior High School, where he was an honors student—he produced the Mad-inspired fanzine Blasé. He was earning money from his drawing by the time he reached high school and sold artwork to the original Long Island Press and other outlets. His talent caught the eyes of United Features Syndicate, who offered him the chance to produce a syndicated comic strip. Dedicated to the idea of art as expression, he turned down this commercial opportunity. He attended the High School of Art and Design in Manhattan beginning in 1963. He met Woody Gelman, the art director of Topps Chewing Gum Company, who encouraged Spiegelman to apply to Topps after graduating high school. At age 15, Spiegelman received payment for his work from a Rego Park newspaper. After he graduated in 1965, Spiegelman's parents urged him to pursue the financial security of a career such as dentistry, but he chose instead to enroll at Harpur College to study art and philosophy. While there, he got a freelance art job at Topps, which provided him with an income for the next two decades. Spiegelman attended Harpur College from 1965 until 1968, where he worked as staff cartoonist for the college newspaper and edited a college humor magazine. After a summer internship when he was 18, Topps hired him for Gelman's Product Development Department as a creative consultant making trading cards and related products in 1966, such as the Wacky Packages series of parodic trading cards begun in 1967. Spiegelman began selling self-published underground comix on street corners in 1966. He had cartoons published in underground publications such as the East Village Other and traveled to San Francisco for a few months in 1967, where the underground comix scene was just beginning to burgeon. In late winter 1968, Spiegelman suffered a brief but intense nervous breakdown, which cut short his university studies. He has said that at the time he was taking LSD with great frequency. He spent a month in Binghamton State Mental Hospital, and shortly after he exited it, his mother died by suicide following the death of her only surviving brother. Underground comix (1971–1977) In 1971, after several visits, Spiegelman moved to San Francisco and became a part of the countercultural underground comix movement that had been developing there. Some of the he produced during this period include The Compleat Mr. Infinity (1970), a ten-page booklet of explicit comic strips, and The Viper Vicar of Vice, Villainy and Vickedness (1972), a transgressive work in the vein of fellow underground cartoonist S. Clay Wilson. Spiegelman's work also appeared in underground magazines such as Gothic Blimp Works, Bijou Funnies, Young Lust, Real Pulp, and Bizarre Sex, and were in a variety of styles and genres as Spiegelman sought his artistic voice. He also did a number of cartoons for men's magazines such as Cavalier, The Dude, and Gent. In 1972, Justin Green asked Spiegelman to do a three-page strip for the first issue of Funny . He wanted to do one about racism, and at first considered a story with African-Americans as mice and cats taking on the role of the Ku Klux Klan. Instead, he turned to the Holocaust that his parents had survived. He titled the strip "Maus" and depicted the Jews as mice persecuted by die Katzen, which were Nazis as cats. The narrator related the story to a mouse named "Mickey". With this story Spiegelman felt he had found his voice. Seeing Green's revealingly autobiographical Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary while in-progress in 1971 inspired Spiegelman to produce "Prisoner on the Hell Planet", an expressionistic work that dealt with his mother's suicide; it appeared in 1973 in Short Order Comix 1, which he edited. Spiegelman's work thereafter went through a phase of increasing formal experimentation; the Apex Treasury of Underground Comics in 1974 quotes him: "As an art form the comic strip is barely in its infancy. So am I. Maybe we'll grow up together." The often-reprinted "Ace Hole, Midget Detective" of 1974 was a Cubist-style nonlinear parody of hardboiled crime fiction full of non sequiturs. "A Day at the Circuits" of 1975 is a recursive single-page strip about alcoholism and depression in which the reader follows the character through multiple never-ending pathways. "Nervous Rex: The Malpractice Suite" of 1976 is made up of cut-out panels from the soap-opera comic strip Rex Morgan, M.D. refashioned in such a way as to defy coherence. In 1973, Spiegelman edited a pornographic and psychedelic book of quotations and dedicated it to his mother. Co-edited with Bob Schneider, it was called Whole Grains: A Book of Quotations. In 1974–1975, he taught a studio cartooning class at the San Francisco Academy of Art. By the mid-1970s, the underground comix movement was encountering a slowdown. To give cartoonists a safe berth, Spiegelman co-edited the anthology Arcade with Bill Griffith, in 1975 and 1976. Arcade was printed by The Print Mint and lasted seven issues, five of which had covers by Robert Crumb. It stood out from similar publications by having an editorial plan, in which Spiegelman and Griffith attempt to show how comics connect to the broader realms of artistic and literary culture. Spiegelman's own work in Arcade tended to be short and concerned with formal experimentation. Arcade also introduced art from ages past, as well as contemporary literary pieces by writers such as William S. Burroughs and Charles Bukowski. In 1975, Spiegelman moved back to New York City, which put most of the editorial work for Arcade on the shoulders of Griffith and his cartoonist wife, Diane Noomin. This, combined with distribution problems and retailer indifference, led to the magazine's 1976 demise. Spiegelman swore he would never edit another magazine. Françoise Mouly, an architectural student on a hiatus from her studies at the Beaux-Arts in Paris, arrived in New York in 1974. While looking for comics from which to practice reading English, she came across Arcade. Avant-garde filmmaker friend Ken Jacobs introduced Mouly and Spiegelman, when Spiegelman was visiting, but they did not immediately develop a mutual interest. Spiegelman moved back to New York later in the year. Occasionally the two ran across each other. After she read "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" Mouly felt the urge to contact him. An eight-hour phone call led to a deepening of their relationship. Spiegelman followed her to France when she had to return to fulfill obligations in her architecture course. Spiegelman introduced Mouly to the world of comics and helped her find work as a colorist for Marvel Comics. After returning to the U.S. in 1977, Mouly ran into visa problems, which the couple solved by getting married. The couple began to make yearly trips to Europe to explore the comics scene, and brought back European comics to show to their circle of friends. Mouly assisted in putting together the lavish, oversized collection of Spiegelman's experimental strips Breakdowns in 1977. Raw and Maus (1978–1991) Breakdowns suffered poor distribution and sales, and 30% of the print run was unusable due to printing errors, an experience that motivated Mouly to gain control over the printing process. She took courses in offset printing and bought a printing press for her loft, on which she was to print parts of a new magazine she insisted on launching with Spiegelman. With Mouly as publisher, Spiegelman and Mouly co-edited Raw starting in July 1980. The first issue was subtitled "The Graphix Magazine of Postponed Suicides". While it included work from such established underground cartoonists as Crumb and Griffith, Raw focused on publishing artists who were virtually unknown, avant-garde cartoonists such as Charles Burns, Lynda Barry, Chris Ware, Ben Katchor, and Gary Panter, and introduced English-speaking audiences to translations of foreign works by José Muñoz, Chéri Samba, Joost Swarte, Yoshiharu Tsuge, Jacques Tardi, and others. With the intention of creating a book-length work based on his father's recollections of the Holocaust Spiegelman began to interview his father again in 1978 and made a research visit in 1979 to the Auschwitz concentration camp, where his parents had been imprisoned by the Nazis. The book, Maus, appeared one chapter at a time as an insert in Raw beginning with the second issue in December 1980. Spiegelman's father did not live to see its completion; he died on 18 August 1982. Spiegelman learned in 1985 that Steven Spielberg was producing an animated film about Jewish mice who escape persecution in Eastern Europe by fleeing to the United States. Spiegelman was sure the film, An American Tail (1986), was inspired by Maus and became eager to have his unfinished book come out before the movie to avoid comparisons. He struggled to find a publisher until in 1986, after the publication in The New York Times of a rave review of the work-in-progress, Pantheon agreed to release a collection of the first six chapters. The volume was titled Maus: A Survivor's Tale and subtitled My Father Bleeds History. The book found a large audience, in part because it was sold in bookstores rather than in direct-market comic shops, which by the 1980s had become the dominant outlet for comic books. Spiegelman began teaching at the School of Visual Arts in New York in 1978, and continued until 1987, teaching alongside his heroes Harvey Kurtzman and Will Eisner. ": An Idiosyncratic Historical and Aesthetic Overview", a Spiegelman essay, was published in Print. Another Spiegelman essay, "High Art Lowdown", was published in Artforum in 1990, critiquing the High/Low exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art. In the wake of the success of the Cabbage Patch Kids series of dolls, Spiegelman created the parodic trading card series Garbage Pail Kids for Topps in 1985. Similar to the Wacky Packages series, the gross-out factor of the cards was controversial with parent groups, and its popularity started a gross-out fad among children. Spiegelman called Topps his "Medici" for the autonomy and financial freedom working for the company had given him. The relationship was nevertheless strained over issues of credit and ownership of the original artwork. In 1989 Topps auctioned off pieces of art Spiegelman had created rather than returning them to him, and Spiegelman broke the relation. In 1991, Raw 2, 3 was published; it was to be the last issue. The closing chapter of Maus appeared not in Raw but in the second volume of the graphic novel, which appeared later that year with the subtitle And Here My Troubles Began. Maus attracted an unprecedented amount of critical attention for a work of comics, including an exhibition at New York's Museum of Modern Art and a special Pulitzer Prize in 1992. The New Yorker (1992–2001) Hired by Tina Brown as a contributing artist in 1992, Spiegelman worked for The New Yorker for ten years. His first cover appeared on the February 15, 1993, Valentine's Day issue and showed a black West Indian woman and a Hasidic man kissing. The cover caused turmoil at The New Yorker offices. Spiegelman intended it to reference the Crown Heights riot of 1991 in which racial tensions led to the murder of a Jewish yeshiva student. Twenty-one New Yorker covers by Spiegelman were published, and he also submitted some which were rejected for being too outrageous. Within The New Yorkers pages, Spiegelman contributed strips such as a collaboration, "In the Dumps", with children's illustrator Maurice Sendak and an obituary to Charles M. Schulz, "Abstract Thought is a Warm Puppy". Another of Spiegelman's essays, "Forms Stretched to their Limits", in an issue was about Jack Cole, the creator of Plastic Man. It formed the basis for a book about Cole, Jack Cole and Plastic Man: Forms Stretched to their Limits (2001). The same year, Voyager Company published The Complete Maus, a CD-ROM version of Maus with extensive supplementary material, and Spiegelman illustrated a 1923 poem by Joseph Moncure March called The Wild Party. Spiegelman contributed the essay "Getting in Touch With My Inner Racist" in the September 1, 1997, issue of Mother Jones. Spiegelman's influence and connections in New York cartooning circles drew the ire of political cartoonist Ted Rall in 1999. In "The King of Comix", an article in The Village Voice, Rall accused Spiegelman of the power to "make or break" a cartoonist's career in New York, while denigrating Spiegelman as "a guy with one great book in him". Cartoonist Danny Hellman responded by sending a forged email under Rall's name to 30 professionals; the prank escalated until Rall launched a defamation suit against Hellman for $1.5 million. Hellman published a "Legal Action Comics" benefit book to cover his legal costs, to which Spiegelman contributed a back-cover cartoon in which he relieves himself on a Rall-shaped urinal. In 1997, Spiegelman had his first children's book published, Open Me...I'm a Dog, with a narrator who tries to convince its readers that it is a dog via pop-ups and an attached leash. From 2000 to 2003, Spiegelman and Mouly edited three issues of the children's comics anthology Little Lit, with contributions from Raw alumni and children's book authors and illustrators. Post-September 11 (2001–present) Spiegelman lived close to the World Trade Center site, which was known as "Ground Zero" after the September 11 attacks that destroyed the World Trade Center. Immediately following the attacks Spiegelman and Mouly rushed to their daughter Nadja's school, where Spiegelman's anxiety served only to increase his daughter's apprehensiveness over the situation. Spiegelman and Mouly created a cover for the September 24 issue of The New Yorker which at first glance appears to be totally black, but upon close examination it reveals the silhouettes of the World Trade Center towers in a slightly darker shade of black. Mouly positioned the silhouettes so that the North Tower's antenna breaks into the "w" of The New Yorkers logo. The towers were printed in black on a slightly darker black field employing standard four-color printing inks with an overprinted clear varnish. In some situations, the ghost images only became visible when the magazine was tilted toward a light source. Spiegelman was critical of the Bush administration and the mass media over their handling of the September 11 attacks. Spiegelman did not renew his New Yorker contract after 2003. He later quipped that he regretted leaving when he did, as he could have left in protest when the magazine ran a pro-invasion of Iraq piece later in the year. Spiegelman said his parting from The New Yorker was part of his general disappointment with "the widespread conformism of the mass media in the Bush era". He said he felt like he was in "internal exile" following the September 11 attacks as the U.S. media had become "conservative and timid" and did not welcome the provocative art that he felt the need to create. Nevertheless, Spiegelman asserted he left not over political differences, as had been widely reported, but because The New Yorker was not interested in doing serialized work, which he wanted to do with his next project. Spiegelman responded to the September 11 attacks with In the Shadow of No Towers, commissioned by German newspaper Die Zeit, where it appeared throughout 2003. The Jewish Daily Forward was the only American periodical to serialize the feature. The collected work appeared in September 2004 as an oversized board book of two-page spreads which had to be turned on end to read. In the June 2006 edition of Harper's Magazine Spiegelman had an article published on the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy; some interpretations of Islamic law prohibit the depiction of Muhammad. The Canadian chain of booksellers Indigo refused to sell the issue. Called "Drawing Blood: Outrageous Cartoons and the Art of Outrage", the article surveyed the sometimes dire effect political cartooning has for its creators, ranging from Honoré Daumier, who spent time in prison for his satirical work; to George Grosz, who faced exile. To Indigo the article seemed to promote the continuance of racial caricature. An internal memo advised Indigo staff to tell people: "the decision was made based on the fact that the content about to be published has been known to ignite demonstrations around the world." In response to the cartoons, Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad promoted an Iranian cartoon contest seeking anti-Semitic cartoons. The organizers of the contest intended to highlight what they perceived as Western double standards surrounding anti-Semitism and Islamophobia. Spiegelman produced a cartoon of a line of prisoners being led to the gas chambers; one stops to look at the corpses around him and says, "Ha! Ha! Ha! What’s really hilarious is that none of this is actually happening!" To promote literacy in young children, Mouly encouraged publishers to publish comics for children. Disappointed by publishers' lack of response, from 2008 she self-published a line of easy readers called Toon Books, by artists such as Spiegelman, Renée French, and Rutu Modan, and promotes the books to teachers and librarians for their educational value. Spiegelman's Jack and the Box was one of the inaugural books in 2008. In 2008 Spiegelman reissued Breakdowns in an expanded edition including "Portrait of the Artist as a Young %@&!" an autobiographical strip that had been serialized in the Virginia Quarterly Review from 2005. A volume drawn from Spiegelman's sketchbooks, Be A Nose, appeared in 2009. In 2011, MetaMaus followed—a book-length analysis of Maus by Spiegelman and Hillary Chute with a DVD update of the earlier CD-ROM. Library of America commissioned Spiegelman to edit the two-volume Lynd Ward: Six Novels in Woodcuts, which appeared in 2010, collecting all of Ward's wordless novels with an introduction and annotations by Spiegelman. The project led to a touring show in 2014 about wordless novels called Wordless! with live music by saxophonist Phillip Johnston. Art Spiegelman's Co-Mix: A Retrospective débuted at Angoulême in 2012 and by the end of 2014 had traveled to Paris, Cologne, Vancouver, New York, and Toronto. The book Co-Mix: A Retrospective of Comics, Graphics, and Scraps, which complemented the show, appeared in 2013. In 2015, after six writers refused to sit on a panel at the PEN American Center in protest of the planned "freedom of expression courage award" for the satirical French periodical Charlie Hebdo following the shooting at its headquarters earlier in the year, Spiegelman agreed to be one of the replacement hosts, along with other names in comics such as writer Neil Gaiman. Spiegelman retracted a cover he had submitted to a Gaiman-edited "saying the unsayable" issue of New Statesman when the management declined to print a strip of Spiegelman's. The strip, "Notes from a First Amendment Fundamentalist", depicts Muhammad, and Spiegelman believed the rejection was censorship, though the magazine asserted it never intended to run the cartoon. In 2021, Literary Hub announced that Spiegelman was co-creating a work Street Cop with author Robert Coover. Personal life Spiegelman married Françoise Mouly on July 12, 1977, in a New York city hall ceremony. They remarried later in the year after Mouly converted to Judaism to please Spiegelman's father. Mouly and Spiegelman have two children together: a daughter, Nadja Rachel, born in 1987, and a son, Dashiell Alan, born in 1992. Style Spiegelman suffers from a lazy eye, and thus lacks depth perception. He says his art style is "really a result of [his] deficiencies". His is a style of labored simplicity, with dense visual motifs which often go unnoticed upon first viewing. He sees comics as "very condensed thought structures", more akin to poetry than prose, which need careful, time-consuming planning that their seeming simplicity belies. Spiegelman's work prominently displays his concern with form, and pushing the boundaries of what is and is not comics. Early in the underground comix era, Spiegelman proclaimed to Robert Crumb, "Time is an illusion that can be shattered in comics! Showing the same scene from different angles freezes it in time by turning the page into a diagram—an orthographic projection!" His comics experiment with time, space, recursion, and representation. He uses the word "decode" to express the action of reading comics and sees comics as functioning best when expressed as diagrams, icons, or symbols. Spiegelman has stated he does not see himself primarily as a visual artist, one who instinctively sketches or doodles. He has said he approaches his work as a writer as he lacks confidence in his graphic skills. He subjects his dialogue and visuals to constant revision—he reworked some dialogue balloons in Maus up to forty times. A critic in The New Republic compared Spiegelman's dialogue writing to a young Philip Roth in his ability "to make the Jewish speech of several generations sound fresh and convincing". Spiegelman makes use of both old- and new-fashioned tools in his work. He prefers at times to work on paper on a drafting table, while at others he draws directly onto his computer using a digital pen and electronic drawing tablet, or mixes methods, employing scanners and printers. Influences Harvey Kurtzman has been Spiegelman's strongest influence as a cartoonist, editor, and promoter of new talent. Chief among his other early cartooning influences include Will Eisner, John Stanley's version of Little Lulu, Winsor McCay's Little Nemo, George Herriman's Krazy Kat, and Bernard Krigstein's short strip "Master Race". In the 1960s Spiegelman read in comics fanzines about graphic artists such as Frans Masereel, who had made wordless novels in woodcut. The discussions in those fanzines about making the Great American Novel in comics later acted as inspiration for him. Justin Green's comic book Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary (1972) motivated Spiegelman to open up and include autobiographical elements in his comics. Spiegelman acknowledges Franz Kafka as an early influence, whom he says he has read since the age of 12, and lists Vladimir Nabokov, William Faulkner, Gertrude Stein among the writers whose work "stayed with" him. He cites non-narrative avant-garde filmmakers from whom he has drawn heavily, including Ken Jacobs, Stan Brakhage, and Ernie Gehr, and other filmmakers such as Charlie Chaplin and the makers of The Twilight Zone. Beliefs Spiegelman is a prominent advocate for the comics medium and comics literacy. He believes the medium echoes the way the human brain processes information. He has toured the U.S. with a lecture called "Comix 101", examining its history and cultural importance. He sees comics' low status in the late 20th century as having come down from where it was in the 1930s and 1940s, when comics "tended to appeal to an older audience of GIs and other adults". Following the advent of the censorious Comics Code Authority in the mid-1950s, Spiegelman sees comics' potential as having stagnated until the rise of underground comix in the late 1960s. He taught courses in the history and aesthetics of comics at schools such as the School of Visual Arts in New York. As co-editor of Raw, he helped propel the careers of younger cartoonists whom he mentored, such as Chris Ware, and published the work of his School of Visual Arts students, such as Kaz, Drew Friedman, and Mark Newgarden. Some of the work published in Raw was originally turned in as class assignments. Spiegelman has described himself politically as "firmly on the left side of the secular-fundamentalist divide" and a "1st Amendment absolutist". As a supporter of free speech, Spiegelman is opposed to hate speech laws. He wrote a critique in Harper's on the controversial Muhammad cartoons in the Jyllands-Posten in 2006; the issue was banned from Indigo–Chapters stores in Canada. Spiegelman criticized American media for refusing to reprint the cartoons they reported on at the time of the Charlie Hebdo shooting in 2015. Spiegelman is a non-practicing Jew and considers himself "a-Zionist"—neither pro- nor anti-Zionist; he has called Israel "a sad, failed idea". He told Peanuts creator Charles Schulz he was not religious, but identified with the "alienated diaspora culture of Kafka and Freud ... what Stalin pejoratively called rootless cosmopolitanism". Legacy Maus looms large not only over Spiegelman's body of work, but over the comics medium itself. While Spiegelman was far from the first to do autobiography in comics, critics such as James Campbell considered Maus the work that popularized it. The bestseller has been widely written about in the popular press and academia—the quantity of its critical literature far outstrips that of any other work of comics. It has been examined from a great variety of academic viewpoints, though most often by those with little understanding of Maus context in the history of comics. While Maus has been credited with lifting comics from popular culture into the world of high art in the public imagination, criticism has tended to ignore its deep roots in popular culture, roots that Spiegelman has intimate familiarity with and has devoted considerable time to promote. Spiegelman's belief that comics are best expressed in a diagrammatic or iconic manner has had a particular influence on formalists such as Chris Ware and his former student Scott McCloud. In 2005, the September 11-themed New Yorker cover placed sixth on the top ten of magazine covers of the previous 40 years by the American Society of Magazine Editors. Spiegelman has inspired numerous cartoonists to take up the graphic novel as a means of expression, including Marjane Satrapi. A joint ZDF–BBC documentary, Art Spiegelman's Maus, was televised in 1987. Spiegelman, Mouly, and many of the Raw artists appeared in the documentary Comic Book Confidential in 1988. Spiegelman's comics career was also covered in an Emmy-nominated PBS documentary, Serious Comics: Art Spiegelman, produced by Patricia Zur for WNYC-TV in 1994. Spiegelman played himself in the 2007 episode "Husbands and Knives" of the animated television series The Simpsons with fellow comics creators Daniel Clowes and Alan Moore. A European documentary, Art Spiegelman, Traits de Mémoire, appeared in 2010 and later in English under the title The Art of Spiegelman, directed by Clara Kuperberg and Joelle Oosterlinck and mainly featuring interviews with Spiegelman and those around him. Awards 1982: Playboy Editorial Award, Best Comic Strip 1982: , Lucca, Italy, for Foreign Author 1983: Print, Regional Design Award 1984: Print, Regional Design Award 1985: Print, Regional Design Award 1986: Joel M. Cavior, Jewish Writing 1987: Inkpot Award 1988: Angoulême International Comics Festival, France, Prize for Best Comic Book, for Maus 1988: Urhunden Prize, Sweden, Best Foreign Album, for Maus 1990: Guggenheim Fellowship. 1990: Max & Moritz Prize, Erlangen, Germany, Special Prize, for Maus 1992: Pulitzer Prize Letters award, for Maus 1992: Eisner Award, Best Graphic Album (reprint), for Maus 1992: Harvey Award, Best Graphic Album of Previously Published Work, for Maus 1992: Los Angeles Times, Book Prize for Fiction for Maus II 1993: Angoulême International Comics Festival, Prize for Best Comic Book, for Maus II 1993: Sproing Award, Norway, Best Foreign Album, for Maus 1993: Urhunden Prize, Best Foreign Album, for Maus II 1995: Binghamton University (formerly Harpur College), honorary Doctorate of Letters. 1999: Eisner Award, inducted into the Hall of Fame 2005: French government, Chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres 2005: Time magazine, one of the "Top 100 Most Influential People" 2011: Angoulême International Comics Festival, Grand Prix 2011: National Jewish Book Award for MetaMaus: A Look Inside a Modern Classic, Maus 2015: American Academy of Arts and Letters membership 2018: The Edward MacDowell Medal Bibliography Author Tijuana Bibles: Art and Wit in America's Forbidden Funnies, 1930s-1950s (Introductory Essay: Those Dirty Little Comics) (1977) Breakdowns: From Maus to Now, an Anthology of Strips (1977) Maus (1991) The Wild Party (1994) Open Me, I'm A Dog (1995) Jack Cole and Plastic Man: Forms Stretched to Their Limits (2001) In the Shadow of No Towers (2004) Breakdowns: Portrait of the Artist as a Young %@&! (2008) Jack and the Box (2008) Be a Nose (2009) MetaMaus (2011) Co-Mix: A Retrospective of Comics, Graphics, and Scraps (2013) Street Cop (with Robert Coover) (2021) Editor Short Order Comix (1972–74) Whole Grains: A Book of Quotations (with Bob Schneider, 1973) Arcade (with Bill Griffith, 1975–76) Raw (with Françoise Mouly, 1980–91) City of Glass (graphic novel adaptation by David Mazzucchelli of the Paul Auster novel, 1994) The Narrative Corpse (1995) Little Lit (with Françoise Mouly, 2000–2003) The TOON Treasury of Classic Children's Comics (with Françoise Mouly, 2009) Lynd Ward: Six Novels in Woodcuts (2010) Notes References Works cited (Originally in Oral History Journal 15, Spring 1987) Further reading External links Lambiek Comiclopedia article. 1948 births Alternative cartoonists American Book Award winners American cartoonists American comics artists American comics writers American graphic novelists American people of Polish-Jewish descent Harpur College alumni Comics critics Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême winners High School of Art and Design alumni Jewish American artists Jewish American writers Living people Novelists from New York (state) People from Rego Park, Queens Writers from Stockholm Postmodern writers Pulitzer Prize winners Raw (magazine) The New Yorker people Underground cartoonists Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame inductees Artists from Stockholm 20th-century American artists 21st-century American artists 20th-century American writers 21st-century American writers Writers from Queens, New York Artists from New York City 21st-century American Jews	[ 0.31642746925354004, 0.3931254744529724, -0.3296527564525604, -0.05726493522524834, -0.14334143698215485, 0.24026024341583252, -0.09791489690542221, -0.14486947655677795, 0.11496344208717346, -0.4454893171787262, -0.913064181804657, 0.3364174962043762, -0.20962421596050262, -0.009778494015336037, -0.1854797899723053, 0.027547141537070274, -0.2767466604709625, -0.10412959009408951, 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253000	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20Prostitutes%27%20Collective	New Zealand Prostitutes' Collective	The Aotearoa New Zealand Sex Workers' Collective (NZPC), formerly the New Zealand Prostitutes' Collective, is a New Zealand-based organisation that supports sex workers' rights and educates sex workers about minimising the risks of the job. Background The New Zealand Prostitutes' Collective was founded in 1987 by Catherine Healy and others. Funding was received from a contract in 1988 for HIV/AIDS prevention from the Department of Health. Offices were established in Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin, and a phone support service operated for Christchurch. These were all mostly run by approximately 40 volunteers, as the Collective had only 1.5 staff members. Advocacy was a big part of the work of the Collective, and they promoted legislative reform of the Crimes Bill which contained a legal double standard, which censured the prostitute, while condoning the client. The first submission they made to this bill was in 1989. They continued to play an active role in the New Zealand Labour Party-led Helen Clark administration passing the Prostitution Reform Act 2003, which decriminalised most forms of adult prostitution in New Zealand. The Prostitution Law Review Committee published in their final report in 2008 that there was no increase in prostitution, and that sex workers were safer. During the early 1990s, the New Zealand Prostitutes' Collective faced a lot of opposition because of the stigma of sex work and attention around the legislative reform. An example written about by Jan Jordan is: "Even the supposedly simple task of having their phone number listed in the telephone directory had been a battle, with Telecom objecting to having the word 'prostitutes' printed in their phone book." Current By 2018, the Collective employed more people, as well as using volunteers. Part of the success of NZPC is that is staffed by sex workers; there are only two staff members who are not sex workers – a lawyer, and an accountant. There is a board of trustees, and they are all current or former sex workers. In 2018, NZPC founder Catherine Healy received a Dame Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to the rights of sex workers, which is a turn-around in the acknowledgement and acceptance of sex work and the part that NZPC played in that. NZPC receives funding from the Ministry of Health for sexual and reproductive health services. There are branches in Auckland, Tauranga, Manawatu, Hawkes Bay, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and a helpline for other regions. A current advocacy focus is the discrimination faced by migrant sex workers in New Zealand because under the Prostitution Reform Act of 2003, migrant sex work is illegal. Ongoing outreach programs are run to support sex workers to be safe. In 2020, during New Zealand's strict level 4 lockdown, as a response to the global Covid-19 pandemic, the collective's Auckland manager Annah Pickering said: "Covid-19 hit sex workers particularly hard because of the nature of the job, and also because a big bulk of their clientele comes from overseas — many who book months in advance." References Further reading Bennachie, B., Pickering, A., Lee, J., Macioti, P. G., Mai, N., Fehrenbacher, A. E., ... & Musto, J. (2021). Unfinished decriminalization: the impact of Section 19 of the Prostitution Reform Act 2003 on migrant sex workers’ rights and lives in Aotearoa New Zealand. Social Sciences, 10(5), 179. Abel, G., Fitzgerald, L., & Healy, C., (Eds), (2010). Taking the crime out of sex work: New Zealand sex workers' fight for decriminalisation. Bristol: Policy Press. Jordan, J (1991) Working Girls: Women in the New Zealand Sex Industry talk to Jan Jordan, Auckland: Penguin Catherine Healy and Anna Reed, The Healthy Hooker, The New Internationalist, 252: 16-17, 1994 Chetwynd J. The Prostitutes' Collective: A uniquely New Zealand institution, in Intimate Details and Vital Statistics: AIDS, sexuality and the social order in New Zealand. Auckland University Press 1996 Bronwen Lichtenstein, Tradition and experiment in New Zealand AIDS policy, AIDS and Public Policy, 12 (3): 79–88, 1997 Lichtenstein, B: Reframing "Eve" in the AIDS era, in Sex Work and Sex Workers, BM Dank and R Refinetti eds. Transaction, New Brunswick NJ 1998 Laverack, G., Whipple, A. 2010. The sirens’ song of empowerment: a case study of health promotion and the New Zealand Prostitutes Collective. Glob Health Prom 17(1) 33–8. 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253007	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samurai%20X	Samurai X	Samurai X may refer to: Nya and P I.X.A.L., fictional characters in the Lego Ninjago theme and its adaptations Rurouni Kenshin (TV series), a Japanese anime television series	[ 0.05136621370911598, 0.07560325413942337, -0.5034183263778687, 0.1412561535835266, -1.0819135904312134, 0.1307404786348343, 0.42270389199256897, -0.2114589363336563, -0.39158937335014343, -0.31340891122817993, -0.38786032795906067, -0.06335457414388657, -0.09621431678533554, 0.428897500038147, 0.13835327327251434, 0.043881144374608994, 0.5640020966529846, 0.7141271829605103, -0.8065248131752014, -0.5544583201408386, -0.17210181057453156, -0.11961736530065536, 0.33086153864860535, -0.7301706075668335, 0.0584711991250515, 0.038244523108005524, 0.440964013338089, 0.40377599000930786, 0.5158247351646423, 0.34340032935142517, 0.3802352249622345, 0.5981938242912292, 0.029683386906981468, 0.20015904307365417, -0.18037734925746918, -0.4192926585674286, 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253010	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge%2C%20New%20Zealand	Cambridge, New Zealand	Cambridge (Māori: Kemureti) is a town in the Waipa District of the Waikato region of the North Island of New Zealand. Situated southeast of Hamilton, on the banks of the Waikato River, Cambridge is known as "The Town of Trees & Champions". The town has a population of , making it the largest town in the Waipa District, and the third largest urban area in the Waikato (after Hamilton and Taupo). Cambridge was a finalist in the 2017 and 2019 New Zealand's Most Beautiful Large Town awards, run by Keep New Zealand Beautiful. It was awarded the title New Zealand's Most Beautiful Large Town in October 2019. History Prior to the arrival of Europeans there were a number of Maori pā in the vicinity of what would become Cambridge. In the 1850s missionaries and farmers from Britain settled in the area and introduced modern farming practices to local Maori, helping them set up two flour mills and importing grinding wheels from England and France. During the 1850s, wheat was a profitable crop but when merchants in Auckland began purchasing cheaper grain from Australia the market went into decline. The European town of Cambridge was established when the 3rd Regiment of the Waikato Militia were settled there in 1864 following the Invasion of the Waikato. The town was named after Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, the Commander-in-Chief of the British Army at the time. Electric street lights were first switched on in 1922. Demographics Cambridge, comprising the statistical areas of Cambridge North, Cambridge West, Cambridge East, Cambridge Park-River Garden, Oaklands-St Kilda, Cambridge Central, Leamington West, Leamington South, Leamington Central and Leamington East, had a population of 18,180 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 2,640 people (17.0%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 4,686 people (34.7%) since the 2006 census. There were 6,909 households. There were 8,685 males and 9,489 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.92 males per female, with 3,588 people (19.7%) aged under 15 years, 3,033 (16.7%) aged 15 to 29, 7,701 (42.4%) aged 30 to 64, and 3,864 (21.3%) aged 65 or older. Ethnicities were 90.0% European/Pākehā, 10.5% Māori, 1.5% Pacific peoples, 5.3% Asian, and 1.9% other ethnicities (totals add to more than 100% since people could identify with multiple ethnicities). The proportion of people born overseas was 24.1%, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people objected to giving their religion, 50.2% had no religion, 38.8% were Christian, 0.7% were Hindu, 0.2% were Muslim, 0.5% were Buddhist and 2.6% had other religions. Of those at least 15 years old, 3,189 (21.9%) people had a bachelor or higher degree, and 2,637 (18.1%) people had no formal qualifications. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 7,218 (49.5%) people were employed full-time, 2,067 (14.2%) were part-time, and 396 (2.7%) were unemployed. Governance Cambridge is administered by the Waipa District Council. It is the largest town in the District, but not the seat of the council, which is at Te Awamutu. Nationally, Cambridge is part of the general electorate and the Māori electorate. Economy Cambridge's main sources of employment and income come from dairy farming, tourism, the equine industry and sport. Dairy farming provides more than one in 10 jobs in the Waipa District. The tourism industry supports 12.7% of jobs in Waipa District. The equine industry provides more than 600 jobs in the Waikato, with many based in and around Cambridge. It is estimated that one in five Cambridge residents work in nearby Hamilton. Transport Cambridge lies adjacent to State Highway 1, which connects the town with Hamilton in the northwest and Tauranga, Rotorua and Taupo in the southeast. Access to Cambridge from the north is via the Cambridge Road and Victoria Road interchanges, and from the south is via the Tirau Road interchange. Prior to the Waikato Expressway extension opening in December 2015, SH 1 ran through the centre of Cambridge. State Highway 1B leaves SH 1 at the Victoria Road interchange and provides a route north to SH 1 at Taupiri, providing a route north towards Auckland while bypassing Hamilton to the east. Hamilton Airport, 18 minutes drive from Cambridge, is the nearest airport and provides daily flights to all New Zealand's main centres. A public bus service connects Cambridge with central Hamilton via Tamahere and Waikato University several times daily. Cambridge was formerly the terminus of the Cambridge Branch railway, but this closed beyond Hautapu in 1999. Until the railway was built the Waikato River was the main form of transport, Cambridge being the limit of navigation. Steamers continued to serve Cambridge until the 1930s. The wharf was near the Karapiro Stream, where the river was wide enough for steamers to turn. Rural districts There are a number of nearby rural districts which identify socially and economically with Cambridge. These districts would typically have a few hundred residents, a primary school and a community hall for local social events. In the early 20th century, many of these districts also had their own small milk processing factories. These districts are Bruntwood, French Pass, Goodwood/Fencourt, Hautapu, Hora Hora, Karapiro, Kaipaki, Maungatautari, Te Miro, and Whitehall Sport National sports headquarters Cambridge and nearby Lake Karapiro have become the homes for national sports organisations such as cycling (track, road, mountain biking and BMX), rowing, triathlon and as high performance centres for kayaking and canoeing. Cycling The national Home of Cycling, the Avantidrome, was opened by William and Catherine, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, on 12 April 2014. In December 2015, Cambridge hosted the 2015–16 UCI Track Cycling World Cup. There are also many cycle and walking tracks that have been purpose built around Cambridge. The Te Awa River Ride, from Ngāruawāhia to Karapiro, is planned to be fully open by the end of 2021. It currently has two paths open which are for cyclists and walkers. The purpose built track runs from the center of Cambridge out to the Avantidrome and follows the Waikato river. There is also a wide cycleway running from Leamington to Lake Karapiro Domain. Cambridge will host the New Zealand National Road Race Championships and the accompanying time trial between the years of 2020 and 2022 with an option for a fourth year, the event will take place in mid February. Thoroughbred horse studs The town is now well known for its Thoroughbred studs and stables, which have produced many champion horses in the sports of racing and show jumping. Cambridge is popularly known as the 'equine capital' of New Zealand. Internationally known thoroughbred studs in the area include: Cambridge Stud Chequers Stud Blue Gum Lodge Trelawney Stud Windsor Park Stud Rowing Lake Karapiro, recognised as one of the premium rowing lakes in the world, is close by, producing several world rowing champions, notably Rob Waddell, Robbie Manson, the Evers-Swindell twins, Georgina and Caroline, Mahé Drysdale and James Dallinger. The 2010 World Rowing Championships were held at Lake Karapiro. Rugby Union Cambridge is home to two clubs, Hautapu Sports Club, founded in 1903, and Leamington Rugby Sports Club, founded in 1897. Football Cambridge is home to Cambridge FC who were the 2017 and 2015 Waikato Bay of Plenty Premiership champions, and Waipa Sports Club of the Year in 2014 and 2015. Events Cambridge and the surrounding district is host to many sporting, cultural and trade events. More than 120,000 visitors attend the National Agricultural Fieldays every June at the Mystery Creek Events Centre between Cambridge and Hamilton. Every summer, Lake Karapiro hosts the Waka Ama Sprint National Championships and the hydroplane racing as part of the New Zealand Grand Prix Circuit. In February, the Keyte Watson Polo Tournament takes place at Leamington, Cambridge. Every March, Cambridge holds its four-day Autumn Festival and in December, a Christmas Festival (including a town parade) takes place. Cambridge's local annual event is the Battle of the Bridges, a rugby and netball competition between the two sports clubs in Cambridge, Leamington and Hautapu, however the trophy is awarded to the winning team in the rugby match. The event takes place in August each year. The first ever match between the two sides, in 2013, ended in a 0–0 draw. Media Switch FM is a local radio station. Cambridge also has two local newspapers, the Cambridge News and the Cambridge Edition. There is also a lively Facebook page that is used to share and request information and resources. Education Cambridge High School is the town's co-educational state secondary school for Year 9 to 13 students, with a roll of as of . Cambridge Middle School is the town's intermediate school for Year 7 to 10 students, with a roll of . The town has three state primary schools for Year 1 to 6 students: Cambridge East School with a roll of ; Cambridge School, with a roll of ; Leamington School, with a roll of . Cambridge also has two non-state schools with similar names. St. Peter's School is a co-educational Anglican private (independent) school for Year 7 to 13 students, with a roll of . St Peter's Catholic School is a co-educational Catholic integrated primary school for Year 1 to 8 students, with a roll of . Notable residents Past or present residents include: Kylie Bax, Model and actress Hamish Bond, MNZM, Rower, Olympic gold medallist Kenny Cresswell, member of 1982 All Whites (football) Members of The Datsuns Rock Band Mahé Drysdale, MNZM, Rower, Olympic gold medallist Katie Duncan, international footballer and Olympian Matthew Dunham, World Champion silver medallist in rowing Allyson Gofton, cooking writer and television presenter Juliette Haigh, World Champion gold medallist in rowing Nikki Hamblin, Middle distance runner and winner of Fair Play Award at 2016 Summer Olympics Ricki Herbert, CNZM, former coach of New Zealand All Whites and international footballer. Sir Patrick Hogan KNZM, CBE, Horse breeder Nikita Howarth, Paralympic swimmer and gold medallist Billy T. James, MBE, Entertainer and comedian Sir Vaughan Jones, Fields Medal winner Joelle King, Squash player Dick Myers, All Black (played for Leamington RFC) Eric Murray, MNZM, rower, Olympic gold medallist Ritchie Pickett, country music singer/songwriter Ken Rutherford, MNZM, International cricketer and horse racing club manager Wayne Smith, CNZM, All Black and assistant coach of World Cup winning All Blacks in 2011 and 2015 Joel Tobeck, Actor Sarah Walker, Olympic silver medallist in BMX Sir Mark Todd, equestrian double Olympic gold medallist Sarah Ulmer, World Champion and Olympic gold medallist cyclist Rob Waddell, Olympic gold medallist in rowing Chris Wood, international footballer and All Whites captain Cambridge was also the birthplace of All Black Sir Colin Meads KNZM MBE; George Albert Tuck (1884–1981), a notable New Zealand builder, soldier and diarist; artist Frances Irwin Hunt 1890–1981) and educationalist Blanche Eleanor Carnachan, MBE, (1871–1954). 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253011	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards	1999 Governor General's Awards	The winners of the 1999 Governor General's Literary Awards were announced by Jean-Louis Roux, chairman, and Shirley Thomson, director of the Canada Council for the Arts, at a press conference held on November 16 at the National Library of Canada. Each winner received a cheque for . 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253012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution%20in%20New%20Zealand	Prostitution in New Zealand	Prostitution in New Zealand, brothel-keeping, living off the proceeds of someone else's prostitution, and street solicitation are legal in New Zealand and have been since the Prostitution Reform Act 2003 came into effect. Coercion of sex workers is illegal. The 2003 decriminalisation of brothels, escort agencies and soliciting, and the substitution of a minimal regulatory model, created worldwide interest; New Zealand prostitution laws are now some of the most liberal in the world. Until 2003, indoor prostitution in New Zealand was governed by the Massage Parlours Act 1978, which allowed brothels to operate in the guise of massage parlours. However, the act defined massage parlours as public places, so laws against soliciting in a public place applied to workers in parlours, and they were sometimes raided by police posing as clients. Workers in the parlours were also required to provide their names and addresses to the police. Advertising the sale of sex ("soliciting"), running a brothel, and living off the earnings of prostitution were illegal. Despite the Massage Parlours Act and other laws meant to suppress prostitution, there was considerable toleration of sex work in practice in the last decades of the 20th century. These laws were all changed by the Prostitution Reform Act in June 2003. History Before 2003 The early examples of the exchange of sex for material gain in New Zealand occurred in the early period of contact between indigenous Māori and European and American sailors. Along with food, water and timber, sex was one of the major commodities exchanged for European goods. The Bay of Islands and in particular the town of Kororareka was notorious for this and brothels proliferated. It is not clear whether all of these exchanges necessarily constituted prostitution in the usual sense of the word. In some cases, the sex may have been part of a wider partnership between a tribe and a ship's crew, akin to a temporary marriage alliance. The amount of choice women had about their participation seems to have varied. Throughout this period there was a severe gender imbalance in the settler population and women were in short supply. In the nineteenth century, prostitution was generally referred to as the "Social Evil". As with other British dependencies, New Zealand inherited both statute and case law from the United Kingdom, for instance the 1824 UK Vagrancy Act was in force until New Zealand passed its own Vagrancy Act (1866–1884). These included reference to the common prostitute. New Zealand was also amongst those dependencies that British authorities pressured into passing Contagious Diseases Acts; New Zealand's was in force from 1869–1910. The Women's Christian Temperance Union New Zealand continuously found for repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts and ramped up its petitions and public letters with data from convictions in courts to prove how the law protected male predators and kept girls and women of all classes vulnerable to assault. These were oppressive Acts, based on the belief, expressed officially even in the 1922 report, that women represented vectors for the spread of venereal diseases. It was replaced by the Social Hygiene Act 1917, although these fears reappeared throughout the British Empire in both World Wars. In the post-war period, the concern was more with "promiscuity", although prostitution was seen as an extreme form of this. The gendered rationale and practice of venereal disease policy formed a focus for early feminist activism. Prostitution-related statute law passed in the second half of the 20th century included the Crimes Act 1961, the Massage Parlours Act 1978, and the Summary Offences Act 1981. Section 26 of the Summary Offences Act prohibited soliciting, S 147 of the Crimes Act prohibited brothel-keeping, and S 148 living on the earnings of prostitution, and S 149 procuring. In 2000, the Crimes Act was amended to criminalise both clients and operators where workers were aged under 18 (the age of consent for sexual activity is 16). Young people under 18 were still classed as offenders after this came into force, until the passage of the Prostitution Reform Act 2003. The Massage Parlours Act effectively allowed indoor commercial sex under a facade. Prostitutes advertised their services as "escorts", and brothels advertised themselves as "massage parlours". Workers in "massage parlours" were required to be registered with the police from the time the Massage Parlours Act 1978 came into force. In the mid-1990s, the police extended this registration ex-officio to other indoor workers in some areas of the country. The police had approached media outlets letting them know that they may be "aiding and abetting" sex workers commit crimes (such as brothel-keeping, etc.), and told the media that they should require such registration before accepting advertisements. Prostitution Reform Act 2003 In 1997, a number of groups came together to hold a Women's Forum in Wellington, out of which a working group developed to draft a bill, including the NZPC, academics, women's groups (New Zealand Federation of Business and Professional Women, National Council of Women of New Zealand, YWCA), and the AIDS Foundation. Other individuals included legal volunteers and MPs, in particular Maurice Williamson (National, Pakuranga 1987–2017), Associate Minister of Health (1990–1996), and Katherine O'Regan (National, Waipa 1984–1996, List 1996–1999), who championed the bill in parliament. Labour returned to power (1999–2008), and Tim Barnett (Labour Christchurch Central 1996–2008) assumed responsibility for introducing it as a Private Member's Bill to decriminalise prostitution. This was based on the harm reduction model of New South Wales (1996). The bill was introduced on 21 September 2000, and placed in the ballot box, being drawn as number 3 and debated on 8 November as Bill 66-1 (87:21), passing first reading 87:21. Party support came from the Greens, notably Sue Bradford (List, 1999–2009). It was opposed by New Zealand First, who proposed the Swedish approach of criminalising the purchase of sex. It then proceeded to select committee (Justice and Electoral), which received 222 submissions and heard 66 submissions, amending and reporting in favour of the Bill on 29 November 2002, following the 2002 election, the bill now being referred to as Bill 66-2. Dissenting minority opinions were recorded by the National, New Zealand First, ACT New Zealand, and United Future members. This was a Private Member's Bill, and theoretically, members were allowed a conscience vote. However, the three members of the 1999–2002 coalition (Labour, Greens, Alliance) all had decriminalisation in their manifestos. Later, the Prime Minister, Helen Clark, lent her support to the bill. During the parliamentary debates and committees, support came from some women's rights groups, some human rights groups, and some public health groups. The police were neutral. Some feminists opposed the decriminalisation of brothels and pimping (see feminist views on prostitution), Christian groups were divided, and fundamentalist religious groups, including Right to Life, were opposed. The Prostitution Reform Act (PRA) passed its third reading on 25 June 2003. This bill passed narrowly; of 120 member of parliaments, 60 voted for it, 59 against, and one politician, Labour's Ashraf Choudhary, the country's only Muslim MP, abstained. The result was a surprise, as most commentators had expected the bill to fail. An impassioned speech to parliament by Georgina Beyer, a transgender woman and former sex worker, was believed by many observers to have persuaded several wavering MPs, possibly including Mr Choudhary, to change their votes at the last minute. The Act replaced the previous legislation, including repealing the Massage Parlours Act, largely removing voluntary adult (age 18 and over) prostitution from the criminal law and replacing it with civil law at both national and local level. A distinction was made between voluntary and involuntary prostitution. It remains a crime to coerce someone to provide sexual services. Sex work is also prohibited for those on temporary visas, and immigration for and investment in sex work is prohibited. Contracts between provider and client were recognised, and providers have the right to refuse services. Contested contracts can be referred to the Disputes Tribunal. Advertising is banned, with the exception of print media, which is restricted. The Summary Offences Act remains in force in relation to soliciting, which may be classed as offensive behaviour. The Criminal Records (Clean Slate) Act 2004 also allows sex workers to apply for previous convictions to be removed from the record. Sex work is recognised (but not promoted) as legitimate work by Work and Income New Zealand, who may not advertise vacancies in brothels or suggest people start sex work as a means of getting off a benefit. Now, workplace safety and health rules, developed in consultation with the prostitutes' collective, apply to sex work. Employment disputes can be referred to the Labour Inspectorate and Mediation Service. There is an obligation on employers and employees to practise and promote safe sexual practices. The Ministry of Health has the responsibility for enforcement. Registration of indoor sex workers with the police was replaced by certification at an administrative law level of brothel operators. Prior records have been destroyed. Refusal of a certificate is permitted for prior criminal offences (not necessarily related to prostitution). Police activities changed from the registration and prosecution of sex workers to protection. The Police Manual of Best Practice was amended to include prostitution. Local government was empowered to develop by-laws for zoning and advertising, but not prohibit sex work. In summary, the Act decriminalised soliciting, living off the proceeds of someone else's prostitution, and brothel-keeping. Following passage of the Act, the Maxim Institute and other conservative Christian organisations tried to gain an appropriate number of signatures for a citizens-initiated referendum under the Citizens Initiated Referendum Act 1993. The initiative was sponsored by two United Future MPs, Gordon Copeland, the bill's most outspoken critic, and Larry Baldock. Although it was allowed an extension, anti-prostitution groups fell well short of gaining the number of authenticated signatures required for a citizen-initiated referendum. Local Government New Zealand provided model by-laws and procedures. Court challenges have usually failed to uphold more restrictive council by-laws. By 2006, 17 of 74 local governments had drafted or implemented by-laws. 2008 evaluation To help counter criticism, the Prostitution Reform Act included a requirement that a review of the effects of the new law had to be conducted three to five years after it came into force. An initial report in September 2006 indicated that the number of sex workers on the streets was approximately the same as before the Act came into force and, in some cases, even slightly reduced, contrary to allegations that it has increased. The extent of sex work was compared to 1999, the only notable change being a trend from managed sex work to the private sector. An examination of entry and exit factors showed that many sex workers said they desired to continue to sell sex, as financial return and independence were attractive features. Workers seemed more empowered, but there was still violence on the streets. It is clear that the Act did not decriminalise violence, and the police take action about violence when sex workers make complaints (c.f., R v Connolly, a police officer who was jailed in 2009 for blackmailing a sex worker into giving him free sex). Some deficiencies in safe practices, especially for oral sex, were identified. Perceived stigma remained a problem. Inconsistencies were noted between local and central government intent, the former being more restrictive, causing problems for some workers. The Prostitution Law Review Committee presented its final report in May 2008. It found no evidence for the claims of critics at the time of introduction, and it concluded that there was no expansion of the industry. However, employment conditions still left a good deal to be desired. Stigma remained a major problem, and the traditional distrust of authorities also remained. Sex workers are now more willing to report crimes against them than they had been in the past. Following the release of the evaluation, suggestions of bias were raised, and critics such as the evangelical Christian TEAR Fund's Humanitarian Chronicle stated that authors of the report were "supporters" of the sex industry and thus not "neutral". They stated that the situation was much worse than presented in the evaluation. Alex Penk, Maxim Institute's Policy and Research Manager, said that: "The report released by the Prostitution Law Review Committee today clearly shows that the Prostitution Reform Act is not making life safer for many of New Zealand's most vulnerable men, women, and young people." Melissa Farley, an opponent of the legislation, stated that the decriminalisation of prostitution had very negative effects (e. g., an increase in human trafficking and street prostitution), and that the NZ Prostitution Law Review Committee "was biased and blatantly favored the sex industry". However, Farley has been criticised for failing to provide any facts or details to back up her assertions. Furthermore, Farley continues to use a claim that "the numbers of those prostituting on the street in Auckland have increased by 400% since decriminalization". During an online debate in The Economist, Farley repeated these figures, claiming at paragraph 35: However, in reply to the claims Farley and others make, the Prostitution Law Review Committee (2008: 40) stated: Furthermore, in relation to human trafficking, the PLRC (2008: 167) stated: Subsequent initiatives Moves to restrict prostitution in New Zealand continue. In 2010, National MP Tau Henare called for restricting premises from being opened near schools. However this actually falls under local municipal responsibility. The Kiwi Party called for the repeal of the Act. The party's last remaining MP was voted out of Parliament in 2008, and it was subsequently absorbed into the Conservative Party of New Zealand. The party maintains the Kiwi Party's earlier opposition to prostitution law reform, but, like the Kiwi Party before it, polls well under the minimum threshold required for parliamentary list-only representation. In May 2013, Elizabeth Subritzky submitted a petition on behalf of Freedom from Sexual Exploitation that asked the House of Representatives to "legislate for a national plan of action to combat street prostitution, including a law which makes the purchase of sexual services illegal" (the Swedish model). The Ministry of Justice responded to the assumptions in Petition 2011/60 in September 2013, followed by a response by the New Zealand Prostitutes Collective (NZPC) in February 2014. On 7 November 2014, the Justice and Electoral Committee of the New Zealand Parliament issued its report which rejected the petition. In its concluding comment, the committee stated: "We appreciate the petitioner's concerns about street prostitution. However, we are aware that the eradication of street-based prostitution has not proved to be achievable in any jurisdiction, and simply banning it may have negative consequences for the health and safety of sex workers. We support the Prostitution Law Review Committee’s conclusion that local approaches are likely to be most effective in dealing with street prostitution." Reacting to the report, Dr Calum Bennachie from the New Zealand Prostitutes Collective stated that, "When other groups are finally given rights by society, they rarely have to keep returning to parliament to protect those rights. Yet, sex workers, who have been given their rights by Parliament in 2003 when sex work was decriminalised, continually have to defend themselves in parliament, fight the same battles, and time after time have to refute the same tired arguments based on invented figures." Today As in other countries, New Zealand sex workers work in a variety of settings, including street prostitution and the indoor market in brothels and saunas, as well as for escort agencies and as independent workers. Street prostitution Street prostitution continues to dominate debates because of its visibility. For instance, sex workers often gather on and around Karangahape Road and Hunter's Corner in Auckland, Cuba/Vivian/Marion Streets in Wellington, and Manchester Street in Christchurch amongst other places. Since the 22 February 2011 earthquake in Christchurch this has moved to Ferry Road and the residential end of Manchester Street. Despite it being illegal (see Attorney General's opinion on the New Zealand Bill of Rights) to discriminate against individuals on the basis of gender identity within New Zealand, the transgender community often finds that many of its younger members require survival sex for food, shelter and rest. Therefore, they are heavily represented within street sex work. Conflicts in the South Auckland area of Manukau continue to be the focus of debate (see below). Brothels and escort agencies Many sex workers find employment in brothels or escort agencies. In the brothels, clients come to the place of business, which may be in a commercial area and fairly obvious, sometimes attached to a strip club, or more discreetly in a residential area. Escort agencies take phone calls from clients and arrange for the worker to go to their homes or motels. Typically the business will charge the worker a fee per shift, and will usually also take a set percentage of the client's fee. It is illegal for brothel operators to fine workers for lateness, unprofessional conduct and other misdemeanours, but many legally charge what they call 'shift fees', and most require their workers to buy their own clothes and accessories. This means that on a slow night the worker may actually lose money. However, brothels and escort agencies are generally seen as preferable to street prostitution, as their environment appears to be relatively safe. Brothels vary in size between 3 sex workers on duty to up to approximately 30. Brothels and agencies advertise through a range of media, including billboards, the Internet, and late night television advertisements, but especially newspaper advertisements, particularly in New Zealand Truth until its closure in 2013. One of the results of the law change is that 16- and 17-year-old sex workers are no longer allowed to work in brothels. With the exception of several well publicised cases this change has been successful. Sex workers who do not wish to be employed often set up one-person or two-person brothels or agencies, commonly in their homes. Within the definitions of the act these are called small owner operated brothels (SOOBs). They tend to rely on classified newspaper advertisements (particularly New Zealand Truth until its closure in 2013), or by advertising on the Internet. The location of brothels within local territories has been a continuing area of litigation, and a poll conducted in March 2011 suggested that 66% of the population would support a ban on brothels in residential areas. The same poll showed a 50% support for banning street prostitution. This poll published by NZ Herald was initially commissioned by political Christian group Family First and run by Curia Market Research. The research has drawn criticism as potentially representing bias due to the ties to Family First. Potential areas of result skew include: An unusually high proportion of respondents from more conservative rural areas. 31% of respondents versus 8.4% population distribution. (Source: see table one) Age distributions not reflective of the general population instead favoring older more conservative age groups (although the overall effect of this is unknown as approval and disapproval varied significantly throughout age groups without clear trend towards changing attitudes with age). Respondents were 57% female and only 43% male while population distributions show females as 51% of the population. This may have had significant effect as females were found to be more substantially more likely to disapprove of prostitution (For females 44% to 64% approve regulation, while in males only 28% to 39% approve). The vast majority of New Zealand sex workers are biologically female, but there are also male and transgender workers, particularly in Auckland. Both engage in sole operator businesses as described above, and a few male brothels and escort agencies exist. In addition, transgender street-based sex workers are not uncommon. Male sex workers aiming at a male clientele usually advertise in the gay newspaper Express (or in New Zealand Truth until its closure in 2013). Conflict – the case of Manukau (Auckland) Manukau City in South Auckland consistently opposed the legislation. Manukau felt that street prostitution was particularly problematic in its area. Manukau City Council's portfolio leader for community safety, Councillor Dick Quax, was particularly critical. In 2009, he said that "involvement of gangs and organised crime in street prostitution has become evident (...) Street prostitution also attracts offensive litter, disorder, drugs, and intimidation", and, "There are kids going to school with condoms lying on the street and prostitutes still standing around. It's dangerous, not only for the workers themselves, but for the rest of the community. We're sick of it (...) The community has had enough. It's not fun to come out in the morning and be having to clean up condoms lying in your garden and on the fence. Cleaning up condoms and needles – it's just not fair." This has led to conflicts with the locals, which have attempted to curb this phenomenon, by trying to scare off prostitutes' customers, breaking negotiations between prostitutes and clients, and sending the prostitutes' clients letters, tracking them down through their car registration plates. A private Bill, the Manukau City Council (Control of Street Prostitution) Bill 2005, led to hearings before a select committee, but failed to pass its second parliamentary reading on 11 October 2006 (46 votes to 73) following a Select Committee Report that stated that, "initiatives supported by the local community, sex workers and their advocates, outreach workers, social agencies, and the police are a more effective and appropriate use of resources than the proposed legislated solution". A government review of the situation was carried out in 2009, and concluded no further special legislative action was required. This resulted in critics of the legislation to be dissatisfied. Councillor Quax said that the review was very disappointing: "It ignores the fact that anti-social behaviour such as harassment and intimidation has become worse since the passing of the legislation decriminalising prostitution." Manukau then made a further attempt to regulate prostitution with the Manukau City Council (Regulation of Prostitution in Specified Places) Bill 197-1 (2010). This passed first reading 82 votes to 36 in a conscience vote on 8 September 2010. The Bill was opposed by the Māori Party. The Bill's purpose is stated as "This Bill provides for local bylaw control over the locations where the business of prostitution or commercial sexual services may occur when that business or those services take place or are conducted other than in a brothel or a small owner-operated brothel in Manukau City" and was referred to the Local Government and Environment Select Committee, which required submissions by 5 November. all of which have been posted on-line. The future of the Bill was placed in doubt when Manukau City Council ceased to exist in late 2010, being absorbed into the Auckland Council. However, the new Auckland Council endorsed the bill and in view of the municipal reorganisation Auckland was given till February 2011 to present its submission, the Committee hoping to report to parliament in March 2011, enabling a second reading of the bill. The Auckland Council asked the NZPC to make a presentation to it on 15 February 2011. On 27 January 2011, Council voted 11 to 7 to support a submission to the committee on the bill, in order to give them powers to prohibit street prostitution anywhere in Auckland. However, in late June 2011, retiring Manurewa New Zealand Labour Party MP George Hawkins conceded that his private members bill had insufficient parliamentary support to pass its second reading, now scheduled for September 2011, and said that the perceived "radical" expansion of the bill to encompass the whole of Auckland City would adversely affect any subsequent passage. Other objections are local exemptions to national ambit legislation, and criticism from law enforcement and social service agencies that provide front-line health and social services to street sex workers. It was also seen as contravening the Bill of Rights. Despite such objections, local Papatoetoe businesses hope to invest in more closed circuit television surveillance cameras to deal with what they view as "anti-social" and "public nuisance" behaviour allegedly ancillary to street sex work. Supporters of the sex workers argue that the behaviour in question may be unrelated to their presence, and linked to the early closure of public toilets and widespread alcohol outlets within the adjacent area. The private member's bill was later reintroduced to Parliament, with strong criticism from some members of the LGBT community. They argued that the bill would disproportionately affect transgender street sex workers, given that gender identity is not covered within New Zealand's Human Rights Act 1993. They also argued that the Manukau and Auckland City Council had contributed to the situation through closure of public toilets and denial of the use of council rental accommodation to sex workers, and denounced what is argued to be vigilante tactics from some anti-sexworker local residents. They argued that in instances of inappropriate sex worker behaviour, local councils, concerned residents, police, and business interests should rely on the Summary Offences Act 1981. Furthermore, the council is stated to have exaggerated the number of street sex workers. The Local Government and Environment Committee reported back to Parliament on the Manukau City Council (Regulation of Prostitution in Specified Places) Bill on 5 December 2014 and recommended that it not be passed. The Bill received its final vote on 25 February 2015 and was defeated 109–11, with only New Zealand First voting for the bill. Whether or not this means that there will be a third private members bill to re-criminalize street sex work, despite this second consecutive defeat, is uncertain. Defeated former New Zealand First List MP Asenati Lole-Taylor was an advocate of such tactics, but she was too low down on her party list rankings to return to Parliament after the 2014 New Zealand general election. For her party, New Zealand First Deputy Leader Tracey Martin spoke in support of the bill's passage during its second parliamentary reading and consequent defeat. Prostitution and minors Underage involvement in the sex industry continues to be a controversial issue in New Zealand, both before and after the passage of the PRA in 2003, with conflicting claims of its extent or relationship to the PRA. The law Child prostitution is illegal. The Prostitution Reform Act 2003 reads as follows: Thus, it is legal for a person under 18 to be a sex worker, but it is illegal for anyone else to profit from them in this capacity, or cause, assist, facilitate, or encourage them to provide commercial sexual services to any person. It is also illegal for anyone to purchase sex from a person aged under 18. The media are likely to require photographic ID before placing advertisements to ensure they are complying with this law. The defence of "reasonableness" has been removed, but sex workers appearing under age may be asked by police to provide proof of age. There appears to be no law prohibiting a person under 18 from being a client of a prostitute, thus the legal age for this is presumably 16, the legal age of consent in New Zealand. Media publicity Newspapers report on concerns about underage street workers, stating that this is the commonest entry point into the trade for them and that some of them may be being pimped by gang members. Reports have cited some community workers who stated that they had found girls "as young as 10 or 11" selling sex, and one mentioned students from a West Auckland high school who "turned tricks" at lunchtime. Children as young as 13 were also removed from the streets of South Auckland. Convictions have been obtained against operators who did not check ID and hired under age workers. There have been several cases in Christchurch. Another case occurred in Whangārei. In 2005, ECPAT New Zealand and the Stop Demand Foundation (agencies which combat the sexual exploitation of children), commenting on the Ministry of Justice's report "The Nature and Extent of the Sex Industry in New Zealand", questioned the effectiveness of New Zealand's legislation in relation to underage prostitution; the agencies pointed to a police survey of the New Zealand sex industry which showed that 210 children under the age of 18 years were identified as selling sex, with three-quarters being concentrated in one Police District. In Christchurch in 2008, Salvation Army officer Major Wendy Barney from Christchurch's Street Outreach Service (SOS) said underage prostitution was "a big problem – but also a hidden one". Nevertheless, this anecdotal evidence is not supported by statement made by outreach workers from youth support agencies, including Youth and Cultural Development (YCD), who indicate that many of the young people are not working, but are "hanging out" on the streets. Despite these claims, police have continued to bring prosecutions for underage prostitution against the brothels despite relaxed oversight. US Human Rights Reports The United States Department of State Human Rights Reports from 2004–2009 comment on child prostitution cases in New Zealand. The 2008 report states that prosecutors in Christchurch applied for the first time the law banning sexual slavery, adopted in 2006 in accordance with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. However this is not mentioned in domestic sources, and the PRA provides penalties for such actions; and the 2009 report does not mention it. The NZ government has criticised the US reports as being based on faulty and biased data sets. For example, it appears that the State Department ignored material in the Prostitution Law Review Committee Report, which indicated there was no evidence of increased underage sex work in the New Zealand sex industry. This latter report is acknowledged in the 2009 US report. Support and services for sex workers The New Zealand Prostitutes' Collective (NZPC) is a New Zealand-based organisation that supports the rights of sex workers and educates prostitutes about minimizing the risks of the job. It was founded in 1987 by, among others, Catherine Healy, and received funding from the Minister of Health in 1988, and subsequently the Department of Health (which became the Ministry of Health). The organisation played a major part in the decriminalisation of prostitution. Further information from evaluation process The report "The Impact of the Prostitution Reform Act on the Health and Safety Practices of Sex Workers: Report to the Prostitution Law Review Committee" from the Christchurch School of Medicine is a study of 772 sex workers in New Zealand, covering Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch as main urban centres, and Nelson and the Hawkes Bay as secondary centres. It and studies by the Crime and Justice Research Centre at Victoria University provided the Prostitution Law Review Committee with the evidence that it required to reach a conclusion about the effect of the Prostitution Reform Act 2003 on sex workers. The researchers described this process further in a 2010 book titled "Taking the crime out of sex work- New Zealand sex workers' fight for decriminalisation". It was written by Gillian Abel (a senior public health researcher and lecturer at the University of Otago, New Zealand), Lisa Fitzgerald (a public health sociologist and social science lecturer in the School of Population Health, University of Queensland), and Catherine Healy (a founding member of the New Zealand Prostitutes' Collective). The book includes the results of interviews with over 700 sex workers, and concludes that the decriminalisation has had positive effects for the prostitutes' safety and health. In its 2008 "Report of the Prostitution Law Review Committee on the Operation of the Prostitution Reform Act 2003", the committee provided further information on many of the cases and background of sex work in New Zealand. The Report also addressed issues raised by ECPAT New Zealand and the Stop Demand Foundation, and the claims made by those supporting the Manukau City Council (Control of Street Prostitution) Bill 2005. References Bibliography Books Abel, G., Fitzgerald, L., & Healy, C., (2010). Taking the crime out of sex work: New Zealand sex workers' fight for decriminalisation. Bristol: Policy Press.(Decriminalisation of sex industry positive move) Jordan, J (1991) Working Girls: Women in the New Zealand Sex Industry, Penguin History Belich, James (1996) Making Peoples: A history of the New Zealanders from Polynesian settlement to the end of the nineteenth century, Allen Lane, Auckland Philippa Levine (2003) Prostitution, Race, and Politics: Policing Venereal Disease in the British Empire, Routledge , Book chapters Lichtenstein, B: Reframing "Eve" in the AIDS era, in Sex Work and Sex Workers, BM Dank and R Refinetti eds. Transaction, New Brunswick NJ 1998 Articles Macfarlane, D: Transsexual prostitution in New Zealand: Predominance of persons of Maori extraction, Arch Sex Behav 13(4): 301, 1984 Jan Jordan: Sex, law and social control – the sex industry in New Zealand today. Australian Institute of Criminology 1991 Jody Hanson, Learning to be a prostitute: Education and training in the New Zealand Sex industry, Women's Studies Journal, 12(2): 77–85, 1996 Bronwen Lichtenstein, Tradition and experiment in New Zealand AIDS policy, AIDS and Public Policy, 12 (3): 79–88, 1997 Kathleen Potter, Judy Martin, Sarah Romans: Early developmental experiences of female sex workers: a comparative study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, Volume 33, Issue 6 December 1999, 935 – 940 Plumridge L, Abel G. Services and information utilised by female sex workers for sexual and physical safety. N Z Med J. 2000 Sep 8;113(1117):370–2. Sarah E. Romans, Kathleen Potter, Judy Martin, Peter Herbison: The mental and physical health of female sex workers: a comparative study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry Volume 35 Issue 1, 2001, Pages 75 – 80 Libby Plumridge, Gillian Abel: A 'segmented' sex industry in New Zealand: sexual and personal safety of female sex workers. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health Volume 25 Issue 1, 2001, Pages 78 – 83 Martin S. Weinberg, Heather Worth and Colin J. Williams: Men Sex Workers and Other Men Who Have Sex With Men: How Do Their HIV Risks Compare in New Zealand? Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume 30, Number 3 / June 2001, 273 Patt, Prof. Martin. Child Prostitution – New Zealand. The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in the first ten years of the 21st Century – 2000 to 2009 History Macdonald, C., "The Social Evil: Prostitution & the Passage of the Contagious Diseases Act (1869)" in Brookes B, Macdonald C. and Tennant M. (eds), Women in History: Essays on European Women in New Zealand (Allen Unwin, Wellington, 1986). Dalley, B: 'Fresh Attractions': White slavery and feminism in New Zealand, 1885–1918, Women's History Review 9(3): 585–606, 2000 Theses Heidi Whiteside, 'We shall be Respectable': Women and representations of respectability in Lyttelton 1851–1893, MA University of Canterbury 2007 Kehoe, Jean. Medicine, sexuality and imperialism : British medical discourses surrounding venereal disease in New Zealand and Japan : a socio-historical and comparative study PhD Thesis Victoria University of Wellington, 1992 Lucas, Heather, ‘"Square Girls": Prostitutes and Prostitution in Dunedin in the 1880s', BA (Hons), University of Otago, 1985. Media Paul Litterick: The Open Society, Winter 2004 77(2):7 Parliamentary documents Prostitution Reform Bill 2000 Debates Tim Barnett (Labour): First reading speech (11 October 2000) (archived) Sue Bradford (Green): First reading speech (8 November 2000) Second reading debate and vote (19 February 2003) Tim Barnett (Labour): Second reading speech Third reading debate and vote (25 June 2003) Sue Bradford (Green): Third reading speech (25 June 2003) Submissions Public Health Association of New Zealand: Policy on Decriminalisation of Prostitution (2001) Public Health Association of New Zealand: Submission on the Prostitution Reform Bill (2001) New Zealand Law Society submission (2001) Human Rights Commission submission (2001) Human Rights CommissionSupplement (2001) CATW-A submission (2001) Wellington Rape Crisis submission (2002) Reports Report of Justice and Electoral Committee (November 2002) Legislation and regulations Prostitution Reform Act 2003 Regulations: Warrants Regulations: Certificates A Guide to Occupational Health and Safety Government documents NEW ZEALAND'S NATIONAL PLAN OF ACTION AGAINST THE COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN. Ministry of Justice 2002 Child prostitution. Ministry of Justice 2003 (archived) Persons under 18 years of age Ministry of Justice 2007 Parliamentary Research Papers: Prostitution law reform in New Zealand. July 2012 Political statements Green Party Sue Bradford: Sex workers deserve the protection of the law (30 July 2001) Labour BBC: Interview with Prime Minister Helen Clark (11 July 2003) Tim Barnett: Prostitution Law Reform 2005 Tim Barnett: What did it change, and what has happened since? (August 2006) (archived) Tim Barnett: The campaign and the outcome (January 2007) (archived) Tim Barnett: Reform of prostitution law a success (23 May 2008) (archived) Future New Zealand Gordon Copeland: Swedish prostitution law model for New Zealand (19 November 2007) Local government Local Government New Zealand response (14 July 2003) Local Government New Zealand background document Auckland Submission by Sue Bradford and Tim Barnett (25 November 2003) High Court Decision 14 March 2006 Response by Sue Bradford (15 March 2006) Manukau Manukau City Council (Control of Street Prostitution) Bill 2005 Law Society Submission 2006 Committee Report (September 2006) Carterton Prostitution by-law 2007 Christchurch Christchurch Brothel by-law 2004 Greens response to decision to abandon appeal of High Court decision (23 March 2006) Hamilton Prostitution by-law 2004 (archived) TVNZ By-law upheld 20 July 2006 Court of Appeal decision (28 November 2007) Hamilton City Council: Press release (28 November 2007)(archived) Infonews: By-law to be reviewed (September 2008) External links Legislation Crimes Act 1961 Summary Offences Act 1981 Prostitution Reform Act 2003 Manukau City Council (Regulation of Prostitution in Specified Places) Bill 197-1 (2010), Local Bill Organisations New Zealand Prostitutes' Collective ECPAT New Zealand Other Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand – Sex work	[ 0.9311495423316956, 0.040527209639549255, -0.7169603109359741, -0.34996482729911804, -0.213943749666214, 0.42124977707862854, 0.25527089834213257, 0.17030157148838043, -0.5343299508094788, 0.3229198157787323, 0.03313629701733589, 0.3207521140575409, -0.014095830731093884, -0.06484190374612808, -0.7106543183326721, 0.4539276957511902, 0.5683586597442627, 0.9952936768531799, 0.36304858326911926, -0.0764954462647438, -0.5562920570373535, -0.3310631513595581, -0.005783628206700087, 0.20309177041053772, -0.21513894200325012, -0.17275039851665497, 0.2351568341255188, 0.5331704616546631, 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253014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Merle	Robert Merle	Robert Merle (; 28 August 1908 – 27 March 2004) was a French novelist. Early life Merle was born in 1908 in Tébessa, French Algeria. His father Félix, who was an interpreter "with a perfect knowledge of literary and spoken Arabic", was killed in 1916 in the Dardanelles. Young Merle and his mother moved to Paris, where he attended three lycées and the Sorbonne. Career Academia and World War II Merle was professor of English Literature at several universities until the outbreak of the second world war in 1939. During World War II Merle was conscripted in the French army and assigned as an interpreter to the British Expeditionary Force. In 1940 he was in the Dunkirk evacuation on the beach of Zuydcoote — which he called a "blind and abominable lottery" — and was captured by the Germans. Merle was taken prisoner to Stalag VID at Dortmund, and escaped, but was recaptured at Belgian customs. He was repatriated in July 1943, and after the war was awarded the Croix du Combattant. Writing Merle used his experiences at Dunkirk in his 1949 novel Week-end at Zuydcoote, which became a "sensational success" and won the Prix Goncourt. A 1964 feature film adaptation, Weekend at Dunkirk, was directed by Henri Verneuil and starred Jean-Paul Belmondo. It was a box office hit and made both men famous. Merle's 1967 novel Un animal doué de raison (lit. A Sentient Animal), a stark Cold War satire inspired by John Lilly's studies of dolphins and the Caribbean Crisis, was translated into English and filmed as The Day of the Dolphin (1973) starring George C. Scott. Merle's post-apocalyptic novel Malevil (1972) was also adapted into a 1981 film. His 1952 novel La mort est mon métier was adapted into a 1977 film, his 1962 novel L'île was filmed as a 1987 miniseries and Le propre de l'homme (1989) was adapted into a 1996 TV movie. Among Merle's other works are the 1950 play Flamineo, based on John Webster's The White Devil, the 1948 biography Oscar Wilde (extended in 1955 as Oscar Wilde, or The Destiny of Homosexuality), and various translations including Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels. In 1965 Merle wrote Moncada: premier combat de Fidel Castro and Ahmed Ben Bella, and around this time translated the diaries of Che Guevara. Until the invasion of Afghanistan by the Red Army, Merle was a sympathizer of the French Communist Party. He said: Merle's "major achievement" was his 13-book series of historical novels, Fortune de France (1977–2003), which recreate 16th and 17th century France through the eyes of a fictitious Protestant doctor turned spy. A "genuine scholar of language", Merle wrote the novels using many of the appropriate French speech rhythms and idioms of the historical period. The series made Merle a household name in France, with the author repeatedly called the Alexandre Dumas of the 20th century. Personal life Merle was married three times, and had four sons and two daughters. He died in 2004 at age 95 of a heart attack in Montfort-l'Amaury, France. Bibliography Week-end à Zuydcoote (1949) - Published in US as Week-end at Zuydcoote (1950) La mort est mon métier (1952) - Published in UK as Death is my Trade (1954) L'île (1962) - Published in US as The Island (1964) Moncada, premier combat de Fidel Castro (1965) Un animal doué de raison (1967) - Published in US as The Day of the Dolphin (1967) Derrière la vitre (1970) - Published in US as Behind the Glass (1972) Malevil (1972) Les hommes protégés (1974) - Published in US as The Virility Factor (1977) Madrapour (1976) L'idole (1987) - Published in US as The Idol Le jour ne se lève pas pour nous (1987) Le propre de l'homme (1989) Fortune de France series (1977-2003) Fortune de France (1977) En nos vertes années (1979) Paris ma bonne ville (1980) Le Prince que voilà (1982) La violente amour (1983) La Pique du jour (1985) La Volte des vertugadins (1991) L’Enfant-Roi (1993) Les Roses de la vie (1995) Le Lys et la Pourpre (1997) La Gloire et les Périls (1999) Complots et Cabales (2001) Le Glaive et les amours (2003) (English: Love and the Sword) Reception Kirkup called the Fortune de France series "spectacular" and dubbed it Merle's "major achievement". Douglas Johnson of The Guardian described the author as "a master of the historical novel". The series made Merle a household name in France, and he has been repeatedly called the Alexandre Dumas of the 20th century. Le Monde dubbed Merle "France's greatest popular novelist", and Le Figaro observed, "Robert Merle is one of the very few French writers who have attained both popular success and the admiration of critics." Writing for The Wall Street Journal, Allan Massie praised Merle's "thorough research, depth of understanding and popular touch", noting that "one of the strengths of Merle’s novels in his ability to evoke the feeling and texture of everyday life as well as high politics". Massie compared the first novel in Merle's series to Maurice Druon's The Accursed Kings (Les Rois maudits), another famed French historical novel series, writing "There is a philosophical depth to the novel absent from Druon, for the Brethren are attracted to the Reformed Protestant (or Huguenot) faith ... Though not as gripping as The Accursed Kings, The Brethren never strays, as Druon sometimes does, into the grotesque. It has a credibly human solidity." Toby Clements of The Telegraph wrote, "There are set-piece discussions on the dilemmas of faith that are informative if not the stuff of high drama, and passages on the history of France that can only be made sense of with the aid of a map and a memory for names. But elsewhere there is much colour, and, overall, The Brethren gives a salty and plausible idea of just how different, odd and parlous life might have been." As of 2014, Fortune de France had sold over five million copies in France. References External links Small picture 1908 births 2004 deaths People from Tébessa People of French Algeria Pieds-Noirs French historical novelists French male novelists 20th-century French novelists French science fiction writers 20th-century French male writers Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni Prix Goncourt winners Grand prix Jean Giono recipients French Army personnel of World War II French prisoners of war in World War II World War II prisoners of war held by Germany French escapees Escapees from German detention	[ -0.5895247459411621, 0.5682394504547119, -0.7636796832084656, -0.4925656318664551, 0.10899315774440765, 1.1549807786941528, 0.2551088035106659, 0.05225767195224762, -0.21940450370311737, -0.26920267939567566, -0.08331023901700974, 0.45359885692596436, 0.016073310747742653, 0.07008080929517746, 0.3034209609031677, 0.03839346021413803, -0.3321620225906372, -0.6519352793693542, -0.34060487151145935, -0.417147159576416, -0.5541920065879822, -0.09269025921821594, 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253021	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMY%20Britannia	HMY Britannia	Her Majesty's Yacht Britannia, also known as the Royal Yacht Britannia, is the former royal yacht of the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, in service from 1954 until 1997. She was the 83rd such vessel since King Charles II acceded to the throne in 1660, and is the second royal yacht to bear the name, the first being the racing cutter built for the Prince of Wales in 1893. During her 43-year career, the yacht travelled more than a million nautical miles around the globe. Now retired from royal service, Britannia is permanently berthed at Ocean Terminal, Leith in Edinburgh, Scotland. It is a popular visitor attraction with over 300,000 visits each year. Construction HMY Britannia was built at the shipyard of John Brown & Co. Ltd in Clydebank, Dunbartonshire. She was launched by Queen Elizabeth II on 16 April 1953, and commissioned on 11 January 1954. The ship was designed with three masts: a foremast, a mainmast, and a mizzenmast. The top aerial on the foremast and the top of the mainmast were hinged to allow the ship to pass under bridges. Britannia was designed to be converted into a hospital ship in time of war, although this capability was never used. In the event of nuclear war, it was intended for the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh to take refuge aboard Britannia off the north-west coast of Scotland. Crew Royal Navy officers were appointed for up to two years. The crew were volunteers from the general service of the Royal Navy. After 365 days' service, they could be admitted to the Permanent Royal Yacht Service as Royal Yachtsmen and serve until they chose to leave the service or were dismissed for medical or disciplinary reasons. As a result, some served for 20 years or more. The crew also included a detachment of Royal Marines. A contingent of Royal Marines Band members embarked whenever Britannia was on duty away from home port. History Britannia sailed on her maiden voyage from Portsmouth to Grand Harbour, Malta, departing on 14 April and arriving on 22 April 1954. She carried Princess Anne and Prince Charles to Malta in order for them to meet the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh at the end of the royal couple's Commonwealth tour. The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh embarked on Britannia for the first time in Tobruk on 1 May 1954. On 20 July 1959, Britannia sailed the newly opened Saint Lawrence Seaway en route to Chicago, where she docked, making the Queen the first British monarch to visit the city. US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was aboard Britannia for part of this cruise; Presidents Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton were welcomed aboard in later years. Charles and Diana, the Prince and Princess of Wales, took their honeymoon cruise on Britannia in 1981. The ship evacuated over 1,000 refugees from the civil war in Aden in 1986. The vessel sailed to Canada in 1991 and made a port of call in Toronto and Kingston, Ontario. HMY Britannia, when on royal duties, was escorted by a Royal Navy warship. The yacht was a regular sight at Cowes Week in early August and, usually, for the remainder of the month, was home to the Queen and her family for an annual cruise around the islands off the west coast of Scotland (known as the "Western Isles Tour"). During her career as Royal Yacht, Britannia conveyed the Queen, other members of the Royal Family and various dignitaries on 696 foreign visits and 272 visits in British waters. In this time, Britannia steamed . Decommissioning In 1994, the Conservative government announced the yacht's retirement: In January 1997, the government committed itself to replacing the Royal Yacht if reelected. The timing of the announcement, close to a general election, was controversial; The Guardian Weekly called it "part of a populist appeal to wavering Tory voters in the run-up to the general election" and reported that the Queen was "furious" that the Royal Family was "dragged into the centre of the election campaign, just as it is fighting to restore its public image." Sir Edward Heath publicly objected to the government's handling of the issue, stating "The Conservative Party above all must be an honourable party. And I don't believe the actions that have been taken are honourable ones and should never have been taken in this way." The government argued that the cost was justified by its role in foreign policy and promoting British interests abroad, particularly through conferences held by British Invisibles, formerly the Committee on Invisible Exports. It was estimated by the Overseas Trade Board that events held on board the yacht helped raise £3 billion for HM Treasury between 1991 and 1995 alone. The Labour opposition announced it would not commit the use of public funds for a replacement vessel for at least the first two years of any new Labour government. After its election victory in May 1997, the new government considered multiple options for the future of a royal yacht, but concluded in October of that year that Britannia would not be replaced: The Royal Yacht's final foreign mission was to convey the last Governor of Hong Kong, Chris Patten, and the Prince of Wales back from Hong Kong after its handover to the People's Republic of China on 1 July 1997. Britannia was decommissioned on 11 December 1997. The Queen, normally undemonstrative, is reported to have shed a tear at the decommissioning ceremony that was attended by most of the senior members of the Royal Family. Retirement Listed as part of the National Historic Fleet, Britannia is a visitor attraction moored in the historic Port of Leith in Edinburgh, Scotland, and is cared for by the Royal Yacht Britannia Trust, a registered charity. There was some controversy over the siting of the ship, with some arguing that she would be better moored on the River Clyde, where she was built, than in Edinburgh, with which the yacht had few links. Her positioning in Leith coincided with a redevelopment of the harbour area and the advent of Scottish devolution. Entrance to the yacht is via the Ocean Terminal development, and over 300,000 people visit the Royal Yacht Britannia every year. She is one of the UK's top evening events venues. On 18 May 2006, the Swiss-born Hollywood actress and first Bond girl, Ursula Andress, celebrated her 70th birthday on board. On 29 July 2011, a drinks reception was held on board Britannia for Queen Elizabeth's granddaughter Zara Phillips and her then fiancé, Mike Tindall, to celebrate their forthcoming wedding. An early Land Rover in much-restored shape is displayed in the on-board garage and a retired Rolls-Royce Phantom V state car is parked on the wharf below the ship. The tour of the five decks open to the public includes the Queen's bedroom, which can be viewed behind a glass wall, and the state dining and drawing rooms, which hosted grand receptions for kings and queens, presidents and prime ministers throughout the world. The clocks on board are stopped at 3:01, the time that the Queen last disembarked. The royal deck tea room was added in 2009. The 1936 racing yacht Bloodhound, once owned by the Queen and Prince Philip, is now berthed alongside Britannia. Bloodhound was one of the most successful ocean-racing yachts ever built and was the yacht on which the Prince of Wales and the Princess Royal learned to sail. The Royal Yacht Britannia Trust bought Bloodhound in early 2010 and she is the centrepiece of an exhibition focusing on the Royal Family's passion for sailing. Visitors can view Bloodhound from a specially built pontoon when the racing yacht is in port. During July and August, she is berthed in Oban marina and is available for private charter, as she sails around the islands once visited by the Royal Family during their annual fortnight holiday in the Western Isles of Scotland. During this period, Royal Yachtsmen (Yotties) from Britannia'''s original crew sail the yacht for the Britannia Trust. Proposals for successor Proposals for the construction of a new royal yacht, perhaps financed through a loan or by the Queen's own funds, have made little headway. In December 2019 it was reported that the late Sir Donald Gosling donated £50 million in his will to pay for it. In May 2021, it was reported that Prime Minister Boris Johnson would announce the construction of a new royal yacht, named after Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, "within weeks". On 29 May, Johnson announced that the "new national flagship" - a ship rather than a luxury yacht - would enter service within the next four years and cost up to £200 million. The following day it was reported that government plans to name the ship after the Duke of Edinburgh were not well-received amongst royal sources, and these plans had subsequently been "abandoned". Commanding officers Captain J. S. Dalglish, 7 January – 28 April 1954 Vice Admiral Sir Conolly Abel Smith, 28 April 1954 – 30 January 1958 Vice Admiral Sir Peter Dawnay, 30 January 1958 – 25 January 1962 Rear Admiral Sir Joseph Henley, 25 January 1962 – 9 March 1965 Rear Admiral Sir Patrick Morgan, 9 March 1965 – 1 September 1970 Rear Admiral Sir Richard Trowbridge, 1 September 1970 – 11 September 1975 Rear Admiral Sir Hugh Janion, 11 September 1975 – 4 February 1981 Rear Admiral Sir Paul Greening, 4 February 1981 – 12 September 1985 Rear Admiral Sir John Garnier, 12 September 1985 – 18 September 1990 Rear Admiral Sir Robert Woodard, 18 September 1990 – 1 April 1995 Commodore A. J. C. Morrow, 1 April 1995 – 11 December 1997 See also K1 Britannia, a planned replica of King George V's famed racing yacht Britannia to be used for charitable purposes. Hebridean Princess, twice chartered by the Queen since the retirement of HMY Britannia. Gloriana, a Royal barge in operation since 2012 List of royal yachts of the United Kingdom The Royal Train Bentley State Limousine Air transport of the Royal Family Operation Candid, a Cold War era contingency plan involving HMY Britannia''. References Sources Shepeard, Victor (1954) "Her Majesty's Yacht Britannia" HMY Britannia (Clydebuilt Ships Database) External links Official website of the Royal Yacht Britannia Newsreel of the Queen launching Britannia (1953) HMY Britannia entering Portsmouth videos Royal Yachts of the United Kingdom Passenger ships of the United Kingdom Hospital ships of the Royal Navy Museum ships in the United Kingdom Ships of Scotland Ships built on the River Clyde 1997 in Hong Kong 1953 ships Museums in Edinburgh Tourist attractions in Edinburgh Ships and vessels of the National Historic Fleet 1953 in Scotland Leith Scottish ceremonial units	[ 0.05080303177237511, -0.32566341757774353, 0.6351674199104309, -0.1426093578338623, 0.09618877619504929, 0.234609916806221, 0.006061323452740908, -0.03865037485957146, -0.6292746067047119, 0.3658040165901184, -0.14471937716007233, 0.12239270657300949, -0.11020839959383011, 0.6758527159690857, 0.027861198410391808, 0.32705605030059814, 0.10214401036500931, 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253024	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top%20Secret%20%28disambiguation%29	Top Secret (disambiguation)	Top Secret generally refers to the highest acknowledged level of classified information. Top Secret may also refer to: Film and television Top Secret (1952 film), a British comedy directed by Mario Zampi Top Secret (1967 film), an Italian-Spanish film Top Secret!, a 1984 American comedy starring Val Kilmer Top Secret (1998 film), a 1998 French film "Top Secret" (House), an episode of House Top Secret (TV series), a 1961 British series starring William Franklyn The Billionaire, known in Thailand as Top Secret: Wai Roon Pan Lan Top Secret Videos, a TruTV comedy show starring Brian Posehn, Ron Funches and Ali Kolbert Games and gaming Top Secret (arcade game) or Bionic Commando, a 1987 action platform game Top Secret (role-playing game), a 1980 espionage-themed role-playing game Top Secret, an experimental multiplayer online game project from Acclaim Games Music TST (band), a South Korean boy band formerly known as Top Secret Top Secret (UP10TION EP), a 2010 EP by South Korean boy band UP10TION Top Secret (single album), by Jun Hyoseong, 2014 Top Secret, an album by Captain Jack Top Secret Drum Corps, a Swiss precision drum corps Songs "Top Secret" (song), a 2012 song by F.T. Island "Top Secret", a single by Winston Wright "Top Secret", a song by Hangry & Angry from Sadistic Dance "Top Secret", a song by Namie Amuro from Play "Top Secret", a song by Ratt from Detonator "Top Secret", a song by Girls' Generation from The Boys "Top Secret", a song by Weeekly from We Can Publications Top Secret (play), a 1949 play by Alan Melville Himitsu – Top Secret, a 2001 Japanese manga Top Secret, a children's novel by John Reynolds Gardiner Top Secret (novel), a 2014 novel by W. E. B. Griffin and his son Top Secret (magazine), a Polish magazine devoted to the subject of computer and video games Other uses Top Secret (aircraft), a B-29 Superfortress modified to carry the atomic bomb in World War II Top Secret (radio program), a 1950–51 American program on the NBC Red Network Top Secret (company), a Japanese automobile tuner and parts manufacturer See also	[ 0.35056811571121216, 0.3380592465400696, -0.48807090520858765, 0.35714560747146606, 0.03746683895587921, -0.9855957627296448, 0.41582807898521423, 0.32299748063087463, -0.3128812909126282, 0.2813047170639038, -0.7210620641708374, 0.3682059347629547, -0.08123452216386795, 0.4038679301738739, -0.015970204025506973, -0.0630451962351799, 0.49926212430000305, 0.6568643450737, 0.4628303647041321, -0.06249527633190155, -0.38733169436454773, -0.025854935869574547, -0.663862943649292, -0.7125088572502136, 0.024128099903464317, -0.175771564245224, -0.3034558892250061, -0.3926502466201782, -0.09819498658180237, 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253025	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhonen%20Vasquez	Jhonen Vasquez	Jhonen C. Vasquez (; born September 1, 1974) is an American cartoonist, animator, music video director, and voice actor. He is best known for creating the comic book Johnny the Homicidal Maniac, its spin-off comics Squee!, Fillerbunny, and I Feel Sick, and the Nickelodeon animated series Invader Zim. Early life Vasquez was born on September 1, 1974, in San Jose, California. He grew up in East San Jose and attended Mt. Pleasant High School, where he often spent much of his class time drawing in sketchbooks and took part in a contest to design a new look for his school's mascot. He earned no prizes, but on the back of a preliminary drawing for the contest, he drew his first sketch of the character who would later become Johnny C who would later star in Vasquez's first completed comic book series. While Vasquez read his older brother's superhero comics as a child, but first became interested in exploring the medium through the original independent Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles comics by Peter Laird and Kevin Eastman: {{cquote\|It wasn't until I started collecting "Ninja Turtles" comics that something switched over in my head. To me, there was something just so different about those books that I did start to obsess over them – the way the books felt dirtier in my hands, the filthy artwork and hero characters that never seemed healed over from their last battles. There was a sense of person just behind the printed page that I had never felt before, a thinner separation from production to my hands and eyes that just fired hooks out into me... it felt unsafe, ya know? It's like, the book itself was less removed from the initial moment a creator is excited about having just come up with some great idea to when they finally finish a thing, nice and polished and just a little dulled from before the thing was just another book. To me, anyhow. It's just what I interpreted the experience like, and I'm sure to a lot of people it was just a book about big mutant turtles.<ref name="Jhonen Vasquez On M.O.D.O.K. & Marvel">Jhonen Vasquez On M.O.D.O.K. & Marvel An October 8, 2009 interview for Comic Book Resources</ref>}} Vasquez's high school student newspaper published a number of his comic strips featuring Johnny C, titled Johnny the Little Homicidal Maniac. After graduating in 1992, Vasquez became a film student at De Anza College in Cupertino, California. He also created Happy Noodle Boy while attending Mt. Pleasant. Despite having little formal artistic training, he soon dropped out of De Anza to pursue a career as a professional cartoonist. He met Roman Dirge, Rosearik Rikki Simons, and Simons' wife Tavisha at Alternative Press Expo in 1995. Dirge later became a writer on Vasquez's series Invader Zim, while Simons became a member of the show's coloring team and the voice of the title character's crazed robot sidekick, GIR. Simons also worked with Vasquez on the coloring seen in his two-issue comic I Feel Sick. By September 1996, Vasquez announced in his introductory text to the sixth issue of Johnny the Homicidal Maniac that he had reached sufficient success to be able to quit his day job and focus on his art. Career ComicsCarpe Noctem magazine published early one-page strips featuring Johnny in the early 1990s. In 1995, Slave Labor Graphics began publishing a series of Johnny comics after Vasquez submitted samples of his artwork to them. Vasquez's first comic, Johnny the Homicidal Maniac, ran for seven issues and was collected as a hardcover and a trade paperback book named Johnny the Homicidal Maniac: Director's Cut. The cover features the logo "Z?", meaning "question sleep", which appears frequently throughout Vasquez's work and relates to his characters' insomnia and his own hypnophobia. The series follows Johnny as he searches for meaning in his life, a quest that frequently leads to the violent deaths of those around him as well as, briefly, his own. A photograph of one of Vasquez's friends, Leah England, serves as the middle of a portrait collection on the cover for the second issue of Johnny the Homicidal Maniac. England also gave Vasquez the inspiration for a filler strip about a child who was dangerously afraid of losing sight of his mother, as well as the notorious "Meanwhile" filler piece in the second issue of Johnny the Homicidal Maniac. Vasquez's next project was The Bad Art Collection, a 16-page one-shot comic. He stated that he did the book's art while he was in high school to discourage classmates from asking him to draw for them. In 1997, Vasquez gave Squee, a supporting character from Johnny the Homicidal Maniac, his own four-issue series. It chronicles Squee's encounters with aliens, Satan's son, and eventually Satan himself. The trade version (which features a cover image of Squee with the words "Buy me or I'll die!") contains, in addition to the actual Squee comics, the Meanwhiles that were left out of the Director's Cut of Johnny the Homicidal Maniac, as well as comics of Vasquez's "real life" and Wobbly-Headed Bob. Vasquez's next project was I Feel Sick, colored by Rikki Simons. I Feel Sick follows a tortured artist named Devi (another character introduced in Johnny the Homicidal Maniac) as she tries to maintain her sanity in an insane vision of society, despite conversing with Sickness, one of her own paintings. Slave Labor has published three Fillerbunny mini-comics, the third having been released in March 2005. The mini-comic was a spin-off of a filler comic designed to replace a vacant page usually reserved for advertising space in the Squee! comics. Vasquez said at the 2007 New York Comic Con that the original Fillerbunny comics would be done in a single night and he would rush through and do whatever he could in a small amount of time. The third issue, however, broke this mold. According to the introduction, it took over nine months to complete, and he feels it is of much higher quality than the first two. At Comic-Con 2005, Vasquez mentioned that his next comic was a love story. Since this, however, he attended an event in early 2007 and stated he was not working on his "own" comics – he was collaborating on two comics in the style of Everything Can Be Beaten, acting only as author. The first, titled Jellyfist, was intended for release on July 25, 2007, but the initial print run of Jellyfist was incredibly poor, and so it was re-released in October 2007. In 2009, Vasquez collaborated with other alternative artists in Marvel Comics' Strange Tales, issue 2 of 3, with a story about MODOK. It sold extremely well and all three issues have been collected into a hardcover trade paperback. The next year he returned for Marvel's Strange Tales II, issue 1 of 3, with a story about Wolverine. In 2012, DC Comics announced that Vasquez joined the writing team for their digital comic Beyond the Fringe, based on the Fox TV series Fringe. In May 2014, Vasquez announced on his Tumblr page that he would be re-releasing his previous Fillerbunny comics into a new collection and additionally releasing his first new comic book in ten years. Television At Nickelodeon, Vasquez created the animated television series Invader Zim, which aired on the network and then later on Nicktoons. It focuses on the daily life of Zim, a naïve alien from the planet Irk who tries to conquer Earth and enslave humans, before his attempts are constantly thwarted by a young paranormal investigator Dib, who believes that Zim is an alien but no one believes him. The first episode aired on March 30, 2001. The series lasted for two seasons, before it was cancelled by Nickelodeon, saying that its main causes were low ratings, over-budget production and lack of interest in continuation of the series. The last episode before the show's cancellation, "The Most Horrible X-Mas Ever" (a Christmas special), aired on December 10, 2002. Episodes of the third season and a finale then remained unfinished. Vasquez provided the voices for Zim's computer, Old Kid, Minimoose, and various characters including himself as a background character (being credited as "Mr. Scolex"). Vasquez later returned to Nickelodeon in 2016 to write Invader Zim: Enter the Florpus, a TV movie based on Invader Zim. Vasquez also did character designs for the Disney XD show Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja, as well as wrote for an episode of the online series Bravest Warriors. In July 2014, it was revealed that Disney Television Animation had picked up the pilot Very Important House, co-created by Vasquez and Rick and Morty production designer Jenny Goldberg, who previously collaborated with Vasquez on Jellyfist. However, on September 30, 2016, Vasquez announced on his official blog that Very Important House was ultimately not picked up for a full series. Other work Vasquez collaborated with Crab Scrambly to produce the storybook Everything Can Be Beaten, published by Slave Labor in 2002. Vasquez, credited as Chancre Scolex, wrote the story and Crab Scrambly illustrated it. Everything Can Be Beaten is about a strange person who lives in a room in which he can do nothing but beat kittens. However, an adventure into the outside world changes his perspective, and he discovers that "everything can be beaten". The storybook inspired Urban Squall in 2008 to create the puzzle browser game Bloody Fun Day. Vasquez did the entire artwork for the deluxe edition of the Mindless Self Indulgence album If as well as the digital single "Mastermind". He also directed the music videos for Mindless Self Indulgence's "Shut Me Up" and The Left Rights' "White". Jhonen made the cover art for the album Zero Day by MC Frontalot and also indicated that he shows his artwork in galleries from time to time. He also did an art rendition of BioShock 2 called "The Sisters". He was quoted saying the following about the rendition: He also worked on a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles short called Don Vs Raph, where Donatello and Raphael compete to see who is better, but the two always end up tying. Style Many of the characters in Vasquez's cartoons are usually highly geometric and thin, nearly to the point of being stick figures with heavy black outlines. The protagonists in his comics are typically mentally unstable characters who live in dysfunctional societies, and whose manias are able to speak through inanimate objects. His storylines tend to follow the basic black comedy formula. His art style is very edgy and eccentric, and smiley faces are often found in his artwork, trying to evoke an ironic sense of happiness in a world of chaos and darkness. Vasquez's writing often conveys misanthropic and pessimistic themes, often used for the purposes of parody and satire. Several of his works have featured goth characters or depictions of the goth subculture for the purpose of satire. In an interview on the show The Screen Savers in 2005, Vasquez responded to host Kevin Pereira's comment that fans considered him "a goth king", saying jokingly, "King, yeah, but not goth... I mean, that's arrogant." Bibliography Filmography Awards and nominations Squee! was nominated for 1998 Eisner Awards for Best New Series and Best Humor Publication. I Feel Sick won an International Horror Guild Award in 2000 for Best Illustrated Narrative. Invader Zim'' won an Emmy, an Annie, and the award for Best Title Sequence at the 2001 World Animation Celebration awards. It also garnered seven other nominations. Vasquez and his work were honored in the National Design Triennial: Inside Design Now, a 2003 exhibition at the Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum, Smithsonian Institution. References External links An Interview on SuicideGirls.com Revolution Science Fiction (October 26, 2001): "Death and Morons: The Jhonen Vasquez Story" (online-chat transcript) Jhonen Vasquez Spotlight (2007 New York Comic Con speech Podcast. 54:12m) Downloadable mp3 Interrogation Special with Zoetica Ebb (August 22, 2007) 1974 births Living people American comics artists American comics writers Writers from San Jose, California De Anza College alumni American artists of Mexican descent Slave Labor Graphics Showrunners American music video directors American people of Venezuelan descent American writers of Mexican descent Alternative cartoonists American people of Mexican descent	[ -0.14965760707855225, 0.5016835331916809, 0.09928370267152786, -0.016695694997906685, -0.7224379181861877, 0.22833792865276337, 0.710551917552948, 1.2822647094726562, -0.20688626170158386, -0.19746731221675873, 0.22449825704097748, 0.536634087562561, -0.06667979806661606, 0.33011895418167114, 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253026	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine%20V	Constantine V	Constantine V (; July 718 – 14 September 775 AD) was Byzantine emperor from 741 to 775. His reign saw a consolidation of Byzantine security from external threats. As an able military leader, Constantine took advantage of civil war in the Muslim world to make limited offensives on the Arab frontier. With this eastern frontier secure, he undertook repeated campaigns against the Bulgars in the Balkans. His military activity, and policy of settling Christian populations from the Arab frontier in Thrace, made Byzantium's hold on its Balkan territories more secure. Religious strife and controversy was a prominent feature of his reign. His fervent support of Iconoclasm and opposition to monasticism led to his vilification by later Byzantine historians and writers, who denigrated him as Kopronymos or Copronymus (Κοπρώνυμος), meaning the dung-named. The Byzantine Empire enjoyed a period of increasing internal prosperity during Constantine's reign. He was also responsible for important military and administrative innovations and reforms. Early life Constantine was born in Constantinople, the son and successor of Emperor Leo III and his wife Maria. In August 720, at two years of age, he was associated with his father on the throne, and appointed co-emperor. In Byzantine political theory more than one emperor could share the throne; however, although all were accorded the same ceremonial status, only one emperor wielded ultimate power. As the position of emperor was in theory, and sometimes in practise, elective rather than strictly hereditary, a ruling emperor would often associate a son or other chosen successor with himself as a co-emperor to ensure the eventual succession. To celebrate the coronation of his son, Leo III introduced a new silver coin, the miliaresion; worth a 12th of a gold nomisma, it soon became an integral part of the Byzantine economy. In 726, Constantine's father issued the Ecloga; a revised legal code, it was attributed to both father and son jointly. Constantine married Tzitzak, daughter of the Khazar khagan Bihar, an important Byzantine ally. His new bride was baptized Irene (Eirēnē, "peace") in 732. On his father's death, Constantine succeeded as sole emperor on 18 June 741. Constantine suffered from a chronic medical condition, possibly epilepsy or leprosy; early in his reign this may have been employed by those rebelling against him to question his fitness to be emperor. Reign Rebellion of Artabasdos In June 742, while Constantine was crossing Asia Minor to campaign on the eastern frontier against the Umayyad Caliphate under Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, his brother-in-law Artabasdos, husband of his older sister, Anna, rebelled. Artabasdos was the stratēgos (military governor) of the Opsikion theme (province) and had effective control of the Armeniac theme. Artabasdos struck against Constantine when their respective troops combined for the intended campaign; a trusted member of Constantine's retinue, called Beser, was killed in the attack. Constantine escaped and sought refuge in Amorion, where he was welcomed by the local soldiers, who had been commanded by Leo III before he became emperor. Meanwhile, Artabasdos advanced on Constantinople and, with the support of Theophanes Monutes (Constantine's regent) and Patriarch Anastasius, was acclaimed and crowned emperor. Constantine received the support of the Anatolic and Thracesian themes; Artabasdos secured the support of the theme of Thrace in addition to his own Opsikion and Armeniac soldiers. The rival emperors bided their time making military preparations. Artabasdos marched against Constantine at Sardis in May 743 but was defeated. Three months later Constantine defeated Artabasdos' son Niketas and his Armeniac troops at Modrina and headed for Constantinople. In early November Constantine entered the capital, following a siege and a further battle. He immediately targeted his opponents, having many blinded or executed. Patriarch Anastasius was paraded on the back of an ass around the hippodrome to the jeers of the Constantinopolitan mob, though he was subsequently allowed to stay in office. Artabasdos, having fled the capital, was apprehended at the fortress of Pouzanes in Anatolia, probably located to the south of Nicomedia. Artabasdos and his sons were then publicly blinded and secured in the monastery of Chora on the outskirts of Constantinople. Constantine's support of iconoclasm Like his father Leo III, Constantine supported iconoclasm, which was a theological movement that rejected the veneration of religious images and sought to destroy those in existence. Iconoclasm was later definitively classed as heretical. Constantine's avowed enemies in what was a bitter and long-lived religious dispute were the iconodules, who defended the veneration of images. Iconodule writers applied to Constantine the derogatory epithet Kopronymos ("dung-named", from kopros, meaning "faeces" or "animal dung", and onoma, "name"). Using this obscene name, they spread the rumour that as an infant he had defiled his own baptism by defaecating in the font, or on the imperial purple cloth with which he was swaddled. Constantine questioned the legitimacy of any representation of God or Christ. The church father John Damascene made use of the term 'uncircumscribable' in relation to the depiction of God. Constantine, relying on the linguistic connection between 'uncircumscribed' and 'incapable of being depicted', argued that the uncircumscribable cannot be legitimately depicted in an image. As Christian theology holds that Christ is God, He also cannot be represented in an image. The Emperor was personally active in the theological debate; evidence exists for him composing thirteen treatises, two of which survive in fragmentary form. He also presented his religious views at meetings organised throughout the empire, sending representatives to argue his case. In February 754, Constantine convened a synod at Hieria, which was attended entirely by iconoclast bishops. The council agreed with Constantine's religious policy on images, declaring them anathema, and it secured the election of a new iconoclast patriarch. However, it refused to endorse all of Constantine's policies, which were influenced by the more extremist iconoclasts and were critical of the veneration of Mary, mother of Jesus, and of the saints. The council confirmed the status of Mary as Theotokos (), or 'Mother of God', upheld the use of the terms "saint" and "holy" as legitimate, and condemned the desecration, burning, or looting of churches in the quest to suppress icon veneration. The synod of Hieria was followed by a campaign to remove images from the walls of churches and to purge the court and bureaucracy of iconodules. Since monasteries tended to be strongholds of iconophile sentiment and contributed little or nothing towards the secular needs of the state, Constantine specifically targeted these communities. He also expropriated monastic property for the benefit of the state or the army. These acts of repression against the monks were largely led by the Emperor's general Michael Lachanodrakon, who threatened resistant monks with blinding and exile. In the hippodrome he organised the pairing of numerous monks and nuns in forced marriage, publicly ridiculing their vows of chastity. An iconodule abbot, Stephen Neos, was beaten to death by a mob at the behest of the authorities. As a result of persecution, many monks fled to southern Italy and Sicily. The implacable resistance of iconodule monks and their supporters led to their propaganda reaching those close to the Emperor. On becoming aware of an iconodule influenced conspiracy directed at himself, Constantine reacted uncompromisingly; in 765, eighteen high dignitaries were paraded in the hippodrome charged with treason, they were variously executed, blinded or exiled. Patriarch Constantine II of Constantinople was implicated and deposed from office, and the following year he was tortured and beheaded. By the end of Constantine's reign, iconoclasm had gone as far as to brand relics and prayers to the saints as heretical, or at least highly questionable. However, the extent of coherent official campaigns to forcibly destroy or cover up religious images or the existence of widespread government-sanctioned destruction of relics has been questioned by more recent scholarship. There is no evidence, for example, that Constantine formally banned the cult of saints. Pre-iconoclastic religious images did survive, and various existing accounts record that icons were preserved by being hidden. In general, the culture of pictorial religious representation appears to have survived the iconoclast period largely intact. The extent and severity of iconoclastic destruction of images and relics was exaggerated in later iconodule writings. Iconodules considered Constantine's death a divine punishment. In the 9th century, following the ultimate triumph of the iconodules, Constantine's remains were removed from the imperial sepulchre in the Church of the Holy Apostles. Domestic policies and administration Assiduous in courting popularity, Constantine consciously employed the hippodrome, scene of the ever-popular chariot races, to influence the populace of Constantinople. In this he made use of the 'circus factions', which controlled the competing teams of charioteers and their supporters, had widespread social influence, and could mobilise large numbers of the citizenry. The hippodrome became the setting of rituals of humiliation for war captives and political enemies, in which the mob took delight. Constantine's sources of support were the people and the army, and he used them against his iconodule opponents in the monasteries and in the bureaucracy of the capital. Iconoclasm was not purely an imperial religious conviction, it also had considerable popular support: some of Constantine's actions against the iconodules may have been motivated by a desire to retain the approval of the people and the army. The monasteries were exempt from taxation and monks from service in the army; the Emperor's antipathy towards them may have derived to a greater extent from secular, fiscal and manpower, considerations than from a reaction to their theology. Constantine carried forward the administrative and fiscal reforms initiated by his father Leo III. The military governors (, strategoi) were powerful figures, whose access to the resources of their extensive provinces often provided the means of rebellion. The Opsikion theme had been the power-base that enabled the rebellion of Artabasdos, and was also the theme situated nearest to the capital within Asia Minor. Constantine reduced the size of this theme, dividing from it the Bucellarian and, perhaps, the Optimaton themes. In those provinces closest to the seat of government this measure increased the number of strategoi and diminished the resources available to any single one, making rebellion less easy to accomplish. Constantine was responsible for the creation of a small central army of fully professional soldiers, the imperial tagmata (literally: 'the regiments'). He achieved this by training for serious warfare a corps of largely ceremonial guards units that were attached to the imperial palace, and expanding their numbers. This force was designed to form the core of field armies and was composed of better-drilled, better-paid, and better-equipped soldiers than were found in the provincial themata units, whose troops were part-time soldier-farmers. Before their expansion, the vestigial Scholae and the other guards units presumably contained few useful soldiers, therefore Constantine must have incorporated former thematic soldiers into his new formation. Being largely based at or near the capital, the tagmata were under the immediate control of the Emperor and were free of the regional loyalties that had been behind so many military rebellions. The fiscal administration of Constantine was highly competent. This drew from his enemies accusations of being a merciless and rapacious extractor of taxes and an oppressor of the rural population. However, the empire was prosperous and Constantine left a very well-stocked treasury for his successor. The area of cultivated land within the Empire was extended and food became cheaper; between 718 and c. 800 the corn (wheat) production of Thrace trebled. Constantine's court was opulent, with splendid buildings, and he consciously promoted the patronage of secular art to replace the religious art that he removed. Constantine constructed a number of notable buildings in the Great Palace of Constantinople, including the Church of the Virgin of the Pharos and the porphyra. The porphyra was a chamber lined with porphyry, a stone of imperial purple colour. In it expectant empresses underwent the final stages of labour and it was the birthplace of the children of reigning emperors. Constantine's son Leo was the first child born here, and thereby obtained the title porphyrogénnētos (born in the purple) the ultimate accolade of legitimacy for an imperial prince or princess. The concept of a 'purple birth' predated the construction of the chamber, but it gained a literal aspect from the chamber's existence. The porphyry was reputed to have come from Rome and represented a direct link to the ancient origins of Byzantine imperial authority. Constantine also rebuilt the prominent church of Hagia Eirene in Constantinople, which had been badly damaged by the earthquake that hit Constantinople in 740. The building preserves rare examples of iconoclastic church decoration. With the impetus of having fathered numerous offspring, Constantine codified the court titles given to members of the imperial family. He associated only his eldest son, Leo, with the throne as co-emperor, but gave his younger sons the titles of caesar for the more senior in age and nobelissimos for the more junior. Campaigns against the Arabs In 746, profiting by the unstable conditions in the Umayyad Caliphate, which was falling apart under Marwan II, Constantine invaded Syria and captured Germanikeia (modern Marash, his father's birthplace), and he recaptured the island of Cyprus. He organised the resettlement of part of the local Christian population to imperial territory in Thrace, strengthening the empire's control of this region. In 747 his fleet destroyed the Arab fleet off Cyprus. The same year saw a serious outbreak of plague in Constantinople, which caused a pause in Byzantine military operations. Constantine retired to Bithynia to avoid the disease and, after it had run its course, resettled people from mainland Greece and the Aegean islands in Constantinople to replace those who had perished. In 751 he led an invasion into the new Abbasid Caliphate under As-Saffah. Constantine captured Theodosiopolis (Erzurum) and Melitene (Malatya), which he demolished, and again resettled some of the population in the Balkans. The eastern campaigns failed to secure concrete territorial gains, as there was no serious attempt to retain control of the captured cities, except Camachum (modern Kemah, Erzincan), which was garrisoned. However, under Constantine the Empire had gone on the offensive against the Arabs after over a century of largely defensive warfare. Constantine's major goal in his eastern campaigns seems to have been to forcibly gather up local Christian populations from beyond his borders in order to resettle Thrace. Additionally, the deliberate depopulation of the region beyond the eastern borders created a no-man's land where the concentration and provisioning of Arab armies was made more difficult. This in turn increased the security of Byzantine Anatolia. His military reputation was such that, in 757, the mere rumour of his presence caused an Arab army to retreat. In the same year he agreed a truce and an exchange of prisoners with the Arabs, freeing his army for offensive campaigning in the Balkans. Events in Italy With Constantine militarily occupied elsewhere, and the continuance of imperial influence in the West being given a low priority, the Lombard king Aistulf captured Ravenna in 755, ending over two centuries of Byzantine rule in central Italy. The lack of interest Constantine showed in Italian affairs had profound and lasting consequences. Pope Stephen II, seeking protection from the aggression of the Lombards, appealed in person to the Frankish king Pepin the Short. Pepin cowed Aistulf and restored Stephen to Rome at the head of an army. This began the Frankish involvement in Italy that eventually established Pepin's son Charlemagne as Roman Emperor in the West, and also instigated papal temporal rule in Italy with the creation of the Papal States. Constantine sent a number of unsuccessful embassies to the Lombards, Franks and the papacy to demand the restoration of Ravenna, but never attempted a military reconquest or intervention. Repeated campaigns against the Bulgarians The successes in the east made it possible to then pursue an aggressive policy in the Balkans. Constantine aimed to enhance the prosperity and defence of Thrace by the resettlement there of Christian populations transplanted from the east. This influx of settlers, allied to an active re-fortification of the border, caused concern to the Empire's northern neighbour, Bulgaria, leading the two states to clash in 755. Kormisosh of Bulgaria raided as far as the Anastasian Wall (the outermost defence of the approaches to Constantinople) but was defeated in battle by Constantine, who inaugurated a series of nine successful campaigns against the Bulgarians in the next year, scoring a victory over Kormisosh's successor Vinekh at Marcellae. In 759, Constantine was defeated in the Battle of the Rishki Pass, but the Bulgarians were not able exploit their success. Constantine campaigned against the Slav tribes of Thrace and Macedonia in 762, deporting some tribes to the Opsician theme in Anatolia, though some voluntarily requested relocation away from the troubled Bulgarian border region. A contemporary Byzantine source reported that 208,000 Slavs emigrated from Bulgarian controlled areas into Byzantine territory and were settled in Anatolia. A year later he sailed to Anchialus with 800 ships carrying 9,600 cavalry and some infantry, gaining a victory over Khan Telets. Many Bulgar nobles were captured in the battle, and were later slaughtered outside the Golden Gate of Constantinople by the circus factions. Telets was assassinated in the aftermath of his defeat. In 765 the Byzantines again successfully invaded Bulgaria, during this campaign both Constantine's candidate for the Bulgarian throne, Toktu, and his opponent, Pagan, were killed. Pagan was killed by his own slaves when he sought to evade his Bulgarian enemies by fleeing to Varna, where he wished to defect to the emperor. The cumulative effect of Constantine's repeated offensive campaigns and numerous victories caused considerable instability in Bulgaria, where six monarchs lost their crowns due to their failures in war against Byzantium. In 775, the Bulgarian ruler Telerig contacted Constantine to ask for sanctuary, saying that he feared that he would have to flee Bulgaria. Telerig enquired as to whom he could trust within Bulgaria, and Constantine foolishly revealed the identities of his agents in the country. The named Byzantine agents were then promptly eliminated. In response, Constantine set out on a new campaign against the Bulgarians, during which he developed carbuncles on his legs. He died during his return journey to Constantinople, on 14 September 775. Though Constantine was unable to destroy the Bulgar state, or impose a lasting peace, he restored imperial prestige in the Balkans. Assessment and legacy Constantine V was a highly capable ruler, continuing the reformsfiscal, administrative and militaryof his father. He was also a successful general, not only consolidating the empire's borders, but actively campaigning beyond those borders, both east and west. At the end of his reign the empire had strong finances, a capable army that was proud of its successes and a church that appeared to be subservient to the political establishment. In concentrating on the security of the empire's core territories he tacitly abandoned some peripheral regions, notably in Italy, which were lost. However, the hostile reaction of the Roman Church and the Italian people to iconoclasm had probably doomed imperial influence in central Italy, regardless of any possible military intervention. Due to his espousal of iconoclasm Constantine was damned in the eyes of contemporary iconodule writers and subsequent generations of Orthodox historians. Typical of this demonisation are the descriptions of Constantine in the writings of Theophanes the Confessor: "a monster athirst for blood", "a ferocious beast", "unclean and bloodstained magician taking pleasure in evoking demons", "a precursor of Antichrist". However, to his army and people he was "the victorious and prophetic Emperor". Following a disastrous defeat of the Byzantines by the Bulgarian Khan Krum in 811 at the Battle of Pliska, troops of the tagmata broke into Constantine's tomb and implored the dead emperor to lead them once more. The life and actions of Constantine, if freed from the distortion caused by the adulation of his soldiers and the demonisation of iconodule writers, show that he was an effective administrator and gifted general, but he was also autocratic, uncompromising and sometimes needlessly harsh. All surviving contemporary and later Byzantine histories covering the reign of Constantine were written by iconodules. As a result of this, they are open to suspicion of bias and inaccuracy, particularly when attributing motives to the Emperor, his supporters and opponents. This makes any claims of absolute certainty regarding Constantine's policies and the extent of his repression of iconodules unreliable. In particular, a manuscript written in north-eastern Anatolia concerning miracles attributed to St. Theodore is one of few probably written during or just after the reign of Constantine to survive in its original form; it contains little of the extreme invective common to later iconodule writings. In contrast, the author indicates that iconodules had to make accommodations with imperial iconoclastic policies, and even bestows on Constantine V the conventional religious acclamations: 'Guarded by God' () and 'Christ-loving emperor' (). Family By his first wife, Tzitzak ("Irene of Khazaria"), Constantine V had one son: Leo IV, who succeeded as emperor. By his second wife, Maria, Constantine V is not known to have had children. By his third wife, Eudokia, Constantine V had five sons and a daughter: Christopher, Caesar (title) Nikephoros, Caesar Niketas, Nobelissimos (title) Eudokimos, Nobelissimos Anthimos, Nobelissimos Anthousa (an iconodule, after her father's death she became a nun, she was later venerated as Saint Anthousa the Younger See also List of Byzantine emperors References Sources Angold, M. (2012) Byzantium: The Bridge from Antiquity to the Middle Ages, Hachette UK, London Barnard, L. (1977) "The Theology of Images", in Iconoclasm, Bryer, A. and Herrin, J. (eds.), Centre for Byzantine Studies University of Birmingham, Birmingham, pp. 7–13 Bonner, M.D. (2004) Arab-Byzantine Relations in Early Islamic Times, Ashgate/Variorum, Farnham Brubaker, L. and Haldon, J. (2011) Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, C. 680–850: A History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Bury, J.B. (1923) The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 4: The Eastern Roman Empire, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Constas, N. 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External links 8th-century Byzantine emperors Isaurian dynasty Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars 718 births 775 deaths Byzantine Iconoclasm 740s in the Byzantine Empire 750s in the Byzantine Empire 760s in the Byzantine Empire 770s in the Byzantine Empire Leo III the Isaurian Sons of Byzantine emperors	[ -0.4003126323223114, 0.12505248188972473, -0.3745846748352051, 0.28326743841171265, -0.5715107917785645, 0.5886546969413757, 0.5841484069824219, 0.033256519585847855, -0.3396647572517395, -0.15016931295394897, -0.07815041393041611, 0.005700242705643177, -0.9928680658340454, -0.13035325706005096, -0.19925272464752197, 0.22934602200984955, -0.11192185431718826, 0.19276711344718933, -0.40758952498435974, -0.42930907011032104, 0.041456207633018494, 0.31313490867614746, 0.1057935282588005, -0.09103936702013016, -0.46140679717063904, 0.2581535875797272, 0.2428024709224701, -0.1263403296470642, -0.3943703770637512, 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253030	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards	1998 Governor General's Awards	The winners of the 1998 Governor General's Literary Awards were announced by Jean-Louis Roux, Chairman, and Shirley L. Thomson, Director of the Canada Council for the Arts on November 17 in Ottawa. Each winner received a cheque for $10,000. English-language finalists Fiction Diane Schoemperlen, Forms of Devotion Lynn Coady, Strange Heaven Barbara Gowdy, The White Bone Wayne Johnston, The Colony of Unrequited Dreams Kerri Sakamoto, The Electrical Field Poetry Stephanie Bolster, White Stone: The Alice Poems Louise Bernice Halfe, Blue Marrow Michael Ondaatje, Handwriting Lisa Robertson, Debbie: An Epic Kathy Shaidle, Lobotomy Magnificat Drama Djanet Sears, Harlem Duet Bruce McManus, Selkirk Avenue Richard Sanger, Not Spain Sandra Shamas, Sandra Shamas: A Trilogy of Performances David Young, Inexpressible Island Non-fiction David Adams Richards, Lines on the Water: A Fisherman's Life on the Miramichi Wayne Grady, The Quiet Limit of the World: A Journey to the North Pole to Investigate Global Warming Charlotte Gray, Mrs. King: The Life and Times of Isabel Mackenzie King Judy Schultz, Mamie's Children: Three Generations of Prairie Women Rudy Wiebe and Yvonne Johnson, Stolen Life: The Journey of a Cree Woman Children's literature (text) Janet Lunn, The Hollow Tree Gayle Friesen, Janey's Girl Julie Johnston, The Only Outcast Janet McNaughton, Make or Break Spring Sarah Withrow, Bat Summer Children's literature (illustration) Kady MacDonald Denton, A Child's Treasury of Nursery Rhymes Victor Bosson, The Fox's Kettle Harvey Chan, Music for the Tsar of the Sea Zhong-Yang Huang, The Great Race Stéphane Jorisch, The Village of a Hundred Smiles and Other Stories Translation (from French to English) Sheila Fischman, Bambi and Me Arnold Bennett, Voltaire's Man in America David Homel, The Second Fiddle Daniel Sloate, Aknos and Other Poems French-language finalists Fiction Christiane Frenette, La Terre ferme Marie-Célie Agnant, Le Silence comme le sang Madeleine Gagnon, Le Deuil du soleil Nancy Huston, L'Empreinte de l'ange Pierre Samson, Un garçon de compagnie Poetry Suzanne Jacob, La Part de feu preceded by Le Deuil de la rancune Hugues Corriveau, Le Livre du frère Hélène Dorion, Les Murs de la grotte Christine Richard, L'Eau des oiseaux Michel van Schendel, Bitumes Drama François Archambault, 15 secondes Serge Boucher, Motel Hélène Olivier Choinière, Le Bain des raines Carole Fréchette, La Peau d'Élisa Suzanne Lebeau, L'Ogrelet Non-fiction Pierre Nepveu, Intérieurs du Nouveau Monde : Essais sur les littératures du Québec et des Amériques Chantal Bouchard, La Langue et le Nombril : Histoire d'une obsession québécoise Marcel Olscamp, Le Fils du notaire Jacques Ferron 1921-1949 : Genèse intellectuelle d'un écrivain Régine Robin, Le Golem de l'écriture : De l'autofiction au Cybersoi Patricia Smart, Les Femmes du Refus global Children's literature (text) Angèle Delaunois, Variations sur un même «t'aime» Guy Dessureault, Lettre de Chine Daniel Mativat, Terreur sur la Windigo Danielle Rochette, La Fugue d'Antoine Hélène Vachon, Le Cinéma de Somerset Children's literature (illustration) Pierre Pratt, Monsieur Ilétaitunefois Stéphane Poulin, Petit zizi Alain Reno, Un tartare pour le bonhomme Sept Heures Yayo, Le Chasseur d'arc-en-ciel English-to-French translation Charlotte Melançon, Les Sources du moi : La Formation de l'identité moderne Paule Noyart, Leonard Cohen : Le Canadien errant Hélène Rioux, Self Governor General's Awards Governor General's Awards Governor General's Awards	[ -0.7630426287651062, 0.6356912851333618, -0.07442043721675873, 0.4159540832042694, -0.9818224906921387, 0.16944454610347748, 0.6667906641960144, 0.6179695725440979, -0.16474346816539764, -0.515724778175354, -0.3293406367301941, 0.5092511773109436, 0.209600031375885, -0.21529240906238556, 0.0680539608001709, 0.4937919080257416, 0.07309556752443314, 0.192276731133461, -0.425902396440506, -0.5143453478813171, -0.22600972652435303, -0.10363773256540298, 0.356460839509964, 0.22140920162200928, 0.2614448070526123, 0.7102104425430298, 0.3666815161705017, -0.38766664266586304, 0.026884857565164566, 0.19942393898963928, -0.24022169411182404, 0.715644896030426, -0.037668999284505844, 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253031	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie%20Santiago	Eddie Santiago	Eddie Santiago (born Eduardo Santiago Rodríguez, August 18, 1955) is a salsa singer from Puerto Rico. Early years At a young age, Santiago demonstrated great love for salsa music. He performed with several groups, including Generación 2000, Orquesta La Potente, Orquesta Opus, and the Orquesta Saragüey. Musical career Santiago's career took off in 1986 in Puerto Rico and the rest of Latin America as a soloist, forming his own band, and recording songs including: "Tú me quemas" ("You Burn Me"), "Qué Locura Enamorarme de Ti" ("What Madness To Fall in Love With You"), "Me Fallaste" ("You Failed Me"), Antidoto y Veneno ("Antidote and Venom"), "Tu Me Haces Falta" ("I Miss You"), his best known hit "Lluvia" ("Rain", not to be confused with Menudo's hit of the same name), and many others. His fame eventually spread to Europe and the United States, making him one of the most popular salsa singers in the late 1980s and early 1990s. He was one of the main singers of "salsa romántica" ("romantic salsa"). His first major recording on an international label was with Sony Music in 1999. He also recorded for the TH, EMI Latin, and Polygram labels, including the well regarded production inspired by the music of Rafael Hernández, entitled Enamorado. In 1999, he released Celebration: Epic Duets. He was joined on that album by other stars in the Latin music scene, Víctor Manuelle, Huey Dunbar and Elvis Crespo. The album was named one of the best recordings of 1999 by the National Foundation for Popular Culture. Santiago has earned both gold and platinum records, along with other awards. 2004 to present In 2004, Eddie Santiago announced a return to commercial music, with his new CD, Despues del Silencio (After the Silence), a title that alludes to the long period since his previous CD was released. He was nominated for the Salsa/Merengue Album of the Year in the 2006 Grammy Awards. His song "Black is Black" was included on the Nacho Libre movie soundtrack. Discography 1986 - Atrevido y Diferente 1987 - Sigo Atrevido 1988 - Invasión de la Privacidad 1989 - New Wave Salsa 1990 - El Rey de la Salsa Romántica 1991 - Soy el Mismo 1993 - Intensamente 1993 - Cada Vez, Otra Vez 1995 - Eddie Santiago 1996 - De Vuelta a Casa 1997 - Enamorado 1999 - Celebracion: Epic Duets 2001 - Ahora 2004 - Interpreta los Grandes Éxitos de Luis Ángel 2004 - Después del Silencio 2006 - En Su Estilo... Romántico y Sensual Charts Albums Singles See also List of Puerto Ricans Notes References External links Official MySpace page Official IMDb page 1955 births Living people People from Toa Alta, Puerto Rico 20th-century Puerto Rican male singers 21st-century Puerto Rican male singers Salsa musicians Rodven Records artists	[ -0.19389325380325317, -0.010064303874969482, -0.06647089123725891, 0.18794475495815277, -0.00038704538019374013, -0.07751206308603287, 0.1103329136967659, 0.5316894054412842, -0.4660748243331909, 0.24915167689323425, 0.40936926007270813, 0.509832501411438, -0.33828210830688477, -0.19125446677207947, -0.5590376853942871, 0.3349192440509796, 0.7260928750038147, 0.5638745427131653, -0.751497209072113, -0.6519287824630737, -0.6527807712554932, -0.5046459436416626, -0.17774724960327148, 0.24314609169960022, -0.32918334007263184, 0.1876712441444397, -0.8751669526100159, 0.1251431107521057, -0.08367415517568588, -0.17976725101470947, 0.48275646567344666, 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253035	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comair	Comair	Comair was the world's largest regional airline, a wholly owned subsidiary airline of Delta Air Lines, headquartered on the grounds of Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport in Boone County, Kentucky, United States, west of Erlanger, and south of Cincinnati. Operating under the brand name Delta Connection, Comair operated passenger services to destinations in the USA, Canada, Mexico and the Bahamas. Comair and Delta Air Lines announced on July 27, 2012, that Comair would cease operations on September 29, 2012. History The airline was established in March 1977, and started operations in April 1977. Patrick J. Sowers, Robert T. Tranter, David Mueller and his father Raymond founded the airline in Cincinnati. At the end of its first year of highly profitable operations, two of the company founders, Sowers and Tranter, abruptly resigned the day following the first annual meeting as a "demand for immediate change" after they had uncovered repeated unacceptable and unsafe operational practices by one of the other partners. Comair suffered a fatal crash the year following their departure. Comair began scheduled services to Akron/Canton, Cleveland, and Evansville with two Piper Navajo aircraft. Embraer EMB-110 Bandeirante twin-engine turboprop commuter aircraft were added to Comair's fleet in 1982. Under its parent Comair Holdings, it became a public company in July 1981. In 1984, Comair became a Delta Connection carrier with Delta Air Lines' establishment of a hub at Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport (CVG). That same year, Comair introduced its first international flights from Cincinnati to Toronto. Turboprop aircraft operated by Comair on Delta Connection code sharing flights serving the Cincinnati hub included the Embraer EMB-110 Bandeirante, Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia, Saab 340, Short 330 and Swearingen Metro. In July 1986 Delta Air Lines acquired 20% of Comair stock. The airline began operating a second hub at Orlando International Airport (MCO) during the late 1980s in support of the Delta hub at the airport. In 1992, Comair moved into Concourse C at CVG, as Delta Air Lines gradually continued to acquire more of the airlines stock. In 1993, Comair was the launch customer for the Canadair Regional Jet CRJ100 and would later operate the largest fleet in the world of this twin jet type. By 1999, Comair was the largest regional airline in the country worth over 2 billion, transporting 6 million passengers yearly to 83 destinations on 101 aircraft. That same year, in addition to shorter range flights from its Cincinnati and Orlando hubs, Comair as the Delta Connection was operating nonstop flights between Cincinnati and Nassau, Bahamas, nonstop between Cincinnati and Colorado Springs, nonstop between Boston and Myrtle Beach, nonstop between Boston and Montreal, and also nonstop between Tulsa and Las Vegas with the latter being the westernmost destination ever served by the airline. Delta Air Lines acquired full ownership on October 22, 1999 at a cost of over $2 billion. Pilot's strike On March 26, 2001, Comair's pilots went on strike. The strike cancelled the airline's flights and grounded its fleet. The strike ended 89 days later when a new contract was agreed to. However, there were seeds sown of a bitter animosity between the Delta pilot group and Comair. During the labor dispute in early 2001, there were some Delta pilots who contributed financially to the strike funds of Comair pilots. Like many legacy carriers, Delta furloughed a number of pilots after the September 11 attacks in 2001. While waiting to be recalled, some Delta pilots were able to find work at some of the regionals such as Atlantic Southeast Airlines, who were not hit nearly as hard as the major airlines. However, a furloughed Delta pilot could only be hired at Comair if he/she resigns his/her seniority number with Delta Air Lines and thus, there were very few furloughed Delta pilots who went to Comair. This would intensify a rift between both parties. Comair came to nationwide attention during winter 2004 when it canceled all of its flights on Saturday, December 25 and Sunday, December 26, stranding 30,000 people. The reason was a combination of record snow and a crew scheduling software flaw. On December 23 and 24, a record snowfall hit the Cincinnati area, forcing the airline to deplete its entire supply of deicing solution. With the area highways closed due to the blizzard, no additional deicing fluid could be delivered to the airport, and Comair was forced to cancel all flights beginning on Friday December 24. After receiving necessary supplies overnight, the airline began the process of startup when the computer system that handled flight crew assignments shut down. It had been designed with a hard coded limit of changes for a month, which were far exceeded due to the poor weather in the prior days. The software had been in the process of being phased out at the airline in favor of a new system with more capabilities. Comair's parent company Delta Air Lines filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on September 14, 2005, bringing Comair into bankruptcy along with it. Comair announced that would cut costs by million dollars annually. These savings were achieved by aircraft, flight, and employee reductions. In late 2006, Comair opened an additional crew base and hub at New York City's JFK Airport. Comair had the lowest percentage of on-time flights of all major U.S. carriers during late 2006. This was the result of starting operations at JFK, a congested airport with poor staffing and an unfortunate terminal and aircraft ramp layout that severely dropped Comair's ratings in the DOT listings. In 2008, Comair tied with American for the lowest on-time performance, with 70% of its flights arriving on-time. During the course of 2007, Comair closed down its crew bases in Greensboro, North Carolina and Orlando, Florida. On May 25, 2007, Delta announced that Comair would operate 14 stretched CRJ900 aircraft for Delta Connection. These aircraft were to replace 14 smaller CRJ100 aircraft in Comair's fleet. Parent company Delta Air Lines replaced Comair's service in these destinations with Atlantic Southeast Airlines, a subsidiary of SkyWest, Inc., and Chautauqua Airlines, a subsidiary of Republic Airways Holdings. In early 2008, Delta announced it was going to reduce its domestic capacity by 4-5%, in which Comair would reduce its 50-seat Canadair Regional Jet fleet by 8-14 aircraft. In March 2008, when the price of oil rose, Delta announced it would further reduce domestic capacity. On February 10, 2009, Delta Connection announced that ground handling and gate service positions for Comair, Mesaba Airlines, and Compass Airlines would be transitioned to a new Delta Air Lines subsidiary. The interim name of the new company was Regional Handling Services until a new name was confirmed before September. Each airline maintained its own flying operations. Services including ticketing and baggage handling were to be handled by RHS beginning in the 3rd Quarter of 2009. There was to be a reduction in the workforce. The largest cut was to come from Comair which was to reduce its staffing by nearly half. A voluntary termination was introduced and involuntary cuts were possible later in the year as Delta mainline ground employees took over positions of Delta subsidiary ground employees that had been contracted to Comair and then Regional Elite Airline Services. On September 1, 2010 Comair announced that it would reduce its fleet by eliminating all of its aging Bombardier CRJ100/200 aircraft, expecting to have retired them all sometime in 2012. Retirement would start in 2011. Also, it expected to operate a fleet of 44 aircraft, and planned to reduce its workforce. Layoffs were to begin after September 2010, furloughing the pilot group to around 500 pilots (down to a 1999 date of hire). The company's fleet was to consist of only CRJ700 and CRJ900 aircraft. In July 2012, Delta announced that it would be shutting down Comair. The last Comair flight flew from Jacksonville International Airport to Minneapolis/Saint Paul International Airport on 29 September 2012, ending more than three decades of operation. Destinations Comair operated passenger services to 83 destinations in the USA, Canada, Mexico and the Bahamas at its peak in 2005. Fleet Before its downsizing, with over 170 planes. At the time of closure, the Comair fleet consisted of just seven aircraft with an average age of 11.1 years, all of which were operated on Delta Connection services: Historical regional jet fleet Historical prop and turboprop fleet Embraer EMB-110 Bandeirante Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia Piper Navajo Saab 340 Short 330 Swearingen Metro Headquarters Comair was headquartered in the Comair General Office Building on the grounds of Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky International Airport in unincorporated Boone County, Kentucky, United States, west of Erlanger, and south of Cincinnati, Ohio. As the airline ended operations, up to 30 employees were to remain working at the headquarters. 77 Comair Boulevard formerly served as the corporate headquarters of Comair. The building is on South Airfield Road. In 2010, after the airline began downsizing, it considered leaving the building and moving to another location near the airport. A spokesperson did not disclose how much office space the airline occupied; she said it was planning to reduce its space by 20 to 25 percent. In early 2011, Comair vacated the building. Amazon Air began leasing space in the building in 2018. Incidents and accidents On October 8, 1979, Comair Flight 444 en route to Nashville, TN, a Piper PA-31 Navajo light aircraft, crashed shortly after takeoff from Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky International Airport. All eight people aboard were killed. The NTSB determined the probable cause of the accident was a partial loss of power immediately after liftoff. The pilot failed to take immediate corrective action, such as rejecting the takeoff or raising landing gear and flaps. Contributing factors were the pilot's inexperience with multi-engine aircraft, a hurried departure, inadequate training, inexperienced company management, and ineffective FAA certification and surveillance of the operator. On January 9, 1997, Comair Flight 3272, an Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, crashed while on approach into Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport. All 29 aboard were killed. On August 27, 2006, Comair Flight 5191, a Bombardier CRJ-100ER, crashed while taking off from Lexington's Blue Grass Airport. 49 of the 50 on board, including all 47 passengers, were killed. See also List of defunct airlines of the United States References External links Delta Air Lines Defunct airlines of the United States Defunct regional airlines of the United States Airlines established in 1977 Airlines disestablished in 2012 Regional Airline Association members Former SkyTeam affiliate members Companies based in Kentucky Boone County, Kentucky Delta Air Lines Airlines based in Kentucky Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2005	[ -0.2821904420852661, -0.15307341516017914, 0.6126192808151245, 0.09198210388422012, 0.16232214868068695, 0.46329984068870544, 0.07840137183666229, 0.2188185453414917, 0.1425246298313141, -0.16745343804359436, -0.3518754243850708, -0.020039239898324013, -0.42375096678733826, 0.5462688207626343, 0.06589188426733017, 0.02524581179022789, -0.22628985345363617, 0.5265865325927734, 0.04141060262918472, -0.5348517298698425, -0.40291523933410645, 0.09769058227539062, 0.4038134217262268, 0.21267592906951904, 0.16407202184200287, 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253036	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs.%20Puff	Mrs. Puff	Mrs. Puff is a fictional character in the Nickelodeon animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants and all three films based on the franchise. Voiced by Mary Jo Catlett, Mrs. Puff debuted in the season one episode "Boating School" on August 7, 1999. Mrs. Puff was created and designed by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg. He developed the character in response to a request from Nickelodeon that the show star a schoolteacher. Hillenburg did not want to write SpongeBob SquarePants as a school-age child, so Mrs. Puff was introduced as his driving instructor instead of an elementary school teacher. Mrs. Puff is SpongeBob's paranoid driving teacher and the owner of the town boating school, which is similar to a driver's education facility. She would like nothing more than to pass SpongeBob, as he is her most dedicated and hard-working student, but he routinely panics when he tries to drive a boat and fails every driving test he takes. His failures often result in crashes that lead to mass destruction and endanger Mrs. Puff. While she tries her best to be friendly and patient with her students, Mrs. Puff finds SpongeBob's unintentional recklessness exasperating. She is the long-standing love interest and girlfriend of Mr. Krabs. The character has received a positive critical reception and has become well known in popular culture for her distinctive voice and temperamental personality. Catlett received an Annie Award nomination in 2001 for her voice-over work as Mrs. Puff along with Tom Kenny as the title character, making them the first SpongeBob cast members to be nominated for an award. Mrs. Puff is featured regularly in a variety of merchandise, such as plush toys and video games, and has appeared at theme parks and in Toyota commercials. Role in SpongeBob SquarePants Mrs. Puff is an anthropomorphic pufferfish, specifically a porcupinefish, who owns the underwater boating school that SpongeBob attends. Despite her efforts, she has been unsuccessful at teaching SpongeBob how to drive a boat. He is her most committed student, and knows the answer to every question on the oral exam, but panics every time he takes the driving part of her course. He often crashes her vehicles and causes town wide destruction in the process. Mrs. Puff displays the pufferfish's inflation defense mechanism when she is scared or when SpongeBob crashes, akin to a car's airbag deploying. Mrs. Puff's friendliness toward other characters varies. She sympathizes with the short-tempered Squidward Tentacles, and considers him to be the prime example of an outstandingly good driver. Patrick, who has attended Mrs. Puff's class multiple times, is treated with respect by her in spite of his slow-wittedness. Of all the residents of Bikini Bottom, she is closest to SpongeBob. While she normally dreads having to drive with SpongeBob, she often acts as a motherly figure towards him. A running gag in the series is Mrs. Puff's extensive criminal record. As a result of SpongeBob's reckless driving, he regularly lands Mrs. Puff in jail since she assumes responsibility for his actions. This gag is introduced in "Hall Monitor", when Mrs. Puff is held responsible after SpongeBob inadvertently destroys Bikini Bottom. In "Doing Time", SpongeBob and Patrick attempt to break her out of prison to no avail. It is revealed that she prefers prison to working as a teacher because she does not have to drive with SpongeBob. In "No Free Rides", it is implied that Mrs. Puff once had to move to a new town and start a new school with a new name. Mrs. Puff was married to another pufferfish named Mr. Puff in the past, but he was captured by humans and turned into a novelty lamp. Since then, she and Mr. Krabs have pursued a romantic relationship and gone on many dates together. As of the show's tenth season, Mrs. Puff and Mr. Krabs have been dating for sixteen years. Krabs' love for her is so strong that it temporarily transcends his greed for money; she is one of only two characters, the other being his daughter Pearl, who he cares for more than his riches. He gives her a variety of pet names in the series and in spin-off media. In his review of the third season, Bryan Pope of DVD Verdict examined the two characters' relationship and mistook Mrs. Puff for Krabs' wife. Character Creation and design Mrs. Puff was conceived and designed by series creator Stephen Hillenburg. She was the last of the principal SpongeBob characters to be designed, having not been conceptualized until after Hillenburg had completed his show bible. The June 2003 issue of Nickelodeon Magazine states that when Hillenburg pitched SpongeBob to Nickelodeon, he "had yet to come up with the idea that Mrs. Puff and SpongeBob would be on an endless quest to get SpongeBob a driver's license". Thus, some early development artwork for the show depicted SpongeBob driving a submarine-esque vehicle with ease. Mrs. Puff's development originated with a request by Nickelodeon that SpongeBob attend a school. Nickelodeon initially wanted to make SpongeBob a child since their most successful cartoons at the time focused on young, school-age characters. Hillenburg stated that the network wanted SpongeBob to be like "Arnold [from Hey Arnold!] under the sea," but he told them, "No, that's not the show." As a compromise, Hillenburg decided to "put him in school - but it would be a [boat] driving school"; this allowed him to keep writing SpongeBob as an adult while also using the school as a main plot element. Showrunner Vincent Waller suggested that if the network had creative control over the show, almost every episode would take place at Mrs. Puff's school, not at a variety of locations. The choice to make Mrs. Puff a pufferfish, who inflates into a ball when SpongeBob crashes, was made to evoke the appearance of car airbags. Because she was created late in production, her design incorporates elements of the earlier characters' appearances, such as the same type of skirt as Pearl and the same rounded teeth as Squidward. The episode "Doing Time" was one of the first to be written specifically from Mrs. Puff's point of view; another early example was season two's "No Free Rides." In his 2013 book The SpongeBob SquarePants Experience, animation historian Jerry Beck argued that the former was what "elevated Mrs. Puff to star status". Voice Mrs. Puff is voiced by American actress Mary Jo Catlett, who is known for her live-action roles on television programs from the 1970s such as Diff'rent Strokes and MASH. As of 2017, voicing Mrs. Puff is Catlett's only regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she is good friends with the other SpongeBob cast members, making the SpongeBob recording booth an easy environment that requires less preparation than in-person performances. The About Group's Nancy Basille noted in 2016 that Catlett's "rich, low tones as teacher Mrs. Puff recall other roles she has had," citing Diff'rent Strokes and MASH as programs on which she had used a similar voice. Reception The character has received positive reactions from critics and fans. Yahoo! News called Mrs. Puff "the most famous driving teacher on the planet." Fashion designer Peter Jensen, who designed a line of sweatshirts inspired by SpongeBob, called Mrs. Puff his "absolute favorite" character in an interview with Women's Wear Daily. In 2004, New York Times chief film critic A. O. Scott named Mrs. Puff as one of his favorite characters on SpongeBob SquarePants, along with Squidward Tentacles and Sandy Cheeks. Mrs. Puff was ranked second on Chilangos list of favorite cartoon teachers. KSL-TV listed Mrs. Puff in their countdown of "13 teachers from pop culture you can't help but love". Andrew Whalen of IBT Media called Mrs. Puff's role in the "Doing Time" episode "a series highlight". The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette reported in 2002 that episodes about Mrs. Puff's Boating School were fan favorites. Scott Lecter of DVD Talk said that Mrs. Puff, Sandy and Squidward "make for some of the biggest laughs in the episodes". Francis Rizzo of DVD Talk called Mrs. Puff's voice "spot-on" thanks to "the perfectly cast Mary Jo Catlett". Catlett's voice-over work as Mrs. Puff was nominated for a 2001 Annie Award in the category Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Television Production. Tom Kenny was nominated at the same ceremony for voicing SpongeBob, making them the first actors to earn an award nomination for their work on the show. Catlett and some other main cast members were also nominated for Best Vocal Ensemble at the 2013 Behind the Voice Actors Awards. During the controversy surrounding SpongeBob's sexuality, Mrs. Puff's name began to be criticized for supposedly referring to the slang term "puff," a descriptor of gay men that can be derogatory or affectionate. The BBC first noted this in reports of the controversy in 2002 and again in 2004. In a 2005 issue of the Sarasota Herald-Tribune, columnist David Grimes challenged this interpretation, writing, "I do not consider [Mrs. Puff's name] damaging evidence. However, if SpongeBob were receiving lessons from Mr. Puff, that would be an entirely different matter." K. Sobschak of the St. Catharines Standard also denounced the debate, asking, "What is wrong with taking boating lessons from a fish? This is a comedy for kids." The National Expert Commission of Ukraine on the Protection of Public Morality revived the criticism of Mrs. Puff's name in 2012, citing it as one of the reasons for an attempted nationwide ban of the program. Mediaite Editor-in-Chief Andrew Kirell questioned this decision, asking rhetorically, "What's so offensive there? Well, 'puff' is a term often used to describe a gay man, as if Ukrainian children knew that." Mrs. Puff's quotes and voice have also become popular with fans and casual viewers. The Sun writer Esther Cepeda humorously referred to Mrs. Puff's catchphrase "Oh, SpongeBob!" as "immortal words" in a 2011 article. Her quote "Oh, Neptune" became part of an Internet meme in 2016. Various memes covered by the comedy websites Smosh and BuzzFeed have featured other quotes from the character. In an interview with San Diego Gay & Lesbian News, the cast of Surprise Surprise (which starred Catlett) mentioned that "not one cast or crew person on the movie let a day [on the set] go by without calling some relative ... and handing their cell phones to Mary Jo [Catlett] to do her best 'Oh noooooooo, SpongeBob, nooooooooooo!'" In other media Mrs. Puff has appeared in many types of SpongeBob SquarePants merchandise, including action figures, aquarium ornaments, and video games. Tie-in books have prominently featured the character. Board games based on the show, such as The Game of Life and Bikini Bottom Book of Games, use her schoolhouse as a playing location. In 2007, a Lego construction set based on Mrs. Puff's school was released. SpongeBob's Boating Bash, a 2010 racing video game, centers on Mrs. Puff and takes place at the boating school. Mrs. Puff is a playable character in the Wii version, and acts as a guide for the player in the Nintendo DS game. Theme parks and events have featured Mrs. Puff, often as a costumed character. She was included on a boating school float as part of Sea World Australia's SpongeBob ParadePants parade, which opened in December 2011. She appeared at Universal Studios Hollywood's "SpongeBob Fan Shellabration" in 2013, and at the 2015 SpongeBob SquarePants 400 in Kansas City. Mrs. Puff also made regular appearances at Nickelodeon Suites Resort and Nickelodeon Universe with Mr. Krabs. A section of the SpongeBob StorePants souvenir shop at the Universal Orlando Resort is modeled after Mrs. Puff's boating school. In 2011, Mary Jo Catlett provided the voice-over for a road traffic safety commercial hosted by Mrs. Puff. It was produced by Nickelodeon and Toyota as the first in a series of SpongeBob advertisements from the two companies. The 30-second infomercial incorporated clips from the fifth-season episode "Boat Smarts" along with new content. Catlett also sings a track as Mrs. Puff on The Best Day Ever album, titled "Mrs. Puff's Boating School Ad". It was released on September 12, 2006, by Nick Records. Rita Engelmann, who voices Mrs. Puff in the German dub of SpongeBob SquarePants, recorded a single as her character titled "Hinterher! (feat. Mrs. Puff)". The song is a parody of Icona Pop's "I Love It" and was released in 2014 by Sony Music Entertainment. Mrs. Puff is mentioned in the book Shingaling, a 2015 sequel to Wonder. Mrs. Puff plays a small role in the 2004 film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie and its 2015 sequel. Her lack of screen time in both movies was criticized. Jessica Walsh of the Reading Eagle felt that the first film was "missing something, since key characters, such as Sandy the Squirrel and Mrs. Puff, make only cameo appearances". Sandie Chen of Common Sense Media wrote that the decision to relegate characters like Mrs. Puff to small roles "won't go over well with some fans". About.com's Nancy Basille considered this the first movie's biggest flaw and asked, "why didn't they use more of Squidward, Mr. Krabs, Gary, Mrs. Puff and all our other favorite secondary characters?" The novelization of the 2004 movie includes additional scenes starring Mrs. Puff and Squidward that were not in the motion picture. Mrs. Puff appears in the 2009 stage adaptation of "The Sponge Who Could Fly", which debuted at the Liverpool Empire Theatre. The 2016 musical based on the series stars Abby C. Smith as Mrs. Puff. SpongeBob's inability to pass Mrs. Puff's course has been referenced in popular culture. In 2011, ice hockey player Taylor Hall failed his driving test and likened it to SpongeBob's situation at Mrs. Puff's school. The writers of Engadget compared a remote-controlled, underwater camera to the boats in SpongeBob, remarking that Mrs. Puff should call her insurance agent if users channel their "inner SpongeBob while remotely driving the thing". In a satirical 2011 article, writers at The Washington Post pretended to interview SpongeBob about his trouble graduating from Mrs. Puff's boating school. 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253038	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Mindanao	Northern Mindanao	Northern Mindanao (; ; Maranao: Pangotaraan Mindanao) is an administrative region in the Philippines, designated as Region X. It comprises five provinces: Bukidnon, Camiguin, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, and Lanao del Norte, and two cities classified as highly urbanized, all occupying the north-central part of Mindanao island, and the island-province of Camiguin. The regional center is Cagayan de Oro. Lanao del Norte was transferred to Northern Mindanao from Region XII (then called Central Mindanao) by virtue of Executive Order No. 36 in September 2001. Etymology The current name of the region was derived from its position on Mindanao island. The term was officially coined by the Americans after the establishment of American colonial rule in the Philippines due to the defeat of Filipino revolutionaries. There have been proposals to rename the current Northern Mindanao region, which is dominated by the Cebuano ethnic group, into the Amihanan region. Amihanan literally translates to 'northern area' from the Cebuano language, which is the lingua franca of the region. Geography Northern Mindanao has a total land area of . More than 60% of Northern Mindanao's total land area are classified as forest land. Its seas abound with fish and other marine products. The abundant vegetation, natural springs and high elevation contribute to the region's cool, mild and invigorating climate. Administrative divisions The region is composed of five provinces: Bukidnon, the island province of Camiguin, Lanao del Norte, Misamis Occidental and Misamis Oriental. It has two highly urbanized cities, Cagayan de Oro and Iligan, that are administered independently from any province. The provinces are further subdivided into seven component cities and 84 municipalities, with a total of 2,022 barangays. The regional center is Cagayan de Oro. Component cities Bukidnon Malaybalay Valencia Misamis Occidental Oroquieta Ozamiz Tangub Misamis Oriental El Salvador Gingoog Demographics Northern Mindanao is the 8th most populous region in the Philippines and 2nd in Mindanao (after Davao Region) according to the 2015 Philippine Statistics Authority Census. The major urban area of Region X is Metro Cagayan de Oro which includes Cagayan de Oro and some municipalities and cities of Misamis Oriental and Bukidnon. The vast majority of the region's inhabitants descended from migrants from Cebu and Bohol. Some other inhabitants are of Waray, Hiligaynon, Zamboangueño, Maranao and Tausug descent, while the autochthonous Bukidnons and Manobos populate the inner highlands. The predominant religion is Christianity, with Roman Catholicism forming 72% of the population and Protestants forming a significant minority of 14%. The second predominant religion is Islam, forming 8% of the population. Economy The economy of Northern Mindanao is the second largest regional economy in the island of Mindanao. While still a mainly agricultural region, there is also a booming growth of industries particularly in Cagayan de Oro and in Iligan. Del Monte Philippines is located in the Province of Bukidnon and its processing plant is located in Cagayan de Oro, where it ships its products to the rest of Philippines and Asia-Pacific region. The Agus-IV to VII Hydroelectric Plants in Iligan and Balo-i, Lanao del Norte supplies most of its electrical power in Mindanao. 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253039	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy%20Cheeks	Sandy Cheeks	Sandra Jennifer "Sandy" Cheeks is a fictional character in the Nickelodeon franchise SpongeBob SquarePants. She is an anthropomorphic squirrel who wears a diving suit and lives underwater. Sandy is voiced by Carolyn Lawrence and first appeared in the episode "Tea at the Treedome" that premiered on May 1, 1999. Sandy was created and designed by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg, the show's creator. The character's reception from fans has been positive. Sandy has appeared in many SpongeBob SquarePants publications, toys, and other merchandise. She appears in the 2015 full-length feature film The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water and its threequel, which was released in 2020. Role in SpongeBob SquarePants Sandy is a close friend of SpongeBob SquarePants. She is a proud Texan and speaks in a stereotypical Southern drawl. In order to live underwater, Sandy resides in a bubble-like dome and wears an atmospheric diving suit when outside her house. Inside the treedome, her normal attire consists of a green and purple bikini. Conversely, as revealed in Tea at the Treedome, other characters must wear "water helmets" with opposite functionality when visiting her house. Sandy possesses extraordinary scientific skills such as the ability to construct complex inventions. Sandy is shown to possess a number of tough, tomboyish character traits and interests; she is skilled at karate, engages in bodybuilding, and is a rodeo champion. She is also a close friend of Patrick Star, SpongeBob's best friend and neighbor, though she sometimes gets annoyed by him. History and development Creation and design Stephen Hillenburg first became fascinated with the ocean and began developing his artistic abilities as a child. During college, he majored in marine biology and minored in art. After graduating in 1984, he joined the Ocean Institute, an ocean education organization, where he had the idea to create a comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which led to the creation of SpongeBob SquarePants. In 1987, Hillenburg left the institute to pursue a career in animation. A few years after studying experimental animation at the California Institute of the Arts, Hillenburg met Joe Murray, creator of Rocko's Modern Life, at an animation festival. Murray offered Hillenburg a job as a director of the series. Martin Olson, one of the writers for Rocko's Modern Life, read The Intertidal Zone and encouraged Hillenburg to create a television series with a similar concept. At that point, Hillenburg had not considered creating his own series, but soon realized that this was his chance. Shortly after production on Rocko's Modern Life ended in 1996, Hillenburg began working on SpongeBob SquarePants. Sandy has been shown in the episodes about her being in the tree dome. Whenever any aquatic creatures enter her home, they must wear helmets that are filled with water. Sandy works as a scientist, explorer, and inventor. She is also a rodeo champion with a number of athletic interests, such as "sand-boarding" and karate. Hillenburg designed Sandy in a way that both kids and adults can be able to like her tacky attitude. Voice The voice of Sandy Cheeks is provided by Carolyn Lawrence. Lawrence got the role of Sandy when she was in Los Angeles at Los Feliz. She met Donna Grillo, a casting director, on a sidewalk. Lawrence was with a friend who knew Grillo, and she said Lawrence had an interesting voice. Grillo brought Lawrence in to audition and she got the part. Before a recording, Lawrence prepares when the crew sends a storyboard. She explains, "I absolutely love that! Not only do I get to read the script, I can actually see what the artists have in mind. It is an amazing process and I feel so fortunate to be able to work that way! [...] I would prefer to let the script come alive in me before a taping." Sandy Cheeks is voiced by Carolyn Lawrence, and Presley Williams as young Sandy in The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run. Reception Film critic A. O. Scott of The New York Times said, in his review of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, that Sandy is one of his favorite secondary characters on the show, along with Squidward Tentacles and Mrs. Puff. He wrote, "I was sorry to see [them] pushed to the margins". In other media Sandy has been included in various SpongeBob SquarePants-related merchandise, including board games, books, plush toys, and trading cards. Sandy also appears as a playable character in Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl. 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253042	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrobius	Metrobius	Metrobius (; lived 1st century BC) was an actor and apparently a talented singer, in the Roman Republic, he was said to be the lover of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, the famed general and dictator. Metrobius is mentioned twice by Plutarch in his Parallel Lives, who clearly disapproves of his relationship with Sulla. These excerpts are as follows. "It was this laxity, as it seems, which produced in him [Sulla] a diseased propensity to amorous indulgence and an unrestrained voluptuousness, from which he did not refrain even in his old age, but continued his youthful love for Metrobius, an actor." "However, even though he [Sulla] had such a wife at home, he consorted with actresses, harpists, and theatrical people, drinking with them on couches all day long. For these were the men who had most influence with him now: Roscius the comedian, Sorex the archmime, and Metrobius the impersonator of women, for whom, though past his prime, he continued up to the last to be passionately fond, and made no denial of it." Though it's unclear the length of the sexual relationship between Metrobius and Sulla, the latter took other partners during his career, but remained close friends with Metrobius until his retirement. In fiction In the historical fiction series Masters of Rome, by Colleen McCullough, the adolescent Metrobius is Sulla's sometime lover and later his client. He gives up the stage to accompany the former dictator Sulla into retirement in the year 79 BC. In Raffaello Giovagnoli's novel Spartacus (1874) an actor named Metrobius accidentally overhears a conversation concerning a gladiator's plot and informs Julius Caesar about it. References Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Sulla" 1st-century BC deaths Ancient Greek actors Ancient Roman actors Year of birth unknown Female impersonators Ancient LGBT people Gay actors	[ -0.2065693885087967, -0.6707649230957031, -0.36197060346603394, 0.27313536405563354, 0.022512853145599365, 1.1231629848480225, 0.1395280361175537, 0.6557223796844482, -0.9417237639427185, -0.09442529827356339, -0.07699931412935257, 0.4692564010620117, -0.873144268989563, 0.12161016464233398, 0.2459355741739273, 0.33614492416381836, 0.1997566521167755, 0.14334888756275177, -0.19233359396457672, -0.24342267215251923, -0.07153134793043137, 0.3291447162628174, 0.5949328541755676, -0.03896298632025719, -0.49525177478790283, 0.042435042560100555, -0.41685599088668823, 0.43983370065689087, 0.18983814120292664, -0.46129220724105835, 0.2541322708129883, 0.2833738625049591, 0.057811249047517776, -0.3584827482700348, -0.6821920871734619, 0.05938378721475601, 0.4230670928955078, -0.019054120406508446, 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253043	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squidward%20Tentacles	Squidward Tentacles	Squidward Q. Tentacles is a fictional character voiced by actor Rodger Bumpass in the Nickelodeon animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants. Squidward was created and designed by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg. He first appeared on television in the series' pilot episode "Help Wanted" on May 1, 1999. Although his name has the word "squid" in it, Squidward is an anthropomorphic octopus. He lives in a moai between SpongeBob SquarePants' and Patrick Star's houses. The character is portrayed as ill-tempered, lazy, cynical, misanphrothic, selfish, and pretentious, and he despises his two neighbors' constant noisy behavior. However, the pair are unaware of Squidward's antipathy towards them and see him as a friend. Squidward works as a cashier at the Krusty Krab restaurant, a job which he dislikes. The character's reception from fans has been positive. Squidward has appeared in many SpongeBob SquarePants publications, toys, and other merchandise. He appears in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie (2004), The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water (2015), and The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run (2020). Role in SpongeBob SquarePants Squidward is depicted as a grumpy and bitter turquoise octopus. He lives in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom in a moai situated between SpongeBob SquarePants' pineapple house and Patrick Star's rock. Squidward is annoyed by his neighbors for their perpetual laughter and boisterous behavior, though SpongeBob and Patrick are oblivious to being a nuisance to Squidward. Squidward lives in a constant state of self-pity and misery; he is unhappy with his humdrum lifestyle and yearns for celebrity status, wealth, hair, and a glamorous and distinguished career as a musician or painter with a passion for art and playing the clarinet, although he has no actual talent for either. However, he is left to endure the lowly status as a fast-food cashier at the Krusty Krab restaurant. Squidward resents his job and is irritated by his greedy employer Mr. Krabs and by having his own resented neighbor SpongeBob as a colleague. Development Creation and design Stephen Hillenburg first became fascinated with the ocean and began developing his artistic abilities as a child. During college, he majored in marine biology and minored in art. After graduating in 1984, he joined the Ocean Institute, an ocean education organization, where he had the idea to create a comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which led to the creation of SpongeBob SquarePants. In 1987, Hillenburg left the institute to pursue a career in animation. Several years after studying experimental animation at the California Institute of the Arts, Hillenburg met Joe Murray, creator of Rocko's Modern Life, at an animation festival. Murray offered Hillenburg a job as a director of the series. Martin Olson, one of the writers for Rocko's Modern Life, read The Intertidal Zone and encouraged Hillenburg to create a television series with a similar concept. At that point, Hillenburg had not considered creating his own series, but soon realized that this was his chance. Shortly after production on Rocko's Modern Life ended in 1996, Hillenburg began working on SpongeBob SquarePants. Hillenburg used some character designs from his comic book. He designed "SpongeBob's grumpy next door neighbor" as an octopus because he liked the species' large head; he said octopuses "have such a large bulbous head, and Squidward thinks he's an intellectual, so of course he's gonna have a large bulbous head." Hillenburg explained that Squidward is normally drawn with six limbs because "it was really just simpler for animation to draw him with six legs instead of eight". Squidward is only shown with a full set of eight legs in two episodes: the live-action sequence in "Pressure" from season two, and briefly in "Sold!" from season nine. Hillenburg named the character Squidward after the squid, which is closely related to the octopus and has ten limbs. In the words of Squidward's voice actor Rodger Bumpass, the name Octoward "just didn't work". Of Squidward's design, show writer and storyboard artist Vincent Waller said in 2010: Squidward is hard to drawhe has a very odd-shaped head. Fortunately, his emotions are pretty even, but to get a whole lot of big emoting out of him is a challenge. His nose splits everything in half, so it's always like, 'OK, how am I going to work this and still make it read?' Hillenburg thought of making jokes with Squidward ejecting ink but retired it because, according to him, "it always looks like he's pooping his pants". Despite this, inking jokes would appear in the episodes "Giant Squidward" and "Ink Lemonade". The sound of Squidward's footsteps, which evokes that of suction cups pulling on the ground, is produced by rubbing hot water bottles. The footsteps, and those of the rest of the main characters, are recorded by the show's foley crew. Sound designer Jeff Hutchins said that footstep sounds "[help] tell which character it is and what surface they're stepping on". Bumpass inspired the idea of having Squidward ride a recumbent bicycle; Bumpass owns one of these bicycles, which he rides around Burbank, California. Bumpass described it as his "little inside joke". Voice Squidward's voice is provided by actor Rodger Bumpass, who voices several other SpongeBob SquarePants characters, including Squidward's mother. While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997, Hillenburg and the show's then-creative director Derek Drymon were also conducting voice auditions. Mr. Lawrence, who had worked with Hillenburg and Drymon on Rocko's Modern Life, was Hillenburg's first choice for the role. Hillenburg had invited Lawrence to audition for all the show's characters. Instead of Squidward, Hillenburg decided to give Lawrence the part of Plankton, the series' villain. According to Bumpass, Squidward was "a very nasally, monotone kind of guy". He said the character became interesting to perform because of "his sarcasm, and then his frustration, and then his apoplexy, and so he became a wide spectrum of emotions". Tom Kenny, the voice of SpongeBob, describes Bumpass recording his lines in the studio, saying, "I love watching Rodger ... He's right next to me". According to Kenny, when Bumpass "goes apoplectic" as Squidward while recording, his head turns red, "and you're afraid he's going to have an embolism". Several of the show's crew praise Bumpass for his performance and similitude to the character. Kenny called Bumpass "brilliant" and said, "[he] is sort of like Squidward". Staff writer Kent Osborne said, "I remember thinking about how much Rodger talks and acts like Squidward. That's why it's such a good voice—he's so connected to it". However, Bumpass said, "I'm not him and he's not me, but what I'm required to do for him and what I am enabled to do for him is what makes it like me. It fits my particular talents and skills very well. So in that respect, yeah, he is me, but I am not the cranky, sarcastic, underachieving kind of guy that he is. He's easy to fall in, I will say that." Squidward's voice has been compared to that of Jack Benny's. Kenny said, "To me, there's something just so funny about that Jack-Benny-loyal-to-nobody character that Rodger Bumpass does such a great job of playing [...] Squidward". Arthur Brown, author of Everything I Need to Know, I Learned from Cartoons!, said that Squidward "sounds a lot like Jack Benny". Bumpass repudiated the relationship, saying "Jack Benny, no. Although he does have this observational sarcasm he occasionally brought out." Reception Squidward has received positive reception from critics and fans. SpongeBob's voice actor Tom Kenny named Squidward his favorite character on the show. He said, "He has an extra dimension where SpongeBob and Patrick's capacity of play mystifies him, but he's also jealous of it. When he tries to participate, he just fails utterly because he doesn't believe in it." Staff writer Casey Alexander said, "Squidward is the character I relate to the most. In an exaggerated way, he's the most human character. If I knew a human like SpongeBob, I probably would react to him like Squidward does". American singer Pharrell Williams, who says he is a fan of the show, said that "Squidward is my favorite, though. If he was a human, I would hang out with him." Bill Treadway of DVD Verdict said that Squidward is "a cross between Bert [of Sesame Street], Woody Allen, and Roger Addison [of Mr. Ed] ... but he has some heart, if you can find it". Treadway called him "the straight man for his neighbor's antics". Film critic A. O. Scott of The New York Times said, in his review of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, that Squidward is one of his favorite secondary characters on the show, along with Sandy Cheeks and Mrs. Puff. He wrote, "I was sorry to see [them] pushed to the margins". Also from the same publication, television critic Joyce Millman said that Squidward has "the nasal bitchiness of Paul Lynde and the artistic pretensions of Felix Unger." Millman further wrote, "Hmmm, Squidward is one gay squid, I think." "Band Geeks", a second-season episode that focuses on Squidward, is often considered by many critics and fans alike as one of the show's best episodes. Writing for The Washington Post, Michael Cavna ranked "Band Geeks" as the fifth best episode of SpongeBob SquarePants. In his review, Cavna said, "Squidward's mix of artistic aspiration in the face of goading, humiliation and unrelenting sub-mediocrity made this a kids' episode that adults can experience on a whole 'nother level." On a less positive note, Squidward was listed among Common Sense Media's "10 Worst TV Role Models of 2012". Author Sierra Filucci said that the character's selfishness is his "worst offense", called Squidward "the mean and nasty cashier at the Krusty Krab" and said that "[he] is nice only when he wants something". At the 39th Daytime Emmy Awards in 2012, Bumpass was nominated for his vocal performance as Squidward in the Outstanding Performer in the Animated Program categorythe first cast member to be nominated in this category. The award was won by June Foray of The Garfield Show. Bumpass has said he was proud of the certificate he received for the nomination, but "there wasn't really a competition because one of the other nominees was June Foray and she is royalty in the animation world ... There was no way any of the other three guys had a chance. In fact, if any of us had one, there would have been a riot in that studio ." He said he was "happy to lose to June Foray" and "very pleased and grateful to get a nomination". In other media Squidward has been included in various SpongeBob SquarePants-related merchandise, including board games, books, plush toys, and trading cards. Alongside the television series, Squidward appears in issues of SpongeBob Comics (which were first published in February 2011), in many SpongeBob SquarePants video games, and in various theme parks and theme park parades (including Sea World and Universal's Superstar Parade, respectively). In 2004, Squidward appeared in the first feature-length film adaptation of the show, The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, which was released on November 19, 2004, and was financially successful, grossing over worldwide. He also appears in the film's sequel, which was released in theaters on February 6, 2015. The episode "The Sponge Who Could Fly" was adapted in 2009 as a stage musical at the Liverpool Empire Theatre, and later in South Africa. Actor Charles Brunton originated the role of Squidward, later recalling that he loved the character, and the "fun [of] trying to re-create a well established cartoon character into a live performance on stage." Brunton prepared for the role by buying nine DVDs of the series, acting out Squidward's part in each episode, in his bedroom. He said, "it took ages to perfect the voice and the way he used his arms". Brunton's performance and the musical were well received by most critics. A critic from The Public Reviews wrote, "Charles Brunton as Squidward really stole the show for us, his character was nailed to perfection, from his comic acting, voice and mannerisms this was a faultless performance". In his review for The Northern Echo, Viv Hardwick said, "Charles Brunton makes a convincing Squidward". The role was played by Chris van Rensburg in South Africa. A stage musical based on the show was premiered in June 2016 at the Oriental Theatre in Chicago. Actor Gavin Lee originated the role of Squidward and reprised the role in the musical's Broadway run and television adaptation The SpongeBob Musical: Live on Stage!. In the North American tour, the role was played by Cody Cooley. In 2018, for his performance in the Broadway run, Gavin Lee won a Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical and was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical. Notes References Fictional artists Animated television characters introduced in 1999 Fictional musicians Fictional octopuses Fictional undersea characters Fictional waiting staff Comedy film characters Male characters in animated series SpongeBob SquarePants characters Fictional anthropomorphic characters Fictional bullies Male characters in television	[ 0.15944483876228333, -0.17746147513389587, 0.1347181648015976, -0.0724964365363121, -0.7296700477600098, 0.03601875528693199, 0.42332324385643005, 0.5265601277351379, -0.58070969581604, -0.018301839008927345, -0.07263071835041046, 0.009308294393122196, 0.383922815322876, 0.5889925360679626, 0.487676739692688, 0.6372940540313721, -0.003711982863023877, 1.0977404117584229, 0.060959942638874054, -0.7773569822311401, -0.2780162990093231, -0.4408425986766815, 0.415097177028656, -0.7413032650947571, 0.21468448638916016, 0.05764656886458397, 0.04123811051249504, 0.6088784337043762, 0.2897931933403015, -0.37102141976356506, 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253046	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl%20Krabs	Pearl Krabs	Pearl Krabs is a fictional character in the Nickelodeon animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants. She is voiced by actress Lori Alan and first appeared in the season one episode "Squeaky Boots" on September 4, 1999. She was created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg, who was inspired to design a whale character while supervising whale watches at the Ocean Institute in Dana Point, California. Pearl is a teenage sperm whale who lives in a hollow anchor with her father Eugene "Mr." Krabs, the greedy founder of the popular Krusty Krab restaurant. Pearl will inherit the restaurant and become its owner when she grows older. She is currently employed at the local shopping center, the Bikini Bottom Mall. The identity and whereabouts of Pearl's unseen mother have never been explained directly by the characters. While supplemental materials indicate her father married a whale who gave birth to Pearl, Hillenburg was strongly against revealing this in an episode. Critical reception for Pearl has been largely positive. Her depiction as the child of a single parent has been praised by critics as an example of SpongeBobs ability to challenge social norms such as the construct of a nuclear family. She has been featured frequently in a variety of merchandise, such as plush toys and video games, and at amusement park attractions. She appears in the 2004 feature film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, in its 2015 sequel, the 2017 Broadway musical based on the series, and as an infant in Kamp Koral: SpongeBob's Under Years. Role in SpongeBob SquarePants Because she is a whale and most other characters are small tide pool organisms, Pearl is depicted as extraordinarily tall and heavy. Her size compared to the other characters is often used for visual gags; for example, she is able to shake the entire Krusty Krab when she jumps and can fill the entire building with tears when she cries. The floors of the Krabs' residence are equipped with drain plugs so the house can be emptied after Pearl cries or spouts water from her blowhole. Wherever she goes, she stomps loudly and causes the ground to shake slightly. Mr. Krabs attempts to interest Pearl in working at the Krusty Krab—their family business—but she does not want to work there until she graduates from high school, believing it would deprive her of a social life. Despite this, she manages the Krusty Krab when Mr. Krabs cannot, and fills in for other employees when needed. She will inherit the restaurant and her father's fortune when she grows older. Being a sperm whale, Pearl has the largest brain of any Bikini Bottom resident and is gifted in math. Mr. Krabs has tried to use this to his own advantage and wants Pearl to eventually become a bookkeeper for his restaurant. Pearl's favorite activities are socializing at the Bikini Bottom Mall and using her father's credit card to buy anything that is totally "coral" (Bikini Bottom slang for "cool"). Mr. Krabs disapproves of Pearl's prodigal spending, but nonetheless pays for her items to avoid disappointing his daughter. Pearl is employed as an assistant at Grandma's Apron, a store for elderly residents on the ground floor of the shopping center. Beatrice, her boss at Grandma's Apron, is voiced by actress Betty White. Fictional origin The disparity in species between Pearl and her father has never been explained directly in an episode, but merchandise makers and production crew members have stated that Mr. Krabs was once married to a whale who gave birth to Pearl. A trivia book penned by former SpongeBob writer David Fain in 2000 states that Pearl "takes after her mother," implying that she is the biological offspring of Mr. Krabs and a whale. According to creative director Vincent Waller, Stephen Hillenburg received many letters requesting a Pearl origin story, but was still "very much against solving [the] mystery" of how she joined the Krabs family. A step outline for an episode focusing on her origin was written and started early development stages, but the episode has been shelved indefinitely because of Hillenburg's disapproval. Pearl's name, and the decision to portray her as motherless, were an homage to the phrase mother-of-pearl, which refers to the inner layer of some sea-dwelling mollusk shells. Mr. Krabs uses this phrase when he is startled, in a similar vein to "Mother of God," as a reference to the absence of Pearl's mother. His use of the phrase only when he is dismayed or shocked has led some viewers to believe something tragic happened to Mrs. Krabs. At Dragon Con in 2016, Lori Alan and Rodger Bumpass addressed Pearl's origins as their characters Pearl and Squidward. In the skit, Squidward asks Pearl if she is adopted. Pearl does not give a definite response, instead saying that she gets emotional over the topic. Later at the same event, the actors discussed the disappearance of Pearl's mother. Alan affirmed that Mrs. Krabs' whereabouts are secret, and Bumpass joked that she had been taken to an oceanarium, saying: "Two words: Sea World." Character Creation and design Pearl was one of the first five characters Stephen Hillenburg created for SpongeBob. Her conceptualization is rooted in Hillenburg's tenure as a teacher at the Orange County Marine Institute in Dana Point, California. Screenwriter Allan Neuwirth describes the Marine Institute as Hillenburg's "first stop on the road to SpongeBob SquarePants," as it inspired the development of many of the series' characters; Hillenburg's decision to include a whale character was influenced by his regular supervision of whale watches, and a cetacean skeleton exhibit at the institute. Hillenburg's original sketch of Pearl in the show bible included flukes and pigtails, which were dropped from her final design. Mr. Krabs and Pearl had matching yellow and orange clothes initially, but they were given individualized colors before the production of the pilot episode. Hillenburg made Pearl a different species from her father because he wanted each member of the main cast to be a different type of animal. When he was first developing the characters, Hillenburg wanted Pearl and Mr. Krabs to travel around town in a caravan boat with a whale-sized teardrop trailer connected to it; while this element did make it into the series, it was only used sparsely in season one. The decision to have Mr. Krabs and Pearl live in an anchor was made after production of the first season had begun. The original map of the show's setting, which Hillenburg showed Nickelodeon executives as part of his pitch to the network in 1997, did not include an anchor house, and instead labeled the Krusty Krab as both characters' residence. Hillenburg originally planned for Pearl and Mr. Krabs to be mostly separate characters, with specific episodes dedicated to each character individually. This happened in several early episodes, such as "The Chaperone," but the writers found it more natural to include Mr. Krabs in Pearl-centric stories. Hillenburg considered this the biggest difference between the series and how he originally envisioned it. Animation historian Jerry Beck has stated that Pearl's breakout role was in "Bossy Boots," which he considers the episode that best established her as one of the series' stars. Voice Pearl's voice is provided by American actress Lori Alan in the series, both feature films, and the associated video games. During her audition for the role, she was shown an early drawing of Pearl with the other main characters. She noted how Pearl was much larger than the rest of the cast, and decided to reflect the character's size in her voice by making it deep and full in tone. She also aimed to make the voice invoke the sound of whales’ low vocalizations while also sounding "spoiled and lovable". In an interview with AfterBuzz TV, Alan said that she knew Pearl "had to sound somewhat like a child," but at the same time needed "an abnormally large voice". Pearl's catchphrase "Daddy!" was developed early during production of the first season, but was not used in an episode until later on. A script that the main voice actors were reading from during a rehearsal had the line fully capitalized, with the first syllable extended ("daaaaddy!"), so Alan knew to put particular emphasis on the line when it was in a script. Rodger Bumpass, the voice of Squidward Tentacles, describes Alan's portrayal of Pearl as a "unique and wonderful take on how this teenager should be ... No one else has a teenager that sounds like Pearl." Reception Critical response Pearl's character has received popularity and critical acclaim. In a review of the first official trailer for The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water, Victoria McNally of The Mary Sue said that Pearl was her favorite character, and she was disappointed not to see her in the movie's preview. She writes, "if they can manage to work Pearl into the plot somewhere, I'll take back everything I've already said about this film. Maybe she could get beached on the shore, I don't know. Pearl's the best." Joseph Foy, author of the novel SpongeBob SquarePants and Philosophy, felt that it was difficult not to sympathize with Pearl's situation since she believes she is "more important to her father than money," but "we, the viewing audience, know differently". DVD Talks Paul Mavis wrote in his review of Legends of Bikini Bottom that he found Pearl "annoyingly funny". In 2013, José Antonio Gómez Marín of El Mundo said that he felt Pearl brings an easily recognizable youthful tone to the show. Like Mr. Krabs, Pearl has also been considered a stereotyped character; Sharon Lamb and Lyn Mikel Brown wrote in their 2007 book Packaging Girlhood that Pearl exhibits the traits of an archetypal girly girl. A study by the federal office of gender equality in Mexico, El Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres, found that Pearl's roles sometimes rely on characteristics associated with stereotypes of women, such as vanity and materialism. In an article for Complex, Debbie Encalada praised the SpongeBob series for challenging social norms; the portrayal of the Krabses as a single-parent family was specifically highlighted as an example of the show's "subversiveness by subtly challenging the idea of the nuclear family". Psychologist Steve Harriman covers the Krabs family dynamic in the 2005 Berkley Book Absorbing SpongeBob. He calls attention to the lack of explanation for the disparity between Pearl and Mr. Krabs' species, noting that it is only after watching several episodes that viewers realize the Krabs family is broken. He also questions the decision to focus on Patrick's family, rather than Pearl's, in the only episode dealing "head-on with a core pathology of family"—"I'm with Stupid". In his review of the third season, Bryan Pope of DVD Verdict called Mr. Krabs and Pearl (as well as Krabs' girlfriend Mrs. Puff, whom he mistook for the character's wife) one of "the most head-scratching family units [he had] ever come across". Fan theories The absence of Pearl's mother has caused much speculation among viewers since the series' debut. Various fan theories about how Pearl became Mr. Krabs' daughter have become popular on the internet. Jon Negroni, author of the Pixar theory, theorized that Mr. Krabs' fear of fish hooks in the episode "Hooky" is the result of Pearl's mother being killed by one. Another theory reported by Metro UK proposed that the secret ingredient of Krabby Patties is whale meat from the former Mrs. Krabs. In May 2017, BuzzFeed posted a tongue-in-cheek analysis of how Pearl possibly calls Mr. Krabs "daddy" because he is her sugar daddy and not her father. The article noted that the theory was impossible within the show's universe, but it had seen "a resurgence" of popularity on Twitter, where one post of it received more than 53,000 likes within three days. In other media Pearl has been featured in a variety of merchandise such as plush toys, video games, comics and trading cards. The Krabs family restaurant, the Krusty Krab, has been the basis for a Lego playset, and many replicas at attractions. A float modeled after the Krusty Krab, featuring a costumed mascot of Pearl that greeted guests and an animatronic Mr. Krabs, regularly appeared at Sea World's weekly "SpongeBob ParadePants" parade. A full-size replica of the building was built in Ramallah, Palestine in 2014. In January 2016, Nickelodeon's parent company Viacom filed a lawsuit against the operators of a similar for-profit "Krusty Krab" restaurant to be opened in Texas. A Texas federal judge ruled in January 2017 that the planned restaurant violated Viacom's rights to the SpongeBob property, thus halting its construction. In 2011, the indie rock group Yo La Tengo performed a live version of Mr. Krabs and Pearl's commercial from the episode "As Seen on TV" at the El Rey Theatre in Los Angeles, California. Included as part of Yo La Tengo's first tour, it starred Ira Kaplan as Mr. Krabs and Laura Krafft as Pearl. Billy Gil of L.A. Record praised the performance in his review. An episode of the sketch comedy series Robot Chicken titled "Major League of Extraordinary Gentlemen" includes a skit that stars Mr. Krabs and Pearl. The segment, animated in stop motion like most other sketches on the program, features Mr. Krabs using crab legs as the secret ingredient for Krabby Patties. Before he is exposed for serving cannibal meals, Pearl is shown unsuspectingly eating the patties. Several tracks on The Best Day Ever, a 2006 soundtrack album, feature the vocal performance of Lori Alan as Pearl. The segment "Pearl Krabs aka Caller #5!" is a skit between Pearl and a disc jockey voiced by radio personality Jerry Blavat. Broadway musical In the 2017 Broadway musical based on SpongeBob, which premiered at the Palace Theatre in New York City, Pearl is played by Jai'len Christine Li Josey. Her attire in the musical was inspired by her animated counterpart; it includes a cheerleading uniform, an Afro styled into the shape of Pearl's whale head, and a pair of platform sneakers that replicate Pearl's signature loud stomping from the cartoon. In the production, Mr. Krabs plans to make her the Krusty Krab's new manager rather than SpongeBob. However, Pearl wants to become a rock band singer instead and is troubled by her father's disregard for her own hopes and dreams. She sings a duet with Mr. Krabs titled "Daddy Knows Best," an original composition written by Alex Ebert that highlights the two characters' differences. Josey's performance as Pearl has been critically lauded, with some reviewers highlighting her as the breakout star of the musical. Entertainment Tonight named Josey one of the eight best Broadway debuts of 2017, writing that none of the musical's other debuts "were more impressive than Josey, who at 18, quite literally stormed the stage as the teenage sperm whale Pearl Krabs. Her looming presence was only matched by her stunning vocal performance." Josh Ferri of BroadwayBox.com included Pearl's "Daddy Knows Best" on a list of his 15 favorite Broadway songs of 2017, calling it "a rare star is born moment...this is for [Josey] what 'Miss Marmelstein' was for young Streisand." Jo Rosenthal of Vice wrote that "Josey nearly stole the entire show as Pearl, her voice eliciting roars of joy from the audience as she lamented the greed of her dad, Mr. Krabs." Casey Curtis of the New York Theatre Guide said that Josey's voice "was so beautifully strong and clear that it made me get misty-eyed." Vulture.com's Sara Holdren said, "Definitely try not to say 'daaamn' under your breath [during] 'Daddy Knows Best.' This whale can wail." Isabella Biedenharn of Entertainment Weekly called Josey's Pearl a "vocal powerhouse" and Siddhant Adlakha of Birth.Movies.Death. said that "every solo she gets is a moment to behold." Audience reception was similarly positive; in an analysis of reviews from children who attended the musical, Newsday reported that Pearl's character was "a part of the show that everyone seemed to enjoy" and that Josey's vocal performance "was an outstanding addition." 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253047	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20Suit%20Victory%20Gundam	Mobile Suit Victory Gundam	, is a 1993 Japanese science fiction anime television series. It consists of 51 episodes, and was directed by Gundam creator Yoshiyuki Tomino. The series was first broadcast on TV Asahi (and its ANN stations). It is the fourth installment in the Gundam franchise, first series in the franchise released in Japan's Heisei period, and the final full series to be set in the Universal Century calendar. Plot Victory Gundam is set in UC 0153, and succeeds the Federation Force and Crossbone Vanguard conflict of Mobile Suit Gundam F91. The Earth, still loosely controlled by the greatly weakened Earth Federation, comes under attack by BESPA, the armed forces of the space colony-based Zanscare Empire. Only a ragtag resistance movement, League Militaire, stands in BESPA's way as they swiftly conquer much of space and start their invasion of Earth, with the advanced mass-produced mobile suit, the Victory Gundam, as the League Militaire's secret weapon. However, BESPA's power continues to grow, using violent means, including public executions with guillotines, to strike fear into those living on Earth. Living peacefully on Earth in the remote Eastern European town of Kasarelia, 13-year-old Üso Ewin and his childhood friend Shahkti Kareen are soon thrown into the conflict when they encounter ace BESPA pilot Chronicle Asher. Soon, Üso finds himself joining forces with Marbet Fingerhut and the rest of the League Militaire, piloting the Victory Gundam against the BESPA, and soon discovering the horrors of war. Production Development Victory Gundam is the fourth Gundam television series and the first of four Gundam television series that aired on TV Asahi and its sister ANN stations in Japan sequentially from 1993 through 1996. In order to attract the younger elementary school age demographic that SD Gundam was popular with at the time, the show featured the youngest protagonist in the Gundam franchise, the thirteen-year-old Uso Ewin, and established a setting within Universal Century that was largely independent of previous Gundam works. Unlike previous Gundam series that started off in space colonies, the show starts off in Eastern Europe before moving to space 15 episodes later. The intent of this was for Tomino to dispel the association between Gundam and space. Nonetheless, the mature themes of the show, as well as the high casualty rate of the main cast, meant that the show would instead attract an older crowd, the young adults who had seen Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam and Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ a decade earlier. The show was nonetheless able to more than double the sales of "real" Gundam models, which had been greatly lagging behind SD Gundam model sales. As SD Gundam model sales had been in a decline, Bandai's Gundam toy sales ultimately increased as a result of the show, but still missed its targets of 10 million units sold. This compounded with the fact that the show had failed to attract its target audience led to a cancellation of Sunrise's next Gundam series, which was under production at the time and was to be a war story featuring a conflict between Earth and Mars colonists, with a working title of . Instead, Sunrise would go on to create Mobile Fighter G Gundam. The Bandai acquisition of Sunrise was also in the planning stages during Victory Gundams development, with the former looking to address the declining popularity of the Gundam franchise, which was a main source of revenue for them. Years later, Tomino would lament the fact that he had started production of this series not aware of that situation, which caused a rift between the director and Sunrise for many years. Release The entire series was released on DVD in Japan on January 23, 2004. The limited-edition DVD box release was notable for containing an interview of Tomino titled, . Tomino has also made a similar comment on a Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam DVD interview. Years after the show was first broadcast in Japan, the show aired on the anime satellite television network, Animax, in Japan and later its respective networks worldwide, including Hong Kong, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and other regions. In 2015, Sunrise released Victory Gundam on Blu-Ray in two box sets using a new HD master and telecine. The sets also included audio commentary, exclusive booklets, and cover art by mechanical designer Hajime Katoki. As with the DVDs, Tomino reiterated his disdain for the series in promotional materials, claiming that he wished to "deny [the show] completely" and asked that viewers of the set "find what went wrong with 'Mobile Suit V Gundam'." In 2016, Sunrise released the series on both Blu-ray and DVD in North America via Right Stuf Inc. in two sets. Other media Novelization A series of five novels were written by director Yoshiyuki Tomino and initially published under the Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko label. This adaptation generally follows the plot of the anime but is notable for additional scenes and dialogue that contain graphic sexual references. In addition, the Victory 2 Gundam does not appear in the novel. Instead it is replaced by a Victory-type with a mounted Minovsky Drive. The "Bugs", which were the automatic manslaughtering weapons of Gundam F91, also make an appearance. Manga adaptations A more lighthearted manga adaptation of the anime by Toshiya Iwamura was published on the Comic BomBom manga magazine. The serious atmosphere from the show was absent from the manga, replaced by gags, less serious personalities, and more super robot-style action scenes. A gag parody manga by Tsukasa Kotobuki entitled, was published throughout 1993 to 1994 in the Media Comic Dyne and MS Saga magazines, and was later republished in 2012 by Kadokawa Shoten, which included two side-stories from Gundam Ace involving Kai Shiden, and a parody story of Gundam Wing. Sequel manga A sequel to the series by Yuichi Hasegawa, , also titled and , was published in 1994 in the Shōnen Kids magazine. The manga occurs during the events of the anime, when Uso travels to Jupiter and encounters an old man by the name of Grey Stoke. Video games A Super Famicom side-scrolling action game based on the show was released in Japan on March 11, 1994. It was developed by Tose and published by Bandai. The series also made appearances in Banpresto's (now Bandai Namco) Super Robot Wars series, debuting in Super Robot Wars 2G for the Game Boy and recently, in the mobile game Super Robot Wars X-Ω and the Compati Hero Series as well as appearing in various Gundam crossover games. References External links 1993 anime television series debuts 1994 Japanese television series endings 1994 manga 1995 manga Victory Kadokawa Shoten manga Shōnen manga Sunrise (company) TV Asahi original programming	[ -1.050808310508728, -0.1375114917755127, 0.16371268033981323, -0.21019887924194336, -0.29154613614082336, 0.6121821999549866, -0.22086158394813538, -0.4351646304130554, -0.2564567029476166, -0.10610498487949371, -0.16614848375320435, 0.19823071360588074, -0.10766397416591644, 0.6109896898269653, -0.31875574588775635, 0.1216098964214325, 0.42307260632514954, 0.3326517641544342, -0.3662653863430023, -0.5421399474143982, -0.6620227694511414, -0.33695220947265625, 0.7586683034896851, 0.10747969895601273, 0.07230351120233536, 0.2725214660167694, 0.2835026681423187, 1.3238557577133179, 0.4909873306751251, 0.19258058071136475, -0.12097708135843277, 0.053024355322122574, 0.45904022455215454, 0.24845367670059204, -0.4252426326274872, 0.14915956556797028, -0.5453088879585266, 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253052	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards	1997 Governor General's Awards	The winners of the 1997 Governor General's Literary Awards were announced on November 18 by Donna Scott, Chairman of the Canada Council for the Arts. Each winner received a cheque for $10,000. English Fiction Jane Urquhart, The Underpainter Sandra Birdsell, The Two-Headed Calf Matt Cohen, Last Seen Elizabeth Hay, Small Change Eric McCormack, First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women Poetry Dionne Brand, Land to Light On Marilyn Bowering, Autobiography Patrick Friesen, A Broken Bowl Carole Glasser Langille, In Cannon Cave Don McKay, Apparatus Drama Ian Ross, FareWel Maureen Hunter, Atlantis Lee MacDougall, High Life Jason Sherman, Reading Hebron Judith Thompson, Sled Non-fiction Rachel Manley, Drumblair – Memories of a Jamaican Childhood Wade Davis, One River: Explorations and Discoveries in the Amazon Rain Forest Catherine Dunphy, Morgentaler: A Difficult Hero Terry Glavin, This Ragged Place – Travels Across the Landscape Blair Stonechild and Bill Waiser, Loyal till Death – Indians and the North-West Rebellion Children's Literature – Text Kit Pearson, Awake and Dreaming Cheryl Foggo, One Thing That's True James Heneghan, Wish Me Luck Teddy Jam, The Fishing Summer Barbara Nichol, Dippers Children's Literature – Illustrations Barbara Reid, The Party Blair Drawson, Flying Dimitri Marie-Louise Gay, Rumpelstiltskin Robin Muller, The Angel Tree Ludmila Zeman, The First Red Maple Leaf Translation – French to English Howard Scott, The Euguelion Jane Brierley, Canadians of Old Patricia Claxton, Baroque at Dawn David Homel, A Drifting Year Nancy Huston, The Goldberg Variations French Fiction Aude, Cet imperceptible mouvement Bernard Assiniwi, La Saga des Béothuks Lise Bissonnette, Quittes et Doubles – Scènes de réciprocité Pierre Morency, La Vie entière – Histoires naturelles du Nouveau Monde Pierre Ouellet, Légende dorée Poetry Pierre Nepveu, Romans-fleuves Nicole Brossard, Vertige de l'avant-scène Serge Legagneur, Poèmes choisis, 1961–1997 Paul Chanel Malenfant, Fleuves Hélène Monette, Plaisirs et Paysages kitsch Drama Yvan Bienvenue, Dits et Inédits Jasmine Dubé, La Bonne Femme Marie-Line Laplante, Une tache sur la lune Robert Marinier, L'Insomnie Larry Tremblay, Ogre – Cornemuse Non-Fiction Roland Viau, Enfants du néant et mangeurs d'âmes – Guerre, culture et société en Iroquoisie ancienne Fernand Dumont, Une foi partagée Yolande Geadah, Femmes voilées, intégrismes démasqués Alain Bernard Marchand, Tintin au pays de la ferveur François Ricard, Gabrielle Roy – Une vie Children's Literature – Text Michel Noël, Pien Dominique Demers, Maïna, tomes 1 et 2 Agathe Génois, Sarah, je suis là! Jacques Godbout, Une leçon de chasse Maryse Pelletier, Une vie en éclats Children's Literature – Illustrations Stéphane Poulin, Poil de serpent, dent d'araignée Leanne Franson, L'Ourson qui voulait une Juliette Stéphane Jorisch, Casse-Noisette Gilles Tibo, Simon et le petit cirque Translation – English to French Marie José Thériault, Arracher les montagnes François Barcelo, La Face cachée des pierres Nicole Côté, Verre de tempête Pierrot Lambert, L'Insight: Étude de la compréhension humaine Governor General's Awards Governor General's Awards Governor General's Awards	[ -0.9300365447998047, 0.4106902480125427, 0.12780435383319855, 0.4359244704246521, -0.8766208291053772, 0.2584538459777832, 0.6916895508766174, 0.8384817838668823, -0.09732596576213837, -0.5794807076454163, -0.11989535391330719, 0.4080905318260193, 0.1259210705757141, -0.14782050251960754, 0.23970922827720642, 0.41841694712638855, 0.046025797724723816, 0.3828620910644531, -0.270622193813324, -0.5200052261352539, 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253053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20Fighter%20G%20Gundam	Mobile Fighter G Gundam	Mobile Fighter G Gundam, also known in Japan as (and commonly referred to as simply G Gundam), is a 1994 Japanese animated television series produced by Sunrise and the fifth installment in the long running Gundam franchise. The series is set in the "Future Century", where space colonies representing countries have agreed to hold an organized fighting tournament known as the "Gundam Fight" every four years to settle their political differences in place of war. Each colony sends a representative fighter piloting a giant, humanoid mecha called a Gundam to battle on Earth until only one is left, and the winning nation earns the right to govern over all the colonies until the next tournament. The events of G Gundam follow Domon Kasshu, the pilot of Neo Japan's Shining Gundam during the 13th Gundam Fight. Domon's mission is to both win the tournament and to track down his older brother, who is believed to have stolen the mysterious Devil Gundam (AKA the Dark Gundam outside of Japan/Asia) from the Neo Japan government. Commemorating the 15th anniversary of the Gundam brand, G Gundam was produced to reboot the waning popularity of the long-running franchise. It is the first Gundam series with a self-contained plot set in an alternate calendar era from the original "Universal Century" timeline. Additionally, the show casts aside many of the conventions set by its predecessors and takes many new steps for its franchise, such as a focus on martial arts and decisive, personal duels as opposed to large-scale military conflicts. G Gundam was directed by Yasuhiro Imagawa, with its settings and characters significantly influenced by the director's interest in world cinema. The anime's real world locales were drawn from numerous foreign films and were planned using location scouting. G Gundam ran for 49 episodes on Japan's TV Asahi from April 22, 1994, to March 31, 1995. An English-language version produced by Bandai Entertainment aired in the United States on Cartoon Network's Toonami block beginning on August 5, 2002. Since its original broadcast, G Gundam has spawned manga, audio albums, video games, guide books, and several lines of scale models. During its conception and Japanese television debut, G Gundam was met with controversy among its production staff, sponsors, and fans because the show takes a wildly different turn from all previous entries in the Gundam universe. However, for that very reason the series is cited as a milestone in its long-running franchise and ultimately proved very popular in the region. Reception for G Gundam has been generally positive in North America. Reviewers praised the primary characters and mecha as unique and stylized, but strongly disagreed on the plot. While some critics enjoyed the bold and campy divergence from the more dramatic social and political undertones traditional of Gundam, others found G Gundams story diffusely shallow, repetitive, or not up to standards set by its anime predecessors. Plot Unlike previous series in the Gundam franchise which are set in the "Universal Century" timeline, Mobile Fighter G Gundam takes place in an alternate "Future Century" universe. Within this timeline, much of mankind has abandoned a ruined Earth to live in space colonies. The countries on Earth have corresponding colonies just outside the planet's atmosphere. Rather than fight wars for political and social dominance, the colonies agree to hold a "Gundam Fight" tournament every four years. Each country sends to Earth a representative piloting a highly advanced, humanoid mobile fighter called a Gundam. The Gundams compete with one another in one-on-one battles, under a strict set of rules, until only one fighter remains; the nation represented by the winner earns the right to rule all of space for that period. Each Gundam is controlled directly by the user within the cockpit using the "Mobile Trace System", a gesture recognition and feedback mechanism whereby the Gundam mimics the pilot's own body motion, combat skills, and weapon-wielding capabilities. G Gundam opens at the start of the 13th Gundam Fight in Future Century year 60 and follows Neo Japan's Domon Kasshu, fighter of his nation's Shining Gundam and bearer of the coveted "King of Hearts" martial arts crest. Aside from winning the tournament, Domon's mission is to track down his fugitive, older brother Kyoji, who allegedly stole the experimental Devil Gundam from Neo Japan's government, leaving their mother dead and their father (Dr. Raizo Kasshu) to be arrested and placed in a cryogenic state. Under orders from Major Ullube Ishikawa, Domon and his childhood friend and mechanic Rain Mikamura travel from country to country, challenging each one's Gundam while searching for clues to the whereabouts of Kyoji and the Devil Gundam. Domon's initial matches with Neo America's Chibodee Crocket, Neo France's George DeSand, Neo China's Sai Sai Ci, and Neo Russia's Argo Gulskii end in draws, gaining mutual respect among the fighters. As they encounter Gundam pilots who had come in contact with the Devil Gundam, Domon and Rain learn of its unique cellular properties to regenerate, multiply, and evolve by infecting organic matter and causing violent behavior in living things. The duo then journey to Neo Tokyo, a city decimated by the Devil Gundam's army of mobile weapons. Domon reunites with his esteemed martial arts instructor Master Asia, who is also the champion of the last Gundam Fight, the former King of Hearts, and one-time leader of an elite group of Gundam fighters called the Shuffle Alliance. After Domon and Rain help the city's survivors defend their last outpost in Shinjuku, Master Asia reveals himself as a servant of the Devil Gundam, having also gained control over Chibodee, George, Sai Sai Ci, and Argo using Devil Gundam (DG) cells. The four remaining members of the Shuffle Alliance intervene and vow to destroy their previous leader for his crimes. Ultimately, the Alliance members offer their lives in purging the DG cells from Domon's four comrades and bestow each of them with a Shuffle Alliance crest as their successors. Kyoji and the enormous Devil Gundam eventually appear from beneath the ground of Shinjuku, but shortly thereafter vanish alongside Master Asia. As the Shuffle Alliance trains in the Guiana Highlands for the Gundam Fight finals, Master Asia and the Devil Gundam reappear. With the help of his friends and a new ally in Neo Germany's masked warrior Schwarz Bruder, Domon defeats the Devil Gundam. When the Shining Gundam becomes incapacitated during the battle, Domon desperately manages to activate a newly acquired God Gundam, escape Master Asia, and make his way to the finals set in Neo Hong Kong. The Gundam Fight finals are presided over by Wong Yunfat, Neo Hong Kong's prime minister and the current ruler of the space colonies and Earth. Wong chooses to have the qualifying nations battle in one-on-one and tag team preliminary matches to reach a battle royale on Lantau Island, where the tournament is to end with the winner facing the defending champion Master Asia. Having gained possession of the Devil Gundam, Wong secretly plots to revive and control it as his trump card to inevitably maintain his own power over space. Domon and his companions make their way to the battle royale while several truths concerning the Devil Gundam are unveiled. Rain's father, Dr. Mikamura, eventually explains that the Devil Gundam (originally called the Ultimate Gundam) was constructed by Dr. Kasshu to rejuvenate the dying Earth. Jealous of his genius colleague, Dr. Mikamura had Neo Japan's officials attempt to confiscate Kasshu's creation. To prevent the military from using his father's invention for its own agenda, Kyoji fled with and crash landed the Gundam on Earth, where its computer malfunctioned, triggering its malevolent activity. Ullube subsequently had Dr. Kasshu arrested, framed Kyoji as a criminal, and used Domon and Rain as pawns in recovering the Gundam. In a separate confession, Master Asia discloses to Domon that, having been distressed by the utter destruction wrought by the Gundam Fights, he planned to use the Devil Gundam to wipe out humanity and allow Earth to heal naturally. The battle on Lantau Island culminates with Domon fatally besting Master Asia in a final confrontation, while Kyoji and Schwarz sacrifice themselves so that Domon can attack the Devil Gundam's cockpit and disable it once again. Though the schemes of both Wong and Master Asia are foiled, Ullube quietly claims the Devil Gundam and transports it to Neo Japan's space colony for his own purpose. Having been corrupted by DG cells with ambitions of supreme power, Ullube kidnaps Rain and places her into the Devil Gundam's core to act as its energy source. The hulking monstrosity then merges with the colony and begins absorbing Earth itself. As the entire world's Gundams unite to assault the Devil Gundam from the outside, the Shuffle Alliance breaks inside the colony and destroys Ullube. Finally, Domon professes his love for Rain and releases her from the core. Invoking the power of the King of Hearts, the couple vanquishes the Devil Gundam once and for all. Production Staff and conception Mobile Fighter G Gundam was produced by Sunrise in association with advertising agencies Sotsu and Dentsu, and toy company Bandai. The series was created to commemorate the 15th anniversary of the Gundam franchise, created by Yoshiyuki Tomino in 1979. G Gundam was directed by Yasuhiro Imagawa, known for his work on the Giant Robo and Getter Robo Armageddon original video animations (OVAs). G Gundam was chiefly written and supervised by Fuyunori Gobu, a veteran screenwriter for various Sunrise properties such as Shippū! Iron Leaguer and The King of Braves GaoGaiGar. Many of the principal production crew members for G Gundam were carried over the previous season's Mobile Suit Victory Gundam, including character designer Hiroshi Ōsaka and mechanical designers Kunio Okawara and Hajime Katoki. Manga artist Kazuhiko Shimamoto collaborated on the show's character designs. Kimitoshi Yamane acted as a back-up mechanical designer and has since worked on Sunrise's acclaimed series Cowboy Bebop and The Vision of Escaflowne. Hirotoshi Sano, previously credited for Tekkaman Blade, was responsible for directing the mechanical animation in G Gundam, but also produced much of show's promotional artwork seen on home media covers. The musical score for G Gundam was composed by Kohei Tanaka. The opening theme song "Flying in the Sky" performed by Hitofumi Ushima and the closing theme by Etsuko Sai are played for the first 25 episodes of the series. The opening theme "Trust You Forever" by Ushima and the closing theme by Takehide Inoue are played for the remaining episodes. Like other early mecha anime, the Mobile Suit Gundam franchise was backed by sponsors whose main interest was having television programs advertise plastic models and toys. Gundam fiction set itself apart from others in the same genre with its dramatic plot devices, morally complex characters, and depictions of the horrors of war. These aspects, combined with its "Real Robot" mecha approach, made Gundam immensely popular for several years. After the broadcast of Victory Gundam beginning in 1993, Imagawa, a young protégé of Tomino, was selected as the director of the next installment in the franchise, titled Polcarino Gundam. However, as Gundam popularity dwindled and sales began to drop by this time, the sponsors forced the creators to reboot the brand with the newly titled Mobile Fighter G Gundam. Conceived as a less realistic "Super Robot" series, G Gundam abandoned its military roots and was aimed at younger viewers to increase toy sales. Alterations including a lack of a warfare-centered plot, Gundams stereotypically based on nationality, and Earth as a ring were originally seen as blasphemous to Imagawa and much of Sunrise's staff. Notwithstanding, Imagawa became more supportive of the changes after seeing some impressive, complex designs in G Gundams sponsor-created toys. He eventually settled into his position, taking advice from his mentor. "If you continue to make a copy of a copy of a copy," he stated, "eventually the image degrades to nothing." Imagawa thought it was important for creators and sponsors to buy into each other's ideas for the benefit of a product's success. The director also commented that in order to sell a product like G Gundam to an audience resistant of such ambitious changes, creators must instill their own personalities to overcome hardships and make the work unique. By the end of production, Imagawa considered it meaningless to compare G Gundam to other parts of the franchise and disregarded the concept of a "conventional" Gundam series. "This is MY Gundam," he proclaimed, "And I've made a Gundam that I can be proud of." Influences As a film fanatic, Imagawa perceived that referencing world cinema would help illustrate the real world settings in G Gundam. The production staff primarily wished to utilize sightseeing guide books, but found that these books did not show the locations from the perspective of everyday people. The battlegrounds in the first several episodes were conveyed using a number of multimedia works including films by Federico Fellini, Woody Allen, Alfred Hitchcock, and Yılmaz Güney; films based on Wong Fei-hung; video clips of the band Swing Out Sister; music by the groups Genesis and Magma; and scenery from Monty Python acts. Each episode's introductory narration, provided by the character Stalker, was inspired by American television dramas such as Star Trek and The Twilight Zone. In the same manner, certain G Gundam character names and their techniques were drawn from films, most prominently the Hong Kong wuxia genre. For instance, the alternate name of antagonist Master Asia, , is named directly after the protagonist of a film of the same title. Additionally, the villain Wong Yunfat is based heavily on Hong Kong star Chow Yun-fat, specifically the actor's appearance in the film God of Gamblers. Some elements in G Gundam were taken from other anime and manga. A key scene at the series midpoint involving the Shining Gundam's gold-colored "Super Mode" was inspired by Saint Seiya. Another instance towards the show's climax, where the hero's rivals join him to fight a greater opposing force, was a commonly used motif in Weekly Shōnen Jump comics, most notably Ring ni Kakero. Design Some of the settings in G Gundam were planned using location scouting, a technique Imagawa learned while working on his directorial debut, Mister Ajikko. He stated that this type of research can "upgrade" animation production quality when supplemented by indirect experience from watching films. For the prison in Neo Russia, Imagawa drew from the architecture of the Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary, which he coincidentally toured one year before G Gundams development. When his superiors requested he restrict the show's setting to one location, Imagawa used the city Shinjuku (beginning in the 12th episode) as an opportunity for his staff to learn and practice location scouting within Japan. Changing countries every week in the show's early run was overwhelming for the set designers and background artists, yet the crew felt Imagawa "over-elaborated" on Shinjuku. The story transitioned to Guyana so that the artists could apply a simpler, dense forest environment. Once this portion of the anime's plot concluded, staff members flew to Hong Kong to research and record for the Neo Hong Kong story arc. Imagawa mentioned that Neo Hong Kong does not possess its own space colony in G Gundam, so he wanted to accurately depict the country as one that continues to thrive on Earth. The director speculated that it would be difficult to illustrate Hong Kong due to its amount of detail, but he was very satisfied with the background artist's work. Imagawa credits himself for conceiving a majority of the various Gundams participating in the finals of the Neo Hong Kong arc. The director worked closely with mecha artists to create these "one-shot" opponents and found many of the comical and eccentric designs very charming, especially the windmill-shaped Hurricane Gundam of Neo Holland. The designs for Neo Singapore's Ashura Gundam and Neo Malaysia's Skull Gundam were included in the show as winners of contests held by the Kodansha publications Comic BonBon and TV Magazine; Imagawa expressed regret that these Gundams were used as enemy characters, since they were designed by young fans of the anime. Around the 40th episode, Imagawa focused on adding a romantic theme into G Gundams narrative. He explained that he was "not good at depicting female characters" when directing and he had not previously "written a 'normal' relationship of man and woman". G Gundam was Imagawa's first attempt at a "love story", though he admitted it took him the entire length of the series demonstrate this point. The show's final scene shows Domon and Rain riding off together on the horse Fuun Saiki; Imagawa sensed that the cliché of the hero with his damsel on a white horse was "the safe road" given the director's lack of experience with love stories. Imagawa polarized the production studio staff when he decided to insert the English phrase "Love-Love" into Domon and Rain's final attack against the Devil Gundam. Sunrise producer Masahiko Minami protested that it sounded so "unseemly" that he even confronted Imagawa about it at the director's home. However, Imagawa not only thought the phrase had a nice ring to it, but wanted to include it because he had already found success in defying convention with G Gundam. Imagawa was prepared to take the risk of any harsh criticism for its use in the finale. "I didn't even care if I wouldn't be able to work in the industry because of that 'Love-Love'," he said. "I truly believe that one cannot work as a director without enthusiasm and a love of challenges." Media Anime The Mobile Fighter G Gundam television series originally aired in Japan the terrestrial channel TV Asahi from April 22, 1994, to March 31, 1995, for a total of 49 episodes. The show would not reach North American audiences until many years later. Mobile Suit Gundam Wing, a series that succeeded G Gundam on Japanese television in 1995, was first localized in North America by Bandai Entertainment in early 2000. Gundam Wing was a huge success in the United States while being broadcast on the popular afternoon Toonami block of Cartoon Network often beating block stalwarts Dragon Ball Z and Sailor Moon and was the highest-rated program on all of Cartoon Network for a time. In late 2001, Bandai acquired the rights to distribute an English-dubbed version of G Gundam with voice casting recorded by Ocean Productions in their Blue Water studio in Calgary, Alberta. The English-language version of G Gundam premiered as a free screening at the Sony Metreon Action Theatre in San Francisco on March 30, 2002. G Gundam began airing on Toonami on August 5, 2002. Due to the channel's censorship policies, some edits were made for the broadcast. This mainly involved altering the names of several mobile fighters, such as changing God Gundam and Devil Gundam to Burning Gundam and Dark Gundam respectively. The show was also aired on the channel's "Midnight Run" and as part of its Saturday programming in November 2002. Cartoon Network officially dropped G Gundam from its afternoon schedule the following June. The series has since been re-broadcast on the Japanese cable network Family Gekijo and the satellite channel Animax. Bandai Entertainment released G Gundam on DVD in North America in four box sets and in twelve separate volumes (each disc containing four to five episodes). The DVDs contain both the English-dubbed and Japanese-subtitled versions, as well as extras such as production notes from the director. The first three volumes and first box set were released on November 5, 2002. The second box set and next three volumes were released on February 4, 2003. The third box set and next three volumes were released on April 22, 2003. The final box set and last three volumes were released on June 17, 2003. Bandai re-released the series as part of its "Anime Legends" label in two larger collections on May 9 and June 27, 2006. G Gundam has had similar DVD releases in Japan; a collection containing the entire series was placed on sale October 27, 2010. G Gundam has further been made available on various video on demand services including Amazon Instant Video, the broadband access site Bandai Channel, and Bandai's official GundamInfo YouTube channel. Due to the closure of Bandai Entertainment, the series has been out-of-print. On October 11, 2014, at their 2014 New York Comic-Con panel, Sunrise announced they will be releasing all of the Gundam franchise, including G Gundam in North America though distribution from Right Stuf Inc., beginning in Spring 2015. On March 29, 2017, Crunchyroll began streaming the series on their website. Right Stuf will release the series on Blu-ray and DVD in 2018. Manga and light novels A large amount of printed fiction related to Mobile Fighter G Gundam has been published since the original Japanese airing of the series. The first was a manga adaptation of the show, illustrated by Kōichi Tokita and serialized in Kodansha's Comic BonBon from April 1994 to April 1995. Three bound volumes (tankōbon) collecting the individual chapters were released by Kodansha between October 6, 1994, and May 6, 1995. During the airing of the TV series in North America, Tokyopop acquired the rights to publish an English-translated version of the manga. All three volumes were released between June 17 and October 7, 2003. A light novel adaptation of the TV series by Yoshitake Suzuki was published in three books by Kadokawa Shoten under its Sneaker Bunko label between August 29, 1995, and March 1, 1997. In addition to the adaptations, a plethora of one-shot side stories and spin-offs to the main plot that have been published in various Japanese magazines. Two manga were serialized in certain editions of Kodansha's Comic BonBon. The first was a side story titled , detailing Sai Sai Ci's journey to improve his fighting skills after losing to Domon in the 13th Gundam Fight finals. The manga was written and illustrated by Toshiya Murakami, serialized from December 1994 to April 1995 and released as a tankōbon on June 6, 1995. The second was a prequel story titled , telling of a young Master Asia's participation in the 7th Gundam Fight. Authored by Kitarou Ototoi, this manga was serialized from March to December 1996 and released in tankōbon form on January 8, 1997. From 2010 to 2016, Kadokawa Shoten's Gundam Ace magazine serialized a 26-volume G Gundam manga retelling written by series director Yasuhiro Imagawa and illustrated by the show's character collaborator Kazuhiko Shimamoto with his associated Honō Production studio. Imagawa described this manga as "the complete version of the story, the master work version". The first part, titled , was serialized from July 26, 2010, to August 26, 2011; seven tankōbon were released from December 25, 2010, to December 26, 2011. The second part, subtitled , was serialized from September 26, 2011, to January 26, 2013; eight tankōbon were released from December 26, 2011, to July 26, 2013. A third part, subtitled , was serialized from February 26, 2013, to 2015; seven tankōbon volumes were released from July 26, 2013, to August 26, 2015. A fourth and final part, subtitled , was serialized from 2015 to 2016; four tankōbon volumes were released from August 26, 2015, to September 26, 2016. CDs A total of four soundtrack albums containing the background and vocal music of Mobile Fighter G Gundam were released during the show's original television run in Japan. All of them were republished by Starchild on March 5, 1999. The first album, Round 1 & 2, is two discs of music. The second album, Round 3, contains music and a special audio drama featuring the show's Japanese voice actors. The third album, Round 4, contains the rest of the background music. The final album, Round 5, features vocal image songs performed by the voice cast as well as instrumental versions of the show's two opening themes. Vocal songs from the show have also been included on various Gundam music compilations. Video games Bandai has published three Japan-exclusive fighting video games based solely on Mobile Fighter G Gundam. The first game, developed by Pandora Box for the Super Famicom, was released on December 27, 1994. The second game, also developed by Natsume, was released for the PlayStation on October 10, 2002, as the 12th volume of the Simple Characters 2000 series. The third game was released for mobile phones supported by Japan's i-mode and FOMA services on November 6, 2006. In addition, characters and mecha from G Gundam have appeared in various Gundam crossover games such as Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters in Space, the SD Gundam G Generation series, the Dynasty Warriors: Gundam series, and Banpresto's Super Robot Wars franchise, among others. Other merchandise Bandai has marketed a large amount of collectible merchandise based on G Gundam in both Japanese and North American territories. This includes plastic model kits ranging from 1:144 to 1:60 scales; expensive garage kits made from resin; and action figures, some of which are exclusive to North America. Sunrise produced a promotional short film centered on G Gundam as the third entry of an OVA series known as Gundam Evolve, packaged as a limited edition bonus with the Master Grade GF13-017NJ Shining Gundam model kit. Numerous guide/art books relating to G Gundam have been published. There are two Japanese books published by MediaWorks: released in August 1994 and released in June 1995. Another book, , was published by Dai Nippon Kaiga Co. in September 1995. Rapport released an art book titled in 1994. Hobby Japan published a book in its Gundam Weapons series in July 2002, dedicated to collecting and building scale models based on the show. An English-language guide book, Mobile Fighter G Gundam Technical Manual, was released by Tokyopop in North America on November 12, 2002. The Japanese clothing company Cospa sells officially licensed apparel featuring G Gundam. Reception Mobile Fighter G Gundam received mediocre television ratings during its run on Japanese television in 1994 and 1995. According to Nikkei Business Publications, the series saw an average of just 4.02% viewership for the Kantō region and Greater Tokyo Area throughout its 49-episode run. The overall ratings for G Gundam were higher than that of the previous series Mobile Suit Victory Gundam and slightly lower than the following series Mobile Suit Gundam Wing. Critically, G Gundam was met with some controversy upon its Japanese debut. G Gundam replicates very little of the dramatic, militaristic conventions of prior Gundam series, setting itself apart with a different tone; taking place outside the franchise's main timeline; and foregoing large-scale, armed conflicts in favor of tournament-style, martial arts matches. Director Yasuhiro Imagawa claimed to have taken a large amount of criticism for these changes from both fans and design staff members. G Gundam ultimately proved very popular in Japan. Early in the show's North American run, Bandai reported that G Gundam had the top ratings of any anime show for the period. The company considered the show to be a "hit" at the time. However, officials for Toonami recounted in 2006 that no Gundam series earned significant viewer ratings after the first North American airing of Gundam Wing in 2000. G Gundam received an overall positive critical reception amid its mainstream exposure in the United States. Nonetheless, views on G Gundams plot remain largely mixed. Negative reactions to the plot mostly stem from its stark contrast to preceding Gundam entries that have traditionally focused on deep political and social issues in the midst of war. AnimeNation writer John Oppliger considered G Gundam to be "the plague of the Gundam franchise" and "one of the biggest mis-steps in anime history" due to its elimination of such serious subtext. Both Bamboo Dong of the Anime News Network and Duncan Scott of Protoculture Addicts were also initially disappointed for the same reason, with the latter writer feeling that the series features "Gundam" in its title purely for marketing reasons. Derrick L. Tucker of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews called the series' episodic storyline its "most profound weakness", whereby "the narrative exists to move the viewer from fight to fight". Tucker also found that the potential for its more dramatic themes, such as tension between Domon and Master Asia or Domon's romantic relationship with Rain, is "overshadowed from start to finale by the show's domineering, if repetitive action sets". Other critics were more accepting of the plot as it progressed, overlooking comparisons to past Gundam series. Animerica editor Mark Simmons, Martin Ouellette of Protoculture Addicts, and anime journalist Mike Toole have all shared opinions that the show can be immensely enjoyed by not taking it too seriously. David Smith of IGN denoted G Gundam "the greatest giant robot series that has ever been" because of the seemingly "over-the-top" nature that drives the premise. Smith asserted, "G Gundam maintains a completely straight face through every second. That's the trick, because to let the audience laugh for one moment would break the effect. You don't laugh at G Gundam – you become completely absorbed in the wondrous violence of it all." Simmons concluded that the addition of components like "nanotechnological plagues, evil armies, zombie legions, betrayal, and heartbreak [...] make the end result entertaining for more sophisticated viewers as well as for youngsters enticed by the colorful shiny robots". Toole stated that despite valid criticism that the plot is "silly and exaggerated" and its introductory episodes suffering from "battle of the week fare", the debut of Master Asia triggers "some great character development". Dong similarly appreciated the show more in its Neo Hong Kong story arc and perceived it much easier for a new viewer to begin watching at any point in the series than with other Gundam installments. The large cast of characters and mecha in G Gundam has received mostly praise from critics. Toole, Tucker, Ouellette, and Smith made positive mention of the primary characters for their unique designs and attributes; all four reviewers have noted many of the supporting characters to be overly stereotypical with regard to their nationality. Toole particularly enjoyed the protagonist Domon, whom he described as very well-rounded, and regarded Master Asia as "both a great hero and a great villain". Tucker interpreted the main characters "stylized and distinctive" which possess individual motivations that give them "dynamic appeal". Tucker was also impressed with the design variety and color format of the mobile fighters, which break the mold set by the conventional Gundam template. Toole and Smith together felt that the more campy Gundam stereotypes added to the show's endearment. While referring to Neo America's mobile fighter, Smith exclaimed, "This show has a cowboy/boxer/quarterback/surfer Gundam, for God's sake." Simmons equivalently and sarcastically summarized, "This is a world where the space colony of Neo Holland is represented by a Gundam that transforms into a giant windmill." Legacy During the North American DVD production interviews for Mobile Fighter G Gundam, Imagawa was asked to address the message "See you again Gundam Fight 14" shown at the last cut of the final episode. He answered that it was simply word play and had no intention of affirming a sequel to the anime. Granted its large number of manga side-stories, Imagawa surmised that it would be "impossible" to create an animated sequel or OVA series to G Gundam and disclosed he would not direct it if there were. He said, "I believe G Gundam is a series that started as a program for kids and eventually worked out because I stayed vividly aware of that until the very last moment, overcoming a lot of obstacles and bad situations (in terms of directing)." Oppliger found that G Gundam had established a legacy within the anime industry, albeit a different one from its 1979 namesake. He elaborated that G Gundam represents a "catalyst for development within Japan’s anime industry" for being the first complete reboot of the Gundam franchise and the first of many Gundam TV series to feature a self-contained storyline separate from the traditional franchise continuity. In 2001, G Gundam was listed by the Japanese magazine Animage among the top 100 most important anime in history in terms of historical significance, influence and impact on the anime industry. References External links 1994 anime television series debuts 1994 manga 2010 manga Bandai Entertainment anime titles Dying Earth (genre) G Gundam Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko Kazuhiko Shimamoto Kōichi Tokita Fictional martial sports in anime and manga Odex Sunrise (company) Toonami TV Asahi original programming Shōnen manga	[ -0.5753283500671387, -0.1545337438583374, 0.17312166094779968, -0.24243587255477905, -0.6278262734413147, 0.5493927597999573, -0.2586522400379181, -0.13096663355827332, -0.27453741431236267, -0.1276405304670334, -0.35094788670539856, 0.27951595187187195, -0.4347272515296936, 0.537881076335907, -0.5124970078468323, 0.05588538199663162, 0.7241917848587036, 0.24339072406291962, -0.5852302312850952, -0.6215176582336426, -0.4232143759727478, -0.3031875193119049, 0.51398104429245, 0.12041661143302917, 0.06116046756505966, 0.24491845071315765, 0.6475690007209778, 1.4781242609024048, 0.8767256736755371, 0.2621876895427704, 0.20604321360588074, 0.2945634722709656, 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253054	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Award%20for%20Best%20Revival%20of%20a%20Musical	Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical	The Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical has been awarded since 1994. Before that time, both plays and musicals were considered together for the Tony Award for Best Revival. The award is given to the best musical play which has already appeared on Broadway in a previous production, or is regarded as being in the common theatrical repertoire. The award goes to the producers of the musical. Like Best Musical, songs from the musicals that are nominated for this award are usually performed during the ceremony before this award is presented. Winners and nominees 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s Award records Multiple wins 2 Wins The King and I La Cage aux Folles Multiple nominations 2 Nominations Annie Carousel Company Fiddler on the Roof Follies Grease Gypsy Hello, Dolly! How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying Jesus Christ Superstar The King and I Kiss Me, Kate La Cage aux Folles Oklahoma! She Loves Me References External links Tony Awards Official site Tony Awards at Internet Broadway database Listing Tony Awards at broadwayworld.com Tony Awards Awards established in 1994 1994 establishments in New York City	[ -1.3000870943069458, -0.34035032987594604, 0.18646854162216187, 0.04261429235339165, -0.4321414828300476, -0.0883835107088089, 0.7072122693061829, 0.8174571990966797, -0.6242871880531311, 0.15794603526592255, -0.2683650553226471, 0.48901575803756714, 0.2333454042673111, 0.491610050201416, -0.6454162001609802, 0.920242965221405, 0.7034328579902649, -0.1935482919216156, 0.08063475787639618, -0.8107368350028992, -0.20272111892700195, -0.07005956023931503, 0.6480240225791931, 0.047144971787929535, -0.4287179708480835, 0.1196056380867958, -0.3504340648651123, -0.16156408190727234, -0.4276132881641388, 0.4934464693069458, -0.06273894011974335, 0.15784616768360138, -0.038145024329423904, -0.35269927978515625, -0.7824254035949707, 0.7223900556564331, 0.5877330303192139, 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253055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn%20A%20Gundam	Turn A Gundam	, also stylized as ∀ Gundam, is a 1999 Japanese mecha anime series produced by Sunrise, and aired between 1999 and 2000 on Japan's FNN networks. It was created for the Gundam Big Bang 20th Anniversary celebration, and is the eighth installment in the Gundam franchise. It was later compiled in 2002 into two feature-length films entitled Turn A Gundam I: Earth Light and Turn A Gundam II: Moonlight Butterfly. Turn A Gundam was directed by Yoshiyuki Tomino, who is the main creator of the Gundam franchise, and who had written and directed many previous Gundam works. Tomino created the series as a means of "affirmatively accepting all of the Gundam series", which is reflected in the series title's use of the Turned A, a mathematical symbol representing universal quantification. Overview Turn A Gundam takes place in the year , in a different calendar era than the previous Gundam projects. The Japanese term for Correct Century, Seireki, is a wordplay on the Japanese term for the Common Era (CE) Western calendar system (; pronounced Seireki). The population of the Earth is, at the beginning of the series, limited to simple, steam-driven technology after past cataclysms; the Moon is populated by the Moonrace, humans who left Earth after a great war long ago to reside in technologically advanced lunar colonies until such time as they deemed the Earth suitable to return to. Plot Turn A Gundam follows the character Loran Cehack, a young member of the Moonrace. Selected as part of a reconnaissance mission to determine whether the Earth was fit for resettlement, Loran lands on the continent of North America, spends two years living on Earth as the chauffeur to the Heim family, and grows attached to its people. With the expectation of a peaceful resettlement operation from his people, he and a pair of his close friends sent down with him confirm that the Earth is now fit for the Moonrace to make their return. He's taken by surprise when the Moonrace intends to return to Earth via an offensive with mobile suits, and their first attack sparks a violent conflict between Earth and moon. The night of the first attack, Loran is at the White Doll, an enormous humanoid statue, for a coming-of-age ceremony. When the Moonrace attacks and the battle in town can be seen from a distance the children panic. In the midst of this panic, the White Doll shatters, revealing a metallic figure within, and the shrine collapses around it. During the panic, Loran recognizes the White Doll as a mobile suit, and succeeds in applying his knowledge of the Moonrace's mobile suits to pilot it. The death of the Heim patriarch in the attack pulls the family and Loran into the budding war; Loran becomes the designated pilot of the White Doll, and its discovery prompts the excavation of further mobile suits in the various "mountain cycles" covering the Earth. As the Moonrace's invasion rapidly turns into a full-fledged war against the increasingly armed Earthrace, it becomes clear that this state of affairs is divisive among both groups; while the Moonrace's queen Dianna Soreil attempts to negotiate with the local leaders for a peaceful solution by which the Moonrace can come to reside on the Earth, the militaristic among both populations interfere with the negotiations again and again, forcing the war to continue as opposed to accepting a compromise. Media Anime The series aired 50 episodes in Japan from April 9, 1999 to April 14, 2000 on Fuji TV, being the only Gundam anime to air on said channel. It was directed by Yoshiyuki Tomino and produced by Hideyuki Tomioka, Takayuki Yoshii, and Yoshihiro Suzuki. Character designs was by Akira Yasuda and Yoshihito Hishinuma while mecha designs were done by Atsushi Shigeta, Kunio Okawara, Syd Mead, Takumi Sakura. Shigemi Ikeda directed the art and Yota Tsuruoka directed the sound. Toshiaki Ohta and Yoko Kanno composed the music. The eponymous Turn A Gundam is notable because it is the first Gundam mecha designed entirely by a foreigner, the famous American visual futurist and conceptual artist Syd Mead. The first design of the new Gundam created by Mead was rejected at first by Yoshiyuki due to its extremely exotic appearance, since Tomino decided that he wanted a figure closer to previous Gundam designs. Because of its quality and impressive appearance, the old design was not discarded at all by Tomino, instead renamed and used by him as the antagonist mobile suit design Sumo. Mead designed the Turn A Gundam using real world industrial design aspects, which were aimed to make it look simple and realistic. The shield was one of the components designed by Syd Mead with little constraint from the production team. It needed to be big enough so that the suit could hide behind it, making it easier for the anime production staff to draw. Syd Mead imagined it to be like a clam shell and finally settled with a design that looked like the old MS-14 Gelgoog's shield from the first series. Turn A Gundam is the last entry of the Gundam franchise (not counting the compilations and future video game cut scenes) to be mostly hand painted on cels. Mobile Suit Gundam SEED, released in 2002, was the first series to switch entirely to digital ink and paint. Manga Relationship with other Gundam series Turn A Gundam has been cited by Director Tomino and other sources as a show that would unify the stories from the various Gundam series into one. Throughout the show, mobile suits resembling those from the eras depicted in previous Gundam shows and indicated to be preserved by nano machines for thousands of years, including as those of the Universal Century, are excavated by the show's various factions. In Episode 42, this plotline comes to a culmination as the history of the Correct Century timeline is shown in a collection of clips known as the , which is revealed to be events that took place in different Gundam series prior to Turn A Gundam, thus making those events part of the Correct Century timeline's history. The book 2001 Correct Century, A Bibliographical Study of "Dark History", printed in black pages in front of the Universal Century Gundam Officials Encyclopedia, is supposedly uncovered by a fictional Lecturer in Black History named Yokk Wakk Onimott during Correct Century 1993. Onimott spends two years to fix the broken pages, five years to interpret the language, and a year to find a publisher. He states that the book was first printed around 3,000 years ago by the Rhea branch of the Earth Federation Government University. Included in the book is a picture drawn by Kunio Okawara showing a mobile suit supposed to be MS-04 as a S.U.I.T. project of the Zeon forces in UC0072~0075. It supposedly was found in 1993 Correct Century in the mountain cycle Library A-a. The white page introduction by another fictional writer, Minaka Junkers, an economy assistant professor of the Rhea branch of the Earth Federation Government University, states the book was published in UC0100 to celebrate the Centennial anniversary of the Universal Century. Thus it is officially claimed that the Universal Century is a time before Correct Century, possibly around 3,000 years before the story of Turn A begins. Later sources would greatly increase the time frame between the two. The official English Gundam.info Archives website, created by Sunrise, describes Correct Century as, "similar to early 20th Century America, but is actually set tens of thousands of years in the distant future and incorporates every Universal Century and Another Gundam timeline that ever existed." The manual for the Master Grade Turn X gunpla, released in June 2014, would further explain the Dark History as the original Mobile Suit Gundam marking the beginning of humanity's space age, and Turn A as the final result, with all other Gundam series, including those that were produced prior to Turn A: G Gundam, Gundam Wing, and Gundam X, and those produced after: Gundam SEED, Gundam 00, and Gundam AGE, taking place in the tens of thousands of years in between the two shows. Theme Songs Openings: by Hideki Saijo (Ep. 2-38) "Century Color" by RAY-GUNS (Ep. 39 - 50) Endings: "Aura" by Shinji Tanimura (Ep. 1 - 40) by Yoko Kanno (sung by Aki Okui) (Ep. 41–49) by Aki Okui (Ep. 50) "After All" by Donna Burke (First compilation film ending) "Tsuki no Mayu" (Moon's Cocoon) by Yoko Kanno (sung by Aki Okui) (Second compilation film ending ~ In its full version right before the ending credits which are instrumental only) Inserts: "Moon" by Gabriela Robin (a.k.a. Yoko Kanno) by White Doll no Matsuri no Kaiichidou by Hideki Saijo by RRET Team "Black History" by Kaoru Nishino North American release On 22 July 2010, Bandai Entertainment announced that they had acquired the license to release Turn A Gundam in the United States and that they were planning to release the series on Region 1 DVD in 2011. The release was cancelled in January 2012 when Bandai Entertainment announced it would no longer offer any new products in the North American territory. On October 11, 2014 at their 2014 New York Comic-Con panel, Sunrise announced they will be releasing all of the Gundam franchise, including Turn A Gundam in North America though distribution from Right Stuf Inc., beginning in Spring 2015. On March 11, 2015, Right Stuf Inc. announced that the first 25 episodes will be released on June 30, 2015. Sunrise and Right Stuf will also release the Turn A Gundam films in addition to the TV series. Reception Mobile Suit Gundam 00 designer Yun Kōga cited Turn A when asked about her favorite series within the franchise. The Turn A Gundam was chosen to be the 100th Master Grade model of Gunpla (abbreviation of Gundam Plastic Model) and at an earlier time, the first release of the Turn A Gundam DVD box set was announced. Two of the three Model Magazine in Japan, Hobby Japan and Dengeki Hobby was informed to build their own Turn A model using the old 1/100 kit for a display in the official announcement of the MS100 Turn A. Hobby Japan modeller Seira Masuo drastically redesigned the unit while Dengeki Hobby modeller went for the original approach of diorama. Both of the models was placed next to the MG100 draft design at the Bandai display forum at the announcement of MG100. Tomino addressed his little disappointment in the design of Turn A Gundam not having good reception, but he commented that it was happy to see that it was not pointless work as Turn A was selected as the 100th Master Grade model. Turn A Gundam is also available on High Grade 1/144 scale and on Robot Spirit line. Turn X was released in Master Grade format in June 2014. References External links Official Website 1999 anime television series debuts 1999 manga 2002 anime films Japanese films 2004 manga Fuji TV original programming Gundam anime and manga Kadokawa Shoten manga Kodansha manga Kōichi Tokita Post-apocalyptic anime and manga Shōnen manga Sunrise (company)	[ -0.37169092893600464, -0.27802467346191406, 0.3808399438858032, -0.24914872646331787, -0.5767390727996826, 0.5229020118713379, -0.05651792138814926, -0.34853512048721313, -0.02204011008143425, -0.35182955861091614, 0.026523496955633163, 0.2881664037704468, -0.1387222558259964, 0.659615159034729, -0.59071284532547, -0.3003537058830261, 0.33390888571739197, 0.3663710653781891, -0.36728930473327637, -0.29111772775650024, -0.21949094533920288, -0.4415284991264343, 0.4995025396347046, -0.21613720059394836, 0.14855866134166718, 0.04222613200545311, 0.16210094094276428, 0.8182460069656372, 0.5732783079147339, 0.24358472228050232, -0.11819352209568024, 0.048896510154008865, 0.46162259578704834, 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253056	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20Suit%20Gundam%20SEED	Mobile Suit Gundam SEED	is an anime series developed by Sunrise and directed by Mitsuo Fukuda. The ninth installment in the Gundam franchise, Gundam SEED takes place in a future calendar era, in this case the Cosmic Era, the first to do so. In this era, mankind has developed into two subspecies: Naturals, who reside on Earth, and Coordinators, genetically enhanced humans capable of amazing feats of intellect who emigrate to man-made orbital colonies to escape persecution by natural humans. The story revolves around a young Coordinator Kira Yamato who becomes involved in the war between the two races after a third, neutral faction's space colony is invaded by the Coordinators. The television series was broadcast in Japan between 2002 and 2003, on the Tokyo Broadcasting System Television and MBS TV networks, beginning a broadcast partnership with the Gundam franchise. The series spawned three compilations films and was adapted into a manga as well as light novels. A sequel series, Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny followed in 2004. Merchandise has been released, including models, CD soundtracks and video games. Gundam SEED was licensed by Bandai Entertainment for broadcast in North America, and began airing in the United States and Canada in 2004. The films and the sequel were also licensed by Bandai. The manga and light novels as well as the spin-off series, Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Astray, were licensed. Video games were released in North America. In 2011, a HD remaster of the series consisting of 48 episodes was released. Mobile Suit Gundam SEED was widely popular with the public in Japan, winning numerous awards, with high sales of the series DVD and music. It was also a critical success with writers focusing on the character development and animation especially the leads. However, similarities with previous Gundam series were noted. Plot The series is the first of the Gundam franchise set in the "Cosmic Era" in which humankind is divided between normal Earth dwelling humans, known as "Naturals", and the genetically altered super-humans known as "Coordinators". The primary conflict of the story plot derives from jealous hatred by Naturals of the abilities of Coordinators, leading to hate crimes, and eventually the emigration of almost all Coordinators who flee into space to live idyllic lives on giant orbital space colonies called PLANTS of their own design. War eventually breaks out between Earth and the PLANTS. The Earth is divided between two major factions, the Earth Forces formed from most of the natural born human nations, primarily the Eurasians and the Atlantic Federation, and a natural human supremacist group known as Blue Cosmos with its slogan, "For the preservation of our blue and pure world". The Earth Forces are not a unified alliance, and infighting and mistrust exist between their various nation states. The second major Earth nation is the Orb Union, a staunchly politically neutral and isolationist nation located on small Pacific Ocean islands ruled by a hereditary monarchy and still contains Coordinator citizens. Two major events precede the story, known as the Bloody Valentine tragedy that initiated war between the PLANTS and the Earth Forces when one of the PLANT space stations, Junius-7, is destroyed by a nuclear bomb. The second event is the counterattack by the PLANTS that buries Neutron Jammers deep into Earth's crust that halts all nuclear reactions and long range radar and radio, causing most areas of earth to go without electricity or communication, and requiring mobile suits to rely on rechargeable batteries. The PLANTS are a technological power house, developing many new technologies that give them equal power to Earth despite their very small population. It is the invention of the Mobile Suits that give their military the edge in the beginning of the war. The story begins in the neutral Orb Union owned space colony Heliopolis, where five advanced mobile suits for the Earth Forces war effort are developed in secret in exchange of sharing of their technical data with the neutral Orb Union military. Additionally, Heliopolis constructs a unique carrier battleship, the Archangel, to base the five mobile suits from for the Earth Forces. The colony is attacked by ZAFT forces, the military of the PLANTS, with the objective of stealing the new units. During the incursion an Orb Union student and Coordinator named Kira Yamato, upon seeing his friends in danger, pilots the GAT-X105 Strike mobile suit to fend off the invaders but the colony is critically damaged in the ensuing fight. As Heliopolis disintegrates, the survivors board the Archangel, and begin their journey to the Alliance base in Alaska. During the journey to Earth, Kira pilots the Strike to counter a series of attacks by ZAFT but is seemingly killed by his childhood friend, ZAFT soldier Athrun Zala, during one of their battles in which he also is nearly killed. Kira survives the attack and is taken by a blind priest to one of the PLANT space colonies, home to the Coordinators to recover. The Archangel arrives in Alaska but ZAFT launches a full-scale attack on the base overpowering their enemies. Kira goes to Alaska with the ZGMF-X10A Freedom, a highly advanced, nuclear powered, and Neutron Jammer proof ZAFT mobile suit stolen by the PLANT pop star Coordinator Lacus Clyne, daughter of PLANT Supreme Council Chairman Siegel Clyne. Using the Freedom, Kira ends the battle between the two armies, but the Alaska base is subsequently destroyed. The Archangel flees to the neutral country of the Orb Union. The Archangel and a new ship, the Orb Union ship Kusanagi leave Earth for space where they then join Lacus Clyne's rebel faction and their stolen ZAFT battleship, the Eternal (meant to carry the Freedom and Justice mobile suits) to form the Three Ships Alliance with the common goal of ending the war between the Naturals and Coordinators. In the midst of the conflict, Athrun learns that Kira survived and searches for him under orders to recover the Freedom Gundam, and is given an equally powerful prototype, the ZGMF-X09A Justice. However, after learning of Patrick Zala's, Athrun's father and the radical militant faction leader of the PLANT Supreme Council, plan to commit genocide, Athrun deserts him and joins the Three Ships Alliance. In a final battle, the Earth Forces deploys nuclear weapons equipped with Neutron Jammer Canceler technology copied from stolen data on the Freedom and Justice Gundam's power systems. The Earth Forces intend to destroy the PLANT space colonies but are stopped by ZAFT's GENESIS, a super weapon microwave laser designed to commit genocide on the Naturals. The Three Ship Alliance intervenes to defeat the GENESIS weapon ending the battle. The war ultimately ends as a peace treaty is signed. Development Mobile Suit Gundam SEED was directed by Mitsuo Fukuda (Future GPX Cyber Formula and Gear Fighter Dendoh) with music by Toshihiko Sahashi. A long time Gundam fan, Fukuda met the president of Sunrise in order let him work in his anime series based on the franchise, stating he had no previous experience with it. Shortly afterwards, the staff members from Sunrise believed Fukuda was worthy of directing the new Gundam anime. Fukuda conceived SEED as one of the biggest projects from his career, noting that it was difficult for him as a result as he worked consistently in his timetable. However, when the series started, Fukuda was relieved by how it had strong rating and merchandising based on it was popular. In the making of the series, Fukuda first wrote an idea for the premise and the use of mechas fighting. In order to write human drama, Fukuda conceived the idea of the struggle between two kind of races, the Naturals and the Coordinators who would be explored in the television series which was inspired by Yoshiyuki Tomino's Newtype concept from the first Gundam series. While the narrative of SEED often makes parallels with Tomino's Gundam, Fukuda wanted to SEED to feature a more "modern war". The producer of the series suggested using the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan as a reference to explore the concept of war. Some areas from the storyboards were scrapped because the staff found the original plot to be too violent. The series was first announced in June 2002, while a trailer was available in September on the series' official website. A total of eight writers were in charge of the series. The characters were designed by Hisashi Hirai, while the mechanical designs were made by Kunio Okawara and Kimitoshi Yamane. Mobile Suit Gundam planning manager Koichi Inoue stated that the staff making Gundam SEED was a new and young team that would continue working with following Gundam series. Inoue, however, would work with anime based on the original Gundam series. Fukuda stated that Gundam SEED was initially told from Kira's point of view, but deeper into the series the point of view would shift to other characters. His main focus with the series was to entertain the audience, pointing out that the drama would develop through the series in a similar vein to previous Gundam series. The first part worked on was the plot followed by action sequences, stating that the human characters were more important than the combat sequences. In retrospect, Fukuda said that Kira's wish to fight was forced upon him stemming from his desire to protect his friends. Moreover, he considered these actions as being based on Japanese thoughts. Media Anime The series premiered in Japan on the terrestrial Tokyo Broadcasting System and Mainichi Broadcasting System networks, where it occupied the Saturday 6 pm timeslot, replacing Ultraman Cosmos. Mobile Suit Gundam SEED aired between October 5, 2002, and September 27, 2003. Each episode was streamed on the Internet the day after broadcast, for users subscribing to Nippon Telegraph and Telephone services, in Windows Media or Real format. The series was sold in Japan as thirteen DVD volumes released from March 28, 2003 to March 26, 2004. On March 26, 2004, a five-minute epilogue called After Phase: In the Valley of Stars was released on the thirteenth and final DVD of the Japanese release. A DVD box set of the series was released on February 23, 2010. A fifty-episode sequel titled Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny aired in Japan from October 9, 2004 to October 1, 2005, airing on the same stations as Gundam SEED. Gundam SEED Destiny takes place two years after the original series and follows Shinn Asuka, focusing mainly on his involvement in the new war. An HD remaster edition of the series was confirmed in August 2011 although Mitsuo Fukuda stated it was leaked information and that the official information would come in the next few days. In November 2011, Bandai announced the release of the series in four Blu-ray compilations between March and December 2012. The HD version was first streamed on the Bandai Channel website in December 2011 and aired in Japan between January and November 2012. Bandai Entertainment licensed the animation of Gundam SEED on February 15, 2004, and it began airing in the United States and Canada that same year. The English adaptation was produced in association with The Ocean Group and the English-language dub was recorded at Ocean Studios in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The series was released on ten DVDs in bilingual format between August 10, 2004, and May 10, 2005. The epilogue was not released on the North American DVD release because it was not licensed to Bandai Entertainment by Sunrise; however, it was released on the final European DVD release. Beez Entertainment also published the series in ten DVDs from June 13, 2005 to March 6, 2006. A two part box set called the "Anime Legends Edition" was released on January 8, 2008, and March 4, 2008, with each set containing five DVDs. On October 11, 2014 at their 2014 New York Comic-Con panel, Sunrise announced they will be re-releasing all of the Gundam franchise, including Gundam SEED in North America though distribution from Right Stuf Inc., beginning in Spring 2015. On August 11, 2017 at their 2017 Otakon panel, Sunrise announced that they will be releasing the HD remaster of SEED in North America with a brand new English dub produced by NYAV Post. Films A three-part film compilation of the television series has been released as Mobile Suit Gundam SEED: Special Edition. Each compilation film is 90 minutes long and retells the story of Gundam SEED, with additional and altered scenes from the TV series. Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny followed the same formula in four compilation films as Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny: Special Edition. They were released from August 27 to October 22 during 2004 in DVD format. The three films were re-released alongside the four films from Gundam SEED Destiny on February 25, 2010. Gundam SEED: Special Edition has been licensed for North America by Bandai Entertainment and was released on DVDs in English, between July 11, 2005, and November 22, 2005. A DVD box of the three films was released by Bandai on November 26, 2008 under the title of "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Complete Feature Collection". Soundtracks The music from the series is composed by Toshihiko Sahashi with CDs published by Victor Entertainment. Notable artists who sang opening and ending themes for the series include Nami Tamaki, who was fourteen years old when the third opening theme was used, and T.M. Revolution, who also provided the voice for the character, Miguel Aiman. Four original soundtracks were released between December 4, 2002 and December 16, 2004. They include background music, insert themes as well as some opening and ending themes. Symphony SEED -Symphonic Suit Mobile Suit Gundam SEED- is a collaboration album between Mobile Suit Gundam SEED music and the London Symphony Orchestra released on May 8, 2004 containing a total of ten tracks. A compilation DVD, featuring four music videos from Mobile Suit Gundam SEED and Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny, was released on May 24, 2006 under the title Mobile Suit Gundam SEED & SEED DESTINY Clipping 4 Songs. Five character CDs with themes performed by the Japanese voice actors were released between March 21, 2003 and July 23, 2003. Two compilation albums have also been released: Mobile Suit Gundam SEED COMPLETE BEST was released on November 22, 2006, featuring thirteen tracks. Mobile Suit Gundam SEED ~ SEED DESTINY BEST "THE BRIDGE" Across the Songs from GUNDAM SEED & SEED DESTINY is a two-CD compilation of ending themes, insert and character songs from Gundam SEED and Gundam SEED Destiny. All the songs from Gundam SEED and Gundam SEED Destiny by T.M.Revolution were collected in a CD titled X42S-REVOLUTION, released on March 24, 2010. The limited edition version includes a DVD with music videos from the anime series. Two other CD singles were released during 2012 featuring the new theme songs from the HD rerelease of Gundam SEED. Manga A manga series was written by Masatsugu Iwase based on the events from the anime series. It was published in five tankōbon volumes from March 20, 2003 to January 21, 2005 by Kodansha. The English version was published in North America by Del Rey Manga who licensed it in January 2004 as one of their first titles, and released between April 27, 2004 and August 30, 2005. Another spin-off series is Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Astray, written by Tomohiro Chiba and illustrated by Kōichi Tokita, which focused on the three MBF-P0x mobile suit prototypes and their respective pilots and organizations. It was published in three tankōbon volumes from April 28, 2003 to February 26, 2004 by Kadokawa Shoten. The English release was announced by Tokyopop in December 2003. The volumes were released between May 11, 2004 and November 9, 2004. A one-volume manga titled was written by Yasushi Yamaguchi and released on January 22, 2005 by Kadokawa. In 2012, Kadokawa released a new manga series titled Mobile Suit Gundam SEED: Re by Juu Ishiguchi. The manga retells the events from the television series. It is currently collected into 3 Tankobon Volumes by Kadokawa Shoten. Two more side stories titled Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Astray R and Mobile Suit Gundam SEED X Astray were created. Toda Yasunari replaced Tokita as the illustrator in the former, while Tokita reprised his role in the latter. Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Astray R follows the adventures of the Red Frame's pilot Lowe and his Junk Guild associates and interlocks with the events of the original Astray-series. It spanned four volumes published from March 20, 2003 to August 26, 2004. The English volumes published by TokyoPop were released from February 8, 2005 to November 8, 2005. Gundam SEED X Astray is about Canard Pars, who is a failed experiment from the Ultimate Coordinator program. Canard is searching for Kira Yamato, the successful Ultimate Coordinator, so that he can defeat him and prove he was not a "failure". Two volumes were published for the series in May and October, 2005. TokyoPop published its two volumes on October 31, 2006 and February 27, 2007. There was a "photo novel" side story titled Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Astray B which was illustrated by Toda Yasunari. A single volume from the series was published on August 31, 2005 and follows Gai Murakumo and his fellow Serpent Tail mercenaries. There is yonkoma series titled Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Club Yonkoma that parodies the events from both Gundam SEED and Gundam SEED Destiny. The comics were a joint venture between Sunrise's official Gundam SEED fan club and Newtype Japanese magazine. Kadokawa Shoten released the first publications of the yonkoma on August 8, 2005. Light novels A light novel adaptation of the TV series was authored by Riu Goto. It was originally a supplement of Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko with illustrations by Ogasawara Tomofumi. The stories were eventually published in five volumes by Kadokawa Shoten with the first one in March 2003 and the fifth in January 2004. Tokyopop released the first three light novels in North America from October 11, 2005 to May 9, 2006. Two light novels volumes from Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Astray spin-off series were also authored by Tomohiro Chiba and published by Kadokawa on September 1, 2003 and July 1, 2004. Video games Video games have been released based on the anime series: Gundam Seed: Federation vs. Z.A.F.T. II for arcades, and Gundam Seed: Battle Assault for the Game Boy Advance, Gundam Seed: Federation vs. Z.A.F.T., Mobile Suit Gundam Seed, Mobile Suit Gundam Seed: Never Ending Tomorrow, Mobile Suit Gundam Seed Destiny: Generation of CE, and Gundam Seed: Federation vs. Z.A.F.T. 2 Plus for PlayStation 2, A PlayStation Portable game was also released under the title of Gundam Seed: Federation vs. Z.A.F.T. Portable as well as a mobile phone game, Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Phase-Act Delivery. Artdink developed the first PlayStation Vita Gundam game, . Released on June 7, 2012, the game covers events from both Gundam SEED and Gundam SEED Destiny. Characters from Gundam SEED have been featured in Gundam crossover games. These include Mobile Suit Gundam: Gundam vs. Gundam Next, the SD Gundam G series and a few games from the Gundam Battle Assault series, Dynasty Warriors: Gundam 2, and Dynasty Warriors: Gundam 3. Other crossover games featuring them are games from the Super Robot Wars series as well as Another Century's Episode 3 and Another Century's Episode: R. Other merchandise Guidebooks have been released for Gundam SEED such as on July 10, 2003. Two official guidebooks were released in Japan on July 18, 2003 by Kadokawa Shoten: and focus on Kira Yamato and Athrun Zala respectively. In the same year, a series of guidebooks with the label of "Official File" were released in Japan. A guidebook titled was published on April 19, 2004, featuring an extensive analysis on the storyline and characters. A more detailed guidebook, , featuring articles on the characters, technology and universe was published in March 2006. An artbook titled was released on July 26, 2004. Reception The show has become one of the most popular of the Gundam series in Japan, enjoying high television ratings and DVD sales. In April 2004, Bandai Visual announced that one million copies of the Gundam SEED DVD had been sold in Japan, with the first volume having sold over 100,000 copies. In total, the series set a record of making eight DVDs appearing in the first eight top sales. The same record was repeated in 2016 by Mr. Osomatsu. CDs sales have also been high with the single CD from the series' first ending theme becoming one of the top-selling CDs in Japan during 2002. By July 2004, 10 million plastic Gundam SEED models had been sold worldwide. Jerry Chu, marketing manager for Bandai Entertainment Inc., stated the response to Gundam SEED has been highly positive, having broken rating records when it first aired in Japan. Chu added that reaction in the United States was the most enthusiastic Bandai received in the last six years. According to the analyst John Oppliger of AnimeNation Gundam SEED became the first Gundam series which was widely successful not only among "Gundam fans and hardcore otaku" but also among "mainstream, casual Japanese viewers". Gundam SEED was the eighth TV Feature Award winner at the Animation Kobe Awards in 2003. It was the third winner at the Japanese Otaku Awards in 2003. It won Animages twenty-fifth Anime Grand Prix award winner in 2002, with the characters of Kira Yamato and Lacus Clyne topping the male and female anime categories, respectively. It topped the charts in the Newtype magazine reader poll during 2004. However, the show was not well received by older Japanese fans. In February 2004, Sunrise's president, Takayuki Yoshii, stated it was because Gundam SEED incorporated elements from popular live-action television dramas. On the other hand, Bandai Visual reported in April 2004 that Gundam SEED had a wide audience, including both young and older viewers. Gundam SEED has been praised for being a stand-out in a long line of Gundam series with Anime News Network's Paul Fargo calling it "the best of the alternative timelines, but stands as one of the best Gundam titles". The story has been praised for its battle sequences as well as its character-driven scenes, neither of which were reviewed to have detracted emphasis from the other. The series was noted to "downshift" in pace from its early episodes as the main characters development began to progress along political themes, which appealed to some audiences. Early in the series, speculations were made with regard to the progress the characters' relationships. The relationship between Kira Yamato and Athrun Zala earned praise as it resulted in entertaining action scenes between their mobile suits, while in later reviews speculation arose as to whether the two would become allies. The climax has been praised for bringing unexpected inclusions within the war, as well as revelations regarding the characters' roles. A common comment among writers was that Gundam SEED blended elements from previous Gundam series and displayed it in fast-paced way, making it enjoyable to younger fans but still engaging older fans familiar with previous series. DVD Verdict writer Mitchell Hattaway further noted that while it used elements from other anime series, it still "drew [him] in so quickly [he] soon found [himself] wrapped up in the proceedings". Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network stated that Gundam SEED adapted the original Mobile Suit Gundam series from 1979 for a modern audience in the same way Mobile Suit Gundam 00 would adapt Mobile Suit Gundam Wing. Bamboo Dong from the same site stated that while this caused the appearance of "hardcore anti-Gundam Seed zealots" who criticized the series for these traits, it was nevertheless entertaining to watch and give anime fans a step into the "Gundam fandom". The quality of the animation led THEM Anime Reviews' Derrick L. Tucker to call it "by-and-far the best of any Gundam Series to date". Additionally, the soundtrack was popular for bringing popular J-pop artists such as Nami Tamaki and T.M. Revolution to perform the theme songs. The casting of many talented voice actors, such as Rie Tanaka, Seki Tomokazu and Houko Kuwashima, provided the emotional depth in scenes that required it. The English dub was reviewed favorably for the most part but comparisons between the English and original Japanese dubbing revealed weaknesses in the portrayal of the characters. In the NHK's 2018 mega "All Gundam Poll", Mobile Suit Gundam SEED was place as the third best anime in the Gundam franchise, only behind the original 1979 Mobile Suit Gundam and Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam. Controversy The sixteenth episode of Gundam SEED features a scene in which Kira Yamato is seen dressing after getting out of a bed where the teenage girl Flay Allster lies sleeping naked, suggesting a sexual relationship. The Japanese Commission for Better Broadcasting reported that viewers filed complaints regarding the scene as the show was aired at 6 pm when children would be watching. Mainichi replied by mentioning it should have given more careful consideration to the episode before airing it. The scene was extended in one of the compilation films with John Oppliger noting it expanded the off-screen scene with three shots. References External links Official Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Website 2002 anime television series debuts 2003 Japanese television series endings 2003 manga 2004 anime OVAs 2005 Japanese novels Bandai Entertainment anime titles Del Rey Manga Seed Kadokawa Shoten manga Kodansha manga TBS Television (Japan) original programming Madman Entertainment anime Military science fiction Odex Romance anime and manga Shōnen manga Sunrise (company) Terrorism in fiction Tokyopop titles	[ -0.7633100748062134, -0.3780677616596222, 0.10784556716680527, -0.3385848104953766, -0.2443888783454895, 0.3902272880077362, -0.3292812407016754, -0.0922565832734108, 0.23835524916648865, -0.35106927156448364, -0.31740692257881165, 0.3195326030254364, -0.1537833958864212, 0.429472953081131, -0.39077895879745483, -0.02223222143948078, 0.27565494179725647, 0.39046213030815125, -0.4553377032279968, -0.6142145991325378, -0.766871452331543, -0.31471577286720276, 0.7314668297767639, -0.02262856997549534, 0.4170837998390198, 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253057	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Award%20for%20Best%20Revival%20of%20a%20Play	Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play	The Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play has only been awarded since 1994. Prior to that, plays and musicals were considered together for the Tony Award for Best Revival. The award is given to the best non-musical play that has appeared on Broadway in a previous production. The award goes to the producers of the play. Winners and nominees 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s Award records Multiple wins 2 Wins Death of a Salesman A View from the Bridge Multiple nominations 3 Nominations A View from the Bridge 2 Nominations A Raisin in the Sun Betrayal Death of a Salesman Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune The Iceman Cometh Inherit the Wind Long Day's Journey into Night Noises Off Present Laughter The Best Man The Crucible Twelfth Night Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? Multiple author wins 4 Wins Arthur Miller 2 Wins Edward Albee August Wilson Multiple author nominations 9 Nominations Arthur Miller William Shakespeare 6 Nominations Eugene O'Neill 5 Nominations Edward Albee 4 Nominations Tom Stoppard 3 Nominations Noël Coward George S. Kaufman Kenneth Lonergan Terrence McNally Harold Pinter August Wilson 2 Nominations Edna Ferber Michael Frayn Brian Friel Lorraine Hansberry Jerome Lawrence Clifford Odets Robert E. Lee Gore Vidal Tennessee Williams See also Tony Award for Best Play Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Play Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play References External links The American Theatre Wing's Tony Awards official website Tony Awards Awards established in 1994 1994 establishments in New York City	[ -1.0907466411590576, -0.4086207151412964, 0.3203273117542267, -0.10997132956981659, -0.2778226137161255, 0.054558850824832916, 0.6837336421012878, 0.6626925468444824, -0.6127436757087708, -0.06740634143352509, -0.09217187017202377, 0.5149787664413452, 0.11533539742231369, 0.42345017194747925, -0.35539135336875916, 0.720353364944458, 0.8177034258842468, -0.03220565989613533, 0.15097829699516296, -0.7257552146911621, -0.27518129348754883, 0.07758434861898422, 0.6668508052825928, -0.05650791525840759, -0.2711101174354553, 0.013277245685458183, -0.1310131847858429, -0.260938823223114, -0.38127848505973816, 0.345557302236557, -0.04670257493853569, 0.08405696600675583, 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253063	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty%20Friedan	Betty Friedan	Betty Friedan ( February 4, 1921 – February 4, 2006) was an American feminist writer and activist. A leading figure in the women's movement in the United States, her 1963 book The Feminine Mystique is often credited with sparking the second wave of American feminism in the 20th century. In 1966, Friedan co-founded and was elected the first president of the National Organization for Women (NOW), which aimed to bring women "into the mainstream of American society now [in] fully equal partnership with men". In 1970, after stepping down as NOW's first president, Friedan organized the nationwide Women's Strike for Equality on August 26, the 50th anniversary of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution granting women the right to vote. The national strike was successful beyond expectations in broadening the feminist movement; the march led by Friedan in New York City alone attracted over 50,000 people. In 1971, Friedan joined other leading feminists to establish the National Women's Political Caucus. Friedan was also a strong supporter of the proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution that passed the United States House of Representatives (by a vote of 354–24) and Senate (84–8) following intense pressure by women's groups led by NOW in the early 1970s. Following Congressional passage of the amendment, Friedan advocated for ratification of the amendment in the states and supported other women's rights reforms: she founded the National Association for the Repeal of Abortion Laws but was later critical of the abortion-centered positions of many liberal feminists. Regarded as an influential author and intellectual in the United States, Friedan remained active in politics and advocacy until the late 1990s, authoring six books. As early as the 1960s Friedan was critical of polarized and extreme factions of feminism that attacked groups such as men and homemakers. One of her later books, The Second Stage (1981), critiqued what Friedan saw as the extremist excesses of some feminists. Early life Friedan was born Bettye Naomi Goldstein on February 4, 1921, in Peoria, Illinois, to Harry and Miriam (Horwitz) Goldstein, whose Jewish families were from Russia and Hungary. Harry owned a jewelry store in Peoria, and Miriam wrote for the society page of a newspaper when Friedan's father fell ill. Her mother's new life outside the home seemed much more gratifying. As a young girl, Friedan was active in both Marxist and Jewish circles; she later wrote how she felt isolated from the latter community at times, and felt her "passion against injustice...originated from my feelings of the injustice of anti-Semitism". She attended Peoria High School, and became involved in the school newspaper. When her application to write a column was turned down, she and six other friends launched a literary magazine called Tide, which discussed home life rather than school life. She attended all-female Smith College in 1938. She won a scholarship prize in her first year for outstanding academic performance. In her second year, she became interested in poetry and had many poems published in campus publications. In 1941, she became editor-in-chief of the college newspaper. The editorials became more political under her leadership, taking a strong antiwar stance and occasionally causing controversy. She graduated summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa in 1942 with a major in psychology. In 1943 she spent a year at the University of California, Berkeley on a fellowship for graduate work in psychology with Erik Erikson. She became more politically active, continuing to mix with Marxists (many of her friends were investigated by the FBI). In her memoirs, she claimed that her boyfriend at the time had pressured her into turning down a Ph.D. fellowship for further study and abandoning her academic career. Writing career Before 1963 After leaving Berkeley, Betty became a journalist for leftist and labor union publications. Between 1943 and 1946 she wrote for Federated Press and between 1946 and 1952 she worked for the United Electrical Workers' UE News. One of her assignments was to report on the House Un-American Activities Committee. By then married, Friedan was dismissed from the union newspaper UE News in 1952 because she was pregnant with her second child. After leaving UE News she became a freelance writer for various magazines, including Cosmopolitan. According to Friedan biographer Daniel Horowitz, Friedan started as a labor journalist when she first became aware of women's oppression and exclusion, although Friedan herself disputed this interpretation of her work. The Feminine Mystique For her 15th college reunion in 1957 Friedan conducted a survey of college graduates, focusing on their education, subsequent experiences and satisfaction with their current lives. She started publishing articles about what she called "the problem that has no name", and got passionate responses from many housewives grateful that they were not alone in experiencing this problem. The shores are strewn with the casualties of the feminine mystique. They did give up their own education to put their husbands through college, and then, maybe against their own wishes, ten or fifteen years later, they were left in the lurch by divorce. The strongest were able to cope more or less well, but it wasn't that easy for a woman of forty-five or fifty to move ahead in a profession and make a new life for herself and her children or herself alone. Friedan then decided to rework and expand this topic into a book, The Feminine Mystique. Published in 1963, it depicted the roles of women in industrial societies, especially the full-time homemaker role which Friedan deemed stifling. In her book, Friedan described a depressed suburban housewife who dropped out of college at the age of 19 to get married and raise four children. She spoke of her own 'terror' at being alone, wrote that she had never once in her life seen a positive female role-model who worked outside the home and also kept a family, and cited numerous cases of housewives who felt similarly trapped. From her psychological background she criticized Freud's penis envy theory, noting a lot of paradoxes in his work, and offered some answers to women desirous of further education. The "Problem That Has No Name" was described by Friedan in the beginning of the book: The problem lay buried, unspoken, for many years in the minds of American women. It was a strange stirring, a sense of dissatisfaction, a yearning [that is, a longing] that women suffered in the middle of the 20th century in the United States. Each suburban [house]wife struggled with it alone. As she made the beds, shopped for groceries … she was afraid to ask even of herself the silent question — "Is this all?" Friedan asserted that women are as capable as men for any type of work or any career path against arguments to the contrary by the mass media, educators and psychologists. Her book was important not only because it challenged hegemonic sexism in US society but because it differed from the general emphasis of 19th- and early 20th-century arguments for expanding women's education, political rights, and participation in social movements. While "first-wave" feminists had often shared an essentialist view of women's nature and a corporatist view of society, claiming that women's suffrage, education, and social participation would increase the incidence of marriage, make women better wives and mothers, and improve national and international health and efficiency, Friedan based women's rights in what she called "the basic human need to grow, man's will to be all that is in him to be". The restrictions of the 1950s, and the trapped, imprisoned feeling of many women forced into these roles, spoke to American women who soon began attending consciousness-raising sessions and lobbying for the reform of oppressive laws and social views that restricted women. The book became a bestseller, which many historians believe was the impetus for the "second wave" of the women's movement in the United States, and significantly shaped national and world events. Friedan originally intended to write a sequel to The Feminine Mystique, which was to be called "Woman: The Fourth Dimension", but instead only wrote an article by that title, which appeared in the Ladies' Home Journal in June 1964. Other works Friedan published six books. Her other books include The Second Stage, It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women's Movement, Beyond Gender and The Fountain of Age. Her autobiography, Life so Far, was published in 2000. She also wrote for magazines and a newspaper: Columns in McCall's magazine, 1971–1974 Writings for The New York Times Magazine, Newsday, Harper's, Saturday Review, Mademoiselle, Ladies' Home Journal, Family Circle, TV Guide, and True Magazine Activism in the women's movement National Organization for Women In 1966 Friedan co-founded, and became the first president of the National Organization for Women. Some of the founders of NOW, including Friedan, were inspired by the failure of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to enforce Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964; at the Third National Conference of State Commissions on the Status of Women they were prohibited from issuing a resolution that recommended the EEOC carry out its legal mandate to end sex discrimination in employment. They thus gathered in Friedan's hotel room to form a new organization. On a paper napkin Friedan scribbled the acronym "NOW". Later more people became founders of NOW at the October 1966 NOW Organizing Conference. Friedan, with Pauli Murray, wrote NOW's statement of purpose; the original was scribbled on a napkin by Friedan. Under Friedan, NOW advocated fiercely for the legal equality of women and men. NOW lobbied for enforcement of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Pay Act of 1963, the first two major legislative victories of the movement, and forced the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to stop ignoring, and start treating with dignity and urgency, claims filed involving sex discrimination. They successfully campaigned for a 1967 Executive Order extending the same affirmative action granted to blacks to women, and for a 1968 EEOC decision ruling illegal sex-segregated help want ads, later upheld by the Supreme Court. NOW was vocal in support of the legalization of abortion, an issue that divided some feminists. Also divisive in the 1960s among women was the Equal Rights Amendment, which NOW fully endorsed; by the 1970s, women and labor unions opposed to ERA warmed up to it and began to support it fully. NOW also lobbied for national daycare. NOW also helped women get equal access to public places. For example, the Oak Room at the Plaza Hotel in New York held men-only lunches on weekdays until 1969, when Friedan and other members of NOW staged a protest. Despite the success NOW achieved under Friedan, her decision to pressure Equal Employment Opportunity to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization. Siding with arguments from the group's African American members, many of NOW's leaders accepted that the vast number of male and female African Americans who lived below the poverty line needed more job opportunities than women within the middle and upper class. Friedan stepped down as president in 1969. In 1973, Friedan founded the First Women's Bank and Trust Company. Women's Strike for Equality In 1970 NOW, with Friedan leading the cause, was instrumental in the U.S. Senate's rejection of President Richard M. Nixon's Supreme Court nominee G. Harrold Carswell, who had opposed the 1964 Civil Rights Act granting (among other things) women workplace equality with men. On August 26, 1970, the 50th anniversary of the Women's Suffrage Amendment to the Constitution, Friedan organized the national Women's Strike for Equality, and led a march of an estimated 20,000 women in New York City. While the march's primary objective was promoting equal opportunities for women in jobs and education, protestors and organizers of the event also demanded abortion rights and the establishment of child-care centers. Friedan spoke about the Strike for Equality: All kinds of women's groups all over the country will be using this week on August 26 particularly, to point out those areas in women's life which are still not addressed. For example, a question of equality before the law; we are interested in the equal rights amendment. The question of child care centers which are totally inadequate in the society, and which women require, if they are going to assume their rightful position in terms of helping in decisions of the society. The question of a women's right to control her own reproductive processes, that is, laws prohibiting abortion in the state or putting them into criminal statutes; I think that would be a statute that we would [be] addressing ourselves to. So I think individual women will react differently; some will not cook that day, some will engage in dialog with their husband[s], some will be out at the rallies and demonstrations that will be taking place all over the country. Others will be writing things that will help them to define where they want to go. Some will be pressuring their Senators and their Congressmen to pass legislations that affect women. I don't think you can come up with any one point, women will be doing their own thing in their own way. National Association for the Repeal of Abortion Laws Friedan founded the National Association for the Repeal of Abortion Laws, renamed National Abortion Rights Action League after the Supreme Court had legalized abortion in 1973. Politics In 1970 Friedan led other feminists in derailing the nomination of Supreme Court nominee G. Harrold Carswell, whose record of racial discrimination and antifeminism made him unacceptable and unfit to sit on the highest court in the land to virtually everyone in the civil rights and feminist movements. Friedan's impassioned testimony before the Senate helped sink Carswell's nomination. In 1971 Friedan, along with many other leading women's movement leaders, including Gloria Steinem (with whom she had a legendary rivalry) founded the National Women's Political Caucus. In 1972, Friedan unsuccessfully ran as a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention in support of Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm. That year at the DNC Friedan played a very prominent role and addressed the convention, although she clashed with other women, notably Steinem, on what should be done there, and how. Movement image and unity One of the most influential feminists of the twentieth century, Friedan (in addition to many others) opposed equating feminism with lesbianism. As early as 1964, very early in the movement, and only a year after the publication of The Feminine Mystique, Friedan appeared on television to address the fact the media was, at that point, trying to dismiss the movement as a joke and centering argument and debate around whether or not to wear bras and other issues considered ridiculous. In 1982, after the second wave, she wrote a book for the post-feminist 1980s called The Second Stage, about family life, premised on women having conquered social and legal obstacles. She pushed the feminist movement to focus on economic issues, especially equality in employment and business as well as provision for child care and other means by which both women and men could balance family and work. She tried to lessen the focuses on abortion, as an issue already won, and on rape and pornography, which she believed most women did not consider to be high priorities. Related issues Lesbian politics When she grew up in Peoria, Illinois, she knew only one gay man. She said, "the whole idea of homosexuality made me profoundly uneasy". She later acknowledged that she had been very square, and was uncomfortable about homosexuality. "The women's movement was not about sex, but about equal opportunity in jobs and all the rest of it. Yes, I suppose you have to say that freedom of sexual choice is part of that, but it shouldn't be the main issue…." She ignored lesbians in the National Organization for Women (NOW) initially, and objected to what she saw as their demands for equal time. "'Homosexuality…is not, in my opinion, what the women's movement is all about.'" While opposing all repression, she wrote, she refused to wear a purple armband as an act of political solidarity, considering it not part of the mainstream issues of abortion and child care. But in 1977, at the National Women's Conference, she seconded a lesbian rights resolution "which everyone thought I would oppose" in order to "preempt any debate" and move on to other issues she believed were more important and less divisive in the effort to add the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the U.S. Constitution. She accepted lesbian sexuality, albeit not its politicization. In 1995, at the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, she found advice given by Chinese authorities to taxi drivers that naked lesbians would be "cavorting" in their cars so that the drivers should hang sheets outside their cab windows, and that lesbians would have AIDS and so drivers should carry disinfectants, to be "ridiculous", "incredibly stupid" and "insulting". In 1997, she wrote that "children…will ideally come from mother and father." She wrote in 2000, "I'm more relaxed about the whole issue now". Abortion choice She supported the concept that abortion is a woman's choice, that it shouldn't be a crime or exclusively a doctor's choice or anyone else involved, and helped form NARAL (now NARAL Pro-Choice America) at a time when Planned Parenthood wasn't yet supportive. Alleged death threats against her speaking on abortion led to the cancellation of two events, although subsequently one of the host institutions, Loyola College, invited her back to speak on abortion and other homosexual rights issues and she did so. Her draft of NOW's first statement of purpose included an abortion plank, but NOW didn't include it until the next year. In 1980, she believed abortion should be in the context of "'the choice to have children'", a formulation supported by the Roman Catholic priest organizing Catholic participation in the White House Conference on Families for that year, though perhaps not by the bishops above him. A resolution embodying the formulation passed at the conference by 460 to 114, whereas a resolution addressing abortion, ERA and "sexual preference" passed by only 292–291 and that only after 50 opponents of abortion had walked out and so hadn't voted on it. She disagreed with a resolution that framed abortion in more feminist terms that was introduced in the Minneapolis regional conference resulting from the same White House Conference on Families, believing it to be more polarizing, while the drafters apparently thought Friedan's formulation too conservative. As of 2000, she wrote, referring to "NOW and the other women's organizations" as seeming to be in a "time warp", "to my mind, there is far too much focus on abortion.... [I]n recent years I've gotten a little uneasy about the movement's narrow focus on abortion as if it were the single, all-important issue for women when it's not". She asked, "Why don't we join forces with all who have true reverence for life, including Catholics who oppose abortion, and fight for the choice to have children?" Pornography She joined nearly 200 others in Feminists for Free Expression in opposing the Pornography Victims' Compensation Act. "'To suppress free speech in the name of protecting women is dangerous and wrong,' says Friedan. 'Even some blue-jean ads are insulting and denigrating. I'm not adverse to a boycott, but I don't think they should be suppressed.'" War In 1968, Friedan signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. Influence Friedan is credited for starting the contemporary feminist movement and writing a book that is one of the cornerstones of American feminism. Her activist work and her book The Feminine Mystique have been a critical influence to authors, educators, writers, anthropologists, journalists, activists, organizations, unions, and everyday women taking part in the feminist movement. Allan Wolf, in The Mystique of Betty Friedan writes: "She helped to change not only the thinking but the lives of many American women, but recent books throw into question the intellectual and personal sources of her work." Although there have been some debates on Friedan's work in The Feminine Mystique since its publication, there is no doubt that her work for equality for women was sincere and committed. Judith Hennessee (Betty Friedan: Her Life) and Daniel Horowitz, a professor of American Studies at Smith College, have also written about Friedan. Horowitz explored Friedan's engagement with the women's movement before she began to work on The Feminine Mystique and pointed out that Friedan's feminism did not start in the 1950s but even earlier, in the 1940s. Focusing his study on Friedan's ideas in feminism rather than on her personal life Horowitz's book gave Friedan a major role in the history of American feminism. Justine Blau was also greatly influenced by Friedan. In Betty Friedan: Feminist Blau wrote of the feminist movement's influence on Friedan's personal and professional life. Lisa Fredenksen Bohannon, in Woman's work: The story of Betty Friedan, went deep into Friedan's personal life and wrote about her relationship with her mother. Sandra Henry and Emily Taitz (Betty Friedan, Fighter for Woman's Rights) and Susan Taylor Boyd (Betty Friedan: Voice of Woman's Right, Advocates of Human Rights), wrote biographies on Friedan's life and works. Journalist Janann Sheman wrote a book called Interviews with Betty Friedan containing interviews with Friedan for The New York Times, Working Women and Playboy, among others. Focusing on interviews that relate to Friedan's views on men, women and the American Family, Sheman traced Friedan's life with an analysis of The Feminine Mystique. Friedan (among others) was featured in the 2013 documentary Makers: Women Who Make America, about the women's movement. In 2014, a biography of Friedan was added to the American National Biography Online (ANB). Personality The New York Times obituary for Friedan noted that she was "famously abrasive", and that she could be "thin-skinned and imperious, subject to screaming fits of temperament". Media focus would fall on feminists grading each other on personality and appearance, the source of Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem's well-documented antipathy. In February 2006, shortly after Friedan's death, the feminist writer Germaine Greer published an article in The Guardian, in which she described Friedan as pompous and egotistic, somewhat demanding and sometimes selfish, citing several incidents during a 1972 tour of Iran. Indeed, Carl Friedan had been quoted as saying "She changed the course of history almost singlehandedly. It took a driven, super aggressive, egocentric, almost lunatic dynamo to rock the world the way she did. Unfortunately, she was that same person at home, where that kind of conduct doesn't work. She simply never understood this." Writer Camille Paglia, who had been denounced by Friedan in a Playboy interview, wrote a brief obituary for her in Entertainment Weekly: Personal life She married Carl Friedan (né Friedman), a theater producer, in 1947 while working at UE News. She continued to work after marriage, first as a paid employee and, after 1952, as a freelance journalist. The couple divorced in May 1969, and Carl died in December 2005. Friedan stated in her memoir Life So Far (2000) that Carl had beaten her during their marriage; friends such as Dolores Alexander recalled having to cover up black eyes from Carl's abuse in time for press conferences (Brownmiller 1999, p. 70). But Carl denied abusing her in an interview with Time magazine shortly after the book was published, describing the claim as a "complete fabrication". She later said, on Good Morning America, "I almost wish I hadn't even written about it, because it's been sensationalized out of context. My husband was not a wife-beater, and I was no passive victim of a wife-beater. We fought a lot, and he was bigger than me." Carl and Betty Friedan had three children, Daniel, Emily and Jonathan. She was raised in a Jewish family, but was an agnostic. In 1973, Friedan was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II. Death Friedan died of congestive heart failure at her home in Washington, D.C., on February 4, 2006, her 85th birthday. Papers Some of Friedan's papers are held at the Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Awards and honors Honorary doctorate of humane letters from Smith College (1975) Humanist of the Year from the American Humanist Association (1975) Mort Weisinger Award from the American Society of Journalists and Authors (1979) From 1981 to 1983, Bonnie Tiburzi put on three “Women of Accomplishment” luncheons for the Wings Club honoring certain women, including Friedan. Honorary doctorate of humane letters from the State University at Stony Brook (1985) Eleanor Roosevelt Leadership Award (1989) Honorary doctorate of humane letters from Bradley University (1991) Induction into the National Women's Hall of Fame (1993) Honorary doctorate of letters from Columbia University (1994) "The 75 Most Important Women of the Past 75 Years" – Glamour magazine listed Friedan as one of them (2014) In media Friedan was portrayed by actress Tracey Ullman in the 2020 FX limited series Mrs. America. Books The Feminine Mystique (1963) It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women's Movement (1976) The Second Stage (1981) The Fountain of Age (1993) Beyond Gender (1997) Life So Far (2000) See also Gloria Steinem List of women's rights activists Notes References Bibliography Further reading Blau, Justine. Betty Friedan: Feminist, paperback edition, Women of Achievement, Chelsea House Publications, 1990, Bohannon, Lisa Frederikson. Women's Work: The Story of Betty Friedan, hardcover edition, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, 2004, Brownmiller, Susan. In Our Time: Memoir of a Revolution, The Dial Press, 1999, Friedan, Betty. "Breaking Through the Age Mystique." 1991, Proceedings from the Kirkpatrick Memorial Conference. Muncie, IN. Friedan, Betty. Fountain of Age, Paperback Edition, Simon & Schuster, 1994, Friedan, Betty. It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women's Movement, hardcover edition, Random House Inc. 1978, Friedan, Betty. Life So Far, Paperback Edition, Simon & Schuster, 2000, Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique, hardcover edition, W. W. Norton and Company Inc. 1963, Friedan, Betty. The Second Stage, paperback edition, Abacus 1983, Horowitz, Daniel. "Betty Friedan and the Making of "The Feminine Mystique", University of Massachusetts Press, 1998, Hennessee, Judith. Betty Friedan: Her Life, hardcover edition, Random House 1999, Henry, Sondra. Taitz, Emily. Betty Friedan: Fighter for Women's Rights, hardcover edition, Enslow Publishers 1990, Kaplan, Marion. "Betty Friedan", Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. Meltzer, Milton. Betty Friedan: A Voice For Women's Rights, hardcover edition, Viking Press 1985, Sherman, Janann. Interviews With Betty Friedan, Paperback Edition, University Press of Mississippi 2002, Siegel, Deborah, Sisterhood, Interrupted: From Radical Women to Grrls Gone Wild (N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007 ()), chap. 3 (author Ph.D. & fellow, Woodhull Institute for Ethical Leadership). Taylor-Boyd, Susan. Betty Friedan: Voice for Women's Rights, Advocate of Human Rights, hardcover edition, Gareth Stevens Publishing 1990, Obituaries Betty Friedan, philosopher of modern-day feminism, dies – CNN, February 4, 2006. Betty Friedan, Who Ignited Cause in 'Feminine Mystique,' Dies at 85 – The New York Times, February 5, 2006. Anything you can do, Icon do better – Germaine Greer remembers Betty Friedan External links The Feminine Mystique – 50 years on Interview with Betty Friedan in WNED public television series "Woman," 1974 from the American Archive of Public Broadcasting The Betty Friedan Tribute website hosted by Bradley University, Peoria, IL National Women's Hall of Fame: Betty Friedan "Writings of Betty Friedan" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History Betty Friedan's Biography from The Encyclopaedia Judaica The Sexual Solipsism of Sigmund Freud (chapter 5 of The Feminine Mystique) First Measured Century: Interview: Betty Friedan Betty Friedan: Late Bloomer. Cheerless Fantasies, A Corrective Catalogue of Errors in Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique After a Life of Telling It Like It Is: Betty Friedan Dies at Age 85, Lys Anzia, Moondance magazine Spring 2006 Papers of Betty Friedan, 1933–1985: A Finding Aid. Schlesinger Library , Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. Video collection of Betty Friedan, ca.1970–2006: A Finding Aid. Schlesinger Library , Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. Audio collection of Betty Friedan, 1963–2007: A Finding Aid. Schlesinger Library , Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. Lecture on Betty Friedan: Jews and American Feminism by Dr. Henry Abramson of Touro College South Michals, Debra "Betty Friedan". National Women's History Museum. 2017. Interview with Betty Friedan, A DISCUSSION WITH National Authors on Tour TV Series, Episode #120 (1994) 1921 births 2006 deaths 20th-century American writers 20th-century American women writers American agnostics American feminist writers American humanists American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent American people of Russian-Jewish descent American abortion-rights activists American tax resisters American women's rights activists Feminist theorists Free speech activists Jewish agnostics Jewish American writers Jewish feminists Jewish humanists Jewish women writers Presidents of the National Organization for Women Smith College alumni Writers from Peoria, Illinois Equal Rights Amendment	[ -0.027732733637094498, 0.17760245501995087, -1.0990626811981201, -0.05241823568940163, -0.3513294458389282, 0.43847519159317017, 0.5702632665634155, -0.1388527899980545, -0.009306807070970535, -0.17334339022636414, 0.04043249413371086, 0.10146691650152206, 0.32016971707344055, 0.46227481961250305, 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253064	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padiddle	Padiddle	Padiddle, alternatively spelled pediddle or perdiddle, is a Canadian and American slang term for a vehicle with a burnt-out headlight or brake light, or a game involving tallying up sightings of such vehicles. The term Popeye is also used, due to it looking like one eye is out or squinting. Fog lights do not count as a padiddle even if used as primary lights. There is no such thing as a double padiddle. Another version of padiddle, often called "banana", involves spotting a yellow car, such as a taxi or sports car, and responding the same way. An optional variation involves calling out "padunkle" upon spotting a car without headlights turned on at night, awarding the spotter double points. Padunkle is also known as a rear light being out. Play The objective is to be the first to spot a qualifying vehicle. The spotter must say, "padiddle," to earn a sighting. In some groups, the spotter must simultaneously hit the ceiling of the car or hit the window glass, and in others, punch or kiss another passenger. The person with the highest score at the end of the trip is the winner. In another version, the first person to get to 3 "padiddles" is the winner and gets to make a wish. In some variants the last member of the car to punch the ceiling loses one article of clothing. Following this style of play, the winner is the last person wearing clothes in the car. This is sometimes played in teams where every member of the losing team most remove an article of clothing. Other calls for padiddle include: Blue balls a car with blue headlights. Lance Armstrong a car with only one blue headlight. Cyclops a semi-truck with only one headlight. Wee woo an ambulance without its lights on. Party lights Cop cars with lights on. Padoodle Car with both lights off. Ripiddle Car with one tail light out. Qualifying vehicles must be visible through the windshield of the vehicle; "padiddles" seen through a side or rear-view mirror only count for half a point. A motorcycle misidentified as a padiddle is a foul that awards the offender's partner a double hit or kiss. Players can not use their own vehicle as a point. 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253065	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mayors%20of%20Minneapolis	List of mayors of Minneapolis	This is a list of mayors of Minneapolis, Minnesota. The current mayor is Jacob Frey (DFL). Minneapolis From 1867 to 1878 mayors were elected for a 1-year term. Beginning in 1878 the term was extended to 2 years. As the city became larger and more complex, expectations of voters for mayors increased. The term was extended to 4 years beginning in January 1982, to provide mayors with more time to achieve their programs. List Timeline St. Anthony Minneapolis merged with St. Anthony in 1872. References Tony L. Hill, "Mayors of Minneapolis Since Incorporation," 1986. Ray Marshall, "Who Governed - In Minneapolis and St. Paul," 1968. Proceedings of the City Council of St. Anthony, 1855-1862. Proceedings of the City Council of St. Anthony, Sept. 7, 1863-April 8, 1872. 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253067	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Georgia	Governor of Georgia	The governor of Georgia is the head of government of Georgia and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor also has a duty to enforce state laws, the power to either veto or approve bills passed by the Georgia Legislature, and the power to convene the legislature. The current governor is Republican Brian Kemp, who assumed office on January 14, 2019. There have officially been 77 governors of the state of Georgia, including 11 who served more than one distinct term (John Houstoun, George Walton, Edward Telfair, George Mathews, Jared Irwin, David Brydie Mitchell, George Rockingham Gilmer, M. Hoke Smith, Joseph Mackey Brown, John M. Slaton, and Eugene Talmadge, with Herman Talmadge serving two de facto distinct terms). The early days were chaotic, with several gaps and schisms in the state's power structure, as the state capital of Savannah was captured during the American Revolutionary War. After independence was achieved, the office was solidly Democratic-Republican until the 1830s, when the office began to be contested by Democrats and Whigs for a few decades. The state seceded and was part of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War, after which it had several governors appointed by the President of the United States and the military occupation. During Reconstruction, it had two Republican governors, but after local rule was re-established, Democrats would be the only party elected for the next 131 years. The longest-serving governors are George Busbee, Joe Frank Harris, Zell Miller, Sonny Perdue, and Nathan Deal, each of whom served two full four-year terms; Joseph E. Brown, governor during the Civil War, was elected four times, serving seven and a half years. The shortest term of the post-revolutionary period is that of Matthew Talbot, who served 13 days after succeeding his predecessor who died in office. One man, Eugene Talmadge, died before taking office in his third distinct term, leading to a dispute in which three people claimed the office. Governors Georgia was one of the original Thirteen Colonies and ratified the Constitution of the United States on January 2, 1788. It seceded from the Union on January 19, 1861, and was a founding member of the Confederate States of America on February 4, 1861. Following the end of the American Civil War, Georgia during Reconstruction was part of the Third Military District, which exerted control over governor appointments and elections. Georgia was readmitted to the Union on July 25, 1868, expelled from Congress for failures in Reconstruction on March 3, 1869, and again readmitted on July 15, 1870. Selection and length of term In Georgia's Rules and Regulations of 1776, considered by some to be the first constitution, the chief executive was a president chosen by the legislature every six months. This was quickly superseded by the 1777 constitution, which called for a governor to be chosen by the legislature each year, with a term limited to one year out of every three. The governor's term was lengthened to two years in the 1789 constitution, and an 1824 amendment provided for popular election of the governor. While the 1861 secessionist constitution kept the office the same, the 1865 constitution, following Georgia's surrender, limited governors to two consecutive terms of two years each, allowing them to serve again after a gap of four years. The Reconstruction constitution of 1868 increased the governor's term to four years. The 1877 constitution, after the end of Reconstruction, returned the office to the provisions of the 1865 constitution. An amendment in 1941 lengthened terms to four years, but governors could no longer succeed themselves, having to wait four years to serve again. The constitution does not specify when terms start, only that the governor is installed at the next session of the General Assembly. The current constitution of 1983 allows governors to succeed themselves once before having to wait four years to serve again. Qualifications Anyone who seeks to be elected Governor of Georgia must meet the following qualifications: Be at least thirty years of age when sworn in Be a resident of Georgia for at least six years immediately preceding the election Be a United States citizen for at least fifteen years before the election Vacancy Originally, in the event of a vacancy, the president of the executive council acted as governor. This was changed in 1798 to the president of the senate. The 1945 constitution created the office of lieutenant governor, who would act as governor if that office became vacant; in 1983, this was changed so that the lieutenant governor now becomes governor in the event of a vacancy. Three Governors controversy In December 1946, Governor-elect Eugene Talmadge died before assuming office. Talmadge's son, Herman, was appointed governor by the State Legislature. This was challenged by the Lieutenant Governor-elect Melvin Thompson, who maintained that the state constitution authorized him to assume the office upon the death of the governor. Outgoing governor Ellis Arnall announced that he would not relinquish the office until it was clear who the new governor was. The political turmoil that ensued became known as the "Three Governors Controversy". In January 1947, while all three governors occupied different portions of the State Capitol, Secretary of State Ben W. Fortson Jr., took the Great Seal of the State of Georgia and hid it. This prevented any of the claimants to the governorship from executing any business until the Supreme Court of Georgia could make a ruling on the rightful winner. Thompson was eventually declared "acting governor" until a special election could be held to fill the remainder of the original term. Herman Talmadge won the special election and served out the remaining portion of his father's term. Exceptions and omissions The revolutionary government was thrown into disarray by the capture of Savannah in 1778, which led to several governments with varying levels of influence; they would reunite in 1780. The Official and Statistical Register of Georgia ignores the Council of Safety of William Ewen in favor of Archibald Bulloch's government, and omits the government of William Glascock and Seth John Cuthbert. The Register includes colonial governors in its numbering, listing Archibald Bulloch as the 7th governor. Succession Article V, Section 1, Paragraph V of the Constitution of Georgia provides a plan of succession in the event of the death or incapacitation of the Governor. The first successor would be the Lieutenant Governor, followed by the Speaker of the Georgia House of Representatives. See also First Ladies of Georgia List of colonial governors of Georgia References General A History of Georgia, second ed. Kenneth Coleman, general editor. University of Georgia Press: 1991. 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253068	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Hawaii	Governor of Hawaii	The governor of Hawaii () is the head of government of the U.S. state of Hawaii and its various agencies and departments, as provided in the Hawaii State Constitution Article V, Sections 1 through 6. It is a directly elected position, votes being cast by popular suffrage of residents of the state. The governor is responsible for enforcing laws passed by the Hawaii State Legislature and upholding rulings of the Hawaii State Judiciary. The role includes being commander-in-chief of the armed forces of Hawaii and having the power to use those forces to execute laws, suppress insurrection and violence and repel invasion. The lieutenant governor of Hawaii becomes acting governor upon the officeholder's absence from the state or if the person is unable to discharge the powers and duties of the office. Historically, the Governor of Hawaii has been from either the Democratic Party of Hawaii or Hawaii Republican Party. The current governor of Hawaii is Democrat David Ige, who assumed the position on December 1, 2014. Hawaii was the first U.S. state to have an Asian American chief executive; George Ariyoshi served three terms between 1974 and 1986. Qualifications The governor of Hawaii is limited to two four-year terms. Inauguration takes place on the first Monday in December following a gubernatorial election. A single term ends at noon four years later. There is no lifetime limit on the number of times a governor may be elected, but a governor who has been elected to two consecutive terms must be out of office for at least one election cycle before being eligible once again for re-election. A Governor is: required to be at least 30 years old, required to have been a resident of Hawaii for five consecutive years previous to election, barred from other professions or paid positions during the term. Authority The governor and lieutenant governor (running together on the same ticket) are the only two elected statewide executive officers in Hawaii. All other statewide executives (attorney general, auditor, etc.) are appointed by either the governor or the state legislature. Also, the governor of Hawaii has wide-reaching authority comparably stronger than the other governors in the Union; administrative powers are more centralized than that of most other states with little authority devolved to the counties, and unlike other states there are no local school districts. Included within the governor's sphere of jurisdiction is the power to appoint all judges of the various courts within the Hawaiian judicial system, subject to Senatorial approval. The state of Hawaii does not have fixed cabinet positions and departments. By law, the governor of Hawaii has the power to create their cabinet and departments as needed as long as the executive department is composed of no more than twenty bodies and cabinet members. The governor of Hawaii is also empowered to remove cabinet officers at will, with the exception of the attorney general of Hawaii, who must be removed by an act of the Hawaii State Senate. Residence The governor of Hawaii's official residence was Washington Place, a mansion that was once a minor royal palace of Queen Liliuokalani and her husband, Prince Consort John Owen Dominis. The mansion is located across the street from the Hawaii State Capitol, where the Office of the Governor is located, and is accessed from the Capitol through underground passages beneath Beretania Street in downtown Honolulu. Befitting of its history as a former royal palace, the governors of Hawaii have entertained royal families from around the world at Washington Place including Queen Elizabeth II and Emperors Hirohito and Akihito. In 2001, the new mansion for the governor was built on the grounds of Washington Place, after the state decided to turn Washington Place into a museum, an idea supported by then-Governor Benjamin J. Cayetano and family. This new mansion: Hale Kia Aina was completed in 2002 and Cayetano became the first governor to live in it for a few days before leaving office. His successor, Governor Linda Lingle, became the first governor to begin a term in the new mansion. Despite the building of this new mansion, Washington Place remains the official residence of the governor and is still used for state dinners and other official functions. Succession See also Royal Governor of Hawaii Royal Governor of Maui Royal Governor of Oahu Royal Governor of Kauai References External links Constitution of the State of Hawaii Office of the Governor of Hawaii 1959 establishments in Hawaii	[ 0.17528200149536133, 0.18211683630943298, -0.0027998173609375954, 0.22755379974842072, -0.41116228699684143, -0.21292264759540558, 0.2101655900478363, 0.13218291103839874, -0.6966860890388489, -0.08962970227003098, -0.3641921281814575, -0.017416225746273994, -0.16981464624404907, 0.31315603852272034, -0.34778323769569397, 0.44373106956481934, 0.7310383915901184, 0.6269468069076538, -0.3056057393550873, -0.5467036366462708, -0.383485347032547, 0.0012710868613794446, -0.1588372439146042, -0.5091482400894165, -0.03390102460980415, 0.01145975198596716, 0.026760777458548546, 0.011581283994019032, -0.41729745268821716, 0.09210792928934097, -0.19398808479309082, -0.1475065052509308, -0.09527336806058884, 0.5861847400665283, -0.2699489891529083, 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253070	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Illinois	Governor of Illinois	The governor of Illinois is the head of government of Illinois, and the various agencies and departments over which the officer has jurisdiction, as prescribed in the state constitution. It is a directly elected position, votes being cast by popular suffrage of residents of the state. The governor is responsible for enacting laws passed by the Illinois General Assembly. Illinois is one of 14 states that does not have a gubernatorial term-limit along with Connecticut, Idaho, Iowa, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, North Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, District of Columbia, Vermont, New Hampshire and Puerto Rico. The governor is commander-in-chief of the state's land, air and sea forces when they are in state service. The 43rd and current governor is J. B. Pritzker, a Democrat who took office on January 14, 2019. Qualifications The term of office of governor of Illinois is 4 years, and there is no limit on the number of terms a governor may serve. Inauguration takes place on the second Monday in January following a gubernatorial election in November. A single term ends four years later. A governor is required to be: at least 25 years old a United States citizen a resident of Illinois for 3 years prior to election Succession If the incumbent governor is no longer able or permitted to fulfill the duties of the office of governor, the line of succession is as follows: Residence The governor is allowed the occupancy of the Illinois Governor's Mansion in Springfield, the state capital. Its first occupant was Governor Joel Aldrich Matteson, who took residence at the mansion in 1855. It is one of three oldest governor's residences in continuous use in the United States. The governor is also given the use of two official residences on the state fair grounds, located in Springfield and DuQuoin. The official residence in DuQuoin is Hayes House. Governors have traditionally used these residences part of the year. However, some governors, such as Rod Blagojevich, have chosen to not use the governor's homes as their primary residence, instead commuting either by car or plane to Springfield from their home cities. Many Chicago-based governors also have done much of their business out of the governor's office in Chicago's James R. Thompson Center, an office building owned by the state named for former governor James R. Thompson (1977-1991) Illinois' longest-serving governor. Corruption Six Illinois governors have been charged with crimes during or after their governorships; four were convicted, and of those, one (Blagojevich) was the first to be impeached and removed from office. Accused JB Pritzker (D), current Illinois governor, and his wife, M.K., were under federal investigation for property tax breaks. M.K. Pritzker had directed workers to remove the toilets from their gold coast mansion during renovations so the mansion would be deemed uninhabitable, resulting in a property tax break. After an inspection was complete, she had them reinstall one toilet in J.B.’s “hangout/meeting area.” A 2018 Cook County Inspector General report called Pritzker’s actions a “scheme to defraud.” The Pritzkers hired contractor Bulley & Andrews during the mansion’s renovation. In May, it was revealed the same company that removed Pritzker’s toilets was also cashing in on federal contracts while still working for the governor. U.S. Department of Defense records show Bulley & Andrews was awarded nearly $9 million through a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers contract to convert the old Westlake Hospital in Melrose Park into a COVID-19 care facility. The Corps last worked with the firm in 1944. While Pritzker is embroiled in a federal investigation of tax fraud, he’s asking the rest of Illinois’ taxpayers to support his plan to raise income taxes for the third time in a decade. Acquitted Len Small (R), governor from 1921 to 1929, was indicted in office for corruption. He was acquitted; thereafter, eight of the jurors received state jobs. Among his defense lawyers was a former governor, Joseph W. Fifer, who asserted in pre-trial hearings, that the governorship has the divine right of kings. William G. Stratton (R), governor from 1953 to 1961, was acquitted of tax evasion in 1965. Convicted Otto Kerner, Jr. (D), governor from 1961 to 1968; Stratton's successor and later a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, was convicted of 17 counts of bribery, conspiracy, perjury, and income-tax charges from his time as governor, and received 3 years in prison and a $50,000 fine in 1973. He was prosecuted by future Illinois governor Jim Thompson. Daniel Walker (D), governor from 1973 to 1977, was later involved in the savings and loan scandals and convicted of federal crimes related to fraudulent loans to himself from his own First American Savings & Loan Association of Oak Brook. He was sentenced to 7 years in prison with 5 years of probation following his release. George Ryan (R), governor from 1999 to 2003, was convicted in 2006 of corruption related to his time as Illinois Secretary of State in the 1990s, when commercial driver's licenses were issued to unqualified truckers in exchange for bribes, and one of the truckers was involved in a crash that killed 6 children. Former governor Jim Thompson, whom Ryan had served under as Lieutenant Governor of Illinois in the 1980s, was manager of the law firm that defended Ryan. Ryan was released in 2013. Rod Blagojevich (D), governor from 2003 to 2009, and Ryan's successor, was impeached and removed from office by the Illinois General Assembly in a unanimous vote in January 2009 after being tied to multiple "pay to play" schemes, including attempting to sell the former Senate seat of then-President-elect Barack Obama. In August 2010, he was convicted of lying to the FBI in connection with the investigation, but the jury deadlocked on 23 other charges. Blagojevich was retried on 20 counts from his 2010 trial and on June 27, 2011, Blagojevich was convicted on 17 counts of fraud, acquitted on one count and the jury was hung on two. On December 7, 2011, Blagojevich was sentenced to 14 years in prison. On February 18, 2020 Blagojevich's sentence was commuted to time served by President Donald Trump. See also List of governors of Illinois Neil Hartigan, General Counsel to Governor Pritzker Notes 1. Former governor of Illinois Bruce Rauner, who was independently wealthy, has previously stated that he would only accept $1 in salary. In 2015, the Council of State Governments reported that Rauner had returned all but $1 of his salary to the State of Illinois. However, the pay rate for the title of governor in Illinois remains at $177,412. 2. After billionaire J.B. Pritzker spent a record a $171.5 million of his own personal fortune to fund his campaign to win the governor's seat, he decided not to accept a state salary during his time in office. References External links Information on the Iliinois Governor's Mansion on the webpage of the Illinois Office of the Governor Burial places of Illinois Governors Article V (Executive) in the Illinois Constitution 1818 establishments in Illinois Territory	[ 0.24032558500766754, 0.29957178235054016, -0.5573585033416748, 0.01456784550100565, -0.10978104919195175, -0.10892713069915771, 0.4241558313369751, 0.7717046141624451, -0.2674851417541504, -0.5160418748855591, -0.41700097918510437, 0.4240635633468628, -0.33039820194244385, 0.22878794372081757, -0.18752099573612213, 0.8021775484085083, 0.48965969681739807, 0.6600688099861145, -0.4125659465789795, -0.3439479172229767, -0.4325445592403412, -0.10916650295257568, 0.39459696412086487, -0.40364933013916016, 0.21005912125110626, -0.16442526876926422, 0.4915558397769928, 0.44114089012145996, -0.3998624086380005, 0.176628977060318, -0.2888261377811432, -0.4257463812828064, -0.3783590793609619, -0.15981873869895935, -0.359507292509079, 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253071	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Indiana	Governor of Indiana	The governor of Indiana is the head of government of the State of Indiana. The governor is elected to a four-year term and is responsible for overseeing the day-to-day management of the functions of many agencies of the Indiana state government. The governor also shares power with other statewide executive officers, who manage other state government agencies. The governor works out of the Indiana Statehouse and holds official functions at the Indiana Governor's Residence in the state capital of Indianapolis. The 51st, and current, governor is Republican Eric Holcomb, who took office on January 9, 2017. The position of the governor has developed over the course of two centuries. It has become considerably more powerful since the mid-20th century after decades of struggle with the Indiana General Assembly and Indiana Supreme Court to establish the executive branch of the government as an equal third branch of the state government. Although gubernatorial powers were again significantly expanded by constitutional amendments during the 1970s, Indiana governors remain significantly less powerful than their counterparts in most other states. Office Authority The governor's powers are established in Article V of the Constitution of Indiana. Constitutionally, the governor has very limited executive authority to manage the government of the state; most exercisable powers over state agencies are held by independently elected cabinet heads. The governor works in concert with the state legislature (the bicameral Indiana General Assembly, consisting of the Indiana House of Representatives and the Indiana Senate) and the state supreme court (the Indiana Supreme Court) to govern the state. The governor has the power to veto legislation passed by the General Assembly. If vetoed, a bill is returned to the General Assembly for reconsideration. Unlike other states, most of which require a two-thirds supermajority to override a veto, the Indiana General Assembly may override the veto with an absolute majority vote in both chambers. One of the governor's most important political powers is the ability to call a special session of the General Assembly. During a two-year period, the assembly can meet on its own for no more than 91 days, and this often prevents them from passing all the legislation they intend to. This can give the governor considerable influence in the body which will often compromise on issues with him in exchange for a special legislative session. Among his other powers, the governor can call out the state defense force (the Indiana Guard Reserve) or the Indiana National Guard in times of emergency or disaster. The governor is also charged with the enforcement of all the state's laws and the Indiana Code through the Indiana State Police. The governor also has the ability to grant a pardon or commutation of sentence of any person convicted of a crime in the state, except in cases of treason or impeachment. In addition to constitutional powers, governors also have a considerable degree of statutory authority. Most of the authority exercised by governors on a daily basis is derived from statute, giving the General Assembly a great degree of power to expand or contract the governor's authority. Historically, the party in control of the General Assembly would reassign control of agencies from the governor or to the governor based his party affiliation, and the party affiliation of the cabinet heads, which at times has left the governor with no direct control over state agencies. The governor also can influence the state court system through the appointment of judges. In Indiana, when vacancies occur on the Supreme Court, Tax Court, and circuit courts, the Judicial Nominating Commission interviews candidates and sends a list of three candidates for each vacancy to the governor, who chooses one. Justices of the peace and superior courts judges are elected in Indiana; if a vacancy occurs (such as by death or resignation) the governor may make an appointment, who holds the office until the next general election. The authority to make such appointments gives the governor considerable sway in setting the makeup of the judiciary. The annual salary of the governor of Indiana is US$111,688 (2015). Additionally, he receives $6,000 annually for discretionary spending and expenses. Requirements To become governor of Indiana, a candidate must be a citizen of the United States and must have been a resident of the state in which they are running for the period of five consecutive years before the election. The candidate must also be at least 30 years old when sworn into office. The governor may not hold any other state or federal office during his term and must resign from any such position before being eligible to be sworn in as governor. Before taking the office, the candidate must swear an oath of office administered by the Chief Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court, promising to uphold the Constitution and laws of the United States of America and the State of Indiana. Term limits The governor serves a four-year term beginning on the date he is sworn into office; inauguration day is the second Monday in January. He remains governor until his successor takes the oath of office. The governor's term can be shorter if he resigns, dies, becomes incapacitated or impeached. There is no limit to how many terms a governor may serve; however, the governor is limited to serving a total of eight years in any 12-year period, equivalent to two full terms. To be eligible to run for a third term, the governor would have to sit out for one election period. Succession If the governor becomes incapacitated, then the Lieutenant Governor of Indiana becomes acting governor until his recovery. Only two governors have become incapacitated during their terms, and the current precedent is that the governor's office is to notify the lieutenant governor, who will then make the decision to become acting governor by notifying the General Assembly by letter. The governor can resume his powers and duties by sending a letter to the General Assembly notifying them that he is again capable of executing the duties of office. If the governor resigns, dies, or is impeached, tried, and convicted, then the lieutenant governor ascends as governor. If the office of the lieutenant governor is vacant, then the President Pro Tempore of the Senate becomes governor. If the office of Senate President Pro Tempore is also vacant, then the Senate must elect a replacement to fill the governor's office. Residence and offices The governor maintains an office on the first floor of the Indiana Statehouse in Indianapolis, and from there he manages all of the state's agencies that are under his jurisdiction. He shares the building with the Indiana General Assembly and the Supreme Court of Indiana. The other elected executive officers, including the attorney general and the lieutenant governor, are also located in the statehouse, but most of the state's bureaus are located in the state office building. Traditionally, the governor lives in the Indiana Governor's Residence, also located in Indianapolis; however, former governor Mitchell Daniels' family maintained their private home, using the Governor's Residence only for official functions. History Governors The first Governor of Indiana, Jonathan Jennings, was elected in August 1816 and assumed office in December of that year. The first capital was in Corydon, and the first three governors maintained homes and offices there. The capital was moved to Indianapolis in December 1824. Governors originally served three-years terms until the constitution was replaced in 1851. The 1851 constitution extended terms to four years but banned governors from serving consecutive terms. The constitution was amended again in 1972 to allow governors to serve consecutive terms but limited them to two consecutive terms at a time. There have been 51 Governors of Indiana. 23 Republicans and 21 Democrats have each held the position. Four have died while in office; seven have resigned. Ten Lieutenant Governors have succeeded to become governor. James B. Ray has been the only President of the Senate pro tempore to assume the office of governor. Jonathan Jennings was the first Governor to have an attempted impeachment brought against him in response to his actions as an agent of the federal government during the negotiations of the Treaty of St. Mary's in 1819, illegal under Indiana's constitution. The evidence of his role was destroyed, and after two months of investigation the proceedings were dropped. The only other time was when the General Assembly attempted to bring impeachment proceedings against Governor James B. Ray for a similar action in 1826, but the action was also defeated 28–30. Four Governors were elected Vice President of the United States, two while in office. Power shifts Historically, the office of Indiana's governor has been a weaker institution relative to the other branches of state government and also when compared to the role of governors of other U.S. states. During Indiana's territorial period, there was a considerable resentment to the power wielded by the territorial governors, and in response the anti-governor faction, which dominated the constitutional convention, created a weak executive position. The governor was not given complete authority over the militia, his term was set at three years, and most of his actions could be overridden by the General Assembly. The position was steadily weakened by the legislature, and his power was limited further by the constitution of 1851. The governor's authority to choose his own appointments for the state courts was removed, and the ability to appoint his own cabinet was ended. The cabinet was effectively made independent by making them elected popularly. The authority to propose budgets was revoked, and serving consecutive terms was banned. By comparison, the Supreme Court was made almost entirely independent, and the General Assembly assumed many of the powers taken from the governor. Governors first began to assert their own power during the American Civil War as the General Assembly attempted to remove command of the militia from the governor. In response, the General Assembly was effectively suppressed, during which time the governor assumed many powers to appoint public officials, hire and remove state employees, and manage state finances. When the General Assembly reconvened with a majority sympathetic to the governor, he was permitted to continue many of his assumed powers. In 1889, the General Assembly began to reassert its authority over hiring state employees. The issued ended when the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the legislature, again returning to it final authority over hiring state employees. The legislature passed acts in 1895 that removed the last of the governor's authority to appoint anyone to executive positions. With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, the governors again began to reassert authority. The Executive Reorganization Act was passed, returning the governor to a considerable level of appointment power. New state welfare and regulatory agencies were placed directly under the governor's control, greatly expanding his role in running the state and creating many patronage positions. The legislature responded by trying to create a merit system for public offices, but it was largely unable to effectively enforce it given the new scope of government agencies. The battle with the governor continued until 1941 when the legislature rescinded the Executive Reorganization Act and replaced it with the State Administration Act, which placed most of the government under the control of elected commissioners and reduced the governor's practical executive authority to commander of the militia and the executor of legislation. The matter was taken to the Indiana Supreme Court in the case of Tucker v. State. The court ruled for the first time that the governor was in fact the Chief Executive of the state, and that the legislature could pass no law that infringed upon that right. The decision was a major shift from previous court decisions and granted governors a legal basis to resist future encroachment on their powers. During the 1970s, a series of amendments was passed under popular governors that also increased their powers. The state courts were again made appointive, but the selection of the candidates was granted to the court-dominated Indiana Judicial Nominating Commission. However, the governor was given more control over the process in which he previously had none. Another amendment removed the ban on consecutive terms, allowing Indiana's first consecutive term governors in over one hundred years. A third amendment granted the power to prepare a budget to a State Budgetary Agency, which was run by officials appointed by the governor. The significant authority this gave the governor over the budget was the "greatest transfer of power" to the governor yet, according to historian and professor of political science Linda Gugin. Despite gaining considerable power during the mid-twentieth-century, Indiana's governor remains fairly weak compared to his counterparts in other states. He has no line-item veto authority, and the pocket veto was ruled unconstitutional. If a governor does not sign or reject a bill, it becomes law automatically. This led to a fistfight during the term of Claude Matthews, who was locked out of the House chambers to prevent him from returning a bill in time. The legislature can override a veto with a simple majority, as opposed to a supermajority that is required federally and in most other states. The legislature still exercises final control over the hiring of state employees, but given the large size of the government and the short legislative sessions, they are unable to make any considerable impact other than their continued advocacy for an expanded merit system. The cabinet is still almost entirely independent of the governor, and he has control over only half of the government's agencies, such as the Indiana State Police and the Indiana Bureau of Motor Vehicles. Other large agencies, such as the Department of Administration, are under the control of the cabinet. Veto usage During the state's early history, vetoes were seldom employed by governors primarily because they were seen as only symbolic since the General Assembly could override them with only a simple majority. Governor James Whitcomb was the first to make significant use of the power and vetoed a record of fifteen bills during a single legislative session. Roger Branigin, who presided over a hostile legislature, made the most total vetoes of any governor, returning a total of one hundred bills to the assembly. Despite the fact that vetoes are easily overridden, only around ten percent of vetoed bills are overridden. During the 1970s, for example, 117 bills were vetoed, but only eleven were overridden. Observers and historians attribute this to the short length of legislative sessions, which often do not allow enough time for a large number of bills to pass through both houses twice. Another factor is that legislators of the same party as the governor typically refuse to override his veto, even in cases where they supported the bill originally. General Assembly relations The governor's relationship with the General Assembly has typically been the determining factor in his success at enacting his agenda, although other factors also play an important role. In most of Indiana's history, the governor has come to power at a time in which his party controlled the assembly. Since the political parties first became dominant in 1831 and until 2010, thirty-three sessions of the legislature have been divided with different parties controlling the House and Senate. Only five sessions have occurred where the legislature was entirely controlled by the opposition party, while in ninety-eight sessions the governor's party controlled the entire assembly. Governors who had previously been legislators have generally had greater success in achieving their legislative goals while governor. Three speakers of the house have become governor. Governor Joseph A. Wright had the worst relations of any governor with the assembly. He twice delivered speeches to a joint session where he harangued them for what he perceived to be corruption, accusing them of taking bribes from the Bank of Indiana. The legislature responded by overriding all his anti-banking vetoes. He was so disliked by his own party that he was expelled from it after his term. Traits Except for James Whitcomb, all of Indiana's governors have been married at the time of their election. Whitcomb married while in office. About half of the governors have been married multiple times, all due to the death of their first wives. Three governors' wives, including Whitcomb's, died while their husbands were in office. Except for Jonathan Jennings, Thomas R. Marshall and Eric Holcomb, all of the state governors have also had children. After leaving office, Marshall adopted a young boy. Only twenty of Indiana's governors were native to the state. Seven were born in Pennsylvania, four born in Ohio, and four born in Kentucky. Other governors have come from Michigan, Virginia, New York, and Vermont. Territorial Governor William Henry Harrison was appointed to office at age twenty-seven, making him the youngest executive. James B. Ray, elevated at thirty-one and reelected at thirty-two, was the youngest governor to be elected to office. Evan Bayh, at age thirty-four, is the only other governor under the age of forty to be elected. James D. Williams, at age sixty-nine, was the oldest governor to be elected and died in office at age seventy-two. The average age of governors at the time of their election is fifty. Thirty-two of Indiana's governors have served in the military. Veteran organizations have served as a gateway for the governorship. Ira J. Chase served as leader of the Grand Army of the Republic. Paul V. McNutt, Ralph F. Gates, and George N. Craig were leaders of the American Legion, whose national headquarters is in Indianapolis. Thirty governors have been lawyers by profession, and three have been farmers. Thirty received a college education, with eleven of them having attended Indiana University. Several governors have gone on to higher office, with nine serving in the United States Senate, and three serving as Vice President of the United States. Gubernatorial elections Under the original constitution of 1816, the state held gubernatorial elections every three years. The first election was held before statehood was approved, in August 1816. Until the constitution was replaced in 1851, elections were held in October, and winners took office in December. In 1851, Indiana adopted its second and current constitution, which banned governors from serving consecutive terms and lengthened terms to four years. Elections since then have been held on Election Day in November during years divisible by four, concurrent with presidential elections. In 1972, the constitution was amended to allow governors to immediately succeed themselves. As mentioned above, the amendment limited a governor to a total of eight years in office during a 12-year period, effectively limiting him to two consecutive terms. References Specific Bibliography External links The Office of the Governor of Indiana 1816 establishments in Indiana	[ -0.4448365569114685, 0.5837024450302124, -0.48844650387763977, 0.3594476580619812, 0.1420842707157135, 0.3238584101200104, 0.5473126173019409, 0.9462519884109497, -0.6914005875587463, -0.5080284476280212, -0.4164174199104309, 0.2974027693271637, -0.04406499117612839, 0.615709125995636, -0.18551407754421234, 0.7982737421989441, 0.10325907915830612, 0.6978813409805298, -0.34999674558639526, -0.30973878502845764, -0.5431317090988159, -0.2132583111524582, 0.13541699945926666, -0.04892963916063309, 0.0525207556784153, -0.1071709543466568, 0.29572513699531555, 0.32538357377052307, -0.13934864103794098, 0.01904500275850296, -0.33967769145965576, 0.10021226108074188, -0.2960279583930969, 0.14598236978054047, -0.3731214702129364, -0.6151962280273438, 0.045846328139305115, -0.7648413181304932, 0.023372787982225418, 0.2233089953660965, -0.03494454175233841, 0.12862658500671387, 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253074	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Kentucky	Governor of Kentucky	The governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky is the head of government of Kentucky. 62 men and one woman have served as governor of Kentucky. The governor's term is four years in length; since 1992, incumbents have been able to seek re-election once before becoming ineligible for four years. Throughout the state's history, four men have served two non-consecutive terms as governor, and two others have served two consecutive terms. Kentucky is one of only five U.S. states that hold gubernatorial elections in odd-numbered years. The current governor is Andy Beshear, who was first elected in 2019. The governor's powers are enumerated in the state constitution. There have been four constitutions of Kentucky—adopted in 1792, 1799, 1850, and 1891, respectively—and each has enlarged the governor's authority. Among the powers appropriated to the governor in the constitution are the ability to grant pardons, veto legislation, and call the legislature into session. The governor serves as commander-in-chief of the state's military forces and is empowered to enforce all laws of the state. The officeholder is given broad statutory authority to make appointments to the various cabinets and departments of the executive branch, limited somewhat by the adoption of a merit system for state employees in 1960. Because Kentucky's governor controls so many appointments to commissions, the office has been historically considered one of the most powerful state executive positions in the United States. Additionally, the governor's influence has been augmented by wide discretion in awarding state contracts and significant influence over the legislature, although the latter has been waning since the mid-1970s. The history of the office of Governor is largely one of long periods of domination by a single party, though different parties were predominant in different eras. Federalists were rare among Kentuckians during the period of the First Party System, and Democratic Republicans won every gubernatorial election in the state until 1828. The Second Party System began when the Democratic-Republicans split into Jacksonian Democrats (the predecessor of the modern Democratic Party) and National Republicans (later to become Whigs). Beginning with the election of Thomas Metcalfe in 1828, the Whigs dominated the governorship until 1851, with John Breathitt being the only Democrat elected during that period. With the collapse of the Whig Party in the 1850s, Democrats took control of the governorship for the duration of the Third Party System, with Charles S. Morehead of the Know Nothing Party being the only exception. The election of Republican William O'Connell Bradley in 1895 began the only period of true 2-party competition for the governorship; from Bradley's election through 1931, 5 Republicans and 6 Democrats held the office of governor of Kentucky. Since 1931, only 4 Republicans have served as governor of Kentucky, and no Republican governor has ever been re-elected; the most recent past Governor, Matt Bevin, lost re-election. Powers and responsibilities In all four Kentucky constitutions, the first power enumerated to the governor is to serve as commander-in-chief of the state's militia and military forces. In 1799, a stipulation was added that the governor would not personally lead troops on the battlefield unless advised to do so by a resolution of the General Assembly. Such a case occurred in 1813 when Governor Isaac Shelby, a veteran of the Revolutionary War, was asked to lead a band of Kentucky troops to aid William Henry Harrison at the Battle of the Thames. For his service, Shelby received the Thanks of Congress and the Congressional Gold Medal. Among the other powers and responsibilities of the governor that appear in all four constitutions are the power to enforce all laws, the power to fill vacancies in elected offices until the next meeting of the General Assembly, and the power to remit fines and grant pardons. The power to pardon is not applicable to cases of impeachment, and in cases of treason, a gubernatorial pardon is only effective until the end of the next session of the General Assembly, which can grant a full pardon for treason. The 1891 constitution further required that, with each application for a pardon, the governor file "a statement of the reasons for his decision thereon, which ... shall always be open to public inspection." This requirement was first proposed by a delegate to the 1850 constitutional convention, but it was rejected at that time. Historically, power in Kentucky's executive has been split amongst a variety of elected positions—including Lieutenant Governor, Attorney General, Auditor of Public Accounts, Treasurer, and several commissioners—but in the late 20th century, political power has centralized in the office of Governor. Convening and adjourning the legislature The power of the governor to adjourn the General Assembly for a period of up to four months if the two houses cannot agree on a time to adjourn appears in all four constitutions. The governor is also empowered to convene the General Assembly "on extraordinary occasions". Since the 1799 constitution, the governor has been permitted to call the legislature into session somewhere other than the state capital if the capital had, since the last legislative session, "become dangerous from an enemy or from contagious diseases." This was an important provision in the early days of the Commonwealth, when epidemics like smallpox posed a danger to the populace. One notable example of an attempt to employ this power was in 1900 when Republican Governor William S. Taylor attempted to adjourn the legislature and re-convene it in heavily Republican London, Kentucky following the shooting of William Goebel. Taylor claimed a state of insurrection existed in the capital, but defiant Democrats refused to heed the call to adjourn or to convene in London. The 1891 constitution added a provision that the governor must specify the reason for any specially called legislative session, and that no other business could be considered during the session. There is, however, no constitutional requirement that the legislature conduct any business during the called session. In 2007, Republican governor Ernie Fletcher called the Assembly into session to consider a long list of items. The Democratically controlled House of Representatives maintained that none of the items were urgent enough that they could not wait until the regular session convened; they claimed that Fletcher was calling the session only to boost his sagging poll numbers before the upcoming election in which he faced a challenge from Democrat Steve Beshear. The House convened on the day appointed and adjourned an hour later without transacting any business. Veto Unlike the U.S. President, the governor does not have the option of a pocket veto. If the governor does not make a decision to sign or veto a bill, it automatically becomes law after 10 days. In the event that the legislature adjourns to prevent the return of a bill by veto, the bill becomes law three days after the commencement of the next legislative session unless the governor explicitly vetoes it. (With the federal pocket veto, the bill is considered vetoed after ten days if the legislature adjourns.) The 1799 constitution contained, for the first time, the power of the governor to veto legislation; this power was substantially similar to, and probably based upon, that found in the 1792 New Hampshire Constitution and the 1798 Georgia Constitution. The 1891 constitution empowered the governor with a line-item veto, but its use was forbidden on constitutional amendments and laws related to the classification of property for tax purposes. The governor's veto can be overridden by roll-call majority votes of both houses of the legislature; unlike in most states where a supermajority is required to override a veto. Budget Although setting the state budget is a legislative function in many states, Kentucky governors are required by statute to present a proposed biennial budget to the General Assembly for approval shortly after the beginning of its even-year sessions. The governor's budget has often been approved with few changes, but since the Republicans took control of the state senate for the first time in 1999, approval has become a much more contentious process. The General Assembly failed to pass a budget before the end of its session in both 2002 and 2004. In both cases, the state operated under an executive spending plan drafted by the governor until the legislature could re-convene and pass a budget. In 2005 the Kentucky Supreme Court ruled that the governor had no authority to expend funds without legislative approval, and that if legislators failed to pass a budget in the future, only expenditures explicitly authorized in the state constitution could be made. Administration and appointments Although the Kentucky constitution designates the governor as the head of the executive branch of state government, it does not specify the means of carrying out that role. Empowered to nominate all constitutional officers by the state's first constitution, that power of the office of the governor has been reduced in subsequent constitutions, as more of those offices became elective. Because the governor is not explicitly authorized by the constitution to conduct many of the functions necessary to administer the state government, the officeholder has had to rely on empowering legislation enacted by the General Assembly. With this in mind, Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark wrote in 2004 that extensive executive powers had been granted through the creation of a large number of commissions that reported to the governor: During the past century and a half, and especially in the later 20th century, it would have been impossible for state government to operate efficiently without a broadening of executive powers. Through the years the General Assembly has created a myriad of commissions and turned them over to the governor to exercise administrative oversight. ... All of these commissions extended the influence of the governor into every phase of human life in the commonwealth, well beyond the limitations of executive power envisioned by delegates to the constitutional convention in 1891. By 1934, the executive branch consisted of sixty-nine boards, commissions, and agencies in addition to the constitutional officers, although the members of these commissions were often the constitutional officers themselves. Governor Ruby Laffoon proposed the Administrative Reorganization Act of 1934 to organize these boards and commissions into seventeen executive departments and seven independent agencies. The General Assembly passed this legislation, giving the executive branch some semblance of structure for the first time. Laffoon's successor, A. B. "Happy" Chandler, called a special legislative session in 1936 seeking passage of another reorganization act. This act abolished several commissions and organized those remaining into ten statutory departments: Finance, Revenue, Highways, Health, Welfare, Industrial Relations, Business Regulation, Conservation, Libraries and Archives, and Mines and Minerals. The Act also created the Executive Cabinet, consisting of the constitutional officers and the heads of each of the ten statutory departments. The efficiencies created by Chandler's reorganization allowed him to pay off more than three-quarters of the state's $28.5 million debt. Besides effecting the reorganization of the executive branch, the Reorganization Act of 1936 also explicitly empowered the governor to appoint executive department heads and establish, combine, or divide departments as necessary. Later statutes gave the governor the power to appoint advisory committees on reorganization, appoint deputy heads of divisions, transfer employees and change their responsibilities within the executive branch, and establish general rules of conduct for executive branch members. In the 35 years between the time of Chandler's reorganization and the election of Wendell H. Ford as governor in 1971, the executive branch had again become unwieldy. 60 departments and 210 boards reported directly to the governor by 1972, and duplication of services between departments had created inefficiencies. On January 1, 1973, a plan that Ford had issued in late 1972 took effect, consolidating the departments reporting to him into six program cabinets: Consumer Protection and Regulation, Development, Education and the Arts, Human Resources, Safety and Justice, and Transportation. Ford continued merging departments and reorganizing the executive branch throughout 1973 to the extent that, by the end of the year, there were only three program cabinets (Development, Education and the Arts, and Consumer Protection and Regulation) and four additional departments (Human Resources, Justice, Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, and Transportation). By 2002, the executive branch had again grown to fourteen cabinets, but had no additional departments. Shortly after his election in 2003, Governor Ernie Fletcher undertook the last major reorganization of the executive branch to date, reducing the number of cabinets to nine—Justice and Public Safety, Education and Workforce Development, Environmental and Public Protection, Transportation, Economic Development, Health and Family Services, Finance and Administration, Tourism, Arts and Heritage, and Personnel. Because the governor controls so many appointments to commissions—approximately 2,000 according to a 1992 estimate—the office has been historically considered one of the most powerful state executive positions in the United States. Additionally, the governor is given wide discretion in awarding state contracts, further augmenting his influence. In the second half of the 20th century, attempts were made to curb the use of the governor's appointment power for political patronage. During his second term in office, Happy Chandler issued an executive order creating a merit system that forbade the hiring or firing of state employees for political reasons; his successor, Bert T. Combs, pushed a new merit system through the legislature, protecting it from abolition by executive order. Despite the presence of the merit system, many governors have been criticized for abusing their appointment power. In 2005, Ernie Fletcher and several members of his administration were indicted for violating the merit system in their hiring practices; the charges were later dropped as part of an agreement with the prosecutor, Attorney General Greg Stumbo. Unofficial powers In The Kentucky Encyclopedia, Eastern Kentucky University professor Paul Blanchard writes that "Many observers consider the governor's informal powers—those derived from tradition, custom, and precedent—as important as the formal powers." Frequently the leaders of their political parties at the state level, Kentucky governors usually control the party's delegations to state and national party conventions. Though given few powers with regard to the legislature, Kentucky governors can exercise a great deal of influence over the General Assembly, often hand-selecting the leadership of both chambers. A move toward a more independent legislature began in the last quarter of the 20th century, particularly during the administration of Governor John Y. Brown Jr. from 1979 to 1983. Brown was much less engaged in legislative affairs than his predecessors; he did not seek to influence the selection of the legislature's leadership, and he left on vacation during one of the two legislative sessions of his term. The trend toward a coequal legislature continued under the administrations of Brown's two immediate successors, Martha Layne Collins and Wallace Wilkinson, neither of whom was considered a strong executive. The governor is also the most visible state officer and is the center of political attention in the Commonwealth. The official host of the state when dignitaries visit, the governor frequently delivers addresses at various dedications and ceremonies, and appears on national television with the winner of the annual Kentucky Derby. The state constitution requires the governor to address the legislature periodically regarding the state of the Commonwealth. This address, traditionally given annually, is often targeted directly at the state's citizens as much as, or more so than, the legislature. The governor can use the address to extol the accomplishments of his or her term and lay out a specific plan for the upcoming legislative session; the contents of the address often shape the agenda of the session. The state's media outlets devote significant coverage to the governor's actions, and many strong governors have used the media to win support for their agendas and criticize political enemies. Qualifications and term Candidates for the office of governor of Kentucky must be at least thirty years of age and have resided in the state for at least six years preceding the general election. The residency requirement was increased from two years to six years in the constitution of 1799 and all subsequent constitutions. The 1792 constitution—the state's first—also included an exception for candidates who had been absent from the state "on the public business of the United States or of this State." The age requirement was raised from thirty years to thirty-five years in the 1799 constitution and was returned to thirty years in the 1891 constitution. A prohibition against any person concurrently holding the office of governor and a federal office appears in the first three state constitutions, but is absent in the state's current charter. Additionally, the 1799 constitution barred a "minister of any religious society" from holding the office. This language was possibly aimed at the sitting governor, James Garrard, who was an ordained Baptist minister and had frequently clashed with the legislature. The prohibition against ministers holding the office remained in the 1850 constitution, but was removed from the 1891 constitution. In the 1891 constitution, a section was included that forbade anyone from holding any state office—including the office of governor—who had "either directly or indirectly, give[n], accept[ed] or knowingly carr[ied] a challenge to any person or persons to fight in single combat, with a citizen of this State, with a deadly weapon, either in or out of the State". This provision reflected the prevalence of duelling in the South at the time. The gubernatorial oath of office states: The governor's term has been for four years in all four state constitutions. The governor was not term-limited in the 1792 constitution, but in the 1799 constitution, the governor was made ineligible for re-election for seven years following the expiration of his term. The provision did not apply to then-sitting governor James Garrard, who was re-elected in 1799. In the 1850 constitution, the period of ineligibility following the expiration of the governor's term was shortened to four years, and it remained so in the 1891 constitution. In 1953, Governor Lawrence Wetherby lamented the challenges presented by the term limit coupled with biennial legislative sessions: A Kentucky governor is elected under our constitution for four years without legal opportunity, regardless of how acceptable his program has been, to put it before the public for approval or rejection. In practical application he must successfully run the legislative gauntlet during the first hurried ninety days he is in office if he is to adopt a program and have an administration worthy of history's harsh pen. The remaining general assembly two years hence is invariably plagued with vicissitudes common to 'lame duck' tenures. The idea of removing the gubernatorial term limit was first proposed in the 1850 constitutional convention, but was vigorously opposed by some of the state's best known statesmen of the day, including Archibald Dixon, Garrett Davis, Benjamin Hardin, and Charles A. Wickliffe. Not until 1992 was an amendment to the state constitution passed to help ameliorate the situation by making the governor eligible to succeed himself one time before becoming ineligible for four years. Succession amendments had been proposed and defeated during the administrations of John Y. Brown, Jr. and Wallace Wilkinson, but then-Governor Brereton Jones was able to see it passed because, unlike Brown and Wilkinson, he was willing to exempt the present incumbents, including himself, from the succession provision. Paul E. Patton, with victories in the elections of 1995 and 1999, was the first governor to be elected to consecutive terms since the 1992 amendment. Another constitutional amendment, passed in November 2000, called for a 30-day legislative session to be held in odd-numbered years between the longer 60-day sessions held in even-numbered years. Election In the 1792 constitution, the governor and state senators were chosen by electors, in a manner similar to the operation of the United States Electoral College. In the 1795 gubernatorial election, Benjamin Logan received 21 electoral votes, James Garrard received 17, Thomas Todd received 14, and John Brown received 1. The constitution did not specify whether election required a plurality or a majority of the electoral votes cast; in the absence of any instruction, the electors held a runoff vote, wherein most of Todd's electors voted for Garrard, giving him a majority. The secretary of state certified Garrard's election, though Attorney General John Breckinridge questioned the legality of the second vote and Logan formally protested it. Ultimately, Breckinridge determined that he was not empowered by the state constitution to intervene, and Logan gave up the challenge. The 1799 constitution changed the method of selecting the governor to direct election by majority vote and prescribed that, in the event of a tie vote, the governor would be chosen by lot in the Kentucky General Assembly. This provision has remained since 1799. After the development of the party system, it became commonplace for political parties to choose their nominees for the office of governor via a nominating convention. Thomas Metcalfe was the first gubernatorial candidate chosen by a nominating convention; he was nominated by the National Republican Party at their convention in December 1827. Governor Ruby Laffoon, elected in 1931, was the last governor of Kentucky nominated by a convention. Laffoon's lieutenant governor, Happy Chandler, pushed the legislature to mandate party primaries, which they did in 1935. Party primaries remain required by law today. In 1992, the state constitution was amended to require candidates for governor and lieutenant governor to be nominated and elected as a ticket. Kentucky is one of only five U.S. states to hold gubernatorial elections in odd-numbered years—commonly called an off-year election. Louisiana, Mississippi, Virginia, and New Jersey also hold off-year gubernatorial elections. The general election for governor and lieutenant governor is held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The governor and lieutenant governor are inaugurated on the fifth Tuesday after their election. This was changed from the fourth Tuesday after the election by the 1850 constitution. Succession Under Kentucky's first constitution (1792), the Speaker of the Kentucky Senate became acting governor upon the death, resignation, or removal of the sitting governor from office, until a new election could be held. The 1799 constitution created the office of lieutenant governor, who acted as Speaker of the Senate, but was not otherwise considered a member of that body. The lieutenant governor was to become governor in the event of the sitting governor's death, resignation, or removal from office and was to act in a gubernatorial capacity any time the governor was out of the state. Whenever the lieutenant governor became the new governor, the Senate was to elect one of its members to act as Speaker; that individual then became next in the line of gubernatorial succession. A provision of the 1850 constitution added that, if the governor's term had more than two years remaining at the time of his death, resignation, or removal from office, a special election would be called to fill the office; the lieutenant governor would become the new governor and serve in the interim. In the 1891 constitution, the chain of succession was extended. It mandated that, if the Senate was not in session and therefore did not have an elected Speaker, the secretary of state, or in the event of his inability to qualify, the attorney general, would become acting governor in the event of the death, resignation, or removal from office of the sitting governor and lieutenant governor. The secretary of state or attorney general would then be required to call the Senate into session to elect a Speaker, who would subsequently become governor. A 1992 amendment to the state constitution removed the provision under which the lieutenant governor became acting governor when the sitting governor was out of the state. It also relieved the lieutenant governor of his duties in the Senate and created the office of President of the Kentucky Senate, chosen from among the state senators, who presides over the Senate. The amendment also modified the chain of succession again—it is now as follows: Governor (Andy Beshear) Lieutenant Governor (Jacqueline Coleman) President of the Senate (if the Senate is in session) (Robert Stivers) Attorney General (if the Senate is not in session) (Daniel Cameron) State Auditor (if the Senate is not in session and the Attorney General fails to qualify) (Mike Harmon) If the office devolves upon the Attorney General or State Auditor, that individual is required to call the Senate into session to elect a president, who would subsequently become governor. The first instance of gubernatorial succession in Kentucky's history occurred upon the death of Governor George Madison in 1816. Madison was extremely popular as a twice-wounded war hero. He died of tuberculosis just three weeks into his term. His lieutenant governor, Gabriel Slaughter, ascended to the governorship and immediately made two very unpopular appointments. These moves engendered much animosity toward Slaughter, and a movement began in the House of Representatives to hold a new election for governor. Leaders of the movement, including a young John C. Breckinridge, claimed that Slaughter was only the "acting governor" until a new governor was elected. The call for a new election failed in the House in 1815, but was approved by the House in 1817 only to fail in the Senate. Slaughter served out the rest of Madison's term and in so doing, established the precedent that the lieutenant governor would be the permanent successor to the governor upon the latter's death, resignation, or removal from office. Besides Madison, four other governors have died while in office—John Breathitt, James Clark, John L. Helm, and William Goebel. All died of natural causes except Goebel, who is the only governor of any U.S. state to have been assassinated. Goebel lost the contentious 1899 gubernatorial election to William S. Taylor, but challenged the results. While the General Assembly was considering the challenge, Goebel was shot. Days later, the General Assembly decided in favor of Goebel, ousting Taylor from office and making Goebel governor. Goebel was sworn in on his sick bed and died two days later. His lieutenant governor, J. C. W. Beckham, succeeded him. 7 men have resigned the office of governor before the end of their terms—John J. Crittenden, Beriah Magoffin, John W. Stevenson, Augustus O. Stanley, Happy Chandler, Earle C. Clements, and Wendell H. Ford. 6 resigned to accept a higher office: Crittenden was appointed Attorney General of the United States and the other 5 were elected to the U.S. Senate. Only Beriah Magoffin resigned under duress. A Confederate sympathizer during the Civil War, Magoffin's power was entirely checked by a hostile, pro-Union legislature. With the state's government in gridlock, Magoffin agreed to resign in exchange for being able to name his successor. Lieutenant Governor Linn Boyd had died in office, and the Speaker of the Senate, John F. Fisk, was not acceptable to Magoffin as a successor. Fisk resigned as Speaker, and the Senate elected Magoffin's choice, James Fisher Robinson as Speaker. Magoffin then resigned, Robinson was elevated to governor, and Fisk was re-elected as Speaker of the Senate. All elected officials in Kentucky, including the governor, are subject to impeachment for "any misdemeanors in office". The articles of impeachment must be issued by the House of Representatives and the trial is conducted by the Senate. If convicted, the governor is subject to removal from office and may be prohibited from holding elected office in the state thereafter. Impeached governors may also be subject to trial in the criminal or civil court system. No governor of Kentucky has been impeached. Compensation and residence Each iteration of the Kentucky Constitution has provided that the governor receive a salary. Under the first three constitutions, the governor's salary could not be increased or reduced while he was in office; this provision was extended to all public officials in the present constitution. The governor's salary is set by law, and is equal to $60,000 times the increase in the consumer price index between January 1, 1984, and the beginning of the current calendar year. In 2014, the governor's salary was $186,730. The Kentucky Governor's Mansion is the official residence of the governor of Kentucky. The present Governor's Mansion, constructed in 1914 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, is located at 704 Capitol Avenue in the state capital of Frankfort. It is the second building to serve as the official residence of the governor of Kentucky. The Kentucky Revised Statutes provide that "[t]he Governor shall have the use of the mansion and the furniture therein and premises, free of rent, but the purchase of furniture for the mansion shall be upon the recommendation of the secretary of the Finance and Administration Cabinet". The state's first governor's mansion was constructed during the gubernatorial tenure of James Garrard. According to tradition, future governors Thomas Metcalfe (a stonemason) and Robert P. Letcher (who worked at his father's brickyard) participated in the construction of the first governor's mansion. After the construction of the present governor's mansion, the old governor's mansion became the official residence of the lieutenant governor. Lieutenant governor Steve Henry vacated the mansion in 2002 so it could be renovated; following the renovation, it became a state guest house and official entertainment space for the governor. For many years, the mansion was the oldest official residence still in use in the United States. Located at 420 High Street in Frankfort, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. History of the office Political parties had developed in the United States before Kentucky became a state. Because most early Kentuckians were Virginians, they naturally allied with the Democratic-Republicans, the party of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison; the latter was a cousin of George Madison, the state's sixth governor. Political victories were few and far between for Federalists in Kentucky, and none of Kentucky's governors were members of the Federalist Party. Military service was the most important consideration for voters in Kentucky's early gubernatorial elections. John Breathitt, elected Kentucky's eleventh governor in 1832, was the first Kentucky governor not to have served in the military. The Federalist Party had died out nationally by 1820, but new party divisions were soon to form in Kentucky. The Panic of 1819 left many Kentuckians deeply in debt and without a means of repaying their creditors. Two factions grew up around the issue of debt relief. Those who favored laws favorable to debtors were dubbed the "Relief Party" and those who favored laws protecting creditors were called the "Anti-Relief Party". While not formal political parties—members of both factions still considered themselves Democratic-Republicans—these factions defined the political dialogue of the 1820s in Kentucky. The debt relief issue began under Gabriel Slaughter, who identified with the Anti-Relief Party, but Slaughter's two immediate successors, John Adair and Joseph Desha, were members of the Relief Party. The struggle between the two parties culminated in the Old Court – New Court controversy, an attempt by the pro-relief legislature to abolish the Court of Appeals because the court overturned some debt relief measures as unconstitutional. The controversy ended with the restoration of the Old Court over Desha's veto in late 1826. Although many Old Court supporters—typically the state's wealthy aristocracy—gravitated to the National Republican Party (later to be called Whigs) that formed in the 1820s, it is inaccurate to assume the Anti-Relief Party as a whole became National Republicans and the Relief Party became Democrats. The primary factor in determining which party Kentuckians aligned with was their faith in Whig Party founder and native son, Henry Clay. From the election of Thomas Metcalfe in 1828 to the expiration of John L. Helm's term in 1851, only one Democrat held the office of governor: John Breathitt, who died a year and a half into his term and was succeeded in office by his lieutenant governor, James Turner Morehead, a National Republican. Following the collapse of the Whig Party in the early 1850s, many former Whigs joined the Know Nothing, or American, Party, and Charles S. Morehead was elected governor from that party in 1855. Sectarian tensions gripped the state in the lead-up to the Civil War, and while the majority of Kentuckians favored the preservation of the Union above all else, a self-constituted group of Confederate sympathizers met at Russellville and formed a Confederate government for the state. While this provisional government never displaced the elected government in Frankfort, two men served as Confederate governors of Kentucky. From the close of the Civil War until 1895, Kentuckians elected a series of Bourbon Democrats with Confederate sympathies as governor, including two men—James B. McCreary and Simon Bolivar Buckner—who had served in the Confederate States Army. The Democratic dominance was broken by William O'Connell Bradley, who was elected the state's first Republican governor in 1895. Bradley's election marked the beginning of thirty years of true, two-party competition for the governorship in the state. Between 1895 and 1931, five Republicans and six Democrats held the office of governor. Since 1931, however, the Republicans have been unable to preserve this level of parity, and in that period only four of the twenty elected governors have been from the Republican party. See also 2019 Kentucky gubernatorial election – most recent gubernatorial election References External links Office of the Governor of Kentucky 1792 establishments in Kentucky	[ -0.35814571380615234, 0.38727065920829773, -0.023237265646457672, 0.2110908329486847, -0.1672280728816986, 0.2549716830253601, 0.706875205039978, 0.5215073823928833, -0.5349701642990112, -0.2741881310939789, -0.4081868529319763, 0.5962276458740234, -0.07165296375751495, 0.6601482629776001, 0.13747331500053406, 1.048974871635437, 0.005537931341677904, 0.576349139213562, -0.2648462653160095, -0.5063999891281128, -0.4876144826412201, -0.21919532120227814, 0.1799568235874176, -0.12359433621168137, 0.3592987656593323, 0.294551819562912, 0.6230530142784119, 0.5190081596374512, -0.3088208734989166, 0.0518474280834198, -0.10988675802946091, 0.05382717773318291, -0.2965948283672333, -0.07956729829311371, 0.14408645033836365, -0.7354521155357361, 0.25262078642845154, -0.36171776056289673, -0.2550044655799866, 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253081	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20New%20Hampshire	Governor of New Hampshire	The governor of New Hampshire is the head of government of New Hampshire. The governor is elected during the biennial state general election in November of even-numbered years. New Hampshire is one of only two states, along with bordering Vermont, to hold gubernatorial elections every two years as opposed to every four. Currently, the state's 82nd governor is Republican Chris Sununu, who has served since January 5, 2017. In New Hampshire, the governor has no term limit of any kind. No governor has served more than three terms since the 18th century (when the term was for only one year) with the exception of John Lynch, who won a fourth two-year term on November 2, 2010. John Taylor Gilman had been the last governor before Lynch to serve longer than six years, serving 14 one-year terms as governor between 1794 and 1816. Gilman is one of seven governors to serve non-consecutive terms, the others being John Langdon, John Sullivan, William Plumer, Benjamin Pierce, James A. Weston, and John Gilbert Winant. Unlike in many other states in which Executive Councils are merely advisory, the Executive Council of New Hampshire has a strong check on the governor's power. The five-member council has a veto over many actions of the governor. Together, the Governor and Executive Council approve contracts with a value of $5,000 or more, approve pardons, and appoint the directors and commissioners, judges, the Attorney General and officers in the National Guard. To be qualified to be governor, one must be 30 years of age, a registered voter, and domiciled in New Hampshire for at least seven years. Title Traditionally, the governors of the colonial Province of New Hampshire were titled as "President of New Hampshire", beginning with the appointment of the province's first president, John Cutt, in 1679. After independence, from 1786 to 1791, "President of the State of New Hampshire" was the official style of the position. The New Hampshire Constitution was amended in 1791 to replace "President" with "Governor". Function The Constitution of New Hampshire details the duties and powers of the Governor: Act as a supreme executive magistrate Shall be responsible for the faithful execution of the laws When a disagreement exists between the two legislative chambers, the Governor with advice of the executive council shall have the right to adjourn or prorogue the general court The Governor may direct a session of the General Court to be held at another location within the state in cases where there is danger to the health or lives of the members Power to Veto bills and resolutions presented to the Governor by the General Court Nomination of all judicial officers, the attorney general, and all officers of the militia with the approval of the executive council Act as the Commander in Chief for all military forces of the state Power to Pardon offenses, except those convicted by the Senate and impeached by the House Money issued out of the state treasury shall be by warrant under the hand of the Governor and with advice of the council Succession Established by Part 2, Article 49 of the Constitution of New Hampshire. References External links Official General information Governors of New Hampshire at The Political Graveyard Governor Government	[ -0.8534311652183533, 0.01266177836805582, -0.24150334298610687, -0.1733650267124176, -0.19026489555835724, 0.24412226676940918, 0.7842707633972168, 0.7453997135162354, -0.9233801364898682, -0.3852405250072479, -0.34135863184928894, 0.16862130165100098, -0.060687657445669174, 0.45049574971199036, -0.5116919279098511, 0.7155333757400513, 0.2410443276166916, 0.28674405813217163, -0.06262589991092682, -0.719455361366272, -0.5562627911567688, 0.07368585467338562, 0.1292482614517212, -0.4551273584365845, 0.01561655756086111, 0.10868814587593079, 0.6326932907104492, 0.09285245090723038, -0.5329576730728149, 0.09266667813062668, -1.044779658317566, 0.004513820633292198, -0.6398348808288574, -0.14818717539310455, 0.15282650291919708, -0.059176020324230194, 0.6358917951583862, 0.0767424926161766, -0.5505614280700684, 0.05781751871109009, -0.5024356842041016, 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253082	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20New%20Mexico	Governor of New Mexico	The governor of New Mexico () is the head of government of New Mexico. The governor is the head of the executive branch of New Mexico's state government and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. Responsibilities include making annual State of the State addresses to the New Mexico State Legislature, submitting the budget, and ensuring that state laws are enforced. The officeholder is afforded the courtesy title of The Honorable for life. As noted in the governor's seal, this gubernatorial office is a scion of the Spanish and Mexican governors of Nuevo México (1598) and the governors of the New Mexico Territory (1851). The current governor is Michelle Lujan Grisham, a Democrat, who was sworn in as the 32nd governor of New Mexico on January 1, 2019. History During the occupation of New Mexico by the United States Military starting in 1846, a military governor was appointed to oversee the area; military governors, at times, were assisted by civilian governors. In 1850, New Mexico was organized as a Territory, and the governor was appointed by the President of the United States. The office of governor was created in 1912 when New Mexico was officially admitted to the United States as the 47th state. Election to the governorship Requirements to hold office Section Three of Article V of the New Mexico Constitution establishes the requirements a person must meet in order to become governor. The governor must be a citizen of the United States, be at least 30 years old, and have been a resident of New Mexico for at least five years prior to election. Term(s) of office Under Section One of Article V of the New Mexico Constitution, a governor may be elected any number of times, but not more than twice in a row. If a governor serves two consecutive terms, he or she is eligible to run again after sitting out one full term. Relationship with lieutenant governor The lieutenant governor of New Mexico is elected jointly as the running mate of the gubernatorial candidate in general elections. Powers While the governor heads the Executive Branch of the New Mexico state government, the governor does not have absolute power. Other state executives, such as the lieutenant governor, the secretary of state, and the attorney general are also elected to office. Residence Since 1954, the Governor of New Mexico has resided in the New Mexico Governor's Mansion. Prior to its construction, the governor's residence was located adjacent to the New Mexico State Capitol in downtown Santa Fe. Before 1909, the governor resided in the Palace of the Governors, which is listed as a National Historic Landmark. The Palace of the Governors is the oldest continuously occupied public building in the United States. Line of succession According to Section Seven of Article V of the New Mexico Constitution, in the event of the death, resignation, removal, impeachment, absence from the state, failure to qualify, or incapacity due to illness of the governor, the lieutenant governor is the first person in the order of succession and thus serves as governor. If there is no lieutenant governor, or that person is unable to perform the duties of governor, the Secretary of State serves as governor. If there is no Secretary of State, the President pro Tempore of the Senate serves as governor. If there is no President pro Tempore of the Senate, or if that person is unable to perform the duties of governor, then the Speaker of the House serves as governor. 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253083	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20North%20Carolina	Governor of North Carolina	The governor of North Carolina is the head of government of the U.S. state of North Carolina. The governor directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander in chief of the military forces of the state. The current governor, Democrat Roy Cooper took office on January 1, 2017, and had a public swearing-in ceremony on January 7, 2017. Origin Originally, under the North Carolina Constitution of 1776, the office was very weak, and was elected by the legislature (North Carolina General Assembly) for a one-year term. Edward B. Dudley became the first North Carolina Governor elected by the people on December 31, 1836. Governors served two-year terms from 1836 until a new constitution was adopted in 1868; since then, all governors are elected for four-year terms. Well into the twentieth century, the North Carolina Constitution made the state's governor one of the weakest in the nation. Until an amendment was added to the state constitution in 1971, North Carolina governors could only serve a single four-year term and could not run for re-election. After the amendment was passed, in 1980 James B. Hunt became the first governor in state history to be elected to a second term. Governors are still limited to only two consecutive four-year terms, but they may run for further non-consecutive terms. Governor Hunt did just that, winning election to a third and fourth term in 1992 and 1996 after being out of the office for the eight years between 1985 and 1993. The Lieutenant Governor is also limited to two consecutive four-year terms. North Carolina was also the last state in the Union to give its governors veto power over legislation, this was not added to the state constitution until a referendum in 1996. Much of North Carolina's traditional resistance to strong executive power came from the harsh treatment the state suffered from British governors in the provincial period before the American Revolution. After the state gained its independence from Britain, the state constitution deliberately weakened the executive branch of state government and strengthened the legislative branch. Since the end of Reconstruction in the 1870s the overwhelming majority of the state's governors have been Democrats. The only Republican to be elected governor between 1876 and 1972 was Daniel L. Russell, who served 1897–1901. As Republican strength grew in North Carolina in the 1950s and 1960s the state's gubernatorial elections became increasingly competitive, and in 1972 James Holshouser became the state's first Republican governor of the twentieth century. Even so, Republicans have still had difficulty in winning gubernatorial elections in North Carolina, and the office has usually remained in Democratic hands. Powers and duties Among other responsibilities, the Governor of North Carolina heads the Council of State. The governor was the last state chief executive to receive veto power; the office did not have this power until 1996. The office has extensive powers of appointment of executive branch officials, some judges, and members of boards and commissions. Nevertheless, the office has a lower-than-average amount of institutional power compared to governors in other states, according to a 2007 study. Residence The Executive Mansion in Raleigh is the official residence of the governor of North Carolina. The governor's office is in the State Capitol on East Edenton Street. Succession Established by Article III, Section 3 of the Constitution of North Carolina and G.S. Section 147.11.1. Post-governorship , there are five living former N.C. governors. The most recent former governor to die was James Holshouser (1934–2013), on June 17, 2013. The living former governors, in order of service, are: List List of governors of North Carolina References External links Official General information 1776 establishments in North Carolina	[ -0.5094159245491028, 0.09709621965885162, 0.2608445882797241, -0.0071182856336236, -0.05555900186300278, -0.11839736253023148, 0.581313967704773, 0.8597838282585144, -1.0369229316711426, -0.13905785977840424, -0.46622636914253235, 0.049101173877716064, -0.5169060230255127, 0.5354307293891907, -0.1277763396501541, 0.9055070877075195, 0.32569003105163574, 0.3998194932937622, -0.2606448829174042, -0.874770998954773, -0.4935725927352905, -0.2615923583507538, 0.16505898535251617, -0.19442994892597198, 0.5824645757675171, -0.001410972443409264, 0.1523575484752655, -0.20930971205234528, -0.5337783694267273, 0.5004889965057373, -0.3721602261066437, -0.007861629128456116, -0.5121316909790039, 0.2978239953517914, -0.225223109126091, 0.038129981607198715, 0.18933381140232086, 0.1697852909564972, 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253084	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20North%20Dakota	Governor of North Dakota	The governor of North Dakota is the head of government of North Dakota and serves as the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The Constitution of North Dakota specifies that "the executive power is vested in the governor" in Section 1. Section 7 indicates that "the governor is the chief executive of the state. The governor shall have the responsibility to see that the state's business is well administered and that its laws are faithfully executed." Eligibility According to Article 5 of the constitution, to be eligible to hold an elective office as governor, a person must be a qualified elector in North Dakota, must be at least thirty years of age on the day of the election, and must have been a resident of the state for the five years preceding election to office. Dates of party conventions and gubernatorial nominations The dates that political parties meet to nominate official candidates for state offices varies by party. Here is an overview of this 2016 general election cycle: On April 1, 2016, the Democratic party nominated its candidate, Marvin Nelson. He joined Joan Heckaman, the Democratic candidate for lieutenant governor as the combined Democratic choice, seeking to become the two highest elected officials for the state's executive branch for voters to choose in the general election in November 2016. The Republican nominee for governor, Doug Burgum, was announced at the Republican Party's state convention on June 14, 2016. Burgum joined Brent Sanford, the lieutenant gubernatorial candidate, together becoming the combined Republican choice in the 2016 general election. Burgum and Sanford are seeking the two top elected official positions in the executive branch. The Libertarian candidate seeking election as North Dakota's governor in 2016 is Marty Riske. The lieutenant governor candidate for the Libertarian party is Joshua Voytek. Together, Riske and Voytek will present a unified, single option for the top two slots in the executive branch for the state in November's general election. The North Dakota Libertarian Party convention was held November 7, 2015, when the party nominated Riske and Voytek for the 2016 race. Dates of general elections The dates of the general election for the office of governor are set by the North Dakota legislative assembly. Traditionally, the general election date coincides with the U.S. Presidential election which is the first Tuesday of November in even years, every four years (except when the first Tuesday falls on November 1; in that case, the general election is held on November 8). The next gubernatorial election in North Dakota is slated for November 5, 2024. Current governor The current governor of North Dakota is Republican Doug Burgum. He became governor December 15, 2016. Governor and lieutenant governor elected together According to the state constitution, the governor and the lieutenant governor must be elected on a joint ballot, or single ticket. In North Dakota, each candidate for governor appears printed on the ballot with the candidate for lieutenant governor of the same political party. A single vote is cast for both offices; no other option is available to the voter. Therefore, a voter may not choose a single candidate for governor from one political party and a single candidate for lieutenant governor from a competing party. Additional gubernatorial rights, responsibilities and positions In addition to his role leading the executive branch offices, the governor has the right to sign or veto laws and to call the Legislative Assembly into emergency session. The governor is also, by statute, chairman of the North Dakota Industrial Commission. Length and dates of term A governor is elected by statewide popular vote to a 4-year term. North Dakota law specifies that a regular term of an elected governor shall commence on December 15 following the November election in an even year, for a term of precisely four years, ending on December 15 four years after his or her inauguration. Date of inauguration, exceptions and inaugural celebrations The standard date of inauguration to the office of Governor of North Dakota is December 15 following the even-year general election. Thus, the next scheduled inauguration of the governor will be held on December 15, 2024, for the successful candidate chosen at the November 2024 general election. Other dates for the regularly scheduled inaugurations were mandated at various times, primarily dates in late December following the general election and several in January of the year following the general election. There have been cases where the governor of North Dakota was inaugurated on other dates, due to the vacancy of the office of governor. These have included the resignation of the governor, the death in office of a governor, and in one instance, the judicial removal because of a felony conviction of a governor (William Langer; his conviction was later overturned and he was elected to another term). Inaugural balls and related celebrations have been most often been celebrated on the dates of gubernatorial inaugurations. Although the current governor, Doug Burgum, was first inaugurated on December 15, 2016, the formal inaugural celebration was held in January 2017. The decision to conduct the celebration at a later date was made to avoid interference with the busy holiday schedules of many celebrants in December. No term limits on governor There is no limit to the number of terms a governor may serve, if elected. Non-sequential terms It is possible for a governor to serve non-sequential terms. William Langer is the only one who has done so. Official residence The official residence of the governor is the North Dakota Governor's Residence in Bismarck. See also List of governors of North Dakota References External links 1889 establishments in North Dakota	[ -0.04392850026488304, 0.3529428243637085, -0.15502147376537323, 0.062469251453876495, -0.3381010890007019, 0.010708694346249104, 1.0687570571899414, 0.5072261691093445, -0.4139222502708435, -0.22777505218982697, -0.29071152210235596, 0.15249034762382507, -0.40730199217796326, 0.4503666162490845, -0.1374281495809555, 0.7572859525680542, 0.2849809527397156, 0.838283896446228, 0.012122886255383492, -0.5183546543121338, -0.6772086024284363, -0.5073275566101074, 0.4433513283729553, -0.24817942082881927, 0.5226472020149231, 0.05310638248920441, 0.3630335330963135, -0.03748352825641632, -0.6373959183692932, 0.6877400279045105, -0.5700388550758362, 0.017172327265143394, -0.44136229157447815, 0.018835417926311493, -0.10892856121063232, 0.1624699831008911, 0.26597145199775696, -0.004632255993783474, -0.5815854668617249, 0.2481594830751419, -0.17751693725585938, -0.38935407996177673, 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253088	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Rhode%20Island	Governor of Rhode Island	The governor of Rhode Island is the head of government of Rhode Island and serves as commander-in-chief of the State's Army National Guard and Air National Guard. The current governor is Democrat Dan McKee. Qualifications The following are the requirements to be elected Governor of Rhode Island: Be at least eighteen years of age Be a resident of the State of Rhode Island for at least thirty days Be a registered voter in Rhode Island Constitutional authority and responsibilities Section I, Article IX of the Rhode Island Constitution reads, The Governor of Rhode Island is elected every four years and is limited to two consecutive terms. As the Chief executive of the Government of Rhode Island, the Governor is supported by a number of elected general officers and appointed directors of state agencies. Responsibilities granted to the Governor by the Rhode Island Constitution include the position of Commander-in-chief of all components of the Rhode Island National Guard, so long as they remain un-federalized by the President of the United States, and the responsibility to submit the annual state budget to the Rhode Island General Assembly. The Governor also has the power to grant pardons and veto bills, resolutions and votes subject to a two-thirds override. Party affiliation Colonial Rhode Island, 1640–1775 See also Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island References External links Governor of Rhode Island: Proclamations Issued from the Rhode Island State Archives Office of the Governor Executive Orders from the Rhode Island State Archives Lists of Executive Orders, 1973-1997 from the Rhode Island State Archives State Photographer Alex Tavares photographs from the Rhode Island State Archives Governors Governor 1775 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies	[ -0.040396321564912796, 0.16484670341014862, -0.2040136456489563, -0.47567564249038696, 0.06156996637582779, 0.22728215157985687, 0.6025480031967163, 0.4215300679206848, -1.0763741731643677, -0.3127274811267853, -0.6566380858421326, 0.31380656361579895, -0.35960716009140015, 0.25097739696502686, -0.2108505517244339, 1.0630698204040527, 0.9413397312164307, 0.16904956102371216, -0.3144296705722809, -0.7203012704849243, -0.38001441955566406, -0.11595049500465393, 0.4549570381641388, 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253089	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20South%20Carolina	Governor of South Carolina	The governor of South Carolina is the head of government of South Carolina. The governor is the ex officio commander-in-chief of the National Guard when not called into federal service. The governor's responsibilities include making yearly "State of the State" addresses to the South Carolina General Assembly, submitting an executive budget, and ensuring that state laws are enforced. The 117th and current governor of South Carolina is Henry McMaster, who is serving his first elected term. He assumed the office on January 24, 2017, after Nikki Haley resigned to become the United States ambassador to the United Nations. He won the 2018 gubernatorial election. Requirements to hold office There are three legal requirements set forth in Section 2 of Article IV of the South Carolina Constitution. (1) Be at least 30 years of age. (2) Citizen of the United States and a resident of South Carolina for 5 years preceding the day of election. The final requirement, (3) "No person shall be eligible to the office of governor who denies the existence of the Supreme Being", is of extremely doubtful validity in light of the 1961 Supreme Court decision Torcaso v. Watkins, which reaffirmed that religious tests for public offices violated the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. This requirement, however, has still not been removed from the Constitution of South Carolina. In any case, under the state's present political climate it is considered highly unlikely the voters would elect a person who openly denied the existence of God. Term(s) of office Under Section 4 in Article IV of the South Carolina Constitution, the governor serves a four-year term in office beginning at noon on the first Wednesday following the second Tuesday in January following his election and ending at noon on the first Wednesday following the second Tuesday in January four years later. Section 3 of Article IV states that no person shall be elected governor for more than two successive terms however there is no limit on the total number of terms as it is not lifetime limit . Since Henry McMaster assumed the office of governor after Nikki Haley resigned, he is eligible to serve the remainder of Haley's term and two consecutive four-year terms of his own. Powers, duties, and responsibilities According to the South Carolina Constitution, the governor: Exercises "supreme executive authority." Appoints directors to 14 cabinet agencies, but most appointments are shared with the General Assembly. Serves as the commander-in-chief of the South Carolina National Guard. Serves as the commander-in-chief of the South Carolina State Guard, which is an auxiliary of the National Guard organized for in-state homeland defense. Commutes death sentences to life imprisonment. Calls the General Assembly to an extra session in "extraordinary circumstances." Adjourns the General Assembly as he or she shall think proper. Exercises veto and a Line-item veto power on bills. Declares a state of emergency and oversees relief in the event of a disaster. Declares public schools and government offices closed during civil or weather emergencies. Oversees all state departments. Serves as the ex officio chair of the board of trustees of all state universities. Submits a budget proposal to the General Assembly every January. Delivers a state of the state address, "from time to time," to the General Assembly; this is usually done in January. Appoints United States senators in cases of vacancy to serve until the next election. Appoints (or suspends) county sheriffs in cases of vacancy to serve until the next election. Succession According to Article IV, Sections 6 and 7 of the South Carolina Constitution, and according to South Carolina law sections 1-3-120, 1-3-130 and 1-9-30, if the incumbent governor is no longer able or permitted to fulfill the duties of the office of governor, the following line of succession will be followed: If the governor is impeached and removed from office or if the governor is temporarily disabled or absent from office, the lieutenant governor will have the powers of the governor. If the governor-elect is unable to fulfill the duties of the office of the governor, the lieutenant governor will become governor when the incumbent governor's term expires. If there is an incumbent governor beginning a new term, but a lieutenant governor-elect, and if the incumbent governor is unable to fulfill the duties of the office of the governor, the incumbent lieutenant governor shall become governor until the inauguration date, and the lieutenant governor-elect shall become governor on that date. The governor may temporarily transmit his powers and duties down the line of succession in cases of temporary disability. The most recent case of such transmission of power was in 2014 when Lieutenant Governor Yancey McGill, a Democrat, acted as governor while Republican Nikki Haley had surgery. No governor has ever been impeached, but since the beginning of American Revolution in 1776, ten governors have resigned and four have died in office. Andrew Gordon Magrath, a Confederate Democrat, was forcibly removed from office by the Union Army in 1865 at the end of the Civil War. In 2009, the General Assembly considered impeachment articles against Governor Mark Sanford, but ultimately they did not pass. Oath of office "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I am duly qualified, according to the Constitution of this State, to exercise the duties of the office to which I have been elected, (or appointed), and that I will, to the best of my ability, discharge the duties thereof, and preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of this State and of the United States. So help me God." History Proprietary Period Governors during the proprietary period (1670-1719) were appointed by Proprieters, and served no fixed term. Governors 1-19 served during this period. Royal Period Governors of the Royal Period were appointed by the monarch in name but were selected by the British government under the control of the Board of Trade. Governors served as viceroy to the British monarch. The governor could appoint provincial officials or suspend their offices on his own authority, except those offices named above that were also appointed by the crown. Legislative bills required royal assent from the governor and could be rejected; he could prorogue or dissolve the Commons House of Assembly on his own authority. Governors served no fixed term, serving officially at His Majesty's pleasure. Governors 20-30 served during this period. Articles of Confederation From 1776 to 1779, the office of governor was titled President of South Carolina and he was chosen by the General Assembly. Governors served no fixed term. John Rutledge and Rawlins Lowndes were the only two to hold the title of "President." From 1779 to 1792, governors retained the title of "Governor." Governors 31-37 served during this period. Constitution of 1790 Governors during this period were chosen by the General Assembly and served a two-year term. Governors were ineligible to serve more than one term consecutively. This system ended after the Civil War when the Union army overthrew and imprisoned Governor Andrew Gordon Magrath; President Andrew Johnson appointed his successor. Governors 37-72 served during this period. Post Civil-War James Lawrence Orr was the first governor to be popularly elected. Following the state's failure to adopt the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution, the US Congress eliminated all offices of state government. A temporary military government headed by Edward Canby was set up until new elections were held after the writing of the Constitution of 1868. All male citizens above the age of 21, regardless of race, were given the right to vote and the governor was allowed to be elected to two consecutive terms. The election of Ben Tillman in 1890 to governor by the support of agrarian reformers forced a new constitutional convention to be held. The constitution of 1895 instituted a poll tax and also required voters to pass a literacy test. These provisions were used to effectively deny the vote to blacks. The convention also increased the governor's powers by granting a line-item veto on the budget. Initially, the United States Supreme Court upheld the validity of legislation requiring voters to pay a poll tax, and ruled that literacy tests were not necessarily unconstitutional. In 1964, the Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution made it unlawful for a state to require payment of a poll tax in order to vote in a federal election, and the Supreme Court, reversing the Breedlove decision, then held that requiring the payment of a poll tax in any election was a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Elimination of the literacy test required federal legislation, the validity of which was upheld by the Supreme Court. Beginning in 1926 and ending in 1978, governors were elected to one four-year term, which could not be renewed for reelection consecutively. Since 1980, governors have been elected to a four-year term, which can be renewed for reelection once consecutively. Governors 72-117 have served during this period. Official residence The Governor's Mansion, located at 800 Richland Street in Columbia, on Arsenal Hill, is the official residence of the governor of South Carolina. It was built in 1855 and originally served as faculty quarters for The Arsenal Academy which together with the Citadel Academy in Charleston formed The South Carolina Military Academy (now The Citadel); The Arsenal was burned by Sherman's forces in February 1865 and never reopened; the faculty quarters building was the only structure to survive and became the official residence of the governor in 1868. The South Carolina Constitution in Section 20 of Article IV requires that the governor is to reside where the General Assembly convenes. Notes See also List of governors of South Carolina South Carolina gubernatorial elections Lieutenant Governor of South Carolina References External links South Carolina Constitution Article IV List of South Carolina Governors in Chronological Order The Governor: Powers, Practices, Roles and the South Carolina Experience 1778 establishments in South Carolina	[ -0.730588972568512, -0.10106232762336731, -0.17473575472831726, -0.07829758524894714, 0.14261308312416077, 0.08736462146043777, 0.700877845287323, 0.6465367078781128, -1.1484211683273315, -0.19261015951633453, -0.4057689905166626, 0.1248391717672348, -0.4599209427833557, 0.582440197467804, -0.21924570202827454, 0.9057020545005798, 0.5149920582771301, 0.3951069116592407, -0.27006256580352783, -0.7353782057762146, -0.6562632918357849, -0.11021418869495392, 0.18358482420444489, -0.14036136865615845, 0.3847203850746155, -0.024470461532473564, 0.3470253646373749, 0.034513913094997406, -0.020135292783379555, 0.399990051984787, 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253090	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20South%20Dakota	Governor of South Dakota	The governor of South Dakota is the head of government of South Dakota. The governor is elected to a four-year term in even years when there is no presidential election. The current governor is Kristi Noem, a member of the Republican Party who took office on January 5, 2019. Powers and duties The governor holds many powers and duties, which in many ways are similar to those held by the President of the United States: The governor serves as a spokesperson for the state, promoting business and economic development interests. The governor is actively involved in the legislative process; they may introduce legislation, and have the power to veto bills passed by the South Dakota Legislature (though vetoes may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of each house). The governor oversees the executive branch, and appoints the cabinet members. The governor also appoints the members of a wide array of state boards and commissions. The governor is the commander-in-chief of the South Dakota National Guard. The governor may grant pardons to those convicted of criminal offenses under state law. The governor fills vacancies that occur in the state legislature, the state judiciary, and other state constitutional offices. The governor also fills vacancies in U.S. Senate seats from South Dakota. The governor is the titular head of their political party. History From 1889 until 1974, the governor served a two-year term. Until the 1940s, the governor was allowed to serve unlimited terms; since that time, governors have been limited to two consecutive terms. The gubernatorial term was extended to four years in 1974. The governor and lieutenant governor run on a single ticket. The gubernatorial nominee must win a primary. Whereas the lieutenant governor nominee is selected at a state party convention. After the convention they run on a single ticket. The first governor of South Dakota was Arthur C. Mellette, who was also the last governor of the Dakota Territory. Two of South Dakota's governors have left office before their term expired. In 1978, Richard F. Kneip resigned office six months before the expiration of his term to accept an appointment as United States Ambassador to Singapore. On April 19, 1993, George S. Mickelson was killed in a plane crash near Dubuque, Iowa; Mickelson is the only South Dakota governor to die in office. Mickelson and his father, George T. Mickelson, are the only father-son duo to serve as governor. South Dakota's longest-serving governor was Bill Janklow. Janklow was the first governor to complete two four-year terms, and he did it twice, serving from 1979 to 1987 and again from 1995 to 2003. Janklow is also the only person to serve non-consecutive terms as governor. Several governors have gone on to serve in other high offices. Coe I. Crawford, Peter Norbeck, William H. McMaster, William J. Bulow, Harlan J. Bushfield, and Mike Rounds followed their tenures as governor by serving in the United States Senate. Bill Janklow served briefly in the United States House of Representatives following his second stint as governor. Kristi Noem is the first female governor in South Dakota's history. Of the 50 states, South Dakota currently holds the longest non-interrupted party control of the governorship. The Republican Party has controlled the South Dakota governorship since January 1, 1979. List of governors of South Dakota See also South Dakota Lieutenant Governor of South Dakota South Dakota State Legislature Governor (generally) References 1889 establishments in South Dakota	[ -0.2724684476852417, 0.21128852665424347, -0.2643526494503021, 0.08739827573299408, -0.23740699887275696, 0.22617287933826447, 1.1538574695587158, 0.3862445056438446, -0.5814230442047119, -0.36618632078170776, -0.23044878244400024, 0.04545854777097702, -0.352411150932312, 0.6525291800498962, -0.036132216453552246, 0.48121196031570435, 0.37102073431015015, 0.8595092296600342, -0.15413716435432434, -0.5259235501289368, -0.7178246974945068, -0.259954571723938, 0.37196069955825806, -0.27179649472236633, 0.4484248459339142, 0.12408345937728882, 0.36757972836494446, 0.14166565239429474, -0.4689246118068695, 0.5441104173660278, -0.2957985997200012, -0.08763224631547928, -0.21364738047122955, 0.10598695278167725, -0.23340074717998505, -0.24152812361717224, 0.3703799545764923, -0.24112030863761902, 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253092	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Vermont	Governor of Vermont	The governor of Vermont is the head of government of Vermont. The officeholder is elected in even-numbered years by direct voting for a term of 2 years. Vermont and bordering New Hampshire are the only states to hold gubernatorial elections every 2 years, instead of every 4 as in the other 48 U.S. states. There is no limit on the number of terms a Vermont Governor can serve. If no candidate receives at least 50% plus one vote of all votes for Governor cast in the election, the Governor of Vermont is then elected by the state legislature. The incumbent Vermont Governor is Republican Phil Scott. He was sworn in on January 5, 2017, becoming Vermont's 82nd Governor. Function The Governor's working offices are located in The Pavilion in the state capital of Montpelier, Vermont. The Governor's ceremonial office, used during the legislative session of the General Assembly, is located in the Vermont State House, also in Montpelier. The Constitution of Vermont details the powers of the Governor: To commission or appoint all officers ("except where provision is, or shall be, otherwise made by law or this Frame of Government") To fill all vacancies in office until the office can be filled in the manner directed by state constitution or by state law To correspond with other States To "transact business with officers of government, civil and military" To "prepare such business as may appear necessary, to lay before the General Assembly. To grant pardons and remit fines, except for cases of treason, in which the Governor may only grant reprieves until the end of the next session of the General Assembly, and for cases of impeachment, in which the Governor cannot grant either reprieves or pardons To "take care that the laws be faithfully executed" and "expedite the execution of such measures as may be resolved upon by the General Assembly" To "draw upon the Treasury for such sums as may be appropriated by the General Assembly" To "lay embargoes, or prohibit the exportation of any commodity" for up to 30 days during a recess of the General Assembly To "grant such licenses as shall be directed by law" To call special sessions of the General Assembly when necessary To be the "Captain-General and Commander-in-Chief" of the "forces of the State" (the Vermont State Guard and Vermont National Guard), although the Governor cannot "command in person, in time of war, or insurrection, unless by the advice and consent of the Senate, and no longer than they shall approve thereof" There is a separately-elected Lieutenant Governor of Vermont. The Lieutenant Governor becomes the new Governor, if the incumbent Governor dies, resigns or is removed (via impeachment) from office. The Lieutenant Governor is also the Lieutenant-General of the "forces of the State." Succession See also List of governors of Vermont References General Doyle, William T. "The Vermont Political Tradition and Those Who Helped Make It." Doyle Publisher: 1987. . Duffy, John J., et al. The Vermont Encyclopedia. University Press of New England: 2003. . Potash, P. Jeffrey, et al. Freedom and Unity: A History of Vermont. Vermont Historical Society: 2004. . External links Official website of the Governor of Vermont Snelling Center for Government study and poll on the length of term of Vermont governors Government of Vermont portal Governor Politics of Vermont 1791 establishments in Vermont	[ -0.10730703920125961, 0.46172571182250977, -0.2019301950931549, -0.33318957686424255, -0.2248949110507965, 0.1988552063703537, 0.8740597367286682, 0.7521593570709229, -1.0282557010650635, 0.023920293897390366, -0.38404497504234314, 0.24760618805885315, -0.1664329618215561, 0.2872067391872406, -0.4833686351776123, 0.7782561182975769, 0.45930609107017517, 0.5094974040985107, 0.23308701813220978, -0.6974806189537048, -0.1265467405319214, -0.19092422723770142, 0.5185025930404663, -0.4528173804283142, 0.014034384861588478, 0.05133635923266411, 0.5354698300361633, 0.19405944645404816, -0.6706928014755249, 0.08069957792758942, -0.9273036122322083, -0.08535780757665634, -0.24959757924079895, -0.17889522016048431, 0.10281895846128464, -0.15571328997612, 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253093	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Virginia	Governor of Virginia	The governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia serves as the head of government of Virginia for a four-year term. The incumbent, Glenn Youngkin was sworn in on January 15, 2022. After winning the 2021 Virginia gubernatorial election to Former Governor Terry McAuliffe, Glenn Youngkin was sworn in as the 74th governor, on January 15, 2022. Oath of Office On inauguration day, the Governor-elect takes the following oath of office: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support the Constitution of the United States, and the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia, and that I will faithfully and impartially discharge all the duties incumbent upon me as Governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia, according to the best of my ability. (So help me, God.)" Qualifications Article V, Section 3 of the Virginia Constitution lists the following qualifications for a person to be elected Governor of Virginia: Be a citizen of the United States Be at least thirty years old Be a resident and a registered voter in the Commonwealth of Virginia for at least five years before the election Unlike other state governors, Virginia governors are not allowed to serve consecutive terms. They have been barred from immediate re-election since the adoption of Virginia's second constitution, in 1830. However, a former governor is permitted to run for a second term in a future election. Only two governors since 1830, William Smith and Mills Godwin, were elected to additional terms. Smith's second term came after Virginia seceded from the Union, while Godwin became the first ever governor in American history to be elected by both major parties when the former Democrat was elected in 1973 as a Republican. The only other governors to serve non-consecutive stints in office were Patrick Henry and James Monroe, with George William Smith serving twice as acting governor before becoming official governor. To get on the ballot for Governor of Virginia, each candidate must file 10,000 signatures, including the signatures of at least 400 qualified voters from each of the 11 congressional districts in the Commonwealth. Duties The governor is the head of government in Virginia. At the beginning of every regular session, they must report the state of the Commonwealth to the Virginia General Assembly (both the House of Delegates and the Senate). They must convene the legislature when two-thirds of each house calls for a special session. The governor must ensure that the laws of the Commonwealth are faithfully executed by either signing, or allowing it to come into law, or vetoing, not allowing it to become law. They are responsible for the safety of the state, as they serve as commander-in-chief of the Virginia Militia. Powers The governor has the legislative power to submit recommendations and to call special sessions when deemed necessary. The governor has veto powers. All bills must be sent to the governor before becoming law. The governor may sign the bill, let it sit unsigned for seven days, after which it becomes law, or veto the legislation. After a veto, the bill returns to its house of origin and may be overridden by two-thirds of the vote in each house. The governor also has the power to use a line-item veto. The governor may send legislation back to the legislature with recommendations and amendments. The legislature must either approve the changes by a majority in each house or override the veto with a two-thirds majority in each house. The governor is commander-in-chief of Virginia's militia forces. The governor may also communicate with other states and foreign powers. The governor has the power to fill vacancies in positions unless the position is appointed by the legislature. The governor may commute fines or sentences and issue pardons. The governor may also restore voting rights and overturn other political penalties on individuals. Succession Established by Article V, Section 16 of the Constitution of Virginia. History Colony / Province The position of Governor of Virginia dates back to the 1607 first permanent English settlement in America, at Jamestown on the north shore of the James River upstream from Hampton Roads harbor at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. The Virginia Company of London set up a government run by a council. The president of the council basically served as a governor. The council was based in London and controlled the colony from afar. Nominally, Thomas Smith was the first president of the council, but he never left England. Edward Maria Wingfield was the first president of the council in residence in the new province, making him the first to exercise the actual authority of governing Virginia. The Virginia Company soon abandoned governance by council two years after the landing on May 23, 1609, and replacing it with a governor, John Smith (1580–1631). In 1624, the English Monarchy of King James I (1566–1625, reigned 1603–1625), in the last year of his reign, of the royal House of Stuart took control from the Virginia Company and its stockholders and made Virginia a crown colony. Governors continued to be appointed by the monarch for many years. Most often, the appointed governor would reside in England while a deputy or lieutenant governor actually exercised authority. Royal rule was interrupted during the English Civil War (1642-46 / 1648-49), after which governors were appointed by the Protectorate under Richard Cromwell (successor to Oliver Cromwell) in the interim Commonwealth of England until the English Restoration of the monarchy with King Charles II in 1660. Commonwealth Virginia became an independent sovereign state and Commonwealth during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), with Patrick Henry (1736–1799, served 1776–1779 and 1786–1789) as its first governor (and also later sixth). From the Revolution until 1851, the governor was elected by the General Assembly of Virginia (commonwealth/state legislature). After 1851, in a democratic trend spreading across the Union, the state turned to popular elections for office holders. During the American Civil War (1861–1865), Francis Harrison Pierpont was the governor of the Union-controlled parts of the state, later of which emerged the new state in the northwest of West Virginia. Pierpont also served as one of the provisional governors during the post-war Reconstruction era. These governors were appointed by the Federal government of the President and U.S. Congress, both controlled by Radical Republicans for a decade. In 1874, Virginia regained its right to self-governance and elected James L. Kemper (1823–1895), a Democrat and temporary Conservative Party member and former Confederate general as governor. After the Radical Republican appointees of the post-war Reconstruction era, Virginia would not actually elect another regular Republican as governor until A. Linwood Holton Jr. in 1969. However, in 1881 William E. Cameron was elected governor under the banner of the Readjuster Party, a coalition of Republicans and populist Democrats. Douglas Wilder became the first elected and only the second African American Governor of any U.S. state. He served as governor from 1990 to 1994. Since 1851, Virginia's gubernatorial elections have been held in "off-years"—years in which there are no national (presidential, senatorial, or House) elections; Virginia's gubernatorial elections are held one year after U.S. presidential elections (2001, 2005, 2009, etc.) (Most states hold gubernatorial elections either on presidential-election years or midterm-election years, when there are congressional elections.) In every Virginia gubernatorial election starting with 1977, the governor elected had been from the opposite party as the president elected by the nation in the previous year, even when Virginia had voted for the president in office, as with Bill Clinton and George W. Bush. The only exception being in 2013 with the election of Democrat Terry McAuliffe, following the re-election of President Barack Obama in 2012. Tim Kaine was inaugurated on January 14, 2006. Due to renovations on the Capitol in Richmond, his inauguration was held in Williamsburg, making him the first governor to be inaugurated in Williamsburg since Thomas Jefferson in 1779. The current governor of Virginia is Glenn Youngkin who was inaugurated on January 15, 2022. Styles The governor of Virginia is addressed as "The Honorable", but may occasionally be referred to as "Excellency" if ceremonially appropriate. See also List of colonial governors of Virginia List of governors of Virginia References External links 1776 establishments in Virginia	[ -0.4522945284843445, -0.20288889110088348, 0.1860944926738739, 0.14009883999824524, -0.11304064840078354, 0.008808694779872894, 0.4729328751564026, 0.8326994776725769, -0.919279158115387, -0.15513278543949127, -0.5288482308387756, 0.3559272289276123, -0.3060368001461029, 0.5357235670089722, -0.10224047303199768, 0.8381308913230896, 0.5791364908218384, 0.25595009326934814, -0.18983224034309387, -0.5813984870910645, -0.3833983242511749, 0.022720666602253914, 0.23223620653152466, -0.3347829282283783, 0.18419088423252106, -0.07131735235452652, 0.56085205078125, 0.43310198187828064, -0.0452616848051548, -0.07371865957975388, -0.4162663519382477, -0.0432276651263237, -0.5030550360679626, 0.2503105700016022, -0.014166886918246746, -0.48626708984375, 0.2977629005908966, -0.12832702696323395, -0.6000612378120422, 0.048438698053359985, -0.5725346803665161, 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253096	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Wisconsin	Governor of Wisconsin	The governor of Wisconsin is the head of government of Wisconsin and the commander-in-chief of the state's army and air forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Wisconsin Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of treason and impeachment. The position was first filled by Nelson Dewey on June 7, 1848, the year Wisconsin became a state. Prior to statehood, there were four governors of Wisconsin Territory. The 46th, and current governor is Tony Evers, a Democrat who took office on January 7, 2019. Powers The governor of Wisconsin has both inherent powers granted by the U.S. Constitution and administrative powers granted by laws passed by the Wisconsin State Legislature. Constitutional powers The constitutional powers of the governor of Wisconsin are outlined in the Wisconsin Constitution at Article V, Section 4. In general, the governor ensures that the laws of Wisconsin are carried out. Veto power The governor of Wisconsin has the strongest veto power of nearly any American governor. Any bill passed by the Wisconsin State Legislature must be presented to the governor, who either signs it into law, or vetoes it. In the event of a veto, the bill is returned to the legislature, who may then vote to override the veto. In 1930, the Wisconsin Constitution was amended to give the governor line-item veto power, which allows portions of appropriations bills to be struck out without rejecting the entire bill. Governors have the power to strike out words, numbers, and even entire sentences from bills. The partial veto may still be overridden by the legislature. In 1990 a further amendment specified that the line-item veto does not give the governor power to veto individual letters of appropriations bills, thereby forming new words. Despite this 1990 law, the strength of the governor's veto power gave rise to the term "Frankenstein veto" to describe the governor's ability to form a new bill that subverts the intent of the legislature. The Wisconsin Supreme Court will determine if the veto power should be further limited in 2019. Other constitutional powers The governor is the commander-in-chief of the state's militia. If it is deemed necessary, the governor may also convene extraordinary sessions of the state legislature; and may convene them anywhere in the state, if Madison, the state capital, is deemed unfit for the purpose due to invasion or contagious disease. The governor may pardon, commute, or grant reprieve of sentences, except in cases of treason or impeachment. The governor must notify the Wisconsin State Legislature of these each year, along with the reasons for them. In cases of treason, the governor may suspend the carrying out of the sentence until the next session of the legislature, who then vote to grant a pardon, commutation or reprieve, or to carry out the sentence. The governor must also "communicate to the legislature, at every session, the condition of the state, and recommend such matters to them for their consideration as he may deem expedient" (these annual communications are referred to as the "state of the state"). Administrative and budgetary powers The governor of Wisconsin, as head of the executive branch, also has administrative powers (the power to administer agencies created by the Wisconsin legislature). Since 1965, there has been an increase in executive orders to "establish standards and provide uniformity to executive agency operations and programs." However, since 2011, the Wisconsin Legislature has attempted to limit the authority of administrative agencies. The governor also appoints heads of agencies created by the legislature. This appointment power is not explicitly granted by the Wisconsin Constitution, as it is in the appointments clause of the federal constitution, with the exception of appointing judicial vacancies. Instead, the governor appoints heads of agencies by statute. The governor of Wisconsin had 307 executive appointments between 2017-2018. State law requires the governor to prepare an executive budget bill. This helps the governor "to pursue a legislative agenda". Elections and term of office The governor of Wisconsin is directly elected—the candidate with the most votes becomes governor. If two candidates receive an equal number of votes, which is higher than that received by any other candidate, the members of the state legislature vote between the two at their next session. Under the original Wisconsin Constitution, governors were elected for a term of two years; in 1967, the constitution was amended to increase the term of office to four years, beginning with the governor elected in the 1970 election. There is no limit to the number of terms a governor may hold. The longest-serving governor was Tommy Thompson, from January 5, 1987 until February 1, 2001, a total of 14 years and 28 days; the shortest-serving was Arthur MacArthur, Sr., from March 21, 1856 until March 25 of the same year; a total of 5 days. Candidates for the office must be citizens of the United States and qualified voters in the state of Wisconsin. Removal The governor usually leaves office because their term ends and they have not been re-elected. But the governor may also leave office through other means. For example, the governor may resign from office. Four governors have resigned: William Barstow due to fraud allegations, Robert La Follette, Sr. to take his seat in the United States Senate, Patrick Joseph Lucey to become Ambassador to Mexico, and Tommy Thompson to become United States Secretary of Health and Human Services. Additionally two governors—Louis Harvey and Walter Samuel Goodland—died while in office, and Orland Loomis, who was elected governor, died before taking office. The governor can also be removed through an impeachment trial or through a recall election. An impeachment trial is carried out by the Wisconsin State Assembly, if a majority of its members agree to the impeachment. No governors have been removed from office through impeachment in the history of Wisconsin. However, Arthur MacArthur, Sr., who, as lieutenant governor, became acting governor upon the resignation of William Barstow in 1856, was removed after the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that Barstow's opponent in the previous election, Coles Bashford, was the election's legitimate winner. In 2012, Scott Walker became the only governor in Wisconsin history to face a recall election and was the only governor in American history to survive a recall election until Gavin Newsom also survived in the 2021 California gubernatorial recall election. He retained his seat, defeating Milwaukee mayor Tom Barrett by seven percentage points, a margin one point greater than that of the 2010 election, becoming the first governor in American history to survive a recall attempt. Election history In the most recent gubernatorial election in Wisconsin, over 1.3 million voters cast ballots for governor. This was the highest turnout in Wisconsin voting history, with the exception of the 2012 recall election. There have been 44 Governors of Wisconsin and 45 individual governorships. 1 governor, Philip La Follette, served non-consecutive terms. Four parties have had their candidates elected governor: the Democratic, the Whig, the Republican and the Progressive. Relationship with the lieutenant governor of Wisconsin Originally, the state constitution specified that the governor and lieutenant governor of Wisconsin were voted upon separately, but in 1967, the constitution was amended to state that they were elected together. Prior to this amendment, there were nine incidents in which the elected governor and lieutenant governor were not of the same political party. Originally, the state constitution only said that in the event of the impeachment, removal from office, death, resignation or absence of the governor, or in the event of the governor being unfit to serve due to illness, "the powers and duties of the office shall devolve upon the lieutenant governor" for the remainder of the term or until the governor is able to return to office. In 1979, the constitution was amended to specify that in the event of the governor's death, resignation or removal from office, the lieutenant governor becomes governor for the remainder of the term, but in the event of impeachment, incapacitation or absence, the lieutenant governor merely becomes "acting governor" until the governor can return to his duties. The original constitution also specified that in any of the aforementioned events the secretary of state would become governor if the lieutenant governorship was vacant, but after 1979 this provision, too, was amended to distinguish between "governor" and "acting governor." 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253102	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurich%20Airport	Zurich Airport	Zurich Airport (, ) is the largest international airport of Switzerland and the principal hub of Swiss International Air Lines. It serves Zürich, Switzerland's largest city, and, with its surface transport links, much of the rest of the country. The airport is located north of central Zürich, in the municipalities of Kloten, Rümlang, Oberglatt, Winkel, and Opfikon, all of which are within the canton of Zürich. History Early years In the Zurich area, mixed civil and military air traffic developed from 1909 onwards at Dübendorf airfield, northeast of the city. From 1919, the airport was home to Swissair's predecessor Ad Astra Aero, and from 1932 also to Swissair. The first international flight from Switzerland landed on July 21, 1921. In the early years of aviation, the Dübendorf Air Base, located some to the Zurich Airport, also served as the city's commercial airfield. The need for a dedicated commercial facility led to the search for a location at which to build a replacement airport. In 1939, civil air traffic had to be suspended at the outbreak of the Second World War for military strategic reasons. Although Swissair was allowed to resume scheduled air traffic in September 1940, this remained on a modest scale during the war. In March 1943, the government of the canton of Zurich commissioned a study to identify possible locations for the construction of a major airport. In its report, a consortium of engineers and architects led by Locher & Cie company advised against the previously discussed expansion options at Dübendorf airport and instead recommended a separate civil airport in the partially forested moorland area of the armory situated between Kloten and Oberglatt. In August 1943, the Federal Military Department declared its agreement to abandon the armory as a matter of principal "in the higher national interest". Locher & Cie submitted "Project I" to the Government on 31 December 1943. Four runways were planned and together with the buildings the required area was 472 hectares. Without the purchase of land, the project would have cost 87 million CHF. The government found the costs too high and ordered a revision. The "Project II" of 29 April 1944 still provided for an area of 290 hectares and costs of 65 million CHF, but the government council demanded a further reduction. For "Project III" of 31 July 1944, 54.4 million and 215 hectares were required. The project nevertheless met the requirements of an intercontinental airport. The Government formally approved it and submitted it to the Federal Government, strongly emphasizing that the Zurich project was "far superior" to the also planned (and ultimately abandoned) Swiss Central Airport Utzenstorf near Bern. In December 1944, the responsible Federal Councillor, Enrico Celio, explicitly spoke out in favour of Zurich-Kloten, in a letter to his counterparts, as did the governments of the cantons of Eastern and Central Switzerland and Ticino a month later. The National Council and Council of States followed this view and on 22 June 1945 approved the "Federal Decree on the Expansion of Civil Airports". Basel, Bern and Geneva were to receive smaller continental airports and be supported with a 30 percent share of the costs. The Zurich project was granted the status of an intercontinental airport and the highest possible subsidy rate of 35 percent. Switzerland's federal parliament decided in 1945 that Zürich was to be the site of a major airport, and sold of the Kloten-Bülach Artillery Garrison () to the canton of Zürich, giving the canton control of the new airfield. Construction of the airport began the following year. Initial plans for the airport, as laid out in the Federal government's scheme of 1945, were centered on facilities capable of handling international airline traffic. Aircraft of up to 80 tons were envisaged. The primary runway was to be designed for use in all weathers and at night, with a -wide hard surface running to in length. Additional areas were to be provided on the shoulders for lateral protection in case of runway excursions. Additional domestic runways, between in length, were also to be built. First stage of construction: civil engineering On 25 February 1946, the Zurich Cantonal Council approved a building loan of 36.8 million. The cantonal referendum of 5 May 1946 resulted in a clear approval with 105,705 votes in favour, 29,372 against. "Project IV" never came to fruition, as it was further developed by adapting it to the ICAO standards which were changing rapidly at the time. Instead of four runways, the new "Project V" of 20 May 1946 provided only three. Project VI" of 9 October 1946 increased the dimensions of all three runways. Finally, the slightly modified "Project VII" of 20 December 1947 was realised. Within three years, the design on the drawing board had completely changed from a purely grass airfield with a four-runway system without taxiways to a three-runway system with paved taxiways. The staggered design meant that it was possible to react to changes without having to impose a complete halt to construction. Construction works finally began on 5 May 1946 with the diversion of the Altbach stream. The 1900 m long West Runway 10/28 was the first runway which was opened on 14 June 1948, and on which the first Swissair Douglas DC-4 took off for London. On behalf of the canton as airport owner, Cantonal Councillor Jakob Kägi gave a speech to mark the inauguration of the new runway and the start of provisional flight operations. Shortly after, on 17 November 1948, the 2600 m long blind runway 16/34 (runway with instrument landing system) was opened for operation, which was attended by the seven members of the cantonal government. In the presence of invited guests from politics and the media as well as representatives of the construction companies and airlines, the new airport was inaugurated, which meant that the relocation of the entire civil flight operations from Dübendorf to Kloten had already been completed and full operation could begin at the new Zurich airport. The 1535 m long Bisen runway 02/20, which belonged to the three-runway system of 1948, was of little importance. Due to the applicable crosswind regulations at that time, the runway was designed to face the Bise in order to guarantee the airport's all-weather capability. However, the ICAO increased the crosswind tolerances for aircraft in subsequent revisions to such an extent that the runway was decommissioned after just over ten years. First stage of construction: structural engineering The character of a provisional solution was supported - despite full operation - by the lack of buildings, especially the "Flughof", which had been planned since 1946. Instead, a growing shanty town stood to the east of the reserved building site. On 27 October 1948, the canton outsourced the development, construction and operation of the buildings to the newly founded "Flughafen-Immobilien-Gesellschaft" (FIG), a mixed-economy public limited company in which the public sector held half of the shares (canton of Zurich 22.5%, city of Zurich 18%, "Zürcher Kantonalbank" 5%, city of Winterthur 3.6% and municipality of Kloten 0.9%). The FIG took over projects that had been started and was thus able to hand over the completed "shipyard I" to Swissair for use as early as late autumn 1948, followed by offices for Swissair's technical departments, which were finally able to leave Dübendorf by the end of April 1949. Further workshops, the striking arched hangar and the "Heating Centre I" for the heat supply were completed by the end of 1949. Based on "Project V", the terminal building had already been designed as a convex building at the airport head in mid-1946. In the following four years, a total of 24 feasible airport project designs were submitted, before the FIG commissioned the construction of the airport according to plans by Alfred and Heinrich Oeschger in November 1950. At the beginning of 1951, the piling work for the terminal building began, the construction work took about two years. With the opening on 9 April 1953, the shanty town could be abandoned. The new building consisted of a central passenger wing, flanked by a restaurant and an office wing. In addition there was a spectator terrace of 200m length. The first years of operation As had been expected the construction costs had been significantly exceeded. Several metres of raised bog were removed and backfilled with material from the Holberg; the concrete area had also increased from the originally planned 420,000 m2 to a good 611,000 m2. In addition, the former weapons range area had to be searched for unexploded bombs, of which a total of 157 were found. The costs for "Project IV", estimated at CHF 59.5 million in 1946, had risen to CHF 106 million by the time the civil engineering works under "Project VII" were completed in July 1949. Both chambers of the Federal Assembly concluded the political review with the "Federal Decree on the Payment of Additional Federal Contributions to the Construction of Zurich-Kloten Airport" of 29 September 1949. The Federation contributed CHF 27.1 million and doubled its contribution to the air traffic control facilities. For its part, the Zurich Cantonal Council granted a supplementary credit on 13 February 1950. This was accepted by the voters on 7 May 1950 with 73,551 votes to 59,088 (yes share of 55.45%). The new terminal opened in 1953 with a large air show that ran three days. In 1947, the airport handled 133,638 passengers on 12,766 airline flights; in 1952, 372,832 passengers on 24,728 airline flights. Second stage of construction Locher & Cie was commissioned in 1954 to design various project options for the second construction phase. In March 1956, the canton submitted an extended project to the Federal Council. In addition to mandatory runway extensions for the incipient "jet age", the project also provided for the extension of the public facilities, which were already overused and dominated by various provisional arrangements; two finger docks were to defuse the situation. On 12 October 1956, the Federal Council recommended that parliament approve the bill. On 19 December 1956, the Council of States approved the federal contribution of CHF 54.8 million (at a total cost of 181.8 million), the National Council followed suit on 7 March 1957. The contribution of the Canton of Zurich of CHF 74.3 million was still outstanding, the rest was to be raised by FIG and Swissair. The concrete expansion project included the extension of the blind runway to 4000 m and the western runway to 3150 m, as well as the extension of the buildings. Opponents described the "super airport Kloten" as a "luxury" and criticised that the canton had "lost every measure". Another issue that planners had completely neglected until then was the aircraft noise. With a high turnout of 72.3%, the expansion project failed in the cantonal referendum of 23 June 1957 with 97,603 votes to 83,196 (no vote of 54.0%). Just four days later, the Zurich government council commissioned a redimensioned expansion project. The blind runway was to be only 3700 m long, the western runway 2500 m; the construction of the finger docks was abandoned. Thus the canton's share of the project to be approved was only CHF 49.1 million. The government gave far more attention to the aircraft noise. On 6 July 1958, voters approved the project by 107,050 votes to 56,872 (yes share 65.3%), with a 65.6% share. Due to time pressure - the landing of the first jet aircraft was planned for the following year - construction work began without waiting for approval of the federal funding. In December 1958 and March 1959 respectively, the National Council and the Council of States granted subsidies of 55.6 million. In 1959, BOAC started regular flight connections to Zurich with the revised "Comet IV", while the airport was still a construction site. The first buildings were completed in 1960, and the terminal building, which had been considered an attractive design, lost its symmetrical appearance. To the east, towards the former shanty town, office wing A1, office wing B and the air traffic control building were added with a connecting structure. The "Fracht West" building, which had been extended at short notice during construction to provide additional office space, was located somewhat off the main building. In the hangar area in the southwest, Heating Station II was put into operation and the Hangar II, which was designed for jet aircraft, was handed over to Swissair, shortly after the arrival of the Sud Aviation "Caravelle III" and the Douglas DC-8-32 in May 1960. Finally, in the summer of 1961, Swissair's in-flight catering service was given a new building between the head of the airport and the hangar area. The Canton of Zurich acquired a further 135 hectares of land for the expansion of the civil engineering works, which lasted until the beginning of 1961 in parallel with the construction of the buildings. The apron areas were enlarged, particularly at the airport head and in the hangar area; the pier was also extended from 16 to 28 aircraft parking spaces, and buses were purchased to provide access to them. The west runway 10/28 was extended by 600 metres to the west, towards Rümlang, and opened on 1 January 1961 with its new operating length of 2500 metres. Blind runway 16/34 was extended 400 metres to the south in the direction of Opfikon and 700 metres to the north in the direction of Oberglatt. At its new operating length of 3700 m, it was released on 15 March 1961. By the time work was completed, the paved area at the airport covered 1,013,000 m2. Extension of the Terminal Building Although virtually all the buildings of the second phase had been completed by the end of 1961, the extension of the terminal building was still at the design stage. After the passenger terminal with two finger docks had failed in the cantonal referendum, the FIG had worked out a new project until 1958. This envisaged a two-storey transverse hall on the landside of the airport, on the two main floors of which arriving and departing passengers were functionally separated. For cost reasons, the federal government demanded a considerable redimensioning, which led to an open dispute about the preferred design. When the conflict, described by the media as a "war of experts", threatened to escalate, President Willy Spühler invited representatives of the Federation and the cantons to a conference on 9 December 1963. During the conference, FIG's airport planners and the Canton of Zurich prevailed against the federal government. The canton only had to make concessions for the commercial parts of the project, such as the restaurant wing. The dispatch of the Federal Council, submitted on 1 March 1965, requested a federal contribution of 23.1 million to the total costs of 129.4 million. Of this, 2.1 million was earmarked for the connection of the airport to the national road network and for the preparation of a connection to the planned (but never built) Zurich underground railway. The National Council and Council of States adopted the bill in October 1965, allowing construction work to begin the following year. The motorway loop was in operation from 1968. Finally, with the opening of the last new hall wing on 1 April 1971, the extension of the terminal building was completed. The first signs of noise mitigation for the airport were in 1972, when a night-time curfew was enacted, as well as in 1974 when new approach routes were introduced. Runway 14/32 was opened in 1976, and 16/34 began renovation. Attacks on El Al aircraft On 18 February 1969, four armed members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) attacked El Al flight 432, firing Kalashnikov assault rifles at the Boeing 720B whilst it prepared for takeoff. The Shin Bet employee Mordechai Rachamim fired back with his pistol and killed the terrorist Abdel Mohsen Hassan. The three remaining assassins were each sentenced to twelve years in prison. The aircraft's co-pilot subsequently died of his injuries. The attack marked the beginning of a discussion about airport security that had never been raised until then in Switzerland. On 21 February 1970 a parcel bomb exploded in Swissair's Convair CV-990 on flight SR330 (Zurich-Tel Aviv). In the crash near Würenlingen all 47 people on board were killed. Investigations revealed that a PFLP terrorist group had carried out the bomb attack. The actual target, however, had been an El Al flight from Munich to Tel Aviv, whose mail had been sent with Swissair to Zurich due to long delays. In 1970 the PFLP obtained the release of the three terrorists convicted in Switzerland and other comrades-in-arms imprisoned abroad through coordinated hijackings. Flights affected were SR 100 (Zurich-New York), TWA flight TW741, Pan Am flight PA93 and BOAC flight BA775. Third stage of construction In January 1969, the Zurich Cantonal Council approved a loan for preparatory work for the third stage of expansion. The project that was subsequently drawn up clearly exceeded the previous dimensions. The plans included the extension of the existing runways, a 3300 m long runway, additional taxiways, the enlargement of the pier to 47 stands, a new terminal with finger dock, two multi-storey car parks, additional technical buildings, an airport railway station and a new hangar. In addition, there were various extensions and conversions of existing buildings. The costs were estimated at CHF 777.6 million (not including the air traffic control building and railway station). Since this project was hardly different from the "super airport" rejected in 1957, criticism was immediately voiced again by the "Protection Association of the Population around Zurich Airport" (SBFZ) and the community of Höri, which was located directly in the approach corridor. The SBFZ even demanded the resumption of the central airport concept that was dropped in 1945 - instead of Utzenstorf this time in the "Grosse Moos", with two runways jutting into Lake Neuchâtel. The supporters of the Zurich airport expansion argued primarily with the economic benefit. In order to take the wind out of the sails of aircraft noise criticism, the government and cantonal council are drafting an aircraft noise law (including a ban on night flights), which should be submitted to a referendum at the same time as the expansion bill. After the Cantonal Council had approved both bills in July 1970, the referendum was held on 27 September 1970. The proposal for expansion was approved by 103,867 votes to 64,192 (61.8% yes), the Aircraft Noise Act by 134,501 votes to 32,590 (80.5% yes). The following year, the Federal Assembly approved a federal contribution of 240.3 million. Construction work on the third stage also began in 1971. In 1973, Hangar III, Cargo Hall East, Car Park F and the General Aviation Centre were completed. In 1974 the "Werkhof" (work yard), an office building and multistorey car park E were added, in 1975 the apron, multi-storey car park B and Terminal B with finger dock, and in 1976 the Airport Plaza shopping and service centre located in multi-storey car park B. Additional costs were incurred due to numerous adjustments to the construction project. The additional credit of 25.8 million was accepted by Zurich voters on 7 December 1975 with 178,723 to 87,303 votes (67.2% yes). The canton supplemented this credit with ordinary and extraordinary budget credits from the building department. In March 1976 the Federal Assembly approved an additional federal contribution of 39.7 million. As the centrepiece of the third stage, runway 14/32 was opened on 1 April 1976, increasing capacity by a third. In the early days, the new runway served exclusively for landing traffic. The rail link, which had been approved by parliament in 1975 in a separate federal decree, was still outstanding. As this was a project of the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB), the cost allocation differed greatly. Of the total costs of 285 million, the SBB contributed 60%, the Federation 33% and the Canton of Zurich 7%. The project comprised the Zurich Airport railway station under Terminal B (on which construction had been underway since 1971) and a new line between Bassersdorf and Glattbrugg. After nine years of construction, the ceremonial opening of the airport line took place on 29 May 1980. Fourth stage of construction In the second half of the 1970s, the volume of traffic continued to rise sharply, so the Canton of Zurich, the FIG and Swissair worked out a project for the fourth construction phase. On 28 September 1980, with 142,240 to 104,775 votes (57.6%), Zurich voters accepted a loan of CHF 48 million for civil engineering works, which were part of the forthcoming construction work. Also in 1980, the Federal Office of Civil Aviation published a new airport concept, which replaced that of 1945. The focus was now on qualitative expansion, taking into account spatial planning and environmental protection considerations. Based on this concept, the Federal Assembly approved the "Building Programme 1981-1985". This programme provided for investments of CHF 393.3 million in Zurich-Kloten, but the subsidy contribution of 10.3% was significantly lower than for the Geneva and Basel-Mulhouse airports. This was justified by the catch-up demand of the two other major Swiss airports. The central element of the fourth stage was the finger dock in Terminal A with 13 docking positions. Also planned were a new control tower, a baggage sorting system, an additional multi-storey car park, waiting rooms and an operations centre for aircraft crews. Later, the Zurich government council also decided to renew the damaged western runway, which had to be closed for two and a half months in the summer of 1985 for this purpose. Fingerdock A was put into operation on 1 November 1985, the new 41 m high control tower on 29 April 1986. There were also plans to expand the airport's cargo facilities. However, a corresponding loan of CHF 57 million was narrowly rejected in the referendum of 6 September 1987 by 106,722 to 98,663 votes (52.0% against). The project, which was subsequently revised and approved by the Zurich Cantonal Council in 1989, focused on more efficient use of the existing facilities, thereby enabling the handling of an additional 100,000 tonnes of freight annually. Fifth stage of construction ("Airport 2000") The cantonal popular initiative "for moderate air traffic" submitted in January 1991 intended to limit the airport to its then status, i.e. neither to allow more aircraft movements nor to expand the infrastructure. In the vote of 26 September 1993, however, it did not stand a chance and was clearly rejected by 235,531 votes to 112,476 (67.6%). Nine months later, the Zurich cantonal government submitted a proposal for a loan of CHF 873 million to the cantonal council. The fifth construction phase, known as "Airport 2000" and costing a total of CHF 2.4 billion, was intended to replace outdated systems and further expand existing facilities. At the heart of the project was the construction of a third terminal, Dock E "Midfield", located between the three runways. The Skymetro aerial tramway, a road tunnel and underground baggage conveyors were necessary for its development. Also part of the fifth stage was the construction of the new passenger hub "Airside Center". The Cantonal Council approved the project at the end of February 1995. It cleared the last hurdle in the referendum of 25 June 1995, when it was approved by 224,668 votes to 105,859 (68.0% Yes). After almost nine years of construction, the project was completed in 2004. "Zurich 2010" project The next major event for the airport was in 1999, when the Parliament of the canton of Zürich approved privatization of Zurich Airport. The following year, Flughafen Zürich AG, trading under the brand Unique, became the new airport operator. The company dropped the brand Unique in favour of Zurich Airport and Flughafen Zürich in 2010. On 2 October 2001, a major cash-flow crisis at Swissair, exacerbated by the global downturn in air travel caused by the September 11 attacks, caused the airline to ground all its flights. Although a government rescue plan permitted some flights to restart a few days later, and the airline's assets were subsequently sold to become Swiss International Air Lines, the airport lost a large volume of traffic. After Lufthansa took control of Swiss International Air Lines in 2005, traffic began to grow again. On 18 October 2001, Germany and Switzerland signed a treaty regarding the limitation of flights over Germany. Under the terms of this treaty, any incoming aircraft after 22:00 had to approach Zürich from the east to land on runway 28, which, unlike the airport's other runways, was not equipped with an instrument landing system. A month later, at 22:06 on 24 November, an inbound Crossair Avro RJ100 using this approach in conditions of poor visibility crashed into a range of hills near Bassersdorf and exploded, killing 24 of the 33 people on board. The flight had originally been scheduled to land on runway 14 before 22:00, but it was subject to delay and was therefore diverted to runway 28. Zurich Airport completed a major expansion project in 2003, in which it built a new parking garage, a new midfield terminal, and an automated underground people mover to link the midfield terminal to the main terminal. In November 2008 a complete renovation and rebuild of the old terminal B structure was announced. The new terminal B opened in November 2011, and provides segregated access to and from aircraft for Schengen and non-Schengen passengers. Zurich Airport handled 25.5 million passengers in 2014, up 2.5 percent from 2013. Etihad Regional ceased on 18 February 2015 to fly two-thirds of its scheduled routes without further notice, amongst them all its services from Zürich except the domestic service to Geneva. Etihad Regional blamed the failure of its expansion on the behavior of competitors, especially Swiss International Air Lines, as well as the Swiss aviation authorities. Following the demolition of some office buildings the construction of the new baggage sorting facilities between the Operations Center and Terminal 1 began in spring 2018 with a total investment of CHF 500 million. As of 2020, the marketing of all advertising space at the airport was transferred from Clear Channel to APG. The main Terminal 1 will be completely rebuilt - including the tower of the Skyguide Air Traffic Control. Construction is scheduled to begin in 2021, with completion expected in 2030. In addition to the old building fabric, the expected growth in passenger numbers is the main reason for the pending construction work. "The forecasts suggest that the number of passengers arriving, departing or transferring at Zurich Airport each year today will grow from 29 million today to 50 million by 2030," says the airport operator's personnel booklet. Corporate affairs The airport is owned by Flughafen Zürich AG, a company quoted on the SIX Swiss Exchange. Major shareholders include the canton of Zürich, with 33.33% plus one of the shares, and the city of Zürich, with 5% of the shares. No other shareholder has a holding exceeding 3%. Flughafen Zürich AG used the brand name Unique from 2000 until 2010. The company has stakes in various other airports around the world. Infrastructure Terminal complex The airport has three airside piers, which are known as terminals A, B, and E (also signposted as Gates A, B/D, and E). These are linked to a central air-side building called Airside Center, built in 2003. Alongside the Airside Center, the ground-side terminal complex named Airport Center comprises several buildings, and includes airline check-in areas, a shopping mall, a railway station, car parks, and a bus and tram terminal. All departing passengers access the same departure level of the Airside Center, which includes duty-free shopping and various bars and restaurants, via airport security. They are then segregated between passengers for Schengen and non-Schengen destinations on the way to the gate lounges, with the latter first passing through emigration controls. Arriving Schengen and non-Schengen passengers are handled in separate areas of the Airside Center and reach it by different routes, with non-Schengen passengers first passing through immigration controls. The three airside terminals are: Terminal A Terminal A contains gates prefixed A. It opened in 1971, and it is used exclusively by flights to and from destinations inside the Schengen Area, including domestic flights within Switzerland. Since its expansion in 1982–1985, it takes the form of a finger pier, directly connected at one end to the Airside Centre. Terminal A was scheduled to be torn down and replaced by an entirely new facility from 2021. However in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic the start of the project has been postponed for at least three years. Terminal B Terminal B contains gates prefixed B and D. It opened in 1975 and reopened in November 2011 after an extensive three-year reconstruction. Like terminal A, it takes the form of a finger pier directly connected at one end to the Airside Centre. Since reconstruction, it can accommodate both Schengen and non-Schengen flights at the same gates. Each gate has two numbers, one prefixed B and the other D, but with different passenger routes to and from the gates to separate the flows of Schengen and non-Schengen passengers. Terminal E Terminal E contains gates prefixed E, and is also known as the midfield terminal or Dock E. It is a stand-alone satellite terminal located on the opposite side of runway 10/28 from the Airside Center, and is situated between runways 16/34 and 14/32. It is entirely used by non-Schengen international flights and became operational and was opened on September 1, 2003. It is connected to the Airside Center by the Skymetro, an automated underground people mover. Runways Zurich Airport has three runways: 16/34 of in length, 14/32 of in length, and 10/28 of in length. For most of the day and in most conditions, runway 14 is used for landings and runways 16 and 28 are used for takeoffs, although different patterns are used early morning and in the evenings. Airlines and destinations The following airlines offer regular scheduled and charter flights at Zurich Airport: {{Airport-dest-list \|Aegean Airlines\| Athens, ThessalonikiSeasonal: Heraklion, Rhodes \| Aer Lingus \| Dublin \| Aeroflot \| Moscow–Sheremetyevo \| Air Albania \| Seasonal: Kukës \|Air Cairo\| Seasonal: Hurghada \| Air Canada \| Toronto–PearsonSeasonal: Vancouver \| Air Corsica \| Seasonal: Ajaccio (begins 2 July 2022) \| Air Europa \| Madrid \| Air France \| Paris–Charles de Gaulle \| Air Malta \| Malta \| Air Serbia \| Belgrade \| airBaltic \| Riga \| AlMasria Universal Airlines \| Seasonal charter: Hurghada<ref name="abouttravel.ch"> Statistics Busiest routes Top airlines Passenger development Ground transportation Train Zürich Flughafen railway station is located underneath the Airport Centre. The station has frequent Zürich S-Bahn services, plus direct InterRegio, InterCity, and Eurocity services, to many places including Basel, Bern, Biel/Bienne, Brig, Geneva, Konstanz, Lausanne, Lucerne, Munich, Romanshorn, St. Gallen, and Winterthur. There are some 13 trains per hour to Zürich HB (Hauptbahnhof), Zürich's main city centre station, with a journey time of between 9 and 13 minutes. By changing trains there, most other places in Switzerland can be reached in a few hours. Bus and tram In front of the Airport Centre is the airport stop of the Stadtbahn Glattal, a light rail system that interworks with the Zürich tram system, together with a regional bus station. Both the bus station and light rail stop provide service to destinations throughout the Glattal region that surrounds the airport, with the light rail stop being served by tram routes 10 and 12. Tram route 10 also provides a link to Zurich Hauptbahnhof, albeit with a rather longer journey time than that of the railway. Road The airport is served by the A51 motorway and other main roads, which link to the airport's own road network. Drop-off areas are available by the Airport Centre whilst a total of over 14000 spaces are available in six car parks for short and long term parking. A car hire centre is located in the terminal complex. The airport is served by a fleet of dedicated airport taxis, which operate from taxi ranks in front of the arrival areas. Alternative chauffeur driven airport limousines can be arranged. The airport can legally be reached by bicycle on a regional highway (Flughafenstrasse and Birchstrasse) that branches off national highway 4 (Schaffhausen - Bülach - Zürich - Luzern) just east of the airport and reaches Northwestern Zürich. Other facilities The Circle The Circle, a complex intended to include a medical center, a conference center, shops, restaurants, offices, and hotels, is under construction opposite the Airport Centre. In February 2009, Flughafen Zürich AG (FZAG) launched a three-stage architectural competition for "The Circle at Zurich Airport" development. Around 180,000 square meters of usable space for services were to be built close to the terminals on a 37,000 square meter site. Two hotels and the congress area will occupy around 45,000 square meters, which will be operated by the Hyatt Corporation. At the end of October 2011, FZAG submitted the building application to the town of Kloten, which granted the building permit on 6 March 2012. The groundbreaking ceremony for the superstructure, scheduled for the end of 2013, was postponed until the beginning of 2015. The Circle" is expected to create around 5,000 new jobs, with an investment volume of around CHF 1 billion. The foundation stone was laid on 24 March 2017 and the opening is expected to take place in the first half of 2020; however, even then not all six parts of the building will be ready. In the meantime, it has been announced that the opening will take place in September 2020. Company headquarters Several companies have their headquarters on or about the airport. These include Swiss International Air Lines, Swiss World Cargo, Swiss AviationTraining, Edelweiss Air, gategroup, Helvetic Airways, Swissôtel, and Rega. Other companies that were formerly based on the airport include Swissair and Crossair. Safety and environment Airport fire department The airport fire brigade is responsible for fire-fighting at Zurich Airport and is on standby around the clock. In the event of an emergency, the brigade must be able to reach any location on the airport grounds, an area of 880 hectares, in no more than three minutes in accordance with international standards. Their vehicles have extremely powerful engines and large-capacity tanks. The fire service also includes an operations control centre. This not only coordinates the airport's rescue services, but also alerts the fire brigades in the northern part of the canton. A total of 77 fire brigades are deployed from the Operations Control Centre, including 2 professional and 13 base fire brigades. Likewise, the rescue service Schutz und Rettung Zürich Nord, the rescue service Spital Bülach, the rescue service Winterthur and since April 1, 2008, the rescue service of the canton of Schaffhausen are also dispatched. Other tasks of the Operations Control Centre include alerting a large animal rescue service, a personal emergency call and location system and the coordination of the emergency medical service for several municipalities. In addition, 3800 fire alarm criteria are accumulated in the operations control centre. Every year, the operations control centre receives about 150,000 telephone calls. Until 31 December 2007, the airport fire brigade was officially called the Berufsfeuerwehr Flughafen Zürich (Professional Fire Brigade), and it was constituted as the company fire brigade of Flughafen Zürich AG. On 1 January 2008, the airport fire brigade, together with the rescue service and the operations control centre, was for organizational reasons transferred to the Schutz und Rettung (Protection and Rescue) department of the city of Zurich. The airport fire brigade records more than 1000 operations per year. In 2004, 260 of these involved incidents involving aircraft, including emergency or safety landings. Refuelling dispenser, Ramp Safety, Airport Authority and Follow Me Vehicles that not only cross taxiways and runways reserved for aircraft on the designated roads, but also use them for business purposes, must be equipped with a transponder and radio and can thus be tracked on tracking websites (e.g. Flightradar24). The transponder sign or radio name for the Follow-Me vehicles is Zebra. In 2014, five companies were licensed for aircraft refuelling at the airport, operating 16 tankers and 28 dispensers. Rescue service Zurich Airport The rescue service at Zurich Airport was established around 1982 as the original "fire-fighting ambulance". Its primary purpose was to protect fire-fighting personnel during fire-fighting operations, and secondarily to provide medical care for injured passengers. It was quickly recognised that there was also a steadily growing need for rescue services for the population outside the airport, and often neighbouring hospitals that were able to provide this service could not cope due to capacity bottlenecks, or the corresponding structures were not available in the Zürcher Unterland at the time. When the airport was privatized in 2000 to form the public limited company Unique (Flughafen Zürich AG), the rescue service was then separated from the fire service as a separate division within the Safety&Security department. In the last year of its existence in 2007, the Rescue Service at Zurich Airport carried out around 5800 missions with 36 paramedics and three trainees. The majority of the operations were carried out in the region around the airport, which at that time comprised 28 contractual communities. There were three ambulances on standby during the day and two ambulances at night, which was carried out in two shifts of twelve hours each. The teams were on duty four times a day (twice a day and twice at night). As a novelty, Zurich Airport Emergency Medical Services consistently applied the amended labor law, i.e. it was one of the few employers to fully credit the working time of twelve hours without deductions ("attendance time"/effective working time). There was no permanently installed emergency medical system at the airport site. The paramedics are equipped with extended skills that allow the administration of medication according to algorithms. As part of a quality control of the measures carried out, all operations were checked by the Medical Director. At the same time, an annual review of medication and algorithmic knowledge took place. Only after passing the written and practical test was the paramedic authorized to administer medication for another year. If an emergency physician was needed, the resources of the partner organisations REGA (helicopters) or the NEF of "Schutz und Rettung Zürich" could be called upon. Project SUS After two project studies, Unique (Flughafen Zürich AG) decided in the summer of 2007 to outsource the rescue service together with the operations centre and the professional fire brigade and to sell it to the Schutz und Rettung (Protection and Rescue) department of the city of Zurich for an amount of CHF 22 million. This was also due to the needs of the city of Zurich, as its professional fire brigade in particular had problems meeting the required arrival times with long journeys to the north of the city of Zurich. At the same time, it was possible to avoid the cost-intensive construction of a new base for rescue services and fire brigades in the rapidly growing north. A comprehensive contract was drawn up for the takeover of the entire department, which will be reassessed after ten years. The outsourcing resulted in massive internal restructuring, which replaced the previous organisational form. Since January 1, 2008, the base at the airport has been known as the "Wache Nord". With a strong positive operating result in 2007 and a reduced staffing level as of January 1, 2008, the catchment area of the rescue service expanded to include the northern districts of Zurich Schwamendingen, Seebach and Oerlikon. Accidents and incidents On November 24, 1951, a Douglas DC-4 of the Israeli El Al (aircraft registration 4X-ADN) on a cargo flight from Rome with textiles on board crashed into a forest three kilometers northeast of Zurich Airport shortly before landing. Six of the seven crew members were killed. On 24 November 1956, an Ilyushin Il-12B of the Czechoslovak airline ČSA (OK-DBP) crashed into an agricultural area 13 kilometres after take-off from Zurich-Kloten airport, only 500 metres from the southern outskirts of Wasterkingen, probably due to engine problems. All 23 passengers and crew members died there. On 4 September 1963, Swissair Flight 306 experienced an in-flight fire shortly after take-off and crashed, killing all 80 people on board. On 18 February 1969, four armed members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine attacked El Al flight 432 whilst it prepared for takeoff. The aircraft's security guard repelled the attack, resulting in the death of one of the terrorists, whilst the Boeing 720's co-pilot subsequently died of his injuries. On 21 February 1970, a barometrically triggered bomb exploded on Swissair Flight 330 some nine minutes after takeoff from Zurich en route to Tel Aviv and Hong Kong. All 47 occupants were killed. The bombing was attributed to the PFLP-GC. On 18 January 1971, an inbound Balkan Bulgarian Airlines Il-18D approached Zurich Airport in fog below the glideslope. It crashed and burst into flames, north of the airport, when both left wingtip and landing gear contacted the ground. Seven crew members and 38 passengers were killed. On 24 November 1990, an Alitalia Douglas DC-9 operating Flight 404 crashed on approach to Zurich, killing all 46 passengers and crew on board. On 10 January 2000, a Crossair Saab 340 operating Flight 498 crashed shortly after takeoff, killing all 10 occupants. The cause of the crash was determined to have been the result of spatial disorientation and pilot errors. On 24 November 2001, a Crossair Avro RJ100 operating Flight 3597 crashed into hills near Bassersdorf while on approach to Zurich. Twenty-four of the 33 people on board were killed. On 15 March 2011, two Swiss A320s received almost simultaneous take-off clearance on the intersecting runways 16 and 28. In response to this serious incident, the Federal Office of Civil Aviation commissioned a comprehensive analysis of the operating procedures. On 27 September 2013 the nose landing gear of a De Havilland DHC-8-400 of Croatia Airlines could not be extended. The aircraft had taken off in Zagreb and was scheduled to land in Zurich. During the landing approach to Zurich Airport the pilots noticed that the nose gear of the aircraft was not extended. They tried for 40 minutes to extend the landing gear completely, but failed. The pilots decided to make an emergency landing in Zurich on runway 14, and none of the 60 passengers were injured in the subsequent landing at 8:17 pm. Runway 14 was then closed until the end of operations. After 15 minutes, air traffic on the two other runways could be resumed as usual. 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253108	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakura%20Wars	Sakura Wars	Sakura Wars, known in Japan as is a Japanese steampunk media franchise created by Oji Hiroi and owned by Sega. It is focused around a series of cross-genre video games. The first game in the series was released in 1996, with five sequels and numerous spin-off titles being released since then. The series—set during a fictionalized version of the Taishō period—depicts groups of women with magical abilities using steam-powered mecha to combat demonic threats. The original Sakura Wars was an ambitious title for the then-in-production Sega Saturn. The first game's overlap of the tactical role-playing, dating sim and visual novel genres prompted Sega to classify it as a "dramatic adventure", a moniker which has endured during the series' lifetime. Both Red Entertainment and Sega co-developed most of the games until 2008, when the series went on hiatus. Sega rebooted the series as sole developer because of fan demand. Recurring elements include anime cutscenes created by notable studios including Production I.G, and music by composer Kohei Tanaka. The series has sold over 4.5 million copies as of 2010, and garnered both critical and popular acclaim. The original Sega console games have been voted among the most popular for the Saturn and Dreamcast. The Sakura Wars franchise includes numerous anime productions, manga, and other media projects such as stage shows. With the exception of Sakura Wars: So Long, My Love and the 2019 soft reboot, the video game series has not been released in English. Several of the anime series have been localized for English territories. Games The first installment was released on September 27, 1996. Many Sakura Wars games have been localized for markets in North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia on numerous video game consoles, personal computers (PC), and mobile phones. As of December 2019, the series includes the main installments from the 1996 Sakura Wars to the 2019 Sakura Wars, as well as direct sequels and spin-offs, both released and confirmed as being in development. Most of the older games have been remade or re-released on multiple platforms. Main series The original Sakura Wars was released in 1996 for the Sega Saturn. It was ported to a number of platforms including Dreamcast, Microsoft Windows and mobile devices. A remake for the PlayStation 2 (PS2), Sakura Wars: In Hot Blood, was released in 2003. The remake includes additional voice acting, redone graphics and battle system based on later entries. Its sequel Sakura Wars 2: Thou Shalt Not Die was released for the Saturn in 1998. It was the last title developed for the platform, receiving ports to Dreamcast and Windows, and as a bundle with the first game to the PlayStation Portable (PSP). The next entry, Sakura Wars 3: Is Paris Burning?, was released in 2002 for the Dreamcast. It was later ported to Windows, and then to the PS2 with Dreamcast-exclusive features redesigned to work on the PS2. Sakura Wars 4: Fall in Love, Maidens was released in 2003 for the Dreamcast. It was the last Sakura Wars game produced for Sega hardware, and was later ported to Windows. The fifth game, Sakura Wars V: Farewell, My Lovely, was first released for the PS2 in Japan in 2005. It was the first mainline Sakura Wars game to be produced after Sega abandoned game console production. In North America, Europe, and Australia, the game was localized as Sakura Wars: So Long, My Love and published by NIS America for the PS2 and the Wii in 2010; this release removed the number from the title. The sixth entry is a soft reboot of the series, titled Sakura Wars (New Sakura Wars in Japan). The game carries over multiple elements while featuring a new cast and action-based combat system. It was released for the PlayStation 4 (PS4) in 2019 in Asia, and 2020 worldwide. Spin-offs In addition to the main series, numerous spin-off games covering multiple genres were released. The first spin-off title was Sakura Wars: Hanagumi Taisen Columns, released for the Saturn in 1997. A sequel for the Dreamcast was released in 2000. A spin-off set just after Sakura Wars for the Game Boy Color, Sakura Wars GB, was developed by Jupiter and released by Media Factory in 2000. A direct sequel was released the following year. A small peripheral titled Pocket Sakura was also developed by Jupiter and released alongside the first Game Boy Color title. A small group of spin-off titles were developed under the umbrella title Sakura Wars World Project. Sakura Wars Story: Mysterious Paris, a visual novel adventure set after the events of Is Paris Burning?, was released in 2004 for the PS2. A prequel to So Long, My Love, Sakura Wars V Episode 0: Samurai Daughter of the Wild, was also released for the PS2 that year. The gameplay deviated from the main series in featuring hack and slash action. A Nintendo DS dungeon crawler spin-off, Dramatic Dungeon: Sakura Wars — Because You Were There, was developed by Neverland and released in 2008, featuring the casts of all mainline games up to that point. Other releases included fan discs, supplementary materials related to Sakura Wars and its first sequel, and Sakura Wars-themed pachinko machines. Multiple mobile titles based on the series were also released, beginning in 2001 with Sakura Wars: Keitai Club. Sakura Wars Online for the Dreamcast was released in 2001 with two character packs, one themed after the Tokyo Flower Division and one after the Paris Flower Division. It operated until Sega closed down its servers in 2005. A mobile game by Sega and Delight Works, Sakura Kakumei ~Hana Saku Otome-tachi~ for iOS and Android devices was announced for a 2020 release in September. The game is set in 2011, (Taisho 100) after a great calamity 16 years earlier, a new combat revue known as B.L.A.C.K. has risen to defend the citizen of Japan from new demon hordes and unravel a deep government conspiracy. Anime studio, CloverWorks produced a short anime for streaming to promote the new game. Recurring elements Setting and characters The Sakura Wars series is set during a fictionalised version of the Taishō period, with the chronology currently running from 1923 (Taisho 12) to 1940 (Taisho 29). The games are set in the cities of Tokyo, Paris and New York. The setting combines real locations with fantastical events and steampunk-based technology. The central conflict of the series is between demonic forces created by the ingrained darkness in human hearts. To combat this in Tokyo, the Japanese government created a unit of steam-based mecha called Koubu powered by spirit energy. While a few men are capable of using them, women form the main combat units because of their stronger spiritual power. This group is known as the Imperial Assault Force, based in a theater and working undercover as the Imperial Theater Revue. The group to which the protagonists belong is the Flower Division (Hanagumi), the main combat troop. Other groups make cameo appearances in the story if present. The first four games follow the military and romantic exploits of Imperial Army officer Ichiro Ogami. Originally assigned to the Imperial Assault Force in Tokyo, he later traveled to Paris and trained the newly formed Paris Assault Force before returning to Tokyo and commanding the two united Flower Divisions during the events of Sakura Wars 4. For So Long, My Love, the lead protagonist was changed to Ogami's nephew Shinjiro Taiga, who is sent in place of Ogami to train the New York Combat Revue. The 2019 soft reboot of Sakura Wars takes place in 1940, twelve years after an event called the "Great Demon War" saw the destruction of all three original Flower Divisions. New divisions were created across the world and began competing with each other, with the newly reformed Tokyo Flower Division being the main protagonists. Gameplay The gameplay of Sakura Wars incorporate role-playing, dating sim and visual novel elements. This blend of genres and styles resulted in it being labeled as a new genre dubbed "dramatic adventure" in its marketing. The original combination of narrative and tactical role-playing gameplay was inspired by the Fire Emblem series. The gameplay is split between adventure-style segments where the player explores environments and interacts with cast members; and battle sections where choices during the adventure segments come into play. With the main female cast, the protagonist can pursue a romance. Romance options can be carried between the first four titles using save data. Throughout the series, the games have used different battle systems. The first Sakura Wars and its sequel made use of a traditional turn-based battle system on a tilted two-dimensional grid-based battlefield. Each unit has two actions from a selection of five. The sequel expanded the selection to six, and included cinematic attacks. The leader could also issue commands to the entire squad to take specific battle formations. Sakura Wars 3 introduced the "Active & Realtime Machine System" (ARMS), which takes place in three-dimensional battle arenas. Under this system, units have an allotment of Action Points (AP). AP are used up by moving around the battlefield. Units can perform one of six actions, with two actions per turn as in earlier titles. Each unit has special abilities, and attack ranges based on their weaponry. For the 2019 Sakura Wars, the battle system was redesigned to use action-based combat, focusing on free movement within large arenas. Central to all the games and most spin-off titles is the "Live & Interactive Picture System" (LIPS). During conversations with characters and key story sections, the player is faced with critical choices with an imposed time limit. The concept behind LIPS was to maintain player engagement while making narrative rather than freezing time and allowing prolonged time for thought, a trend the staff found annoying. The most basic version was established in the first Sakura Wars, then later expanded into "Double LIPS" with the incorporation of a personality meter which could indicate a character's feelings towards the player. Between Is Paris Burning? and So Long, My Love, a version called "Analog LIPS" was used. This allowed players to alter the intensity of a single response. It also included interacting with the character and environments. So Long, My Love expanded it further with quick time events using the control sticks and buttons. The 2019 Sakura Wars continues this use of the LIPS system, featuring Analog LIPS and new free-roaming elements. Choices made during LIPS sections directly impact character performance in battle. History Origins and development In 1990, Oji Hiroi at Red Entertainment (formally Red Company) decided to create Sakura Wars. Hiroi drew inspiration from Japanese stage shows when creating the project, initially titled . Because of lack of interest from publishers, Hiroi shelved the project until he was approached by Sega vice president Shoichiro Irimajiri to develop a new project for the Saturn. Successfully pitching his project to Irimajiri, the game began production under the title Sakura Wars. While the scenario and gameplay went through multiple redrafts, Sakura Wars always made use of a steampunk setting, a female lead and mecha combat. Development lasted three years, double the original estimate, and was Sega's most expensive project at the time. Many within both Red Company and Sega were sceptical of the game's success, but Hiroi remained confident. Following the critical and commercial success of Sakura Wars, Sega and Red Company expanded the original premise into a franchise, starting with Thou Shalt Not Die. A recurring feature from Thou Shalt Not Die onwards was the use of subtitles drawn from famous poetry or other types of fiction related to a game's location or mood. A recurring poet was Akiko Yosano, whom Hiroi admired. Following Thou Shalt Not Die, the team moved onto the Dreamcast to develop Sakura Wars 3, rebuilding the game engine and utilising the console's functions for gameplay elements. Following the release of Sakura Wars 3, Sega discontinued the Dreamcast because of declining console sales, transitioning to a software developer and publisher. Rather than move their planned next entry to the PlayStation 2, the team created a final Dreamcast entry as a celebratory title for series fans. This became Sakura Wars 4, which was completed in 10 months as opposed to the usual two year development period of other entries. The original story planned for Sakura Wars 4 was moved for the team's next entry on the PlayStation 2. In 2005, Red Entertainment split from Sega after it bought back its majority share holding, although it continued to be involved in the Sakura Wars series. The next entry, Sakura Wars V, formed part of a seven-game group dubbed "Sakura Wars World Project"; the aim was to release these games overseas. In the event, only Sakura Wars V was published overseas as Sakura Wars: So Long, My Love, and only three of the other planned games were released. The remaining three titles were cancelled in 2008. Sega and Red Entertainment greenlit Dramatic Dungeon: Sakura Wars in an attempt to revitalise the franchise using a new gameplay genre. In August 2008, Sega decided to end the franchise, with the final Sakura Wars-themed event being a concert that month. Red Entertainment was bought by Chinese company UltaZen in 2011, with Sega retaining the Sakura Wars property. Fan demand eventually persuaded Sega to greenlight a new title in the series, which would both continue the narrative and feature a new cast. Staff All titles from 1996 to 2005 were developed by the same central team. These included writer Satoru Akahori, artists Kōsuke Fujishima and Hidenori Matsubara, director and later chief director Tomoyuki Ito, producer and later executive producer Noriyoshi Ohba, and designer Takaharu Terada. Hiroi had contributed to all the projects as a general producer. Red Entertainment co-developed the games with an internal Sega team which shifted identity over the years—originally known as CS2 R&D during development of the first two Sakura Wars, the team was renamed Overworks in 2000 when Sega consolidated its 9 semi-autonomous subsidiaries into six studios; they worked on the series between Sakura Wars 3 and Sakura Wars V: Episode 0. Sakura Wars: So Long, My Love was developed by the same team as part of Sega's GE2 R&D division, the same team which would develop Valkyria Chronicles. The 2019 Sakura Wars was developed by a team within Sega's CS2 R&D division, a newer group including Sonic Team. New team members included character designer Tite Kubo, and writers Jiro Ishii and Takaaki Suzuki, all famous names in anime and video games respectively. Hiroi remained in a supervisory role, and also wrote the theme song lyrics. Other developers worked on the series alongside Sega and Red Entertainment, including Idea Factory, who created the Wii port of So Long, My Love; Jupiter Corporation, producers of the Sakura Wars GB duology and the Pocket Sakura peripheral; and Neverland, who developed Dramatic Dungeon: Sakura Wars. A notable feature of the series is its FMV anime sequences. The first game's scenes were animated by Sega's animation subsidiary, Kyokuichi Tokyo Movie (now known as TMS Entertainment). From Thou Shalt Not Die to Fall in Love, Maidens, they were produced by Production I.G. For So Long, My Love, the scenes were primarily produced by M.S.C. In the 2019 Sakura Wars, the anime FMV sequences were produced by Sanzigen. Music The Sakura Wars series features a variety of music, and frequently reuses themes. Kohei Tanaka is the chief music composer of the series. Tanaka's first major work in the video game industry, it brought him widespread recognition. Tanaka was among the first to support Hiroi with Sakura Wars, having worked with him during work on an original video animation (OVA) of Tengai Makyou: Ziria. Tanaka acted as a teacher figure for the rest of the development team. At that time, rhythm and percussion dominated Japanese popular music rather than melody. Both Tanaka and Hiroi wanted to reintroduce younger Japanese to beautiful melodies. Tanaka has been involved to some degree in most of the Sakura Wars games, composing the music for all mainline entries, and several spin-off titles. A recurring theme in the series is a piece called "Geki! Teikoku Kagekidan". Tanaka wrote the theme based on Hiroi's request to combine the music of a Super Sentai opening theme with the vocal style of the title song for the film Aoi sanmyaku (1949). Versions of it were included in Sakura Wars 2, Sakura Wars 4, and the 2019 soft reboot of Sakura Wars. Localization While Hiroi wanted the series to be released worldwide, nearly all games in the Sakura Wars series remain exclusive to Asian territories. Early efforts at localizing the series were not undertaken because of Sega's uncertainty over whether the game's blend of genres would find a large enough audience outside Japan to be profitable. An unspecified attempt by Sega to localize the game stalled during the concept approval stage. No official reason was ever given. The PSP ports of Sakura Wars and Thou Shalt Not Die were scheduled for the North American market, but it were canceled. It was later explained that the Sony classified Sakura Wars as a text novel, which made then-future licensing for importation and translation difficult. A Korean translation of So Long, My Love was published in South Korea by Sega in 2006. The PC CD-ROM versions of Sakura Wars and its sequel were localized and released in Russia by Akella in 2006 and 2008 respectively. Dysin Interactive published the PC versions of Sakura Wars to Is Paris Burning? in China, and Fall in Love, Maidens was released in the region by Beijing Entertainment All Technology. The first official English release in the Sakura Wars series is So Long, My Love, which was translated by NIS America in collaboration with Red Entertainment and Idea Factory. The dub was produced at Bang Zoom! Entertainment, and included actors from NIS America's localization of the Disgaea series. The team also included the Japanese voice track in the PlayStation 2 version, with a dedicated translation which preserved the original character names being created for it. The localization took two years to complete, becoming NIS America's largest localization effort to date. For the 2019 reboot, Sega brought on Yakuza 0 translators Inbound Games to localise the game. The localised version uses the Japanese audio with subtitles in other languages. Reception and sales Between the series' debut in 1996 and 2010, the series has sold over 4.5 million copies worldwide. Each entry on Sega hardware rank among the best-selling titles for their respective hardware. The original Sakura Wars was an immediate success, with several stores being sold out of copies within hours of its release. Sakura Wars 2 remains the best-selling title in the series, with over 500,000 copies sold on the Saturn alone, making it one of the console's best-selling titles in Japan. So Long, My Love is the worst-selling mainline entry to date, and was a commercial failure in the West. Japanese website 4Gamer.net described the series as a "legendary" property connected to Sega, citing several elements such as the anime-style presentation and blend of genres that were hardly seen in gaming at the time. Jenni Lada of TechnologyTell wrote a retrospective on the series in 2009, calling Sakura Wars "an odd series [...] that defies genres". In a 1999 IGN article on the franchise following the announcement of Sakura Wars 3, journalist Anoop Gantayat described it as "probably the greatest series of games to never make their way stateside", citing its unprecedented success when compared to other games on Sega hardware at the time. The series has been popular with both journalists and fans in Japan since the first game's release. At the inaugural CESA Awards, Sakura Wars won the Grand Award, as well as awards in the Best Director, Best Main Character and Best Supporting Character categories. Sakura Wars 2 won the Packaged Work Award at the 1998 Animation Kobe event. The soundtrack album of Sakura Wars 4 won in the "Animation – Album of the Year" category at the 2003 Japan Gold Disc Awards. Prior to release, Sakura Wars was the second most-wanted game in a Famitsu poll in 1996, coming in behind Final Fantasy VII. The first four games all appeared on a public Famitsu poll from 2006 of the 100 best games of all time. A second later poll ranked the Sakura Wars games as among the best on the Saturn and Dreamcast. Sakura Wars heroine Sakura Shinguji was rated in 2009 by Famitsu as the 17th best Japanese video game character. Related media Red Company and Sega have expanded the Sakura Wars series into various media. These include anime, manga, stage shows, several light novels, concerts and CD album releases of soundtracks. The latter have met with substantial commercial success. Despite a shared identity, Hiroi took care to keep each of these elements distinct and separate from each other. A dedicated themed cafe and merchandise store based in the Ikebukuro district of Tokyo, Sakura Wars Taisho Romando, opened in 1998. Taisho Romando remained open for ten years until it closed in March 2008. A prominent feature was an annual stage show dubbed Sakura Wars Kayou Show supervised by Hiroi, for which new musical numbers were created by Tanaka. The show featured the cast reprising their roles and performing stage shows drawn from the series. Each character had songs themed after their characters. The cast, which grew to include those of later games, remained for the entire run with the exception of actress Michie Tomizawa who retired from the series and her role as character Sumire Kanzaki in 2002. Tomizawa appeared as a guest in later revival concerts. The original stage shows ran regularly from 1997 to 2006. Since then, it has seen irregular revivals with both the first cast and later additions. The stage shows were originally meant to end in 2008 along with the franchise, but fan support allowed future revivals. A stage adaptation of the 2019 game was planned to run from March 5–8, 2020 at Sogetsu Hall. However, on February 26, 2020, Sega announced that the event would not take place because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The play will now be postponed to winter 2020 with precautions to protect the spread of the virus. Hiroi wrote a manga adaptation of the first Sakura Wars, which began serialization in 2002. The original run finished in December 2008, but its popularity led to a second series continuing the narrative. Since 2003, the manga has been published as tankōbon by Kodansha. A comedy manga titled Sakura Wars: Show Theater, which featured comedy skits of characters from each main Sakura Wars location, was serialised between 2005 and 2009, and published by Kodansha in four volumes between 2006 and 2009. A manga adaptation of the 2019 game, Shin Sakura Taisen: The Comic, began serialization in 2019 by Shueisha. It was written by Ishii, and illustrated by Koyuri Noguchi. A spin-off manga Sakura Wars: Kanadegumi was created by Chie Shimada, based on concepts from the Sakura Wars team, and published in the shojo magazine Hana to Yume published by Hakusensha. In contrast to the main series, it was aimed at a female audience and shifted the narrative to a male harem set-up; main protagonist Neko Miyabi is assigned to the titular Kanadagumi, and develops relationships with its five male members. Originally a two-chapter special published between November and December 2011, it was expanded into a full series in February 2012. The manga ran from 2012 to 2013. Between its debut and final issue, the manga inspired both an anime short and a dedicated stage show. It was published in four tankōbon by Hakusensha between September 2012 and July 2013. Film and television Multiple anime films, television series and original video animations (OVAs) have been produced that are based either on individual Sakura Wars games or on the series as a whole. The first was an OVA, titled Sakura Wars: The Gorgeous Blooming Cherry Blossoms. The OVA was released as four 30-minute episodes from 1997 to 1998, following the cast of the first game. A second OVA series, The Radiant Gorgeous Blooming Cherry Blossoms, was released as six 30-minute episodes from 1999 to 2000, relating side stories from between Sakura Wars and the end of Thou Shalt Not Die. Further OVA series based around the characters of Is Paris Burning? and So Long, My Love (École de Paris; Le Nouveau Paris; Sumire; New York, New York) were released from 2003 to 2007. The OVAs were produced by Radix Ace Entertainment until New York, New York in 2007, when production shifted by Anime International Company. An anime television series based on the first game was produced by Madhouse. The 25-episode series was broadcast on Tokyo Broadcasting System Television from April 8 to September 23, 2000. While based on the first game's narrative and preserving Hiroi's vision, the series changed and added in several events. A major problem was remaining faithful to the source material within a TV format. In 2001, an animated theatrical film, Sakura Wars: The Movie, was released. The film takes place between Is Paris Burning? and Fall in Love, Maidens and features new character Ratchet Altair who would later appear in So Long, My Love. The film was animated by Production I.G; production took three years and was inspired by the wish to expand the series animation beyond what the short cutscenes and OVA projects had achieved. A second anime television series, titled Sakura Wars the Animation and serving as a sequel to the 2019 Sakura Wars, premiered on April 3, 2020. It is animated by Sanzigen, which helped create the animated sequences for the game. In North America, the first two OVA series and the television series were localised by ADV Films. École de Paris and Sumire were dubbed and released by Funimation, The film was released in North America by Pioneer Entertainment in 2003, and later by Funimation in 2013. Funimation is streaming the 2020 anime for a simulcast release in North America and the United Kingdom. See also List of Sega video game franchises List of Japanese role-playing game franchises References Citations Notes Bibliography External links ADV Films Anime OVAs Alternate history video games Bishōjo games CloverWorks Dating sims Video games about demons Dengeki Bunko Dreamcast games Funimation Harem anime and manga Japan-exclusive video games Mecha anime and manga Video games about mecha PlayStation 2 games PlayStation Portable games Production I.G Red Entertainment games Sega Games franchises Sega video games Sega Saturn games Steampunk video games Video game franchises Video game franchises introduced in 1996 Video games set in the 1920s Tactical role-playing video games by series Shueisha manga	[ -0.3336232304573059, -0.34837856888771057, -0.16530536115169525, 0.1024765819311142, -0.8746771812438965, 0.16419321298599243, 0.2236650139093399, -0.35277771949768066, 0.21257485449314117, -0.10336849838495255, -0.7992602586746216, -0.17634738981723785, -0.016334395855665207, 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253111	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET	ARPANET	The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first wide-area packet-switched network with distributed control and one of the first networks to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite. Both technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet. The ARPANET was established by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United States Department of Defense. Building on the ideas of J. C. R. Licklider, Bob Taylor initiated the ARPANET project in 1966 to enable access to remote computers. Taylor appointed Larry Roberts as program manager. Roberts made the key decisions about the network design. He incorporated Donald Davies’ concepts and designs for packet switching, and sought input from Paul Baran. ARPA awarded the contract to build the network to Bolt Beranek & Newman who developed the first protocol for the network. Roberts engaged Leonard Kleinrock at UCLA to develop mathematical methods for analyzing the packet network technology. The first computers were connected in 1969 and the Network Control Program was implemented in 1970. The network was declared operational in 1971. Further software development enabled remote login, file transfer and email. The network expanded rapidly and operational control passed to the Defense Communications Agency in 1975. Internetworking research in the early 1970s led by Bob Kahn at DARPA and Vint Cerf at Stanford University and later DARPA formulated the Transmission Control Program, which incorporated concepts from the French CYCLADES project. As this work progressed, a protocol was developed by which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks. Version 4 of TCP/IP was installed in the ARPANET for production use in January 1983 after the Department of Defense made it standard for all military computer networking. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981, when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In the early 1980s, the NSF funded the establishment of national supercomputing centers at several universities, and provided network access and network interconnectivity with the NSFNET project in 1986. The ARPANET was formally decommissioned in 1990, after partnerships with the telecommunication and computer industry had assured private sector expansion and future commercialization of an expanded world-wide network, known as the Internet. History Inspiration Historically, voice and data communications were based on methods of circuit switching, as exemplified in the traditional telephone network, wherein each telephone call is allocated a dedicated, end to end, electronic connection between the two communicating stations. The connection is established by switching systems that connected multiple intermediate call legs between these systems for the duration of the call. The traditional model of the circuit-switched telecommunication network was challenged in the early 1960s by Paul Baran at the RAND Corporation, who had been researching systems that could sustain operation during partial destruction, such as by nuclear war. He developed the theoretical model of distributed adaptive message block switching. However, the telecommunication establishment rejected the development in favor of existing models. Donald Davies at the United Kingdom's National Physical Laboratory (NPL) independently arrived at a similar concept in 1965. The earliest ideas for a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users were formulated by computer scientist J. C. R. Licklider of Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN), in April 1963, in memoranda discussing the concept of the "Intergalactic Computer Network". Those ideas encompassed many of the features of the contemporary Internet. In October 1963, Licklider was appointed head of the Behavioral Sciences and Command and Control programs at the Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). He convinced Ivan Sutherland and Bob Taylor that this network concept was very important and merited development, although Licklider left ARPA before any contracts were assigned for development. Sutherland and Taylor continued their interest in creating the network, in part, to allow ARPA-sponsored researchers at various corporate and academic locales to utilize computers provided by ARPA, and, in part, to quickly distribute new software and other computer science results. Taylor had three computer terminals in his office, each connected to separate computers, which ARPA was funding: one for the System Development Corporation (SDC) Q-32 in Santa Monica, one for Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley, and another for Multics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Taylor recalls the circumstance: "For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So, if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C., and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley, or M.I.T., about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. I said, "Oh Man!", it's obvious what to do: If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go. That idea is the ARPANET". Donald Davies' work caught the attention of ARPANET developers at Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in October 1967. He gave the first public presentation, having coined the term packet switching, in August 1968 and incorporated it into the NPL network in England. The NPL network and ARPANET were the first two networks in the world to use packet switching, and were themselves interconnected in 1973. Roberts said the ARPANET and other packet switching networks built in the 1970s were similar "in nearly all respects" to Davies' original 1965 design. Creation In February 1966, Bob Taylor successfully lobbied ARPA's Director Charles M. Herzfeld to fund a network project. Herzfeld redirected funds in the amount of one million dollars from a ballistic missile defense program to Taylor's budget. Taylor hired Larry Roberts as a program manager in the ARPA Information Processing Techniques Office in January 1967 to work on the ARPANET. Roberts asked Frank Westervelt to explore the initial design questions for a network. In April 1967, ARPA held a design session on technical standards. The initial standards for identification and authentication of users, transmission of characters, and error checking and retransmission procedures were discussed. Roberts' proposal was that all mainframe computers would connect to one another directly. The other investigators were reluctant to dedicate these computing resources to network administration. Wesley Clark proposed minicomputers should be used as an interface to create a message switching network. Roberts modified the ARPANET plan to incorporate Clark's suggestion and named the minicomputers Interface Message Processors (IMPs). The plan was presented at the inaugural Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in October 1967. Donald Davies' work on packet switching and the NPL network, presented by a colleague (Roger Scantlebury), came to the attention of the ARPA investigators at this conference. Roberts applied Davies' concept of packet switching for the ARPANET, and sought input from Paul Baran. The NPL network was using line speeds of 768 kbit/s, and the proposed line speed for the ARPANET was upgraded from 2.4 kbit/s to 50 kbit/s. By mid-1968, Roberts and Barry Wessler wrote a final version of the IMP specification based on a Stanford Research Institute (SRI) report that ARPA commissioned to write detailed specifications describing the ARPANET communications network. Roberts gave a report to Taylor on 3 June, who approved it on 21 June. After approval by ARPA, a Request for Quotation (RFQ) was issued for 140 potential bidders. Most computer science companies regarded the ARPA proposal as outlandish, and only twelve submitted bids to build a network; of the twelve, ARPA regarded only four as top-rank contractors. At year's end, ARPA considered only two contractors, and awarded the contract to build the network to Bolt, Beranek and Newman Inc. (BBN) on 7 April 1969. The initial, seven-person BBN team were much aided by the technical specificity of their response to the ARPA RFQ, and thus quickly produced the first working system. This team was led by Frank Heart and included Robert Kahn. The BBN-proposed network closely followed Roberts' ARPA plan: a network composed of small computers called Interface Message Processors (or IMPs), similar to the later concept of routers, that functioned as gateways interconnecting local resources. At each site, the IMPs performed store-and-forward packet switching functions, and were interconnected with leased lines via telecommunication data sets (modems), with initial data rates of . The host computers were connected to the IMPs via custom serial communication interfaces. The system, including the hardware and the packet switching software, was designed and installed in nine months. The BBN team continued to interact with the NPL team with meetings between them taking place in the U.S. and the U.K. The first-generation IMPs were built by BBN Technologies using a rugged computer version of the Honeywell DDP-516 computer, configured with of expandable magnetic-core memory, and a 16-channel Direct Multiplex Control (DMC) direct memory access unit. The DMC established custom interfaces with each of the host computers and modems. In addition to the front-panel lamps, the DDP-516 computer also features a special set of 24 indicator lamps showing the status of the IMP communication channels. Each IMP could support up to four local hosts, and could communicate with up to six remote IMPs via early Digital Signal 0 leased telephone lines. The network connected one computer in Utah with three in California. Later, the Department of Defense allowed the universities to join the network for sharing hardware and software resources. Debate on design goals According to Charles Herzfeld, ARPA Director (1965–1967): Nonetheless, according to Stephen J. Lukasik, who as Deputy Director (1967–1970) and Director of DARPA (1970–1975) was "the person who signed most of the checks for Arpanet's development": The ARPANET incorporated distributed computation, and frequent re-computation, of routing tables. This increased the survivability of the network in the face of significant interruption. Automatic routing was technically challenging at the time. The ARPANET was designed to survive subordinate-network losses, since the principal reason was that the switching nodes and network links were unreliable, even without any nuclear attacks. The Internet Society agrees with Herzfeld in a footnote in their online article, A Brief History of the Internet: Paul Baran, the first to put forward a theoretical model for communication using packet switching, conducted the RAND study referenced above. Though the ARPANET did not exactly share Baran's project's goal, he said his work did contribute to the development of the ARPANET. Minutes taken by Elmer Shapiro of Stanford Research Institute at the ARPANET design meeting of 9–10 October 1967 indicate that a version of Baran's routing method ("hot potato") may be used, consistent with the NPL team's proposal at the Symposium on Operating System Principles in Gatlinburg. Implementation The first four nodes were designated as a testbed for developing and debugging the 1822 protocol, which was a major undertaking. While they were connected electronically in 1969, network applications were not possible until the Network Control Program was implemented in 1970 enabling the first two host-host protocols, remote login (Telnet) and file transfer (FTP) which were specified and implemented between 1969 and 1973. The network was declared operational in 1971. Network traffic began to grow once email was established at the majority of sites by around 1973. Initial four hosts The first four IMPs were: University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where Leonard Kleinrock had established a Network Measurement Center, with an SDS Sigma 7 being the first computer attached to it; The Augmentation Research Center at Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International), where Douglas Engelbart had created the new NLS system, an early hypertext system, and would run the Network Information Center (NIC), with the SDS 940 that ran NLS, named "Genie", being the first host attached; University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), with the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center's IBM 360/75, running OS/MVT being the machine attached; The University of Utah School of Computing, where Ivan Sutherland had moved, running a DEC PDP-10 operating on TENEX. The first successful host to host connection on the ARPANET was made between Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and UCLA, by SRI programmer Bill Duvall and UCLA student programmer Charley Kline, at 10:30 pm PST on 29 October 1969 (6:30 UTC on 30 October 1969). Kline connected from UCLA's SDS Sigma 7 Host computer (in Boelter Hall room 3420) to the Stanford Research Institute's SDS 940 Host computer. Kline typed the command "login," but initially the SDS 940 crashed after he typed two characters. About an hour later, after Duvall adjusted parameters on the machine, Kline tried again and successfully logged in. Hence, the first two characters successfully transmitted over the ARPANET were "lo". The first permanent ARPANET link was established on 21 November 1969, between the IMP at UCLA and the IMP at the Stanford Research Institute. By 5 December 1969, the initial four-node network was established. Elizabeth Feinler created the first Resource Handbook for ARPANET in 1969 which led to the development of the ARPANET directory. The directory, built by Feinler and a team made it possible to navigate the ARPANET. Growth and evolution Roberts engaged Howard Frank to consult on the topological design of the network. Frank made recommendations to increase throughput and reduce costs in a scaled-up network. By March 1970, the ARPANET reached the East Coast of the United States, when an IMP at BBN in Cambridge, Massachusetts was connected to the network. Thereafter, the ARPANET grew: 9 IMPs by June 1970 and 13 IMPs by December 1970, then 18 by September 1971 (when the network included 23 university and government hosts); 29 IMPs by August 1972, and 40 by September 1973. By June 1974, there were 46 IMPs, and in July 1975, the network numbered 57 IMPs. By 1981, the number was 213 host computers, with another host connecting approximately every twenty days. Support for inter-IMP circuits of up to 230.4 kbit/s was added in 1970, although considerations of cost and IMP processing power meant this capability was not actively used. Larry Roberts saw the ARPANET and NPL projects as complementary and sought in 1970 to connect them via a satellite link. Peter Kirstein's research group at University College London (UCL) was subsequently chosen in 1971 in place of NPL for the UK connection. In June 1973, a transatlantic satellite link connected ARPANET to the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR), via the Tanum Earth Station in Sweden, and onward via a terrestrial circuit to a TIP at UCL. UCL provided a gateway for an interconnection with the NPL network, the first interconnected network, and subsequently the SRCnet, the forerunner of UK's JANET network. 1971 saw the start of the use of the non-ruggedized (and therefore significantly lighter) Honeywell 316 as an IMP. It could also be configured as a Terminal Interface Processor (TIP), which provided terminal server support for up to 63 ASCII serial terminals through a multi-line controller in place of one of the hosts. The 316 featured a greater degree of integration than the 516, which made it less expensive and easier to maintain. The 316 was configured with 40 kB of core memory for a TIP. The size of core memory was later increased, to 32 kB for the IMPs, and 56 kB for TIPs, in 1973. In 1975, BBN introduced IMP software running on the Pluribus multi-processor. These appeared in a few sites. In 1981, BBN introduced IMP software running on its own C/30 processor product. Network performance In 1968, Roberts contracted with Kleinrock to measure the performance of the network and find areas for improvement. Building on his earlier work on queueing theory, Kleinrock specified mathematical models of the performance of packet-switched networks, which underpinned the development of the ARPANET as it expanded rapidly in the early 1970s. Operation The ARPANET was a research project that was communications-oriented, rather than user-oriented in design. Nonetheless, in the summer of 1975, the ARPANET was declared "operational". The Defense Communications Agency took control since ARPA was intended to fund advanced research. At about this time, the first ARPANET encryption devices were deployed to support classified traffic. The transatlantic connectivity with NORSAR and UCL later evolved into the SATNET. The ARPANET, SATNET and PRNET were interconnected in 1977. The ARPANET Completion Report, published in 1981 jointly by BBN and ARPA, concludes that: CSNET, expansion Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981, when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). Adoption of TCP/IP The DoD made TCP/IP standard for all military computer networking in 1980. NORSAR and University College London left the ARPANET and began using TCP/IP over SATNET in early 1982. On January 1, 1983, known as flag day, TCP/IP protocols became the standard for the ARPANET, replacing the earlier Network Control Program. MILNET, phasing out In September 1984 work was completed on restructuring the ARPANET giving U.S. military sites their own Military Network (MILNET) for unclassified defense department communications. Both networks carried unclassified information, and were connected at a small number of controlled gateways which would allow total separation in the event of an emergency. MILNET was part of the Defense Data Network (DDN). Separating the civil and military networks reduced the 113-node ARPANET by 68 nodes. After MILNET was split away, the ARPANET would continue be used as an Internet backbone for researchers, but be slowly phased out. Decommissioning In 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the establishment of national supercomputing centers at several universities, and provided network access and network interconnectivity with the NSFNET project in 1986. NSFNET became the Internet backbone for government agencies and universities. The ARPANET project was formally decommissioned in 1990. The original IMPs and TIPs were phased out as the ARPANET was shut down after the introduction of the NSFNet, but some IMPs remained in service as late as July 1990. In the wake of the decommissioning of the ARPANET on 28 February 1990, Vinton Cerf wrote the following lamentation, entitled "Requiem of the ARPANET": Legacy The ARPANET was related to many other research projects, which either influenced the ARPANET design, or which were ancillary projects or spun out of the ARPANET. Senator Al Gore authored the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, commonly referred to as "The Gore Bill", after hearing the 1988 concept for a National Research Network submitted to Congress by a group chaired by Leonard Kleinrock. The bill was passed on 9 December 1991 and led to the National Information Infrastructure (NII) which Gore called the information superhighway. Inter-networking protocols developed by ARPA and implemented on the ARPANET paved the way for future commercialization of a new world-wide network, known as the Internet. The ARPANET project was honored with two IEEE Milestones, both dedicated in 2009. Software and protocols IMP functionality Because it was never a goal for the ARPANET to support IMPs from vendors other than BBN, the IMP-to-IMP protocol and message format were not standardized. However, the IMPs did nonetheless communicate amongst themselves to perform link-state routing, to do reliable forwarding of messages, and to provide remote monitoring and management functions to ARPANET's Network Control Center. Initially, each IMP had a 6-bit identifier, and supported up to 4 hosts, which were identified with a 2-bit index. An ARPANET host address, therefore, consisted of both the port index on its IMP and the identifier of the IMP, which was written with either port/IMP notation or as a single byte; for example, the address of MIT-DMG (notable for hosting development of Zork) could be written as either 1/6 or 70. An upgrade in early 1976 extended the host and IMP numbering to 8-bit and 16-bit, respectively. In addition to primary routing and forwarding responsibilities, the IMP ran several background programs, titled TTY, DEBUG, PARAMETER-CHANGE, DISCARD, TRACE, and STATISTICS. These were given host numbers in order to be addressed directly and provided functions independently of any connected host. For example, "TTY" allowed an on-site operator to send ARPANET packets manually via the teletype connected directly to the IMP. 1822 protocol The starting point for host-to-host communication on the ARPANET in 1969 was the 1822 protocol, which defined the transmission of messages to an IMP. The message format was designed to work unambiguously with a broad range of computer architectures. An 1822 message essentially consisted of a message type, a numeric host address, and a data field. To send a data message to another host, the transmitting host formatted a data message containing the destination host's address and the data message being sent, and then transmitted the message through the 1822 hardware interface. The IMP then delivered the message to its destination address, either by delivering it to a locally connected host, or by delivering it to another IMP. When the message was ultimately delivered to the destination host, the receiving IMP would transmit a Ready for Next Message (RFNM) acknowledgement to the sending, host IMP. Network Control Program Unlike modern Internet datagrams, the ARPANET was designed to reliably transmit 1822 messages, and to inform the host computer when it loses a message; the contemporary IP is unreliable, whereas the TCP is reliable. Nonetheless, the 1822 protocol proved inadequate for handling multiple connections among different applications residing in a host computer. This problem was addressed with the Network Control Program (NCP), which provided a standard method to establish reliable, flow-controlled, bidirectional communications links among different processes in different host computers. The NCP interface allowed application software to connect across the ARPANET by implementing higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the protocol layering concept later incorporated in the OSI model. NCP was developed under the leadership of Stephen D. Crocker, then a graduate student at UCLA. Crocker created and led the Network Working Group (NWG) which was made up of a collection of graduate students at universities and research laboratories sponsored by ARPA to carry out the development of the ARPANET and the software for the host computers that supported applications. The various application protocols such as TELNET for remote time-sharing access, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and rudimentary electronic mail protocols were developed and eventually ported to run over the TCP/IP protocol suite or replaced in the case of email by the Simple Mail Transport Protocol. TCP/IP Steve Crocker formed a "Networking Working Group" in 1969 with Vint Cerf, who also joined an International Networking Working Group in 1972. These groups considered how to interconnect packet switching networks with different specifications, that is, internetworking. Stephen J. Lukasik directed DARPA to focus on internetworking research in the early 1970s. Research led by Bob Kahn at DARPA and Vint Cerf at Stanford University and later DARPA resulted in the formulation of the Transmission Control Program, which incorporated concepts from the French CYCLADES project directed by Louis Pouzin. Its specification was written by Cerf with Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine in December 1974 (). The following year, testing began through concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN and University College London. At first a monolithic design, the software was redesigned as a modular protocol stack in version 3 in 1978. Version 4 was installed in the ARPANET for production use in January 1983, replacing NCP. The development of the complete Internet protocol suite by 1989, as outlined in and , and partnerships with the telecommunication and computer industry laid the foundation for the adoption of TCP/IP as a comprehensive protocol suite as the core component of the emerging Internet. Network applications NCP provided a standard set of network services that could be shared by several applications running on a single host computer. This led to the evolution of application protocols that operated, more or less, independently of the underlying network service, and permitted independent advances in the underlying protocols. Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 855. The original specification for the File Transfer Protocol was written by Abhay Bhushan and published as on 16 April 1971. By 1973, the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) specification had been defined () and implemented, enabling file transfers over the ARPANET. In 1971, Ray Tomlinson, of BBN sent the first network e-mail (, ). Within a few years, e-mail came to represent a very large part of the overall ARPANET traffic. The Network Voice Protocol (NVP) specifications were defined in 1977 (), and implemented. But, because of technical shortcomings, conference calls over the ARPANET never worked well; the contemporary Voice over Internet Protocol (packet voice) was decades away. Password protection The Purdy Polynomial hash algorithm was developed for the ARPANET to protect passwords in 1971 at the request of Larry Roberts, head of ARPA at that time. It computed a polynomial of degree 224 + 17 modulo the 64-bit prime p = 264 − 59. The algorithm was later used by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) to hash passwords in the VMS operating system and is still being used for this purpose. Rules and etiquette Because of its government funding, certain forms of traffic were discouraged or prohibited. Leonard Kleinrock claims to have committed the first illegal act on the Internet, having sent a request for return of his electric razor after a meeting in England in 1973. At the time, use of the ARPANET for personal reasons was unlawful. In 1978, against the rules of the network, Gary Thuerk of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) sent out the first mass email to approximately 400 potential clients via the ARPANET. He claims that this resulted in $13 million worth of sales in DEC products, and highlighted the potential of email marketing. A 1982 handbook on computing at MIT's AI Lab stated regarding network etiquette: In popular culture Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing, a 30-minute documentary film featuring Fernando J. Corbató, J. C. R. Licklider, Lawrence G. Roberts, Robert Kahn, Frank Heart, William R. Sutherland, Richard W. Watson, John R. Pasta, Donald W. Davies, and economist, George W. Mitchell. "Scenario", an episode of the U.S. television sitcom Benson (season 6, episode 20—dated February 1985), was the first incidence of a popular TV show directly referencing the Internet or its progenitors. The show includes a scene in which the ARPANET is accessed. There is an electronic music artist known as "Arpanet", Gerald Donald, one of the members of Drexciya. The artist's 2002 album Wireless Internet features commentary on the expansion of the internet via wireless communication, with songs such as NTT DoCoMo, dedicated to the mobile communications giant based in Japan. Thomas Pynchon mentions the ARPANET in his 2009 novel Inherent Vice, which is set in Los Angeles in 1970, and in his 2013 novel Bleeding Edge. The 1993 television series The X-Files featured the ARPANET in a season 5 episode, titled "Unusual Suspects". John Fitzgerald Byers offers to help Susan Modeski (known as Holly ... "just like the sugar") by hacking into the ARPANET to obtain sensitive information. In the spy-drama television series The Americans, a Russian scientist defector offers access to ARPANET to the Russians in a plea to not be repatriated (Season 2 Episode 5 "The Deal"). Episode 7 of Season 2 is named 'ARPANET' and features Russian infiltration to bug the network. In the television series Person of Interest, main character Harold Finch hacked the ARPANET in 1980 using a homemade computer during his first efforts to build a prototype of the Machine. This corresponds with the real life virus that occurred in October of that year that temporarily halted ARPANET functions. The ARPANET hack was first discussed in the episode 2PiR (stylised 2R) where a computer science teacher called it the most famous hack in history and one that was never solved. Finch later mentioned it to Person of Interest Caleb Phipps and his role was first indicated when he showed knowledge that it was done by "a kid with a homemade computer" which Phipps, who had researched the hack, had never heard before. In the third season of the television series Halt and Catch Fire, the character Joe MacMillan explores the potential commercialization of the ARPANET. See also .arpa, a top-level domain used exclusively for technical infrastructure purposes Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing—1972 documentary film History of the Internet List of Internet pioneers Usenet, "A Poor Man's ARPAnet" OGAS References Sources Further reading Oral histories Focuses on Kahn's role in the development of computer networking from 1967 through the early 1980s. Beginning with his work at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN), Kahn discusses his involvement as the ARPANET proposal was being written and then implemented, and his role in the public demonstration of the ARPANET. The interview continues into Kahn's involvement with networking when he moves to IPTO in 1972, where he was responsible for the administrative and technical evolution of the ARPANET, including programs in packet radio, the development of a new network protocol (TCP/IP), and the switch to TCP/IP to connect multiple networks. Cerf describes his involvement with the ARPA network, and his relationships with Bolt Beranek and Newman, Robert Kahn, Lawrence Roberts, and the Network Working Group. Baran describes his work at RAND, and discusses his interaction with the group at ARPA who were responsible for the later development of the ARPANET. Kleinrock discusses his work on the ARPANET. Lukasik discusses his tenure at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the development of computer networks and the ARPANET. Frank describes his work on the ARPANET, including his interaction with Roberts and the IPT Office. Detailed technical reference works NTIS documents may be available from External links Timeline. 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253113	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fancy%20Lala	Fancy Lala	Fancy Lala, known in Japan as is a magical girl anime series produced by Studio Pierrot in 1998, following an OVA released in 1988. A two-volume manga adaptation by Rurika Kasuga ran in Ribon. The original designs were created by Akemi Takada, who worked on many of the 80s' Studio Pierrot series. The anime series was licensed for English release by Bandai Entertainment with a dub produced in Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta, Canada by Blue Water Studios. Plot summary One day, a 9-year-old elementary schoolgirl named Miho Shinohara is given two stuffed dinosaurs by a unnamed stranger. The stuffed dinosaurs come to life and they present her with a magic sketchbook and pen. Within limits, and subject to varying degrees of control, she can draw in the sketchbook and bring the drawings to life. Miho can also transform into a teenage girl, whom she names Fancy Lala. One day, Lala is scouted by Yumi Haneishi, the president of the talent agency Lyrical Productions, and begins the long road to stardom. Characters Main cast / A 9-year-old elementary school girl, Miho dreams of one day drawing manga as a career. After Mystery Man gives her Pigu and Mogu, they in turn give her a magical pen and sketchbook, which allow her to transform into a 15-year-old girl who she names Fancy Lala. Fancy Lala is scouted by Yumi Haneishi of Lyrical Productions, and gradually follows the path to stardom though her parents nor sister knows about this. Voiced by: Michiko Neya (Japanese), Chris Simms (English) A small pink dinosaur who accompanies Miho Shinohara. Mogu is a girl. A small blue dinosaur who accompanies Miho Shinohara. Pigu is a boy. A mysterious person who gave Miho Shinohara Pigu and Mogu. He often advises Miho/Fancy Lala; his name is never mentioned in the series. A popular idol who happens to be very attractive, Hiroya is Miho Shinohara's love-interest, and Fancy Lala's mentor at Lyrical Productions. The president of Lyrical Productions, who represent Fancy Lala. She was once married to Kishi, the guitarist of Hiroya Aikawa's band but the two ended up getting divorced, and has a son named Tappei, who attends kindergarten. (Japanese) An employee at Lyrical Productions, and Fancy Lala's manager. Miho's classmate and next door neighbor, they often fight (often like an old married couple), but he cares about her deeply. He is also the cousin of Miki Yumeno. He seems to have a romantic interest in Miho, however he doesn't know that Miho has a crush on Hiroya. A popular idol, Miki is Fancy Lala's main rival. She is also the cousin of Taro Yoshida, Miho's male classmate from school. Supporting cast Miho Shinohara's teacher. An employee at Lyrical Productions. Komiyama is Fancy Lala's stylist. It is hinted in the last episode that he knows more about what is going on than meets the eye. (Japanese) A classmate of Miho Shinohara. Miho Shinohara's older sister. She's also a freshman in high school and her uniform consists of a white sailor collared shirt with a green collar, a red ribbon and a grey pleated skirt. Miho Shinohara's mother, she works as a TV producer, and is often away from home. Miho Shinohara's father, he works as a paleontologist, and mostly works at home. An employee at Lyrical Productions. Miho Shinohara's classmate, and closest friend, she dreams of becoming an actress. Production Fancy Lala is a complete remake of an earlier Studio Pierrot OVA titled Harbor Light Story Fashion Lala Yori. It was also influenced by Mahō no Tenshi Creamy Mami, the story of a ten-year-old Japanese girl granted the power to transform who also became an idol. Harbor Light Story Fashion Lala Yori The original OVA was very different than the final series, being a retelling of Cinderella. In it, the heroine, Miho, a little girl who dreams of being a fashion designer, lives with her aunt and three cousins while her father is away on business. The aunt, who runs a dress shop, exploits Miho's dependence and makes her perform deliveries on her bike, while spoiling her own daughters. Of the three, the two oldest are cruel and mock Miho's dreams, but the youngest is nice to her. A local disco is holding a contest to find the next "Disco Queen." Miho is too young to enter, but decides to design a dress for her cousin. When the aunt finds out, she rips up the dress. After everyone leaves, two fairies take pity on Miho and transform her into "Fashion Lala," a sixteen-year-old blonde, so she can enter the contest herself. While performing, Miho's outfit changes into her previous designs, and it seems that she wins. At the end, she returns to a happy life with her father. The heroine being named Miho and the two fairies, as well as the concept of an "evil cousin", were the only things retained for the final series. Episode list Internationalization Fancy Lala was licensed by Bandai Entertainment for English release in 2001, and dubbed at Blue Water Studios. The series has been released on DVD, but is only distributed in region 1 outside Japan. References External links Magical Girl series site at Studio Pierrot 1988 anime OVAs 1998 anime television series debuts 1998 manga Bandai Entertainment anime titles Bandai Visual Magical girl anime and manga Music in anime and manga Pierrot (company) Shōjo manga Shueisha manga Japanese idols in anime and manga	[ -0.34316036105155945, -0.5239184498786926, 0.3807281255722046, 0.17154698073863983, -0.4373096823692322, 0.08648216724395752, 0.29515784978866577, -0.08932795375585556, -0.3359391987323761, 0.20788122713565826, -0.565265417098999, -0.13211043179035187, 0.04211388900876045, 0.2638024687767029, -0.5619753003120422, 0.007286818698048592, 0.6518370509147644, 0.53859943151474, -0.12109564989805222, -0.7749335765838623, -0.11498866230249405, -0.1442354917526245, 0.23054559528827667, -0.369060754776001, 0.020450817421078682, 0.054101161658763885, 0.2995809316635132, 0.897384524345398, 0.6936336755752563, -0.05343442037701607, -0.020422514528036118, 0.2920215427875519, 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253116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Francisco%20Municipal%20Railway	San Francisco Municipal Railway	The San Francisco Municipal Railway (SF Muni or Muni) is the public transit system for the City and County of San Francisco. Despite the name, the network has 54 bus lines and 17 trolleybus lines, in addition to seven light rail lines (called Muni Metro) that operate above ground and in the city's lone subway tube, three historic cable car lines, and two historic streetcar lines. Muni is an integral part of transportation in the San Francisco Bay Area, operating 365 days a year and connecting with other regional transportation services, such as Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) and Caltrain commuter trains, along with AC Transit, Golden Gate Transit and SamTrans buses, and ferries from Golden Gate Ferries and San Francisco Bay Ferry. In 2018, Muni served with an operating budget of about $1.2 billion. In ridership terms, Muni is the seventh-largest transit system in the United States, with 210,848,310 rides in 2006 and the second largest in California behind the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority. With a fleet average speed of , it is the slowest major urban transit system in America and one of the most expensive to operate, costing $19.21 per mile per bus and $24.37 per mile per train. However, it has more boardings per mile and more vehicles in operation than similar transit agencies. Operations Most bus lines are scheduled to operate every five to fifteen minutes during peak hours, every five to twenty minutes middays, about every ten to twenty minutes from 9 pm to midnight, and roughly every half-hour for the late night "owl" routes. On weekends, most Muni bus lines are scheduled to run every ten to twenty minutes. However, complaints of unreliability, especially on less-often-served lines and older (pre-battery backup) trolleybus lines, are a system-wide problem. Muni has had some difficulty meeting a stated goal of 85% voter-demanded on-time service. All Muni lines run inside San Francisco city limits, with the exception of several lines serving locations in the northern part of neighboring Daly City, and the 76X Marin Headlands Express line to the Marin Headlands area on weekends and major holidays. Most intercity connections are provided by BART and Caltrain heavy rail, AC Transit buses at the Transbay Transit Center, and Golden Gate Transit and SamTrans downtown. Bus and car stops throughout the city vary from Metro stations with raised platforms in the subway and at the more heavily used surface stops, to small shelters to signposts to simply a yellow stripe on a utility pole or on the road surface. 70% of stops are spaced closer than recommended range of apart. Name and logo Muni is short for the "Municipal" in "San Francisco Municipal Railway" and is not an acronym; thus, when it is written in plain text, only Muni (not MUNI) is correct. The Muni metro is often called "the train" or "the streetcar." Most San Francisco natives use 'Muni' when speaking about the system (Metro & buses) in general. The E Embarcadero and F Market & Wharves lines are referred to by Muni as a "historic streetcar line" rather than as a "heritage railway." Muni's logo is a stylized, trademarked "worm" version of the word muni. This logo was designed by San Francisco-based graphic designer Walter Landor in the mid-1970s. Route names Bus and trolleybus lines have number designations, rail lines have letters and the three cable car lines are typically referred to by name only (Powell-Mason, Powell-Hyde and California). Fares Except for cable cars, cash fares are $3.00 for adults; $1.50 for seniors over 65, youth aged 5–18, people with disabilities, and Medicare card holders; and free for low- and moderate-income seniors, youth aged 5–18, people with disabilities residing in San Francisco, and up to three kids under 5 per adult. Clipper card and MuniMobile fares are $2.50 for adults and $1.25 for seniors, youth, and people with disabilities. Proof-of-payment, which fare inspectors may demand at any time, is either a Clipper card, MuniMobile, Muni Passport, or paper transfer. One fare entitles a rider to unlimited vehicle transfers for the next 120 minutes. Cable cars are $8 one way, with no transfers, unless the rider has a Muni Passport or a Muni monthly pass. As of July 2019 monthly passes cost $81 for adults ($98 with BART privileges within city limits), $40 for low-income residents ("Life Line Pass"), or $40 for youth, seniors and the disabled. Passes are valid on all Muni lines—including cable cars—and the $98 adult pass allows BART transit entirely within San Francisco (between Embarcadero and Balboa Park). Other passes and stickers are valid on all Muni lines, including cable cars, but not on BART (with the exception of BART-Plus ticket types). Cable car fare is $8 per trip, with no transfers issued or accepted. "Passports" are folding scratch-off passes that can be purchased by mail, or at various places throughout the city; they are good on all regular-service lines without surcharge, including cable cars. As of September 2018, Passports cost $23 for a 1-day pass, $34 for a 3-day pass, or $45 for a 7-day pass, with discounts for using Clipper card or MuniMobile. Muni has implemented a dual-mode smart card payment system known as Clipper (formerly TransLink). The transponders have been in use since at least 2004, and replaced most paper monthly passes in 2010. BART, Caltrain, Golden Gate Transit, VTA, AC Transit, SamTrans, SMART and San Francisco Bay Ferry also utilize the Clipper system. Fares can also be paid with a mobile app called MuniMobile since 2015. The app is developed by moovel, who have built mobile ticketing apps for a number of other transit agencies such as Caltrain and TriMet. The app is planned to be deployed until around 2021 when the next generation Clipper card mobile app is planned to launch and replace agency-specific ticketing apps. Special service Muni operates 14 express lines, 5 Rapid lines, and 12 Owl lines, which run between 1 am and 5 am. For San Francisco Giants games, additional "baseball shuttles" supplement N Judah and T Third service to Oracle Park. Express lines only run during peak hours; during mornings they run towards downtown (the Financial District) and during the evening they run away from downtown. All express lines have an "X", "AX", or "BX" following the line's number. Some lines are divided into A and B Expresses. The B Express line is shorter and has stops that are closer to downtown, while the A Express makes stops further away from downtown and will make few or no stops in the area where the B Express stops. The 8 Bayshore, as the 8X Bayshore Express, was the only Express route that ran daily until April 25, 2015, the date where it is no longer an Express route. Rapid lines (having an R following their route number) are limited-stop services. They stop at only a subset of the stops of their corresponding "standard" linetypically every third stop and at transfer points. Cable car system Muni also operates the San Francisco cable car system, a heritage streetcar system descendant of a larger network of manually operated cable cars. The first city-owned line was acquired in 1906, although the current configuration is an amalgamation of several former lines and has operated as such since in 1952. The system was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964 and placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. Heritage streetcars Additionally, Muni operates two heritage streetcar lines distinct from the Muni Metro: the E Embarcadero and F Market & Wharves. Formerly run for the Historic Trolley Festival, in the 1980s, regular service of heritage equipment began in 1995. Streetcars do not utilize tunnel segments and the F line utilizes infrastructure optimized for trolleybuses along Market Street (the former routing of all downtown streetcar lines before the formation of Muni Metro). Statistics Muni operates about 1,100 vehicles: 500 diesel-electric hybrid buses, 300 electric trolleybuses, 250 modern light rail vehicles, 40 historic streetcars and 40 cable cars. All vehicles, except for cable cars, are wheelchair accessible. The electricity to run all of Muni's trolleybuses, light rail vehicles, streetcars, and the cable car powerhouse is comes from the hydroelectric dam at the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir in Yosemite National Park. All of Muni's current internal combustion buses use diesel-electric hybrid powertrains, fueled with renewable diesel fuel made from bio-feedstock sources, including fats, oils and greases. The combination of hybrid technology and renewable diesel fuel helps reduce fuel consumption and cut vehicle emissions. The longest Muni line is the a nighttime-only route that blends several other routes together, while the longest daytime route is the . The shortest route is the peak-hour only at , while the shortest off-peak route is the at . The steepest grade climbed by Muni vehicle is 23.1% by a diesel-electric hybrid bus on the line, 22.8% by a trolleybus on the line and 21% by a cable car on the Powell-Hyde line. The busiest Muni bus corridor is the Geary corridor. The two major routes that operate on the corridor, the and , travel in the east–west direction along the Geary corridor, and has an average speed of only , taking over 50 minutes to travel from the Richmond District to the Transbay Terminal when operating on schedule. As of 2015, the corridor has a total of 55,270 average daily boardings, making it the second busiest transit corridor west of the Mississippi after the Los Angeles Metro Wilshire transit corridor. At Powell and Market Streets and California and Market Streets, three types of rail gauges come within a few hundred feet of each other: Bay Area Rapid Transit's broad gauge (which is underground in the lower level of the tunnels), Muni Metro's (also underground in the upper level of the tunnels), and the San Francisco cable car system's narrow gauge (at street level a few hundred feet away to the north of Market Street in both cases). The F Market heritage railway, which is also standard gauge, is also present here, at street level on Market Street. The rail lines, however, do not physically intersect. Performance Residents and visitors to San Francisco often remark upon the inefficiency of SF Muni. In November 1999 San Francisco voters passed Proposition E setting standards for performance of having at least an 85% on-time record In July 2012 Muni vehicles were on-time 60% of the time and in August 2012, they were on-time 57% of the time. A report conducted by the San Francisco Municipal Transport Agency in early 2013 noted that Muni was on time only 58% of the time. It delayed its customers a total of 172,195 hours and reduced the city's economic activity by US$50 million per year. In 2013 the performance hit an all-time low of 57%, the on-time performance improved to 60% in January 2014, 60% in February 2014, and 60% in March 2014. As of 2019, performance continues to decline, with on-time percentage as follows: Governance Since the passage of Proposition E in November 1999, Muni has been part of the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency (SFMTA), a semi-independent city agency created by that ballot measure. The agency, into which Muni, the Department of Parking and Traffic, and the Taxicab Commission were merged, is governed by a seven-member Board of Directors appointed by the Mayor and confirmed by the Board of Supervisors. The acting Director of Transportation of the SFMTA since August 15, 2019 has been Thomas Maguire, appointed by the SFMTA Board as the interim replacement for Director of Transportation Edward Reiskin. On April 29, 2019, Director Reiskin announced that he would step down at the end of his contract in August 2019. On November 13, 2019, the agency announced that Jeffrey Tumlin would take over as the new director on December 16, 2019. The day-to-day operations of Muni are overseen by the Transit division of the SFMTA, which is currently headed by Director of Transit Julie Kirschbaum. History Early years Muni has its origins in the period following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Until then the city had been served by a number of commercial horsecar, cable car and electric streetcar operators. Many of these had been amalgamated into the United Railroads of San Francisco (URR) company. In 1909, voters approved a municipal rail line down Geary. Three years later in 1912, the city declined to renew the franchise that bestowed cable car operator Geary Street, Park & Ocean Railway the privilege of operating on Geary Street, and converted the line into a municipal electric streetcar line, the first line of Muni. In 1912, the average speed of the city's public transit was approximately 8.5 miles per hour – slightly faster than the average speed of 8.1 in 2007. Muni soon started on a large building program. On December 29, 1914, the new Stockton Street Tunnel under Nob Hill opened, allowing streetcars from downtown to go to North Beach and the new Marina District. On February 3, 1918, the Twin Peaks Tunnel opened, making the southwestern quarter of the city available for development. On October 21, 1928, the Sunset Tunnel opened, bringing the N Judah streetcar line to the Sunset District. These improvements plunged Muni into direct competition with the URR on the entire length of Market Street. The two operators each operated its own pair of tracks down that thoroughfare, which came to be known as the "roar of the four". 1940s: The first trolleybuses In 1941, Muni introduced its first trolleybus line, the R-Howard line. Trolleybuses had been running in San Francisco since 1935, but operated only by the Market Street Railway Company (MSRy), successor to the URR. By 1944, the MSR was in financial difficulties. Thus, at 5 am on September 29, 1944, Muni acquired its commercial competitor. Along with the routes and equipment, Muni adopted its competitor's more expensive seven-cent fare. Following national trends, Muni replaced most of its rail lines with trolleybus service in the succeeding decades. A few lines with dedicated rights-of-way (including those serving the Twin Peaks and Sunset tunnels) continued as rail lines running 1940s-era PCC streetcars through the 1970s. These lines became the foundation of the Muni Metro. During World War II, because male employees had been called to serve in the military, both MSRy and Muni hired female 'motorettes' and conductors, including poet and author Maya Angelou in 1943. 1970s and 1980s: Construction and reorganization In the 1950s and 1960s, the regional BART system was conceived as a much more extensive system than was eventually built, with plans for express trains through San Francisco and local service within San Francisco. Because it was assumed BART would provide local rail service, investment in Muni infrastructure failed to keep pace with major urban redevelopment projects. For example, BART was intended to provide Richmond district and Western Addition service as part of its Golden Gate Bridge/Marin line. This leaves a legacy of the inadequate 38-Geary bus serving these neighborhoods. Construction on BART's Market street tunnel started in 1967, with two decks tracks – the upper intended to provide local service. Major cost overruns in the BART project forced the state legislature to rescue the project in 1969: curtailing local service in San Francisco and converting the partially constructed stations into the basis of a new light-rail subway called the Muni Metro to connect the downtown stations to the Twin Peaks Tunnel and continuing along reserved tracks to St. Francis Circle. Construction on the metro began in 1970, but the project suffered from further cuts and design changes throughout the 1970s. The Muni Metro finally opened in February 1980, for one line (N-Judah), with other lines following later in 1980, but the many design compromises and piecemeal planning led to long-term operational challenges and inefficiencies. In 1970, Muni also suffered a severe diesel bus crisis. Muni experienced a diesel bus availability crisis in 1981–1982 when most of their diesel buses, 401 GMC and Flxible "New Looks" purchases in 1969, reached the end of their 12-year design life and funds for their replacement were not available. Most of the rest of the fleet were undersized 36-foot AM Generals purchased for neighborhood routes, and their use on heavier lines exacerbated conditions. The trolley bus fleet was in good order and had excess capacity at the time so Muni improvised a few temporary services with them to help out. One such service was a trolley 14-Limited that used the abandoned trolley overhead on South Van Ness. The diesel 82-Chinatown was replaced with short runs of the 30-Stockton. But the trolleys could only go where their wires went. Muni adopted some policies to alleviate future service issues due to an aged fleet. They would stagger bus purchases so not as large a portion of the fleet would hit retirement age at once. They would arrange for mid-life rebuilds to keep the buses more serviceable in their final years. And they would work to reduce the role of diesels in the total operation. Three trunk diesel lines were converted to trolley bus service in the next twelve years. But these efforts have not been as successful as hoped. Out of necessity most of the fleet, 330 standard bus equivalents out of 506, were replaced in just two years in 1985–1986. (Standard bus equivalents factor the 30-foot and 60-foot into their equivalent capacity in 40-foot buses). And seven years passed without any new buses coming on board before Muni started its next full diesel fleet replacement cycle in 1999. This was fourteen years after the previous cycle instead of the twelve years that buses are designed to last. Muni is now aware that they must expect to keep diesel buses past their design life and have also found that funds granted for mid-life rebuilds require that the buses be kept longer still. As the fleet replacement cycle begins again in 2013, Muni has arranged for life-extending rebuilds of 142 buses, by count over 30% of the fleet. In September 1982, the cable car system was shut down for 21 months for rebuilding, and there were massive line reorganizations as Muni restructured their route network to provide stronger cross-town services. In 1983, Muni temporarily ran streetcars down Market Street as part of the San Francisco Historic Trolley Festival, initially conceived of as a substitute attraction for tourists during the one summer when no cable cars would be in operation. The service became so popular that the festival was repeated for several years following. Anticipating the return of permanent streetcar service on Market Street, Muni began rehabilitating tracks in 1987, a process that culminated in the opening of the F line in 1995. The first modern Muni shelter was installed in front of the War Memorial Opera House in 1987. 1990s: the "Muni Meltdown" The F line was reintroduced in 1995 as a heritage streetcar service. Initially designed as a temporary tourist attraction to make up for the suspension of cable car service for rebuilding, the F has become a permanent fixture. E line service, initially known as the Muni Metro Extension, started in January 1998 initially as a shuttle between Embarcadero station and Caltrain's 4th and Townsend station. In June 1995, the San Francisco County Transportation Authority released The Four Corridor Plan, a vision to extend Muni Metro service along four major routes in the city: Bayshore (north-south along Third from the county line to California), Geary (east-west along Geary from 48th to Market/Kearny), North Beach (extending the new north-south Bayshore line along Kearny and Columbus to Fisherman's Wharf), and Van Ness (north-south along Van Ness from 16th and Mission to Aquatic Park), with a connector downtown to transfer between the Bayshore, Geary, and North Beach corridors. These have since been implemented as a combination of light rail (T Third and Central Subway) and bus rapid transit (Geary and Van Ness) services. During the late 1990s, with aging equipment and poor management, Muni developed a reputation for poor and erratic service. In 1996 a group called Rescue Muni representing transit riders formed to organize concerns and press for change, advocating for the successful 1999 Proposition E that formed the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency and set service standards for Muni. In August 1998, San Francisco residents witnessed a protracted malfunction of Muni Metro after switching to an automatic train control implemented by Alcatel Transport Automation, culminating in an event that is now known as the Muni Meltdown. Automatic control of Muni Metro light rail vehicles began on Saturday, August 22, three years behind schedule and at a cost of $70 million, three times the original estimate. Riders angry over delays confronted one driver during the Monday afternoon commute on August 24; he responded by locking himself in the driver's compartment and refused to move the train, halting all service for half an hour. Otherwise, no delays were attributable to the new automatic control system that Monday. However, by August 26, Mayor Willie Brown was threatening to sue Alcatel. Alcatel and Muni instead blamed delays on malfunctioning train cars. In addition, a proof-of-payment fare enforcement system went into effect that week, compounding rider confusion. Finally, riders who had previously been able to secure a seat by riding in the opposite direction (outbound) to Embarcadero station were forced to disembark there because of the E/Muni Metro Extension service that had begun in January; these changes and the delays frustrated many commuters. On Friday, August 28, 67 of the 131 LRVs (55 Boeing and 12 Breda) in the Muni Metro fleet were out of service for the morning commute; Mayor Brown personally rode from Civic Center to Embarcadero in the afternoon to experience the chaos for himself. Muni riders abandoned the underground system for carpools, taxis, buses, and F-Market streetcars after LRVs were delayed and stopped with no communication as to when they would resume service; transit times from 4th and Irving to Powell swelled to 120 minutes. On August 31, two San Francisco Chronicle reporters staged a race: one took the train, and the other walked along Market from Civic Center to Embarcadero. The two reporters tied as both completed their trips in 23 minutes; this was an improvement compared to the previous week, at the height of the Meltdown, when the same trip on Muni Metro could take three times as long. Mayor Brown re-enacted the race as the pedestrian on September 3; this time, Muni Metro service had improved and train passengers completed the trip in just seven minutes. At the request of the San Francisco Examiner, a member of the executive committee for Rescue Muni tracked the length of each ride on her eight-stop daily commute to the Financial District from the Sunset that week. Four of the ten trips took longer than 40 minutes, and the best time was 15 minutes. By the third week of operation under automatic train control, the Muni Meltdown had passed and service was uneventful, albeit with fewer LRVs than normal and with drivers onboard each train. Muni officials apologized for the rough transition and promised to continue to improve service; privately they called the Meltdown "the biggest fiasco in the railway's history." In an effort to improve service, Muni began to replace its troublesome fleet of Boeing-Vertol light rail vehicles with newer Italian Breda light rail vehicles in late 1996. The two-decade-old fleet of Flyer trolleybuses were replaced with Electric Transit, Inc. (ETI) trolleybuses in the early 2000s. Likewise, the diesel bus fleet saw an infusion of 45 new NABI buses from AC Transit in 1999. 2000s Construction on a sixth light rail line from Caltrain Depot in Mission Bay to Visitacion Valley and Bayview/Hunters Point was completed in December 2006. The new line, named the T Third Street, consisted of 19 new high-platform stations at street-level. On October 8, 2007, SFMTA's cable car signs were awarded the AdWheel Award as the best in print promotion by the American Public Transportation Association. Nathaniel Ford, executive director of Muni, said that the "marketing group has done an outstanding job making the key boarding areas more attractive and inviting for residents and our guests." On November 15, 2007, city officials announced that they were looking into the possibility of adding double-decker buses to the Muni fleet, which would be operating mostly on the 38 Geary and the 14 Mission routes. The test period started on December 12, 2007, and ended on January 8, 2008. On December 1, 2007, Mayor Gavin Newsom announced that the entire city fleet, including all of Muni buses, are henceforth powered with biodiesel, a combination of 80% petroleum diesel fuel and 20% biofuel, to reduce carbon emissions. Muni's current hybrid bus fleet currently runs on biodiesel. On July 17, 2009, a Muni LRV rear-ended another at West Portal Station. That accident injured 48 people. On December 5, 2009, the Muni system underwent its most extensive changes in over 30 years, in an attempt by the SFMTA to reduce its budget shortfall. This involved changes to over 60% of its bus and light rail routes, including the elimination of six bus routes. Changes included reduced frequency of service, shortened or altered routes, and earlier termination of service, although a few of the busiest lines, such as the 38 Geary, saw service increases. 2010s The 2010s started with severe cuts to Muni service. On February 26, 2010, the SFMTA board, which oversees Muni operations, voted for Muni to undergo further extensive changes in a further attempt to reduce its budget shortfall. Months after the cuts were enacted, significant portions of the service were restored through additional funding and cutting operational costs. Further improvements were made throughout the decade, amidst changes in both city and agency leadership, with the implementation of the "Muni Forward" project and all-door boarding. In 2011, Nathaniel Ford, the head executive of the SFMTA, stepped down and Ed Reiskin took his place. After the difficult cuts in 2010, city leaders cited the "Transit Effectiveness Project", later rebranded as "Muni Forward", as a priority for improving service on Muni. In April 2015, the SFMTA launched the implementation of Muni Forward. Service changes involve renaming routes designated as "Limited" to "Rapid", a redesigned system map, and increased levels of service on the busiest bus routes. Infrastructure improvements include the addition of transit signal priority, bus bulbs, and bus-only lanes to more locations, and trackway repairs along the Muni Metro system. The 2010s also included the start of construction on bus rapid transit projects on Van Ness and Geary Streets and the initiation of planning for new subway extensions that would potentially reach the Marina District and Park Merced. On July 1, 2012, Muni was the first transit agency in North America to implement all-door boarding throughout its system. The practice already existed in the Muni Metro as Proof-of-Payment, and was expanded to include all bus service. With the Breda cars approaching 20 years of use, the SFMTA announced an order in 2014 for 175 new Siemens S200 cars for its Muni Metro lines. The first of the new cars was delivered in November 2017 with plans to finish the replacement of the entire fleet by 2027. This train procurement, in addition to replacing cars on existing lines, was made in order to supply the additional service required for the Central Subway and to the Mission Bay neighborhood and Chase Center. Throughout the 2010s, Muni also procured new buses and replaced over 90 percent of its diesel bus fleet and replaced all of its aging trolleybuses, improving performance for its bus fleet. 2020s Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, ridership numbers had dropped 70–90% across the system. Muni Metro services, with an over 90% decline in riders, were replaced by bus bridges on March 30 to streamline sanitation procedures. By April 6, service had been eliminated on all but 17 of the agency's then 89 routes with San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency Director of Transportation Jeffrey Tumlin calling it "the worst Muni service since 1906." Light rail service resumed briefly in August 2020 with significant route changes, but was discontinued and replaced by buses after just three days of operation (August 22–24) because two overhead wire splices failed in the subway portion of the line within 72 hours and an employee in the system's control center tested positive for COVID-19. The splice failures in 2020 meant that passengers could be trapped for an extended period of time in an enclosed light rail car during the pandemic. A similar splice that failed in April 2019 in the Market Street Subway between Powell and Civic Center disrupted services system-wide for more than 12 hours, and led Mayor London Breed to seek a replacement for Muni head Ed Reiskin. Metallurgical analysis of the failed splices (including the failed splice from April 2019) showed the materials did not meet their specified tensile strength. Some additional bus routes have started to be restored throughout Fall 2020 and into 2021 to address overcrowding and increasing ridership including new short routes on the 1-California, 5-Fulton, and 14R Mission Rapid. On September 19, 2020, the 30-Stockton was extended to Sports Basement in The Presidio to accommodate longer, 60-foot buses along the entire route. This change resulted in many complaints from Marina District residents who complained about parking removal and low ridership along the extension. On December 19th, 2020, light rail service resumed on the J Church on a surface only route. Light rail service at the T Third Street resumed on January 23, 2021 along with the temporary resumption of the 15-Third Street on a new express route. N Judah, K/T Ingleside/Third Street, and S Shuttle subway service resumed on May 15, 2021, as did F Market & Wharves historic streetcar service. M Ocean View rail service resumed on August 14, 2021. System expansion Muni Metro and rail service Several proposals for Muni Metro and rail service expansion for Muni are undergoing planning and construction. In addition, several projects are underway to improve the effectiveness of existing lines, many as a part of the Muni Forward initiative. On February 19, 2016, Muni released a Draft Rail Capacity Study, which outlines proposed system improvements through the year 2050 and beyond. This three tier proposal consists of enhancements that will improve system efficiency and expand the system; estimated cost is $9–16 billion. The ConnectSF planning project, a cooperation between several city agencies including Muni, is also preparing plans for future subway and rapid transit corridor expansion. Service improvements for existing rail routes that are underway include the N Judah Rapid Project and L Taraval Improvement Project. Improvements on the J, K, and M lines are planned in the future. Central Subway A further underground expansion for the T line is under construction. Dubbed the Central Subway, three new underground stations at Moscone Center, Union Square, and Chinatown and one above-ground station at 4th and Brannan Streets are being built with a target opening date of 2022. Construction will include tunneling up to Columbus Ave and Washington Square Park but the T line will stop at Chinatown. This project is expected to cost about $1.4 billion. Muni is also considering a future extension into North Beach and Fisherman's Wharf or to the Marina District and The Presidio which may be built in a third phase of the T Third project. Formal planning for the extension began in late 2018 with an Alternatives Study. Buses and streetcars The average speed of Muni vehicles has been slowly declining over the years due to increasing vehicular congestion and is now merely per hour. In response, Muni launched plans to make its transit vehicles move faster through the city. Muni Forward (previously called the Transit Effectiveness Project) was launched in May 2006 to take a comprehensive look at the entire Muni system and to see where service can be improved or streamlined to provide faster and more reliable service. The project was launched in a context in which twenty-five years had passed since the last comprehensive review, and travel patterns had changed, traffic congestion had increased, operating costs had risen and on-time performance had dropped since then. Under the Muni Forward project, service improvements were implemented on many lines such as the 5 Fulton and 14R Mission. Further improvements on lines such as the 28 19th Avenue, 22 Fillmore, 30 Stockton, and others are planned. For streetcar service, extending the E Embarcadero and the F Market and Wharves into Mission Bay and the Fort Mason Tunnel is possible. Existing F Market & Wharves service is planned to be improved under the Better Market Street project with a new loop at Civic Center. Additionally, there are plans to expand trolleybus service in several parts of the city. Several extensions to existing trolleybus lines are planned, including 14-Mission service to the Daly City BART station, 6-Haight/Parnassus service to West Portal Station, 33-Ashbury/18th Street service across Potrero Hill to Third Street, 45-Union-Stockton service to the Letterman Digital Arts Center in the Presidio and 24-Divisadero service into the former Hunters Point shipyard. Other expansion plans include electrification of some diesel bus lines, with the most likely lines for conversion being the 9-San Bruno, 10-Townsend and 47-Van Ness. Electrification of the 10-Townsend line would likely be joined by an extension of the line across Potrero Hill to San Francisco General Hospital. Other lines that may be electrified are the 7-Haight-Noriega, 27-Bryant, and 43-Masonic. Bus rapid transit Two bus rapid transit projects have been approved along the Geary Boulevard and Van Ness Avenue corridors, costing $240 to $270 million and $126 million respectively. For Van Ness BRT, there will be two dedicated bus lanes in the median between Lombard Street and Mission Street. Geary BRT will have dedicated median lanes in the Richmond District area, then curbside bus lanes east to Market Street. Both corridors will include transit signal priority, all-door boarding, new low-floor buses, and improved stations. Construction broke ground on Van Ness BRT on March 1, 2017, with completion by 2020. Initial construction on Geary BRT began in October 2018 with planned completion in 2022. The SFMTA is also studying a bus rapid transit route on the Geneva-Harney corridor on the southeast side of the city. The new service would connect Balboa Park station to Hunter's Point via Sunnydale station and Bayshore Station along Geneva Ave and Harney Way. The improved service is estimated to cut the 36 minute trip along the route to 25 minutes once complete in 2023. The project is currently undergoing environmental review. See also Key System Market Street Railway Company San Francisco cable car system Trolleybuses in San Francisco Notes References Further reading Perles, Anthony, with John McKane, Tom Matoff, and Peter Straus, The People's Railway: The History of the Municipal Railway in San Francisco. Glendale: Interurban Press, 1981. . A detailed, illustrated history of Muni from its inception through 1980. External links NextBus for Muni, a GPS system that predicts vehicle arrival times. 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253123	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AAE	ISO 3166-2:AE	ISO 3166-2:AE is the entry for the United Arab Emirates in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1. Currently for the United Arab Emirates, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 7 emirates. Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of the United Arab Emirates. The second part is two letters. Current codes Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA). Click on the button in the header to sort each column. Notes Changes The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013. See also Subdivisions of the United Arab Emirates FIPS region codes of the United Arab Emirates Neighbouring countries: OM, SA. 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253124	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-4%20Part%203	MPEG-4 Part 3	MPEG-4 Part 3 or MPEG-4 Audio (formally ISO/IEC 14496-3) is the third part of the ISO/IEC MPEG-4 international standard developed by Moving Picture Experts Group. It specifies audio coding methods. The first version of ISO/IEC 14496-3 was published in 1999. The MPEG-4 Part 3 consists of a variety of audio coding technologies – from lossy speech coding (HVXC, CELP), general audio coding (AAC, TwinVQ, BSAC), lossless audio compression (MPEG-4 SLS, Audio Lossless Coding, MPEG-4 DST), a Text-To-Speech Interface (TTSI), Structured Audio (using SAOL, SASL, MIDI) and many additional audio synthesis and coding techniques. MPEG-4 Audio does not target a single application such as real-time telephony or high-quality audio compression. It applies to every application which requires the use of advanced sound compression, synthesis, manipulation, or playback. MPEG-4 Audio is a new type of audio standard that integrates numerous different types of audio coding: natural sound and synthetic sound, low bitrate delivery and high-quality delivery, speech and music, complex soundtracks and simple ones, traditional content and interactive content. Versions Subparts MPEG-4 Part 3 contains following subparts: Subpart 1: Main (list of Audio Object Types, Profiles, Levels, interface to ISO/IEC 14496-1, MPEG-4 Audio transport stream, etc.) Subpart 2: Speech coding – HVXC (Harmonic Vector eXcitation Coding) Subpart 3: Speech coding – CELP (Code Excited Linear Prediction) Subpart 4: General Audio Coding (GA) (Time/Frequency Coding) – AAC, TwinVQ, BSAC Subpart 5: Structured Audio (SA) Subpart 6: Text to Speech Interface (TTSI) Subpart 7: Parametric Audio Coding – HILN (Harmonic and Individual Line plus Noise) Subpart 8: Technical description of parametric coding for high quality audio (SSC, Parametric Stereo) Subpart 9: MPEG-1/MPEG-2 Audio in MPEG-4 Subpart 10: Technical description of lossless coding of oversampled audio (MPEG-4 DST – Direct Stream Transfer) Subpart 11: Audio Lossless Coding (ALS) Subpart 12: Scalable Lossless Coding (SLS) MPEG-4 Audio Object Types MPEG-4 Audio includes a system for handling a diverse group of audio formats in a uniform manner. Each format is assigned a unique Audio Object Type to represent it. Object Type is used to distinguish between different coding methods. It directly determines the MPEG-4 tool subset required to decode a specific object. The MPEG-4 profiles are based on the object types and each profile supports a different list of object types. Audio Profiles The MPEG-4 Audio standard defines several profiles. These profiles are based on the object types and each profile supports different list of object types. Each profile may also have several levels, which limit some parameters of the tools present in a profile. These parameters usually are the sampling rate and the number of audio channels decoded at the same time. Audio storage and transport There is no standard for transport of elementary streams over a channel, because the broad range of MPEG-4 applications have delivery requirements that are too wide to easily characterize with a single solution. The capabilities of a transport layer and the communication between transport, multiplex, and demultiplex functions are described in the Delivery Multimedia Integration Framework (DMIF) in ISO/IEC 14496-6. A wide variety of delivery mechanisms exist below this interface, e.g., MPEG transport stream, Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP), etc. Transport in Real-time Transport Protocol is defined in RFC 3016 (RTP Payload Format for MPEG-4 Audio/Visual Streams), RFC 3640 (RTP Payload Format for Transport of MPEG-4 Elementary Streams), RFC 4281 (The Codecs Parameter for "Bucket" Media Types) and RFC 4337 (MIME Type Registration for MPEG-4). LATM and LOAS were defined for natural audio applications, which do not require sophisticated object-based coding or other functions provided by MPEG-4 Systems. Bifurcation in the AAC technical standard The Advanced Audio Coding in MPEG-4 Part 3 (MPEG-4 Audio) Subpart 4 was enhanced relative to the previous standard MPEG-2 Part 7 (Advanced Audio Coding), in order to provide better sound quality for a given encoding bitrate. It is assumed that any Part 3 and Part 7 differences will be ironed out by the ISO standards body in the near future to avoid the possibility of future bitstream incompatibilities. At present there are no known player or codec incompatibilities due to the newness of the standard. The MPEG-2 Part 7 standard (Advanced Audio Coding) was first published in 1997 and offers three default profiles: Low Complexity profile (LC), Main profile and Scalable Sampling Rate profile (SSR). The MPEG-4 Part 3 Subpart 4 (General Audio Coding) combined the profiles from MPEG-2 Part 7 with Perceptual Noise Substitution (PNS) and defined them as Audio Object Types (AAC LC, AAC Main, AAC SSR). HE-AAC High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding is an extension of AAC LC using spectral band replication (SBR), and Parametric Stereo (PS). It is designed to increase coding efficiency at low bitrates by using partial parametric representation of audio. AAC-SSR AAC Scalable Sample Rate was introduced by Sony to the MPEG-2 Part 7 and MPEG-4 Part 3 standards. It was first published in ISO/IEC 13818-7, Part 7: Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) in 1997. The audio signal is first split into 4 bands using a 4 band polyphase quadrature filter bank. Then these 4 bands are further split using MDCTs with a size k of 32 or 256 samples. This is similar to normal AAC LC which uses MDCTs with a size k of 128 or 1024 directly on the audio signal. The advantage of this technique is that short block switching can be done separately for every PQF band. So high frequencies can be encoded using a short block to enhance temporal resolution, low frequencies can be still encoded with high spectral resolution. However, due to aliasing between the 4 PQF bands coding efficiencies around (1,2,3) * fs/8 is worse than normal MPEG-4 AAC LC. MPEG-4 AAC-SSR is very similar to ATRAC and ATRAC-3. Why AAC-SSR was introduced The idea behind AAC-SSR was not only the advantage listed above, but also the possibility of reducing the data rate by removing 1, 2 or 3 of the upper PQF bands. A very simple bitstream splitter can remove these bands and thus reduce the bitrate and sample rate. Example: 4 subbands: bitrate = 128 kbit/s, sample rate = 48 kHz, f_lowpass = 20 kHz 3 subbands: bitrate ~ 120 kbit/s, sample rate = 48 kHz, f_lowpass = 18 kHz 2 subbands: bitrate ~ 100 kbit/s, sample rate = 24 kHz, f_lowpass = 12 kHz 1 subband: bitrate ~ 65 kbit/s, sample rate = 12 kHz, f_lowpass = 6 kHz Note: although possible, the resulting quality is much worse than typical for this bitrate. So for normal 64 kbit/s AAC LC a bandwidth of 14–16 kHz is achieved by using intensity stereo and reduced NMRs. This degrades audible quality less than transmitting 6 kHz bandwidth with perfect quality. BSAC Bit Sliced Arithmetic Coding is an MPEG-4 standard (ISO/IEC 14496-3 subpart 4) for scalable audio coding. BSAC uses an alternative noiseless coding to AAC, with the rest of the processing being identical to AAC. This support for scalability allows for nearly transparent sound quality at 64 kbit/s and graceful degradation at lower bit rates. BSAC coding is best performed in the range of 40 kbit/s to 64 kbit/s, though it operates in the range of 16 kbit/s to 64 kbit/s. The AAC-BSAC codec is used in Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) applications. Licensing In 2002, the MPEG-4 Audio Licensing Committee selected the Via Licensing Corporation as the Licensing Administrator for the MPEG-4 Audio patent pool. See also TwinVQ – one of the object types defined in MPEG-4 Audio version 1 MPEG-4 Part 2 MPEG-4 Part 14 container format (MP4) Digital rights management Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29 References External links Apple: MPEG-4: AAC "AAC" (VideoLAN WIKI) EBU subjective listening tests on low-bitrate audio codecs AAC radio stations – Online radio stations in AAC format Tuner2 – Directory of radio stations in AAC+ format at various bitrates RadioFeeds UK & Ireland – Page containing plenty of terrestrial stations webcasting in AAC+ format. A page comparing codecs including HE-AAC @64 kbit/s by listening tests. (Page is offline) Official MPEG web site – RTP Payload Format for MPEG-4 Audio/Visual Streams – RTP Payload Format for Transport of MPEG-4 Elementary Streams – The Codecs Parameter for "Bucket" Media Types – MIME Type Registration for MPEG-4 Audio codecs Lossy compression algorithms MPEG-4	[ -0.2866992652416229, 0.24882060289382935, 0.6026529669761658, -0.11979652941226959, -0.6537683606147766, -0.07585301995277405, 0.3229336142539978, -0.5836867094039917, -0.2064003199338913, 0.0756119042634964, -0.772499680519104, 0.5900289416313171, -0.9293227195739746, -0.2729654014110565, -0.12886251509189606, 0.43532076478004456, 0.7791004776954651, 0.18976548314094543, 0.061509668827056885, -0.8387541770935059, 0.1197257936000824, -0.2857227623462677, 0.27332934737205505, -0.10531147569417953, -0.03253253549337387, -0.017699124291539192, 0.48756909370422363, 0.7062520980834961, 0.23661762475967407, -0.4730987250804901, -0.2535057067871094, 0.43046972155570984, -0.09152379631996155, 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253126	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haruhiko%20Mikimoto	Haruhiko Mikimoto	is a Japanese anime character designer, illustrator and manga artist. Mostly active during the 1980s, during that decade he rose to prominence and is considered one of the top character designers of his time. He graduated from Keio University, and attended the university in the same years as Macross creator Shōji Kawamori and screenwriter Hiroshi Ōnogi. He joined the animation studio Artland while attending school, and was character designer in several anime series, including The Super Dimension Fortress Macross, Macross 7, Gunbuster and Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress. Anime works Listed in alphabetical order. Aquarian Age the Movie (character designer) Astro Boy (1980 TV series) (in-between animation, key animation) Blue Remains (character designer) Delpower X Bakuhatsu Miracle Genki! (Character Design) Gandalla: King of the Burning Desert (character designer) Gunbuster (character designer) Gundam Neo Experience 0087: Green Divers (character designer), Hi-Speed Jecy (character designer) Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress (original character designer) Macross 7 (character designer, Ending Animation) Macross 7: The Galaxy's Calling Me! (character designer) Macross Dynamite 7 (character designer) Megazone 23 (guest character designer (Eve Tokimatsuri)) Megazone 23, Part II (guest character designer (Eve Tokimatsuri)) Megazone 23, Part III (guest character designer (Eve Tokimatsuri)) Mobile Suit Gundam 0080: War in the Pocket (character designer) Rayca (character designer) Salamander (character designer) Super Dimension Century Orguss (character designer, animation director) Super Dimension Century Orguss 02 (character designer) Talking Head (film) (character design) The Super Dimension Fortress Macross (character designer, character animation director) Macross: Do You Remember Love? (character designer, animation director) The Super Dimension Fortress Macross: Flash Back 2012 (character designer, animation director) Super Dimensional Fortress Macross II: Lovers Again (character designer) Tottoi (Character Design) Tōi Umi kara Kita Coo (Character Design) Tytania (Character Designer) Games Aisle Lord -- Mega-CD (character designer) Dogu Senki -- Dreamcast (character designer) FZ Axis -- Mega Drive (character designer) The Super Dimension Fortress Macross: Scrambled Valkyrie -- Super Famicom (character designer) Khamrai -- PlayStation (character designer) Macross VF-X—PlayStation (character designer) Macross VF-X2—PlayStation (character designer) Quo Vadis -- Sega Saturn, PlayStation (character designer) Quovadis 2—Sega Saturn (character designer) Record of Lodoss War: Advent of Kardis—Dreamcast (cover illustration) A Sherd of Youthful Memories—PlayStation (character designer) The Super Dimension Fortress Macross: Do You Remember Love? (game)—Sega Saturn, PlayStation (character designer) Top o Nerae!—PlayStation 2 (character designer) The Super Dimension Fortress Macross (game) -- PlayStation 2 (character designer) Macross Ace Frontier -- PlayStation Portable (character designer) Artbooks and collections Listed in alphabetic order. ISBN is for Japanese release unless otherwise noted. Elverz, Haruhiko Mikimoto Illustrations (USA, hardcover) (USA, softcover) Hoshi no Kismet, Innocence, It's Artland, Michinoku Gashū, Mikimoto Haruhiko Cel Works, Movement, My Time, Quo Vadis Visual Book, Roman Album Series Haruhiko Mikimoto Illustrations A Sherd of Youthful Memories Deep File, A Sherd of Youthful Memories Visual Works, This Is Animation: Chō Jikū Yōsai Macross Character-hen, Visualist Series: Haruhiko Mikimoto Collection (laserdisc, VHS, and CD-ROM) Illustration works Listed in alphabetic order. ISBN is for Japanese release unless otherwise noted. Baby Birth (illustrator, manga written by Sukehiro Tomita) vol.1, (Japan), (USA) vol.2, (Japan), (USA) Chō Jikū Seiki Orguss 02 vol.1, vol.2, vol.3, vol.4, Chō Jikū Yōsai Macross TV-ban Anime Novels vol.1, (cover, illustrator, novel by Toshiki Inoue) Ecole Du Ciel vol.1 (cover, inside illustration, novel by Kenichi Nakahara), vol.2 (cover, inside illustration, novel by Kenichi Nakahara), Gekijoban Chō Jikū Yōsai Macross: Ai Oboete Imasu ka, (cover, illustrator, novel by Sukehiro Tomita) Gekijoban Chō Jikū Yōsai Macross 2 vol.1, vol.2, vol.3, vol.4, vol.5, Gunbuster Perfect Guide (character designer) Hakkenden (cover, illustrator) vol.1, vol.2, vol.3, Hayase Misa: Shiroi Tsuioku, (illustrator, novel by Hiroshi Ohnogi) Live of Legend: Lynn Minmay/Mylene Jenius (character designer) Marginal Masters vol.1, vol.2, vol.3, My Inference And Her Reason, (cover, novel by Tsuguya Murase) Mysterious Warrior Thief T.T. (cover, illustrator, novels by Eiichiro Saito) vol.1, vol.3, vol.4, New Record of Lodoss War, (Introduction) (cover, inside illustrations, novels by Ryo Mizuno) vol.1, vol.2, vol.3, vol.4, vol.5, vol.6, Oboete Imasu ka: Eiga "Chō Jikū Yōsai Macross" yori, (cover, illustrator) Seishun! Tonari-gumi: Kimi to Hanashitai, (cover, illustrator) Titania (cover, illustrator, novels by Yoshiki Tanaka) vol.1, vol.2, vol.3, Tōsō no Eden, (illustrator) Manga Listed in alphabetic order. ISBN is for Japanese release unless otherwise noted. Cherish, Macross 7: Trash vol.1, vol.2, vol.3, vol.4, vol.5, vol.6, vol.7, vol.8, Marionette Generation vol.1, (Japan), (USA) vol.2, (Japan) vol.3, (Japan), (USA) vol.4, (Japan), (USA) vol.5, (Japan), (USA) Mobile Suit Gundam École du Ciel vol.1, , (special edition, bonus CD-ROM) (Japan), (USA) vol.2, (Japan), (USA) vol.3, (Japan), (USA) vol.4, (Japan), (USA) vol.5, , (special edition, bonus figure) (Japan), (USA) vol.6, vol.7, vol.8, , (special edition, bonus figure) vol.9, Reverb, The Super Dimension Fortress Macross: The First - Macross Ace Magazine Other Aquarian Age Trading Card Game (card illustrations) Chaos Gear Trading Card Game (card illustrations) CM's Macross Figure Collection (cover illustration) Gundam the Ride: A Baoa Qu (amusement park ride, character design) Macross VF-X2 Original Soundtrack (cover, inside illustrations) Macross 7 Trash (radio drama, illustrations) Marionette Generation: Out of Ganchu (CD album + illustration book) Mobilesuit Gundam Hathaway's flash (novel illustration) References External links Haruhiko Mikimoto at the Macross Compendium Haruhiko Mikimoto anime works at Media Arts Database 1959 births Living people Anime character designers Japanese illustrators Manga artists Macross Japanese animators People from Tokyo Manga artists from Tokyo Keio University alumni Video game artists	[ -0.4857669174671173, -0.21010367572307587, -0.47348183393478394, -0.20789994299411774, -0.5390140414237976, 0.3846994936466217, 0.3715701997280121, -0.20697344839572906, 0.07091131806373596, 0.12580059468746185, 0.013135913759469986, 0.19506748020648956, -0.17971907556056976, 0.10782691091299057, 0.05160985514521599, -0.06122137978672981, -0.008307927288115025, 0.28801867365837097, -0.5447800755500793, -0.19413934648036957, -0.33468323945999146, -0.5369731187820435, 0.24715366959571838, -0.16978996992111206, 0.11931847035884857, 0.18795956671237946, 0.3145274221897125, 0.9815014600753784, 0.20513907074928284, -0.22524034976959229, 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253129	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession%20of%20states	Succession of states	Succession of states is a theory and practice in international relations regarding successor states. A successor state is a sovereign state over a territory and populace that was previously under the sovereignty of another state. The theory has its roots in 19th-century diplomacy. A successor state often acquires a new international legal personality, which is distinct from a continuing state, also known as a continuator or historical heir, which despite change to its borders retains the same legal personality and possess all its existing rights and obligations (such as a rump state). Partial and universal state succession A state succession can be characterized as either being universal or partial. A universal state succession occurs when one state is completely extinguished and its sovereignty is replaced by that of one or more successor states. A partial state succession occurs when the state continues to exist after it has lost control of a part of its territory. An example of a partial state succession is the case of the split of Bangladesh from Pakistan, there was no challenge to Pakistan's claim to continue to exist and to retain its membership of the United Nations: it was a continuator and not a successor. Bangladesh eventually was recognized as a new state: it was a successor and had to apply for UN membership. An example of a universal state succession is the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Neither part claimed any continuity: both the Czech Republic and Slovakia were new successor states. Rights and obligations Consequent upon the acquisition of international legal personality, the difficult matter of succession to treaty rights and obligations arises. Succession may refer to the transfer of rights, obligations, or property from a previously well-established predecessor state to its successor state, and can include overseas assets such as diplomatic missions, foreign-exchange reserves, and museum artifacts; and participation in treaties in force at the date of succession or international organizations. In an attempt to codify the rules of succession of states, the 1978 Vienna Convention entered into force on November 6, 1996. Classification of cases In their application to the acquisition of independence, distinctions should be drawn between different cases though the line of demarcation is not always clear: Bilateral and multilateral treaties necessarily give rise to different considerations. There are real treaties and personal treaties. Real treaties affect the territory itself, such as boundary agreements or the grant of transit rights, which can continue irrespective of the personality of the state. The new state must take over the country in the condition in which it finds it, as the parent state cannot give more than it possesses. Such treaties can be described as "treaties creating purely local obligations." Exceptions to orderly succession There are several recent examples where a succession of states, as described above, has not been entirely adhered to. This is mostly a list of the exceptions that have occurred since the creation of the United Nations in 1945. In previous historical periods, the exceptions would be too many to list. Afghanistan The Taliban state in Afghanistan (the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan) became the de facto government of nearly all the country in the mid-1990s, but the Afghan Northern Alliance was still recognised by many nations and retained the UN seat. China The People's Republic of China (PRC) was established in 1949 in mainland China, claiming succession from the Republic of China (ROC). However, the succession of the PRC over mainland China was not initially recognized by many states because of Cold War politics and because the ROC which continues to maintain its claim over mainland China had continued to exist on the island of Taiwan and other islands, such as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, Pratas and Taiping ever since 1949. Despite this situation, the ROC in Taiwan maintained their membership as "China" in the United Nations, and a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. However, the PRC was granted the seat of "China" in the United Nations and Security Council in 1971, in place of the ROC whose diplomatic recognition was withdrawn and the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek were expelled. This was done through the adoption of General Assembly Resolution 2758, although the resolution makes no mention over Taiwan. Since 1999, the PRC exercises sovereignty over mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau; while the ROC continues to be unrepresented within the United Nations but exercises sovereignty over the Taiwan Area, with both claiming they are the sole legitimate government of both the mainland and Taiwan. The ROC also has claimed borderlands unclaimed by the PRC, most notably (Outer) Mongolia. In Chinese history, periods of prolonged political division and dynastic transition saw the existence of more than one "China" at the same time. For years, China was politically divided during several sustained periods historically, with two or more states simultaneously existing on territories associated with "China" and claiming to represent "China". Examples include the Spring and Autumn, Warring States, Three Kingdoms, Sixteen Kingdoms, Northern and Southern dynasties, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, and the Chinese Soviet Republic, among others. Just as the PRC and the ROC formally claim exclusive mandate over the entirety of China, historical Chinese dynasties that existed during periods of sustained political disunity often claimed exclusive Chinese politico-cultural orthodoxy at the expense of others. During dynastic transitions, it was rare for one dynasty to end abruptly and transition smoothly to a new one, resulting in the existence of more than one entity claiming to be "China". For instance, during the Ming–Qing transition, the Ming dynasty existed alongside the Qing dynasty from 1636 to 1644. The predecessor of the Qing dynasty, the Later Jin dynasty, was established in 1616 and ruled over northeastern China whilst the Ming dynasty ruled over China proper. Following the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644, remnants of the Ming imperial family, whose regime is known in historiography as the Southern Ming dynasty, continued to rule parts of southern China until 1662. Multiple ephemeral regimes also existed during this period, including the Shun and Xi dynasties on mainland China, and the Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning on Taiwan. Ireland Ireland, then called the Irish Free State, seceded from the United Kingdom in 1922. The new state took the view that when a new state comes into being after formerly being part of an older state, its acceptance of treaty relationships established by the older state is a matter for the new state to determine by express declaration, or by conduct in the case of each individual treaty. In practice, however, the Irish regarded the commercial and administrative treaties of the United Kingdom previously applying to the territory of the Irish Free State as remaining in force. Israel Israel took the view that, by virtue of its declaration of independence in 1948, a new international personality was created, and that it started with a clean slate, and was bound only by such of the former international obligations affecting the territory as Israel might accept. Kampuchea/Cambodia When Democratic Kampuchea led by Pol Pot was militarily displaced by the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of Kampuchea, the country's United Nations seat was held by Democratic Kampuchea for many years. It is now held by the Kingdom of Cambodia. Korea In 1919, when the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was formed it claimed continuity directly from their pre-1910 status. In 1948 when the modern Republic of Korea was formed it claimed that it was identical with Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and that the Provisional Government succeeded the Korean Empire. An important tenet of the modern state of Republic of Korea is that the Korean Empire's incorporation into the Empire of Japan from 1910 to 1945 is internationally recognized as an illegal occupation. South Korea resumed membership to international organizations such as the Universal Postal Union and re-affirmed that pre-1910 treaties were still in force. Ottoman Empire/Turkey There is some debate over whether the modern Republic of Turkey is a continuing state to the Ottoman Empire or a successor. The two entities fought on opposing sides in the Turkish War of Independence (1919–23), and even briefly co-existed as separate administrative units (whilst at war with one another): Turkey with its capital in Angora (now Ankara) and the Ottoman Empire from Constantinople (now Istanbul), but this type of scenario is also common in civil wars. The nationalist faction, led by Mustafa Kemal who defected from the Ottoman army, established the modern republic as a nation-state (or new government regime) by defeating the opposing elements in the independence war. There remains debate about whether the Turkish War of Independence was a war of independence, or a civil war that led to a regime change. The question of state succession is relevant to the issue of Armenian genocide reparations. Pakistan When Pakistan became independent it claimed that it was automatically a member of the United Nations, as British India had been a founding member of the United Nations despite its colonial status. The United Nations Secretariat however expressed the following opinion: Soviet Union International convention since the end of the Cold War has come to distinguish two distinct circumstances where such privileges are sought by such a successor state, in only the first of which may such successor states assume the name or privileged international position of their predecessor. The first set of circumstances arose at the dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1991. One of the constituent republics of the USSR, the Russian Federation has declared itself to be "the continuator state of the USSR" on the grounds that it contained 51% of the population of the USSR and 77% of its territory. Consequently, Russia agreed that it would acquire the USSR's seat as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. This was also accepted by the rest of the former states of the USSR; in a letter dated 24 December 1991, the Russian President Boris Yeltsin informed the Secretary-General that the membership of the USSR in the Security Council and all other United Nations organs was being continued by the Russian Federation with the support of the nine member countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States. All Soviet embassies became Russian embassies. A special case for the Baltic states had existed. An important tenet of the modern states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania is that their incorporation into the Soviet Union from 1940 to 1991 constituted an illegal occupation. In 1991 when each Baltic state regained their independence they claimed continuity directly from their pre-1940 status. Many other states share this view, and as such, these states were not considered either predecessor or successor states of the Soviet Union. As a consequence, the Baltic states were able to simply re-establish diplomatic relations with countries, re-affirm pre-1940 treaties still in force, and resume membership to international organizations. Yugoslavia After four of the six constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia seceded in 1991 and 1992, the rump state, renamed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, stated it was the continuation of the state of Yugoslavia—against the objections of the newly independent republics. Representatives from Belgrade continued to hold the original Yugoslavian UN seat—however, the United States refused to recognize it. The remaining territory of the federation was less than half of the population and territory of the former federation. In 1992 the Security Council on 19 September (Resolution 777) and the General Assembly on 22 September, decided to refuse to allow the new federation to sit in the General Assembly under the name of "Yugoslavia" on the theory that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia had dissolved. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later renamed Serbia and Montenegro) was admitted as a new member to the United Nations in 2000; in 2006, Montenegro declared independence and Serbia continued to hold the federation's seat. Additionally, Kosovo declared independence in 2008. The Agreement on Succession Issues The first negotiations on succession issues of the former Socialist Yugoslavia had begun in 1992 within the framework of the Working Group on Succession Issues of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia. The agreement was initially prevented by the insistence of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia that it is exclusive legal and political continuator of the Socialist Yugoslavia as well as the owner of all state property owned by the earlier socialist federal government, and was willing to renounce a part of it only as an act of goodwill. Federal Republic of Yugoslavia interpreted breakup of Yugoslavia as a process of serial secessions and not as a complete dismemberment of the earlier state, interpretation rejected by other former Yugoslav republics. Badinter Arbitration Committee recommended a division of assets and liabilities based on principle of equity and even referred to the 1983 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debt (convention not in force which at the time was signed by only six states, including SRF Yugoslavia). This proposal was unacceptable to the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which therefore motivated the International Monetary Fund to develop alternative key model which included economic power of republics and their contribution to the federal budget which was accepted by all. The key determined participation of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia with 36.52%, Croatia with 28.49%, Slovenia 16.39%, Bosnia and Herzegovina with 13.20% and Macedonia with 5.20%. Agreement was also reached on gold and other reserves at the Bank for International Settlements but the final conclusion was postponed by the beginning of the Kosovo War. After the end of the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia followed next year by the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević successor states concluded their agreement. In 2001, with the support of the international community, five countries (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia – today North Macedonia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia – today Serbia) signed the Agreement on Succession Issues which conclusively confirmed that five sovereign equal successor states were formed upon the dissolution of the former SFR Yugoslavia. It entered into force on 2 June 2004 when the last successor state ratified it. The agreement was signed as an umbrella agreement which included annexes on diplomatic and consular properties, financial assets and liabilities, archives, pensions, other rights, interests and liabilities as well as private properties and acquired rights. At the subsequent dissolution of the state union of Serbia and Montenegro (one of the five successor states) two countries agreed on Serbian sole succession of rights and obligations of their federation. Examples The Soviet Union, successor state to the Russian Empire The Russian Federation, successor state to the Soviet Union Serbia, successor state to the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (earlier claim to SFR Yugoslavia succession dropped in 2000) The Islamic Republic of Iran, successor state to the Imperial State of Iran The Republic of Indonesia, the current successor state of the Dutch East Indies Sudan, the reduced state after the creation of South Sudan. Predecessors of sovereign states in Africa Predecessors of sovereign states in Asia Predecessors of sovereign states in North America Predecessors of sovereign states in South America Predecessors of sovereign states in Europe Predecessors of sovereign states in Oceania See also Comparative history International law Translatio imperii Universal history Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties State continuity of the Baltic states Timeline of historical geopolitical changes Peaceful transition of power Odious debt Rump state References Bibliography Burgenthal/Doehring/Kokott: Grundzüge des Völkerrechts, 2. Auflage, Heidelberg 2000 External links European Journal of International Law – State Succession in Respect of Human Rights Treaties Wilfried Fiedler: Der Zeitfaktor im Recht der Staatensukzession, in: Staat und Recht. Festschrift für Günther Winkler, Wien, 1997. P. 217–236. Wilfried Fiedler: Staatensukzession und Menschenrechte, in: B. Ziemske u.a. (Hrsg.), Festschrift für Martin Kriele, München 1997. 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253130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20John%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom	Prince John of the United Kingdom	Prince John (John Charles Francis; 12 July 1905 – 18 January 1919) was the fifth son and youngest of the six children of King George V and Queen Mary. At the time of his birth, his father was heir apparent to the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom, King Edward VII. In 1910, the Prince of Wales succeeded to the throne upon Edward VII's death and Prince John became fifth in the line of succession to the British throne. In 1909, John was discovered to have epilepsy. As his condition deteriorated, he was sent to live at Sandringham House in 1916 and was kept away from the public eye. There, he was cared for by his governess, "Lala" Bill, and befriended local children whom his mother had gathered to be his playmates. He died at Sandringham in 1919, following a severe seizure, and was buried at nearby St Mary Magdalene Church. His illness was disclosed to the wider public only after his death. John's alleged seclusion has subsequently been brought forward as evidence for the inhumanity of the royal family. However, records show that he was in some ways given favourable treatment by his parents, in comparison with his siblings. Contrary to the belief that he was hidden from the public from an early age, John for most of his life had the role of a fully-fledged member of the family, appearing frequently in public until after his eleventh birthday, when his condition became severe. Birth Prince John was born at York Cottage on the Sandringham Estate on 12 July 1905, at 3:05 am. He was the youngest child and fifth son of George, Prince of Wales and Mary, Princess of Wales (née Mary of Teck). He was named John despite that name's unlucky associations for the royal family, but was informally known as "Johnnie". At the time of his birth, he was sixth in the line of succession to the throne, behind his father and four older brothers. As a grandchild of the reigning British monarch in the male line, and a son of the Prince of Wales, he was formally styled His Royal Highness Prince John of Wales from birth. John was christened on 3 August 1905 in the parish church of St Mary Magdalene at Sandringham, the Reverend Canon John Neale Dalton officiating. His godparents were King Carlos I of Portugal (for whom Prince John's father stood proxy); the Duke of Sparta (his first cousin once removed); Prince Carl of Denmark (his uncle, for whom Prince John's father also stood proxy); Prince Johann of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (his great-granduncle, for whom Prince John's father also stood proxy); Alexander Duff, 1st Duke of Fife (his uncle, for whom Prince John's father also stood proxy); the Duchess of Sparta (his first cousin once removed, for whom Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom stood proxy); and Princess Alexander of Teck (his first cousin once removed, for whom Princess Victoria also stood proxy). Childhood and illness Much of John's early life was spent at Sandringham with his siblingsPrince Edward (known as David to the royal family), Prince Albert, Princess Mary, Prince Henry and Prince Georgeunder the care of their nanny Charlotte "Lala" Bill. Though a strict disciplinarian, the Prince of Wales was nonetheless affectionate toward his children; the Princess of Wales was close to her children and encouraged them to confide in her. In 1909, Prince John's grandaunt, the Dowager Empress of Russia wrote to her son, Emperor Nicholas II, that "George's children are very nice... The little ones, George and Johnny are both charming and very amusing..." Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, described Prince John as "very quaint and one evening when Uncle George returned from stalking he bent over Aunt May and kissed her, and they heard Johnny soliloquize, 'She kissed Papa, ugly old man! George V once said to U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt that "all [his] children [were] obedient, except John"apparently because Prince John alone, among the King's children, escaped punishment from their father. Though a "large and handsome" baby, by his fourth birthday John had become "winsome" and "painfully slow". That same year he suffered his first epileptic seizure and showed signs of a disability, probably autism or learning disabilities. When his father became king, he did not attend his parents' coronation on 22 June 1911, as this was considered too risky for his health; nonetheless, cynics said that the family feared their reputation would be damaged by any incident involving him. Although Prince John was deemed not "presentable to the outside world," George nonetheless showed an interest in him, offering him "kindness and affection". During his time at Sandringham, John exhibited some repetitive behaviours as well as regular misbehaviours and insubordination: "he simply didn't understand he needed to [behave]." Nonetheless, there was hope his seizures might lessen with time. Contrary to the belief that he was hidden from the public from an early age, Prince John for most of his life was a "fully-fledged member of the family", appearing frequently in public until after his eleventh birthday. In 1912 Prince George, who was John's closest sibling, began St Peter's Court Preparatory School at Broadstairs. The following summer, The Times reported that he would not attend Broadstairs the following term, and that his parents had not decided whether to send him to school at all. After the outbreak of World War I, he rarely saw his parents, who were often away on official duties, and his siblings, who were either at boarding school or in the military. Prince John slowly disappeared from the public eye and no official portraits of him were commissioned after 1913. In spite of his physical and mental decline, he was not removed from the line of succession. Wood Farm In 1916, as his seizures became more frequent and severe, John was sent to live at Wood Farm, with "Lala" Bill having charge of his care. Though he maintained an interest in the world around him and was capable of coherent thought and expression, with his lack of educational progress, the last of his tutors was dismissed and his formal education ended. Physicians warned that he would likely not reach adulthood. At Wood Farm, John became "a satellite with his own little household on an outlying farm on the Sandringham estate... Guests at Balmoral remember him during the Great War as tall and muscular, but always a distant figure glimpsed from afar in the woods, escorted by his own retainers." His grandmother Queen Alexandra maintained a garden at Sandringham House especially for him, and this became "one of the great pleasures of [Prince John]'s life." After the summer of 1916, John was rarely seen outside the Sandringham Estate and passed solely into "Lala" Bill's care. After Queen Alexandra wrote that "[Prince John] is very proud of his house but is longing for a companion," Queen Mary broke from royal practice by having local children brought in to be playmates for Prince John. One of these was Winifred Thomas, a young girl from Halifax who had been sent to live with her aunt and uncle (who had charge of the royal stables at Sandringham) in hopes her asthma would improve. Prince John had known Winifred years earlier, prior to the outbreak of World War I. Now they became close, taking nature walks together and working in Queen Alexandra's garden. Prince John also played with his elder siblings when they visited: once, when his two eldest brothers came to visit, the Prince of Wales "took him for a run in a kind of a push-cart, and they both disappeared from view." Death John's seizures intensified, and Bill later wrote "we dared not let him be with his brothers and sister, because it upsets them so much, with the attacks getting so bad and coming so often." Biographer Denis Judd believes that Prince "[John]'s seclusion and 'abnormality' must have been disturbing to his brothers and sister", as he had been "a friendly, outgoing little boy, much loved by his brothers and sister, a sort of mascot for the family". He spent Christmas Day 1918 with his family at Sandringham House but was driven back to Wood Farm at night. On 18 January 1919, after a severe seizure, John died in his sleep at Wood Farm at 5:30 pm. Queen Mary wrote in her diary that the news wasa great shock, tho' for the poor little boy's restless soul, death came as a great relief. [She] broke the news to George and [they] motored down to Wood Farm. Found poor Lala very resigned but heartbroken. Little Johnnie looked very peaceful lying there. Mary later wrote to Emily Alcock, an old friend, thatfor [John] it is a great relief, as his malady was becoming worse as he grew older,& he has thus been spared much suffering. I cannot say how grateful we feel to God for having taken him in such a peaceful way, he just slept quietly into his heavenly home, no pain no struggle, just peace for the poor little troubled spirit which had been a great anxiety to us for many years, ever since he was four years old.She went on to add that "the first break in the family circle is hard to bear, but people have been so kind& sympathetic& this has helped us much." George described his son's death simply as "the greatest mercy possible". On 20 January, the Daily Mirror said that "when the Prince passed away his face bore an angelic smile"; its report also made the first public mention of Prince John's epilepsy. His funeral was the next day at St Mary Magdalene parish church, John Neale Dalton officiating. Queen Mary wrote thatCanon Dalton& Dr Brownhill [John's physician] conducted the service which was awfully sad and touching. Many of our own people and the villagers were present. We thanked all Johnnie's servants who have been so good and faithful to him.Though nominally private, the funeral was attended by Sandringham House staff; "every single person on the estate went and stood around the gates and his grave was absolutely covered in flowers." Queen Alexandra wrote to Queen Mary that "now [their] two darling Johnnies lie side by side". Legacy Prince Edward, who was eleven years older than his brother and had hardly known Prince John, saw his death as "little more than a regrettable nuisance." He wrote to his mistress of the time that "the poor boy had become more of an animal than anything else." Edward also wrote an insensitive letter to Queen Mary, which has since been lost. She did not reply, but he felt compelled to write her an apology, in which he stated:"I feel such a cold hearted and unsympathetic swine for writing all that I did ... No one can realize more than you how little poor Johnnie meant to me who hardly knew him ... I feel so much for you, darling Mama, who was his mother."In her final mention of Prince John in her diary, Queen Mary wrote simply "miss the dear child very much indeed." She gave Winifred Thomas a number of John's books, which she had inscribed, "In memory of our dear little Prince." "Lala" Bill always kept a portrait of Prince John above her mantelpiece, together with a letter from him that read "nanny, I love you." In recent years, Prince John's seclusion has been brought forward as evidence of the "heartlessness" of the Windsor family. According to a 2008 Channel 4 documentary, much of the existing information about Prince John is "based on hearsay and rumour, precisely because so few details of his life and his problems have ever been disclosed," and the British Epileptic Association has stated,"There was nothing unusual in what [the King and Queen] did. At that time, people with epilepsy were put apart from the rest of the community. They were often put in epilepsy colonies or mental institutions. It was thought to be a form of mental illness" …adding that it was another twenty years before the idea that epileptics should not be locked away began to take hold. The royal family believed that these afflictions might flow through their blood, which was then still believed to be purer than the blood of a commoner, and, as such, wished to hide as much as possible in regard to Prince John's illness. Others have suggested that Prince John was sent to Wood Farm to give him the best environment possible under the "austere" conditions of World War I. Undoubtedly the royal family were "frightened and ashamed of John's illness", and his life is "usually portrayed either as tragedy or conspiracy". At the time that Edward VIII (formerly Prince Edward) abdicated, an attempt was made to discredit Prince Albert, who had succeeded as George VI, by suggesting that he was subject to falling fits, like his brother. In 1998, after the discovery of two volumes of family photographs, Prince John was briefly brought to public attention. The Lost Prince, a biographical drama about Prince John's life written and directed by Stephen Poliakoff, was released in 2003. Titles and styles 12 July 1905 – 6 May 1910: His Royal Highness Prince John of Wales 6 May 1910 – 18 January 1919: His Royal Highness The Prince John Ancestry References Endnotes Footnotes Sources Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: External links 1905 births 1919 deaths 20th-century British people House of Windsor British people of German descent Princes of the United Kingdom English people with disabilities Neurological disease deaths in England Royalty and nobility with disabilities Deaths from epilepsy People from Sandringham, Norfolk Sons of British monarchs Children of George V	[ -0.10114927589893341, -0.12171442061662674, 0.6155514717102051, -0.3488621413707733, 0.212562695145607, 0.20954428613185883, 0.7469993233680725, 0.14082203805446625, -0.42003053426742554, -0.21805430948734283, -0.5924881100654602, -0.08345738053321838, -0.3698413074016571, 0.2914266288280487, 0.34319400787353516, 0.04994875192642212, 0.13238725066184998, 0.2568572163581848, 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253137	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electorate%20of%20Mainz	Electorate of Mainz	The Electorate of Mainz ( or , ), previously known in English as Mentz and by its French name Mayence, was one of the most prestigious and influential states of the Holy Roman Empire. In the Roman Catholic hierarchy, the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz was also the Primate of Germany (), a purely honorary dignity that was unsuccessfully claimed from time to time by other archbishops. There were only two other ecclesiastical Prince-electors in the Empire: the Electorate of Cologne and the Electorate of Trier. The Archbishop-Elector of Mainz was also archchancellor of Germany (one of the three component titular kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire, the other two being Italy and Burgundy) and, as such, ranked first among all ecclesiastical and secular princes of the Empire, and was second only to the Emperor. His political role, particularly as an intermediary between the Estates of the Empire and the Emperor, was considerable. History The episcopal see was established in ancient Roman times in the city of Mainz, which had been a Roman provincial capital, Moguntiacum. The first bishops before the 4th century have legendary names, beginning with Crescens. The first verifiable Bishop of Mainz was Martinus in 343. The ecclesiastical and secular importance of Mainz dates from the accession of St. Boniface to the see in 747. Boniface was previously an archbishop though without an assigned see, but that ecclesiastical status did not immediately devolve upon the see itself until his successor Lullus; during his reign Mainz became an archdiocese, in 781. Another early bishop of Mainz was Aureus of Mainz. The territory of the Electorate included several non-contiguous blocks of territory: lands near Mainz on both the left and right banks of the Rhine; territory along the Main River above Frankfurt (including the district of Aschaffenburg); the Eichsfeld region in Lower Saxony and Thuringia; and the territory around Erfurt in Thuringia. As was generally the case in the Holy Roman Empire, the territory of a prince-bishopric or archbishopric differed from that of the corresponding diocese or archdiocese, which was the purely spiritual jurisdiction of the prince-bishop or archbishop. During the early modern age, the archdiocese of Mainz (see map below) was the largest ecclesiastical province of Germany, covering Mainz and 10 suffragant dioceses. In 1802, Mainz lost its archiepiscopal character. In the secularizations that accompanied the (German mediatization) of 1803, the seat of the elector, Karl Theodor von Dalberg, was moved to Regensburg, and the electorate lost its left bank territories to France, its right bank areas along the Main below Frankfurt to Hesse-Darmstadt and the Nassau princes, and Eichsfeld and Erfurt to the Kingdom of Prussia. Dalberg retained the Aschaffenburg area as the Principality of Aschaffenburg. In 1810 Dalberg merged Aschaffenburg, Frankfurt, Wetzlar, Hanau, and Fulda, to form the new Grand Duchy of Frankfurt in 1810. Dalberg resigned in 1813 and in 1815 the Congress of Vienna divided his territories between the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), the Grand Duchy of Hesse and the Free City of Frankfurt. The modern Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz was founded in 1802 when Mainz lost its archdiocese status and its territory west of the Rhine River became a mere diocese within the territory of France. In 1814 its jurisdiction was extended over the territory of Hesse-Darmstadt. Since then it has had two cardinals and via various concordats was allowed to retain the medieval tradition of the cathedral chapter electing a successor to the bishop. See also Electorate of Cologne Electorate of Trier References External links of the modern Diocese Map of the Archbishopric of Mainz in 1789 780 establishments 1803 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire Dioceses established in the 8th century Electoral Rhenish Circle Electorates of the Holy Roman Empire Former states and territories of Bavaria Former states and territories of Hesse Former states and territories of Rhineland-Palatinate History of Catholicism in Germany Electorate Prince-bishoprics of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany	[ -0.29765552282333374, 0.10943490266799927, -0.1272113025188446, 0.1575426608324051, -0.7884132266044617, 0.6524667739868164, 0.4547700881958008, 0.4329359829425812, -0.4697992205619812, -0.4422535002231598, -0.06929423660039902, 0.002379393670707941, 0.2294594645500183, 0.3892722725868225, 0.11895645409822464, 0.2864901125431061, 0.551170825958252, 0.0962802842259407, -0.2884938716888428, -0.35009297728538513, -0.08631392568349838, 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253140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Duchy%20of%20Frankfurt	Grand Duchy of Frankfurt	The Grand Duchy of Frankfurt was a German satellite state of Napoleonic creation. It came into existence in 1810 through the combination of the former territories of the Archbishopric of Mainz along with the Free City of Frankfurt itself. History Frankfurt lost its status as a free imperial city in 1806 with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. The city was granted to the former archbishop of Mainz, Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg, and became the Principality of Frankfurt. When Dalberg was forced by Napoleon to relinquish his Principality of Regensburg to the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1810, his remaining territories of Aschaffenburg, Wetzlar, Fulda, Hanau, and Frankfurt were combined into the new Grand Duchy of Frankfurt. Although the grand duchy was named after Frankfurt, the city was administered by French commissioners while Dalberg resided in the city of Aschaffenburg. According to the constitution of the grand duchy, upon Dalberg's death, the state would be inherited by Napoleon's stepson, Eugène de Beauharnais. Dalberg abdicated in favour of Eugene on 26 October 1813, following Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Leipzig. The grand duchy ceased to exist after December 1813, when the city was occupied by allied troops. While Frankfurt itself once again became a free city, most of the territory of the grand duchy was ultimately annexed by the Kingdom of Bavaria. 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253143	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuamnach	Fuamnach	Fúamnach, or Fuamnach, is Midir's first wife and a witch of the Tuatha Dé Danann in the medieval Irish text Tochmarc Étaíne ("The Wooing of Étaín"). The text describes her as being intelligent (gáeth), cunning (trebar) and "versed in the knowledge and power of the Túatha Dé Danand", explaining that her fosterfather had been the wizard druid Bresal Etarlám. She is said to be of the progeny (clann) of Béothach son of Iardanél, who is probably identical with Béothach son of Iarbonel, the father of the Túatha Dé Danann in the Lebor Gabála Érenn. Summary When Midir fell in love with Étaín and married her, Fúamnach got so jealous that she cast several spells on her as soon as the couple arrived in Midir's residence in Brí Léith: First, having welcomed the couple and having seated Étáin in the centre of the house, she struck her wand of scarlet rowan (cáerthann) on her, transforming her rival into a pool of water. When Étaín changed from being a pool to a worm and subsequently a beautiful scarlet fly (cuil corcrai), she joined Midir once more as his companion. Second, on a visit to Midir (escorted by Lug, the Dagdae and Ogmae), Fúamnach announced that she would drive Étaín away from him and employed a spell which she had learnt from her fosterfather: she conjured up a mighty wind which blew Étaín through the air for the duration of seven years, after which she came to Óengus (Mac Óc) in the Brug. He lovingly kept her with him in a specially designed, protective bower (grianán). Third, on discovering what had come of Étaín, Fúamnach deceived Mac Óc into coming to Brí Léith on the pretext that she desired to establish peace between them. However, as Mac Óc was on his way, Fúamnach travelled to the Brug by an alternative route and conjured up yet another wind which forced Étaín to roam another seven years without setting foot on land. Étaín finally arrived at a house in Ulster, where she fell into the cup of the (anonymous) wife of the warrior Étar. As she emptied her cup, she swallowed Étaín and miraculously gave (re-)birth to Étaín as her own daughter (the tale goes on to say that Étaín grew up and met a mysterious horseman who had been looking for her). Fúamnach did not live long to see the fruits of her work. When Mac Óc met Midir at Brí Léith, he discovered what deceptive scheme had led him there. Mac Óc followed Fúamnach's trail to the house of her fosterfather Bresal and there struck off her head, which he carried as a trophy back to the Brug. Name The name Fúamnach may be an adjective noun derived from fúaimm "noise, sound". To cite one example, the dindsenchas poem on Nás speaks of fáidiud find-gel fúamnach Fáil ("the lamentation of the fair-skinned vocal women of Fáil"). The form fúaimnech is also attested as a personal name for Fúaimnech, daughter of Conn Cétchathach, who appears in the legal tract Mellbretha. Notes Characters in Irish mythology Women in mythology	[ -0.7127562761306763, 0.06113829463720322, -0.015797734260559082, -0.9040589332580566, -0.23210667073726654, 0.510405957698822, 0.36737149953842163, -0.30566543340682983, -0.20849213004112244, 0.23250968754291534, -0.6759805083274841, 0.7591433525085449, 0.16991928219795227, 0.09425224363803864, -0.2943567931652069, 0.13264824450016022, 0.5609328150749207, 0.5065635442733765, -0.04549652338027954, -0.7729325294494629, 0.060478366911411285, -0.47669973969459534, 0.08281127363443375, 0.1767978072166443, 1.1512702703475952, 0.35722875595092773, 0.43192848563194275, 0.010358810424804688, -0.06675570458173752, 0.10748044401407242, -0.3329188823699951, -0.09843632578849792, 0.5024702548980713, -0.8301660418510437, 0.1018984243273735, 0.21949166059494019, 0.015545361675322056, -0.1288716048002243, -0.43695011734962463, -0.11198896169662476, -0.30065542459487915, 0.07590793073177338, 0.5195509791374207, 0.2595342993736267, 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253147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electorate%20of%20Cologne	Electorate of Cologne	The Electorate of Cologne (), sometimes referred to as Electoral Cologne (), was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire that existed from the 10th to the early 19th century. It consisted of the Hochstift — the temporal possessions — of the Archbishop of Cologne, and was ruled by him in his capacity as prince-elector. There were only two other ecclesiastical prince-electors in the Empire: the Electorate of Mainz and the Electorate of Trier. The Archbishop-Elector of Cologne was also Arch-chancellor of Italy (one of the three component titular kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire, the other two being Germany and Burgundy) and, as such, ranked second among all ecclesiastical and secular princes of the Empire, after the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz, and before that of Trier. The capital of the electorate was Cologne. Conflicts with the citizens of Cologne caused the Elector to move to Bonn. The Free Imperial City of Cologne was recognized after 1475, thus removing it from even the nominal secular authority of the Elector. Cologne and Bonn were occupied by France in 1794. The right bank territories of the Electorate were secularized in 1803 during the German mediatization. The Electorate should not be confused with the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne, which was larger and included suffragan bishoprics such as Liège and Münster over which the Elector-Archbishop exercised only spiritual authority (see map below). History Cologne was the ancient Roman city of Colonia Agrippina in the province of Germania Inferior, and has been a bishop's see since Roman times. In 953, the archbishops of Cologne first gained noteworthy secular power, when Bishop Bruno was appointed as duke by his brother Emperor Otto I. To weaken the secular nobility, who threatened his power, Otto endowed Bruno and his successors in the bishop's see with the prerogatives of secular princes. This was the beginning of the electoral state of Cologne. It was formed from the temporal possessions of the archbishopric and included in the end a strip of territory along the left Bank of the Rhine east of Jülich, and the Duchy of Westphalia on the other side of the Rhine, beyond Berg and Mark. By the end of the 12th century, the Archbishop of Cologne was one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Emperor. Besides being prince-elector, he was Arch-chancellor of Italy as well, technically from 1238 and permanently from 1263 until 1803. In the Battle of Worringen (1288), the archbishop was captured by soldiers of the city and was forced to grant the city near-complete autonomy. Eventually, the archbishop moved to Bonn to escape jurisdiction conflicts with the city government. In 1475, Cologne became a Free Imperial City, independent from the archbishop. The first pogrom against the Jews was in 1349, when they were used as scapegoats for the Black Death, and therefore burnt in an auto-da-fé. Political tensions arose from issues of taxation, public spending, regulation of business, and market supervision, as well as the limits of corporate autonomy. Long-distance trade in the Baltic grew, as the major trading towns came together in the Hanseatic League, under the leadership of Lübeck. It was a business alliance of trading cities and their guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe and flourished from the 1200 to 1500 and continued with lesser importance after that. The chief cities were Cologne on the Rhine River, Hamburg and Bremen on the North Sea, and Lübeck on the Baltic. The economic structures of medieval and early modern Cologne were based on the city's major harbor, its location as a transport hub and its entrepreneurial merchants who built ties with merchants in other Hanseatic cities. During the 16th century, two Archbishops of Cologne converted to Protestantism. The first, Hermann von Wied, resigned the archbishopric on converting, but Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, who converted to Calvinism in 1582, attempted to secularize the archbishopric. His marriage the following February, and his refusal to relinquish the territory resulted in the election of a competing archbishop and prince-elector, Ernst of Bavaria, brother of the Wittelsbach Duke of Bavaria. In the Cologne War that followed, the pope funded Italian and Spanish mercenaries and the Catholic Bavarians also sent an army to support Ernst, while the Protestant Netherlands supported von Waldburg. The war ruined most of the Electoral economy, and many villages and towns were besieged and destroyed. The Siege of Godesberg in November–December 1583 ended with the destruction of Godesberg Castle and the slaughter of most of its inhabitants. After several more sieges, von Waldburg gave up his claim to the see and retired to Strasbourg with his wife. Ernst became archbishop–the first major success of the Counter-Reformation in Germany. Under Ernst's direction, Jesuits supervised the reintroduction of Catholicism in the Electorate. From 1583 to 1761, the archbishopric was effectively a secundogeniture of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. As the archbishop in this period usually also held the Bishopric of Münster (and often the Bishopric of Liège), he was one of the most important princes of northwestern Germany. From 1597 until 1794, Bonn was the residence the Elector, and consequently the capital of the Electorate. After 1795, the electorate's territories on the left bank of the Rhine were occupied by France and were formally annexed in 1801. Cologne was part of the département of Roer; Bonn was part of the département of Rhin-et-Moselle. The Reichsdeputationshauptschluss of 1803 secularized the rest of the archbishopric, giving the Duchy of Westphalia to the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt and Vest Recklinghausen to the Duke of Arenberg. Cologne was, however, reestablished as the seat of a Catholic archbishop in 1824, and is an archdiocese to the present day. List of electors Notes External links 1803 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire Cologne, Electorate Cologne 953 establishments Establishments in East Francia Former states and territories of Rhineland-Palatinate	[ -0.12006666511297226, 0.02126573957502842, 0.4155232012271881, 0.04689890891313553, -0.6989913582801819, 0.5508520603179932, 0.29410386085510254, 0.3378235399723053, -0.01232204306870699, -0.41099923849105835, 0.06031859293580055, -0.10871515423059464, 0.04910031706094742, 0.21018162369728088, -0.17140166461467743, 0.1666048914194107, 0.7825697064399719, 0.4445207417011261, -0.24841700494289398, -0.6129140257835388, -0.13296303153038025, -0.08834799379110336, 0.27091413736343384, 0.5651071667671204, 0.518381655216217, -0.4396372139453888, 0.5965940356254578, -0.11773476749658585, 0.07189954817295074, 0.14231601357460022, 0.4784250557422638, 0.8269439339637756, -0.274097740650177, -0.5296065807342529, -0.6326878666877747, 0.2580205798149109, 0.10566312074661255, 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253148	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reg%20Mombassa	Reg Mombassa	Christopher O'Doherty, also known by the pseudonym Reg Mombassa, is an Australian New Zealand-born artist and musician. He is a founding member of the band Mental As Anything and member of Dog Trumpet (alongside his brother Peter O'Doherty). Early life Mombassa was born Christopher O'Doherty in Auckland, New Zealand, on 14 August 1951. O'Doherty, his parents and younger brother Peter immigrated to Sydney, Australia, in 1969. He enrolled in what is now the National Art School in Darlinghurst in 1969 but left the following year. He returned again in 1975 and obtained his Diploma of Painting in 1977. Between and during his stints at college he supported himself with menial jobs such as builder's labouring, cleaning, house painting and working on the railways. In 1976 he formed the rock band Mental as Anything with four fellow art school students, ostensibly to play at school parties. Although they did not initially intend to be a serious band, the Mentals, as they became known, eventually turned professional. Art career Mombassa's artwork is in two distinctive styles. The type of artwork he designs for Mambo – almost cartoonish and in vivid colours, incorporating religious, political and popular culture themes – is probably the style he is most widely known for. However his landscapes and portraits, many of which are inspired by his childhood in New Zealand, are equally sought after. His artworks can be found in the Art Gallery of New South Wales, the National Gallery of Australia and other important regional galleries. Patrick White, Elton John and Ewan McGregor have all famously purchased his work. Mombassa's first public showing was in a group exhibition held at Watters Gallery in Sydney in 1975 while he was still attending art college. It was at this exhibition that Patrick White purchased some works and subsequently became a patron, purchasing many others over his life. He first exhibited solo at Watters in 1986, the year he also began designing clothing for Mambo. His works were exhibited in three Mental as Anything collective exhibitions in 1982, 1990 and 1998. Further solo shows were held at Watters in 1991, 1993, 1995 and 1998. Alongside posters, record covers and merchandise for Mental As Anything and Dog Trumpet, he has designed record covers for the likes of PIL, Crowded House, Mondo Rock and Paul Kelly. He has gifted artwork to many charitable and environmental organisations including Greenpeace and The Wilderness Society. As Mombassa's artistic output and demand increased it prompted him to make the difficult decision to cease touring with the Mentals in April 2000. He has continued to design for Mambo and hold sellout exhibitions at Watters in 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007 and 2009. In January 2000, a career retrospective of his work was held in Sydney at the S. H. Ervin Gallery. An 80-page catalogue was released by the National Trust to coincide with this exhibition. It also saw the release of "Golden Sandals" directed by Haydn Keenan, a documentary on Mombassa featuring animated versions of his artwork. In March 2007 his self-portrait was selected as a finalist in the Archibald Prize. 2 May 2007 saw the broadcast of "Golden Sandals" on SBS independent. One of his most famous works was "Self-Portrait with Spots and Veins" (2003). He was also featured on the ABC TV profile show Talking Heads. In 2009 he was featured on BBC TV's Peschardt's People. In November 2009 Harper Collins released a biography by Murray Waldren called "The mind and times of Reg Mombassa", which includes over 200 art works. In 2013 Mombassa was the creative ambassador for the New Year Eve Sydney fireworks, the theme was shine The centrepiece of Mombassa's contribution to the night was the unveiling of a single blinking eye on the Harbour Bridge gazing down on the 1.5 million revellers. The origin of the name Reg Mombassa In the early days of the Mentals, the band would often invent pseudonyms for each other that combined an exotic last name with a common Australian firstname. "Reg Mombassa" was one of the products of that amusement. He has stated in interviews that some of his earlier pseudonyms included "Brett Orlando" and "Dorky Bladder". Dog Trumpet In 1991, Mombassa formed the band Dog Trumpet with his brother Peter O'Doherty. Since leaving the Mentals this has been his sole musical outlet. Dog Trumpet has released five studio albums and two EPs. The band's latest album, Medicated Spirits was released in August 2013 and has been long-listed for the Australian Music Prize Album of the Year award for 2013. Dog Trumpet released the album Great South Road in May 2020 and signed to Demon Music in 2021 and all seven album will be release on Vinyl on 29th Oct 2021. Other music and films In 1987, with Peter, Martin Plaza and members of GANGgajang, Mombassa recorded a country music album credited to The Stetsons. Mombassa has also appeared in a number of small Australian films, including Tender Hooks (1989), Strange Planet (1999) and Love's Brother (2004). References Eye, No. 46, Vol. 12, edited by John L. Walters, Quantum Publishing, London, Winter 2002. External links Transcript of interview (ABC, Talking Heads, 2007) Golden Sandals documentary maker's website 1951 births Living people ARIA Award winners Australian musicians Australian painters People from Auckland National Art School alumni New Zealand emigrants to Australia	[ 0.3274196982383728, 0.46600842475891113, -0.7900586128234863, -0.6031121015548706, 0.3978371322154999, 0.5036611557006836, 0.09231109172105789, 0.1707802414894104, -0.22648043930530548, -0.083723284304142, -0.6783996820449829, 0.21386727690696716, -0.5574421286582947, 0.03380328044295311, 0.12274320423603058, 0.35877642035484314, -0.18369963765144348, -0.21848329901695251, 0.16438661515712738, -0.12252693623304367, 0.008604016155004501, -0.14454850554466248, 0.04659154638648033, 0.4430222809314728, -0.36701324582099915, 0.6281379461288452, 0.13652972877025604, 0.7823371887207031, -0.3719339370727539, -0.3416791558265686, 0.4699038565158844, 0.614525318145752, 0.839202344417572, -0.5643232464790344, 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253149	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porter%27s%20five%20forces%20analysis	Porter's five forces analysis	Porter's Five Forces Framework is a method of analysing the operating environment of a competition of a business. It draws from industrial organization (IO) economics to derive five forces that determine the competitive intensity and, therefore, the attractiveness (or lack thereof) of an industry in terms of its profitability. An "unattractive" industry is one in which the effect of these five forces reduces overall profitability. The most unattractive industry would be one approaching "pure competition", in which available profits for all firms are driven to normal profit levels. The five-forces perspective is associated with its originator, Michael E. Porter of Harvard University. This framework was first published in Harvard Business Review in 1979. Porter refers to these forces as the microenvironment, to contrast it with the more general term macroenvironment. They consist of those forces close to a company that affect its ability to serve its customers and make a profit. A change in any of the forces normally requires a business unit to re-assess the marketplace given the overall change in industry information. The overall industry attractiveness does not imply that every firm in the industry will return the same profitability. Firms are able to apply their core competencies, business model or network to achieve a profit above the industry average. A clear example of this is the airline industry. As an industry, profitability is low because the industry's underlying structure of high fixed costs and low variable costs afford enormous latitude in the price of airline travel. Airlines tend to compete on cost, and that drives down the profitability of individual carriers as well as the industry itself because it simplifies the decision by a customer to buy or not buy a ticket. A few carriers – Richard Branson's Virgin Atlantic is one – have tried, with limited success, to use sources of differentiation in order to increase profitability. Porter's five forces include three forces from 'horizontal' competition – the threat of substitute products or services, the threat of established rivals, and the threat of new entrants – and two others from 'vertical' competition – the bargaining power of suppliers and the bargaining power of customers. Porter developed his five forces framework in reaction to the then-popular SWOT analysis, which he found both lacking in rigor and ad hoc. Porter's five-forces framework is based on the structure–conduct–performance paradigm in industrial organizational economics. Other Porter strategy tools include the value chain and generic competitive strategies. Five Forces That Shape Competition Threat of new entrants New entrants put pressure on current organizations within an industry through their desire to gain market share. This in turn puts pressure on prices, costs, and the rate of investment needed to sustain a business within the industry. The threat of new entrants is particularly intense if they are diversifying from another market as they can leverage existing expertise, cash flow, and brand identity as it puts a strain on existing companies' profitability. Barriers to entry restrict the threat of new entrants. If the barriers are high, the threat of new entrants is reduced and conversely if the barriers are low, the risk of new companies venturing into a given market is high. Barriers to entry are advantages that existing, established companies have over new entrants. Michael E. Porter differentiates two factors which can have an effect on how much of a threat new entrants may pose: Barriers to entry The most attractive segment is one in which entry barriers are high and exit barriers are low. It is worth noting, however, that high barriers to entry almost always make exit more difficult. Michael E. Porter lists 7 major sources of entry barriers: Supply-side economies of scale – spreading the fixed costs over a larger volume of units thus reducing the cost per unit. This can discourage a new entrant because they either have to start trading at a smaller volume of unit and accept a price disadvantage over larger companies, or risk coming into the market on a large scale in an attempt to displace the existing market leader. Demand-side benefits of scale – this occurs when a buyers willingness to purchase a particular product or service increases with other people's willingness to purchase it. Also known as network effect, people tend to value being in a 'network' with a larger number of people who use the same company. Customer switching costs – These are well illustrated by structural market characteristics such as supply chain integration but also can be created by firms. Airline frequent flyer programs are an example. Capital requirements – clearly the Internet has influenced this factor dramatically. Websites and apps can be launched cheaply and easily as opposed to the brick-and-mortar industries of the past. Incumbency advantages independent of size (e.g., customer loyalty and brand equity). Unequal access to distribution channels – if there are a limited number of distribution channels for a certain product/service, new entrants may struggle to find a retail or wholesale channel to sell through as existing competitors will have a claim on them. Government policy such as sanctioned monopolies, legal franchise requirements, patents, and regulatory requirements. Expected retaliation For example, a specific characteristic of oligopoly markets is that prices generally settle at an equilibrium because any price rises or cuts are easily matched by the competition. Threat of substitutes A substitute product uses a different technology to try to solve the same economic need. Examples of substitutes are meat, poultry, and fish; landlines and cellular telephones; airlines, automobiles, trains, and ships; beer and wine; and so on. For example, tap water is a substitute for Coke, but Pepsi is a product that uses the same technology (albeit different ingredients) to compete head-to-head with Coke, so it is not a substitute. Increased marketing for drinking tap water might "shrink the pie" for both Coke and Pepsi, whereas increased Pepsi advertising would likely "grow the pie" (increase consumption of all soft drinks), while giving Pepsi a larger market share at Coke's expense. Potential factors: Buyer propensity to substitute. This aspect incorporated both tangible and intangible factors. Brand loyalty can be very important as in the Coke and Pepsi example above; however contractual and legal barriers are also effective. Relative price performance of substitute Buyer's switching costs. This factor is well illustrated by the mobility industry. Uber and its many competitors took advantage of the incumbent taxi industry's dependence on legal barriers to entry and when those fell away, it was trivial for customers to switch. There were no costs as every transaction was atomic, with no incentive for customers not to try another product. Perceived level of product differentiation which is classic Michael Porter in the sense that there are only two basic mechanisms for competition – lowest price or differentiation. Developing multiple products for niche markets is one way to mitigate this factor. Number of substitute products available in the market Ease of substitution Availability of close substitutes Bargaining power of customers The bargaining power of customers is also described as the market of outputs: the ability of customers to put the firm under pressure, which also affects the customer's sensitivity to price changes. Firms can take measures to reduce buyer power, such as implementing a loyalty program. Buyers' power is high if buyers have many alternatives. It is low if they have few choices. Potential factors: Buyer concentration to firm concentration ratio Degree of dependency upon existing channels of distribution Bargaining leverage, particularly in industries with high fixed costs Buyer switching costs Buyer information availability Availability of existing substitute products Buyer price sensitivity Differential advantage (uniqueness) of industry products RFM (customer value) Analysis Bargaining power of suppliers The bargaining power of suppliers is also described as the market of inputs. Suppliers of raw materials, components, labor, and services (such as expertise) to the firm can be a source of power over the firm when there are few substitutes. If you are making biscuits and there is only one person who sells flour, you have no alternative but to buy it from them. Suppliers may refuse to work with the firm or charge excessively high prices for unique resources. Potential factors are: Supplier switching costs relative to firm switching costs Degree of differentiation of inputs Impact of inputs on cost and differentiation Presence of substitute inputs Strength of distribution channel Supplier concentration to firm concentration ratio Employee solidarity (e.g. labor unions) Supplier competition: the ability to forward vertically integrate and cut out the buyer. Competitive rivalry For most industries the intensity of competitive rivalry is the biggest determinant of the competitiveness of the industry. Having an understanding of industry rivals is vital to successfully marketing a product. Positioning depends on how the public perceives a product and distinguishes it from that of competitors. An organization must be aware of its competitors' marketing strategies and pricing and also be reactive to any changes made. Rivalry among competitors tends to be cutthroat and industry profitability low while having the potential factors below: Potential factors: Sustainable competitive advantage through innovation Competition between online and offline organizations Level of advertising expense Powerful competitive strategy which could potentially be realized by adhering to Porter's work on low cost versus differentiation. Firm concentration ratio Factors, Not Forces Other factors below should also be considered as they can contribute in evaluating a firm's strategic position. These factors can commonly be mistaken for being the underlying structure of the firm; however, the underlying structure consists of the five factors above. Industry Growth Rate Sometimes bad strategy decisions can be made when a narrow focus is kept on the growth rate of an industry. While rapid growth in an industry can seem attractive, it can also attract new entrants especially if entry barriers are low and suppliers are powerful. Furthermore, profitability is not guaranteed if powerful substitutes become available to the customers . For example, Blockbuster dominated the rental market throughout 1990s. In 1998, Reed Hastings founded Netflix and entered the market. Netflix's CEO was famously laughed out of the room. While Blockbuster was thriving and expanding rapidly, its key pitfall was ignoring its competitors and focusing on its growth in the industry. Technology and Innovation Technology in itself is a rapidly growing industry. Regardless of the advanced growth, it presents its limitations; such as customers not being able to physically touch/test products. Technology stand alone cannot always provide a desirable experience for a customer. "Boring" companies that are in high entry barrier industries with high switching costs and price-sensitive buyers can be more profitable than "tech savvy" companies. For example, quite commonly websites with menus and online booking options attract customers to a restaurant. But the restaurant experience cannot be delivered online with the use of technology. Food delivery companies like Uber Eats can deliver the food to customers but cannot replace the restaurant atmospheric experience. Government Government cannot be a standalone force as it is a factor that can affect the firms structure of five forces above. It is neither good or bad for the industry's profitability. For instance, patents can raise barriers to entry supplier power can be raised by union favoritism from government policies failing companies reorganizing due to bankruptcy laws Complementary Products and Services Similar to Government above, complementary products/services cannot be a standalone factor because it's not necessarily bad or good for industry's profitability. Complements occur when customer benefits from multiple products combined. Individually those standalone products can be redundant. For example, a car would be unusable without petrol/gas and a driver. Or for example a computer is best used with computer software. This factor is controversial (as discussed below in Criticisms) as many believe it to be 6th Force. However, Complements influence the forces more than they form the underlying structure of market. For instance, complements can influence barriers of entry by either lowering or raising it e.g. Apple providing set of tools to develop apps, lowers barriers to entry; make substitution easier e.g. Spotify replacing CDs A strategy consults job is to identify complements and apply to the forces above. Usage Strategy consultants occasionally use Porter's five forces framework when making a qualitative evaluation of a firm's strategic position. However, for most consultants, the framework is only a starting point and value chain analysis or another type of analysis may be used in conjunction with this model. Like all general frameworks, an analysis that uses it to the exclusion of specifics about a particular situation is considered naïve . According to Porter, the five forces framework should be used at the line-of-business industry level; it is not designed to be used at the industry group or industry sector level. An industry is defined at a lower, more basic level: a market in which similar or closely related products and/or services are sold to buyers (see industry information). A firm which competes in a single industry should develop, at a minimum, one five forces analysis for its industry. Porter makes clear that for diversified companies, the primary issue in corporate strategy is the selection of industries (lines of business) in which the company will compete. The average Fortune Global 1,000 company competes in 52 industries. Criticisms Porter's framework has been challenged by other academics and strategists. For instance, Kevin P. Coyne and Somu Subramaniam claim that three dubious assumptions underlie the five forces: That buyers, competitors, and suppliers are unrelated and do not interact and collude. That the source of value is structural advantage (creating barriers to entry). That uncertainty is low, allowing participants in a market to plan for and respond to changes in competitive behavior. An important extension to Porter's work came from Adam Brandenburger and Barry Nalebuff of Yale School of Management in the mid-1990s. Using game theory, they added the concept of complementors (also called "the 6th force") to try to explain the reasoning behind strategic alliances. Complementors are known as the impact of related products and services already in the market. The idea that complementors are the sixth force has often been credited to Andrew Grove, former CEO of Intel Corporation. Martyn Richard Jones, while consulting at Groupe Bull, developed an augmented five forces model in Scotland in 1993. It is based on Porter's Framework and includes Government (national and regional) as well as pressure groups as the notional 6th force. This model was the result of work carried out as part of Groupe Bull's Knowledge Asset Management Organisation initiative. Porter indirectly rebutted the assertions of other forces, by referring to innovation, government, and complementary products and services as "factors" that affect the five forces. It is also perhaps not feasible to evaluate the attractiveness of an industry independently of the resources that a firm brings to that industry. It is thus argued (Wernerfelt 1984) that this theory be combined with the resource-based view (RBV) in order for the firm to develop a sounder framework. Other criticisms include: It places too much weight on the macro-environment and doesn't assess more specific areas of the business that also impact competitiveness and profitability It does not provide any actions to help deal with high or low force threats (e.g., what should management do if there is a high threat of substitution?) See also Coopetition Economics of Strategy Industry classification Marketing Strategy National Diamond Strategic management Porter's four corners model Nonmarket forces Value chain Marketing management References Further reading Coyne, K.P. and Sujit Balakrishnan (1996),Bringing discipline to strategy, The McKinsey Quarterly, No.4. Porter, M.E. (March–April 1979) How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy, Harvard Business Review. Porter, M.E. (1980) Competitive Strategy, Free Press, New York. Porter, M.E. (January 2008) The Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy, Harvard Business Review. Ireland, R. D., Hoskisson, R. and Hitt, M. (2008). Understanding business strategy: Concepts and cases. Cengage Learning. Rainer R.K. and Turban E. (2009), Introduction to Information Systems (2nd edition), Wiley, pp 36–41. Kotler P. (1997), Marketing Management, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel J. (1998) Strategy Safari, Simon & Schuster. 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253156	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Open%20Cup	U.S. Open Cup	The Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, commonly known as the U.S. Open Cup (USOC), is a knockout cup competition in men's American soccer. It is the oldest ongoing national soccer competition in the United States. The competition was first held during the 1913–1914 season as the National Challenge Cup, with Brooklyn Field Club winning a trophy donated by Thomas Dewar for the promotion of American soccer. It was renamed and dedicated to North American Soccer League (NASL) and Major League Soccer (MLS) executive Lamar Hunt by the United States Soccer Federation in 1999. The 107th and 108th editions planned to be held in 2020 and 2021 were to be contested by 100 clubs from the four professional leagues sanctioned by the United States Soccer Federation – Major League Soccer (MLS), the United Soccer League's Championship and League One divisions, and the National Independent Soccer Association (NISA) – as well as amateur clubs in the earlier rounds of the tournament that qualify through their respective leagues. The overall champion is awarded $300,000 in prize money and a berth in the CONCACAF Champions League, while the runner-up receives $100,000, and the furthest-advancing team from each lower-division league receives $25,000. The 2020 & 2021 tournaments were canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, ending 106 years of consecutive play. MLS teams have dominated the competition since the league began play in 1996. No lower division team has won the U.S. Open Cup since the Rochester Rhinos in 1999, and none have reached the final since the Charleston Battery in 2008. The most recent champions of the competition, Atlanta United FC, won their first title after defeating Minnesota United FC 2–1 in the 2019 final. Format The competition is a single-elimination tournament that has been contested by at least 80 teams since the 2014 edition. This pool consists of the American clubs in the professional leagues, which are Major League Soccer the league now known as the USL Championship, USL League One and National Independent Soccer Association as well as amateur teams from the Premier Development League (now USL League Two), National Premier Soccer League, the United States Adult Soccer Association, and US Club Soccer. The first three rounds, consisting of amateur and lower-league teams, are played during consecutive weekdays in May with amateur teams advancing to face USL clubs in geographical pairings in the second round. The winner of each match progresses to the next round and the loser is eliminated from the tournament. MLS clubs enter play in the fourth round, matched geographically with the winners of the third round to play on a date in June that is determined by the home side specifically selected for non-interference with league games. After the fourth round, no new teams are introduced, leading to a quarterfinal round in July, a semifinal round in August, and a final match to determine the champion in September. Every match, including the final, is a one-legged tie that lasts 90 minutes plus any additional stoppage time. If no clear winner has been determined after 90 minutes of normal time, 30 minutes of extra time is played. If the score is still level after extra time then the winner is decided by a penalty shoot-out. Qualification Through the 2011 edition, eight teams from each level of the American Soccer Pyramid took part in the competition proper, with each league narrowing its delegation separately in the spring before the competition officially began in the summer. In some cases, additional teams played in qualifying rounds to gain entry. One example was found with MLS clubs, as only the top six from the previous regular season received automatic bids, while the bottom U.S.-based MLS teams faced each other to qualify for the remaining two MLS slots. Beginning in 2012, the competition was expanded from its previous 40 teams to 64, with the qualifying process radically changed. The National Premier Soccer League received six places, plus the possibility of a seventh in a playoff against a team from the amateur US Club Soccer setup. Nine clubs from the USASA earned places, as did 16 USL Premier Development League teams. Each of these organizations has its own qualifying process to determine its entrants. These 32 teams competed in the first round of the Cup, with the winners meeting all 16 USL Pro and NASL teams in the second round. The 16 U.S.-based MLS teams entered in the third round. In 2013 the competition was expanded to 68 teams. All U.S.-based Division I, II and III teams participated in the tournament proper: 16 from Major League Soccer, six from the North American Soccer League and 12 from USL PRO. The remaining 34 spots in the tournament field were filled by amateur teams from the Adult Council category–16 from the Premier Development League, eight from U.S. Adult Soccer Association regional qualifying, eight from the National Premier Soccer League, one from US Club Soccer and one from the United States Specialty Sports Association. The process for determining the site for the Open Cup tournament semifinals and final was changed in 2013. In past years, the sites for the final three matches of the tournament had been determined through a sealed-bid process, but in 2013 the hosts of those games were determined by a coin flip. Home teams throughout the entire tournament were determined by random selection. Since 2008, the champion of the U.S. Open Cup has earned the right to play in the CONCACAF Champions League. The first team to represent the U.S. as Open Cup champion was 2007's winner, New England Revolution. Starting in 2016, lower-division professional clubs owned by higher-division professional clubs are no longer eligible to participate in the U.S. Open Cup. This removed the MLS reserve clubs in USL from the 2016 competition, after issues of clubs holding back players from their USL sides in 2015 in order to keep them eligible to play for the parent MLS club. Players are only allowed to play for one club in any US Open Cup season. Amateur clubs remain eligible to enter even if they are owned by professional clubs. Initially, "hybrid affiliate" clubs—i.e., lower-division professional clubs that are staffed but not owned by higher-division clubs—also remained eligible, but those clubs were also banned effective with the 2016 competition. This last change was proposed by the Houston Dynamo, which were the senior club to Rio Grande Valley FC Toros in the first such arrangement in the U.S. game. History The competition dates back to 1913–1914, when it was known as the National Challenge Cup. In 1999, U.S. Soccer honored patron, Lamar Hunt, by changing the official title of the tournament to the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup. The winners of the tournament were awarded the Dewar Cup, donated by Sir Thomas Dewar for the promotion of soccer in the United States in 1912, until it was retired due to poor condition in 1979. It was brought back into use by the United States Adult Soccer Association in 1997, but is now back on permanent display at the National Soccer Hall of Fame at Toyota Stadium in Frisco, Texas, and the recent winners of the tournament have been awarded a new, different trophy. Despite this, the name of each winning club is still added to the base of the original Dewar Cup. The National Challenge Cup was the first truly national cup competition in the United States, as previous cups had been effectively relegated to regional status by the difficulties in coordination and travel caused by the size of the United States in the early 1900s. While U.S. Soccer had initially administered the competition, in 1985 they handed over management to the USASA. In 1995, U.S. Soccer resumed its administration of the competition. Maccabee Los Angeles of California and Bethlehem Steel of Pennsylvania have both won the cup a record five times, while Greek American AA of New York and Seattle Sounders FC are tied for the record for most consecutive cup victories at three. The old NASL did not participate in the Open Cup. Since MLS' debut in 1996, MLS clubs have won the cup in all but one of those years. The Rochester Rhinos of the 2nd division A-League were surprise winners in 1999, defeating four MLS clubs, including the Colorado Rapids 2–0 in the championship match. The first professional team to win in the modern era were the Richmond Kickers of the USISL (the predecessor to the A-League, later known as the USL First Division, USL Pro, United Soccer League, and now as the USL Championship) in 1995, one year before the start of MLS. D.C. United were the first MLS team to win in 1996. The first round of the 2020 edition was suspended in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The tournament was canceled entirely in August 2020, with all qualified teams automatically qualified for the following year; however, the 2021 Open Cup was canceled as well, due to schedule congestion as an effect of the pandemic. The tournament will resume in 2022 with 71 professional clubs out of a total field of 103, both modern-era records. Hosting Through the 2010 U.S. Open Cup, U.S. Soccer used sealed bids to award home matches. From 2011, U.S. Soccer uses a simple coin toss to decide which team hosts each match for most rounds. When the draw has more than two teams involved, such as the fourth round, U.S. Soccer uses a sealed envelope system. Four envelopes are opened, the first and second are home one and two followed by away one and two. This can be modified due to teams not applying to host and previous round winners not being able to be paired against each other. Champions Champions by number of titles Champions by state MLS honors Player records Career goals The following is a table of the leading career goal scorers in the U.S Open Cup during the modern professional era (1995–present). Season scoring leaders Broadcasting ESPN+ is the exclusive broadcaster of all matches from 2019 to 2022. References External links TheCup.us List of Open Cup finals at RSSSF United States Soccer cup competitions in the United States Annual sporting events in the United States 1913 establishments in the United States Recurring sporting events established in 1913	[ -0.3698214590549469, 0.27718138694763184, 0.2597711682319641, -0.09460455924272537, 0.08031285554170609, 0.14956282079219818, -0.41922515630722046, 0.38254567980766296, -0.4414750933647156, -0.6195265650749207, 0.45165666937828064, 0.4898029863834381, -0.5304116010665894, 0.28312984108924866, 0.6202969551086426, 0.1274126172065735, 0.42563989758491516, 0.3887556493282318, 0.4507955014705658, -0.7334597706794739, -0.053028516471385956, -0.058103159070014954, 0.6204163432121277, -0.7342168092727661, 0.33467036485671997, -0.13535615801811218, -0.34599047899246216, -0.8958723545074463, -0.07409030944108963, 0.2059154063463211, 0.10413546860218048, -0.36744943261146545, 0.3053186237812042, -0.5654996633529663, -0.5836676955223083, 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253157	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local%20churches%20%28affiliation%29	Local churches (affiliation)	The local churches are a Christian group which was started in China in the 1920s and have spread globally. The basic organizing principle of the local churches is that there should be only one Christian church in each city, a principle that was first articulated by Watchman Nee in a 1926 exposition of the seven churches in Asia in Revelation 1:11. The local churches do not take a name, but some outsiders referred to the group as the "Little Flock" as they sang from a hymnal entitled Hymns for the Little Flock. From early on, members of this group emphasized a personal experience of Christ and the establishment of a pattern of church practice according to the New Testament. Though assemblies identifying as "local churches" can be found worldwide, there are no definitive statistics available on membership, partly because the largest number of members are in China. Estimates range from five hundred thousand to two million members worldwide. History Origins The development of the local churches can be traced to the conversion of Watchman Nee in Fuzhou, China. Nee began to meet outside of denominations with a small group of believers in 1922. At an early age, Nee committed his life to Christian ministry and began to publish his works on the Christian faith and on church practice after moving to Shanghai in 1927. Nee appreciated the teachings of the Plymouth Brethren, especially John Nelson Darby, and many of Nee's teachings, including not taking a name, plural eldership, disavowal of a clergy-laity distinction, and worship centered around the Lord's Supper, mirror that source. From 1930 to 1935, there was communication internationally between the local churches and the branch of the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church associated with James Taylor, Sr. The Taylor group of Exclusive Brethren saw the churches in China as a parallel work of God. However, Nee and other Chinese leaders disagreed with their prohibition of celebrating The Lord's Supper with Christians outside of their own meetings. Matters came to a head when Exclusive Brethren leaders discovered that Nee had broken bread with non-Brethren Christians, including T. Austin-Sparks in London and Thornton Stearns in Hartford, during a 1933 visit to the United Kingdom and North America. After a series of letters exchanged between leaders in New York, London, and Shanghai over a two-year period, on 31 August 1935, the Exclusive Brethren in London wrote to Shanghai terminating their fellowship. Nee's seminal works expounding his view of local churches—The Assembly Life and Concerning Our Missions—were written against the background of his experience with the Exclusive Brethren. Nee taught that there should only be one church in every city, that Christians should meet together simply as believers living in the same city regardless of differences in doctrine or practice. Nee believed that this would eliminate divisions between Christians and provide the broadest basis upon which all believers could meet. Both Nee and Witness Lee emphasized the New Testament's references to churches by the name of the city (for example, in Acts, the Christians in Jerusalem being referred to as "the church which was at Jerusalem" (NKJV), as well as other verses with the same convention, including 1 Corinthians 1:2; Revelation 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7 and 14). Since Nee and Lee taught that there should only be one church in each city, and that that city was the extent of a church's jurisdiction, members of the local churches usually refer to their congregations as "the church in (city name)." According to Nee, this means that "the church in her locality must be inclusive, not exclusive,” that is, it “must include all the children of God in the whole spectrum of Christian faith and practice." Though Nee took the lead among the local churches in China, it was through one of his co-workers—Witness Lee —that the local churches spread worldwide. The two men first met in Lee's hometown of Yantai in 1932. Two years later, Lee moved to Shanghai to work with Nee. One of Lee's responsibilities there was the editing of some of Nee's publications. In the following years, Nee published many works and held regular conferences and trainings for church workers. Nee, Lee and other workers established over seven hundred local churches throughout China before the Communist Revolution resulted in the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. Near the end of the Communist Revolution, Nee sent Witness Lee to Taiwan to ensure that their work would survive the political turmoil. Developments after 1949 The Denunciation Movement that began in 1951 after China entered the Korean War aimed at severing Christian groups in China from foreign influence, including expelling all foreign missionaries. As a side effect of the disbanding of mission churches, the local churches experienced "a spectacular rise in membership." The Denunciation Movement turned to leading Chinese Christians who would not join the Three-Self Reform Movement. Nee, who managed his family's pharmaceutical company, was imprisoned in 1952 during the Five-Anti Campaign and died in a labor camp 20 years later. Meanwhile, the work in Taiwan led by Witness Lee had grown to more than twenty thousand members in sixty-five churches. Witness Lee visited the United States in 1958 and moved there in 1962, settling first in Los Angeles. Today there are 250 local churches in the United States with approximately 30,000 members, and local churches can be found on all six inhabited continents. Church meetings The local churches practice mutuality in their meetings based on verses such as 1 Corinthians 14:26 ("Whenever you come together, each one has a psalm, has a teaching, has a revelation, has a tongue, has an interpretation. Let all things be done for building up."). Participants are encouraged to request hymns, offer brief comments, or pray at will. This is particularly evident in "prophesying meetings" in which members speak one after another usually based on what they studied throughout the previous week from the Recovery Version, the books of Watchman Nee and Witness Lee, and the periodical Holy Word for Morning Revival all published by Living Stream Ministry. Beliefs The local churches believe that: Evaluation In the first decade of the 2000s, the local churches were the subject of two extensive evaluations. These evaluations were performed against the backdrop of decades of controversy (see Local Church controversies). The first was conducted by a faculty panel at Fuller Theological Seminary. After a two-year study, the Fuller panel stated, "It is the conclusion of Fuller Theological Seminary that the teachings and practices of the local churches and its members represent the genuine, historical, biblical Christian faith in every essential aspect." After a six-year study, the Christian Research Institute published a 2009 special issue of their journal in December 2009 with the words "We Were Wrong" on the cover. In it Hank Hanegraaff, Elliot Miller, and Gretchen Passantino published their findings, which resulted in a complete reversal of earlier criticisms. See also Local Church controversies Living Stream Ministry Bibles for America Recovery Version of the Bible The Lord's Recovery References External links . 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253158	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nontrinitarianism	Nontrinitarianism	Nontrinitarianism is a form of Christianity that rejects the mainstream Christian doctrine of the Trinity—the belief that God is three distinct hypostases or persons who are coeternal, coequal, and indivisibly united in one being, or essence (from the Ancient Greek ). Certain religious groups that emerged during the Protestant Reformation have historically been known as antitrinitarian. According to churches that consider the decisions of ecumenical councils final, trinitarianism was definitively declared to be Christian doctrine at the 4th-century ecumenical councils, that of the First Council of Nicaea (325), which declared the full divinity of the Son, and the First Council of Constantinople (381), which declared the divinity of the Holy Spirit. In terms of number of adherents, nontrinitarian denominations comprise a small minority of modern Christians. The largest nontrinitarian Christian denominations are The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Oneness Pentecostals, Jehovah's Witnesses, La Luz del Mundo and the Iglesia ni Cristo. There are a number of other smaller groups, including Christadelphians, Church of the Blessed Hope, Christian Scientists, Dawn Bible Students, Living Church of God, Assemblies of Yahweh, Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ, Members Church of God International, Unitarian Christians, Unitarian Universalist Christians, The Way International, The Church of God International, the United Church of God, Church of God General Conference, and Church of God of the Faith of Abraham. Nontrinitarian views differ widely on the nature of God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit. Various nontrinitarian philosophies, such as adoptionism, monarchianism, and subordinationism existed prior to the establishment of the Trinity doctrine in AD 325, 381, and 431, at the Councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus. Nontrinitarianism was later renewed by Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Unitarian movement during the Protestant Reformation, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18thcentury, and in some groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19thcentury. The doctrine of the Trinity, as held in mainstream Christianity, is not present in the other major Abrahamic religions. Beliefs Christian apologists and other Church Fathers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, having adopted and formulated the Logos Christology, considered the Son of God as the instrument used by the supreme God, the Father, to bring the creation into existence. Justin Martyr, Theophilus of Antioch, Hippolytus of Rome and Tertullian in particular state that the internal Logos of God (Gr. Logos endiathetos, Lat. ratio)—his impersonal divine reason—was begotten as Logos uttered (Gr. Logos prophorikos, Lat. sermo, verbum), becoming a person to be used for the purpose of creation. The Encyclopædia Britannica (11th edition) states: "to some Christians the doctrine of the Trinity appeared inconsistent with the unity of God. ... they therefore denied it, and accepted Jesus Christ, not as incarnate God, but as God's highest creature by whom all else was created. ... [this] view in the early Church long contended with the orthodox doctrine." Although the nontrinitarian view eventually disappeared in the early Church and the Trinitarian view became an orthodox doctrine of modern Christianity, variations of the nontrinitarian view are still held by a small number of Christian groups and denominations. Various views exist regarding the relationships between the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Those who believe that Jesus is not God, nor absolutely equal to God, but was either God's subordinate Son, a messenger from God, or prophet, or the perfect created human: Adoptionism (2nd century AD) holds that Jesus became divine at his baptism (sometimes associated with the Gospel of Mark) or at his resurrection (sometimes associated with Saint Paul and Shepherd of Hermas); Arianism – Arius (AD c.250 or 256–336) believed that the pre-existent Son of God was directly created by the Father, before all ages, and that he was subordinate to God the Father. Arius' position was that the Son was brought forth as the very first of God's creations, and that the Father later created all things through the Son. Arius taught that in the creation of the universe, the Father was the ultimate creator, supplying all the materials and directing the design, while the Son worked the materials, making all things at the bidding and in the service of God, by which "through [Christ] all things came into existence". Arianism became the dominant view in some regions in the time of the Roman Empire, notably the Visigoths until 589. The Third Council of Sirmium in 357 was the high point of Arianism. The Seventh Arian Confession (Second Sirmium Confession) held that both homoousios (of one substance) and homoiousios (of similar substance) were unbiblical and that the Father is greater than the Son (this confession was later known as the Blasphemy of Sirmium): "But since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in Latin substantia, but in Greek ousia, that is, to make it understood more exactly, as to 'coessential,' or what is called, 'like-in-essence,' there ought to be no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written about them, and that they are above men's knowledge and above men's understanding"; Psilanthropism – Ebionites (1st to 4th centuries AD) observed Jewish law, denied the virgin birth and regarded Jesus as a prophet only; Socinianism – Photinus taught that Jesus was the sinless Messiah and redeemer, and the only perfect human son of God, but that he had no pre-human existence. They interpret verses such as John 1:1 to refer to God's "plan" existing in God's mind before Christ's birth; Unitarianism views Jesus as the son of God, subordinate and distinct from his Father; Many Gnostic traditions held that the Christ is a heavenly Aeon but not one with the Father. Those who believe that the Father, the resurrected Son and the Holy Spirit are different aspects of one God, as perceived by the believer, rather than three distinct persons: Modalism – Sabellius (fl. c.215) stated that God took numerous forms in both the Hebrew and the Christian Greek Scriptures, and that God has manifested himself in three primary modes regarding the salvation of mankind. He contended that "Father, Son, and Spirit" were different roles played by the same divine person in various circumstances in history; thus God is Father in creation (God created a Son through the virgin birth), Son in redemption (God manifested himself as Jesus for the purpose of his death upon the cross), and Holy Spirit in regeneration (God's Spirit within the Son and within the souls of Christian believers). In this view, God is not three distinct persons, but rather one person manifesting himself in multiple ways. Trinitarians condemn this view as a heresy. The chief critic of Sabellianism was Tertullian, who labeled the movement "Patripassianism", from the Latin words pater for "father", and passus from the verb "to suffer", because it implied that the Father suffered on the cross. It was coined by Tertullian in his work Adversus Praxeas, ChapterI: "By this Praxeas did a twofold service for the devil at Rome: he drove away prophecy, and he brought in heresy; he put to flight the Paraclete, and he crucified the Father." The term homoousion (, literally same being) later adopted by the Trinitarian Nicene Council for its anti-Arian creed had previously been used by Sabellians. Those who believe that Jesus Christ is Almighty God, but that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are actually three distinct almighty "Gods" with distinct natures, acting as one divine group, united in purpose: Tri-theism – John Philoponus, an Aristotelian and monophysite in Alexandria, in the middle of the 6th century, saw in the Trinity three separate natures, substances and deities, according to the number of divine persons. He sought to justify this view by the Aristotelian categories of genus, species and individuum. In the Middle Ages, Roscellin of Compiegne, the founder of Nominalism, argued for three distinct almighty Gods, with three distinct natures, who were one in mind and purpose, acting together as one divine group or godhead over the universe. He said, though, like Philoponus, that unless the three persons are tres res (three things with distinct natures), the whole Trinity must have been incarnate. And therefore, since only the Logos was made flesh, the other two persons must have had distinct "natures", separate from the Logos, and so had to be separate and distinct Gods, though all three were one in divine work and plan. In this view, they would be considered "three Gods in one". This notion was condemned by St. Anselm. Those who believe that the Holy Spirit is not a person: Binitarianism – Adherents include those people through history who believed that God is only two co-equal and co-eternal persons, the Father and the Word, not three. They taught that the Holy Spirit is not a distinct person, but is the power or divine influence of the Father and Son, emanating out to the universe, in creation, and to believers; Dualism; Marcionism – Marcion (AD c.110160) believed there were two deities, one of creation and judgment (in the Hebrew Bible) and one of redemption and mercy (in the New Testament). Modern Christian groups Christadelphians hold the unitarian belief that although Jesus is the Son of God, this is only a relational title toward the Father who alone is truly God. Christ's personhood, therefore, is human not divine, (believing this to be necessary in order to save humans from their sins). The "Holy Spirit" terminology in the Bible is interpreted as referring to God's impersonal power, or God's character/mind (depending on the context). Church of God General Conference (Abrahamic Faith). The Cooneyites is a Christian sect that split from the Two by Twos in 1928 following Edward Cooney's excommunication from the main group; they deny the Living Witness Doctrine. Iglesia ni Cristo (Tagalog for Church of Christ) views Jesus as human but endowed by God with attributes not found in ordinary humans, though lacking attributes found in God. They contend that it is God's will to worship Jesus. INC rejects the Trinity as heresy, adopting a version of unitarianism. Jehovah's Witnesses (and other Bible Student movement groups such as the Associated Bible Students) teach that God the Father is uniquely Almighty God. They consider Jesus to be "the First-begotten Son", God's only direct creation, and the very first creation by God. They give relative "worship" or "obeisance" (in the sense of homage, as to a king) to Christ, pray through him as God's only high priest, consider him to be their Messiah, but only a Mediator for 144,000 annointed Christians. Very few Jehovah's Witnesses are viewed as anointed. w15 1/15 p. 16 par. 14 They believe that only the Father is without beginning, that the Father is greater than the Son in all things, and that only the Father is worthy of "sacred service" (latria). They believe that the Son had a beginning, and was brought forth at a certain point, as "the firstborn of all creation" and "the only-begotten", as the pre-existent Michael and the "Angel of the LORD" of Exodus, that he left heaven to be born as a perfect human, as the Jewish Messiah and Redeemer, and that after his ascension to heaven he resumed his pre-human identity, but exalted to God's right hand until the last days. They do not believe that the Holy Spirit is an actual person, but consider it to be God's divine active force. w15 1/15 p. 16 par. 14 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct beings that are not united in substance, a view sometimes called social trinitarianism. They believe the three individual deities are "one" in will or purpose, as Jesus was "one" with his disciples, and that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit constitute a single godhead united in purpose. Latter-day Saints believe that Christ is the Firstborn of the Father, that he is subordinate to God the Father (Matthew 26:39), and that Christ created the universe. Latter-day Saints do not subscribe to the ideas that Christ was unlike the Father in substance and that the Father could not appear on earth, or that Christ was adopted by the Father, as presented in Arianism. Latter-day Saints assert that both God and the resurrected Christ have perfected glorified, physical bodies, but do not otherwise classify deity in terms of substance. While Latter-day Saints regard God the Father as the supreme being and literal father of the spirits of all humankind, they also teach that Christ and the Holy Spirit are equally divine and that they share in the Father's "comprehension of all things". The Members Church of God International believes in the divinity of Christ but rejects the doctrine of Trinity. Oneness Pentecostalism is a subset of Pentecostalism that believes God is only one person, and that he manifests himself in different ways, faces, or "modes": "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost) are different designations for the one God. God is the Father. God is the Holy Spirit. The Son is God manifest in flesh. The term Son always refers to the Incarnation, and never to deity apart from humanity." Oneness Pentecostals believe that Jesus was "Son" only when he became flesh on earth, but was the Father prior to being made human. They refer to the Father as the "Spirit" and the Son as the "Flesh". Oneness Pentecostals reject the Trinity doctrine, viewing it as pagan and unscriptural, and hold to the Jesus' Name doctrine with respect to baptisms. Oneness Pentecostals are often referred to as "Modalists" or "Sabellians" or "Jesus Only". Denominations within the Sabbatarian tradition (Armstrongism) believe that Christ the Son and God the Father are co-eternal, but do not teach that the Holy Spirit is a being or person. Armstrong theology holds that God is a "Family" that expands eventually, that "God reproduces Himself", but that originally there was a co-eternal "Duality", God and the Word, rather than a "Trinity". Swedenborgianism holds that the Trinity exists in one person, the Lord God Jesus Christ. The Father, the being or soul of God, was born into the world and put on a body from Mary. Throughout his life, Jesus put away all human desires and tendencies until he was completely divine. After his resurrection, he influences the world through the Holy Spirit, which is his activity. In this view, Jesus Christ is the one God; the Father as to his soul, the Son as to his body, and the Holy Spirit as to his activity in the world. Numerous Unitarian Christian organizations exist around the world, the oldest of which is the Unitarian Church of Transylvania. An umbrella organization for these groups is the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists, though only some members and affiliates of that body consider themselves exclusively or predominantly Christian. In the United States, "Unitarian" often refers to members and congregations within the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA), a non-Christian group formed in 1961 from the merger of the American Unitarian Association with the Universalist Church of America. Though both of these predecessor groups were originally Christian, the UUA does not have a shared creed and does not identify as a Christian Unitarian organization. History Early Christianity Most nontrinitarians take the position that the doctrine of the earliest form of Christianity was nontrinitarian, but that early Christianity was either strictly Unitarian or Binitarian, or Modalist as in the case of the Montanists, Marcionites, and Christian Gnostics. For them, early Christianity eventually changed after the edicts of Emperor Constantine I and his sentence pronounced on Arius, which was later followed by the declaration by Emperor Theodosius I in the Edict of Thessalonica, cunctos populos of February 380 that Christianity as defined in the Nicene Creed was the official religion of the Roman Empire. A year later, the Second Ecumenical Council confirmed this in a revised Creed. Nontrinitarians dispute the veracity of the Nicene Creed based on its adoption nearly 300 years after the life of Jesus as a result of conflict within pre-Nicene early Christianity during a dramatic shift in Christianity's status. Although nontrinitarian beliefs continued and were dominant among some peoples—for example, the Lombards, Ostrogoths, Visigoths and Vandals—for hundreds of years, the Trinity doctrine eventually gained prominence in the Roman Empire. Nontrinitarians typically argue that early nontrinitarian beliefs, such as Arianism, were systematically suppressed (often to the point of death). After the First Council of Nicaea, Roman Emperor Constantine I issued an edict against Arius' writings, which included systematic book burning. In spite of the decree, Constantine ordered the readmission of Arius to the church, removed the bishops (including Athanasius) who upheld the teaching of Nicaea, allowed Arianism to grow within the Empire and to spread to Germanic tribes on the frontier, and was himself baptized by an Arian bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia. His successors as Christian emperors promoted Arianism, until Theodosius I came to the throne in 379 and supported Nicene Christianity. The Easter letter that Athanasius issued in 367, when the Eastern Empire was ruled by the Arian Emperor Valens, specified the books that belong to the Old Testament and the New Testament, together with seven other books to be read "for instruction in the word of godliness"; it also excluded what Athanasius called apocryphal writings, falsely presented as ancient. Elaine Pagels writes: "In AD 367, Athanasius, the zealous bishop of Alexandria... issued an Easter letter in which he demanded that Egyptian monks destroy all such unacceptable writings, except for those he specifically listed as 'acceptable' even 'canonical'—a list that constitutes the present 'New Testament'". Nontrinitarians see the Nicene Creed and the results of the Council of Chalcedon as essentially political documents, resulting from the subordination of true doctrine to state interests by leaders of the Catholic Church, so that the church became, in their view, an extension of the Roman Empire. Nontrinitarians (both Modalists and Unitarians) assert that Athanasius and others at Nicaea adopted Greek Platonic philosophy and concepts, and incorporated them in their views of God and Christ. The author H. G. Wells, later famous for his contribution to science-fiction, wrote in The Outline of History: "We shall see presently how later on all Christendom was torn by disputes about the Trinity. There is no evidence that the apostles of Jesus ever heard of the Trinity, at any rate from him." The question of why such a central doctrine to the Christian faith would never have been explicitly stated in scripture or taught in detail by Jesus himself was sufficiently important to 16th century historical figures such as Michael Servetus to lead them to argue the question. The Geneva City Council, in accord with the judgment of the cantons of Zürich, Bern, Basel, and Schaffhausen, condemned Servetus to be burned at the stake for this and his opposition to infant baptism. The Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics describes the five stages that led to the formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity: The acceptance of the pre-human existence of Jesus as the (middle-platonic) Logos, namely, as the medium between the transcendent sovereign God and the created cosmos. The doctrine of Logos was accepted by the Apologists and by other Fathers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, such as Justin the Martyr, Hippolytus, Tertullian, Ireneus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Lactantius, and in the 4th century by Arius; The doctrine of the timeless generation of the Son from the Father as it was articulated by Origen in his effort to support the ontological immutability of God, that he is ever-being a father and a creator. The doctrine of the timeless generation was adopted by Athanasius of Alexandria; The acceptance of the idea that the son of God is of the same transcendent nature (homoousios) as his father. This position was declared in the Nicene Creed, which specifically states the son of God is as immutable as his father; The acceptance that the Holy Spirit also has ontological equality as a third person in a divine Trinity and the final Trinitarian terminology by the teachings of the Cappadocian Fathers; The addition of the Filioque to the Nicene Creed, as accepted by the Roman Catholic Church. Following the Reformation By 1530, following the Protestant Reformation, and the German Peasants' War of 1524–1525, large areas of Northern Europe were Protestant, and forms of nontrinitarianism began to surface among some "Radical Reformation" groups, particularly Anabaptists. The first recorded English antitrinitarian was John Assheton (1548), an Anglican priest. The Italian Anabaptist "Council of Venice" (1550) and the trial of Michael Servetus (1553) marked the clear emergence of markedly antitrinitarian Protestants. Though the only organised nontrinitarian churches were the Polish Brethren who split from the Calvinists (1565, expelled from Poland 1658), and the Unitarian Church of Transylvania (founded 1568). Nonconformists, Dissenters and Latitudinarians in Britain were often Arians or Unitarians, and the Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813 allowed nontrinitarian worship in Britain. In America, Arian and Unitarian views were also found among some Millennialist and Adventist groups, though the Unitarian Church itself began to decline in numbers and influence after the 1870s. Points of dissent Nontrinitarian Christians with Arian or Semi-Arian views contend that the weight of scriptural evidence supports Subordinationism, the Son's total submission to the Father, and God's paternal supremacy over the Son in every aspect. They acknowledge the Son's high rank at God's right hand, but teach that the Father is still greater than the Son in all things. While acknowledging that the Father, Son, and Spirit are essential in creation and salvation, they argue that that in itself does not confirm that the three are each co-equal or co-eternal. They also affirm that God is only explicitly identified as "one" in the Bible, and that the doctrine of the Trinity, which word literally meaning a set of three, ascribes a co-equal threeness to the being of the infinite God that is not explicitly scriptural. Scriptural support Critics of the Trinity doctrine argue that, for a teaching described as fundamental, it lacks direct scriptural support. Proponents of the doctrine assert that although the doctrine is not stated directly in the New Testament, it is instead an interpretation of elements contained therein that imply the doctrine that was later formulated in the 4th century. William Barclay, a Church of Scotland minister, says: "It is important and helpful to remember that the word Trinity is not itself a New Testament word. It is even true in at least one sense to say that the doctrine of the Trinity is not directly New Testament doctrine. It is rather a deduction from and an interpretation of the thought and the language of the New Testament." The New Catholic Encyclopedia states : "The doctrine of the Holy Trinity is not taught [explicitly] in the [Old Testament]", "The formulation 'one God in three Persons' was not solidly established [by a council] ... prior to the end of the 4th century." Similarly, Encyclopedia Encarta states: "The doctrine is not taught explicitly in the New Testament, where the word God almost invariably refers to the Father. ... The term trinitas was first used in the 2nd century, by the Latin theologian Tertullian, but the concept was developed in the course of the debates on the nature of Christ ... In the 4th century, the doctrine was finally formulated". Encyclopædia Britannica says: "Neither the word Trinity nor the explicit doctrine appears in the New Testament, nor did Jesus and his followers intend to contradict the Shema in the Old Testament: "Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord" (). ... The doctrine developed gradually over several centuries and through many controversies. ... by the end of the 4th century, under the leadership of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus (the Cappadocian Fathers), the doctrine of the Trinity took substantially the form it has maintained ever since." The Anchor Bible Dictionary states: "One does not find in the NT the trinitarian paradox of the coexistence of the Father, Son, and Spirit within a divine unity." Catholic historian Joseph F. Kelly, speaking of legitimate theological development, writes: "The Bible may not use the word 'Trinity', but it refers to God the Father frequently; the Gospel of John emphasized the divinity of the Son; several New Testament books treat the Holy Spirit as divine. The ancient theologians did not violate biblical teaching but sought to develop its implications. ... [Arius'] potent arguments forced other Christians to refine their thinking about the Trinity. At two ecumenical councils, NiceaI in 325 and ConstantinopleI in 381, the church at large defined the Trinity in the way now so familiar to us from the Nicene Creed. This exemplifies development of doctrine at its best. The Bible may not use the word 'Trinity', but trinitarian theology does not go against the Bible. On the contrary, Catholics believe that trinitarianism has carefully developed a biblical teaching for later generations." Questions about co-equal deity of Jesus Raymond E. Brown (1928–1988), American Catholic priest and Trinitarian, wrote that , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and are "texts that seem to imply that the title God was not used for Jesus" and are "negative evidence which is often somewhat neglected in Catholic treatments of the subject"; that , Acts 20:28, , , , , , and are "texts where, by reason of textual variants or syntax, the use of 'God' for Jesus is dubious"; and that , , and are "texts where clearly Jesus is called God". The Septuagint translate (Elohim) as θεος (Theos). At Deuteronomy 6:4 (the Shema Yisrael, quoted by Jesus at ), the plural form of the Hebrew word "God" (Elohim) is used, generally understood to denote majesty, excellence and the superlative. It has been stated that in the original Greek in Mark 12:29, there are no "plural modifiers" in that Greek word there for "one" (heis), but that in Mark 12 it is simply a masculine singular "one". And that because of that, there is no valid reason to believe that the Hebrew word for "one" in Deuteronomy 6 ("echad") was necessarily a "plural one", rather than just simply numerical "one". At Deuteronomy 6:4, the Tetragrammaton appears twice in this verse, leading Jehovah's Witnesses and certain Jewish scholars to conclude that belief in a singular (and therefore indivisible) supremely powerful God is essential to the Shema. Matthew 26:39 In Matthew 26:39 Jesus prays with a distinction between God and himself, "O my Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from me: nevertheless not as I will, but as thou wilt.". John 1:1 In John 1:1 there is a distinction between God and the Logos. Non-trinitarians claim a mistranslation of the second part of John 1:1 which, when literally translated word-for-word reads "and the word [logos] was with the God [ho theos]." Trinitarians contend that the third part of the verse (John 1:1c) translates as "and the Word was God", pointing to a distinction as subjects between God and the Logos but an equivalence in nature. Some nontrinitarians assert that the Koine Greek ("kai theos ên ho logos") should be translated as "and a God was the Word" (or "and the Word was a god"). Based on their contention that the article of theos is anarthrous, lacking a definite article, they believe the verse refers to Jesus' pre-human existence as "a god" or a divine one as distinct from "the God". Nontrinitarians also contend that the author of John's gospel could have written "kai ho theos ên ho logos" ("and the Word was the God") if that were his intended meaning. Others argue that the Greek should be translated as "and the Logos was divine" (with theos as an adjective), wherein the Logos is interpreted as God's "plan" or "reasoning" for salvation. According to Modalists, the Logos 'becoming flesh' refers to the "plan" or "eternal mind" of God being manifested in the birth of the man Jesus rather than the incarnation of a pre-existent Jesus. John 10:30 —Nontrinitarians such as Arians believe that when Jesus said, "I and the Father are one," he did not mean that they were actually "one substance", or "one God", or co-equal and co-eternal, but rather that he and the Father have a "unity of purpose", and that the context indicates that Jesus was saying that they were "one" in pastoral work. The point being that the Father and the Son were united in the divine work of saving the 'sheep'. Nontrinitarian Christians also cite , wherein Jesus prayed regarding his disciples: "That they may all be one, as you, Father, are in me, and I in you, that they may be in us," adding "that they may be one even as we are one". They argue that the same Greek word (hen) for "one" throughout John 17 indicates that Jesus did not expect for his followers to literally become a single Being, or "one in substance", with each other, or with God, and therefore that Jesus also did not expect his hearers to think that he and God the Father were one entity either. John 20:28–29 —"And Thomas answered and said to Him, "My Lord and my God!" Jesus said to him, "Thomas, because you have seen Me, you have believed. Blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed"". Since Thomas called Jesus God, Jesus's statement appears to endorse Thomas's assertion. Nontrinitarians sometimes respond that it is plausible that Thomas is addressing the Lord Jesus and then the Father. Another possible answer is that Jesus himself said, "Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods?" () referring to Psalm 82:6–8. The word "gods" in verse6 and "God" in verse8 is the same Hebrew word "'elohim", which means, "gods in the ordinary sense; but specifically used (in the plural thus, especially with the article) of the supreme God; occasionally applied by way of deference to magistrates; and sometimes as a superlative", and can also refer to powers and potentates, in general, or as "God, god, gods, rulers, judges or angels", and as "divine ones, goddess, godlike one". Therefore, the point being that Jesus was a power or mighty one to the Apostles, as the resurrected Messiah, and as the reflection of God the Father. 2 Corinthians 13:14 —"The Grace of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the sharing in the Holy Spirit be with all of you." It is argued by Trinitarians that the appearance of "Father, Son, and Spirit" together in Paul's prayer for Grace on all believers, and are considered essential for salvation, that the verse is consistent with a triune godhead. Nontrinitarians such as Arians reply that they do not disagree that all three are necessary for salvation and grace, but argue that the passage does not explicitly say that all three are co-equal or co-eternal. Philippians 2:5–6 —"Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, [or "which was also in Christ Jesus",] who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped" (ESV). The word translated in the English Standard Version as "a thing to be grasped" is ἁρπαγμόν. Other translations of the word are indicated in the Holman Christian Standard Bible: "Make your own attitude that of Christ Jesus, who, existing in the form of God, did not consider equality with God as something to be used for His own advantage" [or "to be grasped", or "to be held on to"]. The King James Version has: "Let this mind be in you, which was also in Christ Jesus: Who, being in the form of God, thought it not robbery to be equal with God." Nontrinitarians make the argument that the passage is simply saying that Christ did not consider equality with God something graspable, and that better English translations make it clearer. Another point is that the original Greek had no definite article for "form of God", which would mean "a form of divinity", and also that the term "morphe" for "form" in Koine Greek would simply mean a general external quality or station, but not necessarily the absolute thing itself, and therefore they argue that the passage does not explicitly teach either co-equality, co-eternity, or consubstantiality. Hebrews 9:14 —"How much more will the Blood of Christ, who through an eternal Spirit, offered himself without blemish to God, cleanse our consciences from dead works, that we may render sacred service to the living God?" Most nontrinitarians agree that the Holy Spirit had no beginning, but believe it is not an actual person. Nontrinitarians contend that it is obvious that God the Father in the passage is the One who is ultimately reached, and therefore is greater than the other two entities, and that a "co-equal trinity" is not explicitly taught in the passage, but only inferred. Terminology "The term 'Trinity' is not in the Bible", and some nontrinitarians use this as an argument to state that the doctrine of the Trinity relies on non-biblical terminology, and that the number three is never clearly associated with God necessarily, other than within the Comma Johanneum which is of spurious or disputed authenticity. They argue that the only number clearly unambiguously ascribed to God in the Bible is one, and that the Trinity, literally meaning three-in-one, ascribes a co-equal threeness to God that is not explicitly biblical. Nontrinitarians cite other examples of terms or phrases not found in the Bible; multiple "persons" in relation to God, the terms "God the Son", "God-Man", "God the Holy Spirit", "eternal Son", and "eternally begotten". While the Trinitarian term hypostasis is found in the Bible, it is used only once in reference to God where it states that Jesus is the express image of God's person. The Bible does not explicitly use the term in relation to the Holy Spirit nor explicitly mentions the Son having a distinct hypostasis from the Father. The First Council of Nicaea included in its Creed the major term homoousios (of the same essence), which was used also by the Council of Chalcedon to speak of a double consubstantiality of Christ, "consubstantial with the Father as touching his Godhead, and consubstantial with us as touching his manhood". Nontrinitarians accept what Pier Franco Beatrice wrote: "The main thesis of this paper is that homoousios came straight from Constantine's Hermetic background. ... The Plato recalled by Constantine is just a name used to cover precisely the Egyptian and Hermetic theology of the "consubstantiality" of the Logos-Son with the Nous-Father, having recourse to a traditional apologetic argument. In the years of the outbreak of the Arian controversy, Lactantius might have played a decisive role in influencing Constantine's Hermetic interpretation of Plato's theology and consequently the emperor's decision to insert homoousios in the Creed of Nicaea." Trinitarians see the absence of the actual word "Trinity" and other Trinity-related terms in the Bible as no more significant than the absence in the Bible of the words "monotheism", "omnipotence", "oneness", "Pentecostal", "apostolic", "incarnation" and even "Bible" itself. They maintain that, 'while the word Trinity is not in the Bible, the substance or drift of the doctrine is definitely biblical, if not explicitly than at least implicitly.' Holy Spirit Nontrinitarian views about the Holy Spirit differ from mainstream Christian doctrine and generally fall into several distinct categories. Most scriptures traditionally used in support of the Trinity refer to the Father and the Son, but not to the Holy Spirit. Unitarian Groups with Unitarian theology such as Polish Socinians, the 18th–19th-century Unitarian Church and Christadelphians consider the Holy Spirit to be an aspect of God's power rather than a person. Christadelphians believe that the phrase Holy Spirit refers to God's power or character, depending on the context. Similarly, Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Holy Spirit is not an actual person but is God's "active force" that he uses to accomplish his will. Binitarianism Groups with Binitarian theology, such as Armstrongites, believe that the Logos and God the Father are co-equal and co-eternal, but they do not believe that the Holy Spirit is an actual person, like the Father and the Son. They believe the Holy Spirit is the Power, Mind, or Character of God, depending on the context. They teach, "The Holy Spirit is the very essence, the mind, life and power of God. It is not a Being. The Spirit is inherent in the Father and the Son, and emanates from Them throughout the entire universe." Modalist groups Oneness Pentecostalism, as with other modalist groups, teach that the Holy Spirit is a mode of God, rather than a distinct or separate person in the godhead, and that the Holy Spirit is another name for God the Father. According to Oneness theology, the Holy Spirit is the Father operating in a certain capacity or manifestation. The United Pentecostal Church teaches that there is no personal distinction between God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The two titles "Father" and "Holy Spirit" (as well as others) are said to not reflect separate "persons" within the Godhead, but rather two different ways in which the one God reveals himself to his creatures. The Oneness view of Bible verses that mention God and his Spirit (e.g. Isaiah 48:16) is that they do not imply two "persons" any more than various scriptural references to a man and his spirit or soul (such as in Luke 12:19) imply two "persons" existing within one body. Latter-day Saint movement In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Holy Ghost (usually synonymous with Holy Spirit) is considered to be the third distinct member of the Godhead (Father, Son and Holy Ghost), and to have a body of "spirit", which makes him unlike the Father and the Son who are said to have bodies "as tangible as man's". According to LDS doctrine, the Holy Spirit is believed to be a person, with a body of spirit, able to pervade all worlds. Latter-day Saints believe that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are part of the Godhead, but that the Father is greater than the Son, and that the Son is greater than the Holy Spirit in position and authority, but not in nature (i.e., they equally share the "God" nature). They teach that the Father, Son, and Spirit are three ontologically separate, self-aware entities who share a common "God" nature distinct from our "human" nature, who are "One God" in the sense of being united (in the same sense that a husband and wife are said to be "one"), similar to Social trinitarianism. A number of Latter Day Saint sects, most notably the Community of Christ (the second largest Latter Day Saint denomination), the Church of Christ (Temple Lot), and derived groups, follow a traditional Protestant trinitarian theology. Other groups The Unity Church interprets the religious terms Father, Son, and Holy Spirit metaphysically, as three aspects of mind action: mind, idea, and expression. They believe this is the process through which all manifestation takes place. Groups in the Rastafari movement generally state that it is Haile Selassie who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or "Hola") Spirit is to be found within every human being. Rastas also say that the true church is the human body, and that it is this church (or "structure") that contains the Holy Spirit. Inter-religious dialogue The Trinity doctrine is integral in inter-religious disagreements with the other two main Abrahamic religions, Judaism and Islam; the former rejects Jesus' divine mission entirely, and the latter accepts Jesus as a human prophet and the Messiah but not as the son of God, although accepting virgin birth. The rejection of the Trinity doctrine has led to comparisons between nontrinitarian theology and Judaism and Islam. In an 1897 article in the Jewish Quarterly Review, Montefiore describes Unitarianism as a bridge between Judaism and mainstream Christianity, calling it both a "phase of Judaism" and a "phase of Christianity". In Islam, the concept of a co-equal trinity is totally rejected, with Quranic verses calling the doctrine of the Trinity blasphemous. Early Islam was originally seen as a variant of Arianism, a heresy in Orthodox and Catholic Christianity, by the Byzantine emperor in the 600s. In the 700s, many Arians in Spain considered Muhammed a prophet. In the mid-1500s, many Socinian unitarians were suspected of having Islamic leanings. Socinians praised Islam, though considering the Qur'an to contain errors, for its belief in the unity of God. Bilal Cleland claimed that "an anonymous writer" in A Letter of Resolution concerning the Doctrine of the Trinity and Incarnation (1693) states that Islam's greater number of adherents and military supremacy resulted from more closely maintaining correct doctrine than mainstream Christianity. Most Trinitarian Christians consider the doctrine of the Trinity to be an indispensable part of the faith; consequently, many Christians do not regard nontrinitarians as Christians. Purported pagan origins of the Trinity The ancient Egyptians, whose influence on early religious thought was considered profound, usually arranged their gods and goddesses in groups of three, or trinities: some examples of this are the trinity of Osiris, Isis, and Horus, the trinity of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, and the trinity of Khnum, Satis, and Anukis. Some nontrinitarians also say that a link between the doctrine of the Trinity and the Egyptian Christian theologians of Alexandria suggests that Alexandrian theology, with its strong emphasis on the deity of Jesus, served to infuse Egypt's pagan religious heritage into Christianity. They accuse the Church of adopting these Egyptian tenets after adapting them to Christian thinking by means of Greek philosophy. They say the development of the idea of a co-equal triune godhead was based on pagan Greek and Platonic influence, including many basic concepts from Aristotelian philosophy incorporated into the biblical God. As an example, they mention that Aristotle stated: "All things are three, and thrice is all: and let us use this number in the worship of the gods; for, as Pythagoreans say, everything and all things are bound by threes, for the end, the middle, and the beginning have this number in everything, and these compose the number of the Trinity." However, Trinitarians have argued that the words attributed to Aristotle differ in a number of ways from what has been published as the philosopher's original text in Greek, which omits "let us use this number in the worship of the gods", and are not supported by translations of the works of Aristotle by scholars such as Stuart Leggatt, W. K. C. Guthrie, J.L. Stocks, Thomas Taylor and Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire. Some anti-trinitarians note also that the Greek philosopher Plato believed in a special "threeness" in life and in the universe. In Plato's work Phaedo, he introduces the word "triad" (in Greek τριάς), which is rendered in English as "trinity". This was adopted by 3rd and 4thcentury professed Christians as roughly corresponding to "Father, Word, and Spirit (Soul)". Nontrinitarian Christians contend that such notions and adoptions make the Trinity doctrine extra-biblical. They say there is a widely acknowledged synthesis of Christianity with Platonic philosophy evident in trinitarian formulas appearing by the end of the 3rdcentury. They allege that beginning with the Constantinian period, these pagan ideas were forcibly imposed on the churches as Catholic doctrine. Most groups subscribing to the theory of a Great Apostasy generally concur in this thesis. The early apologists, including Justin Martyr, Tertullian and Irenaeus, frequently discussed the parallels and contrasts between Christianity, Paganism and other syncretic religions, and answered charges of borrowing from paganism in their apologetical writings. Hellenic influences Stuart G Hall (formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History at King's College, London) describes the subsequent process of philosophical/theological amalgamation in Doctrine and Practice in the Early Church (1991), where he writes: The neo-Platonic trinities, such as that of the One, the Nous and the Soul, are not considered a trinity necessarily of consubstantial equals as in mainstream Christianity. However, the neo-Platonic trinity has the doctrine of emanation, or "eternal derivation", a timeless procedure of generation having as a source the One and claimed to be paralleled with the generation of the light from the Sun. This was adopted by Origen and later on by Athanasius, and applied to the generation of the Son from the Father, because they believed that this analogy could be used to support the notion that the Father, as immutable, always had been a Father, and that the generation of the Son is therefore eternal and timeless. The synthesis of Christianity with Platonic philosophy was further incorporated in the trinitarian formulas that appeared by the end of the 3rd century. "The Greek philosophical theology" was "developed during the Trinitarian controversies over the relationships among the persons of the Godhead". The allegation of borrowing was raised by some disputants when the Nicene doctrine was being formalized and adopted by the bishops. For example, in the 4th century, Marcellus of Ancyra, who taught the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were one person (hypostasis), said in his On the Holy Church, 9: In his Introduction to the 1964 book Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth discussed the profound influence of Stoic philosophy on Christianity. In particular: Again in the doctrine of the Trinity, the ecclesiastical conception of Father, Word, and Spirit finds its germ in the different Stoic names of the Divine Unity. Thus Seneca, writing of the supreme Power which shapes the universe, states, 'This Power we sometimes call the All-ruling God, sometimes the incorporeal Wisdom, sometimes the holy Spirit, sometimes Destiny.' The Church had only to reject the last of these terms to arrive at its own acceptable definition of the Divine Nature; while the further assertion 'these three are One', which the modern mind finds paradoxical, was no more than commonplace to those familiar with Stoic notions. Christian groups with nontrinitarian positions Early Christian Arianism Esoteric Gnosticism Unitarian and Universalism American Unitarian Conference Unitarianism Unitarian Universalism Latter Day Saints Latter Day Saint movement The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Bible Students and splinter groups Bible Students Friends of Man Jehovah's Witnesses Sacred Name movement Assemblies of Yahweh Bethel Ministerial Association Yahweh's Assembly in Messiah Yahweh's Assembly in Yahshua Oneness Protestant groups Creation Seventh Day Adventist Church Elias Hicks (Hicksite Quakers) Shakers Oneness Pentecostals Many members of the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland World Wide Church of God splinter groups Church of the Blessed Hope (sometimes called "Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith") Grace Communion International Living Church of God United Church of God New religious movements Church of Christ, Scientist (Christian Scientists) Unity Church New Church (Swedenborgian) Unification Church (Family Federation for World Peace and Unification) Two by Twos (sometimes called The Truth or Cooneyites) Other Nontrinitarians Christadelphians Church of God General Conference Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ La Luz del Mundo Monarchianism Muggletonianism Polish Brethren Socinianism The Way International Country-specific Filipino Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) Members Church of God International Independent Russian Doukhobors Molokan People Sabellius, c. 220 (Modalist: the eponymous heresiarch of Sabellianism, or "monarchic modalism") Origen c. 230 (Ante-Nicene Father, subordinationist: considered the Son co-eternal with God, subject to the Father's will, un-equal in power, but not inferior in essence) Theodotus of Byzantium Artemon Paul of Samosata, 269 Arius, 336, presbyter of Alexandria, major theologian of the doctrine of Arianism in 4th century. He opposed the Homoousian declarations of the Alexandrian Bishop Alexander of Alexandria, making him a primary topic of the First Council of Nicea in AD 325. Eusebius of Nicomedia, 341, (Arian) Constantius II, Byzantine Emperor, 361 Antipope Felix II, 365 Aëtius of Antioch, 367 Ulfilas, Apostle to the Goths, 383 Priscillian, 385, considered first Christian to be executed for heresy Francesco della Sega, (1528-1565) Ludwig Haetzer, 1529 Michael Servetus, 1553, burned at the stake in Geneva under John Calvin Sebastian Castellio, 1563 Ferenc Dávid, 1579 Justus Velsius, c. 1581 Fausto Paolo Sozzini, 1604 John Biddle, 1662 Thomas Aikenhead, 1697, last person to be hanged for blasphemy in Britain John Locke, 1704 John Milton, 1608–1674. (disputed) Isaac Newton, 1642–1727, did not believe in trinitarianism as documented in a letter to a friend, now preserved in The New College Library in Oxford, UK, Manuscript 361(4), Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (part 1: ff. 1–41). He listed "worshipping Christ as God" in a list of "Idolatria" in his theological notebook. However, he never made a public declaration of his antitrinitarian beliefs for fear of losing his position. Elias Hicks 1742, Quaker William Whiston, 1752, expelled from University of Cambridge in 1710 for Arianism; famous for translating Josephus Jonathan Mayhew, 1766 Emanuel Swedenborg, 1772, provided the theology for Swedenborgianism Joseph Priestley, 1804 John Adams Thomas Jefferson John Quincy Adams Millard Fillmore William Howard Taft Joseph Smith, 1805, monolatrist, founder of the Latter-day Saint movement (Mormonism) Mary Baker Eddy, 1821, founder of Christian Science William Ellery Channing, 1842 Robert Hibbert, 1849 John Thomas (Christadelphian), 1871 Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1882 Robert Roberts (Christadelphian), 1898 Benjamin Wilson, 1900 James Martineau, 1900 Félix Manalo, 1914 Charles Taze Russell, 1916, founder of the Bible Student movement and Jehovah's Witnesses, author of Millennial Dawn Alan Hayward (Christadelphian), 1923 Eliseo Soriano, 1947 William Branham, 1965 Herbert W. Armstrong, 1986, founder of the Worldwide Church of God, a Sabbatarian Christian Church, and was an advocate of the doctrine of Binitarianism. See also Bibliotheca antitrinitariorum Bahá'í Faith Christomonism Christians of Saint John Manichaeism Servetism Citations Further reading Morgan, Caesar An investigation of the trinity of Plato and of Philo Judaeus, and of the effects which an attachment to their writings had upon the principles and reasonings of the father of the Christian church, Cambridge University Press, 1853. Wallace, Robert, Antitrinitarian Biography; or, Sketches of the lives and writings of distinguished antitrinitarians, exhibiting a view of the state of the Unitarian doctrine and worship in the principal nations of Europe, from the reformation to the close of the seventeenth century, to which is prefixed a history of Unitarianism in England during the same period, 1850. 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253159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Pastel	Operation Pastel	During World War II, Operation Pastel was the deception plan scheduled to protect Operation Olympic, the planned invasion of southern Japan. Pastel would have falsely portrayed a threat of an American-led invasion against ports in China via attacks on Formosa. One of the notional military formations that was designated for use in the deception was the fictitious XXXV Airborne Corps. The Corps formed part of Operation Pastel Two, the deception plan for Operation Olympic. The final version of Operation Pastel incorporated notional airborne landings, using dummy parachutists similar to those used on D-Day, in the interior of Kyūshū the day before the actual landings were to take place. The two-division fictional corps that was to carry out the landings was designated XXXV Airborne Corps. Had Operation Pastel been carried out, the first elements of the XXXV Airborne Corps, quartering parties of the notional 18th Airborne Division, would have been depicted reaching Okinawa on August 15, 1945. Following this glider pilots were to be depicted as reaching Okinawa around August 20, 1945, followed by the troops of the real 11th (in the Philippines) and notional 18th Airborne Divisions, starting to arrive in Okinawa on September 1, 1945. On the same day the notional corps headquarters would have been activated. References External links World War II deception operations Cancelled military operations involving the United States Japan campaign Cancelled invasions Cancelled military operations of World War II	[ -0.092029869556427, 0.0711776614189148, -0.5165297985076904, 0.0881265252828598, -0.1854046881198883, -0.16704261302947998, 0.8122145533561707, 0.4803559482097626, -0.09296508878469467, -0.019380643963813782, -0.8912984132766724, 0.1607879400253296, -0.04618679732084274, 0.3456338047981262, 0.14445312321186066, 0.19608165323734283, 0.1392255574464798, 0.4301195442676544, 0.22127102315425873, -0.14055505394935608, -0.14393268525600433, -0.44267114996910095, -0.015130999498069286, -0.15982162952423096, 0.3143916428089142, -0.540532648563385, 0.6495978832244873, 0.028900662437081337, 0.4967752695083618, 0.2645187973976135, -0.18821020424365997, -0.0005955951637588441, 0.40566185116767883, -0.49335354566574097, 0.19700661301612854, 0.10152877122163773, -0.3095177412033081, 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253163	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Desert%20Farewell	Operation Desert Farewell	In the first Gulf War, Operation Desert Farewell was the name given to the return of American units and equipment to the United States in 1991 after the liberation of Kuwait. Some U.S. Marine Corps units were diverted en route to conduct humanitarian assistance in flooded Bangladesh (Sea Angel). Also called Desert Calm or Peace Walker in some documents. 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253166	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Tinderbox	Operation Tinderbox	Operation Tinderbox was a series of 14 nuclear tests conducted by the United States in 1979-1980 at the Nevada Test Site. These tests followed the Operation Quicksilver series and preceded the Operation Guardian series. List of the nuclear tests References Explosions in 1979 Explosions in 1980 1979 in military history 1980 in military history Tinderbox	[ 0.15952979028224945, 0.27752062678337097, -0.8513607978820801, 0.17294947803020477, 0.3033900558948517, 0.09641452133655548, 0.6189597845077515, 0.032751623541116714, 0.1693032830953598, 0.581005334854126, -0.16145457327365875, 0.4395739436149597, -0.1635279506444931, 0.48636308312416077, -0.5041466951370239, 0.006349604576826096, 0.5698354244232178, -0.06926483660936356, 0.8277369737625122, 0.12338971346616745, -0.05355764925479889, -0.3106188178062439, 0.3493908643722534, 0.07825478911399841, -0.0925295427441597, -0.06516440212726593, 0.05094613507390022, -0.11980422586202621, 0.7085579037666321, 0.4220045208930969, -0.46518442034721375, 0.5001545548439026, -0.01185394637286663, -0.8929357528686523, -0.1390111744403839, 0.18770436942577362, -0.30863863229751587, 0.0599222369492054, -0.1107877790927887, -0.658430278301239, 0.09685222804546356, 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253167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albay	Albay	, officially the (; ), is a province in the Bicol Region of the Philippines, mostly on the southeastern part of the island of Luzon. Its capital is the city of Legazpi, the regional center of the whole Bicol Region, which is located in the southern foothill of Mayon Volcano. The province was added to the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves in March 2016. History Pre-Hispanic period Long before the Spaniards arrived, Albay had a thriving civilization. Formerly called Ibat, and then Libog, Albay was once ruled by Gat Ibal, an old chief who also founded the old barangay of Sawangan, now part of the City of Legazpi. Historian William Henry Scott wrote that in the local epic called siday entitled "Bingi of Lawan", an Albay Datu by the name of Dumaraog went to the Lakanate of Lawan to ask for the hands of Bingi bringing with him 100 ships. Lawan is a prosperous Lakanate in Samar. Datu Hadi Iberein came from the Lakanate of Lawan. He was described by Scott as a “Samar datu by the name of Iberein was rowed out to a Spanish vessel anchored in his harbor in 1543 by oarsmen collared in gold; while wearing on his own person earrings and chains.” Spanish colonial period In July 1569, Luis Enriquez de Guzman, a member of the expedition led by Maestro de Campo Mateo de Saz and Captain Martin de Goiti, led a group which crossed from Burias and Ticao islands and landed on a coastal settlement called Ibalon in what is now the province of Sorsogon. From this point another expedition was sent to explore the interior and founded the town of Camalig. In 1573, Juan de Salcedo penetrated the Bicol Peninsula from the north as far south as Libon, establishing the settlement of Santiago de Libon. Jose Maria Peñaranda, a military engineer, was made “corregidor” of the province on May 14, 1834. He constructed public buildings and built roads and bridges. The entire Bicol Peninsula was organized as one province with two divisions, Camarines in the northwest and Ibalon in the southeast. In 1636, the two partidos were separated, and Ibalon became a separate province with Sorsogon as capital. In the 17th century, Moro slave raiders from southern Philippines ravaged the northeastern coastal areas of the province of Albay. Mayon Volcano, in one of its most violent eruptions, destroyed the five towns surrounding its base on February 1, 1814. This eruption forced the town of Cagsawa to relocate to its present site, Legazpi. A decree was issued by Governor-General Narciso Claveria in 1846 separating Masbate, Ticao and Burias from Albay to form the comandancia of Masbate. Albay was then divided into four districts: Iraya, Cordillera or Tabaco, Sorsogon and Catanduanes. Philippine revolution Glicerio Delgado, a condemned insurecto (insurgent), started revolutionary activities in the province. With a headquarters in the mountain of Guinobatan town, he joined the revolutionary government of Albay as a lieutenant in the infantry. A unit of the Philippine Militia was then organized by the Spanish military authorities. Mariano Riosa was appointed major of the Tabaco Zone, which comprised all the towns along the seacoast from Albay to Tiwi while Anacieto Solano was appointed major for the Iraya Zone, which was made up of the towns from Daraga to Libon. Each town was organized into sections of fifty men under the command of a lieutenant. During the Philippine Revolution on September 22, 1898, the provisional revolutionary government of Albay was formed with Anacieto Solano as provisional president. Major General Vito Belarmino, the appointed military commander, reorganized the Filipino Army in the province. American colonial period Following the Spanish-American War, the new colonial power the United States did not recognize the country's independence, which had been declared in June 1898, and the Americans subsequently acquired direct control of the country as a de facto colony, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1898), over which the Filipinos had no say. During the Philippine–American War, Brigadier General William August Kobbé headed the expedition that landed at the ports of Sorsogon, Bulan and Donsol. From there, the Americans marched to Legazpi and captured it. Although a civil government was established in Albay on April 26, 1901, Colonel Harry Hill Bandholtz, Commanding Officer of the Constabulary in the Bicol Region, said that General Simeon Ola, with a thousand men, continued to defy American authority after the capture of Belarmino in 1901. Ola was later captured with about six hundred of his men. World War II Following the December 12, 1941 Japanese invasion of Legazpi during the Second World War, the Kimura Detachment of the Imperial Japanese Army occupied Albay Province. The region was defended only by the Philippine Constabulary unit under the command of Major Francisco Sandico. During the Japanese Occupation, the military general headquarters of the Commonwealth Army of the Philippines remained active from January 3, 1942, to June 30, 1946, and the 5th Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary was established from October 28, 1944, to June 30, 1946, and stationed in Albay. Then came the clearing operations and anti-Japanese insurgency in the Bicol Peninsula, helped by the local Bicolano resistance. Some Bicolano guerrilla groups invaded around the province of Albay during the Japanese Insurgencies between 1942 and 1944, and were supported by local Filipino troops under the Philippine Commonwealth Army and pre-war Philippine Constabulary 5th Infantry Regiments attacking the enemy soldiers of the Japanese Imperial Army. In the aftermath of three years of siege and conflicts, many Bicolano guerrillas were forced to retreat by the Japanese around the province before liberation in 1945 by Allied forces. Geography Albay has a total land area of , which makes it the 53rd biggest province. The province is bordered by the provinces of Camarines Sur to the north and Sorsogon to the south. To the northeast lies the Lagonoy Gulf, which separates the province from Catanduanes. To the southwest of the province is the Burias Pass with the island of Burias of Masbate province located about offshore. In 2016, an area of was declared a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The Albay Biosphere Reserve is home to 182 terrestrial plant species, of which 46 are endemic to the Philippines. Its marine waters and coastal area also provide habitat to five of the world's seven marine turtle species, as well as mangrove, seagrass and seaweed ecosystems. Topography The province is generally mountainous with scattered fertile plains and valleys. On the eastern part of the province is a line of volcanic mountains starting with the northernmost Malinao in Tiwi, followed by Mount Masaraga and the free-standing Mayon Volcano. Separated by the Poliqui Bay is the Pocdol Mountains in the town of Manito. The stratovolcano of Mayon standing at around , is the highest point of the province. It is the most famous landform in Albay and in the whole Bicol Region. This active volcano falls under the jurisdiction of eight municipalities and cities of Albay: Camalig, Daraga, Guinobatan, Legazpi City, Ligao City, Malilipot, Santo Domingo, and Tabaco City. The western coast of the province is mountainous but not as prominent as the eastern range with the highest elevation at around . Among these mountains are Mount Catburawan in Ligao and Mount Pantao in Oas. Administrative divisions Albay comprises 15 municipalities/towns and three component cities (Legazpi, Ligao and Tabaco). Demographics The population of Albay in the was people,, making it the 20th most populous province in the country. It had a density of . Based on the 2007 census, there were 208,640 households in the province with an average size of 5.22 persons, significantly higher than the national average of 4.99. Religion Catholicism is the predominant religion in the province affiliated by 97% of the Albay population. Each town has its own fiesta for their patrons and patronesses. Other religious denominations are the Iglesia ni Cristo (INC), other Protestant churches such as the Baptist Church, Methodist, other Evangelical Christians, Seventh-day Adventists, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses as well as Islam. Prior to colonization, the region had a complex religious system which involved various deities. Among these deities include: Gugurang, the supreme god who dwells inside of Mount Mayon where he guards and protects the sacred fire in which Aswang, his brother was trying to steal. Whenever people disobey his orders, wishes and commit numerous sins, he would cause Mount Mayon to burst lava as a sign of warning for people to mend their crooked ways. Ancient Bikolanos had a rite performed for him called Atang.; Asuang, the evil god who always try to steal the sacred fire of Mount Mayon from his brother, Gugurang. Addressed sometimes as Aswang, he dwells mainly inside Mount Malinao. As an evil god, he would cause the people to suffer misfortunes and commit sins. Enemy of Gugurang and a friend of Bulan the god of the moon; Haliya, the masked goddess of the moonlight and the arch-enemy of Bakunawa and protector of Bulan. Her cult is composed primarily of women. There is also a ritual dance named after her as it is performed to be a counter-measure against Bakunawa.; Bulan, the god of the pale moon, he is depicted as a pubescent boy with uncommon comeliness that made savage beast and the vicious mermaids (Magindara) tame. He has deep affection towards Magindang, but plays with him by running away so that Magindang would never catch him. The reason for this is because he is shy to the man that he loves. If Magindang manages to catch Bulan, Haliya always comes to free him from Magindang's grip; Magindang, the god of the sea and all its creatures. He has deep affection to the lunar god Bulan and pursues him despite never catching him. Due to this, the Bicolanos reasoned that it is to why the waves rise to reach the moon when seen from the distant horizon. Whenever he does catch up to Bulan, Haliya comes to rescue Bulan and free him immediately; Okot, god of forest and hunting; and Bakunawa, a gigantic sea serpent deity who is often considered as the cause of eclipses, the devourer of the sun and the moon, and an adversary of Haliya as Bakunawa's main aim is to swallow Bulan, who Haliya swore to protect for all of eternity. Languages Albay is home to several languages and host to different native languages of Bicol Region. Out of seven Bikol languages (excluding the Bisakol languages, which are Bisayan languages), only Pandan Bikol of northern Catanduanes is not used or which the origin is not from Albay. The languages in the province is very diverse which includes the languages of Albay Bikol group which comprises the languages of West Miraya, East Miraya, Libon and Buhinon. Of the four Albay Bikol languages, Buhinon is the only one not used in Albay but rather in Buhi, Camarines Sur. Rinconada Bikol is a minority language in the province and used by people in barangays of Libon and Polangui that are near the boundary of Bato and Iriga in Camarines Sur. Another primary language used in the province is Central Bikol which is the native-tongue of the population on the eastern coast of the Bicol Peninsula. Both Albay Bikol languages and Rinconada Bikol are members of Inland Bikol group of languages while Central Bikol is a language member of Coastal Bikol. The Tabaco - Legazpi - Sorsogon dialect of Central Bikol is spoken in Legazpi, Tabaco and neighboring municipalities on the east side of Albay, and some parts of northern Sorsogon (especially in Sorsogon City). The majority of the inhabitants also understand English and Filipino as second languages. Economy Agriculture is the main industry in Albay, which produces crops like coconut, rice, sugar and abacá. Handicrafts are the major source of rural income and comprises a fairly large share in the small-scale industries of the province. Forestry, cement production and paper-making are other sources of livelihood. The manufacture of abacá products such as Manila hemp, hats, bags, mats, furniture, home decors, and slippers is one of the main sources of income in the rural areas. Production of abaca fiber experienced a boom from the late 1800s until the American period. Fishing is the main livelihood along both shores of the province. Tourism, especially related to Mayon Volcano, also creates income for Albay. For the year 2013, Albay had a total of 339,445 foreign tourist arrivals. Government Albay has three congressional districts encompassing its 18 municipalities and 3 component cities. Transportation Roads Albay has of national roads, mostly paved with asphalt, with remaining unpaved. Maharlika Highway (N1/AH26) serves as the principal road connection between other provinces. Most of the province are served by secondary national roads, assigned route numbers in the series, namely Bicol-630 and Bicol-640. Almost all of the cities and municipalities are connected by national roads, except for Rapu-Rapu. In order to spur development in the province, The Toll Regulatory Board declared Toll Road 5 the extension of South Luzon Expressway. A 420-kilometer, four lane expressway starting from the terminal point of the now under construction SLEX Toll Road 4 at Barangay Mayao, Lucena City in Quezon to Matnog, Sorsogon, near the Matnog Ferry Terminal. On August 25, 2020, San Miguel Corporation announced that they will invest the project which will reduce travel time from Lucena to Matnog from 9 hours to 5.5 hours. Water transport Albay is the region's principal trans-shipment point with its ports: Tabaco International Port, Legazpi National Port, Pio Duran Provincial Port, and the Pantao Regional Port. Air transport Traveling to the province by air is served by the Bicol International Airport in the municipality of Daraga, adjacent municipality of Legazpi City. The airport is the province's gateway from Manila and Cebu City in the Visayas. The province was formerly served by the now defunct Legazpi Airport. Railroads Albay is served by the mainline of the Philippine National Railways (PNR), and has commuter service between Naga in Camarines Sur. Trains to Manila (Tutuban), the Mayon Limited, is suspended from November 2012. Four stations serve Polangui, Ligao, Guinobatan, and Legazpi, respectively. See also Biosphere reserves of the Philippines References External links New Albay Tourism Promotion Website Province of Albay Official Website Provinces of the Philippines States and territories established in 1636 1636 establishments in the Philippines Biosphere reserves of the Philippines	[ -0.012323555536568165, 0.08269316703081131, 0.35795995593070984, -0.04586651921272278, 0.09685459733009338, 0.19837261736392975, -0.16563238203525543, 1.0979031324386597, -0.18164989352226257, -0.15229496359825134, -0.06333545595407486, 0.6474692225456238, -0.17535650730133057, -0.23795074224472046, 0.003983825445175171, 0.8428881168365479, 1.1397905349731445, 0.6006952524185181, -0.054738208651542664, -1.024072289466858, -0.5120956897735596, -0.33988597989082336, 0.2710331678390503, 0.7309539914131165, 0.36417222023010254, 0.0072955903597176075, 0.2002890706062317, 0.5707378387451172, 0.3689038157463074, 0.16873589158058167, 0.024585247039794922, 0.2556226849555969, -0.1887720227241516, 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253170	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Guardian	Operation Guardian	Operation Guardian was a series of 14 nuclear tests conducted by the United States in 1980-1981 at the Nevada Test Site. These tests followed the Operation Tinderbox series and preceded the Operation Praetorian series. References Explosions in 1980 Explosions in 1981 1980 in military history 1981 in military history Guardian	[ -0.1372717022895813, 0.31900691986083984, -0.21501699090003967, 0.11249952763319016, 0.179024338722229, -0.039329249411821365, 0.6129605770111084, -0.34909602999687195, 0.15140299499034882, 0.433687299489975, -0.31155925989151, 0.4547511041164398, -0.2138628214597702, 0.023126833140850067, -0.38240939378738403, 0.008822716772556305, 0.7353413105010986, -0.26113325357437134, 0.4079921245574951, -0.3025358319282532, 0.313207745552063, -0.3304753601551056, 0.3738265037536621, 0.1311882734298706, 0.06793538480997086, 0.4216991662979126, 0.5208589434623718, 0.005285449326038361, 0.8090632557868958, 0.46799027919769287, 0.09703180938959122, -0.029922621324658394, -0.2958523631095886, -0.6298319697380066, -0.07520915567874908, 0.7435331344604492, -0.24647939205169678, 0.602433979511261, -0.2283869832754135, -0.5031808018684387, 0.0192121472209692, -0.1750786006450653, 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253173	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20clan	Scottish clan	A Scottish clan (from Gaelic , literally 'children', more broadly 'kindred') is a kinship group among the Scottish people. Clans give a sense of shared identity and descent to members, and in modern times have an official structure recognised by the Court of the Lord Lyon, which regulates Scottish heraldry and coats of arms. Most clans have their own tartan patterns, usually dating from the 19th century, which members may incorporate into kilts or other clothing. The modern image of clans, each with their own tartan and specific land, was promulgated by the Scottish author Sir Walter Scott after influence by others. Historically, tartan designs were associated with Lowland and Highland districts whose weavers tended to produce cloth patterns favoured in those districts. By process of social evolution, it followed that the clans/families prominent in a particular district would wear the tartan of that district, and it was but a short step for that community to become identified by it. Many clans have their own clan chief; those that do not are known as armigerous clans. Clans generally identify with geographical areas originally controlled by their founders, sometimes with an ancestral castle and clan gatherings, which form a regular part of the social scene. The most notable clan event of recent times was The Gathering 2009 in Edinburgh, which attracted at least 47,000 participants from around the world. It is a common misconception that every person who bears a clan's name is a lineal descendant of the chiefs. Many clansmen, although not related to the chief, took the chief's surname as their own either to show solidarity or to obtain basic protection or for much needed sustenance. Most of the followers of the clan were tenants, who supplied labour to the clan leaders. Contrary to popular belief, the ordinary clansmen rarely had any blood tie of kinship with the clan chiefs, but they sometimes took the chief's surname as their own when surnames came into common use in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Thus, by the eighteenth century the myth had arisen that the whole clan was descended from one ancestor, perhaps relying on Scottish Gaelic originally having a primary sense of 'children' or 'offspring'. Clan organisation Clan membership As noted above, the word clan is derived from the Gaelic word . However, the need for proved descent from a common ancestor related to the chiefly house is too restrictive. Clans developed a territory based on the native men who came to accept the authority of the dominant group in the vicinity. A clan also included a large group of loosely related septs – dependent families – all of whom looked to the clan chief as their head and their protector. According to the former Lord Lyon, Sir Thomas Innes of Learney, a clan is a community that is distinguished by heraldry and recognised by the Sovereign. Learney considered clans to be a "noble incorporation" because the arms borne by a clan chief are granted or otherwise recognised by the Lord Lyon as an officer of the Crown, thus conferring royal recognition to the entire clan. Clans with recognised chiefs are therefore considered a noble community under Scots law. A group without a chief recognised by the Sovereign, through the Lord Lyon, has no official standing under Scottish law. Claimants to the title of chief are expected to be recognised by the Lord Lyon as the rightful heir to the undifferenced arms of the ancestor of the clan of which the claimant seeks to be recognized as chief. A chief of a clan is the only person who is entitled to bear the undifferenced arms of the ancestral founder of the clan. The clan is considered to be the chief's heritable estate and the chief's Seal of Arms is the seal of the clan as a "noble corporation". Under Scots law, the chief is recognised as the head of the clan and serves as the lawful representative of the clan community. Historically, a clan was made up of everyone who lived on the chief's territory, or on territory of those who owed allegiance to the said chief. Through time, with the constant changes of "clan boundaries", migration or regime changes, clans would be made up of large numbers of members who were unrelated and who bore different surnames. Often, those living on a chief's lands would, over time, adopt the clan surname. A chief could add to his clan by adopting other families, and also had the legal right to outlaw anyone from his clan, including members of his own family. Today, anyone who has the chief's surname is automatically considered to be a member of the chief's clan. Also, anyone who offers allegiance to a chief becomes a member of the chief's clan, unless the chief decides not to accept that person's allegiance. Clan membership goes through the surname. Children who take their father's surname are part of their father's clan and their mother's. However, there have been several cases where a descendant through the maternal line has changed their surname in order to claim the chiefship of a clan, such as the late chief of the Clan MacLeod who was born John Wolridge-Gordon and changed his name to the maiden name of his maternal grandmother in order to claim the chiefship of the MacLeods. Today, clans may have lists of septs. Septs are surnames, families or clans that historically, currently or for whatever reason the chief chooses, are associated with that clan. There is no official list of clan septs, and the decision of what septs a clan has is left up to the clan itself. Confusingly, sept names can be shared by more than one clan, and it may be up to the individual to use his or her family history or genealogy to find the correct clan they are associated with. Several clan societies have been granted coats of arms. In such cases, these arms are differenced from the chief's, much like a clan armiger. Former Lord Lyon Thomas Innes of Learney stated that such societies, according to the Law of Arms, are considered an "indeterminate cadet". Authority of the clans (the and the ) Scottish clanship contained two complementary but distinct concepts of heritage. These were firstly the collective heritage of the clan, known as their , which was their prescriptive right to settle in the territories in which the chiefs and leading gentry of the clan customarily provided protection. This concept was where all clansmen recognised the personal authority of the chiefs and leading gentry as trustees for their clan. The second concept was the wider acceptance of the granting of charters by the Crown and other powerful land owners to the chiefs, chieftains and lairds which defined the estate settled by their clan. This was known as their and gave a different emphasis to the clan chief's authority in that it gave the authority to the chiefs and leading gentry as landed proprietors, who owned the land in their own right, rather than just as trustees for the clan. From the beginning of Scottish clanship, the clan warrior elite, who were known as the ‘fine’, strove to be landowners as well as territorial war lords. Clans, the law and the legal process The concept of mentioned above held precedence in the Middle Ages; however, by the early modern period the concept of was favoured. This shift reflected the importance of Scots law in shaping the structure of clanship in that the fine were awarded charters and the continuity of heritable succession was secured. The heir to the chief was known as the and was usually the direct male heir. However, in some cases the direct heir was set aside for a more politically accomplished or belligerent relative. There were not many disputes over succession after the 16th century and, by the 17th century, the setting aside of the male heir was a rarity. This was governed and restricted by the law of Entail, which prevented estates from being divided up amongst female heirs and therefore also prevented the loss of clan territories. The main legal process used within the clans to settle criminal and civil disputes was known as arbitration, in which the aggrieved and allegedly offending sides put their cases to a panel that was drawn from the leading gentry and was overseen by the clan chief. There was no appeal against the decision made by the panel, which was usually recorded in the local royal or burgh court. Social ties Fosterage and manrent were the most important forms of social bonding in the clans. In the case of fosterage, the chief's children would be brought up by a favored member of the leading clan gentry and in turn their children would be favored by members of the clan. In the case of manrent, this was a bond contracted by the heads of families looking to the chief for territorial protection, though not living on the estates of the clan elite. These bonds were reinforced by calps, death duties paid to the chief as a mark of personal allegiance by the family when their head died, usually in the form of their best cow or horse. Although calps were banned by Parliament in 1617, manrent continued covertly to pay for protection. The marriage alliance reinforced links with neighboring clans as well as with families within the territory of the clan. The marriage alliance was also a commercial contract involving the exchange of livestock, money, and land through payments in which the bride was known as the tocher and the groom was known as the dowry. Clan management Rents from those living within the clan estate were collected by the tacksmen. These lesser gentry acted as estate managers, allocating the runrig strips of land, lending seed-corn and tools and arranging the droving of cattle to the Lowlands for sale, taking a minor share of the payments made to the clan nobility, the fine. They had the important military role of mobilizing the Clan Host, both when required for warfare and more commonly as a large turnout of followers for weddings and funerals, and traditionally, in August, for hunts which included sports for the followers, the predecessors of the modern Highland games. Clan disputes and disorder Where the (land owned by the clan elite or fine) did not match the common heritage of the (the collective territory of the clan) this led to territorial disputes and warfare. The fine resented their clansmen paying rent to other landlords. Some clans used disputes to expand their territories. Most notably, the Clan Campbell and the Clan Mackenzie were prepared to play off territorial disputes within and among clans to expand their own land and influence. Feuding on the western seaboard was conducted with such intensity that the Clan MacLeod and the Clan MacDonald on the Isle of Skye were reputedly reduced to eating dogs and cats in the 1590s. Feuding was further compounded by the involvement of Scottish clans in the wars between the Irish Gaels and the English Tudor monarchy in the 16th century. Within these clans, there evolved a military caste of members of the lesser gentry who were purely warriors and not managers, and who migrated seasonally to Ireland to fight as mercenaries. There was heavy feuding between the clans during the civil wars of the 1640s; however, by this time, the chiefs and leading gentry preferred increasingly to settle local disputes by recourse to the law. After the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the incidents of feuding between clans declined considerably. The last "clan" feud that led to a battle and which was not part of a civil war was the Battle of Mulroy, which took place on 4 August 1688. Cattle raiding, known as "reiving", had been normal practice prior to the 17th century. It was also known as , where young men took livestock from neighbouring clans. By the 17th century, this had declined and most reiving was known as , where smaller numbers of men raided the adjoining Lowlands and the livestock taken usually being recoverable on payment of (information money) and guarantee of no prosecution. Some clans, such as the Clan MacFarlane and the Clan Farquharson, offered the Lowlanders protection against such raids, on terms not dissimilar to blackmail. Lowland clans An act of the Scottish Parliament of 1597 talks of the "Chiftanis and chieffis of all clannis ... duelland in the hielands or bordouris". It has been argued that this vague phrase describes Borders families as clans. The act goes on to list the various Lowland families, including the Maxwells, Johnstones, Carruthers, Turnbulls, and other famous Border Reivers' names. Further, Sir George MacKenzie of Rosehaugh, the Lord Advocate (Attorney General) writing in 1680, said: "By the term 'chief' we call the representative of the family from the word chef or head and in the Irish [Gaelic] with us the chief of the family is called the head of the clan". In summarizing this material, Sir Crispin Agnew of Lochnaw Bt wrote: "So it can be seen that all along the words chief or head and clan or family are interchangeable. It is therefore quite correct to talk of the MacDonald family or the Stirling clan." The idea that Highlanders should be listed as clans while the Lowlanders should be termed as families was merely a 19th-century convention. Although Gaelic has been supplanted by English in the Scottish Lowlands for nearly six hundred years, it is acceptable to refer to Lowland families, such as the Douglases as "clans". The Lowland Clan MacDuff are described specifically as a "clan" in legislation of the Scottish Parliament in 1384. History Origins Many clans have often claimed mythological founders that reinforced their status and gave a romantic and glorified notion of their origins. Most powerful clans gave themselves origins based on Irish mythology. For example, there have been claims that the Clan Donald were descended from either Conn, a second-century king of Ulster, or Cuchulainn, the legendary hero of Ulster. Whilst their political enemies the Clan Campbell have claimed as their progenitor Diarmaid the Boar, who was rooted in the Fingalian or Fenian Cycle. In contrast, the Clans Mackinnon and Gregor claimed ancestry from the Siol Alpin family, who descend from Alpin, father of Kenneth MacAlpin, who united the Scottish kingdom in 843. Only one confederation of clans, which included the Clan Sweeney, Clan Lamont, Clan MacLea, Clan MacLachlan and Clan MacNeill, can trace their ancestry back to the fifth century Niall of the Nine Hostages, High King of Ireland. However, in reality, the progenitors of clans can rarely be authenticated further back than the 11th century, and a continuity of lineage in most cases cannot be found until the 13th or 14th centuries. The emergence of clans had more to do with political turmoil than ethnicity. The Scottish Crown's conquest of Argyll and the Outer Hebrides from the Norsemen in the 13th century, which followed on from the pacification of the Mormaer of Moray and the northern rebellions of the 12th and 13th centuries, created the opportunity for war lords to impose their dominance over local families who accepted their protection. These warrior chiefs can largely be categorized as Celtic; however, their origins range from Gaelic to Norse-Gaelic and British. By the 14th century, there had been further influx of kindreds whose ethnicity ranged from Norman or Anglo-Norman and Flemish, such as the Clan Cameron, Clan Fraser, Clan Menzies, Clan Chisholm and Clan Grant. During the Wars of Scottish Independence, feudal tenures were introduced by Robert the Bruce, to harness and control the prowess of clans by the award of charters for land in order to gain support in the national cause against the English. For example, the Clan MacDonald were elevated above the Clan MacDougall, two clans who shared a common descent from a great Norse-Gaelic warlord named Somerled of the 12th century. Clanship was thus not only a strong tie of local kinship but also of feudalism to the Scottish Crown. It is this feudal component, reinforced by Scots law, that separates Scottish clanship from the tribalism that was found in Ancient Europe or the one that is still found in the Middle East and among aboriginal groups in Australasia, Africa, and the Americas. Civil wars and Jacobitism During the 1638 to 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, all sides were 'Royalist', in the sense of a shared belief monarchy was divinely inspired. The choice of whether to support Charles I, or the Covenanter government, was largely driven by disputes within the Scottish elite. In 1639, Covenanter politician Argyll, head of Clan Campbell, was given a commission of 'fire and sword', which he used to seize MacDonald territories in Lochaber, and those held by Clan Ogilvy in Angus. As a result, both clans supported Montrose's Royalist campaign of 1644-1645, in hopes of regaining them. When Charles II regained the throne in 1660, the Rescissory Act 1661 restored bishops to the Church of Scotland. This was supported by many chiefs since it suited the hierarchical clan structure and encouraged obedience to authority. Both Charles and his brother James VII used Highland levies, known as the "Highland Host", to control Campbell-dominated areas in the South-West and suppress the 1685 Argyll's Rising. By 1680, it is estimated there were fewer than 16,000 Catholics in Scotland, confined to parts of the aristocracy and Gaelic-speaking clans in the Highlands and Islands. When James was deposed in the November 1688 Glorious Revolution, choice of sides was largely opportunistic. The Presbyterian Macleans backed the Jacobites to regain territories in Mull lost to the Campbells in the 1670s; the Catholic Keppoch MacDonalds tried to sack the pro-Jacobite town of Inverness, and were bought off only after Dundee intervened. Highland involvement in the Jacobite risings was the result of their remoteness, and the feudal clan system which required tenants to provide military service. Historian Frank McLynn identifies seven primary drivers in Jacobitism, support for the Stuarts being the least important; a large percentage of Jacobite support in 1745 Rising came from Lowlanders who opposed the 1707 Union, and members of the Scottish Episcopal Church. In 1745, the majority of clan leaders advised Prince Charles to return to France, including MacDonald of Sleat and Norman MacLeod. By arriving without French military support, they felt Charles failed to keep his commitments, while it is also suggested Sleat and MacLeod were vulnerable to government sanctions due to their involvement in illegally selling tenants into indentured servitude. Enough were persuaded, but the choice was rarely simple; Donald Cameron of Lochiel committed himself only after he was provided "security for the full value of his estate should the rising prove abortive," while MacLeod and Sleat helped Charles escape after Culloden. Collapse of the clan system In 1493, James IV confiscated the Lordship of the Isles from the MacDonalds. This destabilised the region, while links between the Scottish MacDonalds and Irish MacDonnells meant unrest in one country often spilled into the other. James VI took various measures to deal with the resulting instability, including the 1587 'Slaughter under trust' law, later used in the 1692 Glencoe Massacre. To prevent endemic feuding, it required disputes to be settled by the Crown, specifically murder committed in 'cold-blood', once articles of surrender had been agreed, or hospitality accepted. Its first recorded use was in 1588, when Lachlan Maclean was prosecuted for the murder of his new stepfather, John MacDonald, and 17 other members of the MacDonald wedding party. Other measures had limited impact; imposing financial sureties on landowners for the good behaviour of their tenants often failed, as many were not regarded as the clan chief. The 1603 Union of the Crowns coincided with the end of the Anglo-Irish Nine Years' War, followed by land confiscations in 1608. Previously the most Gaelic part of Ireland, the Plantation of Ulster tried to ensure stability in Western Scotland by importing Scots and English Protestants. This process was often supported by the original owners; in 1607 Sir Randall MacDonnell settled 300 Presbyterian Scots families on his land in Antrim. This ended the Irish practice of using Highland gallowglass, or mercenaries. The 1609 Statutes of Iona imposed a range of measures on clan chiefs, designed to integrate them into the Scottish landed classes. Whilst there is debate over their practical effect, they were an influential force on clan elites in the long term. The Statutes obliged clan chiefs to reside in Edinburgh for a large part of the year, and have their heirs educated in the English-speaking Lowlands. Lengthy periods in Edinburgh were costly. Since the Highlands were a largely non-cash economy, this meant they shifted towards commercial exploitation of their lands, rather than managing them as part of a social system. The costs of living away from their clan lands contributed to the chronic indebtedness that was increasingly common for Highland landowners, eventually leading to the sale of many of the great Highland estates in the late 18th and early 19th century. During the 18th century, in an effort to increase the income from their estates, clan chiefs started to restrict the ability of tacksmen to sublet. This meant more of the rent paid by those actually farming the land went to the landowner. The result, though, was the removal of this layer of clan society. In a process that accelerated from the 1770s onward, by the early 19th century the tacksman had become a rare component of society. Historian T. M. Devine describes "the displacement of this class as one of the clearest demonstrations of the death of the old Gaelic society." Many tacksmen, as well as the wealthier farmers (who were tired of repeated rent increases) chose to emigrate. This could be taken as resistance to the changes in the Highland agricultural economy, as the introduction of agricultural improvement gave rise to the Highland clearances. The loss of this middle tier of Highland society represented not only a flight of capital from Gaeldom, but also a loss of entrepreneurial energy. The first major step in the clearances was the decision of the Dukes of Argyll to put tacks (or leases) of farms and townships up for auction. This began with Campbell property in Kintyre in the 1710s and spread after 1737 to all their holdings. This action as a commercial landlord, letting land to the highest bidder, was a clear breach of the principle of . The Jacobite rising of 1745 used to be described as the pivotal event in the demise in clanship. There is no doubt that the aftermath of the uprising saw savage punitive expeditions against clans that had supported the Jacobites, and legislative attempts to demolish clan culture. However, the emphasis of historians now is on the conversion of chiefs into landlords in a slow transition over a long period. The successive Jacobite rebellions, in the view of T.M. Devine, simply paused the process of change whilst the military aspects of clans regained temporary importance; the apparent surge in social change after the '45 was merely a process of catching up with the financial pressures that gave rise to landlordism. The various pieces of legislation that followed Culloden included the Heritable Jurisdictions Act which extinguished the right of chiefs to hold courts and transferred this role to the judiciary. The traditional loyalties of clansmen were probably unaffected by this. There is also doubt about any real effect from the banning of Highland dress (which was repealed in 1782 anyway). The Highland Clearances saw further actions by clan chiefs to raise more money from their lands. In the first phase of clearance, when agricultural improvement was introduced, many of the peasant farmers were evicted and resettled in newly created crofting communities, usually in coastal areas. The small size of the crofts were intended to force the tenants to work in other industries, such as fishing or the kelp industry. With a shortage of work, the numbers of Highlanders who became seasonal migrants to the Lowlands increased. This gave an advantage in speaking English, as the "language of work". It was found that when the Gaelic Schools Society started teaching basic literacy in Gaelic in the early decades of the 19th century, there was an increase in literacy in English. This paradox may be explained by the annual report of the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge (SSPCK) in 1829, which stated: "so ignorant are the parents that it is difficult to convince them that it can be any benefit to their children to learn Gaelic, though they are all anxious ... to have them taught English". The second phase of the Highland clearances affected overpopulated crofting communities which were no longer able to support themselves due to famine and/or collapse of the industries on which they relied. "Assisted passages" were provided to destitute tenants by landlords who found this cheaper than continued cycles of famine relief to those in substantial rent arrears. This applied particularly to the Western Highlands and the Hebrides. Many Highland estates were no longer owned by clan chiefs, but landlords of both the new and old type encouraged the emigration of destitute tenants to Canada and, later, to Australia. The clearances were followed by a period of even greater emigration, which continued (with a brief lull for the First World War) up to the start of the Great Depression. Romantic memory Most of the anti-clan legislation was repealed by the end of the eighteenth century as the Jacobite threat subsided, with the Dress Act restricting kilt wearing being repealed in 1782. There was soon a process of the rehabilitation of highland culture. By the nineteenth century, tartan had largely been abandoned by the ordinary people of the region, although preserved in the Highland regiments in the British army, which poor highlanders joined in large numbers until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. The international craze for tartan, and for idealising a romanticised Highlands, was set off by the Ossian cycle published by James Macpherson (1736–96). Macpherson claimed to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, and published translations that acquired international popularity. Highland aristocrats set up Highland Societies in Edinburgh (1784) and other centres including London (1788). The image of the romantic highlands was further popularised by the works of Walter Scott. His "staging" of the royal visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822 and the King's wearing of tartan, resulted in a massive upsurge in demand for kilts and tartans that could not be met by the Scottish linen industry. The designation of individual clan tartans was largely defined in this period and they became a major symbol of Scottish identity. This "Highlandism", by which all of Scotland was identified with the culture of the Highlands, was cemented by Queen Victoria's interest in the country, her adoption of Balmoral Castle as a major royal retreat from and her interest in "tartenry". Clan symbols The revival of interest, and demand for clan ancestry, has led to the production of lists and maps covering the whole of Scotland giving clan names and showing territories, sometimes with the appropriate tartans. While some lists and clan maps confine their area to the Highlands, others also show Lowland clans or families. Territorial areas and allegiances changed over time, and there are also differing decisions on which (smaller) clans and families should be omitted (some alternative online sources are listed in the External links section below). This list of clans contains clans registered with the Lord Lyon Court. The Lord Lyon Court defines a clan or family as a legally recognised group, but does not differentiate between families and clans as it recognises both terms as being interchangeable. Clans or families thought to have had a chief in the past but not currently recognised by the Lord Lyon are listed at armigerous clans. Tartan Tartans were traditionally associated with the Highland Clans and following the end of the Dress Act of 1746 banning tartans from being worn by men and boys, "district then clan tartans" have been an important part of a Scottish clans. Almost all Scottish clans have more than one tartan attributed to their surname. Although there are no rules on who can or cannot wear a particular tartan, and it is possible for anyone to create a tartan and name it almost any name they wish, the only person with the authority to make a clan's tartan "official" is the chief. In some cases, following such recognition from the clan chief, the clan tartan is recorded and registered by the Lord Lyon. Once approved by the Lord Lyon, after recommendation by the Advisory Committee on Tartan, the clan tartan is then recorded in the Lyon Court Books. In at least one instance a clan tartan appears in the heraldry of a clan chief and the Lord Lyon considers it to be the "proper" tartan of the clan. Originally, there appears to have been no association of tartans with specific clans; instead, highland tartans were produced to various designs by local weavers and any identification was purely regional, but the idea of a clan-specific tartan gained currency in the late 18th century and in 1815 the Highland Society of London began the naming of clan-specific tartans. Many clan tartans derive from a 19th-century hoax known as the Vestiarium Scoticum. The Vestiarium was composed by the "Sobieski Stuarts", who passed it off as a reproduction of an ancient manuscript of clan tartans. It has since been proven a forgery, but despite this, the designs are still highly regarded and they continue to serve their purpose to identify the clan in question. Crest badge A sign of allegiance to the clan chief is the wearing of a crest badge. The crest badge suitable for a clansman or clanswoman consists of the chief's heraldic crest encircled with a strap and buckle and which contains the chief's heraldic motto or slogan. Although it is common to speak of "clan crests", there is no such thing. In Scotland (and indeed all of UK) only individuals, clans, possess a heraldic coat of arms. Even though any clansmen and clanswomen may purchase crest badges and wear them to show their allegiance to his or her clan, the heraldic crest and motto always belong to the chief alone. In principle, these badges should only be used with the permission of the clan chief; and the Lyon Court has intervened in cases where permission has been withheld. Scottish crest badges, much like clan-specific tartans, do not have a long history, and owe much to Victorian era romanticism, having only been worn on the bonnet since the 19th century. The concept of a clan badge or form of identification may have some validity, as it is commonly stated that the original markers were merely specific plants worn in bonnets or hung from a pole or spear. Clan badge Clan badges are another means of showing one's allegiance to a Scottish clan. These badges, sometimes called plant badges, consist of a sprig of a particular plant. They are usually worn in a bonnet behind the Scottish crest badge; they can also be attached at the shoulder of a lady's tartan sash, or be tied to a pole and used as a standard. Clans which are connected historically, or that occupied lands in the same general area, may share the same clan badge. According to popular lore, clan badges were used by Scottish clans as a form of identification in battle. However, the badges attributed to clans today can be completely unsuitable for even modern clan gatherings. Clan badges are commonly referred to as the original clan symbol. However, Thomas Innes of Learney claimed the heraldic flags of clan chiefs would have been the earliest means of identifying Scottish clans in battle or at large gatherings. See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links The Standing Council of Scottish Chiefs The Court of the Lord Lyon – the official heraldic authority of Scotland The Scottish Register of Tartans – official Scottish government database of tartan registrations, established in 2009 The Scottish Tartans Authority – Scottish registered charity and the only extant private organisation dedicated to the preservation and promotion of tartans Council of Scottish Clans and Associations (COSCA, US-based) The Scottish Australian Heritage Council "Scottish Clans and Families"" – clans registered with the Court of the Lord Lyon (unofficial list via the Electric Scotland website) SkyeLander: Scottish History Online blog by Robert M. 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253174	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20Stuart	House of Stuart	The House of Stuart, originally Stewart, was a royal house of Scotland, England, Ireland and later Great Britain. The family name comes from the office of High Steward of Scotland, which had been held by the family progenitor Walter fitz Alan (c. 1150). The name Stewart and variations had become established as a family name by the time of his grandson Walter Stewart. The first monarch of the Stewart line was Robert II, whose male-line descendants were kings and queens in Scotland from 1371, and of England and Great Britain from 1603, until 1714. Mary, Queen of Scots, was brought up in France where she adopted the French spelling of the name Stuart. In 1503, James IV married Margaret Tudor, thus linking the royal houses of Scotland and England. Elizabeth I of England died without issue in 1603, and James IV's great-grandson (and Mary's only son) James VI of Scotland succeeded to the thrones of England and Ireland as James I in the Union of the Crowns. The Stuarts were monarchs of Britain and Ireland and its growing empire until the death of Queen Anne in 1714, except for the period of the Commonwealth between 1649 and 1660. In total, nine Stewart/Stuart monarchs ruled Scotland alone from 1371 until 1603, the last of which was James VI, before his accession in England. Two Stuart queens ruled the isles following the Glorious Revolution in 1688: Mary II and Anne. Both were the Protestant daughters of James VII and II by his first wife Anne Hyde and the great-grandchildren of James VI and I. Their father had converted to Catholicism and his new wife gave birth to a son in 1688, who was to be brought up as a Roman Catholic; so James was deposed by Parliament in 1689, in favour of his daughters. However, neither daughter had any children who survived to adulthood, so the crown passed to the House of Hanover on the death of Queen Anne in 1714 under the terms of the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Act of Security 1704. After the loss of the throne, the descendants of James VII and II came to be known as the Jacobites and continued for several generations to attempt to reclaim the Scottish and English (and later British) throne as the rightful heirs, though since the early 19th century there have been no more active claimants from the Stuart family. The current Jacobite heir to the claims of the historical Stuart monarchs is Franz, Duke of Bavaria, of the House of Wittelsbach. The senior living member of the royal Stewart family, descended in a legitimate male line from Robert II of Scotland, is Arthur Stuart, 8th Earl Castle Stewart. Background The ancestral origins of the Stuart family are obscure—their probable ancestry is traced back to Alan FitzFlaad, a Breton who went to Great Britain not long after the Norman conquest. Alan had been the hereditary steward of the Bishop of Dol in the Duchy of Brittany; Alan had a good relationship with Henry I of England who awarded him with lands in Shropshire. The FitzAlan family quickly established themselves as a prominent Anglo-Norman noble house, with some of its members serving as High Sheriff of Shropshire. It was the great-grandson of Alan named Walter FitzAlan who became the first hereditary High Steward of Scotland, while his brother William's family went on to become Earls of Arundel. When the civil war in the Kingdom of England, known as The Anarchy, broke out between the legitimist claimant Matilda, Lady of the English, and her cousin who had usurped her, King Stephen, Walter had sided with Matilda. Another supporter of Matilda was her uncle David I of Scotland from the House of Dunkeld. After Matilda was pushed out of England into the County of Anjou, essentially failing in her legitimist attempt for the throne, many of her supporters in England fled also. It was then that Walter followed David up to the Kingdom of Scotland, where he was granted lands in Renfrewshire and the title for life of Lord High Steward. The next monarch of Scotland, Malcolm IV, made the High Steward title a hereditary arrangement. While High Stewards, the family were based at Dundonald, South Ayrshire, between the 12th and 13th centuries. History The sixth High Steward of Scotland, Walter Stewart (1293–1326), married Marjorie, daughter of Robert the Bruce, and also played an important part in the Battle of Bannockburn gaining further favour. Their son Robert was heir to the House of Bruce, the Lordship of Cunningham and the Bruce lands of Bourtreehill; he eventually inherited the Scottish throne when his uncle David II died childless in 1371. In 1503, James IV attempted to secure peace with England by marrying King Henry VII's daughter, Margaret Tudor. The birth of their son, later James V, brought the House of Stewart into the line of descent of the House of Tudor, and the English throne. Margaret Tudor later married Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, and their daughter, Margaret Douglas, was the mother of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. In 1565, Darnley married his half-cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, the daughter of James V. Darnley's father was Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, a member of the Stewart of Darnley branch of the House. Lennox was a descendant of Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland, also descended from James II, being Mary's heir presumptive. Thus Darnley was also related to Mary on his father's side and because of this connection, Mary's heirs remained part of the House of Stuart. Following John Stewart of Darnley's ennoblement for his part at the Battle of Baugé in 1421 and the grant of lands to him at Aubigny and Concressault, the Darnley Stewarts' surname was gallicised to Stuart. Both Mary, Queen of Scots, and Lord Darnley had strong claims on the English throne through their mutual grandmother Margaret Tudor. This eventually led to the accession of the couple's only child James as King of Scotland, England, and Ireland in 1603. However, this was a personal union, as the three Kingdoms shared a monarch, but had separate governments, churches, and institutions. Indeed, the personal union did not prevent an armed conflict, known as the Bishops' Wars, breaking out between England and Scotland in 1639. This was to become part of the cycle of political and military conflict that marked the reign of Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland, culminating in a series of conflicts known as the War of the Three Kingdoms. The trial and execution of Charles I by the English Parliament in 1649 began 11 years of republican government known as the English Interregnum. Scotland initially recognised the late King's son, also called Charles, as their monarch, before being subjugated and forced to enter Cromwell's Commonwealth by General Monck's occupying army. During this period, the principal members of the House of Stuart lived in exile in mainland Europe. The younger Charles returned to Britain to assume his three thrones in 1660 as "Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland", but dated his reign from his father's death eleven years before. In feudal and dynastic terms, the Scottish reliance on French support was revived during the reign of Charles II, whose own mother was French. His sister Henrietta married into the French royal family. Charles II left no legitimate children, but his numerous illegitimate descendants included the Dukes of Buccleuch, the Dukes of Grafton, the Dukes of Saint Albans and the Dukes of Richmond. These French and Roman Catholic connections proved unpopular and resulted in the downfall of the Stuarts, whose mutual enemies identified with Protestantism and because James VII and II offended the Anglican establishment by proposing tolerance not only for Catholics but for Protestant Dissenters. The Glorious Revolution caused the overthrow of King James in favour of his son-in-law and his daughter, William and Mary. James continued to claim the thrones of England and Scotland to which he had been crowned, and encouraged revolts in his name, and his grandson Charles (also known as Bonnie Prince Charlie) led an ultimately unsuccessful rising in 1745, ironically becoming symbols of conservative rebellion and Romanticism. Some blame the identification of the Roman Catholic Church with the Stuarts for the extremely lengthy delay in the passage of Catholic emancipation until Jacobitism (as represented by direct Stuart heirs) was extinguished; however it was as likely to be caused by entrenched anti-Catholic prejudice among the Anglican establishment of England. Despite the Whig intentions of tolerance to be extended to Irish subjects, this was not the preference of Georgian Tories and their failure at compromise played a subsequent role in the present division of Ireland. Present day The Royal House of Stuart became extinct with the death of Cardinal Henry Benedict Stuart, brother of Charles Edward Stuart, in 1807. Duke Francis of Bavaria is the current senior heir. However, Charles II had a number of illegitimate sons whose surviving descendants in the male line include Charles Gordon-Lennox, 11th Duke of Richmond; Henry FitzRoy, 12th Duke of Grafton; Murray Beauclerk, 14th Duke of St Albans; and Richard Scott, 10th Duke of Buccleuch. In addition, James II's illegitimate son, James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, founded the House of FitzJames comprising two branches, one in France and one in Spain. The last of the French branch died in 1967; the senior heir of James II's male-line descendants is Jacobo Hernando Fitz-James Stuart, 20th Duke of Peñaranda de Duero. List of monarchs Monarchs of Scotland Monarchs of England, Scotland and Ireland From the Acts of Union 1707, which came into effect on 1 May 1707, the last Stuart monarch, Anne, became Queen of Great Britain and Ireland. <div style="overflow:auto"> Family tree Round provided a family tree to embody his essential findings, which is adapted below. Origin Alan fitz Flaad William FitzAlan, Lord of Oswestry William Fitz Alan, 1st Lord of Oswestry and Clun William Fitz Alan, 2nd Lord of Oswestry and Clun John Fitzalan, Lord of Oswestry John FitzAlan, 6th Earl of Arundel House of FitzAlan Jordan fitz Alan, Seneschal of Dol Walter fitz Alan, 1st High Steward of Scotland Alan fitz Walter, 2nd High Steward of Scotland Walter Stewart, 3rd High Steward of Scotland Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland Robert II of Scotland John Stewart of Ralston John Stewart of Bonkyll Alexander Stewart of Bonkyll Earls of Angus (extinct 1361) Alan Stewart of Dreghorn Stewart of Darnley Earls of Lennox Stewart of Garlies Earls of Galloway Stewart of Burray Stewart of Physgill (Phisgal) Stewart of Minto Lords Blantyre Stewart of Tongrie Stewart of Barclye Walter Stewart of Garlies and Dalswinton John Stewart of Dalswinton Walter Stewart of Garlies and Dalswinton James Stewart of Pearston Stewart of Pearston Stewart of Lorn Clan Stewart of Appin Earls of Atholl Earls of Buchan Earls of Traquair (illegitimate) John Stewart of Daldon Robert Stewart of Daldowie Walter Bailloch Earls of Menteith Robert Stewart, Lord of Darnley Simon fitz Alan Clan Boyd House of Stewart Robert II of Scotland Robert III of Scotland David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay James I of Scotland Alexander Stewart, Duke of Rothesay James II of Scotland James III of Scotland James IV of Scotland James, Duke of Rothesay Arthur Stewart, Duke of Rothesay James V of Scotland James, Duke of Rothesay Arthur, Duke of Albany Mary, Queen of Scots Alexander Stewart, Duke of Ross James Stewart, Duke of Ross John Stewart, Earl of Mar Alexander Stewart, Duke of Albany Alexander Stewart, Bishop of Moray John Stewart, Duke of Albany David Stewart, Earl of Moray John Stewart, Earl of Mar Sir John Stewart (illegitimate) Stewart of Ballechin Walter, Lord of Fife Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany Murdoch Stewart, Duke of Albany Robert Stewart Walter Stewart Lords Avandale Lords Stuart of Ochiltree Barons Castle Stewart Earls Castle Stewart Alasdair Stewart James Mor Stewart James "Beag" Stewart (illegitimate) Stewart of Balquhidder Stewart of Ardvorlich Stewart of Glen Buckie Stewart of Gartnafuaran Stewart of Annat John Stewart, Earl of Buchan Robert Stewart, Earl of Ross Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan, the Wolf of Badenoch Illegitimate sons Stewart of Atholl David Stewart, Earl of Strathearn Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl Alan Stewart, 4th Earl of Caithness David Stewart, Master of Atholl John Stewart, Sheriff of Bute (illegitimate) Clan Stuart of Bute House of Stuart Descended from the Stewarts of Darnley (Stewarts of Lennox) Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, husband of Mary, Queen of Scots James VI and I Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales Charles I of England Charles II of England James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth (illegitimate) Dukes of Buccleuch Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth (illegitimate) Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Cleveland (illegitimate) Dukes of Cleveland (extinct 1774) Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton (illegitimate) Dukes of Grafton George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland (illegitimate) Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans (illegitimate) Dukes of St Albans Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond (illegitimate) Dukes of Richmond, Lennox and Gordon James II of England Charles Stuart, Duke of Cambridge James Stuart, Duke of Cambridge Charles Stuart, Duke of Kendal Edgar, Duke of Cambridge Charles Stuart, Duke of Cambridge James Francis Edward Stuart Charles Edward Stuart Henry Benedict Stuart James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick (illegitimate) House of FitzJames Dukes of Berwick Dukes of Fitz-James (extinct 1967) Henry FitzJames (illegitimate) Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester Robert Stuart, Duke of Kintyre and Lorne See also Jacobitism, for more on the legitimist House of Stuart, following the Glorious Revolution John Barbour, the first Stewart court poet and genealogist List of Scottish monarchs List of British monarchs Clan Stewart Barony and Castle of Corsehill Stewarton in Ayrshire and the Stuart connection Armorial of the House of Stuart Notes References Sources Further reading Addington, Arthur C. The Royal House of Stuart: The Descendants of King James VI of Scotland (James I of England). 3v. Charles Skilton, 1969–76. Cassavetti, Eileen. The Lion & the Lilies: The Stuarts and France. Macdonald & Jane's, 1977. External links Official website of the Stewarts of Argyll Scottish monarchy Medieval royal families . 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253179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratz%20v.%20Bollinger	Gratz v. Bollinger	Gratz v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 244 (2003), was a United States Supreme Court case regarding the University of Michigan undergraduate affirmative action admissions policy. In a 6–3 decision announced on June 23, 2003, Chief Justice Rehnquist, writing for the Court, ruled the University's point system's "predetermined point allocations" that awarded 20 points towards admission to underrepresented minorities "ensures that the diversity contributions of applicants cannot be individually assessed" and was therefore unconstitutional. Case The University of Michigan used a 150-point scale to rank applicants, with 100 points needed to guarantee admission. The University gave underrepresented ethnic groups, including African-Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans, an automatic 20-point bonus towards their score, while a perfect SAT score was worth 12 points. The petitioners, Jennifer Gratz and Patrick Hamacher, both residents of Michigan, applied for admission to the University of Michigan's College of Literature, Science, and the Arts (LSA). Gratz applied for admission in the fall of 1995 and Hamacher in the fall of 1997. Both were subsequently denied admission to the university. Gratz and Hamacher were contacted by the Center for Individual Rights, which filed a lawsuit on their behalf in October 1997. The case was filed in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan against the University of Michigan, the College of LSA, James Duderstadt, and Lee Bollinger. Duderstadt was president of the university while Gratz's application was under consideration, and Bollinger while Hamacher's was under consideration. Their class-action lawsuit alleged "violations and threatened violations of the rights of the plaintiffs and the class they represent to equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment... and for racial discrimination." Like Grutter, the case was heard in District Court, appealed to the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, and asked to be heard before the Supreme Court. U.S. Supreme Court consideration Issues of standing It has been argued by some that Jennifer Gratz lacked legal standing to bring this action. Gratz applied in 1995, three years before the University of Michigan adopted its points system. Gratz could not claim injury as a result of the points system, and thus, under traditional legal rules, Gratz lacked standing. Gratz chose not to attend the University of Michigan by declining the university's offer to be placed on a waiting list. Every Michigan student who agreed to go onto the waiting list in the spring of 1995 was admitted to the University of Michigan for the Fall 1995 semester. However, Gratz argues that she did fill out the paperwork for said waiting list, but the University claims it got lost. Opinion of the court Chief Justice Rehnquist delivered the opinion of the court. The court's majority found that Gratz and co-plaintiff Hamacher had standing to seek declaratory and injunctive relief, relying on Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville, 508 U.S. 656 (1993). Here the "injury in fact" necessary to establish standing in the case was the denial of equal treatment resulting from the imposition of the barrier, and not in the ultimate inability to obtain the benefit. The court held that because the university’s use of race in its current freshman admissions policy was not narrowly tailored to achieve the respondents' asserted interest in diversity, the policy violated the Equal Protection Clause. Dissent Justices Stevens, Souter, and Ginsburg dissented. Ginsburg wrote that "government decisionmakers may properly distinguish between policies of exclusion and inclusion...Actions designed to burden groups long denied full citizenship stature are not sensibly ranked with measures taken to hasten the day when entrenched discrimination and its after effects have been extirpated." See also Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) List of class action lawsuits List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539 References Further reading External links Transcript of April 1, 2003 Supreme Court arguments (PDF format) United States equal protection case law United States affirmative action case law 2003 in United States case law Class action lawsuits University of Michigan University and college admissions Legal history of Michigan United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court	[ -0.16101570427417755, 0.502829372882843, -0.09386581182479858, -0.5150832533836365, -0.8570157289505005, 0.5217020511627197, 0.08627692610025406, 0.08577845245599747, -0.12718023359775543, -0.26810911297798157, -0.21430915594100952, -0.26910874247550964, -0.42308375239372253, 0.7585749626159668, 0.25033310055732727, 0.32775476574897766, 0.14694857597351074, 0.5802736282348633, -0.2643204629421234, -0.8237882852554321, 0.3708716034889221, -0.18002451956272125, 0.23986786603927612, -0.0874795913696289, 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253185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin%20duck	Mandarin duck	The mandarin duck (Aix galericulata) is a perching duck species native to the East Palearctic. It is medium-sized, at long with a wingspan. It is closely related to the North American wood duck, the only other member of the genus Aix. is an Ancient Greek word which was used by Aristotle to refer to an unknown diving bird, and is the Latin for a wig, derived from , a cap or bonnet. Description The adult male has a red bill, large white crescent above the eye and reddish face and "whiskers". The male's breast is purple with two vertical white bars, and the flanks ruddy, and he has two orange "sails" at the back (large feathers that stick up like boat sails). The female is similar to the female wood duck, with a white eye-ring and stripe running back from the eye, but is paler below, has a small white flank stripe, and a pale tip to its bill. Both the males and females have crests, but the purple crest is more pronounced on the male. Like many other species of ducks, the male undergoes a moult after the mating season into eclipse plumage. When in eclipse plumage, the male looks similar to the female, but can be told apart by its bright yellow-orange or red beak, lack of any crest, and a less-pronounced eye-stripe. Mandarin ducklings are almost identical in appearance to wood ducklings, and very similar to mallard ducklings. The ducklings can be distinguished from mallard ducklings because the eye-stripe of mandarin ducklings (and wood ducklings) stops at the eye, while in mallard ducklings it reaches all the way to the bill. Mutations Various mutations of the mandarin duck are found in captivity. The most common is the white mandarin duck. Although the origin of this mutation is unknown, the constant pairing of related birds and selective breeding is presumed to have led to recessive gene combinations, leading in turn to genetic conditions including leucism. Distribution and habitat The species was once widespread in East Asia, but large-scale exports and the destruction of its forest habitat have reduced populations in eastern Russia and in China to below 1,000 pairs in each country; Japan, however, is thought to still hold some 5,000 pairs. The Asian populations are migratory, overwintering in lowland eastern China and southern Japan. Specimens frequently escape from collections, and in the 20th century, a large, feral population was established in Great Britain; more recently, small numbers have bred in Ireland, concentrated in the parks of Dublin. Now, about 7,000 are in Britain with other populations on the European continent, the largest of which is in the region of Berlin. Isolated populations exist in the United States. The town of Black Mountain, North Carolina, has a limited population, and a free-flying feral population of several hundred mandarins exist in Sonoma County, California. This population is the result of several ducks escaping from captivity, then reproducing in the wild. In 2018, a single bird, dubbed Mandarin Patinkin, was seen in New York City's Central Park. The habitats it prefers in its breeding range are the dense, shrubby forested edges of rivers and lakes. It mostly occurs in low-lying areas, but it may breed in valleys at altitudes of up to . In winter, it additionally occurs in marshes, flooded fields, and open rivers. While it prefers fresh water, it may also be seen wintering in coastal lagoons and estuaries. In its introduced European range, it lives in more open habitat than in its native range, around the edges lakes, water meadows, and cultivated areas with woods nearby. Behaviour Compared to other ducks, mandarins are shy birds, preferring to seek cover under trees such as overhanging willows, and form smaller flocks, but may become bolder as a result of becoming tame from frequent interaction with humans. Breeding In the wild, mandarin ducks breed in densely wooded areas near shallow lakes, marshes or ponds. They nest in cavities in trees close to water and during the spring. A single clutch of nine to twelve eggs is laid in April or May. Although the male may defend the brooding female and his eggs during incubation, he himself does not incubate the eggs and leaves before they hatch. Shortly after the ducklings hatch, their mother flies to the ground and coaxes the ducklings to leap from the nest. After all of the ducklings are out of the tree, they will follow their mother to a nearby body of water. Food and feeding Mandarins feed by dabbling or walking on land. They mainly eat plants and seeds, especially beech mast. The species will also add snails, insects and small fish to its diet. The diet of mandarin ducks changes seasonally; in the fall and winter, they mostly eat acorns and grains. In the spring, they mostly eat insects, snails, fish and aquatic plants. In the summer, they eat dew worms, small fish, frogs, mollusks, and small snakes. They feed mainly near dawn or dusk, perching in trees or on the ground during the day. Threats Predation of the mandarin duck varies between different parts of its range. Mink, raccoon dogs, otters, polecats, Eurasian eagle-owls, and grass snakes are all predators of the mandarin duck. The greatest threat to the mandarin duck is habitat loss due to loggers. Hunters are also a threat to the mandarin duck, because often they are unable to recognize the mandarin in flight and as a result, many are shot by accident. Mandarin ducks are not hunted for food, but are still poached because their extreme beauty is prized. In culture Chinese culture The Chinese refer to Mandarin ducks as (), where () and () respectively stand for male and female mandarin ducks. In traditional Chinese culture, mandarin ducks are believed to be lifelong couples, unlike other species of ducks. Hence they are regarded as a symbol of conjugal affection and fidelity, and are frequently featured in Chinese art. A Chinese proverb for loving couples uses the mandarin duck as a metaphor: "Two mandarin ducks playing in water" (). A mandarin duck symbol is also used in Chinese weddings because in traditional Chinese lore, they symbolize wedded bliss and fidelity. Because the male and female plumages of the mandarin duck are so unalike, is frequently used colloquially in Cantonese to mean an "odd couple" or "unlikely pair" – a mixture of two different types of same category. For example, the drink and fried rice. Mandarin ducks featured on the flag of Weihaiwei during British rule. Korean culture For Koreans, mandarin ducks represent peace, fidelity, and plentiful offspring. Similar to the Chinese, they believe that these ducks mate for life. For these reasons, pairs of wooden-carved mandarin ducks called wedding ducks are often given as wedding gifts and play a significant role in Korean marriage. Japanese culture Similarly, in Japanese the ducks are called and are used in the phrase . Gallery References Further reading External links RSPB Birds by Name — Mandarin Duck Mandarin Duck Research Pages - Birkbeck, University of London Mandarin Duck Research mandarin duck Articles containing video clips mandarin duck Birds of Manchuria Birds of Japan Birds of Taiwan mandarin duck mandarin duck	[ -0.3771243393421173, 0.2827688157558441, -0.8981356620788574, 0.03039245679974556, 0.08229691535234451, 0.5550791621208191, -0.12303181737661362, 0.9255240559577942, -0.7180241942405701, -0.30873632431030273, -0.34029439091682434, -0.20192445814609528, -0.3917495906352997, 0.13157568871974945, 0.14655384421348572, 0.4486015737056732, 0.15478667616844177, 0.07081475853919983, 0.18210500478744507, 0.009927880950272083, -0.28817757964134216, -0.7144325375556946, 0.15562695264816284, -0.40485841035842896, -0.014598754234611988, -0.1141391322016716, 0.34878888726234436, 0.5905197858810425, 0.28060123324394226, 0.20168952643871307, 0.11399433761835098, 0.7712041139602661, 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253189	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RedLibre	RedLibre	RedLibre is a non profit project where a group of people, entities, administrations and companies interested in building a free data network to be able to provide data and share resources among other uses. RedLibre has been related mainly to Wireless Community Networks, very near the FreeNetwork project, but in Spain being a point of contact for the people to allow to join projects. To do that, at the beginning it was agreed a network allocation (in Spanish) based on CIDR and all the groups interested in becoming a freenetwork in Spain could reserve a subnetwork so compatibility and connectivity could be possible. RedLibre is a free networks wireless meta community in Spain. The goals of the RedLibre project are: Build a Free Network (Red Libre) Bring technology to society and make communication easier Create an emergency network which could be used in a moment of disaster The RedLibre project was created in September 2001 by Jaime Robles, and it is the first Spanish wireless community network. References External links RedLibre official site (Spanish) Jaime Robles site Networks Wireless community networks Free content	[ 0.4907824993133545, -0.06557080894708633, -0.05600343644618988, 0.4397136867046356, -0.2240116000175476, -0.30166003108024597, 0.15838603675365448, 0.44904011487960815, -0.25152063369750977, -0.19048075377941132, -0.700379490852356, 0.2049141377210617, -0.26429298520088196, 0.21353542804718018, -0.1617134064435959, 0.22164252400398254, 0.0992671400308609, 0.38944733142852783, -0.016181832179427147, 0.5026874542236328, -0.5262879133224487, -0.4041158854961395, -0.37675029039382935, -0.5108816623687744, 0.5571442246437073, -0.07312776148319244, 0.6357653737068176, -0.11753293871879578, -0.822039783000946, 0.20283526182174683, 0.516892671585083, 0.20249256491661072, 0.5203096866607666, -0.3301537036895752, 0.34861788153648376, 0.09359646588563919, -0.441440612077713, 0.028618019074201584, 0.11728788167238235, -0.6963689923286438, 0.21668638288974762, 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253190	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buggy	Buggy	Buggy may refer to: Buggy (automobile) Buggy (surname) Dune buggy or Beach Buggy, a light, open recreational vehicle Horse-drawn buggy Kite buggy, a light, purpose-built vehicle powered by a traction kite Shopping buggy or shopping cart Buggy the Clown, an antagonist in One Piece Baby carriage or buggy Gravity racer or buggy, an unmotorised go-kart Buggy, a class of off-road radio-controlled cars Chief's buggy, a 19th-century horse-drawn fire chief's vehicle Buggy, a U.S. nuclear test conducted under Operation Crosstie, and Operation Plowshare See also Bug (disambiguation) Buggie (disambiguation) Bugsy (disambiguation) Bogey (disambiguation) Bogy (disambiguation) Boogie (disambiguation) Bougy (disambiguation) Moon Buggy (disambiguation)	[ 0.1450011283159256, -0.21629247069358826, -0.11968688666820526, 0.6407685279846191, 0.096579410135746, 0.24572719633579254, -0.08043470233678818, 0.3014163076877594, -0.6950384378433228, 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253192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhibitionism	Exhibitionism	Exhibitionism is the act of exposing in a public or semi-public context one's intimate parts – for example, the breasts, genitals or buttocks. The practice may arise from a desire or compulsion to expose themselves in such a manner to groups of friends or acquaintances, or to strangers for their amusement or sexual satisfaction, or to shock the bystander. Exposing oneself only to an intimate partner is normally not regarded as exhibitionism. In law, the act of exhibitionism may be called indecent exposure, "exposing one's person", or other expressions. History Public exhibitionism by women has been recorded since classical times, often in the context of women shaming groups of men into committing, or inciting them to commit, some public action. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus gives an account of exhibitionistic behaviors from the fifth century BC in The Histories. Herodotus writes that: When people travel to Bubastis for the festival, this is what they do. Every baris carrying them there overflows with people, a huge crowd of them, men and women together. Some of the women have clappers, while some of the men have pipes which they play throughout the voyage. The rest of the men and women sing and clap their hands. When in the course of their journey they reach a community — not the city of their destination, but somewhere else — they steer the bareis close to the bank. Some of the women carry on doing what I have already described them as doing, but others shout out scornful remarks to the women in the town, or dance, or stand and pull up their clothes to expose themselves. Every riverside community receives this treatment. A case of what appears to be exhibitionism in a clinical sense was recorded in a report by the Commission against Blasphemy in Venice in 1550. In the UK the 4th draft of the revised Vagrancy Act of 1824 included an additional clause 'or openly and indecently exposing their persons' which gave rise to difficulties because of its ill-defined scope. During the course of a subsequent debate on the topic in Parliament, the then Home Secretary, Mr Peel, observed that 'there was not a more flagrant offence than that of indecently exposing the person which had been carried to an immense extent in the parks...wanton exposure was a very different thing from accidental exposure'. The development of new technologies such as smartphones and tablets has permitted some exhibitionists to reorient their methods such as with nude selfies. Psychological aspects The term exhibitionist was first used in 1877 by French physician and psychiatrist Charles Lasègue. Various earlier medical-forensic texts discuss genital self-exhibition, however. When exhibitionistic sexual interest is acted on with a non-consenting person or interferes with a person's quality of life or normal functioning, it can be diagnosed as exhibitionistic disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5). The DSM states that the highest possible prevalence for exhibitionistic disorder in men is 2% to 4%. It is thought to be much less common in women. In a Swedish survey, 2.1% of women and 4.1% of men admitted to becoming sexually aroused from the exposure of their genitals to a stranger. A research team asked a sample of 185 exhibitionists, "How would you have preferred a person to react if you were to expose your privates to him or her?" The most common response was "Would want to have sexual intercourse" (35.1%), followed by "No reaction necessary at all" (19.5%), "To show their privates also" (15.1%), "Admiration" (14.1%), and "Any reaction" (11.9%). Only very few exhibitionists chose "Anger and disgust" (3.8%) or "Fear" (0.5%). Types of exposure Various types of behavior are classified as exhibitionism, including: Anasyrma: the lifting of the skirt when not wearing underwear, to expose genitals. Candaulism: when a person exposes his or her partner in a sexually provocative manner. Flashing: the momentary display of bare female breasts by a woman, with an up-and-down lifting of the shirt or bra or, the exposure of a man's or woman's genitalia in a similar manner Martymachlia: a paraphilia which involves sexual attraction to having others watch the execution of a sexual act. Mooning: the display of bare buttocks by pulling down of trousers and underwear. The act is most often done for the sake of humour, disparagement, or mockery. Reflectoporn: the act of stripping and taking a photograph using an object with a reflective surface as a mirror, then posting the image on the Internet in a public forum. Examples include "images of naked men and women reflected in kettles, TVs, toasters and even knives and forks". The instance generally credited with starting the trend involved a man selling a kettle on an Australian auction site featuring a photograph where his naked body is clearly visible; other instances followed, and the specific term "reflectoporn" was coined by Chris Stevens of Internet Magazine. Streaking: the act of running naked through a public place. The intent is not usually sexual but for shock value. Sexting: the act of sending, receiving, or forwarding sexually explicit messages, photographs, or videos. Telephone scatologia: the act of making obscene phone calls to random or known recipients. Some researchers have claimed that this is a variant of exhibitionism, even though it has no in-person physical component. The DSM-5 diagnosis for exhibitionistic disorder has three subtypes: exhibitionists interested in exposing themselves to non-consenting adults, to prepubescent children, or to both. See also Dogging (sexual slang) Exhibitionist narcissism Histrionic personality disorder Human sexual behavior Human sexuality Naturism Naked News Nudity and sexuality Sexualization Sexual fetishism Sex-positive feminism Spring break Sheela na gig Toplessness Voyeurism Wardrobe malfunction References External links Exhibitionism: the Biography by Chris Nancollas Nudity Paraphilias Sex crimes Sexual fetishism	[ 0.48714274168014526, 0.043965067714452744, -0.6355560421943665, 0.12834568321704865, -0.43667271733283997, 0.15131662786006927, 0.5480517148971558, 0.4993722140789032, -0.420762836933136, -0.43598341941833496, -0.2625981271266937, 0.4622820019721985, -0.14210866391658783, 0.06337640434503555, -0.4772673547267914, 0.47589272260665894, 0.023132801055908203, 0.47845014929771423, 0.13184572756290436, 0.5662875771522522, -0.3697315454483032, -0.5471998453140259, -0.28000694513320923, -0.381086528301239, 0.4021056890487671, -0.7355458736419678, 0.5008808970451355, -0.16801053285598755, 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253194	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gualichu	Gualichu	Gualichu, or gualicho, in Mapuche mythology and mainly in the Tehuelche culture, was an evil spirit or demon, comparable but not similar to the Devil. Description As the Araucanians had not a properly called god of evil, Gualichu was not worshipped but feared. He was blamed for every disease or calamity, and all evil happenings were said to be caused by him. Gualichu could enter people's body or objects and then an exorcism had to be performed to expel him (see also demon possession). He was a purely spiritual being and there is no depiction of him. He was believed to live underground. By extension, the term applied to an evil spell or charm, or a jinx ("It has Gualichu"). In this sense the word has evolved into gualicho and still survives in the local folklore of Chile, Argentina, south of Brazil and Uruguay, in the form of a noun and a verb (engualichar, to cast an evil spell on somebody or something). See also Wekufe Mapuche Mapudungun Machi (shaman) Chilota mythology Chilean mythology Mapuche International Link Chemamull Gualicho (dinosaur) References Notes Bibliography Claudia Briones and José Luis Lanata. Archaeological and anthropological perspectives on the native peoples of Pampa, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego to the nineteenth century. Native peoples of the Americas. Critical Studies in Education & Culture. 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253195	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Tilly%20Matthews	James Tilly Matthews	James Tilly Matthews (1770 – 10 January 1815) was a London tea broker, originally from Wales and of Huguenot descent, who was committed to Bethlem (colloquially Bedlam) in 1797. His is considered to be the first fully documented case of paranoid schizophrenia. Biography Voyage to France In the early 1790s, concerned at the likelihood of war between Britain and France, Matthews travelled to France with the radical David Williams who was acquainted with such Girondists as Jacques Pierre Brissot and Le Brun. Williams made efforts at mediation which failed, whereupon Matthews took the lead. He gained the trust of the French government for a short time. On 2 June 1793 the Girondists were displaced by the Jacobins and Matthews fell under suspicion for his Girondist associations and also because he was suspected of being a double agent. He was arrested and imprisoned for three years during the height of The Terror and was reportedly terrified of the guillotine, like all others. This lasted until 1796 when the French authorities concluded that he was a lunatic and released him. Committal Returning to London, Matthews wrote two letters to Lord Liverpool, in which he accused the Home Secretary of treason and complained about conspiracies directed against his life. After interrupting a debate in the House of Commons by shouting "Treason" at Lord Liverpool from the Public Gallery, he was arrested and held at Tothill Fields Bridewell, a secure house of correction in Tothill Fields, Westminster before being admitted to the Bethlem (Bedlam) hospital on 28 January 1797. Upon examination he declared that he had taken part in secret affairs of state (referring to his efforts in France), but had been betrayed and abandoned by William Pitt's administration. In 1809 his family and friends petitioned for his release, on the grounds that he was no longer insane, but their petition was rejected by the Bethlem authorities. They therefore took out a suit of habeas corpus and two doctors, George Birkbeck and Henry Clutterbuck examined Matthews, declaring him sane. John Haslam, the resident apothecary at Bethlem, begged to differ and maintained that Matthews' delusions, particularly on political matters, rendered him a danger both to public figures and the general public. Illustrations of Madness In 1810 John Haslam produced the book Illustrations of Madness (original title: Illustrations of Madness: Exhibiting a Singular Case of Insanity, And a No Less Remarkable Difference in Medical Opinions: Developing the Nature of An Assailment, And the Manner of Working Events; with a Description of Tortures Experienced by Bomb-Bursting, Lobster-Cracking and Lengthening the Brain. Embellished with a Curious Plate). Haslam intended to settle the dispute over Matthews' sanity; his book contains verbatim accounts of Matthew's beliefs and hallucinatory experiences and is considered the original description of the symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia. The book documented the first full study of a single psychiatric patient in medical history and has become a classic in the medical literature. The "Air Loom" Matthews believed that a gang of criminals and spies skilled in pneumatic chemistry had taken up residence at London Wall in Moorfields (close to Bethlem) and were tormenting him by means of rays emitted by a machine called the "Air Loom" or gaseous charge generator. The torments induced by the rays included "Lobster-cracking", during which the circulation of the blood was prevented by a magnetic field; "Stomach-skinning" and "Apoplexy-working with the nutmeg grater" which involved the introduction of fluids into the skull. His persecutors bore such names as "the Middleman" (who operated the Air Loom), "the Glove Woman" and "Sir Archy" (who acted as "repeaters" or "active worriers" to enhance Matthews' torment or record the machine's activities) and their leader, a man called "Bill, or the King". Matthews' delusions had a definite political slant: he claimed that the purpose of this gang was espionage, and that there were many other such gangs armed with Air Looms all over London, using "pneumatic practitioners" to "premagnetize" potential victims with "volatile magnetic fluid". According to Matthews, their chief targets (apart from himself) were leading government figures. By means of their "rays" they could influence ministers' thoughts and read their minds. Matthews declared that William Pitt was "not half" susceptible to these attacks and held that these gangs were responsible for the British military disasters at Buenos Aires in 1807 and Walcheren in 1809 and also for the Nore Mutiny of 1797. In 1814 Matthews was moved to "Fox's London House", a private asylum in Hackney, where he became a popular and trusted patient. His delusions appeared to have stopped. The asylum's owner, Dr. Fox, regarded him as sane. Matthews assisted with bookkeeping and gardening until his death on 10 January 1815. Significance of the Air Loom Gang affair Although it is impossible to make an unequivocal diagnosis of a person long since deceased, Matthews' description of his torment by the "Air Loom Gang" reads as a classic example of paranoid persecutory delusions experienced as part of a psychotic episode. From this, it can be concluded that his disorder was most likely schizophrenia, although retrospective diagnoses should be treated with caution. It should also be noted that while Haslam kept notes on Matthews, Matthews kept notes on Haslam and his treatment in Bethlem. This formed part of the evidence looked at by the House of Commons 'Committee On the Better Regulation of Madhouses in England' in 1815, the findings of which led to Haslam's dismissal and reform of the treatment of patients in the Bethlem Hospital. Matthews was also important in the history of psychiatry for more practical reasons. During his involuntary confinement he took part in a public competition to design plans for the rebuilding of Bethlem hospital. Bethlem's governors thought so well of the 46 pages of designs submitted by Matthews that they paid him £50 () and the drawings finally used to build the new hospital show some features proposed by Matthews. Fictional representations Haslam's Key, a play written by journalist Danny O'Brien and performed at the Edinburgh Fringe in 1993, imagined Matthews as a forerunner of modern science fiction authors. The titular "key" was a wooden spoon-like device invented by John Haslam, the documenter of Matthew's delusions, which was used to force-feed Bedlam patients. Richard Hayden's novel The Influencing Engine (1996) is a fantasy loosely based on aspects of Matthews' life. In 2002, the British artist Rod Dickinson built a re-creation of the air loom from Matthews' original plans. Greg Hollingshead's novel Bedlam (2004) concerns the changing relationship between John Haslam and Matthews and is narrated in first-person from the perspective of Haslam, Matthews, and Matthews' wife. The CSI episode "Lab Rats" (2007), Grissom uses Matthews' condition as an analogy in describing The Miniature Killer, a serial killer obsessed with bleach. Robert Rankin's 2007 novel, The Da-da-de-da-da Code, features a group of villains known as the Air Loom Gang, as well as a doctor named Doctor Archy, a pub called "The Middle Man" and a beer called "King Billy". The first album from Aberystwyth band The Lowland Hundred features a song called "The Air Loom", which references the affair. The game Amnesia: A Machine for Pigs from 2013 makes several references to both James Tilly Matthews, the Air Loom and Bedlam. Avant-garde black metal band Denizens released a 2013 EP titled On The Origins of the Influencing Machine directly referencing Matthews. See also Influencing Machine Mind control Persecutory delusion References Further reading Jonathan Andrews, "Haslam, John (bap. 1764, d. 1844)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004. Carpenter, P.K., "Descriptions of Schizophrenia in the Psychiatry of Georgian Britain: John Haslam and James Tilly Matthews", Comprehensive Psychiatry, 30 (4), 332–338. 1989. Gere, C., "The technologies and politics of delusion: an interview with artist Rod Dickinson", Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Vol.35, No.2, (June 2004), pp. 333–349. Haslam, J., Illustrations of Madness: Exhibiting a Singular Case of Insanity, and No Less Remarkable Difference of Medical Opinion: Developing the Nature of An Assailment, and the Manner of Working Events; with a Description of the Tortures Experienced by Bomb-Bursting, Lobster-Cracking, and Lengthening the Brain, etc., G. Hayden, (London), 1810. Howard, R., "James Tilly Matthews in London and Paris 1793: His First Peace Mission — in His Own Words", History of Psychiatry, Vol.2, No.5, (March 1991), pp. 53–69. Howard, R., "Useful or useless architecture? A dimension of the relationship between the Georgian schizophrenic James Tilly Matthews and his doctor, John Haslam", Psychiatric Bulletin, Vol.14, No.10, (October 1990), pp. 620–622. Jay, M., The Air Loom Gang, Bantam Press, (London), 2003. Jay, M., "The Shadow of the Air Loom", Fortean Times, No.220, (March 2007), pp. 52–54. Matthews, J.T., Useful Architecture, S. Bass, (London), 1812. Pilkington, M., "The Air Loom", Fortean Times, No.170, (May 2003), pp. 40–43. Porter, R., "Reason, Madness, and the French Revolution", Studies in Eighteenth Century Culture, Vol.20, (1991), pp. 55–79. Suzuki, A., "My own private England – the madness of James Tilly Matthews and of his times", History of Psychiatry, (December 2005), Vo.16, No.4, pp. 497–502. Trotter, David. Paranoid Modernism: Literary Experiment, Psychosis, and the Professionalization of English Society, Oxford University Press, (Oxford), 2001. Williams, D., "The Missions of David Williams and James Tilly Matthews to England (1793)", The English Historical Review, Vol.53, No.212, (October 1938), pp. 651–668. 1770 births 1815 deaths English businesspeople People with schizophrenia	[ -0.3817752003669739, 0.12469381093978882, 0.40197286009788513, -0.44127973914146423, 0.5286160111427307, 0.6423543691635132, 0.6715506911277771, 0.24785883724689484, -0.2347404658794403, -0.08902344107627869, -0.15240716934204102, -0.4302927851676941, -0.3806813955307007, 0.6410036087036133, -0.10491336137056351, -0.12744832038879395, 0.2084496170282364, -0.43369409441947937, -0.10436903685331345, -0.6936541199684143, -0.12471229583024979, -0.291077196598053, 0.36270517110824585, 0.26433950662612915, 0.21098923683166504, -0.2111954540014267, -0.08693645894527435, -0.5435205101966858, -0.05191321298480034, -0.08870096504688263, 0.5689753890037537, 0.20523767173290253, 1.0594762563705444, -0.4594937860965729, 0.13904596865177155, 0.3793681859970093, 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253197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Farr	William Farr	William Farr CB (30 November 1807 – 14 April 1883) was a British epidemiologist, regarded as one of the founders of medical statistics. Early life He was born in Kenley, Shropshire, to poor parents. He was effectively adopted by a local squire, Joseph Pryce, when Farr and his family moved to Dorrington. In 1826 he took a job as a dresser (surgeon's assistant) in the Salop Infirmary in Shrewsbury and served a nominal apprenticeship to an apothecary. Pryce died in November 1828, and left Farr £500 (), which allowed him to study medicine in France and Switzerland. In Paris he heard Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis lecture. Farr returned to England in 1831 and continued his studies at University College London, qualifying as a licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries in March 1832. He married in 1833 and started a medical practice in Fitzroy Square, London. He became involved in medical journalism and statistics. General Register Office In 1837 the General Register Office (GRO) took on the responsibility for the United Kingdom Census 1841. Farr was hired there, initially on a temporary basis to handle data from vital registration. Then, with a recommendation from Edwin Chadwick and backing from Neil Arnott, Farr secured another post in the GRO as the first compiler of scientific abstracts (i.e. a statistician). Chadwick and Farr had an agenda, demography aimed at public health, and the support of the initial Registrar General Thomas Henry Lister. Lister worked with Farr on the census design, to forward the programme. Farr was responsible for the collection of official medical statistics in England and Wales. His most important contribution was to set up a system for routinely recording the causes of death. For example, for the first time it allowed the mortality rates of different occupations to be compared. Learned societies and associations In 1839, Farr joined the Statistical Society, in which he played an active part as treasurer, vice-president and president over the years. In 1855 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society. He was involved in the Social Science Association from its foundation in 1857, taking part in its Quarantine Committee and Committee on Trades' Societies and Strikes. Law of epidemics In 1840, Farr submitted a letter to the Annual Report of the Registrar General of Births, Deaths and Marriages in England. In that letter, he applied mathematics to the records of deaths during a recent smallpox epidemic, proposing that: "If the latent cause of epidemics cannot be discovered, the mode in which it operates may be investigated. The laws of its action may be determined by observation, as well as the circumstances in which epidemics arise, or by which they may be controlled." He showed that during the smallpox epidemic, a plot of the number of deaths per quarter followed a roughly bell-shaped or "normal curve", and that recent epidemics of other diseases had followed a similar pattern. Research on cholera There was a major outbreak of cholera in London in 1849 which killed around 15,000 people. Early industrialisation had made London the most populous city in the world at the time, and the River Thames was heavily polluted with untreated sewage. Farr subscribed to the conventional theory that cholera was carried by polluted air rather than water – the miasmic theory. In addition, through his analysis of several variables and their association with death from cholera, Farr held the belief that elevation was the major contributor to the occurrence of the disease. He also presented how topographical features are able to prevent certain diseases similarly to immunization. During the 1853-54 epidemic, Farr gathered more statistical evidence. During focused study of the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, the physician John Snow used data supplied by the GRO and applied the (now accepted) mechanism for transmission he had proposed in 1849: people were infected by swallowing something, and it multiplied in the intestines. Snow also examined mortality statistics compiled by the GRO for people supplied with water from two companies in South London – the Southwark & Vauxhall Company (which drew contaminated water from low in the Thames basin) and the Lambeth Water Company (which drew cleaner water from further up the Thames) – and found Southwark & Vauxhall customers were especially likely to suffer. Farr took part in the General Board of Health's 1854 Committee for Scientific Enquiries. The conventional explanation for cholera was still multifactorial; Snow's view of cholera as solely caused by a pathogen was not accepted, though his evidence was taken seriously. Farr's research was detailed and showed an inverse correlation of mortality and elevation. There was a further epidemic in 1866, by which time Snow had died, and Farr had accepted Snow's explanation. He produced a monograph which showed that mortality was extremely high for people who drew their water from the Old Ford Reservoir in East London. Farr's work was then considered conclusive. Later life In 1858, he performed a study on the correlation of health and marriage condition, and found that health decreases from the married to the unmarried to the widowed. In the period 1857–9 the Office ordered a difference engine, a model designed by Swedish followers of Charles Babbage. The intended application was the "British Life Table". Farr served as a commissioner in the 1871 census, retiring from the General Register Office in 1879 after he was not given the post of Registrar General. He that year received as honours a Companionship of the Bath and the Gold Medal of the British Medical Association for his work in the field of biostatistics. In his last years, Farr's approach was obsolescent. Bacteriology had changed the face of the medical issues, and statistics became an increasingly mathematic tool. Medical reformers, too, changed approach, expecting less from legislation and central government. Farr died aged 75 at his home in Maida Vale, London, and was buried at Bromley Common. Works In 1837 Farr wrote the chapter "Vital Statistics" for John Ramsey McCulloch's Statistical Account of the British Empire. In January 1837 he established the British Annals of Medicine, Pharmacy, Vital Statistics, and General Science, discontinued in August of that year. He revised a book of James Fernandez Clarke on tuberculosis. Farr exploited his GRO post compiling abstracts in a way that went beyond the original job description. In so doing he applied the techniques of the English actuary Benjamin Gompertz (the Gompertz curve), and the closely allied statistical "law of mortality" of his fellow actuary Thomas Rowe Edmonds. Farr, by relying on the existing mathematical model of mortality, could use data sampling to cut back the required computation. From the GRO data he constructed a series of national life tables. The theory of zymotic disease was Farr's contribution to the debate on aetiology. He identified urbanisation and population density as public health issues. In terms of nosology he classed epidemic, endemic and contagious diseases as "zymotic", seen as diseases of filth and overcrowding. In drama In "The Sewer King", an episode in the 2003 British television documentary series Seven Wonders of the Industrial World, Farr was played by Norman Lovett. Family Farr's first wife, whom he married in 1833, had the surname Langford; she died of tuberculosis in 1837. He married Mary Elizabeth Whittal in 1842, and they had eight children. In 1880 a public testimonial was collected to provide for his daughters after he lost money through unwise investments. One daughter, Henrietta, was married to painter and illustrator Henry Marriott Paget, the older brother of illustrators Sidney and Walter Paget. Another daughter, Florence Farr, was also a painter and artist and a model of many famous art deco works of art. The Pagets as well as the Farr sisters lived and worked in Bedford Park, the famous artist's colony in West London. Recognition Farr's name features on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. Twenty-three names of public health and tropical medicine pioneers were chosen to appear on the School building in Keppel Street when it was constructed in 1926. References Biographies External links William Farr: campaigning statistician by Stephen Halliday Royal Society certificate of election 1807 births 1883 deaths People from Shropshire Alumni of University College London English statisticians English civil servants 19th-century English medical doctors British epidemiologists Biostatisticians Fellows of the Royal Society Presidents of the Royal Statistical Society Civil servants in the General Register Office Members of HM Government Statistical Service	[ -0.0193336121737957, 0.1856534779071808, -0.5197277069091797, -0.5622453093528748, 0.11137056350708008, 0.8678535223007202, 0.4770503044128418, -0.24229788780212402, 0.20434026420116425, -0.1877063661813736, -0.1715993881225586, -0.09608487039804459, -0.2135595679283142, 0.5881028175354004, 0.20133207738399506, 0.47064197063446045, -0.5615940690040588, -0.2811046242713928, 0.11252683401107788, -0.21314136683940887, -0.38321900367736816, -0.22910131514072418, 0.38378843665122986, 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253204	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perambulator	Perambulator	Perambulator may refer to: Pram (baby), a type of baby transport Surveyor's wheel, a device for measuring distance See also Perambulation (disambiguation)	[ 0.05472848564386368, 0.12143013626337051, 0.006077807396650314, 0.5437334775924683, 0.026662372052669525, 0.8103078603744507, -0.01655917428433895, -0.1616199016571045, -0.5672969818115234, -0.42586958408355713, -0.13398860394954681, 0.04721840098500252, -0.05066398158669472, 0.7027446627616882, -0.2943662703037262, 0.36851736903190613, 0.38623952865600586, 0.23149722814559937, -0.556452751159668, -0.27813467383384705, -0.30913352966308594, -0.02258501760661602, 0.5018449425697327, -0.8030050992965698, -0.17176297307014465, 0.0900648683309555, 0.17414343357086182, 0.3414769172668457, -0.46375396847724915, -0.2627412974834442, 0.3769550323486328, 0.38268718123435974, 0.24800650775432587, -0.264841765165329, 0.5330255031585693, -0.08833865821361542, 0.10516978800296783, 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253205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act	Act	Act or ACT may refer to: Arts and entertainment Acting, theatrical performance Act (drama), a segment of a play or opera Musical act Act (band), a British band A.C.T, a Swedish band ACT Music, a German music label ACT Theatre, in Seattle, Washington, US American Conservatory Theater, in San Francisco, California, US Acts, a 2012 album by American band RNDM Business organizations AdaCore, formerly Ada Core Technologies, Ada specialist software company Advanced Cell Technology, stem cell company Advanced Computer Techniques, a U.S. software company 1962–1994 Applied Computer Techniques, later Apricot Computers, UK Atria Convergence Technologies, a telecommunications company in India Aviation Composite Technology, an aircraft manufacturer in the Philippines Education Asian College of Technology, Cebu City, Philippines Australian College of Theology ACT (nonprofit organization), provides assessments etc. for US school students etc. ACT (test), for college admission, US Government / military AC Transit, a transit agency serving Alameda and Contra Costa Counties, California Advanced Clean Trucks Regulation, a rule made by the California Air Resources Board which requires trucks to decarbonize. Advanced Concepts Team, a research team of the European Space Agency Agency for Community Transit, Madison County Transit's paratransit system Allied Command Transformation, a NATO strategic command Azienda comunale del traffico, a former transport operator in Lugano, Switzerland Political parties and campaigning/advocacy groups ACT Alberta, a Canadian coalition to raise awareness about human trafficking ACT Alliance, an alliance of churches for coordinating humanitarian assistance and development work ACT New Zealand, a political party in New Zealand ACT-CIS Partylist, a political party in the Philippines, representing marginalised people ACT Teachers Partylist, a political party in the Philippines, representing teachers ACT! for America, an advocacy group in the United States Action for Children's Television, an organization dedicated to improvements in children's television Agir, (French for Act), a political party in France Alliance for Change and Transparency, a political party in Tanzania Amazon Conservation Team, a non-profit organization that works in partnership with indigenous people to protect the Amazon rainforest America Coming Together, a US political group Professional Organizations Academy of Clinical Thyroidologists, United States Alliance of Concerned Teachers, an alliance of teachers, educators and teacher organizations in the Philippines American College of Toxicology Association for Citizenship Teaching, UK, promotes citizenship teaching Association for Competitive Technology, international association of software developers Association of Cinematograph Television and Allied Technicians, UK Association of Corporate Treasurers, UK Sports Australia national cricket team American Canadian Tour, a stock car racing series Other Organizations ACT (now Together for Short Lives), a children's charity in the United Kingdom Addenbrooke's Charitable Trust, a UK charity Anglican Church in Thailand The Association of Commercial Television in Europe, a group which represents the business interests of the commercial television sector at the EU institutions Associated Container Transport (ACT) a consortium of five British shipping companies - Ben Line, Blue Star Line, Cunard (Port Line), Ellerman Lines and the Harrison Line Law Act (document), a document recording the legality of a transaction or contract Acting (law) refers to someone temporarily exercising the powers of a vacant position Act of Parliament, Act of Congress, or Act of Tynwald, a statute or law passed by a legislature Advance corporation tax, a tax collected in the UK until 1999 Places Australian Capital Territory, the territory in which the Australian capital city of Canberra is seated Transport ACT, the IATA code for Waco Regional Airport, Texas, US ACT, the National Rail code for Ascot railway station, Berkshire, UK Science, technology, and mathematics Computing ACT-R, a symbolic cognitive architecture Apple Certified Trainer, one of the Apple certification programs ACT (NASDAQ), Automated Confirmation of Transactions, a trade reporting and clearing system Act! CRM, Contact Management and CRM software Medicine Acceptance and commitment therapy, a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy Acetylcholine, (ACt/ACh) a neurotransmitter Activated clotting time Adoptive cell transfer, transfer of cells into a patient, usually immune system cells Artemisinin based combination therapy, a treatment for malaria Assertive community treatment, a system for treating mental illness Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics Act or S-act, the action of a monoid on a set, or a semiautomaton ACT (audio format), a file format Ford ACT, a transit system Astrographic Catalog/Tycho or Tycho-2 Catalogue Atacama Cosmology Telescope, Chile ACT, a codon for the amino acid Threonine Other uses ACT mouthwash, produced by Chattem Acting (rank), temporary military rank Achterhooks, ISO 639-3 language code, a Dutch dialect	[ 0.24418944120407104, -0.2896764576435089, -0.23842650651931763, -0.17601020634174347, -0.30166107416152954, 0.17507001757621765, 0.66348797082901, 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253208	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20Soviet%20Republic	Chinese Soviet Republic	Jiangxi or Kiangsi, officially the Chinese Soviet Republic (CSR) was an East Asian unrecognized proto-state within the territory of China's Jiangxi (Kiangsi) province and the predecessor to the People's Republic of China. The state was proclaimed on 7 November 1931 by future Chinese Communist Party leader Mao Zedong and General Zhu De in the early stages of the Chinese Civil War. The discontiguous territories included 18 provinces and 4 counties under CSR control. Its largest and base territory was the Jiangxi-Fujian Soviet. It also included the Northeastern Jiangxi, Hunan-Jiangxi, Hunan-Hubei-Jiangxi, Hunan-Western Hubei, Hunan-Hubei-Sichuan-Guizhou, Shaanxi-Gansu, Szechuan-Shensi, Hubei-Henan-Anhui and Haifeng-Lufeng Soviets. Mao Zedong was both CSR state chairman and prime minister; he led the state and its government. Mao's tenure as head of a "small state within a state" gave him experience in mobile warfare and peasant organization; this experience helped him accomplish the Communist reunification of China during the late 1940s. The CSR was eventually destroyed by the Kuomintang (KMT)'s National Revolutionary Army in a series of 1934 encirclement campaigns. Following the Xi'an Incident of December 1936, the Communists and Kuomintang formed an uneasy "United Front" to resist Japanese pressure, which led to the Communists recognizing at least for the moment Chiang Kai-shek as China's leader and the official dissolution of the Soviet Republic on 22 September 1937 with remnants existing as Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region formed by the leadership of the CSR. Establishment On 7 November 1931 (the anniversary of the 1917 Russian October Revolution) a National Soviet People's Delegates Conference was held in Ruijin (), Jiangxi province. Ruijin was the national capital, and the Republic had received assistance from the Soviet Union to host the gathering. The Chinese Soviet Republic (） was born, although most of China was still controlled by the National Government of the Republic of China; an opening ceremony was held for the new country, and Mao Zedong and other communists attended the military parade. Because the CSR had its own national bank, printed its own money and collected its own taxes, this is considered the beginning of the Two Chinas. With Mao Zedong as both head of state (）, "Chairman of the Central Executive Committee") and head of government (, "Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars"), the CSR gradually expanded. At its peak it covered over —a large part of two provinces (with Tingzhou in Fujian)—and had a population of three million. Its economy was more stable than most of the areas controlled by Chinese warlords. In addition to the militia and guerilla soldiers, the well-armed Chinese Red Army had reached more than 140,000 soldiers by the early 1930s. The Chinese Red Army had modern communications technology (telephones, telegraph and radio, which the warlords' armies lacked), and transmitted wireless coded messages while breaking nationalist codes. At the time, only Chiang Kai-shek's army could match the communist forces. The Kuomintang, led by Chiang Kai-shek, felt threatened by the CSR. It induced the Chinese warlords to have the National Revolutionary Army besiege the CSR, launching what Chiang and his fellow nationalists called encirclement campaigns. The communists responded with what they called counter-encirclement campaigns. Chiang Kai-shek's first, second and third encirclement campaigns were defeated by the Chinese Red Army, led by Mao. However, after the third counter-encirclement campaign Mao was replaced by Wang Ming, a Chinese communist returning from the Soviet Union. The Chinese Red Army was commanded by a three-man committee, which included Wang Ming's associates Otto Braun (the Comintern military advisor), Bo Gu and Zhou Enlai. The CSR then began a rapid decline, due to its extreme left-wing governance and incompetent military command. The new leadership could not rid itself of Mao's influence (which continued during the fourth encirclement campaign), which temporarily protected the communists. However, due to the dominance of the new communist leadership after the fourth counter-encirclement campaign, the Red Army was nearly halved. Most of its equipment was lost during Chiang's fifth encirclement campaign; this began in 1933 and was orchestrated by Chiang's German advisers, who advocated encircling the CSR with fortified blockhouses. This was effective; in an effort to break the blockade the Red Army besieged the forts many times, suffering heavy casualties and only limited success. As a result, the CSR shrank significantly due to the Chinese Red Army's manpower and material losses. State structure Intelligence The communists appeared doomed when attacked by the nationalists. However, Zhou Enlai had planted more than a dozen moles in Chiang Kai-shek's inner circle, including his general headquarters at Nanchang. One of Zhou's most important agents, Mo Xiong (), was not a communist; however, his contributions saved the Chinese Communist Party and the Chinese Red Army. With recommendations from Chiang Kai-shek's secretary-general Yang Yongtai () (who was unaware of Mo's communist activities), Mo rose in Chiang Kai-shek's regime and became an important member in his general headquarters during the early 1930s. In January 1934, Chiang Kai-shek appointed him administrator and commander-in-chief of the Fourth Special District in northern Jiangxi. Mo used his position to plant more than a dozen communist agents in Chiang's general headquarters, including Liu Yafo () (who introduced the Communist Party of China), Xiang Yunian () (his communist handler, whom he hired as his secretary) and Lu Zhiying () (acting head of the spy ring, under the command of Zhou Enlai). After successfully besieging the Ruijin area (the CSR capital) and occupying most of the CSR itself, Chiang was confident that he could defeat the communists in a final decisive strike. In late September 1934 he distributed his top-secret "Iron Bucket Plan" to general headquarters at Lushan (the summer substitute for Nanchang), which detailed the final push to annihilate the communist forces. Chiang planned 30 blockade lines supported by 30 barbed wire fences (most electrified) in a radius around Ruijin to starve the communists. In addition, more than 1,000 trucks were to be mobilized in a rapid-reaction force to prevent a communist breakout. Realizing the certainty of communist annihilation, Mo Xiong () handed the several-kilogram document to Xiang Yunian () the same night—risking his life and those of his family. With help from Liu Yafo () and Lu Zhiying (), communist agents copied the intelligence into four dictionaries and Xiang Yunian () was tasked with bringing it to the CSR. The trip was hazardous, since the nationalist forces arrested and executed anyone attempting to cross the blockade. Xiang Yunian () hid in the mountains, knocking out four of his teeth with a rock and causing his face to swell. Disguised as a beggar, he tore off the covers of the four dictionaries and covered them with spoiled food at the bottom of his bag. Crossing several blockade lines, he reached Ruijin on 7 October 1934. The intelligence provided by Mo Xiong () convinced the communists in the CSR to abandon their base and retreat before Chiang could reinforce his blockade lines with barbed-wire fences. They mobilized trucks and troops, saving themselves from annihilation. Finance On 1 February 1932, the Chinese Soviet Republic National Bank was established, with Mao Zemin as president. The CSR Central Mint issued three types of currency: a paper bill, a copper coin and a silver dollar. Banknotes The Central Mint briefly issued both paper bills and copper coins. Neither circulated for long, primarily because the currency could not be used in the rest of China. The paper bill had "Chinese Soviet Republic National Bank" () printed on the bill in traditional Chinese characters and a picture of Vladimir Lenin. Copper coins Like the paper bill, copper coins issued by the Central Mint also had "Chinese Soviet Republic" () engraved in traditional Chinese. Since coins last longer than paper bills, these coins were issued (and circulated) in a much greater quantity. However, these coins are rarer than the paper bill; copper was needed for ammunition, and these copper coins were recalled and replaced by silver dollars. Silver dollars The predominant currency produced by the Central Mint was the silver dollar. Unlike the bills and copper coins, the silver dollars had no communist symbols; they were a copy of silver dollars produced by other mints in China (including the popular coin with the head of Yuan Shikai and the eagle silver dollar of the Mexican peso). This, and the fact that the coin was made of silver, enabled them to be circulated in the rest of China; thus, it was the currency of choice. When the Chinese Red Army's First Front began its Long March in October 1934, the communist bank was part of the retreating force; fourteen bank employees, over a hundred coolies and a company of soldiers escorted them with the money and mint machinery. An important duty of the bank was, when the Chinese Red Army stayed in a location for longer than a day, to have the local populace exchange communist paper bills and copper coins for currency used in the nationalist-controlled regions to avoid prosecution by the nationalists after the communists left. After the Zunyi Conference it was decided that carrying the entire bank on the march was impractical, and on 29 January 1935, at Tucheng () the bank employees burned all communist paper bills and destroyed the mint machinery. By the end of the Long March in October 1935, only eight of the original fourteen employees were left; the other six had died along the way. Taxation In November 1931, the National Tax Bureau was founded. In 2002, the original building was renovated for the public. Postage stamps The Directorate General of Chinese Soviet Posts was founded in Ruijin on 1 May 1932. The first stamps were designed by Huang Yaguang and printed lithographically by the Printing House of the Ministry of Finance in Ruijin. White paper or newspaper was used. They were imperforate, and denominated in the Chinese Soviet silver-dollar currency. They are fairly rare, and sought after by collectors. There are also many forgeries and bogus issues imitating early stamps from the communist areas. Collapse and the Long March On 10 October 1934 the three-man communist leadership issued an order to retreat; on 16 October the Chinese Red Army begun what was later known as the Long March, leaving the CSR. Seventeen days after the main communist force left its base, the nationalists realized they had escaped when they reached the abandoned city of Ruijin on 5 November. The original destination was He Long's communist base in Hubei; the final destination (Yan'an) was not chosen until later, after the rise of Mao Zedong. To avoid panic, the goal was kept secret from most people (including Mao Zedong); the public was told that a portion of the Chinese Red Army would be engaged in mobile warfare with the nationalist forces, and this part of the army was renamed the “Field Army”. By fall 1934, the communists faced annihilation, and the situation had convinced Mao Zedong and his supporters that the communists should abandon their bases in the CSR. However, the leadership refused to accept the prospect of failure and still hoped to defeat the nationalist forces. The three-man committee devised a diversionary plan and a regrouping after a temporary retreat. After the regrouping a counterattack would be launched with the earlier diversion forces, driving the nationalists out of the CSR. The first movement of the retreating diversion were led by Fang Zhimin. Fang (and his deputy, Xun Weizhou) were the first to break through Kuomintang lines in June, followed by Xiao Ke in August. These movements surprised the Kuomintang, who were numerically superior to the communists and did not expect an attack on their fortified perimeter. However, Fang Zhimin's force was crushed after its initial success and Xun Weizhou was killed in action. Nearly every commander was wounded and captured alive (including Fang Zhimin), and all were executed by the nationalists. The only exception was Su Yu, who escaped. Xiao Ke fared no better, although his forces initially broke through and reached He Long's communist base in Hubei. Even with their combined forces they could not challenge the nationalist forces, and did not return until the establishment of the People's Republic of China 15 years later. The failure of the diversionary force resulted in their loss of contact with the CSR. The communist leadership failed to coordinate its next move, still believing that a temporary retreat near (or within) the CSR would allow them to recover and counterattack. Main retreating force The portion of the First Front Red Army engaged in mobile warfare was actually the bulk of the communist force making a general retreat, and was much diminished from its peak of more than 140,000 men. With most of its equipment lost, many Chinese Red Army soldiers were forced to arm themselves with ancient weaponry. According to the Statistical Chart of Field Army Personnel, Weaponry, Ammunition, and Supply' completed by the Chinese Red Army on 8 October 1934 (two days before the Long March began), the Long March forces consisted of: Combat formations Five combat corps, totaling 72,313 men: First Corps (the largest, with 19,880 men) Third Corps Fifth Corps Eighth Corps (the newest and smallest, with 10,922 men) Ninth Corps Two columns: Central Committee First Column Central Committee Second Column The corps and columns had a total of 86,859 men. Weaponry The Statistical Chart of Field Army Personnel, Weaponry, Ammunition, and Supply (in the People's Liberation Army Archives) provided weapons and provisions for the Long March. The weapons included: Artillery: 39 total Mortars: 38 Mountain gun: 1 (originally not included; added later) Breech-loading firearms: 33,244 total (with 1,858,156 rounds of ammunition); of these a total of 29,016 were distributed to the five corps, including: Rifles: 25,317 Heavy machine guns: 333 Light machine guns: 285 Submachine guns: 28 Handguns: 2,804 Other weapons included: Lances: 6,101 Sabers: 882 Other weapons were also deployed which were not counted. These included: Muzzle-loading and smooth-bore muskets Flintlock and snaphance guns Matchlock and wheellock guns Spears and rakes: Later in the Long March, spears were more useful as canes. Axes and poles: Later in the Long March, poles were useful as building material and for stretchers. Daggers and knives Provisions included: Winter clothing: 83,100 sets Horses: 338 Herbal medicines: 35,700 kg Salt: 17,413 kg Currency: 1.642 million CSR dollars Dissolution The Chinese Soviet Republic continued to exist formally, since the communists still controlled some areas such as the Hubei-Henan-Shaanxi Soviet. Bao'an was, for a time, the capital until the communist government was moved to Yan'an. The Chinese Soviet Republic was dissolved on 22 September 1937 when the Communist Party of China issued, in the Second United Front, its manifesto on unity with the Kuomintang; the Second Sino-Japanese War was only a few weeks old. The Communist Party of China remained in de facto control of Yan'an, which was its stronghold for the remainder of the war with Japan. See also Communist-controlled China (1927–1949) Two Chinas Chinese Red Army People's Republic of China National Revolutionary Army Whampoa Military Academy History of the Republic of China Military of the Republic of China History of China Politics of the People's Republic of China Chinese political parties Futian incident Anti-Bolshevik League incidentChina's Red Army Marches, Agnes Smedley's book on the Jiangxi Soviet Notes References Citations Sources Yang Stamp Catalogue of The People's Republic of China (Liberated Area)'' Nai-Chiang Yang, 1998, 7th edition. External links Preface to Fundamental Laws of the Chinese Soviet Republic flags from FOTW website Coins of the Szechuan-Shensi Soviet coins 12 stamps (explanatory caption in Simplified Chinese) 1931 establishments in China 1937 disestablishments Chinese Civil War Former socialist republics Former countries in Chinese history States and territories established in 1931 Soviet republics Former polities of the interwar period East China	[ -0.06374489516019821, -0.06005646660923958, -0.5800060033798218, 0.08747130632400513, -0.0820431038737297, 0.4085855185985565, -0.3161328434944153, 0.6000030040740967, -0.26982393860816956, 0.11573558300733566, -0.30709055066108704, -0.1764962375164032, -0.618220329284668, 0.7033637166023254, -0.4619445502758026, 0.17698462307453156, 0.5586100816726685, 0.43930426239967346, 0.12374012917280197, 0.04153851047158241, -0.4155626893043518, 0.39747849106788635, 0.18682341277599335, 0.22679957747459412, 0.24259509146213531, -0.28397703170776367, 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253210	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagram	Seagram	The Seagram Company Ltd. (which traded as Seagram's) was a Canadian multinational conglomerate formerly headquartered in Montreal, Quebec. Originally a distiller of Canadian whisky based in Waterloo, Ontario, it was once (in the 1990s) the largest owner of alcoholic beverage lines in the world. Toward the end of its independent existence, it also controlled various entertainment and other business ventures. Its purchase of MCA Inc., whose assets included Universal Studios and its theme parks, was financed through the sale of Seagram's 25% holding of chemical company DuPont, a position it acquired in 1981. Seagram later imploded, with its beverage assets wholesaled off to various industry titans, notably The Coca-Cola Company, Diageo, Infinium Spirits, and Pernod Ricard. Universal's television holdings were sold to media entrepreneur Barry Diller, and the balance of the Universal entertainment empire and what was Seagram was sold to French conglomerate Vivendi in 2000. History In 1857, Waterloo Distillery was founded in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Joseph E. Seagram became a partner with George Randall, William Roos and William Hespeler in 1869 and sole owner in 1883, and the company became known as Joseph E. Seagram & Sons. Many decades later, in 1924, Samuel Bronfman and his brothers founded Distillers Corporation Limited, in Montreal, which enjoyed substantial growth in the 1920s, in part due to Prohibition in the United States. (The Distillers Corporation Limited name was derived from a United Kingdom company called Distillers Company Limited, which controlled the leading brands of whisky in the UK, and which was doing business with the Bronfmans.) In 1923, the Bronfmans purchased the Greenbrier Distillery in the United States, dismantled it, shipped it to Canada, and reassembled it in LaSalle, Quebec. The Bronfmans shipped liquor from Canada to the French-controlled overseas collectivity Saint Pierre and Miquelon off the then-Dominion of Newfoundland, which was then shipped by bootleggers to Rum rows in New York, New Jersey and other states. In 1928, a few years after the death of Joseph E. Seagram (1919), the Distillers Corporation acquired Joseph E. Seagram & Sons from heir and President Edward F. Seagram; the merged company retained the Seagram name. The company was well prepared for the end of Prohibition in 1933 with an ample stock of aged whiskeys ready to sell to the newly opened American market, and it prospered accordingly. Although he was never convicted of criminal activity, Samuel Bronfman's dealings with bootleggers during the Prohibition-era in the United States have been researched by various historians and are documented in various peer-vetted chronicles. In the 1930s, when Seagram set up business in the United States, it paid a fine of $1.5 million to the US government to settle delinquent excise taxes on liquor illegally exported to the US during Prohibition. The US government had originally asked for $60 million. After the death of Samuel Bronfman in 1971, Edgar M. Bronfman was named Chairman and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) until June 1994 when his son, Edgar Bronfman Jr., was appointed CEO. From the 1950s, most of Distillers-Seagram was owned by the four children of Samuel Bronfman, through their holding company Cemp Investments. The three most-popular Seagram distilled products in the 1960s through 1990s were Seven Crown, VO, and Crown Royal. In 1978 Seagram's took over the Stonyfell winery in the eastern foothills of Adelaide from Dalgety Australia, around which time the winemaking part of the business at Stonyfell was wound up. In 1981, cash-rich and wanting to diversify, the U.S.-based subsidiary Seagram Company Ltd. engineered a takeover of Conoco Inc., a major American oil and gas producing company. Although Seagram acquired a 32.2% stake in Conoco, DuPont was brought in as a white knight by the oil company and entered the bidding war. In the end, Seagram lost out in the Conoco bidding war, though in exchange for its stake in Conoco it became a 24.3% owner of DuPont. By 1995, Seagram was DuPont's largest single shareholder with four seats on its board. In 1986, the company started a memorable TV commercial campaign advertising its Golden wine cooler products. With rising star Bruce Willis as pitchman, Seagram rose from fifth place among distillers to first in just two years. In 1987, Seagram engineered a $1.2 billion takeover of French cognac maker Martell & Cie. In 1995, Edgar Bronfman Jr. was eager to get into the film and electronic media business. On April 6, 1995, after being approached by Bronfman, DuPont announced a deal whereby the company would buy back its shares from the Seagram Company for $9 billion. Seagram was heavily criticized by the investment community—the 24.3% stake in DuPont accounted for 70% of Seagram's earnings. Standard & Poor's took the unusual step of stating that the sale of the DuPont interest could result in a downgrade of Seagram's more than $4.2 billion of long-term debt. Bronfman used the proceeds of the sale to acquire a controlling interest in MCA from Matsushita, whose assets included Universal Pictures and its theme parks. Later, Seagram purchased PolyGram and Deutsche Grammophon. In 2000, Edgar Bronfman Jr. sold controlling interest in Seagram's entertainment division to Vivendi, and the beverage division to Pernod Ricard and Diageo. By the time Vivendi began auctioning off Seagram's beverages business, the once-renowned operation consisted of around 250 drink brands and brand extensions in addition to its original high-profile brand names. In 2002, The Coca-Cola Company acquired the line of Seagram's mixers (ginger ale, tonic water, club soda and seltzer water) from Pernod Ricard and Diageo, as well as signing a long-term agreement to use the Seagram name from Pernod Ricard. Additionally, a license from Pernod Ricard to produce Seagram's Cooler Escapes and Seagram's malt-beverage brands has been held by North American Breweries (formerly KPS) since 2009. On April 19, 2006, Pernod Ricard announced that they would be closing the former Seagram distillery in Lawrenceburg, Indiana. However, the distillery was instead sold in 2007 to CL Financial, a holding company based in Trinidad and Tobago which then collapsed and required government intervention. They operated the distillery as Lawrenceburg Distillers Indiana. In December 2011, the distillery was purchased by MGP Ingredients, headquartered in Atchison, Kansas. It is now known as MGP of Indiana, and continues to be the source of the components of Seagram's Seven Crown, now owned by Diageo. In a 2013 interview with The Globe and Mail, Charles Bronfman (uncle of Edgar Jr.) stated about the decisions leading to the demise of Seagram: "It was a disaster, it is a disaster, it will be a disaster. It was a family tragedy." In 2018, Diageo sold several Seagram's brands to Sazerac including Seagram's VO, but retained the Seven Crown brand. Legacy The Seagram name survives today in various well-known drinks. Seagram's Seven Crown, used to make the American cocktail, 7 and 7, is produced by Diageo, while Seagram's V.O. is produced by Sazerac. Several brands of coolers are produced under the Seagram name as of 2022: Seagram's Escapes are produced by Genesee Brewing for the American market, while Seagram Island Time is produced by Waterloo Brewing for the Canadian market. Seagram's House, the former company headquarters in Montreal, was donated to McGill University by Vivendi Universal in 2002, then renamed Martlet House. The landmarked Seagram Building, once the company's American headquarters in New York City, was commissioned by Phyllis Lambert, daughter of Seagram CEO Samuel Bronfman, and designed by architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe with Philip Johnson. Regarded as one of the most notable examples of the functionalist aesthetic and a prominent instance of corporate modern architecture, it set the trend for the city's skyline for decades to follow, and has been featured in several Hollywood films. On completion in 1958, its costs made it the world's most expensive skyscraper. The Bronfman family sold the Seagram building to TIAA for $70.5 million in 1979. The Seagram Museum, formerly the original Seagram distillery in Waterloo, Ontario, was forced to close due to lack of funds in 1997. The building is now the home of the Centre for International Governance Innovation as well as Shopify. The two original barrel houses are now the Seagram Lofts condominiums. There were almost of open land, upon which the Balsillie School of International Affairs was subsequently built; construction began in 2009, and was completed in 2010. See also Seagram Museum References Faith, Nicholas. The Bronfmans: The Rise and Fall of the House of Seagram, 2006. External links Seagram Museum Collection RG 490 – Brock University Library Digital Repository Distilleries in Canada Canadian brands Defunct manufacturing companies of Canada Defunct mass media companies of Canada Companies based in Montreal Entertainment companies of the United States Manufacturing companies established in 1857 Manufacturing companies disestablished in 2000 Bronfman family Ginger ale Jewish Canadian history Pernod Ricard brands Former Vivendi subsidiaries Canadian companies established in 1857	[ 0.08399999141693115, 0.3083690404891968, 0.08837907761335373, -0.4873095750808716, -0.2204442322254181, 0.14855484664440155, -0.03378872200846672, 0.05171288177371025, -0.2117464393377304, 0.29029741883277893, -0.599372148513794, 0.08890015631914139, 0.3056335747241974, 0.7428523302078247, 0.174763485789299, 0.17086255550384521, -0.34573855996131897, 0.5334002375602722, 0.0708514153957367, -0.736096203327179, -0.5110332369804382, 0.19585905969142914, 0.17459821701049805, 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253214	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladislav%20Delay	Vladislav Delay	Vladislav Delay is the most frequently used pseudonym of Sasu Ripatti (born 1976), a Finnish electronic musician. He has also recorded as Luomo, Sistol, Uusitalo, Conoco, and Ripatti, working in styles such as minimal techno, glitch, and house. Background Ripatti has been involved in the ambient music, glitch, house, and techno genres. His method of track production involves a mixture of synthesizing, vocal recording and live reprocessing. Many tracks have an organic feeling, conjured through rolling, dubby basslines and processed vocal snippets, often from his wife Antye Greie aka AGF. Their daughter was born in 2006. Ripatti has released EPs and albums on numerous underground electronic labels, including Raster-Noton, Force Tracks, Chain Reaction, Mille Plateaux, Resopal, and Sigma Editions. He also founded the Finnish music label Huume Recordings and currently runs a label called Ripatti, on which he has released the album Visa and several footwork-oriented singles under the name Ripatti. Ripatti played drums and percussion in the Moritz von Oswald Trio alongside Moritz von Oswald and Max Loderbauer from 2009 until 2015, when he was replaced by Tony Allen. With the Moritz von Oswald Trio he has released two albums and a live LP. He has also released an album in 2011 with his own experimental jazz/electronic group, the Vladislav Delay Quartet. He performed as Vladislav Delay at an All Tomorrow's Parties festival in May 2011 curated by Animal Collective, who have praised his album Multila and whose member, Panda Bear, thanked his Luomo alias in the liner notes of his techno-inspired album Person Pitch. Musical style Ripatti's music is renowned for its sophisticated textural qualities. His sonic approach relies heavily on a semi-random element, and many undulating, complementary and sometimes conflicting layers interplay throughout most of his music. A de-constructive element is sometimes detected within the music as Ripatti makes comment on established genres within his various releases. Characteristic traits within Ripatti's music are sometimes a deep or bubbling synth-bass line, fractured and syncopated percussion - often placed freely within the music, long delay repetitions of various sounds, syncopated use of vocal samples, and complicated digital effect processing techniques. Generally, the music has a very spacious and organic sound, and albums such as "Anima" feature a very simple theme repeated with an array of musical and rhythmical interjections. Ripatti releases under different names have conceptually varied, but have sonically related qualities; this may be due to Ripatti's different composition techniques. Uusitalo releases are often anchored by a house beat and highlight rhythmic variation (see 2007's Karhunainen). Vladislav Delay releases, on the other hand (see 2000's Multila), explore rhythmically sparse, experimental and ambient techno-dub soundscapes. Works under the Luomo name feature dance-floor ready vocal house. Sistol performs microhouse; Conoco (under which he was only released one early EP, Kemikoski) is similar to his Vladislav Delay work but harsher and more industrial. His Ripatti singles are a pastiche of Chicago footwork. Sasu Ripatti often references himself within his music. The "Vapaa Muurari" album, for example, provided much of the instrumental material for Vocalcity. Similarly, the track "Tessio" on the "Vocalcity" album was re-recorded for the "Present Lover" album in 2003. Discography Albums As Vladislav Delay Ele (1999) Entain (2000) Multila (2000) (re-released 2007 and 2020) Anima (2001) (remastered and expanded 2008) Naima (2002) Demo(n) Tracks (2004) The Four Quarters (2005) Whistleblower (2007) Tummaa (2009) Vantaa (2011) Kuopio (2012) Visa (2014) Untitled - Circa 2014 (2018) Rakka (2020) Rakka II (2021) With Vladislav Delay Quartet Vladislav Delay Quartet (2011) As Sistol Sistol (1999) On the Bright Side (2010) As Uusitalo Vapaa Muurari (2000) Tulenkantaja (2006) Karhunainen (2007) As Luomo Vocalcity (2000) The Present Lover (2003) The Kick (2004), with Domenico Ferrari Paper Tigers (2006) Convivial (2008) Plus (2011) As AGF/Delay Explode (2005), with Antye Greie Symptoms (2009), with Antye Greie As The Dolls The Dolls (2005) with Antye Greie and Craig Armstrong With Moritz von Oswald Trio Vertical Ascent (2009) Live In New York (2010) Horizontal Structures (2011) Fetch (2012) Singles The Kind of Blue EP (1997) Huone (1999) Helsinki/Suomi (1999) Ranta (2000) Kemikoski (2000), as Conoco Livingston (2000), as Luomo Native (2000), as Luomo Carter (2001), as Luomo Tessio (Remixes) (2001), as Luomo Diskonize Me (2002), as Luomo Tessio (2003), as Luomo Waltz For Your Eyes (2003), as Luomo Running Away (2003), as Luomo, with Raz Ohara Demo(n) Cuts EP (2004) What's Good (2004), as Luomo The Kick (2004), as Luomo, with Domenico Ferrari Really Don't Mind (2006), as Luomo Love You All (2008), as Luomo feat. Apparat Tessio Remixes (2009), as Luomo Symptoms (2009), as AGF/Delay, with Antye Greie Restructure 2 (2010), as Moritz Von Oswald Trio, remixed by Digital Mystikz Latoma EP (2011) Espoo EP (2012) Ripatti 01 (2014), as Ripatti Work Television Arctic Circle (2014–present) References Further reading 2020 interview with Data.Wave magazine. External links Official website for works as Luomo Label by Sasu Ripatti 1976 births Living people Finnish electronic musicians People from Oulu	[ 0.28777793049812317, 0.27561384439468384, -0.6128888130187988, -0.21700194478034973, -0.10515020042657852, 0.8494215607643127, 0.3203827440738678, 0.06831611692905426, -0.35672393441200256, 0.011517293751239777, -0.40018126368522644, 0.04383282735943794, -0.7483875155448914, 0.11435282975435257, 0.025909455493092537, 0.039884354919195175, 0.15147103369235992, 0.07877376675605774, -0.4856364130973816, -0.041419290006160736, 0.06029924377799034, -0.04251745715737343, 0.34025636315345764, -0.32305946946144104, -0.49957025051116943, 0.32050302624702454, -0.31378939747810364, 0.43400949239730835, -0.32375580072402954, 0.11226825416088104, 0.048234134912490845, 1.0660597085952759, 0.32933560013771057, -0.2733024060726166, 0.23602615296840668, 0.2257411628961563, -0.3209252655506134, -0.5920023322105408, -0.45767322182655334, -0.1729012429714203, 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253223	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Stokes	George Stokes	George Stokes may refer to: Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet (George Gabriel Stokes, 1819–1903), Irish mathematician and physicist List of things named after George Gabriel Stokes Sir George Stokes Award (colloquially the Stokes Medal), awarded by the Analytical Division of the Royal Society of Chemistry, biennially George Henry Stokes (1876–1959), Member of Canadian Parliament George Thomas Stokes (1843–1898), Irish historian George Stokes (rugby union) (born 1995), Scottish rugby union player	[ -0.06069886311888695, 0.762973427772522, -0.33501842617988586, 0.047464363276958466, -0.547028124332428, 0.4221040606498718, 0.47650378942489624, 0.2003086507320404, -0.10372346639633179, -0.3953491449356079, -0.5526214838027954, -0.4681044816970825, -0.3040185868740082, 0.5520817041397095, 0.1547391712665558, 0.3794584572315216, -0.4304752051830292, 0.48475927114486694, -0.7510311007499695, -0.041383709758520126, 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253224	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20%C5%8Chaeawai	Battle of Ōhaeawai	The Battle of Ōhaeawai was fought between British forces and local Māori during the Flagstaff War in July 1845 at Ōhaeawai in the North Island of New Zealand. Te Ruki Kawiti, a prominent rangatira (chief) was the leader of the Māori forces. The battle was notable in that it established that the fortified pā could withstand bombardment from cannon fire and that frontal assaults by soldiers would result in heavy casualties. Kawiti's success at Ōhaeawai Pā After the Battle of Te Ahuahu a debate occurred between Te Ruki Kawiti and the Ngatirangi chief Pene Taui as to the site of the next battle; Kawiti eventually agreed to the request to fortify Pene Taui's Pā at Ōhaeawai. In the winter months of 1845 Lieutenant Colonel Henry Despard led a combined force of troops from the 58th, 96th, and 99th Regiments, Royal Marines and Māori allies in an attack on Pene Taui's Pā at Ōhaeawai, which had been fortified by Kawiti. The British troops arrived before the Ōhaeawai Pā on 23 June and established a camp about away. On the summit of a nearby hill (Puketapu) they built a four-gun battery. They opened fire next day and continued until dark but did very little damage to the palisade. The next day the guns were brought to within of the pā. The bombardment continued for another two days but still did very little damage. Partly this was due to the elasticity of the flax covering the palisade. Since the introduction of muskets the Māori had learnt to cover the outside of the palisades with layers of flax (Phormium tenax) leaves, making them effectively bulletproof as the velocity of musket balls was dissipated by the flax leaves. However the main fault was a failure to concentrate the cannon fire on one area of the defences, so as to create a breach in the palisade. After two days of bombardment without effecting a breach, Despard ordered a frontal assault. He was, with difficulty, persuaded to postpone this pending the arrival of a 32-pound naval gun which came the next day, 1 July. However an unexpected sortie from the pā resulted in the temporary occupation of the knoll on which Tāmati Wāka Nene had his camp and the capture of Nene's colours—the Union Jack. The Union Jack was carried into the pā. There it was hoisted, upside down, and at half-mast high, below the Māori flag, which was a Kākahu (Māori cloak). This insulting display of the Union Jack was the cause of the disaster which ensued. Infuriated by the insult to the Union Jack, Colonel Despard ordered an assault upon the pā the same day. The attack was directed to the section of the pā where the angle of the palisade allowed a double flank from which the defenders of the pā could fire at the attackers; the attack was a reckless endeavour. The British persisted in their attempts to storm the unbreached palisades and five to seven minutes later 33 were dead and 66 injured. The casualties included Captain Grant of the 58th Regiment and Lieutenant George Phillpotts of . The scalp of Lieutenant Phillpotts was brought to the tohunga Te Atua Wera, who made divinations and composed a song foretelling victory against the British. The casualties were buried at St. John the Baptist Church at Waimate North. Shaken by the loss of a third of his troops, Despard decided to abandon the siege. However, his Māori allies contested this decision. Tāmati Wāka Nene persuaded Despard to wait for a few more days. More ammunition and supplies were brought in and the shelling continued. On the morning of 8 July the pā was found to have been abandoned, the occupants having disappeared in the night. When they had a chance to examine it, the British officers found it to be even stronger than they had feared. The defenders of the pā had four iron cannons on ship-carriages including a carronade that was loaded with a bullock-chain, and fired at close quarters at the attacking soldiers. The colonial forces captured these cannons, one of which had been destroyed by a shot from a British cannon. The drawing by Mr Symonds of the 99th Regiment describes Ōhaeawai's inner palisade as being high, built using Puriri logs. In front of the inner palisade was a ditch in which the warriors could shelter and reload their muskets then fire through gaps in the two outer palisades. Relying on the report of her husband Henry who observed the battle, Marianne Williams commented on the ingenuity of the construction of the war pā in a letter to Mrs. Heathcote, 5 July 1845: The pā was duly destroyed and the British retreated once again to the Bay of Islands. Te Ruki Kawiti and his warriors escaped and proceeded to construct an even stronger pā at Ruapekapeka. The Battle of Ōhaeawai was presented as a victory for the British force, notwithstanding the death of about a third of the soldiers. The reality of the end of the Battle of Ōhaeawai was that Kawiti and his warriors had abandoned the pā in a tactical withdrawal; with the Ngāpuhi moving on to build the Ruapekapeka Pā from which to engage the British force on a battle field chosen by Kawiti. Hone Heke did not participate in the Battle of Ōhaeawai as he was recovering from the wounds he received at the Battle of Te Ahuahu. Model for the gunfighter pā After the battle, models were made of the design of the pā, with one being sent to Britain where it sat forgotten in a museum. Other Māori tribes of New Zealand became aware of the techniques used in the design of the Ōhaeawai Pā in order to blunt the effectiveness of cannon and musket fire and to create firing trenches located within the inner palisade and communication trenches linking to ruas—shelters dug into the ground and covered with earth. The design of the Ōhaeawai Pā, and the pā subsequently built by Kawiti at Ruapekapeka, became the basis of what is now called the gunfighter pā. Site of the battle While the place at which the battle was fought is now called, Ngawha, it was known as Ōhaeawai at the time of the battle. Cowan identifies that "the site of the Ōhaeawai pā is now occupied by a Maori church and burying-ground. The scene of the battle is five miles from Kaikohe and two miles from the Township of Ōhaeawai. A Maori church of old-fashioned design is seen on the left as one travels from Kaikohe; it stands on a gentle rise a short distance west of the main road. The locality is usually called Ngawha, from the hot springs in the neighbourhood, but it is the true Ōhaeawai; the European township which has appropriated the name should properly be known as Taiamai. The church occupies the centre of the olden fortification, and a scoria-stone wall, 7 ft. high, encloses the sacred ground." The church was built on the site of the Ōhaeawai pā in 1870. 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253225	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhalgren	Dhalgren	Dhalgren is a 1975 science fiction novel by American writer Samuel R. Delany. It features an extended trip to and through Bellona, a fictional city in the American Midwest cut off from the rest of the world by an unknown catastrophe. Plot overview The city of Bellona is severely damaged; radio, television, and telephone signals do not reach it. People enter and leave by crossing a bridge on foot. Inexplicable events punctuate the novel: One night the perpetual cloud cover parts to reveal two moons in the sky. One day a red sun swollen to hundreds of times its normal size rises to terrify the populace, then retreats across the sky to set on the same horizon. Street signs and landmarks shift constantly, while time appears to contract and dilate. Buildings burn for days, but are never consumed, while others burn and later show no signs of damage. Gangs roam the nighttime streets, their members hidden within holographic projections of gigantic insects or mythological creatures. The few people left in Bellona struggle with survival, boredom, and each other. The novel's protagonist is “the Kid” (sometimes "Kidd"), a drifter who suffers from partial amnesia: he can't remember either his own name or those of his parents, though he knows his mother was an American Indian. He wears only one sandal, shoe, or boot, as do characters in two other Delany novels and one short story: Mouse in Nova (1968), Hogg in Hogg (1995), and Roger in "We, in Some Strange Power's Employ Move on a Rigorous Line" (1967). Possibly he is schizophrenic: the novel’s narrative is intermittently incoherent (particularly at its end), the protagonist has memories of a stay in a mental hospital, and his perception of reality and the passages of time sometimes differ from those of other characters. Over the course of the story he also suffers from significant memory loss. In addition, he is dyslexic, confusing left and right and often taking wrong turns at street corners and getting lost in the city. It is therefore unclear to what extent the events in the story are the product of an unreliable narrator. Delany has stated that "Kid's sanity remains in question ... for the same reason the disaster of the city is unexplained: such explanations would become a fixed signified straiting the play and interplay of the signifier - the city of signs - that flexes and reflexes above it." Plot summary In a forest somewhere outside the city, the protagonist meets a woman and they have sex. After, he tells her that he has "lost something"—he cannot remember his name. She leads him to a cave and tells him to enter. Inside, he finds long loops of chain fitted with miniature prisms, mirrors, and lenses. He dons the chain and leaves the cave, only to find the woman in the middle of a field, turning into a tree. Panicked, he flees. Many characters in the novel wear the same sort of “optic chain”; all are loath to discuss how they came to do so. On a nearby road, a passing truck stops to pick him up. The trucker, hauling artichokes, drops him off at the end of a suspension bridge leading across the river to Bellona. As he crosses the bridge in the early morning darkness, the young man meets a group of women leaving the city. They ask him questions about the outside world and give him a weapon: a bladed “orchid,” worn around the wrist with its blades sweeping up in front of the hand. Once inside Bellona, an engineer, Tak Loufer, who was living a few miles outside of the city when the initial destruction happened, meets and befriends him. Tak has moved to Bellona and stayed there ever since. Upon learning that he cannot remember his name, Tak gives him a nickname—the Kid. Throughout the novel he is also referred to as "Kid", "Kidd", and often just "kid." Next Tak takes Kid on a short tour of the city. One stop is at a commune in the city park, where Kid sees two women reading a spiral notebook. When Kid looks at it, we see what he reads: The first page contains, word-for-word, the first sentences of Dhalgren. As he reads further, however, the text diverges from the novel's opening. In Chapter II, "The Ruins of Morning", Kid returns to the commune the next day and receives the notebook from Lanya Colson, one of the two women from the evening before. Shortly they become lovers. Their relationship lasts throughout the book. We meet or learn about several other characters, including George Harrison, a local cult hero and rumoured rapist; Ernest Newboy, a famous poet visiting Bellona by invitation of Roger Calkins, publisher and editor of the local newspaper, The Bellona Times; Madame Brown, a psychotherapist; and, later in the novel, Captain Michael Kamp, an astronaut who, some years before, was in the crew of a successful moon landing. The notebook Kid receives already has writing throughout, but only on the right hand pages. The left hand pages are blank. Glimpses of the text in the notebook, however, are extremely close to passages in Dhalgren itself, as if the notebook were an alternate draft of the novel. Other passages are verbatim from the final chapter of Dhalgren. It is here in Chapter II that Kid begins using the blank pages of the notebook to compose poems. The novel describes the process of creating the poems—the emotions and the mechanics of the writing itself—at length and several times. We never see the actual poems, however, in their final form. Kid soon revises or removes any line that does appear in the text. The third and longest chapter, "House of the Ax", involves Kid's interactions with the Richards family: Mr. Arthur Richards, his wife Mary Richards, their daughter June (who may or may not have been raped publicly by George Harrison, whom she is now fixated on), and son Bobby. Through Madame Brown they hire Kid to help them move from one apartment to another in the mostly-abandoned Labry Apartments. Led by Mary Richards, they are "keeping up appearances." Mr. Richards leaves every day to go to work—though no office or facility in the city seems to be in operation—while Mrs. Richards acts as though there's nothing truly disastrous happening in Bellona. By some force of will, she causes almost everyone who comes into contact with her to play along. While carrying a carpet to the elevator, June backs Bobby into an open elevator shaft, where he falls to his death. There is reason to believe that June did this intentionally after Bobby threatened to reveal her relationship with George Harrison to the family. The third chapter is also where successful poet Ernest Newboy befriends Kid. Newboy takes an interest in Kid's poems and mentions them to Roger Calkins. By the end of the chapter, Calkins is preparing to print a book of Kid's poems. As the novel progresses, Kid falls in with the Scorpions, a loose-knit gang, three of whom have severely beaten him earlier in the book. Almost accidentally, Kid becomes their leader. (Much of this suggests the American "mythical folk hero," Billy the Kid, whom Delany used in his earlier, Nebula Award-winning novel, The Einstein Intersection [1967].) Denny, a 15-year-old scorpion, becomes Kid's and Lanya's lover, so that the relationship with Lanya turns into a lasting three-way sexual linkage. Kid also begins writing things other than poems in the notebook, keeping a journal of events and his thoughts. In Chapter VI, "Palimpsest", Calkins throws a party for Kid and his book, Brass Orchids, at his sprawling estate. At Calkins's suggestion, Kid brings along twenty or thirty friends: the scorpion "nest." While Calkins himself is absent from the gathering, there are extended descriptions of the interactions between what is left of Bellona's high society and, in effect, a street gang. At the party, Kid is interviewed by William (later passages of the book suggest William's last name is "Dhalgren," but this is never confirmed). In the concluding Chapter VII, "The Anathemata: a plague journal", bits of the whole now and again appear to be laid out. Shifting from the omniscient viewpoint of the first six chapters, this chapter comprises numerous journal entries from the notebook, all of which appear to be by Kid. Several passages from this chapter have, however, already appeared verbatim earlier in the novel when Kid reads what was already in the notebook—written when he received it. In this chapter rubrics run along beside many sections of the main text, mimicking the writing as it appears in the notebook. (In the middle of this chapter, a rubric running contains the following sentence: I have come to to wound the autumnal city.) Recalling Kid's entry into the city, the final section contains a near paragraph-for-paragraph echo of his initial confrontation with the women on the bridge. This time, however, the group leaving is almost all male, and the person entering is a young woman who says almost exactly what Kid did himself at the beginning of his stay in Bellona. The story ends: But I still hear them walking in the trees: not speaking. Waiting here, away from the terrifying weaponry, out of the halls of vapor and light, beyond holland into the hills, I have come to As with Finnegans Wake, the unclosed closing sentence can be read as leading into the unopened opening sentence, turning the novel into an enigmatic circle. Major themes Mythology Writing in the Libertarian Review, Jeff Riggenbach compared Dhalgren to the work of James Joyce. A quotation from his review was included on the inside advertisement page of the fifteenth printing of the Bantam edition. As the critic and novelist William Gass writes of Joyce, "The Homeric parallels in Ulysses are of marginal importance to the reading of the work but are of fundamental importance to the writing of it. . . . Writers have certain ordering compulsions, certain ordering habits, which are part of the book only in the sense that they make the writing possible. This is a widespread phenomenon." Almost certainly this is also the case with Dhalgren: Writing about the novel both as himself and under his pseudonym K. Leslie Steiner, Delany has made similar statements and suggested that it is easy to make too much of the mythological resonances. As he says, they are merely resonances, and not keys to any particular secrets the novel holds. Circular text, multistable perception, echoes, and repeated imagery Delany has pointed out that Dhalgren is a circular text with multiple entry points. Those points include the schizoid babble that appears in various sections of the story. Hints along those lines are given in the novel. Besides the Chapter VII rubric mentioned above (containing the sentence "I have come to to wound the autumnal city"—the exact sentence that would be created by joining the novel's unclosed closing sentence to the unopened opening) the most obvious is the point where Kid hears ". . . grendal grendal grendal grendal . . ." going through his mind and suddenly realizes he was listening from the wrong spot: he was actually hearing ". . . Dhalgren Dhalgren Dhalgren . . ." over and over again. The ability of texts to become circular is something that Delany explores in other works, such as Empire Star. Delany conceived and executed Dhalgren as a literary Multistable perception—the observer (reader) may choose to shift his perception back and forth. Central to this construction is the notebook itself: Kidd receives the notebook shortly after entering Bellona. In the first several chapters of the novel we see, on several occasions, exactly what Kid reads when he looks at the open notebook. The notebook appears to take over as the main text of the novel starting at Chapter VII, coming almost seamlessly after Chapter VI. However, though Chapter VII reads as though it is written by Kid, many of the passages shown in earlier chapters appear verbatim in Chapter VII. Yet for Kid to have read those passages earlier, the passages must have been written before he received the notebook. In fact, the last few pages of the novel show Kid leaving Bellona. The last sentence of that departure sequence is the incomplete one that conceivably loops back to the beginning of the book. However, earlier in the novel the notebook falls to the ground and Kid reads the last page. The reader sees exactly what Kid reads: the last four sentences of the novel, word for word. This happens well before a point in the novel where Kid specifically states that he only wrote the poems, and "all that other stuff" was already in there when he received the notebook. However, those four sentences are part of a longer section at the end of the novel which, when read, was obviously written by Kid. This means he left Bellona—taking the notebook with him, for how else would he be able to write about his departure—prior to that notebook being found inside Bellona and given to him. Delany has specifically stated that it is not a matter of settling or deciding which text is authoritative. It is more a matter of allowing the reader to experience perceptual shifts in the same way that a Necker cube can be viewed. Akin to the hints regarding its circular nature, Dhalgren also contains at least one hint towards the perceptual shifts: Denny's book of M. C. Escher prints. Additionally, Jeffrey Allen Tucker has written that Delany's unpublished notes regarding the writing of Dhalgren contain direct references to the novel itself working as a Möbius Strip, and makes a direct connection to Escher's "Möbius Strip". Within the looping text that comprises Dhalgren, many other textual plays on perception can be found. Imagery and conversations, some hundreds of pages apart, closely echo each other. One case in point: The scenes on the bridge mentioned in the "Plot Summary" above. In another, light sliding across the face of a trucker driving at night is echoed in the description of light sliding across the face of a building. The repeated motif of a scratch down the lower leg of several female characters at different points in the novel is yet another example. Delany's personal experience of reality Samuel R. Delany is profoundly dyslexic and dysmetric. He once spent time in the mental health ward of a hospital. And he has repeatedly spoken and written of seeing burned-out sections of great American cities that most people didn't see, or even know existed. Dhalgren is a literary exposition of all these experiences for the "normal" reader. Influences Dhalgren is often compared to James Joyce's Ulysses (novel). Delany himself has cited poets W. H. Auden, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Paul Valéry as influences on the book, as well as John Ashbery's poem "The Instruction Manual". Elsewhere he cites Michel Foucault, Frank Kermode, and Jack Spicer. Kenneth R. James has elaborated subtextual ties to mathematician G. Spencer-Brown's Laws of Form. Literary significance and criticism With over a million sales, Dhalgren is by far Delany's most popular book—and also his most controversial. Critical reaction to Dhalgren has ranged from high praise (both inside and outside the science fiction community) to extreme dislike (mostly within the community). However, Dhalgren was a commercial success, selling a half million copies in the first two years, and over a million copies worldwide since then, with "its appeal reaching beyond the usual SF readership." William Gibson has referred to Dhalgren as "a riddle that was never meant to be solved." Darrell Schweitzer stated, "Dhalgren is, I think, the most disappointing thing to happen to science fiction since Robert Heinlein made a complete fool of himself with I Will Fear No Evil." In 2015, Elizabeth Hand characterized the novel as "a dense, transgressive, hallucinatory, Joycean tour-de-force". Theodore Sturgeon called it "the very best ever to come out of the science fiction field". By contrast, Harlan Ellison hated the novel. When the book appeared, Ellison wrote: "I must be honest. I gave up after 361 pages. I could not permit myself to be gulled or bored any further." Delany has speculated that "a good number of Dhalgren'''s more incensed readers, the ones bewildered or angered by the book, simply cannot read the proper distinction between sex and society and the nature and direction of the causal arrows between them, a vision of which lies just below the novel's surface."Bellona, Destroyer of Cities, a stage adaptation of (or sequel to) Dhalgren, was produced at The Kitchen in New York City in April 2010. Publishing historyDhalgren was officially published in January, 1975 (with copies available on bookshelves as early as the first week in December, 1974), as a paperback original (a Frederik Pohl selection) by Bantam Books. The Bantam edition went through 19 printings, selling slightly more than a million copies. A hardcover edition was published by Gregg Press (1977), based on the Bantam paperback edition with many errors corrected, and with an introduction by Jean Mark Gawron. After the Bantam edition went out of print the book was republished by Grafton (1992); Wesleyan University Press / University Press of New England (1996); and Vintage Books, an imprint of Random House (2001), the latter two with an introduction by William Gibson. In 2010 Gollancz brought out an edition as part of its SF Masterworks series, and in 2014 an ebook edition of the novel appeared. 1975, USA, Bantam Books (), Pub date January 1975, paperback (First edition) 1977, USA, Gregg Press (), Pub date June 1977, hardcover 1982, USA, Bantam Books (), Pub date December 1982, paperback 1992, UK, Grafton Press (), Pub date 1992, paperback 1996, USA, Wesleyan University Press (University Press of New England) (), Pub date 1996, paperback and limited edition slip-case hardcover edition of 300 signed and numbered copies. 2001, USA, Vintage Books (ISBN ), Pub date 15 May 2001, paperback 2002, USA, Vintage Books (), Pub date 1 February 2002, paperback 2010, UK, Gollancz / Orion (978-0-575-09099-6), Masterworks of SF II Series, trade paperback 2014, USA, Open Road Media (978-1-4804-6178-9), ebook References Sources Samuel R. Delany, "About Five Thousand Seven Hundred and Fifty Words" in The Jewel-Hinged Jaw, Berkeley Books, New York: 1977 Robert Elliot Fox, “'This You-Shaped Hole of Insight and Fire': Meditations on Delany's Dhalgren” in Ash of Stars; On the Writings of Samuel R. Delany, edited by James Sallis, University of Mississippi Press, Jackson: 1996 Jean Mark Gawron, "'On Dhalgren'" in Ash of Stars; On the Writings of Samuel R. Delany, edited by James Sallis, University of Mississippi Press, Jackson: 1996 Bill Wood (editor), On Dhalgren'', Fantastic Books, New York: 2021 External links SF Site review of novel Bookreporter Review An interpretation of the novel Errata for Dhalgren, approved by the author 1974 American novels 1974 science fiction novels 1970s LGBT novels American post-apocalyptic novels Novels by Samuel Delany Metafictional novels Novels with gay themes LGBT speculative fiction novels American LGBT novels Fictional portrayals of schizophrenia	[ -1.080958366394043, 0.5755753517150879, 0.198970228433609, -0.28836700320243835, -0.4395749866962433, -0.025862716138362885, 0.35697486996650696, -0.07457725703716278, -0.34244000911712646, 0.005248952191323042, -0.4449706971645355, 0.30646446347236633, -0.3031466007232666, 0.22782419621944427, 0.7087751030921936, 0.08760931342840195, 0.4593919515609741, -0.04199068620800972, -0.3151623606681824, -0.66873699426651, 0.062247369438409805, 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253227	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuth%E2%80%93Morris%E2%80%93Pratt%20algorithm	Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm	In computer science, the Knuth–Morris–Pratt string-searching algorithm (or KMP algorithm) searches for occurrences of a "word" W within a main "text string" S by employing the observation that when a mismatch occurs, the word itself embodies sufficient information to determine where the next match could begin, thus bypassing re-examination of previously matched characters. The algorithm was conceived by James H. Morris and independently discovered by Donald Knuth "a few weeks later" from automata theory. Morris and Vaughan Pratt published a technical report in 1970. The three also published the algorithm jointly in 1977. Independently, in 1969, Matiyasevich discovered a similar algorithm, coded by a two-dimensional Turing machine, while studying a string-pattern-matching recognition problem over a binary alphabet. This was the first linear-time algorithm for string matching. Background A string-matching algorithm wants to find the starting index m in string S[] that matches the search word W[]. The most straightforward algorithm, known as the "Brute-force" or "Naive" algorithm, is to look for a word match at each index m, i.e. the position in the string being searched that corresponds to the character S[m]. At each position m the algorithm first checks for equality of the first character in the word being searched, i.e. S[m] =? W[0]. If a match is found, the algorithm tests the other characters in the word being searched by checking successive values of the word position index, i. The algorithm retrieves the character W[i] in the word being searched and checks for equality of the expression S[m+i] =? W[i]. If all successive characters match in W at position m, then a match is found at that position in the search string. If the index m reaches the end of the string then there is no match, in which case the search is said to "fail". Usually, the trial check will quickly reject the trial match. If the strings are uniformly distributed random letters, then the chance that characters match is 1 in 26. In most cases, the trial check will reject the match at the initial letter. The chance that the first two letters will match is 1 in 262 (1 in 676). So if the characters are random, then the expected complexity of searching string S[] of length n is on the order of n comparisons or O(n). The expected performance is very good. If S[] is 1 million characters and W[] is 1000 characters, then the string search should complete after about 1.04 million character comparisons. That expected performance is not guaranteed. If the strings are not random, then checking a trial m may take many character comparisons. The worst case is if the two strings match in all but the last letter. Imagine that the string S[] consists of 1 million characters that are all A, and that the word W[] is 999 A characters terminating in a final B character. The simple string-matching algorithm will now examine 1000 characters at each trial position before rejecting the match and advancing the trial position. The simple string search example would now take about 1000 character comparisons times 1 million positions for 1 billion character comparisons. If the length of W[] is k, then the worst-case performance is O(k⋅n). The KMP algorithm has a better worst-case performance than the straightforward algorithm. KMP spends a little time precomputing a table (on the order of the size of W[], O(k)), and then it uses that table to do an efficient search of the string in O(n). The difference is that KMP makes use of previous match information that the straightforward algorithm does not. In the example above, when KMP sees a trial match fail on the 1000th character (i = 999) because S[m+999] ≠ W[999], it will increment m by 1, but it will know that the first 998 characters at the new position already match. KMP matched 999 A characters before discovering a mismatch at the 1000th character (position 999). Advancing the trial match position m by one throws away the first A, so KMP knows there are 998 A characters that match W[] and does not retest them; that is, KMP sets i to 998. KMP maintains its knowledge in the precomputed table and two state variables. When KMP discovers a mismatch, the table determines how much KMP will increase (variable m) and where it will resume testing (variable i). KMP algorithm Example of the search algorithm To illustrate the algorithm's details, consider a (relatively artificial) run of the algorithm, where W = "ABCDABD" and S = "ABC ABCDAB ABCDABCDABDE". At any given time, the algorithm is in a state determined by two integers: m, denoting the position within S where the prospective match for W begins, i, denoting the index of the currently considered character in W. In each step the algorithm compares S[m+i] with W[i] and increments i if they are equal. This is depicted, at the start of the run, like 1 2 m: 01234567890123456789012 S: W: i: The algorithm compares successive characters of W to "parallel" characters of S, moving from one to the next by incrementing i if they match. However, in the fourth step S[3] = ' ' does not match W[3] = 'D'. Rather than beginning to search again at S[1], we note that no 'A' occurs between positions 1 and 2 in S; hence, having checked all those characters previously (and knowing they matched the corresponding characters in W), there is no chance of finding the beginning of a match. Therefore, the algorithm sets m = 3 and i = 0. 1 2 m: 01234567890123456789012 S: ABC W: i: This match fails at the initial character, so the algorithm sets m = 4 and i = 0 1 2 m: 01234567890123456789012 S: ABC W: i: Here, i increments through a nearly complete match "ABCDAB" until i = 6 giving a mismatch at W[6] and S[10]. However, just prior to the end of the current partial match, there was that substring "AB" that could be the beginning of a new match, so the algorithm must take this into consideration. As these characters match the two characters prior to the current position, those characters need not be checked again; the algorithm sets m = 8 (the start of the initial prefix) and i = 2 (signaling the first two characters match) and continues matching. Thus the algorithm not only omits previously matched characters of S (the "AB"), but also previously matched characters of W (the prefix "AB"). 1 2 m: 01234567890123456789012 S: ABC ABCD W: i: This search at the new position fails immediately because W[2] (a 'C') does not match S[10] (a ' '). As in the first trial, the mismatch causes the algorithm to return to the beginning of W and begins searching at the mismatched character position of S: m = 10, reset i = 0. 1 2 m: 01234567890123456789012 S: ABC ABCDAB W: i: The match at m=10 fails immediately, so the algorithm next tries m = 11 and i = 0. 1 2 m: 01234567890123456789012 S: ABC ABCDAB W: i: Once again, the algorithm matches "ABCDAB", but the next character, 'C', does not match the final character 'D' of the word W. Reasoning as before, the algorithm sets m = 15, to start at the two-character string "AB" leading up to the current position, set i = 2, and continue matching from the current position. 1 2 m: 01234567890123456789012 S: ABC ABCDAB ABCD W: i: This time the match is complete, and the first character of the match is S[15]. Description of pseudocode for the search algorithm The above example contains all the elements of the algorithm. For the moment, we assume the existence of a "partial match" table T, described below, which indicates where we need to look for the start of a new match when a mismatch is found. The entries of T are constructed so that if we have a match starting at S[m] that fails when comparing S[m + i] to W[i], then the next possible match will start at index m + i - T[i] in S (that is, T[i] is the amount of "backtracking" we need to do after a mismatch). This has two implications: first, T[0] = -1, which indicates that if W[0] is a mismatch, we cannot backtrack and must simply check the next character; and second, although the next possible match will begin at index m + i - T[i], as in the example above, we need not actually check any of the T[i] characters after that, so that we continue searching from W[T[i]]. The following is a sample pseudocode implementation of the KMP search algorithm. algorithm kmp_search: input: an array of characters, S (the text to be searched) an array of characters, W (the word sought) output: an array of integers, P (positions in S at which W is found) an integer, nP (number of positions) define variables: an integer, j ← 0 (the position of the current character in S) an integer, k ← 0 (the position of the current character in W) an array of integers, T (the table, computed elsewhere) let nP ← 0 while j < length(S) do if W[k] = S[j] then let j ← j + 1 let k ← k + 1 if k = length(W) then (occurrence found, if only first occurrence is needed, m ← j - k may be returned here) let P[nP] ← j - k, nP ← nP + 1 let k ← T[k] (T[length(W)] can't be -1) else let k ← T[k] if k < 0 then let j ← j + 1 let k ← k + 1 Efficiency of the search algorithm Assuming the prior existence of the table T, the search portion of the Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm has complexity O(n), where n is the length of S and the O is big-O notation. Except for the fixed overhead incurred in entering and exiting the function, all the computations are performed in the while loop. To bound the number of iterations of this loop; observe that T is constructed so that if a match which had begun at S[m] fails while comparing S[m + i] to W[i], then the next possible match must begin at S[m + (i - T[i])]. In particular, the next possible match must occur at a higher index than m, so that T[i] < i. This fact implies that the loop can execute at most 2n times, since at each iteration it executes one of the two branches in the loop. The first branch invariably increases i and does not change m, so that the index m + i of the currently scrutinized character of S is increased. The second branch adds i - T[i] to m, and as we have seen, this is always a positive number. Thus the location m of the beginning of the current potential match is increased. At the same time, the second branch leaves m + i unchanged, for m gets i - T[i] added to it, and immediately after T[i] gets assigned as the new value of i, hence new_m + new_i = old_m + old_i - T[old_i] + T[old_i] = old_m + old_i. Now, the loop ends if m + i = n; therefore, each branch of the loop can be reached at most n times, since they respectively increase either m + i or m, and m ≤ m + i: if m = n, then certainly m + i ≥ n, so that since it increases by unit increments at most, we must have had m + i = n at some point in the past, and therefore either way we would be done. Thus the loop executes at most 2n times, showing that the time complexity of the search algorithm is O(n). Here is another way to think about the runtime: Let us say we begin to match W and S at position i and p. If W exists as a substring of S at p, then W[0..m] = S[p..p+m]. Upon success, that is, the word and the text matched at the positions (W[i] = S[p+i]), we increase i by 1. Upon failure, that is, the word and the text do not match at the positions (W[i] ≠ S[p+i]), the text pointer is kept still, while the word pointer is rolled back a certain amount (i = T[i], where T is the jump table), and we attempt to match W[T[i]] with S[p+i]. The maximum number of roll-back of i is bounded by i, that is to say, for any failure, we can only roll back as much as we have progressed up to the failure. Then it is clear the runtime is 2n. "Partial match" table (also known as "failure function") The goal of the table is to allow the algorithm not to match any character of S more than once. The key observation about the nature of a linear search that allows this to happen is that in having checked some segment of the main string against an initial segment of the pattern, we know exactly at which places a new potential match which could continue to the current position could begin prior to the current position. In other words, we "pre-search" the pattern itself and compile a list of all possible fallback positions that bypass a maximum of hopeless characters while not sacrificing any potential matches in doing so. We want to be able to look up, for each position in W, the length of the longest possible initial segment of W leading up to (but not including) that position, other than the full segment starting at W[0] that just failed to match; this is how far we have to backtrack in finding the next match. Hence T[i] is exactly the length of the longest possible proper initial segment of W which is also a segment of the substring ending at W[i - 1]. We use the convention that the empty string has length 0. Since a mismatch at the very start of the pattern is a special case (there is no possibility of backtracking), we set T[0] = -1, as discussed below. Working example of the table-building algorithm We consider the example of W = "ABCDABD" first. We will see that it follows much the same pattern as the main search, and is efficient for similar reasons. We set T[0] = -1. To find T[1], we must discover a proper suffix of "A" which is also a prefix of pattern W. But there are no proper suffixes of "A", so we set T[1] = 0. To find T[2], we see that the substring W[0] - W[1] ("AB") has a proper suffix "B". However "B" is not a prefix of the pattern W. Therefore, we set T[2] = 0. Continuing to T[3], we first check the proper suffix of length 1, and as in the previous case it fails. Should we also check longer suffixes? No, we now note that there is a shortcut to checking all suffixes: let us say that we discovered a proper suffix which is a proper prefix (A proper prefix of a string is not equal to the string itself) and ending at W[2] with length 2 (the maximum possible); then its first character is also a proper prefix of W, hence a proper prefix itself, and it ends at W[1], which we already determined did not occur as T[2] = 0 and not T[2] = 1. Hence at each stage, the shortcut rule is that one needs to consider checking suffixes of a given size m+1 only if a valid suffix of size m was found at the previous stage (i.e. T[x] = m) and should not bother to check m+2, m+3, etc. Therefore, we need not even concern ourselves with substrings having length 2, and as in the previous case the sole one with length 1 fails, so T[3] = 0. We pass to the subsequent W[4], 'A'. The same logic shows that the longest substring we need to consider has length 1, and as in the previous case it fails since "D" is not a prefix of W. But instead of setting T[4] = 0, we can do better by noting that W[4] = W[0], and also that a look-up of T[4] implies the corresponding S character, S[m+4], was a mismatch and therefore S[m+4] ≠ 'A'. Thus there is no point in restarting the search at S[m+4]; we should begin at 1 position ahead. This means that we may shift pattern W by match length plus one character, so T[4] = -1. Considering now the next character, W[5], which is 'B': though by inspection the longest substring would appear to be 'A', we still set T[5] = 0. The reasoning is similar to why T[4] = -1. W[5] itself extends the prefix match begun with W[4], and we can assume that the corresponding character in S, S[m+5] ≠ 'B'. So backtracking before W[5] is pointless, but S[m+5] may be 'A', hence T[5] = 0. Finally, we see that the next character in the ongoing segment starting at W[4] = 'A' would be 'B', and indeed this is also W[5]. Furthermore, the same argument as above shows that we need not look before W[4] to find a segment for W[6], so that this is it, and we take T[6] = 2. Therefore, we compile the following table: Another example: Another example (slightly changed from the previous example): Another more complicated example: Description of pseudocode for the table-building algorithm The example above illustrates the general technique for assembling the table with a minimum of fuss. The principle is that of the overall search: most of the work was already done in getting to the current position, so very little needs to be done in leaving it. The only minor complication is that the logic which is correct late in the string erroneously gives non-proper substrings at the beginning. This necessitates some initialization code. algorithm kmp_table: input: an array of characters, W (the word to be analyzed) output: an array of integers, T (the table to be filled) define variables: an integer, pos ← 1 (the current position we are computing in T) an integer, cnd ← 0 (the zero-based index in W of the next character of the current candidate substring) let T[0] ← -1 while pos < length(W) do if W[pos] = W[cnd] then let T[pos] ← T[cnd] else let T[pos] ← cnd while cnd ≥ 0 and W[pos] ≠ W[cnd] do let cnd ← T[cnd] let pos ← pos + 1, cnd ← cnd + 1 let T[pos] ← cnd (only needed when all word occurrences are searched) Efficiency of the table-building algorithm The time (and space) complexity of the table algorithm is , where is the length of W. The outer loop: pos is initialized to 1, the loop condition is pos < k, and pos is increased by 1 in every iteration of the loop. Thus the loop will take iterations. The inner loop: cnd is initialized to 0 and gets increased by at most 1 in each outer loop iteration. T[cnd] is always less than cnd, so cnd gets decreased by at least 1 in each inner loop iteration; the inner loop condition is cnd ≥ 0. This means that the inner loop can execute at most as many times in total, as the outer loop has executed – each decrease of cnd by 1 in the inner loop needs to have a corresponding increase by 1 in the outer loop. Since the outer loop takes iterations, the inner loop can take no more than iterations in total. Combined, the outer and inner loops take at most iterations. This corresponds to time complexity using the Big O notation. Efficiency of the KMP algorithm Since the two portions of the algorithm have, respectively, complexities of O(k) and O(n), the complexity of the overall algorithm is O(n + k). These complexities are the same, no matter how many repetitive patterns are in W or S. Variants A real-time version of KMP can be implemented using a separate failure function table for each character in the alphabet. If a mismatch occurs on character in the text, the failure function table for character is consulted for the index in the pattern at which the mismatch took place. This will return the length of the longest substring ending at matching a prefix of the pattern, with the added condition that the character after the prefix is . With this restriction, character in the text need not be checked again in the next phase, and so only a constant number of operations are executed between the processing of each index of the text. This satisfies the real-time computing restriction. Booth's algorithm uses a modified version of the KMP preprocessing function to find the lexicographically minimal string rotation. The failure function is progressively calculated as the string is rotated. Notes References External links String Searching Applet animation An explanation of the algorithm and sample C++ code by David Eppstein Knuth-Morris-Pratt algorithm description and C code by Christian Charras and Thierry Lecroq Explanation of the algorithm from scratch by FH Flensburg. Breaking down steps of running KMP by Chu-Cheng Hsieh. NPTELHRD YouTube lecture video LogicFirst YouTube lecture video Proof of correctness Transformation between different forms of algorithm Knuth-Morris-Pratt algorithm written in C# Knuth-Morris-Pratt string-searching algorithm (part I) + my homebrew algorithms formally verified using CBMC, Knuth-Morris-Pratt string-searching algorithm (part II): DFA version, Knuth-Morris-Pratt string-searching algorithm (part III): DFA-less version String matching algorithms Donald Knuth Articles with example pseudocode 1970 in computing	[ -0.3005293607711792, 0.4523214101791382, -0.446616530418396, 0.16490206122398376, -0.4603777825832367, 0.17143836617469788, 0.2925439178943634, -0.2525073289871216, -0.036363955587148666, -0.3017042875289917, -0.328572154045105, 0.05984002351760864, -0.35104161500930786, 0.5880274772644043, -0.17882956564426422, 0.5109456777572632, 0.48863959312438965, -0.011908349581062794, -0.17814305424690247, -0.4508369565010071, 0.2480047047138214, 0.1833997219800949, 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253228	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freetown%20Christiania	Freetown Christiania	Freetown Christiania, also known as Christiania ( or ), is an intentional community and commune of about 850 to 1,000 residents, covering in the borough of Christianshavn in the Danish capital city of Copenhagen on the island of Amager. Christiania has been a source of controversy since its creation in a squatted military area in 1971. Its cannabis trade was tolerated by authorities until 2004. Since then, relations between Christiania and Danish authorities have been strained. Since the beginning of the 2010s, the situation has been somewhat normalized and Danish law is now enforced in Christiania. History Barracks and ramparts The area of Christiania consists of the former military barracks of Bådsmandsstræde and parts of the city ramparts. The ramparts and the borough of Christianshavn (then a separate city) were established in 1617 by King Christian IV by reclaiming the low beaches and islets between Copenhagen and Amager. After the siege of Copenhagen during the Second Northern War, the ramparts were reinforced during 1682 to 1692 under Christian V to form a complete defense ring. The western ramparts of Copenhagen were demolished during the 19th century, but those of Christianshavn were allowed to remain. They are today considered among the finest surviving 17th century defence works in the world. The barracks of Bådsmandsstræde () housed the Royal Artillery Regiment, the Army Materiel Command and ammunition laboratories and depots. Less used after World War II, the barracks were abandoned between 1967 and 1971. The adjacent area to the north, Holmen, was Denmark's main naval base until the 1990s. It is an area in development, home to the new Copenhagen Opera House (not to be confused with the first and still existing venue called , a concert venue in Christiania) and schools. An area further north is still used by the navy, but open to the public during daytime. The outermost defence line, Enveloppen, has been renamed Dyssen in Christiania language (except for the southernmost tip of it which was not annexed by Christiania). It is connected to central Christiania by a bridge across the main moat or can be reached by the path beginning at Christmas Møllers Plads. Four gunpowder storehouses line the redans. They were built in 1779–1780 to replace a storage in central Copenhagen, at Østerport, which infamously exploded in 1770, killing 50 people. The buildings are renamed , , ('the Fakir School') and ('Cosmic Flower') and have, although protected, been slightly altered from their historical state. The last Danish execution site, active from 1946 to 1950, can still be seen on the Second Redan close to the building called Aircondition. The wooden execution shed is gone, but the concrete foundation and a drain for the blood remain just next to the path. In total, 30 World War II criminals were executed on the site. The last was Ib Birkedal, a high-level Danish Gestapo collaborator, on 20 July 1950. Building and area protection In 2007, the National Heritage Agency proposed protection status for some of the ancient military buildings, now in Christiania. These are: ('The grey hall'), formerly a riding house with a unique Bohlendach roof construction, now Christiania's largest concert venue ('The green hall'), originally a smaller riding house ('The dandelion') The Commander's house, a half-timbered building The 17th and 18th century powder magazines on the bastions. Some of the historic buildings were altered after Christiania's takeover. Founding of Christiania After the military moved out, the area was only guarded by a few watchmen and there was sporadic trespassing of homeless people using the empty buildings. On 4 September 1971, inhabitants of the surrounding neighborhood broke down the fence to take over parts of the unused area as a playground for their children. Although the takeover was not necessarily organized in the beginning, some claim this happened as a protest against the Danish government. At the time there was a lack of affordable housing in Copenhagen. On 26 September 1971, Christiania was declared open by Jacob Ludvigsen, a well-known provo and journalist who published a magazine called ('The main paper'), which was intended for and successfully distributed to mostly young people. In the paper, Ludvigsen wrote an article in which he and five others explored what he termed 'The Forbidden City of the Military'. The article widely announced the proclamation of the free town, and among other things he wrote the following under the headline "Civilians conquered the 'forbidden city' of the military": Christiania is the land of the settlers. It is the biggest opportunity so far to build up a society from scratch - while nevertheless still incorporating the remaining constructions. Own electricity plant, a bath-house, a giant athletics building, where all the seekers of peace could have their grand meditation - and yoga center. Halls where theater groups can feel at home. Buildings for the stoners who are too paranoid and weak to participate in the race ... Yes for those who feel the beating of the pioneer heart there can be no doubt as to the purpose of Christiania. It is the part of the city which has been kept secret to us – but no more. Ludvigsen was co-author of Christiania's mission statement, dating from 1971, which offers the following: The objective of Christiania is to create a self-governing society whereby each and every individual holds themselves responsible over the wellbeing of the entire community. Our society is to be economically self-sustaining and, as such, our aspiration is to be steadfast in our conviction that psychological and physical destitution can be averted. The spirit of Christiania quickly developed into one of the hippie movement, the squatter movement, collectivism and anarchism in contrast to the site's previous military use. The 1976 protest song (translated: "You cannot kill us"), written by Tom Lunden of flower power rock group Bifrost, became the unofficial anthem of Christiania. The community Meditation and yoga have always been popular among the Christianians, and for many years Christiania had a theatrical group Solvognen, who, beyond their theatre performances, also staged many happenings in Copenhagen and throughout Denmark. Ludvigsen had always talked of the acceptance of drug addicts who could no longer cope with regular society, and the spirit of that belief has still not diminished, even though many problems sprouted due to drug traffic and use (mostly of 'hard drugs', however, which are not tolerated in Christiania). These addicts enter and remain in Christiania and are considered just as integral to the Freetown ethics as the entrepreneurs. For this reason many Danes have seen Christiania as a successful social experiment. However, for years the legal status of the region has been in a limbo due to different Danish governments attempting to remove the Christianites. Such attempts at removal have all been unsuccessful so far. Christiania is considered to be the fourth largest tourist attraction in Copenhagen (and it has half a million visitors annually); and abroad it is a well-known "brand" for the supposedly progressive and liberated Danish lifestyle. Many Danish businesses and organizations also use Christiania as a show place for their foreign friends and guests. The purpose is to show something Danish that cannot be found anywhere else in the world. The people in Christiania have developed their own set of rules, independent of the Danish government, but still need to follow Danish law. For instance, sale of Cannabis is not legal in Christiania, because it is not legal in Denmark generally; Danish police will arrest cannabis sellers in Christiania the same way they would elsewhere. The residents of Christiania are called Christianit, or Christianshavner and Amagerkaner (because Christiania is located on the island of Amager). Christiania rules forbid stealing, violence, guns, knives, bulletproof vests, hard drugs, and bikers' colors. Taking any pictures and videos is also forbidden in Christiania. Famous for its main drag, known as Pusher Street, where hash and skunk weed or mix of Hash and Skunk and (mix of indica, sativa, ruderalis or hybrids) is sold openly from makeshift stands and while food, candies, snacks and drinks with cannabis (or containing some cannabis) is also sold from some stands, Christiania nevertheless does have rules forbidding sale of 'hard drugs', such as cocaine, amphetamine, ecstasy and heroin and others in Christinia. The hash and cannabis commerce is controversial, but since the rules require a consensus they cannot be removed unless everybody agrees. Legalization of cannabis is one of the ideas of many of the citizens in Christiania. The region negotiated an arrangement with the Danish defense ministry, which still owned the land in 1995. Since 1994, residents have paid taxes and fees for water, electricity, trash disposal, etc. After bitter negotiations that temporarily resulted in the area being sealed off to the public, in June 2011, the residents of Christiania agreed to collectively set up a fund to formally purchase the land at below market prices. The community made its first payment in July 2012, officially becoming legal landowners. Gay House Since the 1970s, the Gay House (), one of Christiania's autonomous institutions, had been a center for gay activism, parties, and theatre. The humorous and artistically high-ranking variety-style shows still have fame within the LGBT community in Copenhagen. In 2002, a group of young gay performers and activists, Dunst, were invited to take over the house so it could remain a center for gay activity. Dunst introduced democratic management and established open workshops for photography, art, music, dance, video etc. They also arranged three 'Save Christiania' nights, a cabaret show and three support parties in order to be able to pay down some of the Gay House's debt to Christiania. According to Dunst, however, neighbours would never readily accept them and the newcomers were accused of not understanding "the Christiania lifestyle". Dunst claimed they received verbal abuse, threatening letters, and even in one instance, had a baseball bat brandished against them. Some disliked Dunst's loud parties and their contemporary electro-punk style music being described as techno. After nine months, they were asked to leave Christiania. In 2004, Dunst participated in 'Christiania Distortion', an event supportive of Christiania. As they could not make use of the Gay House, Dunst's part of the event took place in a bus circling around Christiania. 2005 shooting and murder On 24 April 2005, a 26-year-old Christiania resident was killed and three other residents injured in a violent gang assault on Pusher Street. The reason for this was a feud over the cannabis market of Copenhagen. After the open cannabis trade was ended in Christiania the year before, criminal circles outside Christiania were eager to take over the market. Those responsible for the shooting were one such gang residing in Nørrebro, a northwestern borough of the city. They had repeatedly asked the Christiania pushers to allow them; the next day two cars pulled up outside Christiania and six to eight masked men with automatic weapons got out and headed for Pusher Street. When they arrived they fired at least 35 rounds indiscriminately toward the crowd, killing one Christianite and injuring three others. Some saw this tragic incident as a sign that the future survival of the community was dubious due to the risk of violence stemming from the cannabis market. Others blamed the incident on the fragmentation of the Copenhagen cannabis market and its expansion to the rest of the city, brought about by the measures of the Anders Fogh Rasmussen government. See below: Drugs Riots over demolition of house On 14 May 2007, workers from the governmental Forest and Nature Agency, accompanied by police, entered Christiania to demolish leftovers of the small, abandoned building of ('the cigar box'). They were met by angry and frightened Christianites, fearing that the police also intended to demolish other houses. The residents built roadblocks, but the police eventually entered the Freetown en masse and were met by resistance. Residents threw stones and shot fireworks at police vehicles. They also built barricades in the street outside Christiania's gate. The police used tear gas on the residents and a number of arrests were made. One activist sneaked behind the police commander and poured a bucket of urine and feces upon him before being immediately arrested. The trouble continued into the early morning hours. In all, over 50 activists from both Christiania and outside were arrested. Prosecutors demanded they be imprisoned on the basis that they might otherwise participate in further disturbances in Copenhagen (which prosecutors claimed was "in a state of rebellion"). Cars Within Christiania itself no private cars are allowed. However, , a total of 132 cars are owned by residents and need to be parked on the streets surrounding the Freetown. After negotiating with city authorities, Christiania has agreed to establish parking areas for residents' own cars on its territory. As of 2005, parking space for only 14 cars had been established within the area. Before the city council elections of November 2001, residents in one of Christiania's sections proposed a municipal kindergarten just outside Christiania should be torn down and moved some hundred meters away, the area being turned into a parking lot. The proposal was criticized by other Christiania residents and citizens in the borough, but proponents claimed the wooden kindergarten buildings were outdated anyway and the parking space issue needed to be solved before Christiania itself would turn into an area where cars were widely parked. It has also been claimed that taxis and police vehicles add to the traffic problems. As of 2008, Christiania established a road block robot in the vehicle entrance of Christiania next to The Gray Hall () to prevent cannabis customers and other visitors from driving into Christiania and parking their cars in its narrow streets. Only cargo transport is allowed through these gates. A downside to this was that it moved the problem to another part of Christiania further up the road where the residents now have blocked this entrance entirely until another road block robot will be installed. There are very few entrances to Christiania. With the two entrances blocked by road block robots, the Christianites believe they can rid themselves from the problem of harassing traffic. 2009 grenade attack On 24 April 2009, a 22-year-old man had part of his jaw blown off by a hand grenade thrown into the crowds seated at Cafe Nemoland. Four others had minor back and leg injuries. A perpetrator has not been found. 2016 shooting On 31 August 2016, a person believed to be carrying the day's earnings from cannabis sales suddenly pulled a gun during a routine arrest and shot two police officers and a civilian. The injuries of one of the officers who was shot in the head were life-threatening (he survived, but needed a long period of rehabilitation), while the injuries of the other victims were less serious. Police sealed off the entire neighborhood and located the perpetrator in Kastrup a few hours later. During a brief shootout with Politiets Aktionsstyrke (a special intervention police unit) he was seriously wounded and later died from his injuries in the hospital. The perpetrator, a 25-year-old Danish citizen of Bosnian descent (he arrived in Denmark as a child with his family), was well known to the police for violence and involvement in cannabis sale. Although known to be a sympathizer of Islamic extremism, this is not considered to have played a role in his actions. Police officers very rarely receive life-threatening injuries during encounters with criminals (before the Christiania shooting, the last police officer to be killed by a criminal in Denmark was in 1995) and the incident was widely condemned. In a communal meeting consisting of Christiania residents, it was decided that the stalls in Pusher Street (by far the site of the largest cannabis sale in Denmark) should be removed, which happened the following day, September 2. Local residents also urged people who were friends of the neighborhood to help by not buying cannabis in Christiania. About two months later, it was estimated that the de facto accepted practice of cannabis sale within Christiania had dropped by about 75%. Drugs Since its opening, Christiania has been famous for its open cannabis trade, taking place in the centrally located Pusher Street, although named Green Light District by the Christianian council. Although the hash trade is illegal, authorities were for many years reluctant to forcibly stop it. Proponents thought that concentrating the hash trade at one place would limit its dispersion in society, and that it could prevent users from switching to 'harder drugs'. Some wanted to legalize hash altogether. Opponents thought the ban should be enforced, in Christiania as elsewhere, and that there should be no differentiation between 'soft' and 'hard' drugs. It has also been claimed that the open cannabis trade was one of Copenhagen's major tourist attractions, while some said it scared other potential tourists away and the cannabis sale is actually also forbidden on Christiania’s area. Even though the police have attempted to stop the drug trade, the cannabis market has generally thrived in Christiania. Following the 2016 shooting where local residents removed the Pusher Street stalls, it was estimated that the cannabis sale dropped by about 75%. Eviction of 'hard drugs' During the late 1970s, 'hard drugs' such as heroin were considered permissible, but this had grave consequences. In one year, from 1978 to 1979, ten people died in Christiania from drug overdose; four of them were residents. Most of them lived in a building called 'The Arc of Peace', which was in an extreme level of disrepair: doors were missing, there were holes in the floors and, in most rooms, there was no furniture except for mattresses. One floor was overrun by a feral cat colony. Heroin-pushers were eventually evicted by the residents, and the "ban" on hard drugs continues to this day. Biker gang eviction Around 1984, a Copenhagen-resident biker gang called Bullshit arrived in Christiania and took control of a part of the cannabis market. Violence in the neighborhood increased and many Christianites felt unsafe and unhappy with the new residents. This resulted in sabotage acts directed towards the bikers as well as the publication of several provocative manuscripts urging the Christianites to throw out the powerful and armed bikers. This tension culminated when the police found a murdered individual who had been sliced to pieces and buried beneath the floor of a building. Christiania reacted with two colossal community meetings—one outside the building—where it was agreed that the bikers had to leave. A biker war between the Hells Angels and rival gangs over the drug trade continued in Copenhagen until 1996 from the murder of the leader of Bullshit, 'Makrellen', who controlled the cannabis trade in Christiania. Action against open drug selling Since its opening in 1971, the open drug trade of Christiania was a thorn in the side of Danish authorities, a constant source of public discussion, and led to protests from neighboring countries as well (especially Sweden with its no-tolerance drug policy). When the centre-right cabinet of Anders Fogh Rasmussen took office in 2001, one of its promises was to end illegal activities at Christiania. These were, including the obvious cannabis market, a long list of alleged criminal activities. People demanded the end of 'hard drugs' sales, such as cocaine and amphetamines, weapons trade, dealing with contraband etc. The Christiania residents claimed them to be purely speculative accusations. In 2002, the government began aiming to make the cannabis trade less visible. In response, the cannabis sellers covered their stands in military camouflage nets as a humorous reply. On 4 January 2004, the stands were demolished by the cannabis dealers the day before a large scale police operation. They knew about this operation, and decided to take the stands down themselves. The police made more than 20 arrests in the following weeks, and a large part of the organized dealer network of Pusher Street was then eliminated. Before they were demolished, the National Museum of Denmark was able to get one of the more colorful stands, which is now part of an exhibit. On 16 March 2004, police raided the area. Allegedly, many dealers started to move huge amounts of cannabis out into Copenhagen and the rest of the country instead. This was done in order to avoid the heavy police-presence in Christiania and to meet the demand for cannabis by clients. The open cannabis trade returned to Pusher Street after the 2004 raids, but the stalls were again torn down by Christiania's residents after the 2016 shooting. The hiatus on the open cannabis trade was short-lived; by May 2017, the stalls on Pusher Street were restored. Further developments The open cannabis trade in Christiania has been hailed by some Danes and condemned by others. The center-right government took a number of steps to enforce the law in Christiania. The first step in this process was a police crackdown on the cannabis trade. Both politicians and police declared that the cannabis trade would not be allowed to return. The second (and currently ongoing) phase is the registration of all buildings in Christiania. The third step will be the demolition of a number of wooden private residences situated in a nature conservation area (the historic naval fortress of Copenhagen). These buildings had all been approved by the authorities before the new government passed the current law on Christiania. For the last 15 years the government has not allowed construction in Christiania. This is now being enforced on a zero-tolerance policy with the help of a massive police presence. Governmental normalization measures In 2004, the Danish government passed a law abolishing the collective and treating its 900 members as individuals. Beginning in the summer of 2005, a series of protests were staged by Christiania members. During the same time, Danish police made frequent sweeps of the area. The Christiania Café set up a board recording the number of police patrols on Christiania in November 2005. In the summer of 2006 this passed the 1,000th patrol (about four to six patrols a day). These patrols normally consisted of six to twenty police officers, often dressed in combat uniform and sometimes with police dogs. In January 2006, the government proposed that Christiania would be turned into a mixed alternative community and residential area adding condominiums for 400 new residents. Current residents, now paying DKK 1,450 (US$250) per month, would be allowed to remain but need to begin paying normal rent for the facilities, albeit below market rent levels. Christiania has rejected this scenario, fearing the freetown would turn into a normal Copenhagen neighborhood. In particular, the concept of privately owned dwellings is claimed to be incompatible with Christiania's collective ownership. In September 2007, the representatives of Christiania and Copenhagen's city council reached an agreement to cede control of Christiania to the city over the course of ten years for the purposes of business development. Also, as of May 2009, the Eastern High Court upheld a 2004 Act of Parliament which reaffirmed the state's legal claim to control of the base. This rule is confirmed in February 2011 by the Supreme Court. The state has now full right of disposal of the Christiania area. In June 2011, the State signed an agreement with Christiania stating that the Christiania area will be transferred to a new foundation, the Foundation Freetown Christiania. The most contentious part of this process has been to force the residents naturally opposed to the whole idea of ownership to buy the piece of land they have been occupying for more than 40 years. In July 2012, they made the first payment, and the Christianites went from squatters to legal landowners. A foundation, run by residents, was set up to raise funds and apply for a bank loan. Christianites were able to buy about 19 acres of the initial 84-acre plot. In his January 2013 book In the Name of the People, Ivo Mosley cited Christiania as one of the few examples of communities run on truly democratic lines that exist in the world. Six months later, the laws governing Christiania changed. In July 2013, the legislative proposal L 179 for the repealing of the Christiania Law was adopted by all parties in the Danish Parliament with the exception of the Danish People's Party. From that moment, the same legislative rules that apply to the rest of Denmark apply to Christiania. Quotes from politicians The Minister of Finance from the Liberal Party (Venstre), part of the then-ruling coalition, who to the question in parliament whether the new buildings at Christiania were only economically motivated, answered: Architectural competition In order to present a reasonable use of area after an eventual "cleaning", the Danish government commissioned an architectural competition. 17 proposals were received, of which only eight have met the formal competition requirements. All of the proposals were rejected by the jury. The cost of the architectural competition was 850,000 Danish kroner. Christiania's development plan Christiania has countered the government's plans for normalization with its own community driven planning proposal, which after eight months of internal workshops and meetings gained consensus at the common meeting before being published in early 2006. Christiania's own development plan was awarded the Initiative Award of the Society for the Beautification of Copenhagen in November 2006. The plan has received positive attention from the municipality of Copenhagen and the Agenda 21 Society for its sustainability goals and democratic process. Breweries and workplaces Christiania has a number of street food stands with food, drinks, snacks and more. Christiania has two breweries, Christiania Bryghus and Christiania Bryg. The flag The flag of Christiania is a red banner with three yellow discs representing the dots in each i in "Christiania". The flag of Christiania originates from the military standard of the Roman emperor Constantine. This standard is called a labarum. The labarum was a vexillum (military standard) that displayed the "Chi-Rho" symbol ☧, a christogram formed from the first two Greek letters of the word "Christ" (, or ) — Chi () and Rho (). It was first used by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Since the vexillum consisted of a flag suspended from the crossbar of a cross, it was suited to symbolize the crucifixion of Christ. In fiction and popular culture In 1998, Swedish rapper Promoe mentioned Christiania in his song Denmark Style from the Sut Min Pik EP that was released by Fondle 'Em Records. The community was featured in one of the episodes ("") of Wladimir Kaminer's collection of stories, . In 2003, American punk rock band NOFX mentioned the community on the track "Anarchy Camp" from the album The War on Errorism. In March 2004, Christiania was featured in an episode of the political satire television series (English: "The Half-Truth"). In June 2011, Christiania was featured in the season 7 premiere of the American TV show Weeds. In October 2014, a feature documentary film called Christiania – 40 Years of Occupation had its premiere at the New York Architecture and Design Film Festival. It has since been screened in countries around the world and won Best Feature Documentary at the Seattle Transmedia and Independent Film Festival in May 2015. A native of Christiania, Lukas Forchhammer, frontman of Danish pop-soul band Lukas Graham, has often referenced his hometown in his performances. In October 2015, the opening titles of the music video for "Mama Said" stated "Christiania is a magical place in Copenhagen; this is where Lukas Graham was born". While performing the song "7 Years" at the 2016 Billboard Music Awards, Forchhammer wore a black T-shirt that read "Freetown Christiania" in gold and white lettering. In 2016, the neighborhood was featured in Trailer Park Boys: Out of the Park: Europe. Christiania was featured in an episode of the late Anthony Bourdain's Parts Unknown. See also Dyssebroen Counter-economics List of anarchist communities Taylor Camp Ungdomshuset Kingdom of Elleore Squatting Ruigoord Christianshavn Station Metelkova Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone Nimbin, New South Wales References External links Palaces and Properties Agency's website about Christiania and the new Christiania act of 2004 Official web "Bevar Christiania" (Save Christiania) Interview with Charlotte Østervang - Christiania Photographer The Coinage of Denmark's Free State: Christiania Christianiaguide A locals guide Anarchist intentional communities Utopian communities Anarchist organizations in Denmark Anarchism in Denmark Cannabis culture Neighbourhoods in Denmark Counterculture communities Cooperatives in Denmark Architecture of Denmark Danish culture Squats Ecovillages Geography of Copenhagen Parks in Copenhagen Indre By Hippie movement Shanty towns in Europe Populated places established in 1971 Separatism in Denmark Tourist attractions in Copenhagen Car-free zones in 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253233	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Scar%20%28novel%29	The Scar (novel)	The Scar is a weird fantasy novel by British writer China Miéville, the second set in his Bas-Lag universe. The Scar won the 2003 British Fantasy Award and was shortlisted for the 2003 Arthur C. Clarke Award. The Scar was additionally nominated for the Philip K. Dick Award in 2002 and the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2003. It is set directly after the events described in Perdido Street Station. Plot summary The Scar opens with the journey of a small ship which has set out from the city New Crobuzon (the setting of Perdido Street Station). It is heading to the city's new colony, Nova Esperium, which lies across the Swollen Ocean of Bas-Lag. On board the ship are: Bellis Coldwine, a cold, reserved linguist who is fleeing for her life for her alleged connection to the events in Perdido Street Station. Johannes Tearfly, a scientist whose interests lie in megafauna and underwater sealife. Tanner Sack, a Remade criminal (that is, he has had his body surgically and magically altered as punishment for his crime) who is bound for slavery. Shekel, a young cabin boy who befriends Tanner. Before the ship reaches Nova Esperium, it is captured by pirates, and the passengers, crew and prisoners are all press-ganged into being citizens of Armada, a floating city made of thousands of ships. Tanner uses his newfound freedom to embrace his remaking. He has his body further remade and the earlier, rough work perfected, becoming an amphibious sea-creature. Treated now as an equal citizen rather than a prisoner or slave, Tanner's loyalties fiercely lie in Armada. Bellis meanwhile despises her new life as a librarian for the city's vast collection of stolen books, and yearns for home. She gains the attention of the powerful Uther Doul, who is a bodyguard to the mysterious, scarred leaders of Armada known as the Lovers. Doul, for his own reasons, involves Bellis much more closely in the city's matters. She soon becomes privy to a plan formulated by the Lovers to raise a mythical sea creature known as the avanc. Simultaneously, she becomes involved with a New Crobuzonian spy named Silas Fennec, who reveals that the grindylow of the Cold Claw Sea are planning war on New Crobuzon. Silas was on his way home to warn his leaders of this war (thus saving the millions of innocents who might be slaughtered by the grindylow) when he was captured by Armada. Bellis and Silas find physical release in each other, and commiserate that they are powerless to save their home city. Shekel, who is learning to read with Bellis's help, finds a strange book in the Armada's library. He brings it to Bellis, and she realizes that it is the book the Lovers need to raise the avanc. Knowing that she must get a message home, Bellis destroys a large part of the Appendix which shows the equations and methods to raise the avanc. With the book destroyed, the Lovers seek the book's writer, Krüach Aum, the only person who knows how to summon the mythical creature. Armada mounts an expedition to his unnamed island home, which is the island of the dreaded Anophelii (a horrific and deadly race of mosquito-people). The Lovers find Aum and the information they need, while Bellis uses their time on the island, away from Armada, to get a message home warning of the impending grindylow invasion. Armada then successfully raises the avanc and captures it – no mean feat, as the avanc is an immense creature, several miles long. The Lovers' true plan is finally revealed: to use the great speed and pulling power of the avanc to find the fabled Scar, a place in the world where reality breaks down and anything is possible. The Lovers see this as a source of ultimate power. On the journey far into unmapped waters, numerous matters threaten the city. Silas Fennec's actions, which have been far from honest, single-handedly bring down the fury of the New Crobuzon navy and the inhuman wrath of the grindylows. Following this, a civil war breaks out within the city. Terribly damaged, Armada finally nears the Scar, and faces the unsettling horrors that accompany the breakdown of possibility. They pick up a shipwrecked friend from a different train of possibilities, chances and choices, who warns them of The Scar and that he saw the city fall into the wound of the world and everybody was killed. Mutiny follows and the people of Armada finally force the city to turn around and head back to the Swollen Ocean, the life of quiet and piracy, that they all want. The last chapter of the book is another excerpt of Bellis's letter home, in which she realizes how much she was being used by Doul. The reader is left to question how much Uther Doul actually was in control of the events in the book, which events were simply chance and which were 'planned' possibility. Reception Steven Poole reviewed the book for The Guardian and struggled with the writing style at the beginning of the book, "All through the first 40 pages or so you can hear the grunts of a writer straining too hard for effect", but "[o]nce the novel settles down after its ill-judged beginning, Miéville begins to construct an intriguing plot of espionage and deceit". He concludes that "The Scar eventually demonstrates enough invention and brutal energy, firmly ruled by a calm architectonic intelligence, to show that Miéville is one of the most imaginative young writers around in any kind of fiction." Awards British Science Fiction Award nominee, 2002 Philip K. Dick Award nominee, 2002 British Fantasy Award winner, 2003 Locus Award winner, 2003 Arthur C. Clarke Award nominee, 2003 Hugo Award nominee, 2003 World Fantasy Award nominee, 2003 References Further reading External links The Scar at Worlds Without End Science fantasy novels Steampunk novels 2002 science fiction novels 2002 British novels Bas-Lag Novels by China Miéville 2002 fantasy novels Underwater civilizations in fiction Underwater novels	[ 0.06603462994098663, 0.29793378710746765, -0.0414264015853405, -0.40627622604370117, 0.010093755088746548, 0.4463115334510803, 0.02818417362868786, 0.17869260907173157, -0.12344500422477722, -0.428641676902771, -0.3718182444572449, 0.0030822078697383404, -0.01718823052942753, 0.22315120697021484, 0.19773930311203003, 0.32715103030204773, 0.019554032012820244, 0.39640551805496216, -0.3130269944667816, -0.44405704736709595, 0.11170724034309387, -0.32017526030540466, 0.39733394980430603, -0.12094082683324814, 0.2761337161064148, 0.34763678908348083, 0.4793827533721924, 0.2735845148563385, -0.2285083830356598, 0.16721384227275848, 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253234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confusion%20%28disambiguation%29	Confusion (disambiguation)	Confusion is the state of being bewildered or unclear in one's mind about something. Confusion or Confused may also refer to: Confusion and diffusion, a technical concept in cryptography Geography Confusion Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador, a bay in Canada Confusion Island, a subantarctic island Confusion Lake, a lake in Idaho, U.S. Confusion Range, a mountain range in Utah, U.S. Confusion Hill, a roadside attraction in Piercy, California, U.S. Books The Confusion, a 2004 novel by Neal Stephenson Confusion (novella), a 1927 novella by Stefan Zweig Confusions, a 1974 play by Alan Ayckbourn Music Confusion (album), an album by Fela Kuti Songs "Confusion" (Electric Light Orchestra song) "Confusion" (New Order song) "Confusion" (The Zutons song) "Confused", by SvenDeeKay "Confused" (song), by Tevin Campbell "Confusion", by Alice in Chains from Facelift "Confusion", by Camouflage from Relocated "Confusion", by Metallica from Hardwired... to Self-Destruct "Confusion", by Miz from Say It's Forever "Confusion", by Sparks from Big Beat "Confusion", by Zee from Identity "Confused", by Angel Witch from Angel Witch "Confused!", by Kid Cudi from Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven Other ConFusion, an annual science fiction convention in Detroit, Michigan, U.S. Confused.com, a British insurance and financial services comparison service Apamea furva or confused, a species of moth Confusion, a season of the Discordian calendar "Confusion", an episode of Code Lyoko: Evolution See also Circle of confusion Confusing similarity Confusion Corner, a street intersection in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Confusion matrix Confusion of tongues, the fragmentation of human languages described in the Book of Genesis	[ 0.15094740688800812, 0.3684234023094177, -0.70611172914505, 0.1913764923810959, -0.5267278552055359, -0.1595713496208191, 0.8926715850830078, 0.2966253459453583, -0.14480435848236084, -0.31714192032814026, -0.2802569568157196, -0.006371461786329746, -0.08457405865192413, 0.6902147531509399, -0.13128943741321564, 0.3131355345249176, 0.4058026373386383, 0.591049075126648, 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253244	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20Quality%20Productions	Quantum Quality Productions	Quantum Quality Productions (also known by their initials QQP) was a computer games company specializing in strategy games and war games. Run by Bruce Williams Zaccagnino and Mark Baldwin it produced a number of games that achieved "cult status", most prominently The Perfect General. Computer Gaming World reported in March 1994 that QQP was as "a very satisfying wellspring of entertainment", although its "fine games" had "below average documentation". In 1994, due to financial difficulties, QQP accepted a buy-out from American Laser Games. ALG "unceremoniously" closed the studio in December 1995, according to Computer Game Review. Partial list of games produced by QQP Battles in Time Battles of Destiny Bridge Olympiad Conquered Kingdoms Dealer's Choice Collection Erben des Throns Grandest Fleet Heirs to the Throne (German import) Lucky's Casino Adventure Lost Admiral Merchant Prince Perfect General II Perfect General Pure Wargame Solitaire's Journey The Red Crystal: The Seven Secrets of Life WWII: Battles of the South Pacific Zig Zag References External links Quantum Quality Productions at MobyGames Video game development companies Video game publishers Defunct companies based in New Jersey 1995 disestablishments in New Jersey Defunct video game companies of the United States	[ 0.2341976761817932, 0.19640791416168213, -0.20664340257644653, 0.27477777004241943, -0.1684878021478653, 0.1029946580529213, -0.26732107996940613, -0.0555284209549427, -0.0255341324955225, 0.16465288400650024, -0.7167358994483948, 0.0761132761836052, 0.1333577036857605, 0.36289870738983154, -0.13987089693546295, 0.030558209866285324, 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253251	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension%20of%20an%20algebraic%20variety	Dimension of an algebraic variety	In mathematics and specifically in algebraic geometry, the dimension of an algebraic variety may be defined in various equivalent ways. Some of these definitions are of geometric nature, while some other are purely algebraic and rely on commutative algebra. Some are restricted to algebraic varieties while others apply also to any algebraic set. Some are intrinsic, as independent of any embedding of the variety into an affine or projective space, while other are related to such an embedding. Dimension of an affine algebraic set Let be a field, and be an algebraically closed extension. An affine algebraic set is the set of the common zeros in of the elements of an ideal in a polynomial ring Let be the algebra of the polynomial functions over . The dimension of is any of the following integers. It does not change if is enlarged, if is replaced by another algebraically closed extension of and if is replaced by another ideal having the same zeros (that is having the same radical). The dimension is also independent of the choice of coordinates; in other words it does not change if the are replaced by linearly independent linear combinations of them. The dimension of is The maximal length of the chains of distinct nonempty (irreducible) subvarieties of . This definition generalizes a property of the dimension of a Euclidean space or a vector space. It is thus probably the definition that gives the easiest intuitive description of the notion. The Krull dimension of the coordinate ring . This is the transcription of the preceding definition in the language of commutative algebra, the Krull dimension being the maximal length of the chains of prime ideals of . The maximal Krull dimension of the local rings at the points of . This definition shows that the dimension is a local property if is irreducible. If is irreducible, it turns out that all the local rings at closed points have the same Krull dimension (see ). If is a variety, the Krull dimension of the local ring at any point of This rephrases the previous definition into a more geometric language. The maximal dimension of the tangent vector spaces at the non singular points of . This relates the dimension of a variety to that of a differentiable manifold. More precisely, if if defined over the reals, then the set of its real regular points, if it is not empty, is a differentiable manifold that has the same dimension as a variety and as a manifold. If is a variety, the dimension of the tangent vector space at any non singular point of . This is the algebraic analogue to the fact that a connected manifold has a constant dimension. This can also be deduced from the result stated below the third definition, and the fact that the dimension of the tangent space is equal to the Krull dimension at any non-singular point (see Zariski tangent space). The number of hyperplanes or hypersurfaces in general position which are needed to have an intersection with which is reduced to a nonzero finite number of points. This definition is not intrinsic as it apply only to algebraic sets that are explicitly embedded in an affine or projective space. The maximal length of a regular sequence in the coordinate ring . This the algebraic translation of the preceding definition. The difference between and the maximal length of the regular sequences contained in . This is the algebraic translation of the fact that the intersection of general hypersurfaces is an algebraic set of dimension . The degree of the Hilbert polynomial of . The degree of the denominator of the Hilbert series of . This allows, through a Gröbner basis computation to compute the dimension of the algebraic set defined by a given system of polynomial equations. The dimension of the simplicial complex whose Stanley-Reisner ring is where is the radical of any initial ideal of I. Taking initial ideals preserves Hilbert polynomial/series, and taking radicals preserves the dimension. If is a prime ideal (i.e. is an algebraic variety), the transcendence degree over of the field of fractions of . This allows to prove easily that the dimension is invariant under birational equivalence. Dimension of a projective algebraic set Let V be a projective algebraic set defined as the set of the common zeros of a homogeneous ideal I in a polynomial ring over a field K, and let A=R/I be the graded algebra of the polynomials over V. All the definitions of the previous section apply, with the change that, when A or I appear explicitly in the definition, the value of the dimension must be reduced by one. For example, the dimension of V is one less than the Krull dimension of A. Computation of the dimension Given a system of polynomial equations over an algebraically closed field , it may be difficult to compute the dimension of the algebraic set that it defines. Without further information on the system, there is only one practical method, which consists of computing a Gröbner basis and deducing the degree of the denominator of the Hilbert series of the ideal generated by the equations. The second step, which is usually the fastest, may be accelerated in the following way: Firstly, the Gröbner basis is replaced by the list of its leading monomials (this is already done for the computation of the Hilbert series). Then each monomial like is replaced by the product of the variables in it: Then the dimension is the maximal size of a subset S of the variables, such that none of these products of variables depends only on the variables in S. This algorithm is implemented in several computer algebra systems. For example in Maple, this is the function Groebner[HilbertDimension], and in Macaulay2, this is the function dim. Real dimension The real dimension of a set of real points, typically a semialgebraic set, is the dimension of its Zariski closure. For a semialgebraic set , the real dimension is one of the following equal integers: The real dimension of is the dimension of its Zariski closure. The real dimension of is the maximal integer such that there is a homeomorphism of in . The real dimension of is the maximal integer such that there is a projection of over a -dimensional subspace with a non-empty interior. For an algebraic set defined over the reals (that is defined by polynomials with real coefficients), it may occur that the real dimension of the set of its real points is smaller than its dimension as a semi algebraic set. For example, the algebraic surface of equation is an algebraic variety of dimension two, which has only one real point (0, 0, 0), and thus has the real dimension zero. The real dimension is more difficult to compute than the algebraic dimension. For the case of a real hypersurface (that is the set of real solutions of a single polynomial equation), there exists a probabilistic algorithm to compute its real dimension. 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253253	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel%20Cherenkov	Pavel Cherenkov	Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov ( ; July 28, 1904 – January 6, 1990) was a Soviet physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in physics in 1958 with Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm for the discovery of Cherenkov radiation, made in 1934. Biography Cherenkov was born in 1904 to Alexey Cherenkov and Mariya Cherenkova in the small village of Novaya Chigla. This town is in present-day Voronezh Oblast, Russia. In 1928, he graduated from the Department of Physics and Mathematics of Voronezh State University. In 1930, he took a post as a senior researcher in the Lebedev Physical Institute. That same year he married Maria Putintseva, daughter of A.M. Putintsev, a Professor of Russian Literature. They had a son, Alexey, and a daughter, Yelena. Cherenkov was promoted to section leader, and in 1940 was awarded the degree of Doctor of Physico-Mathematical Sciences. In 1953, he was confirmed as Professor of Experimental Physics. Starting in 1959, he headed the institute's photo-meson processes laboratory. He remained a professor for fourteen years. In 1970, he became an Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Cherenkov died in Moscow on January 6, 1990, and was buried in Novodevichy Cemetery. Discoveries in physics In 1934, while working under S. I. Vavilov, Cherenkov observed the emission of blue light from a bottle of water subjected to radioactive bombardment. This phenomenon, associated with charged subatomic particles moving at velocities greater than the phase velocity of light, proved to be of great importance in subsequent experimental work in nuclear physics, and for the study of cosmic rays. Eponymously, it was dubbed the Cherenkov effect, as was the Cherenkov detector, which has become a standard piece of equipment in particle-physics research for observing the existence and velocity of high-speed particles. The device was installed in Sputnik 3. Pavel Cherenkov also shared in the development and construction of electron accelerators and in the investigation of photo-nuclear and photo-meson reactions. Awards and honours Cherenkov was awarded two Stalin Prizes, the first in 1946, sharing the honor with Vavilov, Frank and Tamm, and another in 1952. He was also awarded the USSR State Prize in 1977. In 1958, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the Cherenkov effect. He was also awarded the Soviet Union's Hero of Socialist Labour title in 1984. Cherenkov was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In popular culture The novel Ghost Fleet makes the claim that many believe the Star Trek character Pavel Chekov is named after Pavel Cherenkov. In Starship Troopers spaceships travel faster than light using Cherenkov Drive. References External links Cherenkov's photo – from the Russian Academy of Sciences including his Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1958 Radiation of Particles Moving at a Velocity Exceeding That of Light, and Some of the Possibilities for Their Use in Experimental Physics 1904 births 1990 deaths Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery Experimental physicists Heroes of Socialist Labour Recipients of the USSR State Prize Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Nobel laureates in Physics Particle physicists Soviet inventors Soviet Nobel laureates Soviet physicists Stalin Prize winners Communist Party of the Soviet Union members Voronezh State University alumni Moscow Power Engineering Institute faculty Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences	[ 0.05352945625782013, 0.49189603328704834, -0.2560329735279083, -0.23579418659210205, -0.33999866247177124, 1.083693265914917, 0.4972929358482361, -0.4606415629386902, -0.3386398255825043, -0.009802615270018578, -0.5161661505699158, 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253258	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Albans%2C%20Vermont	St. Albans, Vermont	St. Albans, Vermont may refer to: St. Albans (town), Vermont, established 1763, a town in Franklin County, Vermont, U.S. St. Albans (city), Vermont, established 1902, a city in Franklin County, Vermont, U.S. See also St. Albans Bay, Vermont, an unincorporated village in the town of St. Albans, Vermont, U.S. St. Albans Raid, the northernmost land action of the American Civil War, 1864 St. Albans station (Vermont), the northern terminus of the Vermonter train service	[ -0.13958531618118286, 0.26901984214782715, 0.3063638508319855, -0.2720152735710144, -0.19227758049964905, 0.2771470248699188, 1.125057578086853, 0.5061509609222412, -0.8239715695381165, -0.5007614493370056, -0.03749576210975647, 0.061720654368400574, -0.27711430191993713, 0.4813026487827301, -0.054760172963142395, 0.5066036581993103, 0.5790119171142578, 0.4858599007129669, 0.5968872308731079, -0.4166182577610016, -0.11710048466920853, 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253260	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic%20curve	Algebraic curve	In mathematics, an affine algebraic plane curve is the zero set of a polynomial in two variables. A projective algebraic plane curve is the zero set in a projective plane of a homogeneous polynomial in three variables. An affine algebraic plane curve can be completed in a projective algebraic plane curve by homogenizing its defining polynomial. Conversely, a projective algebraic plane curve of homogeneous equation can be restricted to the affine algebraic plane curve of equation . These two operations are each inverse to the other; therefore, the phrase algebraic plane curve is often used without specifying explicitly whether it is the affine or the projective case that is considered. More generally, an algebraic curve is an algebraic variety of dimension one. Equivalently, an algebraic curve is an algebraic variety that is birationally equivalent to an algebraic plane curve. If the curve is contained in an affine space or a projective space, one can take a projection for such a birational equivalence. These birational equivalences reduce most of the study of algebraic curves to the study of algebraic plane curves. However, some properties are not kept under birational equivalence and must be studied on non-plane curves. This is, in particular, the case for the degree and smoothness. For example, there exist smooth curves of genus 0 and degree greater than two, but any plane projection of such curves has singular points (see Genus–degree formula). A non-plane curve is often called a space curve or a skew curve. In Euclidean geometry An algebraic curve in the Euclidean plane is the set of the points whose coordinates are the solutions of a bivariate polynomial equation p(x, y) = 0. This equation is often called the implicit equation of the curve, in contrast to the curves that are the graph of a function defining explicitly y as a function of x. With a curve given by such an implicit equation, the first problems are to determine the shape of the curve and to draw it. These problems are not as easy to solve as in the case of the graph of a function, for which y may easily be computed for various values of x. The fact that the defining equation is a polynomial implies that the curve has some structural properties that may help in solving these problems. Every algebraic curve may be uniquely decomposed into a finite number of smooth monotone arcs (also called branches) sometimes connected by some points sometimes called "remarkable points", and possibly a finite number of isolated points called acnodes. A smooth monotone arc is the graph of a smooth function which is defined and monotone on an open interval of the x-axis. In each direction, an arc is either unbounded (usually called an infinite arc) or has an endpoint which is either a singular point (this will be defined below) or a point with a tangent parallel to one of the coordinate axes. For example, for the Tschirnhausen cubic, there are two infinite arcs having the origin (0,0) as of endpoint. This point is the only singular point of the curve. There are also two arcs having this singular point as one endpoint and having a second endpoint with a horizontal tangent. Finally, there are two other arcs each having one of these points with horizontal tangent as the first endpoint and having the unique point with vertical tangent as the second endpoint. In contrast, the sinusoid is certainly not an algebraic curve, having an infinite number of monotone arcs. To draw an algebraic curve, it is important to know the remarkable points and their tangents, the infinite branches and their asymptotes (if any) and the way in which the arcs connect them. It is also useful to consider the inflection points as remarkable points. When all this information is drawn on a sheet of paper, the shape of the curve usually appears rather clearly. If not, it suffices to add a few other points and their tangents to get a good description of the curve. The methods for computing the remarkable points and their tangents are described below in the section Remarkable points of a plane curve. Plane projective curves It is often desirable to consider curves in the projective space. An algebraic curve in the projective plane or plane projective curve is the set of the points in a projective plane whose projective coordinates are zeros of a homogeneous polynomial in three variables P(x, y, z). Every affine algebraic curve of equation p(x, y) = 0 may be completed into the projective curve of equation where is the result of the homogenization of p. Conversely, if P(x, y, z) = 0 is the homogeneous equation of a projective curve, then P(x, y, 1) = 0 is the equation of an affine curve, which consists of the points of the projective curve whose third projective coordinate is not zero. These two operations are reciprocal one to the other, as and, if p is defined by , then as soon as the homogeneous polynomial P is not divisible by z. For example, the projective curve of equation x2 + y2 − z2 is the projective completion of the unit circle of equation x2 + y2 − 1 = 0. This implies that an affine curve and its projective completion are the same curves, or, more precisely that the affine curve is a part of the projective curve that is large enough to well define the "complete" curve. This point of view is commonly expressed by calling "points at infinity" of the affine curve the points (in finite number) of the projective completion that do not belong to the affine part. Projective curves are frequently studied for themselves. They are also useful for the study of affine curves. For example, if p(x, y) is the polynomial defining an affine curve, beside the partial derivatives and , it is useful to consider the derivative at infinity For example, the equation of the tangent of the affine curve of equation p(x, y) = 0 at a point (a, b) is Remarkable points of a plane curve In this section, we consider a plane algebraic curve defined by a bivariate polynomial p(x, y) and its projective completion, defined by the homogenization of p. Intersection with a line Knowing the points of intersection of a curve with a given line is frequently useful. The intersection with the axes of coordinates and the asymptotes are useful to draw the curve. Intersecting with a line parallel to the axes allows one to find at least a point in each branch of the curve. If an efficient root-finding algorithm is available, this allows to draw the curve by plotting the intersection point with all the lines parallel to the y-axis and passing through each pixel on the x-axis. If the polynomial defining the curve has a degree d, any line cuts the curve in at most d points. Bézout's theorem asserts that this number is exactly d, if the points are searched in the projective plane over an algebraically closed field (for example the complex numbers), and counted with their multiplicity. The method of computation that follows proves again this theorem, in this simple case. To compute the intersection of the curve defined by the polynomial p with the line of equation ax+by+c = 0, one solves the equation of the line for x (or for y if a = 0). Substituting the result in p, one gets a univariate equation q(y) = 0 (or q(x) = 0, if the equation of the line has been solved in y), each of whose roots is one coordinate of an intersection point. The other coordinate is deduced from the equation of the line. The multiplicity of an intersection point is the multiplicity of the corresponding root. There is an intersection point at infinity if the degree of q is lower than the degree of p; the multiplicity of such an intersection point at infinity is the difference of the degrees of p and q. Tangent at a point The tangent at a point (a, b) of the curve is the line of equation , like for every differentiable curve defined by an implicit equation. In the case of polynomials, another formula for the tangent has a simpler constant term and is more symmetric: where is the derivative at infinity. The equivalence of the two equations results from Euler's homogeneous function theorem applied to P. If the tangent is not defined and the point is a singular point. This extends immediately to the projective case: The equation of the tangent of at the point of projective coordinates (a:b:c) of the projective curve of equation P(x, y, z) = 0 is and the points of the curves that are singular are the points such that (The condition P(a, b, c) = 0 is implied by these conditions, by Euler's homogeneous function theorem.) Asymptotes Every infinite branch of an algebraic curve corresponds to a point at infinity on the curve, that is a point of the projective completion of the curve that does not belong to its affine part. The corresponding asymptote is the tangent of the curve at that point. The general formula for a tangent to a projective curve may apply, but it is worth to make it explicit in this case. Let be the decomposition of the polynomial defining the curve into its homogeneous parts, where pi is the sum of the monomials of p of degree i. It follows that and A point at infinity of the curve is a zero of p of the form (a, b, 0). Equivalently, (a, b) is a zero of pd. The fundamental theorem of algebra implies that, over an algebraically closed field (typically, the field of complex numbers), pd factors into a product of linear factors. Each factor defines a point at infinity on the curve: if bx − ay is such a factor, then it defines the point at infinity (a, b, 0). Over the reals, pd factors into linear and quadratic factors. The irreducible quadratic factors define non-real points at infinity, and the real points are given by the linear factors. If (a, b, 0) is a point at infinity of the curve, one says that (a, b) is an asymptotic direction. Setting q = pd the equation of the corresponding asymptote is If and the asymptote is the line at infinity, and, in the real case, the curve has a branch that looks like a parabola. In this case one says that the curve has a parabolic branch. If the curve has a singular point at infinity and may have several asymptotes. They may be computed by the method of computing the tangent cone of a singular point. Singular points The singular points of a curve of degree d defined by a polynomial p(x,y) of degree d are the solutions of the system of equations: In characteristic zero, this system is equivalent to where, with the notation of the preceding section, The systems are equivalent because of Euler's homogeneous function theorem. The latter system has the advantage of having its third polynomial of degree d-1 instead of d. Similarly, for a projective curve defined by a homogeneous polynomial P(x,y,z) of degree d, the singular points have the solutions of the system as homogeneous coordinates. (In positive characteristic, the equation has to be added to the system.) This implies that the number of singular points is finite as long as p(x,y) or P(x,y,z) is square free. Bézout's theorem implies thus that the number of singular points is at most (d−1)2, but this bound is not sharp because the system of equations is overdetermined. If reducible polynomials are allowed, the sharp bound is d(d−1)/2, this value is reached when the polynomial factors in linear factors, that is if the curve is the union of d lines. For irreducible curves and polynomials, the number of singular points is at most (d−1)(d−2)/2, because of the formula expressing the genus in term of the singularities (see below). The maximum is reached by the curves of genus zero whose all singularities have multiplicity two and distinct tangents (see below). The equation of the tangents at a singular point is given by the nonzero homogeneous part of the lowest degree in the Taylor series of the polynomial at the singular point. When one changes the coordinates to put the singular point at the origin, the equation of the tangents at the singular point is thus the nonzero homogeneous part of the lowest degree of the polynomial, and the multiplicity of the singular point is the degree of this homogeneous part. Analytic structure The study of the analytic structure of an algebraic curve in the neighborhood of a singular point provides accurate information of the topology of singularities. In fact, near a singular point, a real algebraic curve is the union of a finite number of branches that intersect only at the singular point and look either as a cusp or as a smooth curve. Near a regular point, one of the coordinates of the curve may be expressed as an analytic function of the other coordinate. This is a corollary of the analytic implicit function theorem, and implies that the curve is smooth near the point. Near a singular point, the situation is more complicated and involves Puiseux series, which provide analytic parametric equations of the branches. For describing a singularity, it is worth to translate the curve for having the singularity at the origin. This consists of a change of variable of the form where are the coordinates of the singular point. In the following, the singular point under consideration is always supposed to be at the origin. The equation of an algebraic curve is where is a polynomial in and . This polynomial may be considered as a polynomial in , with coefficients in the algebraically closed field of the Puiseux series in . Thus may be factored in factors of the form where is a Puiseux series. These factors are all different if is an irreducible polynomial, because this implies that is square-free, a property which is independent of the field of coefficients. The Puiseux series that occur here have the form where is a positive integer, and is an integer that may also be supposed to be positive, because we consider only the branches of the curve that pass through the origin. Without loss of generality, we may suppose that is coprime with the greatest common divisor of the such that (otherwise, one could choose a smaller common denominator for the exponents). Let be a primitive th root of unity. If the above Puiseux series occurs in the factorization of , then the series occur also in the factorization (a consequence of Galois theory). These series are said conjugate, and are considered as a single branch of the curve, of ramification index . In the case of a real curve, that is a curve defined by a polynomial with real coefficients, three cases may occur. If none has real coefficients, then one has a non-real branch. If some has real coefficients, then one may choose it as . If is odd, then every real value of provides a real value of , and one has a real branch that looks regular, although it is singular if . If is even, then and have real values, but only for . In this case, the real branch looks as a cusp (or is a cusp, depending on the definition of a cusp that is used). For example, the ordinary cusp has only one branch. If it is defined by the equation then the factorization is the ramification index is 2, and the two factors are real and define each a half branch. If the cusp is rotated, it equation becomes and the factorization is with (the coefficient has not been simplified to for showing how the above definition of is specialized). Here the ramification index is 3, and only one factor is real; this shows that, in the first case, the two factors must be considered as defining the same branch. Non-plane algebraic curves An algebraic curve is an algebraic variety of dimension one. This implies that an affine curve in an affine space of dimension n is defined by, at least, n−1 polynomials in n variables. To define a curve, these polynomials must generate a prime ideal of Krull dimension 1. This condition is not easy to test in practice. Therefore, the following way to represent non-plane curves may be preferred. Let be n polynomials in two variables x1 and x2 such that f is irreducible. The points in the affine space of dimension n such whose coordinates satisfy the equations and inequations are all the points of an algebraic curve in which a finite number of points have been removed. This curve is defined by a system of generators of the ideal of the polynomials h such that it exists an integer k such belongs to the ideal generated by . This representation is a birational equivalence between the curve and the plane curve defined by f. Every algebraic curve may be represented in this way. However, a linear change of variables may be needed in order to make almost always injective the projection on the two first variables. When a change of variables is needed, almost every change is convenient, as soon as it is defined over an infinite field. This representation allows us to deduce easily any property of a non-plane algebraic curve, including its graphical representation, from the corresponding property of its plane projection. For a curve defined by its implicit equations, above representation of the curve may easily deduced from a Gröbner basis for a block ordering such that the block of the smaller variables is (x1, x2). The polynomial f is the unique polynomial in the base that depends only of x1 and x2. The fractions gi/g0 are obtained by choosing, for i = 3, ..., n, a polynomial in the basis that is linear in xi and depends only on x1, x2 and xi. If these choices are not possible, this means either that the equations define an algebraic set that is not a variety, or that the variety is not of dimension one, or that one must change of coordinates. The latter case occurs when f exists and is unique, and, for i = 3, …, n, there exist polynomials whose leading monomial depends only on x1, x2 and xi. Algebraic function fields The study of algebraic curves can be reduced to the study of irreducible algebraic curves: those curves that cannot be written as the union of two smaller curves. Up to birational equivalence, the irreducible curves over a field F are categorically equivalent to algebraic function fields in one variable over F. Such an algebraic function field is a field extension K of F that contains an element x which is transcendental over F, and such that K is a finite algebraic extension of F(x), which is the field of rational functions in the indeterminate x over F. For example, consider the field C of complex numbers, over which we may define the field C(x) of rational functions in C. If , then the field C(x, y) is an elliptic function field. The element x is not uniquely determined; the field can also be regarded, for instance, as an extension of C(y). The algebraic curve corresponding to the function field is simply the set of points (x, y) in C2 satisfying . If the field F is not algebraically closed, the point of view of function fields is a little more general than that of considering the locus of points, since we include, for instance, "curves" with no points on them. For example, if the base field F is the field R of real numbers, then defines an algebraic extension field of R(x), but the corresponding curve considered as a subset of R2 has no points. The equation does define an irreducible algebraic curve over R in the scheme sense (an integral, separated one-dimensional schemes of finite type over R). In this sense, the one-to-one correspondence between irreducible algebraic curves over F (up to birational equivalence) and algebraic function fields in one variable over F holds in general. Two curves can be birationally equivalent (i.e. have isomorphic function fields) without being isomorphic as curves. The situation becomes easier when dealing with nonsingular curves, i.e. those that lack any singularities. Two nonsingular projective curves over a field are isomorphic if and only if their function fields are isomorphic. Tsen's theorem is about the function field of an algebraic curve over an algebraically closed field. Complex curves and real surfaces A complex projective algebraic curve resides in n-dimensional complex projective space CPn. This has complex dimension n, but topological dimension, as a real manifold, 2n, and is compact, connected, and orientable. An algebraic curve over C likewise has topological dimension two; in other words, it is a surface. The topological genus of this surface, that is the number of handles or donut holes, is equal to the geometric genus of the algebraic curve that may be computed by algebraic means. In short, if one consider a plane projection of a nonsingular curve that has degree d and only ordinary singularities (singularities of multiplicity two with distinct tangents), then the genus is , where k is the number of these singularities. Compact Riemann surfaces A Riemann surface is a connected complex analytic manifold of one complex dimension, which makes it a connected real manifold of two dimensions. It is compact if it is compact as a topological space. There is a triple equivalence of categories between the category of smooth irreducible projective algebraic curves over C (with non-constant regular maps as morphisms), the category of compact Riemann surfaces (with non-constant holomorphic maps as morphisms), and the opposite of the category of algebraic function fields in one variable over C (with field homomorphisms that fix C as morphisms). This means that in studying these three subjects we are in a sense studying one and the same thing. It allows complex analytic methods to be used in algebraic geometry, and algebraic-geometric methods in complex analysis and field-theoretic methods to be used in both. This is characteristic of a much wider class of problems in algebraic geometry. See also algebraic geometry and analytic geometry for a more general theory. Singularities Using the intrinsic concept of tangent space, points P on an algebraic curve C are classified as smooth (synonymous: non-singular), or else singular. Given n−1 homogeneous polynomials in n+1 variables, we may find the Jacobian matrix as the (n−1)×(n+1) matrix of the partial derivatives. If the rank of this matrix is n−1, then the polynomials define an algebraic curve (otherwise they define an algebraic variety of higher dimension). If the rank remains n−1 when the Jacobian matrix is evaluated at a point P on the curve, then the point is a smooth or regular point; otherwise it is a singular point. In particular, if the curve is a plane projective algebraic curve, defined by a single homogeneous polynomial equation f(x,y,z) = 0, then the singular points are precisely the points P where the rank of the 1×(n+1) matrix is zero, that is, where Since f is a polynomial, this definition is purely algebraic and makes no assumption about the nature of the field F, which in particular need not be the real or complex numbers. It should, of course, be recalled that (0,0,0) is not a point of the curve and hence not a singular point. Similarly, for an affine algebraic curve defined by a single polynomial equation f(x,y) = 0, then the singular points are precisely the points P of the curve where the rank of the 1×n Jacobian matrix is zero, that is, where The singularities of a curve are not birational invariants. However, locating and classifying the singularities of a curve is one way of computing the genus, which is a birational invariant. For this to work, we should consider the curve projectively and require F to be algebraically closed, so that all the singularities which belong to the curve are considered. Classification of singularities Singular points include multiple points where the curve crosses over itself, and also various types of cusp, for example that shown by the curve with equation x3 = y2 at (0,0). A curve C has at most a finite number of singular points. If it has none, it can be called smooth or non-singular. Commonly, this definition is understood over an algebraically closed field and for a curve C in a projective space (i.e., complete in the sense of algebraic geometry). For example, the plane curve of equation is considered as singular, as having a singular point (a cusp) at infinity. In the remainder of this section, one considers a plane curve defined as the zero set of a bivariate polynomial . Some of the results, but not all, may be generalized to non-plane curves. The singular points are classified by means of several invariants. The multiplicity is defined as the maximum integer such that the derivatives of to all orders up to vanish (also the minimal intersection number between the curve and a straight line at ). Intuitively, a singular point has delta invariant if it concentrates ordinary double points at . To make this precise, the blow up process produces so-called infinitely near points, and summing over the infinitely near points, where m is their multiplicity, produces . For an irreducible and reduced curve and a point we can define algebraically as the length of where is the local ring at P and is its integral closure. The Milnor number of a singularity is the degree of the mapping on the small sphere of radius ε, in the sense of the topological degree of a continuous mapping, where is the (complex) gradient vector field of f. It is related to δ and r by the Milnor–Jung formula, Here, the branching number r of P is the number of locally irreducible branches at P. For example, r = 1 at an ordinary cusp, and r = 2 at an ordinary double point. The multiplicity m is at least r, and that P is singular if and only if m is at least 2. Moreover, δ is at least m(m-1)/2. Computing the delta invariants of all of the singularities allows the genus g of the curve to be determined; if d is the degree, then where the sum is taken over all singular points P of the complex projective plane curve. It is called the genus formula. Assign the invariants [m, δ, r] to a singularity, where m is the multiplicity, δ is the delta-invariant, and r is the branching number. Then an ordinary cusp is a point with invariants [2,1,1] and an ordinary double point is a point with invariants [2,1,2], and an ordinary m-multiple point is a point with invariants [m, m(m−1)/2, m]. Examples of curves Rational curves A rational curve, also called a unicursal curve, is any curve which is birationally equivalent to a line, which we may take to be a projective line; accordingly, we may identify the function field of the curve with the field of rational functions in one indeterminate F(x). If F is algebraically closed, this is equivalent to a curve of genus zero; however, the field of all real algebraic functions defined on the real algebraic variety x2+y2 = −1 is a field of genus zero which is not a rational function field. Concretely, a rational curve embedded in an affine space of dimension n over F can be parameterized (except for isolated exceptional points) by means of n rational functions of a single parameter t; by reducing these rational functions to the same denominator, the n+1 resulting polynomials define a polynomial parametrization of the projective completion of the curve in the projective space. An example is the rational normal curve, where all these polynomials are monomials. Any conic section defined over F with a rational point in F is a rational curve. It can be parameterized by drawing a line with slope t through the rational point, and an intersection with the plane quadratic curve; this gives a polynomial with F-rational coefficients and one F-rational root, hence the other root is F-rational (i.e., belongs to F) also. For example, consider the ellipse x2 + xy + y2 = 1, where (−1, 0) is a rational point. Drawing a line with slope t from (−1,0), y = t(x+1), substituting it in the equation of the ellipse, factoring, and solving for x, we obtain Then the equation for y is which defines a rational parameterization of the ellipse and hence shows the ellipse is a rational curve. All points of the ellipse are given, except for (−1,1), which corresponds to t = ∞; the entire curve is parameterized therefore by the real projective line. Such a rational parameterization may be considered in the projective space by equating the first projective coordinates to the numerators of the parameterization and the last one to the common denominator. As the parameter is defined in a projective line, the polynomials in the parameter should be homogenized. For example, the projective parameterization of the above ellipse is Eliminating T and U between these equations we get again the projective equation of the ellipse which may be easily obtained directly by homogenizing the above equation. Many of the curves on Wikipedia's list of curves are rational and hence have similar rational parameterizations. Rational plane curves Rational plane curves are rational curves embedded into . Given generic sections of degree homogeneous polynomials in two coordinates, , there is a map given by defining a rational plane curve of degree . There is an associated moduli space (where is the hyperplane class) parametrizing all such stable curves. A dimension count can be made to determine the moduli spaces dimension: There are parameters in giving parameters total for each of the sections. Then, since they are considered up to a projective quotient in there is less parameter in . Furthermore, there is a three dimensional group of automorphisms of , hence has dimension . This moduli space can be used to count the number of degree rational plane curves intersecting points using Gromov–Witten theory. It is given by the recursive relationwhere . Elliptic curves An elliptic curve may be defined as any curve of genus one with a rational point: a common model is a nonsingular cubic curve, which suffices to model any genus one curve. In this model the distinguished point is commonly taken to be an inflection point at infinity; this amounts to requiring that the curve can be written in Tate-Weierstrass form, which in its projective version is If the characteristic of the field is different from 2 and 3, then a linear change of coordinates allows putting which gives the classical Weierstrass form Elliptic curves carry the structure of an abelian group with the distinguished point as the identity of the group law. In a plane cubic model three points sum to zero in the group if and only if they are collinear. For an elliptic curve defined over the complex numbers the group is isomorphic to the additive group of the complex plane modulo the period lattice of the corresponding elliptic functions. The intersection of two quadric surfaces is, in general, a nonsingular curve of genus one and degree four, and thus an elliptic curve, if it has a rational point. In special cases, the intersection either may be a rational singular quartic or is decomposed in curves of smaller degrees which are not always distinct (either a cubic curve and a line, or two conics, or a conic and two lines, or four lines). Curves of genus greater than one Curves of genus greater than one differ markedly from both rational and elliptic curves. Such curves defined over the rational numbers, by Faltings's theorem, can have only a finite number of rational points, and they may be viewed as having a hyperbolic geometry structure. Examples are the hyperelliptic curves, the Klein quartic curve, and the Fermat curve xn + yn = zn when n is greater than three. Also projective plane curves in and curves in provide many useful examples. Projective plane curves Plane curves of degree , which can be constructed as the vanishing locus of a generic section , has genuswhich can be computed using Coherent sheaf cohomology. Here's a brief summary of the curves genera relative to their degreeFor example, the curve defines a curve of genus which is smooth since the differentials have no common zeros with the curve.. A non-example of a generic section is the curve which, by Bezouts theorem, should intersect at most points, is the union of two rational curves intersecting at two points. Note is given by the vanishing locus of and is given by the vanishing locus of . These can be found explicitly: a point lies in both if . So the two solutions are the points such that , which are and . Curves in product of projective lines Curve given by the vanishing locus of , for , give curves of genuswhich can be checked using Coherent sheaf cohomology. If , then they define curves of genus , hence a curve of any genus can be constructed as a curve in . Their genera can be summarized in the tableand for , this is See also Classical algebraic geometry Acnode Bézout's theorem Cramer's theorem (algebraic curves) Crunode Curve Curve sketching Jacobian variety Klein quartic List of curves Hilbert's sixteenth problem Cubic plane curve Hyperelliptic curve Modern algebraic geometry Birational geometry Conic section Elliptic curve Fractional ideal Function field of an algebraic variety Function field (scheme theory) Genus (mathematics) Polynomial lemniscate Quartic plane curve Rational normal curve Riemann–Roch theorem for algebraic curves Weber's theorem Geometry of Riemann surfaces Riemann–Hurwitz formula Riemann–Roch theorem for Riemann surfaces Riemann surface Notes References — gained the 1886 Academy prize	[ -0.48022565245628357, -0.47383081912994385, -0.0981040894985199, 0.17285965383052826, -0.31331750750541687, 0.1390506625175476, -0.3148552477359772, 0.2215193212032318, 0.005121476482599974, -0.558763861656189, -0.14924755692481995, 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253264	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery%20in%20the%20United%20States	Slavery in the United States	The legal institution of human chattel slavery, comprising the enslavement primarily of Africans and African Americans, existed in the United States of America from its founding in 1776 until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865. Slavery was established throughout European colonization in the Americas. From 1526, during early colonial days, it was practiced in Britain's colonies, including the Thirteen Colonies that formed the United States. Under the law, an enslaved person was treated as property and could be bought, sold, or given away. Slavery lasted in about half of U.S. states until its abolition in 1865. In the decades after the end of Reconstruction, many of slavery's economic and social functions were continued through segregation, sharecropping, and convict leasing. By the time of the American Revolution (1775–1783), the status of enslaved people had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry. During and immediately following the Revolution, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states and a movement developed to abolish slavery. The role of slavery under the United States Constitution (1789) was the most contentious issue during its drafting. Although the creators of the Constitution never used the word "slavery", the final document, through the three-fifths clause, gave slave owners disproportionate political power by augmenting the congressional representation of slaveholding states. All Northern states had abolished slavery in some way by 1805; sometimes, abolition was a gradual process, and hundreds of people were still enslaved in the Northern states as late as the 1840 Census. Some slaveowners, primarily in the Upper South, freed their slaves, and philanthropists and charitable groups bought and freed others. The Atlantic slave trade was outlawed by individual states beginning during the American Revolution. The import trade was banned by Congress in 1808, although smuggling was common thereafter. It has been estimated that about 30% of congressmen who were born before 1840 were, at some time in their lives, owners of slaves. Some have argued that this affected the progress of legislation against slavery. The rapid expansion of the cotton industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor, and the Southern states continued as slave societies. The United States became ever more polarized over the issue of slavery, split into slave and free states. Driven by labor demands from new cotton plantations in the Deep South, the Upper South sold more than a million slaves who were taken to the Deep South. The total slave population in the South eventually reached four million. As the United States expanded, the Southern states attempted to extend slavery into the new western territories to allow proslavery forces to maintain their power in the country. The new territories acquired by the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican Cession were the subject of major political crises and compromises. By 1850, the newly rich, cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. Slavery was defended in the South as a "positive good", and the largest religious denominations split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, seven slave states broke away to form the Confederacy. Shortly afterward, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the U.S. Army's Fort Sumter in South Carolina. Four additional slave states then joined the confederacy after Lincoln requested arms from them to make a retaliatory strike. Due to Union measures such as the Confiscation Acts and the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, the war effectively ended chattel slavery in most places. Following the Union victory in May 1865, and upon ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in December 1865, chattel slavery was abolished in any place subject to the jurisdiction of the United States. Origins First enslavements In 1508, Ponce de León established the Spanish settlement in Puerto Rico, which used the native Taínos for labor. The Taínos were largely exterminated by war, overwork and diseases brought by the Spanish. In 1513, to supplement the dwindling Taíno population, the first enslaved African people were imported to Puerto Rico. The abolition of Indian slavery in 1542 with the New Laws increased the demand for African slaves. A century and a half later, the British conducted enslaving raids in what is now Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida and possibly Alabama. The Charles Town slave trade, which included both trading and direct raids by colonists, was the largest among the British colonies in North America. Between 1670 and 1715, between 24,000 and 51,000 captive Native Americans were exported from South Carolina—more than the number of Africans imported to the colonies of the future United States during the same period. Additional enslaved Native Americans were exported from South Carolina to Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, Rhode Island and Massachusetts. The historian Alan Gallay says, "the trade in Indian slaves was at the center of the English empire's development in the American South. The trade in Indian slaves was the most important factor affecting the South in the period 1670 to 1715"; intertribal wars to capture slaves destabilized English colonies, Spanish Florida, and French Louisiana. First continental African enslaved people The first Africans enslaved within continental North America arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony (most likely located in the Winyah Bay area of present-day South Carolina), founded by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in 1526. The ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the enslaved people revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterward of an epidemic and the colony was abandoned. The settlers and the enslaved people who had not escaped returned to Santo Domingo. On August 28, 1565, St. Augustine, Florida was founded by the Spanish conquistador Don Pedro Menendez de Aviles, and he brought three enslaved Africans with him. During the 16th and 17th centuries, St. Augustine was the hub of the trade in enslaved people in Spanish colonial Florida and the first permanent settlement in what would become the continental United States to include enslaved Africans. The first birth of an enslaved African in what is now the United States was Agustín, who was born in St. Augustine in 1606. Indentured servants Decades later, in the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the harsh frontier conditions, and there was a high mortality rate. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured laborers, signing contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and their training, usually on a farm. The colonies had agricultural economies. These indentured laborers were often young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured laborers, rather than being imprisoned. The indentured laborers were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. The first Africans to reach the colonies that England was struggling to establish were a group of some 20 enslaved people who arrived at Point Comfort, Virginia, near Jamestown, in August 1619, brought by British privateers who had seized them from a captured Portuguese slave ship. Colonists do not appear to have made indenture contracts for most Africans. Although it is possible that some of them were freed after a certain period, most of them remained enslaved for life. The historian Ira Berlin noted that what he called the "charter generation" in the colonies was sometimes made up of mixed-race men (Atlantic Creoles) who were indentured servants and whose ancestry was African and Iberian. They were descendants of African women and Portuguese or Spanish men who worked in African ports as traders or facilitators in the trade of enslaved people. The transformation of the status of Africans, from indentured servitude to slaves in a racial caste that they could not leave or escape, happened over the next generation. First slave laws There were no laws regarding slavery early in Virginia's history, but in 1640, a Virginia court sentenced John Punch, an African, to life in servitude after he attempted to flee his service. The two whites with whom he fled were sentenced only to an additional year of their indenture, and three years' service to the colony. This marked the first de facto legal sanctioning of slavery in the English colonies, and was one of the first legal distinctions made between Europeans and Africans. In 1641, Massachusetts became the first colony to authorize slavery through enacted law. Massachusetts passed the Body of Liberties, which prohibited slavery in many instances but allowed people to be enslaved if they were captives of war, if they sold themselves into slavery or were purchased elsewhere, or if they were sentenced to slavery as punishment by the governing authority. The Body of Liberties used the word "strangers" to refer to people bought and sold as slaves; they were generally not English subjects. Colonists came to equate this term with Native Americans and Africans. In 1654, John Casor, a black indentured servant in colonial Virginia, was the first man to be declared a slave in a civil case. He had claimed to an officer that his master, Anthony Johnson, had held him past his indenture term. Johnson himself was a free black, who had arrived in Virginia in 1621 from Angola. A neighbor, Robert Parker, told Johnson that if he did not release Casor, he would testify in court to this fact. Under local laws, Johnson was at risk for losing some of his headright lands for violating the terms of indenture. Under duress, Johnson freed Casor. Casor entered into a seven years' indenture with Parker. Feeling cheated, Johnson sued Parker to repossess Casor. A Northampton County, Virginia court ruled for Johnson, declaring that Parker illegally was detaining Casor from his rightful master who legally held him "for the duration of his life". First inherited status laws During the colonial period, the status of enslaved people was affected by interpretations related to the status of foreigners in England. England had no system of naturalizing immigrants to its island or its colonies. Since persons of African origins were not English subjects by birth, they were among those peoples considered foreigners and generally outside English common law. The colonies struggled with how to classify people born to foreigners and subjects. In 1656 Virginia, Elizabeth Key Grinstead, a mixed-race woman, successfully gained her freedom and that of her son in a challenge to her status by making her case as the baptized Christian daughter of the free Englishman Thomas Key. Her attorney was an English subject, which may have helped her case. (He was also the father of her mixed-race son, and the couple married after Key was freed.) In 1662, shortly after the Elizabeth Key trial and similar challenges, the Virginia royal colony approved a law adopting the principle of partus sequitur ventrem (called partus, for short), stating that any children born in the colony would take the status of the mother. A child of an enslaved mother would be born into slavery, regardless if the father were a freeborn Englishman or Christian. This was a reversal of common law practice in England, which ruled that children of English subjects took the status of the father. The change institutionalized the skewed power relationships between those who enslaved people and enslaved women, freed white men from the legal responsibility to acknowledge or financially support their mixed-race children, and somewhat confined the open scandal of mixed-race children and miscegenation to within the slave quarters. Increasing slave trade In 1672, King Charles II rechartered the Royal African Company (it had initially been set up in 1660) as an English monopoly for the African slave and commodities trade. In 1698, by statute, the English parliament opened the trade to all English subjects. The trade of enslaved people to the mid-Atlantic colonies increased substantially in the 1680s, and, by 1710, the African population in Virginia had increased to 23,100 (42% of total); Maryland contained 8,000 Africans (14.5% of total). In the early 18th century, England passed Spain and Portugal to become the world's leading trader of enslaved people. From the early 18th century British colonial merchants, especially in Charleston, South Carolina, challenged the monopoly of the Royal African Company, and Joseph Wragg and Benjamin Savage became the first independent traders of enslaved people to break through the monopoly by the 1730s. First religious status laws The Virginia slave codes of 1705 further defined as slaves those people imported from nations that were not Christian. Native Americans who were sold to colonists by other Native Americans (from rival tribes), or captured by Europeans during village raids, were also defined as slaves. This codified the earlier principle of non-Christian foreigner enslavement. First anti-slavery causes In 1735, the Georgia Trustees enacted a law prohibiting slavery in the new colony, which had been established in 1733 to enable the "worthy poor" as well as persecuted European Protestants to have a new start. Slavery was then legal in the other 12 English colonies. Neighboring South Carolina had an economy based on the use of enslaved labor. The Georgia Trustees wanted to eliminate the risk of slave rebellions and make Georgia better able to defend against attacks from the Spanish to the south, who offered freedom to escaped enslaved people. James Edward Oglethorpe was the driving force behind the colony, and the only trustee to reside in Georgia. He opposed slavery on moral grounds as well as for pragmatic reasons, and vigorously defended the ban on slavery against fierce opposition from Carolina merchants of enslaved people and land speculators. The Protestant Scottish highlanders who settled what is now Darien, Georgia, added a moral anti-slavery argument, which became increasingly rare in the South, in their 1739 "Petition of the Inhabitants of New Inverness". By 1750 Georgia authorized slavery in the colony because it had been unable to secure enough indentured servants as laborers. As economic conditions in England began to improve in the first half of the 18th century, workers had no reason to leave, especially to face the risks in the colonies. Slavery in British colonies During most of the British colonial period, slavery existed in all the colonies. People enslaved in the North typically worked as house servants, artisans, laborers and craftsmen, with the greater number in cities. Many men worked on the docks and in shipping. In 1703, more than 42% of New York City households enslaved people, the second-highest proportion of any city in the colonies, behind only Charleston, South Carolina. But enslaved people were also used as agricultural workers in farm communities, including in areas of upstate New York and Long Island, Connecticut and New Jersey. By 1770, there were 397,924 blacks in a population of 2.17 million. They were unevenly distributed: There were 14,867 in New England, where they were 2.7% of the population; 34,679 in the mid-Atlantic colonies, where they were 6% of the population (19,000 were in New York or 11%); and 347,378 in the five Southern Colonies, where they were 31% of the population The South developed an agricultural economy dependent on commodity crops. Its planters rapidly acquired a significantly higher number and proportion of enslaved people in the population overall, as its commodity crops were labor-intensive. Early on, enslaved people in the South worked primarily on farms and plantations growing indigo, rice and tobacco; cotton did not become a major crop until after the 1790s. Before then long-staple cotton was cultivated primarily on the Sea Islands of Georgia and South Carolina. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 enabled the cultivation of short-staple cotton in a wide variety of mainland areas, leading to the development of large areas of the Deep South as cotton country in the 19th century. Rice and tobacco cultivation were very labor-intensive. In 1720, about 65% of South Carolina's population was enslaved. Planters (defined by historians in the Upper South as those who held 20 or more slaves) used enslaved workers to cultivate commodity crops. They also worked in the artisanal trades on large plantations and in many Southern port cities. The later wave of settlers in the 18th century who settled along the Appalachian Mountains and backcountry were backwoods subsistence farmers, and they seldom held enslaved people. Some of the British colonies attempted to abolish the international slave trade, fearing that the importation of new Africans would be disruptive. Virginia bills to that effect were vetoed by the British Privy Council. Rhode Island forbade the import of enslaved people in 1774. All of the colonies except Georgia had banned or limited the African slave trade by 1786; Georgia did so in 1798. Some of these laws were later repealed. About 600,000 slaves were transported to the United States, or 5% of the twelve million slaves taken from Africa. About 310,000 of these persons were imported into the Thirteen Colonies before 1776: 40% directly and the rest from the Caribbean. Slaves transported to the United States: 1620–1700......21,000 1701–1760....189,000 1761–1770......63,000 1771–1790......56,000 1791–1800......79,000 1801–1810....124,000 1810–1865......51,000 Total .............597,000 They constituted less than 5% of the 12 million enslaved people brought from Africa to the Americas. The great majority of enslaved Africans were transported to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil. As life expectancy was short, their numbers had to be continually replenished. Life expectancy was much higher in the United States, and the enslaved population was successful in reproduction. The number of enslaved people in the United States grew rapidly, reaching by the 1860 Census. From 1770 to 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American enslaved people was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and it was nearly twice as rapid as that of England. The number of enslaved and free blacks rose from 759,000 (60,000 free) in the 1790 U.S. Census to 4,450,000 (480,000, or 11%, free) in the 1860 U.S. Census, a 580% increase. The white population grew from 3.2 million to 27 million, an increase of 1,180% due to high birth rates and 4.5 million immigrants, overwhelmingly from Europe, and 70% of whom arrived in the years 1840–1860. The percentage of the black population dropped from 19.3% to 14.1%, as follows: 1790: 757,208 .. 19.3% of population, of whom 697,681 (92%) were enslaved. 1860: 4,441,830 .. 14.1% of population, of whom 3,953,731 (89%) were enslaved. Slavery in French Louisiana Louisiana was founded as a French colony. Colonial officials in 1724 implemented Louis XIV of France's Code Noir, which regulated the slave trade and the institution of slavery in New France and French Caribbean colonies. This resulted in a different pattern of slavery in Louisiana, purchased in 1803, compared to the rest of the United States. As written, the Code Noir gave some rights to slaves, including the right to marry. Although it authorized and codified cruel corporal punishment against slaves under certain conditions, it forbade slave owners from torturing them or separating married couples (or separating young children from their mothers). It also required the owners to instruct slaves in the Catholic faith. Together with a more permeable historic French system that allowed certain rights to gens de couleur libres (free people of color), who were often born to white fathers and their mixed-race concubines, a far higher percentage of African Americans in Louisiana were free as of the 1830 census (13.2% in Louisiana compared to 0.8% in Mississippi, whose population was dominated by white Anglo-Americans). Most of Louisiana's "third class" of free people of color, situated between the native-born French and mass of African slaves, lived in New Orleans. The Louisiana free people of color were often literate and educated, with a significant number owning businesses, properties, and even slaves. Although Code Noir forbade interracial marriages, interracial unions were widespread. Whether there was a formalized system of concubinage known as plaçage, is subject to debate. The mixed-race offspring (Creoles of color) from these unions were among those in the intermediate social caste of free people of color. The English colonies, in contrast, operated within a binary system that treated mulatto and black slaves equally under the law, and discriminated against equally if free. But many free people of African descent were mixed race. When the U.S. took over Louisiana, Americans from the Protestant South entered the territory and began to impose their norms. They officially discouraged interracial relationships (although white men continued to have unions with black women, both enslaved and free.) The Americanization of Louisiana gradually resulted in a binary system of race, causing free people of color to lose status as they were grouped with the slaves. They lost certain rights as they became classified by American whites as officially "black". Revolutionary era As historian Christopher L. Brown put it, slavery "had never been on the agenda in a serious way before," but the American Revolution "forced it to be a public question from there forward." Freedom offered as incentive by British While a small number of African slaves were kept and sold in England and Scotland, slavery in England had not been authorized by statute there, though it had in Scotland. In 1772, in the case of Somerset v Stewart, it was found that slavery was no part of the common law in England and Wales. The British role in the international slave trade continued until it abolished its slave trade in 1807. Slavery flourished in most of Britain's North American and Caribbean colonies, with many wealthy slave owners living in England and wielding considerable power. In early 1775 Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia and a slave-owner, wrote to Lord Dartmouth of his intent to free slaves owned by patriots in case of rebellion. On November 7, 1775, Lord Dunmore issued Lord Dunmore's Proclamation which declared martial law in Virginia and promised freedom for any slaves of American patriots who would leave their masters and join the royal forces. Slaves owned by Loyalist masters, however, were unaffected by Dunmore's Proclamation. About 1500 slaves owned by patriots escaped and joined Dunmore's forces. Most died of disease before they could do any fighting. Three hundred of these freed slaves made it to freedom in Britain. Many slaves used the very disruption of war to escape their plantations and fade into cities or woods, or to the British lines. Upon their first sight of British vessels, thousands of slaves in Maryland and Virginia ran away from their owners. Throughout the South, losses of slaves were high, with many due to escapes. Slaves also escaped throughout New England and the mid-Atlantic, with many joining the British who had occupied New York. In the closing months of the war the British evacuated freedmen and also removed slaves owned by loyalists. Around 15,000 Black Loyalists left with the British, most of them ending up as free people in England or its colonies. More than 3,000 were resettled in Nova Scotia, where they were eventually granted land and formed the community of the Black Nova Scotians. Slaves and free blacks who supported the rebellion The rebels began to offer freedom as an incentive to motivate slaves to fight on their side. Washington authorized slaves to be freed who fought with the American Continental Army. Rhode Island started enlisting slaves in 1778, and promised compensation to owners whose slaves enlisted and survived to gain freedom. During the course of the war, about one-fifth of the Northern army was black. In 1781, Baron Closen, a German officer in the French Royal Deux-Ponts Regiment at the Battle of Yorktown, estimated the American army to be about one-quarter black. These men included both former slaves and free-born blacks. Thousands of free blacks in the Northern states fought in the state militias and Continental Army. In the South, both sides offered freedom to slaves who would perform military service. Roughly 20,000 slaves fought in the American Revolution. The birth of abolitionism in the new United States In the first two decades after the American Revolution, state legislatures and individuals took actions to free slaves. Northern states passed new constitutions that contained language about equal rights or specifically abolished slavery; some states, such as New York and New Jersey, where slavery was more widespread, passed laws by the end of the 18th century to abolish slavery incrementally. By 1804, all the Northern states had passed laws outlawing slavery, either immediately or over time. In New York, the last slaves were freed in 1827 (celebrated with a big July4 parade). Indentured servitude (temporary slavery), which had been widespread in the colonies (half the population of Philadelphia had once been indentured servants), dropped dramatically, and disappeared by 1800. However, there were still forcibly indentured servants in New Jersey in 1860. No Southern state abolished slavery, but some individual owners, more than a handful, freed their slaves by personal decision, often providing for manumission in wills but sometimes filing deeds or court papers to free individuals. Numerous slaveholders who freed their slaves cited revolutionary ideals in their documents; others freed slaves as a promised reward for service. The number of free blacks as a proportion of the black population in the Upper South increased from less than one percent to nearly ten percent between 1790 and 1810 as a result of these actions. Starting in 1777, the rebels outlawed the importation of slaves state by state. They all acted to end the international trade, but, after the war, it was reopened in South Carolina and Georgia. In 1807, Congress acted on President Jefferson's advice and, without controversy, made importing slaves from abroad a federal crime, effective the first day that the Constitution permitted this prohibition: January 1, 1808. During the Revolution and in the following years, all states north of Maryland took steps towards abolishing slavery. In 1777, the Vermont Republic, which was still unrecognized by the United States, passed a state constitution prohibiting slavery. The Pennsylvania Abolition Society, led in part by Benjamin Franklin, was founded in 1775, and in 1780, Pennsylvania began gradual abolition. In 1783, the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts ruled in Commonwealth v. Jennison that slavery was unconstitutional under the state's new 1780 constitution. New Hampshire began gradual emancipation in 1783, while Connecticut and Rhode Island followed in 1784. The New York Manumission Society was founded in 1785, and was led by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr. New York state began gradual emancipation in 1799, and New Jersey followed in 1804. Shortly after the Revolution, the Northwest Territory was established, by Manasseh Cutler and Rufus Putnam (who had been George Washington's chief engineer). Both Cutler and Putnam came from Puritan New England. The Puritans strongly believed that slavery was morally wrong. Their influence on the issue of slavery was long-lasting, and this was provided significantly greater impetus by the Revolution. The Northwest Territory (which became Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota) doubled the size of the United States, and it was established at the insistence of Cutler and Putnam as "free soil"no slavery. This was to prove crucial a few decades later. Had those states been slave states, and their electoral votes gone to Abraham Lincoln's main opponent, Lincoln would not have become President. The Civil War would not have been fought. Even if it eventually had been, the North might well have lost. Constitution of the United States Slavery was a contentious issue in the writing and approval of the Constitution of the United States. The words "slave" and "slavery" did not appear in the Constitution as originally adopted, although several provisions clearly referred to slaves and slavery. Until the adoption of the 13th Amendment in 1865, the Constitution did not prohibit slavery. Section 9 of Article I forbade the Federal government from preventing the importation of slaves, described as "such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit", for twenty years after the Constitution's ratification (until January 1, 1808). The Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves of 1807, adopted by Congress and signed into law by President Thomas Jefferson (who had called for its enactment in his 1806 State of the Union address), went into effect on January 1, 1808, the earliest date on which the importation of slaves could be prohibited under the Constitution. The delegates approved Section2 of ArticleIV, which prohibited states from freeing slaves who fled to them from another state, and required the return of chattel property to owners. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 gave effect to the Fugitive Slave Clause of the Constitution. Three-fifths Compromise In a section negotiated by James Madison of Virginia, Section2 of ArticleI designated "other persons" (slaves) to be added to the total of the state's free population, at the rate of three-fifths of their total number, to establish the state's official population for the purposes of apportionment of Congressional representation and federal taxation. The "Three-Fifths Compromise" was reached after a debate in which delegates from Southern (slaveholding) states argued that slaves should be counted in the census just as all other persons were while delegates from Northern (free) states countered that slaves should not be counted at all. The compromise strengthened the political power of Southern states, as three-fifths of the (non-voting) slave population was counted for congressional apportionment and in the Electoral College, although it did not strengthen Southern states as much as it would have had the Constitution provided for counting all persons, whether slave or free, equally. In addition, many parts of the country were tied to the Southern economy. As the historian James Oliver Horton noted, prominent slaveholder politicians and the commodity crops of the South had a strong influence on United States politics and economy. Horton said, in the 72 years between the election of George Washington and the election of Abraham Lincoln, 50 of those years [had] a slaveholder as president of the United States, and, for that whole period of time, there was never a person elected to a second term who was not a slaveholder. The power of Southern states in Congress lasted until the Civil War, affecting national policies, legislation, and appointments. One result was that justices appointed to the Supreme Court were also primarily slave owners. The planter elite dominated the Southern congressional delegations and the United States presidency for nearly fifty years. 1790 to 1860 Slave trade The U.S. Constitution barred the federal government from prohibiting the importation of slaves for twenty years. Various states passed bans on the international slave trade during that period; by 1808, the only state still allowing the importation of African slaves was South Carolina. After 1808, legal importation of slaves ceased, although there was smuggling via Spanish Florida and the disputed Gulf Coast to the west. This route all but ended after Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821 (but see Wanderer and Clotilda). The replacement for the importation of slaves from abroad was increased domestic production. Virginia and Maryland had little new agricultural development, and their need for slaves was mostly for replacements for decedents. Normal reproduction more than supplied these: Virginia and Maryland had surpluses of slaves. Their tobacco farms were "worn out" and the climate was not suitable for cotton or sugar cane. The surplus was even greater because slaves were encouraged to reproduce (though they could not marry). The white supremacist Virginian Thomas Roderick Dew wrote in 1832 that Virginia was a "negro-raising state"; i.e. Virginia "produced" slaves. According to him, in 1832 Virginia exported "upwards of 6,000 slaves" per year, "a source of wealth to Virginia". Another writer gives the figure in 1836 as 40,000, earning for Virginia an estimated $24,000,000 per year. Demand for slaves was the strongest in what was then the southwest of the country: Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and, later, Texas, Arkansas and Missouri. Here there was abundant land suitable for plantation agriculture, which young men with some capital established. This was expansion of the white, monied population: younger men seeking their fortune. The most valuable crop that could be grown on a plantation in that climate was cotton. That crop was labor-intensive, and the least-costly laborers were slaves. Demand for slaves exceeded the supply in the southwest; therefore slaves, never cheap if they were productive, went for a higher price. As portrayed in Uncle Tom's Cabin (the "original" cabin was in Maryland), "selling South" was greatly feared. A recently (2018) publicized example of the practice of "selling South" is the 1838 sale by Jesuits of 272 slaves from Maryland, to plantations in Louisiana, to benefit Georgetown University, which has been described as "ow[ing] its existence" to this transaction. Traders responded to the demand, including John Armfield and his uncle Isaac Franklin, who were "reputed to have made over half a million dollars (in 19th-century value)" in the slave trade. "Fancy ladies" In the United States in the early 19th century, owners of female slaves could freely and legally use them as sexual objects. This follows free use of female slaves on slaving vessels by the crews. The slaveholder has it in his power, to violate the chastity of his slaves. And not a few are beastly enough to exercise such power. Hence it happens that, in some families, it is difficult to distinguish the free children from the slaves. It is sometimes the case, that the largest part of the master's own children are born, not of his wife, but of the wives and daughters of his slaves, whom he has basely prostituted as well as enslaved. "This vice, this bane of society, has already become so common, that it is scarcely esteemed a disgrace." "Fancy" was a code word which indicated that the girl or young woman was suitable for or trained for sexual use. In some cases, children were also abused in this manner. The sale of a 13-year-old "nearly a fancy" is documented. Zephaniah Kingsley, Jr., bought his wife when she was 13. Furthermore, enslaved women who were old enough to bear children were encouraged to procreate, which raised their value as slaves, since their children would eventually provide labor or be sold, enriching the owners. Enslaved women were sometimes medically treated in order to enable or encourage their fertility. The variations in skin color found in the United States make it obvious how often black women were impregnated by whites. For example, in the 1850 Census, 75.4% of "free negros" in Florida were described as mulattos, of mixed race. Nevertheless, it is only very recently, with DNA studies, that any sort of reliable number can be provided, and the research has only begun. Light-skinned girls, who contrasted with the darker field workers, were preferred. As it was put by Caroline Randall Williams in the New York Times: "You Want a Confederate Monument? My Body Is a Confederate Monument." "I have rape-colored skin," she added. The sexual use of black slaves by either slave owners or by those who could purchase the temporary services of a slave took various forms. A slaveowner, or his teenage son, could go to the slave quarters area of the plantation and do what he wanted, with minimal privacy if any. It was common for a "house" female (housekeeper, maid, cook, laundress, or nanny) to be raped by one or more members of the household. Houses of prostitution throughout the slave states were largely staffed by female slaves providing sexual services, to their owners' profit. There were a small number of free black females engaged in prostitution, or concubinage, especially in New Orleans. Slave owners who engaged in sexual activity with female slaves "were often the elite of the community. They had little need to worry about public scorn." These relationships "appear to have been tolerated and in some cases even quietly accepted." "Southern women...do not trouble themselves about it". Franklin and Armfield, who were definitely the elite of the community, joked frequently in their letters about the black women and girls that they were raping. It never occurred to them that there was anything wrong in what they were doing. Light-skinned young girls were sold openly for sexual use; their price was much higher than that of a field hand. Special markets for the fancy girl trade existed in New Orleans and Lexington, Kentucky. Historian Philip Shaw describes an occasion when Abraham Lincoln and Allen Gentry witnessed such sales in New Orleans in 1828: Those girls who were "considered educated and refined, were purchased by the wealthiest clients, usually plantation owners, to become personal sexual companions." "There was a great demand in New Orleans for 'fancy girls'." The issue which did come up frequently was the threat of sexual intercourse between black males and white females. Just as the black women were perceived as having "a trace of Africa, that supposedly incited passion and sexual wantonness", the men were perceived as savages, unable to control their lust, given an opportunity. Another approach to the question was offered by Quaker and Florida planter Zephaniah Kingsley, Jr. He advocated, and personally practiced, deliberate racial mixing through marriage, as part of his proposed solution to the slavery issue: racial integration, called "amalgamation" at the time. In an 1829 Treatise, he stated that mixed-race people were healthier and often more beautiful, that interracial sex was hygienic, and slavery made it convenient. Because of these views, tolerated in Spanish Florida, he found it impossible to remain long in Territorial Florida, and moved with his slaves and multiple wives to a plantation, Mayorasgo de Koka, in Haiti (now in the Dominican Republic). There were many others who less flagrantly practiced interracial, common-law marriages with slaves (see Partus sequitur ventrem). Justifications in the South "A necessary evil" In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a "necessary evil". At that time, it was feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. On April 22, 1820, Thomas Jefferson, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, wrote in a letter to John Holmes, that with slavery, The French writer and traveler Alexis de Tocqueville, in his influential Democracy in America (1835), expressed opposition to slavery while observing its effects on American society. He felt that a multiracial society without slavery was untenable, as he believed that prejudice against blacks increased as they were granted more rights (for example, in northern states). He believed that the attitudes of white Southerners, and the concentration of the black population in the South, were bringing the white and black populations to a state of equilibrium, and were a danger to both races. Because of the racial differences between master and slave, he believed that the latter could not be emancipated. In a letter to his wife dated December 27, 1856, in reaction to a message from President Franklin Pierce, Robert E. Lee wrote, "A positive good" However, as the abolitionist movement's agitation increased and the area developed for plantations expanded, apologies for slavery became more faint in the South. Leaders then described slavery as a beneficial scheme of labor management. John C. Calhoun, in a famous speech in the Senate in 1837, declared that slavery was "instead of an evil, a gooda positive good". Calhoun supported his view with the following reasoning: in every civilized society one portion of the community must live on the labor of another; learning, science, and the arts are built upon leisure; the African slave, kindly treated by his master and mistress and looked after in his old age, is better off than the free laborers of Europe; and under the slave system conflicts between capital and labor are avoided. The advantages of slavery in this respect, he concluded, "will become more and more manifest, if left undisturbed by interference from without, as the country advances in wealth and numbers". South Carolina army officer, planter and railroad executive James Gadsden called slavery "a social blessing" and abolitionists "the greatest curse of the nation". Gadsden was in favor of South Carolina's secession in 1850, and was a leader in efforts to split California into two states, one slave and one free. Other Southern writers who also began to portray slavery as a positive good were James Henry Hammond and George Fitzhugh. They presented several arguments to defend the practice of slavery in the South. Hammond, like Calhoun, believed that slavery was needed to build the rest of society. In a speech to the Senate on March 4, 1858, Hammond developed his "Mudsill Theory," defending his view on slavery by stating: "Such a class you must have, or you would not have that other class which leads progress, civilization, and refinement. It constitutes the very mud-sill of society and of political government; and you might as well attempt to build a house in the air, as to build either the one or the other, except on this mud-sill." Hammond believed that in every class one group must accomplish all the menial duties, because without them the leaders in society could not progress. He argued that the hired laborers of the North were slaves too: "The difference... is, that our slaves are hired for life and well compensated; there is no starvation, no begging, no want of employment," while those in the North had to search for employment. George Fitzhugh used assumptions about white superiority to justify slavery, writing that, "the Negro is but a grown up child, and must be governed as a child." In The Universal Law of Slavery, Fitzhugh argues that slavery provides everything necessary for life and that the slave is unable to survive in a free world because he is lazy, and cannot compete with the intelligent European white race. He states that "The negro slaves of the South are the happiest, and in some sense, the freest people in the world." Without the South, "He (slave) would become an insufferable burden to society" and "Society has the right to prevent this, and can only do so by subjecting him to domestic slavery." On March 21, 1861, Alexander Stephens, Vice President of the Confederacy, delivered his Cornerstone Speech. He explained the differences between the Constitution of the Confederate States and the United States Constitution, laid out the cause for the American Civil War, as he saw it, and defended slavery: This view of the Negro "race" was backed by pseudoscience. The leading researcher was Dr. Samuel A. Cartwright, inventor of the mental illnesses of drapetomania (the desire of a slave to run away) and dysaesthesia aethiopica ("rascality"), both cured by whipping. The Medical Association of Louisiana set up a committee, of which he was chair, to investigate "the Diseases and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race". Their report, first delivered to the Medical Association in an address, was published in their journal, and then reprinted in part in the widely circulated DeBow's Review. Proposed expansion of slavery Whether or not slavery was to be limited to the Southern states that already had it, or whether it was to be permitted in new states made from the lands of the Louisiana Purchase and Mexican Cession, was a major issue in the 1840s and 1850s. Results included the Compromise of 1850 and the Bleeding Kansas period. Also relatively well known are the proposals, including the Ostend Manifesto, to annex Cuba as a slave state. There was also talk of making slave states of Mexico, Nicaragua (see Walker affair) and other lands around the so-called Golden Circle. Less well known today (2019), though well known at the time, is that pro-slavery Southerners: Spoke openly of their desire to reopen the Atlantic slave trade (see Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves#Antebellum proposals by Fire-Eaters to reopen). Wanted to reintroduce slavery in the Northern states, through federal action or Constitutional amendment making slavery legal nationwide, thus overriding state anti-slavery laws. (See Crittenden Compromise.) This was described as "well underway" by 1858. Said openly that slavery should by no means be limited to Negros, since in their view it was beneficial. Northern white workers, who were allegedly "wage slaves" already, would allegedly have better lives if they were enslaved. None of these ideas got very far, but they alarmed Northerners and contributed to the growing polarization of the country. Abolitionism in the North Beginning during the Revolution and in the first two decades of the postwar era, every state in the North abolished slavery. These were the first abolitionist laws in the Atlantic World. However, the abolition of slavery did not necessarily mean that existing slaves became free. In some states they were forced to remain with their former owners as indentured servants: free in name only, although they could not be sold and thus families could not be split, and their children were born free. The end of slavery did not come in New York until July 4, 1827, when it was celebrated with a big parade. However, in the 1830 census, the only state with no slaves was Vermont. In the 1840 census, there were still slaves in New Hampshire (1), Rhode Island (5), Connecticut (17), New York (4), Pennsylvania (64), Ohio (3), Indiana (3), Illinois (331), Iowa (16), and Wisconsin (11). There were none in these states in the 1850 census. In Massachusetts, slavery was successfully challenged in court in 1783 in a freedom suit by Quock Walker; he said that slavery was in contradiction to the state's new constitution of 1780 providing for equality of men. Freed slaves were subject to racial segregation and discrimination in the North, and in many cases they did not have the right to vote until ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870. Most Northern states passed legislation for gradual abolition, first freeing children born to slave mothers (and requiring them to serve lengthy indentures to their mother's owners, often into their 20s as young adults). In 1845, the Supreme Court of New Jersey received lengthy arguments towards "the deliverance of four thousand persons from bondage". Pennsylvania's last ex-slaves were freed in 1847, Connecticut's in 1848, and while neither New Hampshire nor New Jersey had any slaves in the 1850 Census, and New Jersey only one and New Hampshire none in the 1860 Census, slavery was never prohibited in either state until ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865 (and New Jersey was one of the last states to ratify it). None of the Southern states abolished slavery before 1865, but it was not unusual for individual slaveholders in the South to free numerous slaves, often citing revolutionary ideals, in their wills. Methodist, Quaker, and Baptist preachers traveled in the South, appealing to slaveholders to manumit their slaves, and there were "manumission societies" in some Southern states. By 1810, the number and proportion of free blacks in the population of the United States had risen dramatically. Most free blacks lived in the North, but even in the Upper South, the proportion of free blacks went from less than one percent of all blacks to more than ten percent, even as the total number of slaves was increasing through imports. One of the early Puritan writings on this subject was "The Selling of Joseph," by Samuel Sewall in 1700. In it, Sewall condemned slavery and the slave trade and refuted many of the era's typical justifications for slavery. The Puritan influence on slavery was still strong at the time of the American Revolution and up until the Civil War. Of America's first seven presidents, the two who did not own slaves, John Adams and John Quincy Adams, came from Puritan New England. They were wealthy enough to own slaves, but they chose not to because they believed that it was morally wrong to do so. In 1765, colonial leader Samuel Adams and his wife were given a slave girl as a gift. They immediately freed her. Just after the Revolution, in 1787, the Northwest Territory (which became the states of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota) was opened up for settlement. The two men responsible for establishing this territory were Manasseh Cutler and Rufus Putnam. They came from Puritan New England, and they insisted that this new territory, which doubled the size of the United States, was going to be "free soil"no slavery. This was to prove crucial in the coming decades. If those states had become slave states, and their electoral votes had gone to Abraham Lincoln's main opponent, Lincoln would not have been elected president. The Civil War would not have been fought. Even if it eventually had been, the North would likely have lost. In the decades leading up to the Civil War, the abolitionists, such as Theodore Parker, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau and Frederick Douglass, repeatedly used the Puritan heritage of the country to bolster their cause. The most radical anti-slavery newspaper, The Liberator, invoked the Puritans and Puritan values over a thousand times. Parker, in urging New England Congressmen to support the abolition of slavery, wrote that "The son of the Puritan... is sent to Congress to stand up for Truth and Right..." Northerners predominated in the westward movement into the Midwestern territory after the American Revolution; as the states were organized, they voted to prohibit slavery in their constitutions when they achieved statehood: Ohio in 1803, Indiana in 1816 and Illinois in 1818. What developed was a Northern block of free states united into one contiguous geographic area that generally shared an anti-slavery culture. The exceptions were the areas along the Ohio River settled by Southerners: the southern portions of Indiana, Ohio and Illinois. Residents of those areas generally shared in Southern culture and attitudes. In addition, these areas were devoted to agriculture longer than the industrializing northern parts of these states, and some farmers used slave labor. In Illinois, for example, while the trade in slaves was prohibited, it was legal to bring slaves from Kentucky into Illinois and use them there, as long as the slaves left Illinois one day per year (they were "visiting"). The emancipation of slaves in the North led to the growth in the population of Northern free blacks, from several hundred in the 1770s to nearly 50,000 by 1810. Agitation against slavery There was legal agitation against slavery in the Thirteen Colonies starting in 1752 by lawyer Benjamin Kent, whose cases were recorded by one of his understudies, the future president John Adams. Kent represented numerous slaves in their attempts to gain their freedom. He handled the case of a slave, Pompey, suing his master. In 1766, Kent was the first lawyer in the United States to win a case to free a slave, Jenny Slew. He also won a trial in the Old County Courthouse for a slave named (1771). Kent also handled Lucy Pernam's divorce and the freedom suits of Rose and Salem Orne. Throughout the first half of the 19th century, abolitionism, a movement to end slavery, grew in strength; most abolitionist societies and supporters were in the North. They worked to raise awareness about the evils of slavery, and to build support for abolition. This struggle took place amid strong support for slavery among white Southerners, who profited greatly from the system of enslaved labor. But slavery was entwined with the national economy; for instance, the banking, shipping, and manufacturing industries of New York City all had strong economic interests in slavery, as did similar industries in other major port cities in the North. The Northern textile mills in New York and New England processed Southern cotton and manufactured clothes to outfit slaves. By 1822, half of New York City's exports were related to cotton. Slaveholders began to refer to slavery as the "peculiar institution" to differentiate it from other examples of forced labor. They justified it as less cruel than the free labor of the North. The principal organized bodies to advocate abolition and anti-slavery reforms in the north were the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and the New York Manumission Society. Before the 1830s the antislavery groups called for gradual emancipation. By the late 1820s, under the impulse of religious evangelicals such as Beriah Green, the sense emerged that owning slaves was a sin and the owner had to immediately free himself from this grave sin by immediate emancipation. Colonization movement In the early part of the 19th century, other organizations were founded to take action on the future of black Americans. Some advocated removing free black people from the United States to places where they would enjoy greater freedom; some endorsed colonization in Africa, while others advocated emigration, usually to Haiti. During the 1820s and 1830s, the American Colonization Society (ACS) was the primary organization to implement the "return" of black Americans to Africa. The ACS was made up mostly of Quakers and slaveholders, and they found uneasy common ground in support of what was incorrectly called "repatriation". By this time, however, most black Americans were native-born and did not want to emigrate, saying they were no more African than white Americans were British. Rather, they wanted full rights in the United States, where their families had lived and worked for generations. In 1822, the ACS and affiliated state societies established what would become the colony of Liberia, in West Africa. The ACS assisted thousands of freedmen and free blacks (with legislated limits) to emigrate there from the United States. Many white people considered this preferable to emancipation in the United States. Henry Clay, one of the founders and a prominent slaveholder politician from Kentucky, said that blacks faced unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off. Deportation would also be a way to prevent reprisals against former slaveholders and white people in general, as had occurred in the 1804 Haiti massacre. After 1830, abolitionist and newspaper publisher William Lloyd Garrison promoted emancipation, characterizing slaveholding as a personal sin. He demanded that slaveowners repent and start the process of emancipation. His position increased defensiveness on the part of some Southerners, who noted the long history of slavery among many cultures. A few abolitionists, such as John Brown, favored the use of armed force to foment uprisings among the slaves, as he attempted to do at Harper's Ferry. Most abolitionists tried to raise public support to change laws and to challenge slave laws. Abolitionists were active on the lecture circuit in the North, and often featured escaped slaves in their presentations. Writer and orator Frederick Douglass became an important abolitionist leader after escaping from slavery. Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) was an international bestseller and aroused popular sentiment against slavery. It also provoked the publication of numerous anti-Tom novels by Southerners in the years before the American Civil War. Prohibiting the international trade Under the Constitution, Congress could not prohibit the import slave trade that was allowed in South Carolina until 1808. However, the third Congress regulated against it in the Slave Trade Act of 1794, which prohibited American shipbuilding and outfitting for the trade. Subsequent acts in 1800 and 1803 sought to discourage the trade by banning American investment in the trade, and American employment on ships in the trade, as well as prohibiting importation into states that had abolished slavery, which most in the North had by that time. The final Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves was adopted in 1807, effective in 1808. However, illegal importation of African slaves (smuggling) was common. The Cuban slave trade between 1796 and 1807 was dominated by American slave ships. Despite the 1794 Act, Rhode Island slave ship owners found ways to continue supplying the slave-owning states. The overall U.S. slave-ship fleet in 1806 was estimated to be almost 75% the size of that of the British. After Great Britain and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, British slave trade suppression activities began in 1808 through diplomatic efforts and the formation of the Royal Navy's West Africa Squadron in 1809. The United States denied the Royal Navy the right to stop and search U.S. ships suspected as slave ships, so not only were American ships unhindered by British patrols, but slavers from other countries would fly the American flag to try to avoid being stopped. Co-operation between the United States and Britain was not possible during the War of 1812 or the period of poor relations in the following years. In 1820, the United States Navy sent , under the command of Captain Trenchard, to patrol the slave coasts of West Africa. Cyane seized four American slave ships in her first year on station. Trenchard developed a good level of co-operation with the Royal Navy. Four additional U.S. warships were sent to the African coast in 1820 and 1821. A total of 11 American slave ships were taken by the U.S. Navy over this period. Then American enforcement activity reduced. There was still no agreement between the United States and Britain on a mutual right to board suspected slave traders sailing under each other's flag. Attempts to reach such an agreement stalled in 1821 and 1824 in the Senate. A U.S. Navy presence, however sporadic, did result in American slavers sailing under the Spanish flag, but still as an extensive trade. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 set a guaranteed minimum level of patrol activity by the U.S. Navy and the Royal Navy, and formalized the level of co-operation that had existed in 1820. Its effects, however, were minimal while opportunities for greater co-operation were not taken. The U.S. transatlantic slave trade was not effectively suppressed until 1861, during Lincoln's presidency, when a treaty with Britain was signed whose provisions included allowing the Royal Navy to board, search and arrest slavers operating under the American flag. Post-revolution Southern manumissions Although Virginia, Maryland and Delaware were slave states, the latter two already had a high proportion of free blacks by the outbreak of war. Following the Revolution, the three legislatures made manumission easier, allowed by deed or will. Quaker and Methodist ministers particularly urged slaveholders to free their slaves. The number and proportion of freed slaves in these states rose dramatically until 1810. More than half of the number of free blacks in the United States were concentrated in the Upper South. The proportion of free blacks among the black population in the Upper South rose from less than 1% in 1792 to more than 10% by 1810. In Delaware, nearly 75% of blacks were free by 1810. In the United States as a whole, the number of free blacks reached 186,446, or 13.5% of all blacks, by 1810. After that period, few slaves were freed, as the development of cotton plantations featuring short-staple cotton in the Deep South drove up the internal demand for slaves in the domestic slave trade and high prices being paid for them. South Carolina made manumission more difficult, requiring legislative approval of every instance of manumission. Several Southern states required manumitted slaves to leave the state within thirty days. Domestic slave trade and forced migration The growing international demand for cotton led many plantation owners further west in search of suitable land. In addition, the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 enabled profitable processing of short-staple cotton, which could readily be grown in the uplands. The invention revolutionized the cotton industry by increasing fifty-fold the quantity of cotton that could be processed in a day. At the end of the War of 1812, fewer than 300,000 bales of cotton were produced nationally. By 1820, the amount of cotton produced had increased to 600,000 bales, and by 1850 it had reached 4,000,000. There was an explosive growth of cotton cultivation throughout the Deep South and greatly increased demand for slave labor to support it. As a result, manumissions decreased dramatically in the South. Most of the slaves sold from the Upper South were from Maryland, Virginia and the Carolinas, where changes in agriculture decreased the need for their labor and the demand for slaves. Before 1810, primary destinations for the slaves who were sold were Kentucky and Tennessee, but, after 1810, the Deep South states of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas received the most slaves. This is where cotton became "king." Meanwhile, the Upper South states of Kentucky and Tennessee joined the slave-exporting states. By 1815, the domestic slave trade had become a major economic activity in the United States; it lasted until the 1860s. Between 1830 and 1840, nearly 250,000 slaves were taken across state lines. In the 1850s, more than 193,000 enslaved persons were transported, and historians estimate nearly one million in total took part in the forced migration of this new "Middle Passage." By 1860, the slave population in the United States had reached four million. Of the 1,515,605 free families in the fifteen slave states in 1860, nearly 400,000 held slaves (roughly one in four, or 25%), amounting to 8% of all American families. The historian Ira Berlin called this forced migration of slaves the "Second Middle Passage" because it reproduced many of the same horrors as the Middle Passage (the name given to the transportation of slaves from Africa to North America). These sales of slaves broke up many families and caused much hardship. Characterizing it as the "central event" in the life of a slave between the American Revolution and the Civil War, Berlin wrote that, whether slaves were directly uprooted or lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people, both slave and free." Individuals lost their connection to families and clans. Added to the earlier colonists combining slaves from different tribes, many ethnic Africans lost their knowledge of varying tribal origins in Africa. Most were descended from families that had been in the United States for many generations. The firm of Franklin and Armfield was a leader in this trade. In the 1840s, almost 300,000 slaves were transported, with Alabama and Mississippi receiving 100,000 each. During each decade between 1810 and 1860, at least 100,000 slaves were moved from their state of origin. In the final decade before the Civil War, 250,000 were transporteded. Michael Tadman wrote in Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (1989) that 60–70% of inter-regional migrations were the result of the sale of slaves. In 1820, a slave child in the Upper South had a 30% chance of being sold South by 1860. The death rate for the slaves on their way to their new destination across the American South was less than that suffered by captives shipped across the Atlantic Ocean, but mortality nevertheless was higher than the normal death rate. Slave traders transported two-thirds of the slaves who moved West. Only a minority moved with their families and existing master. Slave traders had little interest in purchasing or transporting intact slave families; in the early years, planters demanded only the young male slaves needed for heavy labor. Later, in the interest of creating a "self-reproducing labor force", planters purchased nearly equal numbers of men and women. Berlin wrote: The internal slave trade became the largest enterprise in the South outside the plantation itself, and probably the most advanced in its employment of modern transportation, finance, and publicity. The slave trade industry developed its own unique language, with terms such as "prime hands, bucks, breeding wenches, and "fancy girls" coming into common use. The expansion of the interstate slave trade contributed to the "economic revival of once depressed seaboard states" as demand accelerated the value of slaves who were subject to sale. Some traders moved their "chattels" by sea, with Norfolk to New Orleans being the most common route, but most slaves were forced to walk overland. Others were shipped downriver from such markets as Louisville on the Ohio River, and Natchez on the Mississippi. Traders created regular migration routes served by a network of slave pens, yards and warehouses needed as temporary housing for the slaves. In addition, other vendors provided clothes, food and supplies for slaves. As the trek advanced, some slaves were sold and new ones purchased. Berlin concluded, "In all, the slave trade, with its hubs and regional centers, its spurs and circuits, reached into every cranny of southern society. Few southerners, black or white, were untouched." Once the trip ended, slaves faced a life on the frontier significantly different from most labor in the Upper South. Clearing trees and starting crops on virgin fields was harsh and backbreaking work. A combination of inadequate nutrition, bad water and exhaustion from both the journey and the work weakened the newly arrived slaves and produced casualties. New plantations were located at rivers' edges for ease of transportation and travel. Mosquitoes and other environmental challenges spread disease, which took the lives of many slaves. They had acquired only limited immunities to lowland diseases in their previous homes. The death rate was so high that, in the first few years of hewing a plantation out of the wilderness, some planters preferred whenever possible to use rented slaves rather than their own. The harsh conditions on the frontier increased slave resistance and led owners and overseers to rely on violence for control. Many of the slaves were new to cotton fields and unaccustomed to the "sunrise-to-sunset gang labor" required by their new life. Slaves were driven much harder than when they had been in growing tobacco or wheat back East. Slaves had less time and opportunity to improve the quality of their lives by raising their own livestock or tending vegetable gardens, for either their own consumption or trade, as they could in the East. In Louisiana, French colonists had established sugar cane plantations and exported sugar as the chief commodity crop. After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Americans entered the state and joined the sugar cultivation. Between 1810 and 1830, planters bought slaves from the North and the number of slaves increased from fewer than 10,000 to more than 42,000. Planters preferred young males, who represented two-thirds of the slave purchases. Dealing with sugar cane was even more physically demanding than growing cotton. The largely young, unmarried male slave force made the reliance on violence by the owners "especially savage". New Orleans became nationally important as a slave market and port, as slaves were shipped from there upriver by steamboat to plantations on the Mississippi River; it also sold slaves who had been shipped downriver from markets such as Louisville. By 1840, it had the largest slave market in North America. It became the wealthiest and the fourth-largest city in the nation, based chiefly on the slave trade and associated businesses. The trading season was from September to May, after the harvest. Slave traders were men of low reputation, even in the South. In the 1828 presidential election, candidate Andrew Jackson was strongly criticized by opponents as a slave trader who transacted in slaves in defiance of modern standards or morality. Treatment The treatment of slaves in the United States varied widely depending on conditions, time, and place, but in general it was brutal, especially on plantations. Whippings and rape were routine. The power relationships of slavery corrupted many whites who had authority over slaves, with children showing their own cruelty. Masters and overseers resorted to physical punishments to impose their wills. Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling, hanging, beating, burning, mutilation, branding and imprisonment. Punishment was most often meted out in response to disobedience or perceived infractions, but sometimes abuse was carried out to re-assert the dominance of the master or overseer of the slave. Treatment was usually harsher on large plantations, which were often managed by overseers and owned by absentee slaveholders, conditions permitting abuses. William Wells Brown, who escaped to freedom, reported that on one plantation, slave men were required to pick eighty pounds per day of cotton, while women were required to pick seventy pounds; if any slave failed in his or her quota, they were subject to whip lashes for each pound they were short. The whipping post stood next to the cotton scales. A New York man who attended a slave auction in the mid-19th century reported that at least three-quarters of the male slaves he saw at sale had scars on their backs from whipping. By contrast, small slave-owning families had closer relationships between the owners and slaves; this sometimes resulted in a more humane environment but was not a given. Historian Lawrence M. Friedman wrote: "Ten Southern codes made it a crime to mistreat a slave.... Under the Louisiana Civil Code of 1825 (art. 192), if a master was "convicted of cruel treatment," the judge could order the sale of the mistreated slave, presumably to a better master." Masters and overseers were seldom prosecuted under these laws. No slave could give testimony in the courts. According to Adalberto Aguirre's research, 1,161 slaves were executed in the United States between the 1790s and 1850s. Quick executions of innocent slaves as well as suspects typically followed any attempted slave rebellions, as white militias overreacted with widespread killings that expressed their fears of rebellions, or suspected rebellions. Although most slaves had lives that were very restricted in terms of their movements and agency, exceptions existed to virtually every generalization; for instance, there were also slaves who had considerable freedom in their daily lives: slaves allowed to rent out their labor and who might live independently of their master in cities, slaves who employed white workers, and slave doctors who treated upper-class white patients. After 1820, in response to the inability to import new slaves from Africa and in part to abolitionist criticism, some slaveholders improved the living conditions of their slaves, to encourage them to be productive and to try to prevent escapes. It was part of a paternalistic approach in the antebellum era that was encouraged by ministers trying to use Christianity to improve the treatment of slaves. Slaveholders published articles in Southern agricultural journals to share best practices in treatment and management of slaves; they intended to show that their system was better than the living conditions of northern industrial workers. Medical care for slaves was limited in terms of the medical knowledge available to anyone. It was generally provided by other slaves or by slaveholders' family members, although sometimes "plantation physicians", like J. Marion Sims, were called by the owners to protect their investment by treating sick slaves. Many slaves possessed medical skills needed to tend to each other, and used folk remedies brought from Africa. They also developed new remedies based on American plants and herbs. An estimated nine percent of slaves were disabled due to a physical, sensory, psychological, neurological, or developmental condition. However, slaves were often described as disabled if they were unable to work or bear a child, and were often subjected to harsh treatment as a result. According to Andrew Fede, an owner could be held criminally liable for killing a slave only if the slave he killed was "completely submissive and under the master's absolute control". For example, in 1791 the North Carolina legislature defined the willful killing of a slave as criminal murder, unless done in resisting or under moderate correction (that is, corporal punishment). Because of the power relationships at work, slave women in the United States were at high risk for rape and sexual abuse. Their children were repeatedly taken away from them and sold as farm animals; usually they never saw each other again. Many slaves fought back against sexual attacks, and some died resisting. Others carried psychological and physical scars from the attacks. Sexual abuse of slaves was partially rooted in a patriarchal Southern culture that treated black women as property or chattel. Southern culture strongly policed against sexual relations between white women and black men on the purported grounds of racial purity but, by the late 18th century, the many mixed-race slaves and slave children showed that white men had often taken advantage of slave women. Wealthy planter widowers, notably such as John Wayles and his son-in-law Thomas Jefferson, took slave women as concubines; each had six children with his partner: Elizabeth Hemings and her daughter Sally Hemings (the half-sister of Jefferson's late wife), respectively. Both Mary Chesnut and Fanny Kemble, wives of planters, wrote about this issue in the antebellum South in the decades before the Civil War. Sometimes planters used mixed-race slaves as house servants or favored artisans because they were their children or other relatives. As a result of centuries of slavery and such relationships, DNA studies have shown that the vast majority of African Americans also have historic European ancestry, generally through paternal lines. While slaves' living conditions were poor by modern standards, Robert Fogel argued that all workers, free or slave, during the first half of the 19th century were subject to hardship. Unlike free individuals, however, enslaved people were far more likely to be underfed, physically punished, sexually abused, or killed, with no recourse, legal or otherwise, against those who perpetrated these crimes against them. Slave codes To help regulate the relationship between slave and owner, including legal support for keeping the slave as property, states established slave codes, most based on laws existing since the colonial era. The code for the District of Columbia defined a slave as "a human being, who is by law deprived of his or her liberty for life, and is the property of another". While each state had its own slave code, many concepts were shared throughout the slave states. According to the slave codes, some of which were passed in reaction to slave rebellions, teaching a slave to read or write was illegal. This prohibition was unique to American slavery, believed to reduce slaves forming aspirations that could lead to escape or rebellion. Informal education occurred when white children taught slave companions what they were learning; in other cases, adult slaves learned from free artisan workers, especially if located in cities, where there was more freedom of movement. In Alabama, slaves were not allowed to leave their master's premises without written consent or passes. This was a common requirement in other states as well, and locally run patrols (known to slaves as pater rollers) often checked the passes of slaves who appeared to be away from their plantations. In Alabama slaves were prohibited from trading goods among themselves. In Virginia, a slave was not permitted to drink in public within one mile of his master or during public gatherings. Slaves were not permitted to carry firearms in any of the slave states. Slaves were generally prohibited by law from associating in groups, with the exception of worship services (a reason why the Black Church is such a notable institution in black communities today). Following Nat Turner's rebellion in 1831, which raised white fears throughout the South, some states also prohibited or restricted religious gatherings of slaves, or required that they be officiated by white men. Planters feared that group meetings would facilitate communication among slaves that could lead to rebellion. Slaves held private, secret "brush meetings" in the woods. In Ohio, an emancipated slave was prohibited from returning to the state in which he or she had been enslaved. Other Northern states discouraged the settling of free blacks within their boundaries. Fearing the influence of free blacks, Virginia and other Southern states passed laws to require blacks who had been freed to leave the state within a year (or sometimes less time) unless granted a stay by an act of the legislature. High demand and smuggling The United States Constitution, adopted in 1787, prevented Congress from completely banning the importation of slaves until 1808, although Congress regulated against the trade in the Slave Trade Act of 1794, and in subsequent Acts in 1800 and 1803. During and after the Revolution, the states individually passed laws against importing slaves. By contrast, the states of Georgia and South Carolina reopened their trade due to demand by their upland planters, who were developing new cotton plantations: Georgia from 1800 until December 31, 1807, and South Carolina from 1804. In that period, Charleston traders imported about 75,000 slaves, more than were brought to South Carolina in the 75 years before the Revolution. Approximately 30,000 were imported to Georgia. By January 1, 1808, when Congress banned further imports, South Carolina was the only state that still allowed importation of enslaved people. The domestic trade became extremely profitable as demand rose with the expansion of cultivation in the Deep South for cotton and sugar cane crops. Slavery in the United States became, more or less, self-sustaining by natural increase among the current slaves and their descendants. Maryland and Virginia viewed themselves as slave producers, seeing "producing slaves" as resembling animal husbandry. Workers, including many children, were relocated by force from the upper to the lower South. Despite the ban, slave imports continued through smugglers bringing in slaves past the U.S. Navy's African Slave Trade Patrol to South Carolina, and overland from Texas and Florida, both under Spanish control. Congress increased the punishment associated with importing slaves, classifying it in 1820 as an act of piracy, with smugglers subject to harsh penalties, including death if caught. After that, "it is unlikely that more than 10,000 [slaves] were successfully landed in the United States." But, some smuggling of slaves into the United States continued until just before the start of the Civil War; see slave ships Wanderer and Clotilda. War of 1812 During the War of 1812, British Royal Navy commanders of the blockading fleet were instructed to offer freedom to defecting American slaves, as the Crown had during the Revolutionary War. Thousands of escaped slaves went over to the Crown with their families. Men were recruited into the Corps of Colonial Marines on occupied Tangier Island, in the Chesapeake Bay. Many freed American slaves were recruited directly into existing West Indian regiments, or newly created British Army units. The British later resettled a few thousand freed slaves to Nova Scotia. Their descendants, together with descendants of the black people resettled there after the Revolution, have established the Black Loyalist Heritage Museum. Slaveholders, primarily in the South, had considerable "loss of property" as thousands of slaves escaped to the British lines or ships for freedom, despite the difficulties. The planters' complacency about slave "contentment" was shocked by seeing that slaves would risk so much to be free. Afterward, when some freed slaves had been settled at Bermuda, slaveholders such as Major Pierce Butler of South Carolina tried to persuade them to return to the United States, to no avail. The Americans protested that Britain's failure to return all slaves violated the Treaty of Ghent. After arbitration by the Tsar of Russia, the British paid $1,204,960 in damages (about $ million in today's money) to Washington, which reimbursed the slaveowners. Religion Prior to the American Revolution, masters and revivalists spread Christianity to slave communities, supported by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. In the First Great Awakening of the mid-18th century, Baptists and Methodists from New England preached a message against slavery, encouraged masters to free their slaves, converted both slaves and free blacks, and gave them active roles in new congregations. The first independent black congregations were started in the South before the Revolution, in South Carolina and Georgia. Believing that, "slavery was contrary to the ethics of Jesus", Christian congregations and church clergy, especially in the North, played a role in the Underground Railroad, especially Wesleyan Methodists, Quakers and Congregationalists. Over the decades and with the growth of slavery throughout the South, some Baptist and Methodist ministers gradually changed their messages to accommodate the institution. After 1830, white Southerners argued for the compatibility of Christianity and slavery, with a multitude of both Old and New Testament citations. They promoted Christianity as encouraging better treatment of slaves and argued for a paternalistic approach. In the 1840s and 1850s, the issue of accepting slavery split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern organizations; see Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Southern Baptist Convention, and Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America). Schisms occurred, such as that between the Wesleyan Methodist Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church. Southern slaves generally attended their masters' white churches, where they often outnumbered the white congregants. They were usually permitted to sit only in the back or in the balcony. They listened to white preachers, who emphasized the obligation of slaves to keep in their place, and acknowledged the slave's identity as both person and property. Preachers taught the master's responsibility and the concept of appropriate paternal treatment, using Christianity to improve conditions for slaves, and to treat them "justly and fairly" (Col. 4:1). This included masters having self-control, not disciplining under anger, not threatening, and ultimately fostering Christianity among their slaves by example. Slaves also created their own religious observances, meeting alone without the supervision of their white masters or ministers. The larger plantations with groups of slaves numbering 20, or more, tended to be centers of nighttime meetings of one or several plantation slave populations. These congregations revolved around a singular preacher, often illiterate with limited knowledge of theology, who was marked by his personal piety and ability to foster a spiritual environment. African Americans developed a theology related to Biblical stories having the most meaning for them, including the hope for deliverance from slavery by their own Exodus. One lasting influence of these secret congregations is the African American spiritual. Slave rebellions According to Herbert Aptheker, "there were few phases of ante-bellum Southern life and history that were not in some way influenced by the fear of, or the actual outbreak of, militant concerted slave action." Historians in the 20th century identified 250 to 311 slave uprisings in U.S. and colonial history. Those after 1776, include: Gabriel's conspiracy (1800) Igbo Landing slave escape and mass suicide (1803) Chatham Manor Rebellion (1805) 1811 German Coast Uprising, (1811) George Boxley Rebellion (1815) Denmark Vesey's conspiracy (1822) Nat Turner's slave rebellion (1831) Black Seminole Slave Rebellion (1835–1838) Amistad seizure (1839) Creole case (1841) 1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation In 1831, Nat Turner, a literate slave who claimed to have spiritual visions, organized a slave rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia; it was sometimes called the Southampton Insurrection. Turner and his followers killed nearly sixty white inhabitants, mostly women and children. Many of the men in the area were attending a religious event in North Carolina. Eventually Turner was captured with 17 other rebels, who were subdued by the militia. Turner and his followers were hanged, and Turner's body was flayed. In a frenzy of fear and retaliation, the militia killed more than 100 slaves who had not been involved in the rebellion. Planters whipped hundreds of innocent slaves to ensure resistance was quelled. This rebellion prompted Virginia and other slave states to pass more restrictions on slaves and free people of color, controlling their movement and requiring more white supervision of gatherings. In 1835 North Carolina withdrew the franchise for free people of color, and they lost their vote. Anti-literacy laws In a feature unique to American slavery, legislatures across the South enacted new laws to curtail the already limited rights of African Americans. For example, Virginia prohibited blacks, free or slave, from practicing preaching, prohibited them from owning firearms, and forbade anyone to teach slaves or free blacks how to read. It specified heavy penalties for both student and teacher if slaves were taught, including whippings or jail. [E]very assemblage of negroes for the purpose of instruction in reading or writing, or in the night time for any purpose, shall be an unlawful assembly. Any justice may issue his warrant to any office or other person, requiring him to enter any place where such assemblage may be, and seize any negro therein; and he, or any other justice, may order such negro to be punished with stripes. Unlike in the South, slave owners in Utah were required to send their slaves to school. Black slaves did not have to spend as much time in school as Indian slaves. Economics There were approximately 15,000 slaves in New England in 1770 of 650,000 inhabitants. 35,000 slaves lived in the Mid-Atlantic States of 600,000 inhabitants of whom 19,000 lived in New York where they made up 11% of the population. By 1790 Virginia held 44% (315,000 in a total population of 750,000 the State). It was common in agriculture, with a more massive presence in the South, where climate was more propitious for widescale agricultural activity. By 1790 slavery in the New England States was abolished in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont and phased out in Rhode Island and Connecticut. New York introduced gradual emancipation in 1799 (completed in 1827). Pennsylvania abolished slavery during the War for Independence. Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman, in their 1974 book Time on the Cross, argued that the rate of return of slavery at the market price was close to ten percent, a number close to investment in other assets. The transition from indentured servants to slaves is cited to show that slaves offered greater profits to their owners. A qualified consensus among economic historians and economists is that "Slave agriculture was efficient compared with free agriculture. Economies of scale, effective management, and intensive utilization of labor and capital made southern slave agriculture considerably more efficient than nonslave southern farming", and it is the near-universal consensus among economic historians and economists that slavery was not "a system irrationally kept in existence by plantation owners who failed to perceive or were indifferent to their best economic interests". The relative price of slaves and indentured servants in the antebellum period did decrease. Indentured servants became more costly with the increase in the demand of skilled labor in England. At the same time, slaves were mostly supplied from within the United States and thus language was not a barrier, and the cost of transporting slaves from one state to another was relatively low. However, as in Brazil and Europe, slavery at its end in the United States tended to be concentrated in the poorest regions of the United States, with a qualified consensus among economists and economic historians concluding that the "modern period of the South's economic convergence to the level of the North only began in earnest when the institutional foundations of the southern regional labor market were undermined, largely by federal farm and labor legislation dating from the 1930s." In the decades preceding the Civil War, the black population of the United States experienced a rapid natural increase. Unlike the trans-Saharan slave trade with Africa, the slave population transported by the Atlantic slave trade to the United States was sex-balanced. The slave population multiplied nearly fourfold between 1810 and 1860, despite the passage of the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves signed into law by President Thomas Jefferson in 1807 banning the international slave trade. Thus, it is also the universal consensus among modern economic historians and economists that slavery in the United States was not "economically moribund on the eve of the Civil War". In the 2010s, several historians, among them Edward E. Baptist, Sven Beckert, Walter Johnson and Calvin Schermerhorn, have posited that slavery was integral in the development of American capitalism. Other economic historians have rejected that thesis. Efficiency of slaves Scholars disagree on how to quantify the efficiency of slavery. In Time on the Cross Fogel and Engerman equate efficiency to total factor productivity (TFP), the output per average unit of input on a farm. Using this measurement, Southern farms that enslaved black people using the gang system were 35% more efficient than Northern farms, which used free labor. Under the gang system, groups of slaves perform synchronized tasks under the constant vigilance of an overseer. Each group was like a part of a machine. If perceived to be working below his capacity, a slave could be punished. Fogel argues that this kind of negative enforcement was not frequent and that slaves and free laborers had a similar quality of life; however, there is controversy on this last point. A critique of Fogel and Engerman's view was published by Paul A. David in 1976. In 1995, a random survey of 178 members of the Economic History Association sought to study the views of economists and economic historians on the debate. The study found that 72 percent of economists and 65 percent of economic historians would generally agree that "Slave agriculture was efficient compared with free agriculture. Economies of scale, effective management, and intensive utilization of labor and capital made southern slave agriculture considerably more efficient than nonslave southern farming." 48 percent of the economists agreed without provisos, while 24 percent agreed when provisos were included in the statement. On the other hand, 58 percent of economic historians and 42 percent of economists disagreed with Fogel and Engerman's "proposition that the material (not psychological) conditions of the lives of slaves compared favorably with those of free industrial workers in the decades before the Civil War". Prices of slaves The U.S. has a capitalist economy so the price of slaves was determine by the law of supply and demand. For example, following bans on the import of slaves after the U.K.'s Slave Trade Act 1807 and the American 1807 Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, the prices for slaves increased. The markets for the products produced by slaves also affected the price of slaves (e.g. the price of slaves fell when the price of cotton fell in 1840). Anticipation of slavery's abolition also influenced prices. During the Civil War the price for slave men in New Orleans dropped from $1,381 in 1861 to $1,116 by 1862 (the city was captured by U.S. forces in the Spring of 1862). Controlling for inflation, prices of slaves rose dramatically in the six decades prior to the Civil War, reflecting demand due to commodity cotton, as well as use of slaves in shipping and manufacturing. Although the prices of slaves relative to indentured servants declined, both got more expensive. Cotton production was rising and relied on the use of slaves to yield high profits. Fogel and Engeman initially argued that if the Civil War had not happened, the slave prices would have increased even more, an average of more than fifty percent by 1890. Prices reflected the characteristics of the slave; such factors as sex, age, nature, and height were all taken into account to determine the price of a slave. Over the life-cycle, the price of enslaved women was higher than their male counterparts up to puberty age, as they would likely bear children who their masters could sell as slaves and could be used as slave laborers. Men around the age of 25 were the most valued, as they were at the highest level of productivity and still had a considerable life-span. If slaves had a history of fights or escapes, their price was lowered reflecting what planters believed was risk of repeating such behavior. Slave traders and buyers would examine a slave's back for whipping scars; a large number of injuries would be seen as evidence of laziness or rebelliousness, rather than the previous master's brutality, and would lower the slave's price. Taller male slaves were priced at a higher level, as height was viewed as a proxy for fitness and productivity. Effects on Southern economic development While slavery brought profits in the short run, discussion continues on the economic benefits of slavery in the long run. In 1995, a random anonymous survey of 178 members of the Economic History Association found that out of the forty propositions about American economic history that were surveyed, the group of propositions most disputed by economic historians and economists were those about the postbellum economy of the American South (along with the Great Depression). The only exception was the proposition initially put forward by historian Gavin Wright that the "modern period of the South's economic convergence to the level of the North only began in earnest when the institutional foundations of the southern regional labor market were undermined, largely by federal farm and labor legislation dating from the 1930s." 62 percent of economists (24 percent with and 38 percent without provisos) and 73 percent of historians (23 percent with and 50 percent without provisos) agreed with this statement. Wright has also argued that the private investment of monetary resources in the cotton industry, among others, delayed development in the South of commercial and industrial institutions. There was little public investment in railroads or other infrastructure. Wright argues that agricultural technology was far more developed in the South, representing an economic advantage of the South over the North of the United States. In Democracy in America, Alexis de Tocqueville noted that "the colonies in which there were no slaves became more populous and more rich than those in which slavery flourished." Economists Peter H. Lindert and Jeffrey G. Williamson, in a pair of articles published in 2012 and 2013, found that, despite the American South initially having per capita income roughly double that of the North in 1774, incomes in the South had declined 27% by 1800 and continued to decline over the next four decades, while the economies in New England and the Mid-Atlantic states vastly expanded. By 1840, per capita income in the South was well behind the Northeast and the national average (Note: this is also true in the early 21st century). Lindert and Williamson argue that this antebellum period is an example of what economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson call "a reversal of fortune". In his essay "The Real History of Slavery", economist Thomas Sowell reiterated and augmented the observation made by de Tocqueville by comparing slavery in the United States to slavery in Brazil. He notes that slave societies reflected similar economic trends in those and other parts of the world, suggesting that the trend Lindert and Williamson identify may have continued until the American Civil War: Sowell also notes in Ethnic America: A History, citing historians Clement Eaton and Eugene Genovese, that three-quarters of Southern white families owned no slaves at all. Most slaveholders lived on farms rather than plantations, and few plantations were as large as the fictional ones depicted in Gone with the Wind. In "The Real History of Slavery," Sowell also notes in comparison to slavery in the Arab world and the Middle East (where slaves were seldom used for productive purposes) and China (where the slaves consumed the entire output they created), Sowell observes that many commercial slaveowners in the antebellum South tended to be spendthrift and many lost their plantations due to creditor foreclosures, and in Britain, profits by British slave traders only amounted to two percent of British domestic investment at the height of the Atlantic slave trade in the 18th century. Sowell draws the following conclusion regarding the macroeconomic value of slavery: In short, even though some individual slaveowners grew rich and some family fortunes were founded on the exploitation of slaves, that is very different from saying that the whole society, or even its non-slave population as a whole, was more economically advanced than it would have been in the absence of slavery. What this means is that, whether employed as domestic servants or producing crops or other goods, millions suffered exploitation and dehumanization for no higher purpose than the... aggrandizement of slaveowners. Eric Hilt noted that, while some historians have suggested slavery was necessary for the Industrial Revolution (on the grounds that American slave plantations produced most of the raw cotton for the British textiles market and the British textiles market was the vanguard of the Industrial Revolution), it is not clear if this is actually true; there is no evidence that cotton could not have been mass-produced by yeoman farmers rather than slave plantations if the latter had not existed (as their existence tended to force yeoman farmers into subsistence farming) and there is some evidence that they certainly could have. The soil and climate of the American South were excellent for growing cotton, so it is not unreasonable to postulate that farms without slaves could have produced substantial amounts of cotton; even if they did not produce as much as the plantations did, it could still have been enough to serve the demand of British producers. Similar arguments have been made by other historians. Sexual economy of American slavery Scholar Adrienne Davis articulates how the economics of slavery also can be defined as a sexual economy, specifically focusing on how black women were expected to perform physical, sexual and reproductive labor to provide a consistent enslaved workforce and increase the profits of white slavers. Davis writes that black women were needed for their "sexual and reproductive labor to satisfy the economic, political, and personal interest of white men of the elite class" articulating that black women's reproductive capacity was important in the maintenance of the system of slavery due to its ability to perpetuate an enslaved workforce. She is also drawing attention to black women's labor being needed to maintain the aristocracy of a white ruling class, due to the intimate nature of reproduction and its potential for producing more enslaved peoples. Due to the institution of partus sequitur ventrem, black women's wombs became the site where slavery was developed and transferred, meaning that black women were not only used for their physical labor, but for their sexual and reproductive labor as well. "The rule that the children's status follows their mothers' was a foundational one for our economy. It converted enslaved women's reproductive capacity into market capital" This articulation by Davis illustrates how black women's reproductive capacity was commodified under slavery, and that an analysis of the economic structures of slavery requires an acknowledgment of how pivotal black women's sexuality was in maintaining slavery's economic power. Davis writes how black women performed labor under slavery, writing: "[black women were] male when convenient and horrifically female when needed" The fluctuating expectations of black women's gendered labor under slavery disrupted the white normative roles that were assigned to white men and white women. This ungendering black women received under slavery contributed to the systemic dehumanization experienced by enslaved black women, as they were unable to receive the expectations or experiences of either gender within the white binary. Davis's arguments addresses the fact that, under slavery, black women's sexuality became linked to the economic and public sphere, making their intimate lives into public institutions. Black women's physical labor was gendered as masculine under slavery when they were needed to yield more profit, but their reproductive capacities and sexual labor was equally as important in maintaining white power over black communities and perpetuating an enslaved workforce. This blurring of the line between the private and public sphere is another way Davis articulates how black women's sexuality and reproduction was commodified and exploited for capitalist gain, as their private and intimate lives became disrupted by the violence at the hands of white men, and their sexual capacities became an important part of the public marketplace and United States economy. Despite this, the slave population transported by the Atlantic slave trade to the United States was sex-balanced and most survived the passage. Despite lacking legal recognition, most slaves in the antebellum South lived in families, unlike the trans-Saharan slave trade with Africa, which was overwhelmingly female and in which the majority died en route crossing the Sahara (with the large majority of the minority of male African slaves dying as a result of crude castration procedures to produce eunuchs, who were in demand as harem attendants). 1850s In 1850, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act, as part of the Compromise of 1850, which required law enforcement and citizens of free states to cooperate in the capture and return of slaves. This met with considerable overt and covert resistance in free states and cities such as Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. Refugees from slavery continued to flee the South across the Ohio River and other parts of the Mason–Dixon line dividing North from South, to the North and Canada via the Underground Railroad. Some white Northerners helped hide former slaves from their former owners or helped them reach freedom in Canada. As part of the Compromise of 1850, Congress abolished the slave trade (though not the ownership of slaves) in the District of Columbia; fearing this would happen, Alexandria, regional slave trading center and port, successfully sought its removal from the District of Columbia and devolution to Virginia. After 1854, Republicans argued that the "Slave Power", especially the pro-slavery Democratic Party in the South, controlled two of the three branches of the Federal government. The abolitionists, realizing that the total elimination of slavery was unrealistic as an immediate goal, worked to prevent the expansion of slavery into the western territories which eventually would be new states. The Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, and the Bleeding Kansas period dealt with whether new states would be slave or free, or how that was to be decided. Both sides were anxious about effects of these decisions on the balance of power in the Senate. After the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854, border fighting broke out in the Kansas Territory, where the question of whether it would be admitted to the Union as a slave or free state was left to the inhabitants. Migrants from both free and slave states moved into the territory to prepare for the vote on slavery. Abolitionist John Brown, the most famous of the anti-slavery immigrants, was active in the fighting in "Bleeding Kansas," but so too were many white Southerners (many from adjacent Missouri) who opposed abolition. Abraham Lincoln's and the Republicans' political platform in 1860 was to stop slavery's expansion. Historian James McPherson says that in his famous "House Divided" speech in 1858, Lincoln said American republicanism can be purified by restricting the further expansion of slavery as the first step to putting it on the road to 'ultimate extinction.' Southerners took Lincoln at his word. When he won the presidency, they left the Union to escape the 'ultimate extinction' of slavery." Freedom suits and Dred Scott With the development of slave and free states after the American Revolution, and far-flung commercial and military activities, new situations arose in which slaves might be taken by masters into free states. Most free states not only prohibited slavery, but ruled that slaves brought and kept there illegally could be freed. Such cases were sometimes known as transit cases. Dred Scott and his wife Harriet Scott each sued for freedom in St. Louis after the death of their master, based on their having been held in a free territory (the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase from which slavery was excluded under the terms of the Missouri Compromise). (Later the two cases were combined under Dred Scott's name.) Scott filed suit for freedom in 1846 and went through two state trials, the first denying and the second granting freedom to the couple (and, by extension, their two daughters, who had also been held illegally in free territories). For 28 years, Missouri state precedent had generally respected laws of neighboring free states and territories, ruling for freedom in such transit cases where slaves had been held illegally in free territory. But in the Dred Scott case, the State Supreme Court ruled against the slaves. After Scott and his team appealed the case to the U.S. Supreme Court, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, in a sweeping decision, denied Scott his freedom. The 1857 decision, decided 7–2, held that a slave did not become free when taken into a free state; Congress could not bar slavery from a territory; and people of African descent imported into the United States and held as slaves, or their descendants, could never be citizens and thus had no status to bring suit in a U.S. court. A state could not bar slaveowners from bringing slaves into that state. Many Republicans, including Abraham Lincoln, considered the decision unjust and evidence that the Slave Power had seized control of the Supreme Court. Anti-slavery groups were enraged and slave owners encouraged, escalating the tensions that led to civil war. Civil War and emancipation 1860 presidential election The divisions became fully exposed with the 1860 presidential election. The electorate split four ways. The Southern Democrats endorsed slavery, while the Republicans denounced it. The Northern Democrats said democracy required the people to decide on slavery locally, state by state and territory by territory. The Constitutional Union Party said the survival of the Union was at stake and everything else should be compromised. Lincoln, the Republican, won with a plurality of popular votes and a majority of electoral votes. Lincoln, however, did not appear on the ballots of ten southern slave states. Many slave owners in the South feared that the real intent of the Republicans was the abolition of slavery in states where it already existed, and that the sudden emancipation of four million slaves would be disastrous for the slave owners and for the economy that drew its greatest profits from the labor of people who were not paid. The slave owners feared that ending the balance could lead to the domination of the federal government by the northern free states. This led seven southern states to secede from the Union. When the southern forces attacked a U.S. Army installation at Fort Sumter, the American Civil War began and four additional slave states seceded. Northern leaders had viewed the slavery interests as a threat politically, but with secession, they viewed the prospect of a new Southern nation, the Confederate States of America, with control over the Mississippi River and parts of the West, as politically unacceptable. Most of all, they could not accept this repudiation of American nationalism. Civil War The consequent American Civil War, beginning in 1861, led to the end of chattel slavery in America. Not long after the war broke out, through a legal maneuver credited to Union General Benjamin F. Butler, a lawyer by profession, slaves who came into Union "possession" were considered "contraband of war". General Butler ruled that they were not subject to return to Confederate owners as they had been before the war. Soon word spread, and many slaves sought refuge in Union territory, desiring to be declared "contraband". Many of the "contrabands" joined the Union Army as workers or troops, forming entire regiments of the U.S. Colored Troops. Others went to refugee camps such as the Grand Contraband Camp near Fort Monroe or fled to northern cities. General Butler's interpretation was reinforced when Congress passed the Confiscation Act of 1861, which declared that any property used by the Confederate military, including slaves, could be confiscated by Union forces. At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production. As Congressman George W. Julian of Indiana put it in an 1862 speech in Congress, the slaves "cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union." Julian and his fellow Radical Republicans put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization. Copperheads, the border states and War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the border states and War Democrats eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union. Emancipation Proclamation The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of three million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free". It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the slave became legally and actually free. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and had liberated all of the designated slaves. In 1861, Lincoln expressed the fear that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states. He believed that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game." At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Fremont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln mentioned his Emancipation Proclamation to members of his cabinet on July 21, 1862. Secretary of State William H. Seward told Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing the proclamation, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat". In September 1862 the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln had already published a letter encouraging the border states especially to accept emancipation as necessary to save the Union. Lincoln later said that slavery was "somehow the cause of the war". Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and said that a final proclamation would be issued if his gradual plan, based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization, was rejected. Only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, and Lincoln issued his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 was a powerful action that promised freedom for slaves in the Confederacy as soon as the Union armies reached them, and authorized the enlistment of African Americans in the Union Army. The Emancipation Proclamation did not free slaves in the Union-allied slaveholding states that bordered the Confederacy. Since the Confederate States did not recognize the authority of President Lincoln, and the proclamation did not apply in the border states, at first the proclamation freed only those slaves who had escaped behind Union lines. The proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official war goal that was implemented as the Union took territory from the Confederacy. According to the Census of 1860, this policy would free nearly four million slaves, or over 12% of the total population of the United States. Based on the President's war powers, the Emancipation Proclamation applied to territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty. Lincoln played a leading role in getting the constitutionally required two-thirds majority of both houses of Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent. Enslaved African Americans had not waited for Lincoln before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines. From the early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in Union-controlled areas such as Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862 Virginia, Tennessee from 1862 on, the line of Sherman's march, etc. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write. The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance, establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations. In addition, nearly 200,000 African-American men served with distinction in the Union forces as soldiers and sailors; most were escaped slaves. The Confederacy was outraged by armed black soldiers and refused to treat them as prisoners of war. They murdered many, as at the Fort Pillow Massacre, and re-enslaved others. On February 24, 1863, the Arizona Organic Act abolished slavery in the newly formed Arizona Territory. Tennessee and all of the border states (except Kentucky and Delaware) abolished slavery by early 1865. Thousands of slaves were freed by the operation of the Emancipation Proclamation as Union armies marched across the South. Emancipation came to the remaining Southern slaves after the surrender of all Confederate troops in spring 1865. In spite of the South's shortage of manpower, until 1865, most Southern leaders opposed arming slaves as soldiers. However, a few Confederates discussed arming slaves. Finally, in early 1865, General Robert E. Lee said that black soldiers were essential, and legislation was passed. The first black units were in training when the war ended in April. End of slavery Booker T. Washington remembered Emancipation Day in early 1863, when he was a boy of9 in Virginia: The war ended on June 22, 1865, and following that surrender, the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced throughout remaining regions of the South that had not yet freed the slaves. Slavery officially continued for a couple of months in other locations. Federal troops arrived in Galveston, Texas, on June 19, 1865, to enforce the emancipation. The commemoration of that event, Juneteenth National Independence Day, has been declared a national holiday in 2021. The Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery except as punishment for a crime, had been passed by the Senate in April 1864, and by the House of Representatives in January 1865. The amendment did not take effect until it was ratified by three-fourths of the states, which occurred on December 6, 1865, when Georgia ratified it. On that date, the last 40,000–45,000 enslaved Americans in the remaining two slave states of Kentucky and Delaware, as well as the 200 or so perpetual apprentices in New Jersey left from the very gradual emancipation process begun in 1804, were freed. Cost comparisons The American historian R. R. Palmer opined that the abolition of slavery in the United States without compensation to the former slave owners was an "annihilation of individual property rights without parallel...in the history of the Western world". Economic historian Robert E. Wright argues that it would have been much cheaper, with minimal deaths, if the federal government had purchased and freed all the slaves, rather than fighting the Civil War. Another economic historian, Roger Ransom, writes that Gerald Gunderson compared compensated emancipation to the cost of the war and "notes that the two are roughly the same order of magnitude2.5 to 3.7 billion dollars". Ransom also writes that compensated emancipation would have tripled federal outlays if paid over the period of 25 years and was a program that had no political support within the United States during the 1860s. Reconstruction to the present Journalist Douglas A. Blackmon reported in his Pulitzer Prize-winning book Slavery By Another Name that many black persons were virtually enslaved under convict leasing programs, which started after the Civil War. Most Southern states had no prisons; they leased convicts to businesses and farms for their labor, and the lessee paid for food and board. The incentives for abuse were satisfied. The continued involuntary servitude took various forms, but the primary forms included convict leasing, peonage, and sharecropping, with the latter eventually encompassing poor whites as well. By the 1930s, whites constituted most of the sharecroppers in the South. Mechanization of agriculture had reduced the need for farm labor, and many black people left the South in the Great Migration. Jurisdictions and states created fines and sentences for a wide variety of minor crimes and used these as an excuse to arrest and sentence black people. Under convict leasing programs, African American men, often guilty of no crime at all, were arrested, compelled to work without pay, repeatedly bought and sold, and coerced to do the bidding of the leaseholder. Sharecropping, as it was practiced during this period, often involved severe restrictions on the freedom of movement of sharecroppers, who could be whipped for leaving the plantation. Both sharecropping and convict leasing were legal and tolerated by both the North and South. However, peonage was an illicit form of forced labor. Its existence was ignored by authorities while thousands of African Americans and poor Anglo-Americans were subjugated and held in bondage until the mid-1960s to the late 1970s. With the exception of cases of peonage, beyond the period of Reconstruction, the federal government took almost no action to enforce the 13th Amendment until December 1941 when President Franklin Delano Roosevelt summoned his attorney general. Five days after Pearl Harbor, at the request of the President, Attorney General Francis Biddle issued Circular No. 3591 to all federal prosecutors, instructing them to actively investigate and try any case of involuntary servitude or slavery. Several months later, convict leasing was officially abolished. But aspects have persisted in other forms. Historians argue that other systems of penal labor were all created in 1865, and convict leasing was simply the most oppressive form. Over time a large civil rights movement arose to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans. Convict leasing With emancipation a legal reality, white Southerners were concerned with both controlling the newly freed slaves and keeping them in the labor force at the lowest level. The system of convict leasing began during Reconstruction and was fully implemented in the 1880s and officially ending in the last state, Alabama, in 1928. It persisted in various forms until it was abolished in 1942 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, several months after the attack on Pearl Harbor involved the U.S. in the conflict. This system allowed private contractors to purchase the services of convicts from the state or local governments for a specific time period. African Americans, due to "vigorous and selective enforcement of laws and discriminatory sentencing," made up the vast majority of the convicts leased. Writer Douglas A. Blackmon writes of the system: The constitutional basis for convict leasing is that the Thirteenth Amendment, while abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude generally, expressly permits it as a punishment for crime. Educational issues The anti-literacy laws after 1832 contributed greatly to the problem of widespread illiteracy facing the freedmen and other African Americans after Emancipation and the Civil War 35 years later. The problem of illiteracy and need for education was seen as one of the greatest challenges confronting these people as they sought to join the free enterprise system and support themselves during Reconstruction and thereafter. Consequently, many black and white religious organizations, former Union Army officers and soldiers, and wealthy philanthropists were inspired to create and fund educational efforts specifically for the betterment of African Americans; some African Americans had started their own schools before the end of the war. Northerners helped create numerous normal schools, such as those that became Hampton University and Tuskegee University, to generate teachers, as well as other colleges for former slaves. Blacks held teaching as a high calling, with education the first priority for children and adults. Many of the most talented went into the field. Some of the schools took years to reach a high standard, but they managed to get thousands of teachers started. As W. E. B. Du Bois noted, the black colleges were not perfect, but "in a single generation they put thirty thousand black teachers in the South" and "wiped out the illiteracy of the majority of black people in the land". Northern philanthropists continued to support black education in the 20th century, even as tensions rose within the black community, exemplified by Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois, as to the proper emphasis between industrial and classical academic education at the college level. An example of a major donor to Hampton Institute and Tuskegee was George Eastman, who also helped fund health programs at colleges and in communities. Collaborating with Washington in the early decades of the 20th century, philanthropist Julius Rosenwald provided matching funds for community efforts to build rural schools for black children. He insisted on white and black cooperation in the effort, wanting to ensure that white-controlled school boards made a commitment to maintain the schools. By the 1930s local parents had helped raise funds (sometimes donating labor and land) to create over 5,000 rural schools in the South. Other philanthropists, such as Henry H. Rogers and Andrew Carnegie, each of whom had arisen from modest roots to become wealthy, used matching fund grants to stimulate local development of libraries and schools. Apologies On February 24, 2007, the Virginia General Assembly passed House Joint Resolution Number 728 acknowledging "with profound regret the involuntary servitude of Africans and the exploitation of Native Americans, and call for reconciliation among all Virginians". With the passing of this resolution, Virginia became the first state to acknowledge through the state's governing body their state's negative involvement in slavery. The passing of this resolution was in anticipation of the 400th anniversary commemoration of the founding of Jamestown, Virginia (the first permanent English settlement in North America), which was an early colonial slave port. Apologies have also been issued by Alabama, Florida, Maryland, North Carolina and New Jersey. On July 29, 2008, during the 110th United States Congress session, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution 'HR. 194' apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws. The U.S. Senate unanimously passed a similar resolution on June 18, 2009, apologizing for the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery". It also explicitly states that it cannot be used for restitution claims. Political legacy A 2016 study, published in The Journal of Politics, finds that "Whites who currently live in Southern counties that had high shares of slaves in 1860 are more likely to identify as a Republican, oppose affirmative action, and express racial resentment and colder feelings toward blacks." The study contends that "contemporary differences in political attitudes across counties in the American South in part trace their origins to slavery's prevalence more than 150 years ago. " The authors argue that their findings are consistent with the theory that "following the Civil War, Southern whites faced political and economic incentives to reinforce existing racist norms and institutions to maintain control over the newly freed African American population. This amplified local differences in racially conservative political attitudes, which in turn have been passed down locally across generations." A 2017 study in the British Journal of Political Science argued that the British American colonies without slavery adopted better democratic institutions in order to attract migrant workers to their colonies. Native Americans Native Americans as slaves During the 17th and 18th centuries, Native American slavery, the enslavement of Native Americans by European colonists, was common. Many of these Native slaves were exported to the Northern colonies and to off-shore colonies, especially the "sugar islands" of the Caribbean. The exact number of Native Americans who were enslaved is unknown because vital statistics and census reports were at best infrequent. Historian Alan Gallay estimates that from 1670 to 1715, British slave traders sold between 24,000 and 51,000 Native Americans from what is now the southern part of the U.S. Andrés Reséndez estimates that between 147,000 and 340,000 Native Americans were enslaved in North America, excluding Mexico. Even after the Indian Slave Trade ended in 1750 the enslavement of Native Americans continued in the west, and also in the Southern states mostly through kidnappings. Slavery of Native Americans was organized in colonial and Mexican California through Franciscan missions, theoretically entitled to ten years of Native labor, but in practice maintaining them in perpetual servitude, until their charge was revoked in the mid-1830s. Following the 1847–48 invasion by U.S. troops, the "loitering or orphaned Indians" were de facto enslaved in the new state from statehood in 1850 to 1867. Slavery required the posting of a bond by the slave holder and enslavement occurred through raids and a four-month servitude imposed as a punishment for Indian "vagrancy". Native Americans holding African-American slaves After 1800, some of the Cherokee and the other four civilized tribes of the Southeast started buying and using black slaves as labor. They continued this practice after removal to Indian Territory in the 1830s, when as many as 15,000 enslaved blacks were taken with them. The nature of slavery in Cherokee society often mirrored that of white slave-owning society. The law barred intermarriage of Cherokees and enslaved African Americans, but Cherokee men had unions with enslaved women, resulting in mixed-race children. Cherokee who aided slaves were punished with one hundred lashes on the back. In Cherokee society, persons of African descent were barred from holding office even if they were also racially and culturally Cherokee. They were also barred from bearing arms and owning property. The Cherokee prohibited the teaching of African Americans to read and write. By contrast, the Seminole welcomed into their nation African Americans who had escaped slavery (Black Seminoles). Historically, the Black Seminoles lived mostly in distinct bands near the Native American Seminole. Some were held as slaves of particular Seminole leaders. Seminole practice in Florida had acknowledged slavery, though not the chattel slavery model common elsewhere. It was, in fact, more like feudal dependency and taxation. The relationship between Seminole blacks and natives changed following their relocation in the 1830s to territory controlled by the Creek who had a system of chattel slavery. Pro slavery pressure from Creek and pro-Creek Seminole and slave raiding led to many Black Seminoles escaping to Mexico. Inter-tribal slavery The Haida and Tlingit Indians who lived along the southeastern Alaskan coast were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary after slaves were taken as prisoners of war. Among some Pacific Northwest tribes, about a quarter of the population were slaves. Other slave-owning tribes of North America were, for example, Comanche of Texas, Creek of Georgia, the fishing societies, such as the Yurok, that lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California; the Pawnee, and Klamath. Some tribes held people as captive slaves late in the 19th century. For instance, "Ute Woman", was a Ute captured by the Arapaho and later sold to a Cheyenne. She was kept by the Cheyenne to be used as a prostitute to serve American soldiers at Cantonment in the Indian Territory. She lived in slavery until about 1880. She died of a hemorrhage resulting from "excessive sexual intercourse". Black slave owners Slave owners included a comparatively small number of people of at least partial African ancestry, in each of the original thirteen colonies and later states and territories that allowed slavery; in some early cases black Americans also had white indentured servants. An African former indentured servant who settled in Virginia in 1621, Anthony Johnson, became one of the earliest documented slave owners in the mainland American colonies when he won a civil suit for ownership of John Casor. In 1830, there were 3,775 black (including mixed-race) slaveholders in the South who owned a total of 12,760 slaves, which was a small percentage of a total of over two million slaves then held in the South. 80% of the black slaveholders were located in Louisiana, South Carolina, Virginia and Maryland. There were economic and ethnic differences between free blacks of the Upper South and the Deep South, with the latter fewer in number, but wealthier and typically of mixed race. Half of the black slaveholders lived in cities rather than the countryside, with most living in New Orleans and Charleston. In particular, New Orleans had a large, relatively wealthy free black population (gens de couleur) composed of people of mixed race, who had become a third social class between whites and enslaved blacks, under French and Spanish colonial rule. Relatively few non-white slaveholders were substantial planters; of those who were, most were of mixed race, often endowed by white fathers with some property and social capital. For example, Andrew Durnford of New Orleans was listed as owning 77 slaves. According to Rachel Kranz: "Durnford was known as a stern master who worked his slaves hard and punished them often in his efforts to make his Louisiana sugar plantation a success." In the years leading up to the Civil War, Antoine Dubuclet, who owned over a hundred slaves, was considered the wealthiest black slaveholder in Louisiana. The historians John Hope Franklin and Loren Schweninger wrote: The historian Ira Berlin wrote: African-American history and culture scholar Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote: Free blacks were perceived "as a continual symbolic threat to slaveholders, challenging the idea that 'black' and 'slave' were synonymous". Free blacks were sometimes seen as potential allies of fugitive slaves and "slaveholders bore witness to their fear and loathing of free blacks in no uncertain terms." For free blacks, who had only a precarious hold on freedom, "slave ownership was not simply an economic convenience but indispensable evidence of the free blacks' determination to break with their slave past and their silent acceptanceif not approvalof slavery." The historian James Oakes, in 1982, stated that: In his 1985 statewide study of black slaveholders in South Carolina, Larry Koger challenged this benevolent view. He found that the majority of mixed-race or black slaveholders appeared to hold at least some of their slaves for commercial reasons. For instance, he noted that in 1850 more than 80% of black slaveholders were of mixed race, but nearly 90% of their slaves were classified as black. Koger also noted that many South Carolina free blacks operated small businesses as skilled artisans, and many owned slaves working in those businesses. "Koger emphasizes that it was all too common for freed slaves to become slaveholders themselves." Some free black slaveholders in New Orleans offered to fight for Louisiana in the Civil War. Over 1,000 free black people volunteered and formed the 1st Louisiana Native Guard (CSA), which was disbanded without even seeing combat. Distribution Distribution of slaves For various reasons, the census did not always include all of the slaves, especially in the West. California was admitted as a free state and reported no slaves. However, there were many slaves that were brought to work in the mines during the California Gold Rush. Some Californian communities openly tolerated slavery, such as San Bernardino, which was mostly made up of transplants from the neighboring slave territory of Utah. New Mexico Territory never reported any slaves on the census, yet sued the government for compensation for 600 slaves that were freed when Congress outlawed slavery in the territory. Utah was actively trying to hide its slave population from Congress and did not report slaves in several communities. Additionally, the census did not traditionally include Native Americans, and hence did not include Native American slaves or Native African slaves owned by Native Americans. There were hundreds of Native American slaves in California,<ref>Castillo, E.D. 1998. "Short Overview of California Indian History" , California Native American Heritage Commission, 1998. Retrieved October 24, 2007.</ref> Utah and New Mexico that were never recorded in the census. Distribution of slaveholders As of the 1860 Census, one may compute the following statistics on slaveholding: Enumerating slave schedules by county, 393,975 named persons held 3,950,546 unnamed slaves, for an average of about ten slaves per holder. As some large holders held slaves in multiple counties and are thus multiply counted, this slightly overestimates the number of slaveholders. Excluding slaves, the 1860 U.S. population was 27,167,529; therefore, approximately 1.45% of free persons (roughly one in 69) was a named slaveholder (393,975 named slaveholders among 27,167,529 free persons). By counting only named slaveholders, this approach does not acknowledge people who benefited from slavery by being in a slaveowning household, e.g., the wife and children of an owner; in 1850, there was an average of 5.55 people per household, so on average, around 8.05% of free persons lived in a slave-owning household. In the South, 33% of families owned at least one slave. According to historian Joseph Glatthaar, the number of soldiers of the Confederacy's Army of Northern Virginia who either owned slaves or came from slave owning households is "almost one of every two 1861 recruits". In addition he notes that, "Untold numbers of enlistees rented land from, sold crops to, or worked for slaveholders. In the final tabulation, the vast majority of the volunteers of 1861 had a direct connection to slavery." It is estimated by the transcriber Tom Blake, that holders of 200 or more slaves, constituting less than 1% of all U.S. slaveholders (fewer than 4,000 persons, one in 7,000 free persons, or 0.015% of the population) held an estimated 20–30% of all slaves (800,000 to 1,200,000 slaves). Nineteen holders of 500 or more slaves have been identified. The largest slaveholder was Joshua John Ward, of Georgetown, South Carolina, who in 1850 held 1,092 slaves, and whose heirs in 1860 held 1,130 or 1,131 slaveshe was dubbed "the king of the rice planters", and one of his plantations is now part of Brookgreen Gardens. The percentage of families that owned slaves in 1860 in various groupings of states was as follows: Historiography The historian Peter Kolchin, writing in 1993, noted that until the latter decades of the 20th century, historians of slavery had primarily concerned themselves with the culture, practices and economics of the slaveholders, not with the slaves. This was in part due to the circumstance that most slaveholders were literate and left behind written records, whereas slaves were largely illiterate and not in a position to leave written records. Scholars differed as to whether slavery should be considered a benign or a "harshly exploitive" institution. Much of the history written prior to the 1950s had a distinctive racist slant to it. By the 1970s and 1980s, historians were using archaeological records, black folklore and statistical data to develop a much more detailed and nuanced picture of slave life. Individuals were shown to have been resilient and somewhat autonomous in many of their activities, within the limits of their situation and despite its precariousness. Historians who wrote in this era include John Blassingame (Slave Community), Eugene Genovese (Roll, Jordan, Roll), Leslie Howard Owens (This Species of Property), and Herbert Gutman (The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom). See also Abolition of slavery timeline American Descendants of Slavery (ADOS) American slave court cases The Bible and slavery Education during the slave period Fugitive slaves in the United States Historiography of slavery in the U.S. Human trafficking in the United States List of notable opponents of slavery Old Slave Mart, museum in Charleston, S.C. Origins of the American Civil War Reparations for slavery debate in the United States Reverse Underground Railroad Slave health on plantations in the United States Slave narrative Slavery among Native Americans in the United States Slavery at American colleges and universities Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies Trail of Tears Triangular trade History of slavery in individual states and territories Alabama Arkansas Alaska California Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Missouri Mississippi Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina Ohio Pennsylvania Rhode Island Tennessee Texas South Carolina Utah Vermont Virginia West Virginia Notes References Bibliography National and comparative studies Berlin, Ira. Generations of Captivity: A History of African American Slaves. (2003) . Berlin, Ira. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Harvard University Press, 1998. Berlin, Ira and Ronald Hoffman, eds. Slavery and Freedom in the Age of the American Revolution University Press of Virginia, 1983. essays by scholars Blackmon, Douglas A. Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II. (2008) . Blassingame, John W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South Oxford University Press, 1979. . David, Paul A. and Temin, Peter. "Slavery: The Progressive Institution?", Journal of Economic History. Vol. 34, No.3 (September 1974) Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (2006) Elkins, Stanley. Slavery : A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life. University of Chicago Press, 1976. Fehrenbacher, Don E. Slavery, Law, and Politics: The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective Oxford University Press, 1981 Fogel, Robert W. Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery W.W. Norton, 1989. Econometric approach Foner, Eric. The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (2010), Pulitzer Prize excerpt and text search Franklin, John Hope and Loren Schweninger. Runaway Slaves: Rebels on the Plantation. (1999) . Gallay, Alan. The Indian Slave Trade (2002). Genovese, Eugene D. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made Pantheon Books, 1974. Genovese, Eugene D. The Political Economy of Slavery: Studies in the Economy and Society of the Slave South (1967) Genovese, Eugene D. and Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Fruits of Merchant Capital: Slavery and Bourgeois Property in the Rise and Expansion of Capitalism (1983) Hahn, Steven. "The Greatest Slave Rebellion in Modern History: Southern Slaves in the American Civil War." Southern Spaces (2004) Higginbotham, A. Leon, Jr. In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period. Oxford University Press, 1978. Horton, James Oliver and Horton, Lois E. Slavery and the Making of America. (2005) Kolchin, Peter. American Slavery, 1619–1877 Hill and Wang, 1993. Survey Litwack, Leon F. Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (1979), social history of how slavery ended in the Confederacy Mason, Matthew. Slavery and Politics in the Early American Republic. (2006) . Moon, Dannell, "Slavery", article in Encyclopedia of rape, Merril D. Smith (Ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004 Moore, Wilbert Ellis, American Negro Slavery and Abolition: A Sociological Study, Ayer Publishing, 1980 Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia W.W. Norton, 1975. Morris, Thomas D. Southern Slavery and the Law, 1619–1860 University of North Carolina Press, 1996. Oakes, James. The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders. (1982) . Ransom, Roger L. "Was It Really All That Great to Be a Slave?" Agricultural History, Vol. 48, No.4 (1974) in JSTOR Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2007. Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007. Scarborough, William K. The Overseer: Plantation Management in the Old South (1984) Schermerhorn, Calvin. The Business of Slavery and the Rise of American Capitalism, 1815–1860. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015. Snyder, Terri L. The Power to Die: Slavery and Suicide in British North America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015. Stampp, Kenneth M. The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (1956) Survey Stampp, Kenneth M. "Interpreting the Slaveholders' World: a Review." Agricultural History 1970 44(4): 407–12. ISSN 0002-1482 Tadman, Michael. Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. Wright, W. D. Historians and Slavery; A Critical Analysis of Perspectives and Irony in American Slavery and Other Recent Works Washington, D.C.: University Press of America (1978) State and local studies Fields, Barbara J. Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century Yale University Press, 1985. Jewett, Clayton E. and John O. Allen; Slavery in the South: A State-By-State History Greenwood Press, 2004 Jennison, Watson W. Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750–1860 (University Press of Kentucky; 2012) Kulikoff, Alan. Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680–1800 University of North Carolina Press, 1986. Minges, Patrick N.; Slavery in the Cherokee Nation: The Keetoowah Society and the Defining of a People, 1855–1867 2003 deals with Indian slave owners. Mohr, Clarence L. On the Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia University of Georgia Press, 1986. Mooney, Chase C. Slavery in Tennessee Indiana University Press, 1957. Olwell, Robert. Masters, Slaves, & Subjects: The Culture of Power in the South Carolina Low Country, 1740–1790 Cornell University Press, 1998. Reidy, Joseph P. From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South, Central Georgia, 1800–1880 University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Ripley, C. Peter. Slaves and Freemen in Civil War Louisiana Louisiana State University Press, 1976. Rivers, Larry Eugene. Slavery in Florida: Territorial Days to Emancipation University Press of Florida, 2000. Sellers, James Benson; Slavery in Alabama University of Alabama Press, 1950 Sydnor, Charles S. Slavery in Mississippi. 1933 Takagi, Midori. Rearing Wolves to Our Own Destruction: Slavery in Richmond, Virginia, 1782–1865 University Press of Virginia, 1999. Taylor, Joe Gray. Negro Slavery in Louisiana. Louisiana Historical Society, 1963. Trexler, Harrison Anthony. Slavery in Missouri, 1804–1865 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1914) online edition Wood, Peter H. Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion W.W. Norton & Company, 1974. Video Jenkins, Gary (director). Negroes To Hire (Lifedocumentaries, 2010); 52 minutes DVD; on slavery in Missouri Historiography Ayers, Edward L. "The American Civil War, Emancipation, and Reconstruction on the World Stage," OAH Magazine of History, January 2006, Vol. 20, Issue 1, pp.54–60 Berlin, Ira. "American Slavery in History and Memory and the Search for Social Justice," Journal of American History, March 2004, Vol. 90, Issue 4, pp.1251–1268 Boles, John B. and Evelyn T. Nolen, eds., Interpreting Southern History: Historiographical Essays in Honor of Sanford W. Higginbotham (1987). Brown, Vincent. "Social Death and Political Life in the Study of Slavery," American Historical Review, December 2009, Vol. 114, Issue 5, pp.1231–1249, examined historical and sociological studies since the influential 1982 book Slavery and Social Death by American sociologist Orlando Patterson Campbell, Gwyn. "Children and slavery in the new world: A review," Slavery & Abolition, August 2006, Vol. 27, Issue 2, pp.261–285 Collins, Bruce. "Review: American Slavery and Its Consequences" Historical Journal (1979) 33#4 pp.997–1015 online Dirck, Brian. "Changing Perspectives on Lincoln, Race, and Slavery," OAH Magazine of History, October 2007, Vol. 21, Issue 4, pp.9–12 Farrow, Anne; Lang, Joel; Frank, Jenifer. Complicity: How the North Promoted, Prolonged, and Profited from Slavery. Ballantine Books, 2006 Fogel, Robert W. The Slavery Debates, 1952–1990: A Retrospective (2007) Frey, Sylvia R. "The Visible Church: Historiography of African American Religion since Raboteau," Slavery & Abolition, January 2008, Vol. 29 Issue 1, pp.83–110 Hettle, Wallace. "White Society in the Old South: The Literary Evidence Reconsidered," Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South, Fall/Winter 2006, Vol. 13, Issue 3/4, pp 29–44 King, Richard H. "Marxism and the Slave South", American Quarterly 29 (1977), 117–31. focus on Genovese Kolchin, Peter. "American Historians and Antebellum Southern Slavery, 1959–1984", in William J. Cooper, Michael F. Holt, and John McCardell, eds., A Master's Due: Essays in Honor of David Herbert Donald (1985), 87–111 Laurie, Bruce. "Workers, Abolitionists, and the Historians: A Historiographical Perspective," Labor: Studies in Working Class History of the Americas, Winter 2008, Vol. 5, Issue 4, pp.17–55 Neely Jr., Mark E. "Lincoln, Slavery, and the Nation," Journal of American History, September 2009, Vol. 96 Issue 2, pp.456–458 Parish; Peter J. Slavery: History and Historians Westview Press. 1989 Penningroth, Dylan. "Writing Slavery's History," OAH Magazine of History, April 2009, Vol. 23 Issue 2, pp.13–20, basic overview Rael, Patrick. Eighty-Eight Years: The Long Death of Slavery in the United States, 1777–1865. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2015. Sidbury, James. "Globalization, Creolization, and the Not-So-Peculiar Institution," Journal of Southern History, August 2007, Vol. 73, Issue 3, pp.617–630, on colonial era Stuckey, P. Sterling. "Reflections on the Scholarship of African Origins and Influence in American Slavery," Journal of African American History, Fall 2006, Vol. 91 Issue 4, pp.425–443 Sweet, John Wood. "The Subject of the Slave Trade: Recent Currents in the Histories of the Atlantic, Great Britain, and Western Africa," Early American Studies, An Interdisciplinary Journal, Spring 2009, Vol.7 Issue 1, pp.1–45 Tadman, Michael. "The Reputation of the Slave Trader in Southern History and the Social Memory of the South," American Nineteenth Century History, September 2007, Vol. 8, Issue 3, pp.247–271 Tulloch, Hugh. The Debate on the American Civil War Era (1998), ch. 2–4 Primary sources Albert, Octavia V. Rogers. The House of Bondage Or Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves. Oxford University Press, 1991. Primary sources with commentary. The House of Bondage, or, Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves, Original and Life-Like complete text of original 1890 edition, along with cover & title page images, at website of University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Berlin, Ira, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowlands, eds. Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867 5vol Cambridge University Press, 1982. Very large collection of primary sources regarding the end of slavery. Berlin, Ira, Marc Favreau, and Steven F. Miller, eds. Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk About Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Emancipation The New Press: 2007. Blassingame, John W., ed. Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies. Louisiana State University Press, 1977. Burke, Diane Mutti, On Slavery's Border: Missouri's Small Slaveholding Households, 1815–1865, De Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. (1994 Edition by Alfred A Knopf, Inc) A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845) (Project Gutenberg), (Audio book at FreeAudio.org) "The Heroic Slave." Autographs for Freedom. Ed. Julia Griffiths Boston: Jewett and Company, 1853. 174–239. Available at the Documenting the American South website. Frederick Douglass My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) (Project Gutenberg) Frederick Douglass Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (1892) Frederick Douglass Collected Articles Of Frederick Douglass, A Slave (Project Gutenberg)Frederick Douglass: Autobiographies by Frederick Douglass, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. Editor. (Omnibus of all three) Litwack, Leon Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery. (1979) Winner of the 1981 National Book Award for history and the 1980 Pulitzer Prize for History. Litwack, Leon North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860 (University of Chicago Press: 1961) Document: "List Negroes at Spring Garden with their ages taken January 1829" (title taken from document) Missouri History Museum Archives Slavery Collection Rawick, George P., ed. The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography. 19 vols. Greenwood Publishing Company, 1972. Collection of WPA interviews made in the 1930s with ex-slaves Further reading Scholarly books Scholarly articles Hilt, Eric. (2010). "Revisiting Time on the Cross After 45 Years: The Slavery Debates and the New Economic History." Capitalism: A Journal of History and Economics, Volume 1, Number 2, pp.456–483. Naidu, S. (2020). "American slavery and labour market power." Economic History of Developing Regions, 35(1), 3–22. doi:10.1080/20780389.2020.1734312 Oral histories and autobiographies of ex-slaves Discussions by foreigners Literary and cultural criticism Ryan, Tim A. Calls and Responses: The American Novel of Slavery since Gone with the Wind. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008. Van Deburg, William. Slavery and Race in American Popular Culture. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984. James Monroe Whitfield black Abolitionist poet, "America and other poems" 1853 Documentary films External links Slavery in America: A Resource Guide, Library of Congress "Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers' Project, 1936 to 1938", Library of Congress "Voices Remembering Slavery: Freed People Tell Their Stories", audio interviews of former slaves, 1932–1975, Library of Congress Digital Library on American Slavery at University of North Carolina at Greensboro Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice "Slavery and the Making of America", WNET (4-part series) Slavery in America at the History Channel A Dream Deferred: African Americans at Emory and Oxford Colleges, 1836-1968 at Emory University's MARIAL Center "Slavery in the United States", Economic History Encyclopedia, March 26, 2008 North American Slave Narratives, Documenting the American South, Louis Round Wilson Library "Slavery and Civil War digital collection", scanned original documents, Grand Valley State University "How Slavery Really Ended in America", New York Times Magazine, April 1, 2011 "The Color Line", 6-page lesson plan for high school, Zinn Education Project "The First Slaves", 15-page teaching guide for high school, Zinn Education Project "Harvesting Cotton-Field Capitalism: Edward Baptist's New Book Follows the Money on Slavery", The New York Times, October 3, 2014 "5 Things About Slavery You Probably Didn't Learn In Social Studies: A Short Guide To 'The Half Has Never Been Told'", HuffPost, October 25, 2014 9 Facts About Slavery They Don't Want You to Know "Slavery" maps in the U.S. Persuasive Cartography collection, Cornell University Library The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database has information on almost 36,000 slaving voyages 1850: New Orleans woman and child she held in slavery American Capitalism Is Brutal. You Can Trace That to the Plantation. The New York Times Magazine''. August 14, 2019. 1865 disestablishments in the United States White supremacy African-American-related controversies Race-related controversies in the United States Political controversies in the United States African-American cultural history African-American history African diaspora history Cultural history of the United States Economic history of the American Civil War Economic history of the United States 18th century in the United States 19th century in the United States Native American history Plantations in the United States Politics of the American Civil War Slavery of Native Americans Social history of the American Civil War Social history of the United States White supremacy in the United States Political compromises in the United States Black slave owners in the United States	[ -0.17351685464382172, -0.13388511538505554, -0.9292021989822388, 0.21964536607265472, 0.5978171229362488, 0.2695409953594208, 0.46949562430381775, 0.5401046276092529, -0.3504894971847534, 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253272	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten%20kinetics	Michaelis–Menten kinetics	In biochemistry, Michaelis–Menten kinetics is one of the best-known models of enzyme kinetics. It is named after German biochemist Leonor Michaelis and Canadian physician Maud Menten. The model takes the form of an equation describing the rate of enzymatic reactions, by relating reaction rate (rate of formation of product, ) to , the concentration of a substrate S. Its formula is given by This equation is called the Michaelis–Menten equation. Here, represents the maximum rate achieved by the system, happening at saturating substrate concentration for a given enzyme concentration. When the value of the Michaelis constant is numerically equal to the substrate concentration, then the reaction rate is half of . Biochemical reactions involving a single substrate are often assumed to follow Michaelis–Menten kinetics, without regard to the model's underlying assumptions. Model In 1901, French physical chemist Victor Henri found that enzyme reactions were initiated by a bond (more generally, a binding interaction) between the enzyme and the substrate. His work was taken up by German biochemist Leonor Michaelis and Canadian physician Maud Menten, who investigated the kinetics of an enzymatic reaction mechanism, invertase, that catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose. In 1913, they proposed a mathematical model of the reaction. It involves an enzyme, E, binding to a substrate, S, to form a complex, ES, which in turn releases a product, P, regenerating the original enzyme. This may be represented schematically as E{} + S <=>[\mathit{k_f}][\mathit{k_r}] ES ->[k_\ce{cat}] E{} + P where (forward rate constant), (reverse rate constant), and (catalytic rate constant) denote the rate constants, the double arrows between S (substrate) and ES (enzyme-substrate complex) represent the fact that enzyme-substrate binding is a reversible process, and the single forward arrow represents the formation of P (product). Under certain assumptions – such as the enzyme concentration being much less than the substrate concentration – the rate of product formation is given by The reaction order depends on the relative size of the two terms in the denominator. At low substrate concentration , so that the reaction rate varies linearly with substrate concentration [S] (first-order kinetics). However at higher [S] with , the reaction becomes independent of [S] (zero-order kinetics) and asymptotically approaches its maximum rate , where [E]_0 is the initial enzyme concentration. This rate is attained when all enzyme is bound to substrate. , the turnover number, is the maximum number of substrate molecules converted to product per enzyme molecule per second. Further addition of substrate does not increase the rate which is said to be saturated. The value of the Michaelis constant is numerically equal to the [S] at which the reaction rate is at half-maximum, and is a measure of the substrate's affinity for the enzyme—a small indicates high affinity, meaning that the rate will approach with lower [S] than those reactions with a larger . The constant is not affected by the concentration or purity of an enzyme. The value of is dependent on both the identity of enzyme and that of the substrate, as well as conditions such as temperature and pH. The model is used in a variety of biochemical situations other than enzyme-substrate interaction, including antigen–antibody binding, DNA–DNA hybridization, and protein–protein interaction. It can be used to characterise a generic biochemical reaction, in the same way that the Langmuir equation can be used to model generic adsorption of biomolecular species. When an empirical equation of this form is applied to microbial growth, it is sometimes called a Monod equation. Applications Parameter values vary widely between enzymes: The constant (catalytic efficiency) is a measure of how efficiently an enzyme converts a substrate into product. Diffusion limited enzymes, such as fumarase, work at the theoretical upper limit of , limited by diffusion of substrate into the active site. Michaelis–Menten kinetics have also been applied to a variety of spheres outside of biochemical reactions, including alveolar clearance of dusts, the richness of species pools, clearance of blood alcohol, the photosynthesis-irradiance relationship, and bacterial phage infection. The equation can also be used to describe the relationship between ion channel conductivity and ligand concentration. Derivation Applying the law of mass action, which states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants (i.e. ), gives a system of four non-linear ordinary differential equations that define the rate of change of reactants with time In this mechanism, the enzyme E is a catalyst, which only facilitates the reaction, so that its total concentration, free plus combined, is a constant (i.e. ). This conservation law can also be observed by adding the first and third equations above. Equilibrium approximation In their original analysis, Michaelis and Menten assumed that the substrate is in instantaneous chemical equilibrium with the complex, which implies From the enzyme conservation law, we obtain Combining the two expressions above, gives us Upon simplification, we get where is the dissociation constant for the enzyme-substrate complex. Hence the velocity of the reaction – the rate at which P is formed – is where is the maximum reaction velocity. Quasi-steady-state approximation An alternative analysis of the system was undertaken by British botanist G. E. Briggs and British geneticist J. B. S. Haldane in 1925. They assumed that the concentration of the intermediate complex does not change on the time-scale of product formation – known as the quasi-steady-state assumption or pseudo-steady-state-hypothesis. Mathematically, this assumption means . This is mathematically the same as the previous equation, with replaced by . Hence, following the same steps as above, the velocity of the reaction is where is known as the Michaelis constant. Assumptions and limitations The first step in the derivation applies the law of mass action, which is reliant on free diffusion. However, in the environment of a living cell where there is a high concentration of proteins, the cytoplasm often behaves more like a viscous gel than a free-flowing liquid, limiting molecular movements by diffusion and altering reaction rates. Although the law of mass action can be valid in heterogeneous environments, it is more appropriate to model the cytoplasm as a fractal, in order to capture its limited-mobility kinetics. The resulting reaction rates predicted by the two approaches are similar, with the only difference being that the equilibrium approximation defines the constant as , whilst the quasi-steady-state approximation uses . However, each approach is founded upon a different assumption. The Michaelis–Menten equilibrium analysis is valid if the substrate reaches equilibrium on a much faster time-scale than the product is formed or, more precisely, that By contrast, the Briggs–Haldane quasi-steady-state analysis is valid if Thus it holds if the enzyme concentration is much less than the substrate concentration or or both. In both the Michaelis–Menten and Briggs–Haldane analyses, the quality of the approximation improves as decreases. However, in model building, Michaelis–Menten kinetics are often invoked without regard to the underlying assumptions. Importantly, while irreversibility is a necessary simplification in order to yield a tractable analytic solution, in the general case product formation is not in fact irreversible. The enzyme reaction is more correctly described as E{} + S <=>[\mathit{k_{f_1}}][\mathit{k_{r_1}}] ES <=>[\mathit{k_{f_2}}][\mathit{k_{r_2}}] E{} + P. In general, the assumption of irreversibility is a good one in situations where one of the below is true: 1. The concentration of substrate(s) is very much larger than the concentration of products: [S] \gg [P]. This is true under standard in vitro assay conditions, and is true for many in vivo biological reactions, particularly where the product is continually removed by a subsequent reaction. 2. The energy released in the reaction is very large, that is In situations where neither of these two conditions hold (that is, the reaction is low energy and a substantial pool of product(s) exists), the Michaelis–Menten equation breaks down, and more complex modelling approaches explicitly taking the forward and reverse reactions into account must be taken to understand the enzyme biology. Determination of constants The typical method for determining the constants and involves running a series of enzyme assays at varying substrate concentrations , and measuring the initial reaction rate . 'Initial' here is taken to mean that the reaction rate is measured after a relatively short time period, during which it is assumed that the enzyme-substrate complex has formed, but that the substrate concentration held approximately constant, and so the equilibrium or quasi-steady-state approximation remain valid. By plotting reaction rate against concentration, and using nonlinear regression of the Michaelis–Menten equation, the parameters may be obtained. Before computing facilities to perform nonlinear regression became available, graphical methods involving linearisation of the equation were used. A number of these were proposed, including the Eadie–Hofstee diagram, Hanes–Woolf plot and Lineweaver–Burk plot; of these, the Hanes–Woolf plot is the most accurate. However, while useful for visualization, all three methods distort the error structure of the data and are inferior to nonlinear regression. Assuming a similar error on , an inverse representation leads to an error of on (Propagation of uncertainty). Without proper estimation of values, linearisation should be avoided. In addition, regression analysis using Least squares assumes that errors are normally distributed, which is not valid after a transformation of values. Nonetheless, their use can still be found in modern literature. In 1997 Santiago Schnell and Claudio Mendoza suggested a closed form solution for the time course kinetics analysis of the Michaelis–Menten kinetics based on the solution of the Lambert W function. Namely, where W is the Lambert W function and The above equation has been used to estimate and from time course data. Role of substrate unbinding The Michaelis-Menten equation has been used to predict the rate of product formation in enzymatic reactions for more than a century. Specifically, it states that the rate of an enzymatic reaction will increase as substrate concentration increases, and that increased unbinding of enzyme-substrate complexes will decrease the reaction rate. While the first prediction is well established, the second is more elusive. Mathematical analysis of the effect of enzyme-substrate unbinding on enzymatic reactions at the single-molecule level has shown that unbinding of an enzyme from a substrate can reduce the rate of product formation under some conditions, but may also have the opposite effect. As substrate concentrations increase, a tipping point can be reached where an increase in the unbinding rate results in an increase, rather than a decrease, of the reaction rate. The results indicate that enzymatic reactions can behave in ways that violate the classical Michaelis-Menten equation, and that the role of unbinding in enzymatic catalysis still remains to be determined experimentally. See also Eadie–Hofstee diagram Enzyme kinetics Functional response Gompertz function Hill equation (biochemistry) Hill contribution to Langmuir equation Langmuir adsorption model (equation with the same mathematical form) Lineweaver–Burk plot Monod equation (equation with the same mathematical form) Reaction progress kinetic analysis Steady state (chemistry) Victor Henri, who first wrote the general equation form in 1901 Von Bertalanffy function References External links Online Vmax calculator (ic50.tk/kmvmax.html) based on the C programming language and the non-linear least-squares Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm of gnuplot Alternative online calculator (ic50.org/kmvmax.html) based on Python, NumPy,Matplotlib and the non-linear least-squares Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm of SciPy Further reading Enzyme kinetics Chemical kinetics Ordinary differential equations Catalysis	[ -0.343457967042923, 1.0177689790725708, -0.004368649795651436, -0.631921648979187, -0.6164735555648804, 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