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253276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingdezhen | Jingdezhen | Jingdezhen is a prefecture-level city, in northeastern Jiangxi province, with a total population of 1,669,057 (2018), bordering Anhui to the north. It is known as the "Porcelain Capital" because it has been producing Chinese ceramics for at least 1,000 years, and for much of that period Jingdezhen porcelain was the most important and finest quality in China. The city has a well-documented history that stretches back over 2,000 years.
History
Throughout both the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the area of present-day Jingdezhen belonged to the Chu State. After the fall of the Chu, the area was incorporated into the Qin Dynasty as part of Fan County () in . Under the Han Dynasty, the area belonged to Poyang County () in . Under the Han Dynasty, the particular area of future Jingdezhen was known as Xinping (). Historical records show that it was during this time that it began to make porcelain.
The town was established during the Jin Dynasty under the name Changnan (), due to its location on the south bank of the Chang river. The town's name would be changed twice, first in 742 CE to Fuliang (), and then in 1004 to Jingdezhen, its current name, after the era name of the Emperor Zhenzong during whose reign its porcelain production first rose to fame. The town was placed under the jurisdiction of Fuliang County.
In the Ming and Qing dynasties, Jingdezhen was considered one of China's four great towns in terms of commercial and industrial importance. The others were Foshan in Guangdong, Hankou in Hubei, and Zhuxian in Henan.
In 1855 during the Taiping Rebellion, Taiping forces destroyed all 9,000 kilns in Jingdezhen. They would be rebuilt after the war in 1866.
In the 19th century, Jingdezhen became a county.
On April 29, 1949, Communist forces took the city.
May 4, 1949, it was upgraded to a city. However, to honor its history, Jingdezhen retained it the word zhen meaning town in its name. Usually when a town is upgraded to a city, the designation of shi meaning city replaces that of zhen.
On June, 1953 Jindezhen was upgraded into a provincial level city.
In 1960, Fuliang County was merged into the city.
Jingdezhen was named one of top 24 national historical and cultural cities of the People's Republic of China on February 28, 1982.
In July 1983, Leping County was also merged into the city. In October 1988, Fuliang County was re-established, and in September 1992, Leping County was re-established as a county-level city.
In 2004, Jingdezhen celebrated the millennium of its becoming the porcelain capital and it is assuming its present name.
Geography
Jingdezhen is situated in the north-east of Jiangxi and borders on Anhui; the city center area is located in the north-east of the Poyang Lake Plain. Its area is . The highest point is , with plains on the southern part having an average altitude of .
There are some cities and counties between Jiangxi and Anhui Province around Jingdezhen. To its north, northwest and northeast are Dongzhi, Xiuning and Qimen County of Anhui province. To its south are Wannian County and Yiyang County. To its west is Boyang County. Lastly, to its southeast are Wuyuan County and Dexing City.
Jingdezhen's natural resources include kaolin, coal, manganese, and lime, but it is the kaolin that has made the city famous in China and the world. For over a millennium, its unique kaolin has enabled Jingdezhen to make high-quality porcelain. (The word "Kaolin" came from "Gaoling" or "Kaoling", a village located in Ehu Town, Fuliang County, Jingdezhen).
Climate
Jingdezhen has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) affected by the East Asian monsoon, with long, humid, very hot summers and cool and drier winters with occasional cold snaps. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to in July, with an annual average of . The average annual precipitation is . With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 25% in March to 56% in August, the city receives 1,798 hours of bright sunshine annually. Winter begins somewhat sunny and dry but becomes progressively wetter and cloudier; spring begins especially gloomy, and from March to July each of the months averages more than of rainfall. Summer is the sunniest season here, while autumn remains warm to mild and relatively dry. Extreme maximum temperatures of above have been recorded, as have extreme minimums below .
Administrative divisions
The city of Jingdezhen is divided into 4 county-level divisions: Zhushan District, Changjiang District, Fuliang County, and the county-level city of Leping. These 4 county-level divisions administer 52 township-level divisions, and 687 village-level divisions.
Porcelain
Jingdezhen may have produced pottery as early as the sixth century CE, though it is named after the reign name of Emperor Zhenzong, in whose reign it became a major kiln site, around 1004. By the 14th century it had become the largest centre of production of Chinese porcelain, which it has remained, increasing its dominance in subsequent centuries. For several centuries, almost all top quality Chinese porcelain has come from the town. From the Ming period onwards, official kilns in Jingdezhen were controlled by the emperor, making "imperial porcelain" in large quantity for the court and the emperor to give as gifts.
Although apparently an unpromising location for potteries, being a remote town in a hilly region, Jingdezhen is close to the best quality deposits of petuntse, or porcelain stone, in China, as well as being surrounded by forests, mostly of pine, providing wood for the kilns. It also has a river leading to river systems flowing north and south, facilitating transport of fragile wares. The imperial kilns were in the centre of the city at Zhushan (Pearl Hill), with many other kilns four kilometres away at Hutian.
It has produced a great variety of pottery and porcelain, for the Chinese market and as Chinese export porcelain, but its best-known high quality porcelain wares have been successively Qingbai ware in the Song and Yuan dynasties, blue and white porcelain from the 1330s, and the "famille rose" and other "famille" colours under the Qing dynasty. The town continues to produce cheaper tablewares in great quantity, as well as more expensive decorative pieces. During the Cultural Revolution, Jingdezhen produced a large number of porcelain Mao badges and statues of a seated Mao Zedong.
Jingdezhen porcelain has fetched record prices at auctions, with a blue and white porcelain jar produced during the Yuan dynasty auctioning for $27.7 million in London in 2005, and a porcelain cup produced during the Ming dynasty auctioning for $36.3 million in 2014.
Economy
Jingdezhen serves as an important industrial and commercial base in Jiangxi Province. In 2018, Jingdezhen achieved a GDP of 92.611 billion yuan. Of this, 6.62% of the city's GDP came from its primary sector, 44.22% came from its secondary sector, and the remaining 49.16% came from its tertiary sector.
As of 2018, the per capita disposable income of urban residents in the city is ¥37,183, which ranks third among prefecture-level divisions in Jiangxi (behind Nanchang and Xinyu). Per capita disposable income for rural residents for 2018 is ¥16,510, which ranks fourth among prefecture-level divisions in Jiangxi (behind Pingxiang, Xinyu, and Nanchang).
For 2018, the city's public budget revenue was ¥8.98555 billion, and its public budget expenditure was ¥20.43550 billion.
Industry
There are some important industrial enterprises in Jingdezhen City, such as Changhe Aircraft Industries Corporation; Jingdezhen Ceramics; Jingdezhen Refrigeration Compressor, etc.
Changhe Aircraft Industries Corporation, a subsidiary of the Aviation Industry Corporation of China, is based in Jingdezhen. The firm, established in 1969, mainly sells helicopters to the People's Liberation Army, but also does business with firms such as Boeing, Sikorsky, and Leonardo. Changhe produces aircraft parts for the Boeing 767-300BCF.
Jiangxi Changhe Automobile Co Ltd, commonly known as Changhe, is an automotive firm owned by BAIC Group which is based in the city. The firm is forecast to produce 53,400 vehicles in 2019.
Jingdezhen Ceramics Co Ltd () is a joint venture with a French company and is most famous of Jingdezhen's ceramic companies. In February 2002, then-CCP General Secretary Jiang Zemin presented a porcelain set produced by the company under its Hongye () brand to U.S. President George W. Bush.
Jingdezhen Refrigeration Compressor Company is well known in China for its non-Eph refrigeration compressor. It holds a 20% share of its market in China.
Agriculture
Jingdezhen is a major agricultural center in Jiangxi, with extensive rice cultivation within its boundaries. The area is also an important producer of commodity grain, pigs, and cotton.
In Fuliang County there are some large-scale tea plantations and processing facilities. The tea of Fuliang County is well known in China. Bai Juyi, a famous poet of Tang Dynasty China, wrote a poem that says "My merchant loved money more than family, he left me to go to Fuliang to buy tea last month". This suggests that one thousand years ago Fuliang was already well known for its tea. In 1915, Fuliang's "Fuhong" brand tea won a golden prize in Panama–Pacific International Exposition.
Leping City, the "Vegetable Township of South China", is a major vegetable growing and processing area for Jiangxi Province even for China. Its vegetable output and sales are important to the agricultural economy of Jiangxi Province. In 2007, Leping had 1.7 million hectares under cultivation that produced a total output of 620,000 tons. The Agriculture Ministry of China also designated Leping as a demonstration zone for "pollution-free" vegetable production.
Transportation
Jingdezhen is the most important transportation hub in the northeast region of Jiangxi province. Historically, Jingdezhen's main communication route was via the Chang River. It could ship its porcelain down the Chang to Poyang Lake and connected there with the Yangtze River in Hukou County, Jiangxi Province. From there the porcelain could get to the coast for export. Today, the city is connected to the rest of China via road, rail, and air.
Road
G35, running from Jinan, Shandong to Guangzhou, Guangdong,
G56 Hangzhou-Ruili Highway from Hangzhou, Zhejiang to Ruili, Yunnan,
G206, running from Yantai, Shandong to Shantou, Guangdong.
Rail
The Anhui–Jiangxi Railway connects Jingdezhen to many key cities in China such as Shanghai, Nanjing, Jinan, Qingdao, Hefei, Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Nanchang, Kunming and Guiyang, etc. In addition, the Jiujiang- Jingdezhen-Quzhou Railway is under construction. In the near future, the two rail lines will intersect in Jingdezhen, and make the city an important rail transportation hub in Jiangxi Province and East China. The Jingdezhen Railway Station is located in the city center and is under the control of the Nanchang Railway Bureau.
Air
Jingdezhen Luojia Airport is located at Luojian Village, northwest of Jingdezhen city, and about from the city's downtown.
CAAC statistics show that in 2008 Jingdezhen Airport served 189,256 passengers, 81st among all Chinese airports. Annual cargo and mail traffic was 119.8 tons; annual landings were 2,424, ranking 111st and 91st respectively in China.
There are flights from Jingdezhen to Beijing(CA), Shanghai(ZH), Guangzhou(ZH), Shenzhen(ZH), Chengdu(CA), Hangzhou(MU), Fuzhou(ZH), Kunming(MU), Xiamen(CA), Xi'an(ZH). There are no international flights. Jingdezhen Airport is the second largest airport in Jiangxi Province. The largest is at Nanchang.
Local transit
There was only one bus line in Jingdezhen before the 1980s, which was from Huang-ni-tou to Nan-men-tou with a total line distance of . In that time, the city had no taxi service and the buses were channel-type bus, it could carry more than one hundred passengers at most at the same time. This kinds of buses were renewed when they were operated to the end of 1990s.
Currently, Jingdezhen public buses and taxis are the two main means of transportation within the city. Nearly more than 20 public bus lines crisscross the city and its countryside. Taxis in Jingdezhen are plentiful; fares start at ¥8 for the first .
Education
Jingdezhen has 4 higher education institutions, 110 secondary schools, 328 primary schools, and 4 special education schools.
The city's 4 higher education institutions are the Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute (JCI), , Jiangxi Ceramic Arts and Crafts Vocational and Technical College (), and Jingdezhen Ceramic Vocational and Technical College ().
Among the city's secondary schools is the No.1 Middle School of Jingdezhen, which was founded in 1940. It is famous for its success rate, relative to other schools in Jiangxi Province, in placing its students in Chinese colleges.
Public health
Jingdezhen has more than 20 medical service institutions with a total 2182 beds. Doctors and nurses number 2,672. It has the largest hospital system in the north-east of Jiangxi Province. The No.1, No.2 and No.3 People's Hospital of Jingdezhen are the most important hospitals in the city; the No.4 People's Hospital is a psychiatric hospital.
Tourism
Travel Overview
Jingdezhen is a major tourism destination within Jiangxi Province, receiving 85.063 million tourists in 2018. Many of the city's tourist attractions are related to the city's famous ceramics, including the , a 5A tourist attraction. Jingdezhen also has 8 4A tourist attractions, and 14 3A tourist attractions. The city also provides access to nearby popular tourist areas such as Lushan, Huangshan, and Wuyuan.
At present, Jingdezhen has the most tourist hotels of any city in Jiangxi Province. In the city there is one quasi-five-star hotel, two four-star hotels, and many three-star and other common grade hotels.
Twin towns – sister cities
: Arita, Saga, Japan
: Seto, Aichi, Japan
: Icheon, South Korea
: Redbridge, UK
: Delft, Netherlands
: Door County, Wisconsin, US
Domestic
Chaoyang District, Beijing
Dongcheng District, Beijing
Shenzhen
References
Curtis, Julia B., Stephen Little & Mary Ann Rogers, Trade taste and transformation, Jingdezhen porcelain for Japan, 1620–1645, New York, China Institute Gallery, 2006.
External links
Official site of the Jingdezhen Government (Languages: English, Chinese)
Footnotes
References
Krahl, Regina, "Jingdezhen" Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 2 Nov. 2016. subscription required
Rawson, Jessica, Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon, 1984, British Museum Publications,
Vainker, S.J., Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, 1991, British Museum Press,
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253279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated%20Mathematician | Automated Mathematician | The Automated Mathematician (AM) is one of the earliest successful discovery systems. It was created by Douglas Lenat in Lisp, and in 1977 led to Lenat being awarded the IJCAI Computers and Thought Award.
AM worked by generating and modifying short Lisp programs which were then interpreted as defining various mathematical concepts; for example, a program that tested equality between the length of two lists was considered to represent the concept of numerical equality, while a program that produced a list whose length was the product of the lengths of two other lists was interpreted as representing the concept of multiplication. The system had elaborate heuristics for choosing which programs to extend and modify, based on the experiences of working mathematicians in solving mathematical problems.
Controversy
Lenat claimed that the system was composed of hundreds of data structures called "concepts," together with hundreds of "heuristic rules" and a simple flow of control: "AM repeatedly selects the top task from the agenda and tries to carry it out. This is the whole control structure!" Yet the heuristic rules were not always represented as separate data structures; some had to be intertwined with the control flow logic. Some rules had preconditions that depended on the history, or otherwise could not be represented in the framework of the explicit rules.
What's more, the published versions of the rules often involve vague terms that are not defined further, such as "If two expressions are structurally similar, ..." (Rule 218) or "... replace the value obtained by some other (very similar) value..." (Rule 129).
Another source of information is the user, via Rule 2: "If the user has recently referred to X, then boost the priority of any tasks involving X." Thus, it appears quite possible that much of the real discovery work is buried in unexplained procedures.
Lenat claimed that the system had rediscovered both Goldbach's conjecture and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. Later critics accused Lenat of over-interpreting the output of AM. In his paper Why AM and Eurisko appear to work, Lenat conceded that any system that generated enough short Lisp programs would generate ones that could be interpreted by an external observer as representing equally sophisticated mathematical concepts. However, he argued that this property was in itself interesting—and that a promising direction for further research would be to look for other languages in which short random strings were likely to be useful.
Successor
This intuition was the basis of AM's successor Eurisko, which attempted to generalize the search for mathematical concepts to the search for useful heuristics.
See also
Computer-assisted proof
Automated theorem proving
Symbolic mathematics
Experimental mathematics
HR (software) and Graffiti (program), related math discovery systems
References
External links
Edmund Furse; Why did AM run out of steam?
Ken Haase's Ph.D. Thesis; Invention and Exploration in Discovery, a rational reconstruction of Doug Lenat's seminal AM program and an analysis of the relationship between invention and exploration in discovery.
open source Prolog claimed re-implementation of Lenat's AM available at https://github.com/akkartik/am-utexas
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253280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6rdlinger%20Ries | Nördlinger Ries | The Nördlinger Ries is an impact crater and large circular depression in western Bavaria and eastern Baden-Württemberg. It is located north of the Danube in the district of Donau-Ries. The city of Nördlingen is located within the depression, about south-west of its centre.
Etymology
"Ries" is derived from Raetia, since the tribe of Raetians lived in the area in pre-Roman times.
Description
The depression is a meteorite impact crater formed 14.808 ± 0.038 million years ago in the Miocene. The crater is most commonly referred to simply as Ries crater or the Ries. The original crater rim had an estimated diameter of . The present floor of the depression is about below the eroded remains of the rim.
It was originally assumed that the Ries was of volcanic origin. In 1960 Eugene Shoemaker and Edward C. T. Chao showed that the depression was caused by meteorite impact. The key evidence was the presence of coesite, which, in unmetamorphosed rocks, can only be formed by the shock pressures associated with meteorite impact. The coesite was found in suevite from Otting quarry, but even before, Shoemaker was encouraged by the Nördlingen St. George's church built of locally derived suevite. The suevite was formed from mesozoic sediments shocked by the bolide impact.
The Ries impact crater was a rampart crater, thus far a unique finding on Earth. Rampart craters are almost exclusively found on Mars. Rampart craters exhibit a fluidized ejecta flow after impact of the meteorite, most simply compared to a bullet fired into mud, with the ejecta resembling a mudflow.
Another impact crater, the much smaller (3.8-km-diameter) Steinheim crater, is located about west-southwest from the center of Ries. It had previously been thought that the two craters formed simultaneously by the impact of a binary asteroid 14.8 million years ago, but a study published in 2020 suggests that Steinheim could actually be about 500,000 years younger than Nördlinger Ries.
Recent computer modeling of the impact event indicates that the impactors probably had diameters of about (Ries) and (Steinheim), had a pre-impact separation of some tens of kilometers, and impacted the target area at an angle around 30 to 50 degrees from the surface in a west-southwest to east-northeast direction. The impact velocity is thought to have been about . The resulting explosion had the power of 1.8 million Hiroshima bombs, an energy of roughly 2.4 joules.
The Ries crater impact event is believed to be the source of moldavite tektites found in Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic). The tektite melt originated from a sand-rich surface layer that was ejected to distances up to downrange of the crater. The shape of the strewnfield suggests that the direction of impact was from the west-southwest.
Stone buildings in Nördlingen contain millions of tiny diamonds, all less than across. The impact that caused the Nördlinger Ries crater created an estimated of them when it impacted a local graphite deposit. Stone from this area was quarried and used to build the local buildings.
Archaeology
On one edge of the Nördlinger Ries are the Ofnet Caves, where, at the beginning of the 20th century, archaeologists discovered thirty-three human skulls dating to the Mesolithic period.
Astronaut training
The landing site for Apollo 14 is a heavily craterized terrain, and one of the science goals of the mission was to sample ejecta from the impact that formed Mare Imbrium. Nördlinger Ries is an easily accessible, large impact crater, making it a convenient analog for lunar craters. Because of this, it was used as a location to train Apollo 14 astronauts, so that they would be able to investigate lunar impact structures and related rocks. Astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell, as well as Apollo 14 backup astronauts Eugene Cernan and Joe Engle, trained here from August 10 to August 14, 1970.
Gallery
References
External links
Ries at Earth Impact Database
Travel for Kids: Nordlingen, Germany
Information on meteorite and aerial photo of town, scroll two thirds of the way down page
Impact craters of Germany
Miocene impact craters
Neogene Germany
Paleontological sites of Europe
Landforms of Bavaria
Landforms of Baden-Württemberg
Natural regions of the Swabian Keuper-Lias Plains
Geological type localities
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253283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic%20imperialism | Linguistic imperialism | Linguistic imperialism or language imperialism is occasionally defined as "the transfer of a dominant language to other people". This language "transfer" (or rather unilateral imposition) comes about because of imperialism. The transfer is considered to be a sign of power; traditionally military power but also, in the modern world, economic power. Aspects of the dominant culture are usually transferred along with the language. In spatial terms, indigenous languages are employed in the function of official (state) languages in Eurasia, while only non-indigenous imperial (European) languages in the "Rest of the World". In the modern world, linguistic imperialism may also be considered in the context of international development, affecting the standard by which organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank evaluate the trustworthiness and value of structural adjustment loans.
Since the early 1990s, linguistic imperialism has attracted attention among scholars of applied linguistics. In particular, Robert Phillipson's 1992 book, Linguistic Imperialism, has led to considerable debate about its merits and shortcomings. Phillipson found denunciations of linguistic imperialism that dated back to Nazi critiques of the British Council (European aristocracy was, at the time, agreeing on the use of English), and to Soviet analyses of English as the language of world capitalism and world domination. In this vein, criticism of English as a world language is often rooted in anti-globalism.
Definition
Linguistic imperialism is a form of linguicism which benefits and grants power to the dominating/oppressing language and its speakers. As summarized by linguists Heath Rose and John Conama, Dr. Phillipson argues that the defining characteristics of linguistic imperialism are:
As a form of linguicism, which manifests in favoring the dominant language over another along similar lines as racism and sexism.
As a structurally manifested idea, where more resources and infrastructure are given to the dominant language
As being ideological, in that it encourages beliefs that the dominant language form is more prestigious than others. These ideas are hegemonic and internalized and naturalized as being "normal".
As intertwined with the same structure as imperialism in culture, education, media, and politics.
As having an exploitative essence, which causes injustice and inequality between those who use the dominant language and those who do not.
As having a subtractive influence on other languages, in that learning the dominant language is at the expense of others.
As being contested and resisted, because of these factors.
Although it is not easy to determine the intentions of specific policies which have led to linguicism, some scholars believe that intent can be proven by observing whether imperialist practices are continued once their sociolinguistic, sociological, psychological, political, and educational harm of other languages are made aware.
English
In Linguistic Imperialism, Robert Phillipson defines English linguistic imperialism as "the dominance of English... asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages." English is often called a worldwide "lingua franca", but Phillipson argues that when its dominance leads to a linguicide, it can be more aptly titled a "lingua frankensteinia" by his view.
Phillipson's theory supports the historic spread of English as an international language and that language's continued dominance, particularly in postcolonial settings such as Wales, Scotland, Ireland, India, Pakistan, Uganda, Zimbabwe, etc., but also increasingly in "neo-colonial" settings such as continental Europe. His theory draws mainly on Johan Galtung's imperialism theory, Antonio Gramsci's conspiracy theory, and in particular on his notion of cultural hegemony.
A central theme of Phillipson's theory is the complex hegemonic processes which, he asserts, continue to sustain the pre-eminence of English in the world today. His book analyzes the British Council's use of rhetoric to promote English, and discusses key tenets of English applied linguistics and English-language-teaching methodology. These tenets hold that:
English is best taught monolingually ("the monolingual fallacy");
the ideal teacher is a native speaker ("the native-speaker fallacy");
the earlier English is taught, the better the results ("the early-start fallacy");
the more English is taught, the better the results ("the maximum-exposure fallacy");
if other languages are used much, standards of English will drop ("the subtractive fallacy").
According to Phillipson, those who promote English—organizations such as the British Council, the IMF and the World Bank, and individuals such as operators of English-language schools—use three types of argument:
Intrinsic arguments describe the English language as "providential", "rich", "noble" and "interesting". Such arguments tend to assert what English is and what other languages are not.
Extrinsic arguments point out that English is well-established: that it has many speakers, and that there are trained teachers and a wealth of teaching material.
Functional arguments emphasize the usefulness of English as a gateway to the world.
Other arguments for English are:
its economic utility: it enables people to get access to some technologies
its ideological function: it is said as standing for modernity;
its status might be seen as symbol for material advance and efficiency.
Another theme in Phillipson's work is "linguicism"—the kind of prejudice which can lead to endangered languages becoming extinct or losing their local eminence due to the rise and competing prominence of English.
Other languages
At various times, especially in colonial settings or where a dominant culture has sought to unify a region under its control, a similar phenomenon has arisen. In the Roman Empire, Latin—originally the language of a limited region in central Italy—was imposed first on the rest of Italy and later on parts of Europe, largely displacing local languages, while in Roman Africa Latin was dominant only until it and the native languages were displaced by Arabization.
Anatolia had similar linguistic diversity when it was ruled by small native states. Under the Persian and Hellenistic empires, the tongue of the conqueror served as the lingua franca. The indigenous Anatolian languages disappeared.
In the Far East, Africa and Latin America, regional languages have been or are being coercively replaced or slighted—Tibetan and regional Chinese varieties by Mandarin Chinese, Ainu and Ryukyuan by Japanese, Quechua and Mesoamerican languages by Spanish, Malayo-Polynesian languages by Malay, Philippine languages by Filipino and so on. Arabization has eliminated many indigenous Berber languages in North Africa and restricted Coptic to sacred use by Coptic Christian Orthodox Church.
The English language during the Middle Ages was an object of linguistic imperialism by the French language, particularly following the Norman conquest. For hundreds of years, French or Anglo-Norman was the language of administration (See Law French) and therefore a language of higher status in England. Latin remained the tongue of church and learning. Although many words introduced by the Normans are today indistinguishable by most English-speakers from native Germanic words, later-learned loanwords, copied from Latin or French may "sound more cultured" to a native English-speaker.
Following the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire over much of present-day Germany and Central Europe, the German language and its dialects became the preferred language of many Central-European nobility. With varying success, German spread across much of Central and Eastern Europe as a language of trade and status. This ended with World War II (See also Germanization.).
French has also expanded. Languages such as Occitan, Breton, Basque, Catalan and Corsican have been slighted in France. This process, known as Francization, often causes resistance amongst the subject peoples, leading to demands for independence. Examples of this can still be found in Breton nationalism and in the Flanders' Flemish Movement in Belgium).
In Italy there is a situation similar to the French one, with Italian that has expanded at the expense of languages such as Sardinian, Sicilian, Ladin, Venetian and Friulan, while languages such as German (in South Tyrol) or French (in Aosta Valley), historically persecuted, are now co-official in those regions (See also Italianization).
Spanish and, to a lesser extent, Portuguese colonization made these languages prevalent in South America and in parts of Africa and Asia (the Philippines, Macau, and for a short time Formosa). In Iberia, Castilian Spanish, as spoken in the kingdom of Castile spread and was imposed on other peoples and territories of Spain, becoming the only official language of the state from the 18th to the 20th century. It was labelled "the companion of the Empire" by Antonio de Nebrija (1492) in the introduction to his Gramática de la lengua castellana.
Russian linguistic imperialism can be seen in Belarus both in the former dispute over the name of the country (Belarus vs Belorussia) and in the common spelling of the name of their president. English transcription has overtaken the Russian form Alexander Lukashenko instead of Belarusian form Alyaksandr Lukashenka.
In post-Independent India, there were attempts to make Hindi as the sole official language which was vehemently opposed by various provinces, particularly by the state of Tamil Nadu. In Karnataka, there is linguistic imperialism which imposes Kannada almost everywhere.
Criticism
Many scholars have participated in lively discussions of Phillipson's claims. Alan Davies, for instance, envisions the ghost of Phillipson haunting the Department of Applied Linguistics in Edinburgh:
For Davies, two cultures inhabit linguistic imperialism: one, a culture of guilt ("colonies should never have happened"); the other, that of romantic despair ("we shouldn't be doing what we are doing"). Rajagopalan goes a step farther and maintains that Phillipson's book has led to a guilt complex among English language learning and teaching (ELT) professionals.
Davies also argues that Phillipson's claims are not falsifiable: what "if the dominated... wanted to adopt English and continue to want to keep it? Phillipson's unfalsifiable answer must be that they don't, they can't, they've been persuaded against their better interests." It has thus been argued that Phillipson's theory is patronizing in its implication that developing countries lack independent decision-making capacity (to adopt or not to adopt ELT). In the context of Nigeria, Bisong holds that people in the "periphery" use English pragmatically—they send their children to English-language schools precisely because they want them to grow up multilingual. Regarding Phillipson, Bisong maintains that "to interpret such actions as emanating from people who are victims of Centre linguistic imperialism is to bend sociolinguistic evidence to suit a preconceived thesis". If English should be abolished because it is foreign, Bisong argues, then Nigeria itself would also have to be dissolved, because it was conceived as a colonial structure.
Furthermore, the assumption that the English language itself is imperialistic has come under attack. Henry Widdowson has argued that "there is a fundamental contradiction in the idea that the language of itself exerts hegemonic control: namely that if this were the case, you would never be able to challenge such control". Additionally, the idea that the promotion of English necessarily implies a demotion of local languages has been challenged. Holborrow points out that "not all Englishes in the centre dominate, nor are all speakers in the periphery equally discriminated against". Irish English or New Zealand English or even England's regional dialects such as Cornish English, for instance, could be regarded as a non-dominant centre variety of English.
Some scholars believe that English's dominance is not due to specific language policies, but rather as a side-effect of the spread of English-speaking colonists through colonization and globalization.
Thus it could be argued that, while those who follow Phillipson see choices about language as externally imposed, the other camp sees them as personal choices.
Response
Those who support the arguments favoring the existence of linguistic imperialism claim that arguments against it are often advanced by monolingual native-speakers of English who may see the current status of English as a fact worthy of celebration.
Those who see the increasing spread of English in the world as a worrying development (which lowers the status of local and regional languages as well as potentially undermining or eroding cultural values) are likely to be more receptive to Phillipson's views. Alastair Pennycook, Suresh Canagarajah, Adrian Holliday and Julian Edge fall into this group and are described as critical applied linguists.
However, Henry Widdowson’s remarks on critical discourse analysis may also be applied to the critical applied linguists:
In Ireland, the issue of de-anglicising the influence of English has been a topic of debate in the country even before independence. An argument for de-anglicisation was delivered before the Irish National Literary Society in Dublin, 25 November 1892; "When we speak of 'The Necessity for De-Anglicising the Irish Nation', we mean it, not as a protest against imitating what is best in the English people, for that would be absurd, but rather to show the folly of neglecting what is Irish, and hastening to adopt, pell-mell, and indiscriminately, everything that is English, simply because it is English."
According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, "Native tongue title and language rights should be promoted. The government ought to define Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander vernaculars as official languages of Australia. We must change the linguistic landscape of Whyalla and elsewhere. Signs should be in both English and the local indigenous language. We ought to acknowledge intellectual property of indigenous knowledge including language, music and dance."
Appropriation
Some who reject the idea of linguistic imperialism argue that the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of appropriation—that English is used around the world for local purposes. In addition to the example of Nigeria above, the following examples have been given:
Demonstrators in non-English-speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV audiences around the world. In some cases, demonstrators may not understand what their signs say.
Bobda shows how Cameroon has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching English and has gradually accommodated teaching materials to a Cameroonian context. Non-Western topics are treated, such as rule by emirs, traditional medicine, and polygamy. Bobda argues for bi-cultural, Cameroonian and Anglo-American education.
Kramsch and Sullivan describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local Vietnamese culture.
The Pakistani textbook Primary Stage English includes lessons such as "Pakistan, My Country", "Our Flag," and "Our Great Leader", which might sound jingoistic to western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and the Muslim faith is seen as an aim of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The board... takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the student's] home lands."
Such an "internationalization" of English may also offer new possibilities to English native-speakers. McCabe elaborates:
See also
Anglicisation
Critical applied linguistics
Cultural hegemony
English as a second or foreign language
Esperanto
International auxiliary language
International English
Language immersion
Language policy
Language planning
Language revitalization
Language death
Linguistic purism
Language secessionism
Monolingualism
Bilingualism
Multilingualism
Code-switching
Translanguaging
Official language
Untranslatability
World language
Father Tongue hypothesis
Latinx
Notes
References
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Bisong, Joseph (1995 [1994]) Language Choice and cultural Imperialism: a Nigerian Perspective. ELT Journal 49/2 122–132.
Bobda, Augustin Simo (1997) Sociocultural Constraints in EFL Teaching in Cameroon. In: Pütz, Martin (ed.) The cultural Context in Foreign Language Teaching. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. 221–240.
Brutt-Griffler, Janina (2002) World English. Multilingual Matters.
Canagarajah, A. Suresh (1999), Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching, Oxford University Press.
Canagarajah, A. Suresh, Thomas Ricento & Terrence G. Wiley [eds.] (2002) Journal of Language, Identity, and Education. Special issue. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Canagarajah, A. Suresh [ed.] (2004) Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Crystal, David (2003), English as a Global Language, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press.
Davies, Alan (1996) Review Article: ironising the Myth of Linguicism. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 17/6: 485–596.
Davies, Alan (1997) Response to a Reply. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18/3 248.
Edge, Julian [ed.] (2006) (Re-)Locating TESOL in an Age of Empire. Palgrave Macmillan.
Holborow, Marnie (1999) Politics of English. Sage Publications.
Holborrow, Marnie (1993) Review Article: linguistic Imperialism. ELT Journal 47/4 358–360.
Holliday, Adrian (2005), Struggle to Teach English as an International Language , Oxford University Press.
Kontra, Miklos, Robert Phillipson, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas & Tibor Varady [eds.] (1999), Language: A Right and a Resource, Central European University Press.
Kramsch, Klaire and Patricia Sullivan (1996) Appropriate Pedagogy. ELT Journal 50/3 199–212.
Malik, S.A. Primary Stage English (1993). Lahore: Tario Brothers.
Master, Peter (1998) Positive and Negative Aspects of the Dominance of English. TESOL Quarterly, 32/4. 716–727.
Pennycook, Alastair (1995), The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language, Longman.
Pennycook, Alastair (1998), English and the Discourses of Colonialism, Routledge.
Pennycook, Alastair (2001), Critical Applied Linguistics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Pennycook, Alastair (2006) Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows. Routledge.
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Phillipson, Robert [ed.] (2000), Rights to Language, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Phillipson, Robert (2003) English-Only Europe? Routledge.
Punjab Text Book Board (1997) My English Book Step IV. Lahore: Metro Printers.
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Rahman, Tariq (1996) Language and Politics in Pakistan Karachi: Oxford University Press
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Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove & Robert Phillipson [eds.]; Mart Rannut (1995), Linguistic Human Rights, Mouton De Gruyter.
Silva, Diego B. (2019). Language policy in Oceania. Alfa, Rev. Linguíst. 63 (2).
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Spichtinger, Daniel (2000) The Spread of English and its Appropriation. University of Vienna, Vienna.
Tsui, Amy B.M. & James W. Tollefson (in press) Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian Contexts. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Widdowson, H.G. (1998b) The Theory and Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis. Applied Linguistics 19/1 136–151.
Linguistic rights
Language contact
Linguistic discrimination
Imperialism
Cultural assimilation
English as a global language
Sociolinguistics | [
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253284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery%20system%20%28bibliographic%20search%29 | Discovery system (bibliographic search) | A discovery system is a bibliographic search system based on search engine technology. It is part of the concept of Library 2.0 and is intended to supplement or even replace the existing OPAC catalogs. These systems emerged in the late 2000s in response to user desire for a more convenient search option similar to that of internet search engine. The results from searching a discovery system may include books and other print materials from the library's catalog, electronic resources such as e-journals or videos, and items stored in other libraries.
Terminology
The term discovery layer has been described as an overarching term that can include:
, a graphical user interface that library users search or browse with. It includes search-engine like amenities such as spelling correction, tolerance for punctuation differences, and typeahead search. This idea is also called a next-generation catalog.
, an interconnected search system, allowing library users to search not only the catalog of library print materials, but various digital resources and perhaps resources located in other libraries. The discovery system queries more than one data source upon a single user request; this is sometimes called federated search.
The term indicates that the software is modular and can be used to emphasize the separability of catalog search and browse functionality from an integrated library system (ILS). The distinction between discovery , , and is not rigorous and the terms are sometimes used as synonyms. These "inconsistencies were in part due to the field's newness" when the terms were being created.
History
OPACs
Users searching for print materials (such as books) at a library once used card catalogs, and later computerized catalogs called OPACs. Searching for resources other than material in the catalog, such as electronic resources, was (or is) done with separate tools. Using card or computerized catalogs well required skills and jargon particular to libraries.
As computerization advanced, OPACs were integrated with other library systems, like acquisition and circulation systems. The resulting monolithic software systems were named integrated library systems.
Changing expectations
As the web became more widespread, library users developed "the expectation of being able to discover the collection in a search engine style". Gradually, discovery interfaces were created to be more forgiving of misspellings and punctuation choices than historical OPACs, and to offer features like suggestion of related search terms and faceted search.
Reference librarians in the mid-2000s also spent "a lot of time talking about information silos". They were concerned that library users had to hunt for various types of resources with various tools, an obstacle to users, resulting in underused resources. Librarians sought multidatabase search products that would collapse the silos.
Emergence of the discovery layer
These two features, search-engine-like interfaces and multidatabase search, began to appear in the same software systems. One author dates the uniting of these features to 2009; this would be the invention of the discovery system. Particularly if decoupled from an ILS, this united product can also be called a discovery layer. "The discovery layer still uses the information and indexing in the integrated library system (ILS), but it also searches across proprietary databases and other electronic resources, all with the goal of revealing everything that a library owns or has licensed on a given topic be it a print monograph, an electronic journal article, streaming video, or a collection of archival documents"
The discovery layer can be looked on as the replacement for the OPAC. Some libraries maintain both a catalog interface OPAC and a discovery layer interface.
Typical features of a discovery system
Large search space: A search can search the data from different data sources (the discovery system has a comprehensive central subject index). For example, you can search a journal article or a textbook directly in the discovery system and you do not have to change from a subject database to the library catalog.
Intuitive usability, like a search engine. The search is basically only a simple form, an advanced search function is not always provided.
Ranking of the results according to relevance: The "best" hit is displayed first, not necessarily the newest one. A good ranking is important because many hits are often found due to the large search space.
Search refinement with drill-down menus (facets): For example, a search can be restricted to all matches available online.
Correction of input errors via a "Did you mean ...?" function.
Autocomplete: After input to the search field, a drop-down list of suggestions appears.
Exploratory search: One finds results of interest that were not specifically requested. For example, links to similar hits, entries in subject databases, or Wikipedia articles are displayed (integration of other web technologies).
Examples of discovery system products
Some discovery layer or discovery service products are modules of a particular ILS or database product, and are sold by that product's vendor: an example is EBSCO Discovery Service. Other discovery tools are free-standing software products: Blacklight and VuFind are open-source examples.
Commercial products:
Summon (Serial Solutions)
Primo Central (ExLibris)
EBSCO Discovery Service
WorldCat Discovery (OCLC)
Open-source products:
Blacklight
VuFind (Villanova University Library)
Lukida (GBV Common Library Network)
Comparison
See also
Karlsruher Virtueller Katalogan example of a metasearch engine for library catalogs
Library portal
References
Further reading
Heidrun Wiesenmüller: Informationskompetenz und Bibliothekskataloge. In: Wilfried Sühl-Strohmenger / Martina Straub (Hg.): Handbuch Informationskompetenz. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2012, p. 93–100.
Klaus Niedermair: Gefährden Suchmaschinen und Discovery-Systeme die informationelle Autonomie? In: Mitteilungen der Vereinigung Österreichischer Bibliothekarinnen & Bibliothekare. Vol. 67, 2014, Nr. 1, p. 109–125.
External links
Wiesenmüller, Heidrun (2012): Resource Discovery Systeme – Chance oder Verhängnis für die bibliothekarische Erschließung? Vortrag im Rahmen der Jahrestagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Klassifikation, 1.–2. August 2012, Hildesheim
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253286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abe%20%28given%20name%29 | Abe (given name) | Abe is commonly used in English-speaking countries as a diminutive of the masculine name Abraham, or as a personal name in its own right. It may refer to:
People
Abe Aaron (1910–1970), Canadian clarinetist and saxophonist
Abe Addams (1926–2017), American football player
Abe Ajay (1919–1998), American artist
Abe Akira (1934–1989), Japanese author
Abe Alvarez (born 1982), American baseball pitcher and coach
Abe Anellis (1914–2001), Russian food microbiologist
Abe Aronovitz (1898–1960), American lawyer and politician
Abe Atkins (1893–1961), American baseball player
Abe Attell (1884–1970), American world champion Hall-of-Fame featherweight boxer
Abe Bailey (1864–1940), South African diamond tycoon, politician, financier and cricketer
Abe Bekker (born 1935), British boxer
Abe Bell, American baseball pitcher
Abe Berenbaum, American table tennis player
Abe Bernstein (1892–1968), American gangster
Abe L. Biglow (1872–1923), American politician and businessman
Abe Bluestein (1909–1997), American anarchist
Abe Bolar (1909–2000), American double bass player
Abe Bonnema (1926–2001), Dutch architect
Abe Bowman (1893–1979), American baseball pitcher
Abe Brault (1909–2007), American lawyer, naval veteran, and politician
Abe Burrows (1910–1985), American playwright, director and humorist
Abe Clark (1894–1973), Australian rugby player
Abe Cohen (1933–2001), American football player
Abe Cohn (1897–1970), American football player and basketball player, coach, and official
Abe Coleman (1905–2007), Polish wrestler, promoter, and referee
Abe Cunningham (born 1973), American drummer of the alternative metal band Deftones
Abe Deutschendorf (1935–2012), American politician
Abe Elenkrig (1878–1965), Russian-American bandleader, cornet player, barber, and recording artist
Abe Elimimian (born 1982), American football player and coach
Abe Eliowitz (1910–1981), American college and Canadian football player, member of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Abe Elkinson (born 1969), English businessman
A. L. Erlanger (1859–1930), American theatrical producer, director, designer and theatre owner
Abe Espinosa (1889–1980), American golfer
Abe Feder (1908–1997), American lighting designer
Abe Forsythe (born 1981), Australian film and television actor, director, writer, and producer
Abe Fortas (1910–1982), U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice
Abe Garver, American investment banker, magazine contributor, television commentator, and conference speaker
Abe Gelbart (1911–1994), American mathematician
Abe Geldenhuys (1932–1998), South African wrestler
Abe Gibron (1925–1997), American football player and coach
Abe Goff (1899–1984), American politician
Abe Goldberg (1929-2016), Polish-born Jewish Australian businessman
Abe Goldstein (1898–1977), American world champion bantamweight boxer
Abe Gray (born 1982), American-New Zealand politician and cannabis activist
Abe Greenhalgh (1920–1982), British weightlifter
Abe Greenthal (1822–1889), American criminal
Abe Gubegna (1933–1980), Ethiopian writer
Abe Gutnajer (1888–1942), Polish art dealer
Abe Harrison (1867–1932), American baseball player
Abe Hartley (1872–1909), Scottish footballer
Abe Hawkins (died 1867), American horse jockey and freed slave
Abe Holzmann (1874–1939), American composer
Abe M. Hudson Jr. (born 1976), American politician
Abe Isoo (1865–1949), Japanese socialist, parliamentarian, and pacifist
Abe Jacob (born 1944), American sound designer and audio engineer
Abe Jacobs (born 1928), New Zealand professional wrestler
Abe Johnson, American baseball player
Abe Jones (1880–1890), American baseball player
Abe Jones, American attorney
Abe Jones Jr. (1899–1923), English footballer
Abe Kakepetum (1944–2019), Canadian Anishinaabe painter
Abe Katzman (1868–1940), Klezmer violinist, bandleader, composer, and recording artist
Abe Kesh (1933–1989), American DJ and record producer
Abe King (born 1957), Filipino basketball player
Abe Knoop (born 1963), Dutch football goalkeeper
Abe Kovnats (1928–1996), Canadian politician
Abe Kruger (1885–1962), American baseball pitcher
Abe Laboriel Jr. (born 1971), American drummer
Abe Laguna (born 1992), American DJ
Abe Landa (1902–1989), Australian politician
Abe Lastfogel (1898–1984), Russian politician
Abe Lemons (1922–2002), American college basketball player and coach
Abe Lenstra (1920–1985), Dutch footballer
Abe Levitow (1922–1975), American cartoon animator and director
Abe Levy, American writer and director
Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), 16th president of the United States
Abe Lincoln (1907–2000), American jazz trombonist
Abe Loewen, Canadian drag racer
Abe Lyman (1897–1957), American jazz bandleader
Abe Manley (1885–1952), American baseball executive
Abe Martin (1906–1997), American football player, football, basketball, and baseball coach, and college athletics administrator
Abe Martin (1908–1979), American college football player, head coach and administrator
Glenn Martin (coach) (1906–1997), American college football, basketball and baseball coach
Abe Masahiro (1819–1857), Japanese chief senior councillor
Abe Masakatsu (1541–1600), Japanese samurai
Abe Masakiyo (1850–1878), Japanese daimyō
Abe Masakoto (1860–1925), Japanese daimyō
Abe Masanori (1806–1823), Japanese daimyō
Abe Masatsugu (1569–1647), Japanese daimyō
Abe Masatō (1828–1887), Japanese daimyō
Abe Masayoshi (1769–1808), Japanese daimyō
Abe McDougall (1876–1948), Australian rules footballer
Abe Meyer (1901–1969), American film score composer
Abe Mickal (1912/1913–2001), Lebanese-American college football player and doctor
Abe William Miller (1897–1964), Canadian lawyer and politician
Abe Mitchell (1887–1947), English golfer
Abe Mitchell, American baseball player
Abe Moffat (1896–1975), Scottish trade unionist and communist activist
Abe Mosseri (born 1974), American professional backgammon and poker player
Abe Most (1920–2002), American clarinetist and alto saxophonist
Abe Motozane (1513–1587), Japanese samurai
Abe Munro (1896–1974), New Zealand rugby player
Abe Newborn (1920–1997), American talent agent and theatre producer
Abe Notshweleka (1954–2021), South African Army soldier
Abe Okpik (1928–1997), Canadian Inuit community leader
Abe Olman (1887–1984), American songwriter and music publisher
Abe Orpen (1854–1937), Canadian businessman
Glenn Osser (1914–2014), American musician, musical arranger, orchestra leader and songwriter
Abe Peck (born 1945), American magazine consultant, writer, editor, and professor
Abe Peled, Israeli-American businessman
Abe Piasek (1928–2020), American U.S. Army soldier and slave labor camp survivor
Abe E. Pierce III (1934–2021), American educator and politician
Abe Poffenroth (1917–1997), American football and baseball coach
Abe Pollin (1923–2009), American businessman and owner of several major sports teams
Abe Reles (1906–1941), American-Jewish mobster
Abe Rich (1926–2008), Lithuanian wood craftsman and Holocaust survivor
Abe Rosenthal (1921–1986), English footballer
Abe Ruef (1864–1936), American lawyer and politician
Abe Saffron (1919–2006), Australian hotelier, nightclub owner, and property developer
Abe Saperstein (1908–1966), UK-born American founder and owner of the Harlem Globetrotters
Abe Sarkis (1913–1991), American mobster
Abe Schwartz (1881–1963), Romanian-American Klezmer violinist, composer, Yiddish theater and ethnic recordings bandleader
Abe Segal (1930–2016), South African tennis player
Abe Shannon (1869–1945), Australian pastoralist
Abe Shires (1917–1993), American football player
Abe Silverstein (1908–2001), American engineer
Abe Simon (1913–1969), American heavyweight boxer
Abe Sklar (1925–2020), American mathematician and professor
Abe Stark (1894–1972), American businessman and politician
Abe Stern (1888–1951), American film producer
Abe Tadaaki (1602–1671), Japanese politician
Abe Terry (born 1934), English rugby league footballer of the 1950s and 1960s
Abe Thompson (born 1982), American soccer player
Abe Turner (1924–1962), American chess master
Abe W. Turner (1893–1947), American politician
Abe Vigoda (1921–2016), American actor
Abe Waddington (1893–1959), English cricketer
Abe Walsh (born 1971), American author
Abe Watson (1871–1932), Australian rules footballer
Abe White (1904–1978), American baseball player
Abe Wiersma (born 1994), Dutch rower
Abe Wilson (1899–1981), American football player
Abe Wolstenholme (1861–1916), American baseball player
Abe Woodson (1934–2014), American football player
Abe Yourist (1909–1991), Russian-American basketball player
Abe Zvonkin (1910–2002), Canadian track and field athlete, Canadian football player, and wrestler
Fictional characters
Abe (Oddworld), primary protagonist in the Oddworld fictional universe
Abe Carver, on the soap opera Days of Our Lives
Abe Martin, titular main character of the American comic strip of the same name
Abe Pollack, fictional time travel theorist
Abe Sapien, in the Hellboy comic book series
Abraham Simpson, on The Simpsons
Abe Slaney Sherlock Holmes The Adventure of the Dancing Men
See also
Old Abe (died 1881), a bald eagle, the mascot of the 8th Wisconsin Volunteer Regiment in the American Civil War
References
English masculine given names
English-language masculine given names
Masculine given names
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253293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%201985 | Eurovision Young Dancers 1985 | The Eurovision Young Dancers 1985 was the first edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at Teatro Municipale in Reggio Emilia, Italy on 16 June 1985. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Radiotelevisione Italiana (RAI), dancers from eleven countries participated in the televised final.
Arantxa Argüelles of Spain won the contest, with Norway and Sweden placing second and third respectively.
Location
Teatro Municipale (also since the 1980s called the Teatro Municipale Valli due to being named after the actor Romolo Valli), a theatre in Reggio Emilia, Northern Italy was the host venue for the 1985 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers.
Following the destruction by fire of the 1741 Teatro Cittadella in April 1851, the new theatre was designed by the architect Cesare Costa and constructed in the neoclassic style between 1852 and 1857. Its inauguration took place on 21 April 1857 with the performance of the Vittor Pisani by local composer Achille Peri.
Format
The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'.
Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members.
Results
Final
Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union.
Jury members
The jury members consisted of the following:
– Peter Schaufuss (chairman)
– Alicia Markova
– Paolo Bortoluzzi
/ — Marika Besobrasova
– Helba Nogueira
Broadcasting
The 1985 Young Dancers competition was broadcast in at least 11 countries.
See also
European Broadcasting Union
Eurovision Song Contest 1985
Eurovision Young Dancers
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Eurovision Young Dancers by year
1985 in Italy
June 1985 events in Europe
Historical events in Italy | [
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253294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%201987 | Eurovision Young Dancers 1987 | The Eurovision Young Dancers 1987 was the second edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at the Schlosstheater Schwetzingen, Germany on 31 May 1987. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF), dancers from fourteen countries participated in the televised final. , , and made their début at the contest, while and competed together with a joint entry.
For the first time ever, the Canadian broadcaster CBC (EBU Associate Member) joined the show with its participant, making it the only Eurovision event to feature a country from North America, and the only EBU event to feature an associate member as a participant prior to Australia's debut at the Eurovision Song Contest in 2015. The participant countries could send one or two dancers, male or female, that could not be older than 20. Each entry consisted in one or two dances with no rules or limitations regarding the style. The dances could not be longer than 5 minutes (for soloists) or 10 minutes (for couples).
Rose Gad Poulsen and Nikolaj Hübbe of Denmark won the contest, with Switzerland and West Germany placing second and third respectively.
Location
Schlosstheater Schwetzingen (Schwetzingen palace theater), a court theater in Schwetzingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany was the host venue for the 1987 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers.
The historic building, opened in 1753, is part of Schloss Schwetzingen and since 1952 the principal venue of the Schwetzingen Festival. It is also called Hoftheater (court theater), Hofoper (court opera), and Comoedienhaus (comedy house). The frequently applied name Rokokotheater (Rococo theater) is misleading, because it shows also neoclassical elements, added in 1762.
Format
The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'.
Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members.
Results
Final
Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union.
Jury members
The jury members consisted of the following:
– Paolo Bortoluzzi (Head of jury)
– Frank Andersen
– Oscar Araiz
– Celia Franca
– Mary Hinkson
– Mette Hønningen
– Galina Samsova
– Heinz Spoerli
– José de Udaeta
Broadcasting
The 1987 Young Dancers competition was broadcast in at least 15 countries.
See also
Eurovision Song Contest 1987
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Eurovision Young Dancers by year
1987 in West Germany
May 1987 events in Europe
Entertainment events in Germany | [
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253297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defender%20of%20the%20Faith | Defender of the Faith | Defender of the Faith ( or, specifically feminine, ; ) is a phrase that has been used as part of the full style of many English and later British monarchs since the early 16th century. It has also been used by some other monarchs and heads of state.
Scottish, English and British usage
History
The earliest use of the term appears in 1507, when King James IV of Scotland was granted the title of "Protector and Defender of the Christian Faith" by Pope Julius II. The title was conferred on James IV by the papal legate Robert Bellenden in a lavish ceremony in Holyrood Abbey.
"Defender of the Faith" has been one of the subsidiary titles of the English and later British monarchs since it was granted on 11 October 1521 by Pope Leo X to King Henry VIII. His wife Catherine of Aragon also used the title. The title was conferred in recognition of Henry's book Assertio Septem Sacramentorum (Defense of the Seven Sacraments), which defended the sacramental nature of marriage and the supremacy of the pope. This was also known as the "Henrician Affirmation" and was seen as an important opposition to the early stages of the Protestant Reformation, especially the ideas of Martin Luther.
Following Henry's decision to break with Rome in 1530 and establish himself as head of the Church of England, the title was revoked by Pope Paul III (since Henry's act was regarded as an attack on "the Faith") and Henry was excommunicated. However, in 1543, the Parliament of England conferred the title "Defender of the Faith" on King Henry VIII and his successors, now the defenders of the Anglican faith, of which they (except the Catholic Mary I) remain the supreme governors (formally above the archbishop of Canterbury as primate).
King James V of Scotland was granted the title of "Defender of the Faith" by Pope Paul III on 19 January 1537, symbolizing the hopes of the papacy that the King of Scots would resist the path that his uncle Henry VIII had followed. Neither this title nor James IV's title of "Protector and Defender of the Christian Faith" became part of the full style of the monarch of Scotland.
During The Protectorate (1653–59), the republican heads of state Oliver Cromwell and Richard Cromwell, more clearly profiled as Protestant than the monarchy, although claiming divine sanction, did not adopt the style "Defender of the Faith". The style was reintroduced after the restoration of the monarchy and remains in use to this day.
Modern usage
In her capacity as queen of the United Kingdom, Elizabeth II is styled "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith". The title "Defender of the Faith" reflects the Sovereign's position as the supreme governor of the Church of England, who is thus formally superior to the archbishop of Canterbury. The original Latin phrase is represented on all current British coins by the abbreviations, F D or FID DEF. This notation was first added to British coins in 1714, during the reign of King George I. The decision of the Royal Mint to omit this and certain other parts of the monarch's style from the "Godless Florin" in 1849 caused such a scandal that the coin was replaced.
In most Commonwealth realms, the phrase does not appear in the Monarch's full style, though the initial "By the Grace of God" is maintained. For example, in Australia, Queen Elizabeth is currently styled "by the Grace of God, Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth". She is additionally styled "Defender of the Faith" only in Canada, New Zealand and the UK. Canada chose to include the phrase not because the sovereign is regarded as the protector of the state religion (Canada has none), but as a defender of faith in general. In a speech to the House of Commons in 1953, Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent stated:
However, the style used on Canadian coinage is simply D.G. Regina (, "By the Grace of God, Queen").
In Australia, the monarch held the title "Defender of the Faith" until 1973, when it was formally removed. (The words "by the Grace of God" were retained, however.)
At various times, some countries of the Commonwealth retained the title until they formally became republics, e.g. South Africa from 29 May 1953. Others dropped it even sooner, e.g. in 1953, while still a dominion of the Commonwealth (until 1956), Pakistan dropped the title in recognition of the contradiction between its overwhelmingly Muslim population and having a monarch as the defender of the Christian faith.
Charles, Prince of Wales, the present heir apparent, expressed a preference to change the spirit of this role should he succeed to the throne as expected. He commented in 1994, "I personally would rather see [my future role] as Defender of Faith, not the Faith", and clarified in 2015 that "while at the same time being Defender of the Faith you can also be protector of faiths".
Usage in the French language
Haiti
In 1811 when he proclaimed himself king, Henri I of Haiti awarded himself the title, "", and incorporated it into his full style: which translates to English as: by the Grace of God and the Constitutional Law of the State, King of Haiti, Sovereign of Tortuga, Gonâve and other adjacent Islands, Destroyer of Tyranny, Regenerator and Benefactor of the Haitian Nation, Creator of her Moral, Political and Martial Institutions, First Crowned Monarch of the New World, Defender of the Faith, founder of the Royal and Military Order of Saint-Henry
Canada
The French variant is used as part of the official French-language version of the monarch's style in Canada: ""
Other
In 1684, Pope Innocent XI granted the honorary title () to John III Sobieski, king of Poland, who took the supreme command of the Christian Coalition army during the Battle of Vienna, considered as a turning point in history of Europe, preventing her from being conquered by the Ottoman Empire.
One of the titles of Haile Selassie I, Emperor of Ethiopia, was Defender of the Faith.
One of the titles bestowed to Shivaji, the first Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire, was , which means Defender of Hinduism.
In Sunni Islam, the historical leader of the faith was a secular ruler, rather than a spiritual one. The title of this leader was Caliph, deriving from the Arabic Khalifah, which means something like "steward," "deputy," or "successor" (as the Caliph was the successor to the Prophet Muhammad, and the steward of his community on Earth). An additional title used by Caliphs was Amir al-Mu'minin, meaning "Commander (Emir) of the Faithful." This title is still used by leaders who have historically claimed the Caliphate but officially do so no longer, like the King of Morocco and the Sultan of Sokoto. The secular ruler responsible for the maintenance and stewardship of the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina, as well as protecting the Hajj pilgrimage and its rituals, is called the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. This title is currently held by the King of Saudi Arabia.
In Nizari Shia Islam, the leader of the faith is known as the Agha-Khan. The word "agha" means "master" or "lord," and "khan" is a title of rulership in Turkic and Mongolic cultures.
Similar titles
The monarchs of other countries have received similar titles from the pope:
Hungary: Apostolic Majesty (awarded )
Venice: Most Serene Republic
France: Most Christian Majesty (awarded )
Spain: Most Catholic Majesty (awarded in 1493)
Germany: Defensor Ecclesiae (Protector of the Church; awarded to Holy Roman Emperors)
Portugal: Most Faithful Majesty (awarded in 1748)
Armenia: ' 'universam Armenorum Ecclesiam utpote fi liam sedis apostolicae speciale ''(awarded in 1202)
See also
By the Grace of God
Style of the British sovereign
(Commander of the Faithful) in Islam
Notes
References
Latin religious words and phrases
History of the Church of England
Monarchy in Canada
Monarchy in Haiti
16th-century Christianity
Style of the British sovereign | [
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253300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zola | Zola | Zola may refer to:
People
Zola (name), a list of people with either the surname or given name
Zola (musician) (born 1977), South African entertainer
Zola (rapper), French rapper
Émile Zola, a major nineteenth-century French writer
Places
Zola (crater) on Mercury
Zola, Iran, a village in West Azerbaijan Province
Zola, Soweto, a township in South Africa
Zola, a village on the Greek island of Kefalonia
Art, entertainment, and media
Fictional entities
Arnim Zola, a fictional character in the Marvel Comics universe
Zola, a character in the Battle Arena Toshinden fighting game series; see List of Battle Arena Toshinden characters
Zola, a female mercenary and party member in the video game Blue Dragon
Zola, a villain in the Dick Tracy comic strip; see List of recurring characters in Dick Tracy
TV and film
Zola (film), an American drama film
Zola, a planet in the animated video series Macross Dynamite 7
Zola Grey Shepherd, adopted daughter of Meredith Grey and Derek Shepherd on the television series Grey's Anatomy
Music
The Zolas, a Canadian rock band
Zola Jesus, an American singer, songwriter, and record producer
Other uses
Zola (moth), a genus of moth
Typhoon Zola, two tropical cyclones in the northwestern Pacific
Zola (company), an online wedding registry, wedding planner, and retailer
See also
Zolaism
Zolo (disambiguation) | [
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253301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dickens%20%28disambiguation%29 | Dickens (disambiguation) | Charles Dickens (1812–1870) was an English writer and social critic.
Dickens may also refer to:
People
Dickens (surname)
Dickens family, descendants of John Dickens, including his son Charles Dickens
Places
Dickens (crater), a crater on Mercury
Canada
Dickens, Vancouver, British Columbia, a small neighbourhood in East Vancouver
United Kingdom
Dickens Heath, village in the borough of Solihull, West Midlands
United States
Dickens, Iowa (population 202 at the 2000 census), a city in Clay County
Dickens, Maryland, an unincorporated community in Allegany County
Dickens, Missouri, an unincorporated community
Dickens, Nebraska, an unincorporated community in Lincoln County
Dickens, Texas (population 332 at the 2000 census), a city in Dickens County
Dickens County, Texas (population 2,762 at the 2000 census)
Arts, entertainment, and media
Dickens (TV miniseries), 2002 PBS miniseries
Dickens in America, 2005 BBC television documentary
Dickensian (TV series), 2016 BBC drama that brings together characters created by Charles Dickens in a Victorian community
Education
Charles Dickens Elementary School, public elementary school in Vancouver, Canada
Dickens Annex, public elementary school in Vancouver, Canada
Dickens Hall, historical building at Kansas State University in Manhattan, U.S.
Entertainment venues
Dickens Athletic Center, 2,500-seat multi-purpose arena in Chicago, U.S.
Dickens World, themed attraction located at Chatham Dockyard, Kent, UK
Dickens on the Strand, annual Christmas festival in Galveston, Texas, U.S.
Other uses
USS Dickens (APA-161), U.S. Navy attack transport during WW2
See also
Dickins (disambiguation) | [
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253305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impassibility | Impassibility | Impassibility (from Latin in-, "not", passibilis, "able to suffer, experience emotion") describes the theological doctrine that God does not experience pain or pleasure from the actions of another being. It has often been seen as a consequence of divine aseity, the idea that God is absolutely independent of any other being, i.e., in no way causally dependent. Being affected (literally made to have a certain emotion, affect) by the state or actions of another would seem to imply causal dependence.
Some theological systems portray God as a being expressive of many (or all) emotions. Other systems, mainly Christianity, Judaism and Islam, portray God as a being that does not experience suffering or any other emotion at all. However, in Christianity there was an ancient dispute about the impassibility of God (see Nestorianism). Still, it is understood in all Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, that God is "without passions", because He is immutable. So in Christianity, while the created human nature of Christ is mutable and passable, the Godhead is not.
Christianity
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church teaches dogmatically that God is impassible. The divine nature accordingly has no emotions, changes, alterations, height, width, depth, or any other temporal attributes. While Jesus Christ's human nature was complete, and thus Christ possessed a human body, human mind and human soul, and thus human emotions, this human nature was hypostatically united with the timeless, immutable, impassible divine nature, which retained all of its divine attributes without alteration, just as his human nature retained all of its human attributes.
In Catholic doctrine, it would be erroneous and blasphemous to attribute changes or emotional states to God, except by analogy. Thus scriptural expressions which indicate "anger" or "sadness" on God's part are considered anthropomorphisms, mere analogies to explain mankind's relationship to God, who is impassible in his own nature.
Some objecting to this claim assert that if God cannot have emotions, then God cannot love, which is a central tenet of Christianity. However, Catholics would point out that love is not an emotion except in a secondary sense, and is far more than simply a changeable emotion. Furthermore, the human nature of Christ expressed emotional love as well as possessing the timeless, unconditioned "agape" of God.
Main theologians
Theodoret, an early Christian bishop and theologian, wrote, "wild and blasphemous are they who ascribe passion to the divine nature," in his Demonstrations by Syllogism.
Augustinism, one of the chief Christian schools of thought associated most often with Roman Catholicism and Calvinist Protestantism, strongly asserts the impassibility of God, as well as his impeccability. It also defends the notion of acts of God and divine intercession, such as the miracles of the Scriptures.
Martin Luther and especially John Calvin were heavily influenced by Augustine, and their theologies are similar in many respects in regard to divine impassibility.
Generally, scholars do not take anthropomorphic phrases in the Bible like "the finger of God" or "the hand of God" to mean that God literally has a hand or finger. Rather, it is interpreted as an allegory for the Holy Spirit and an expression of God's sovereignty over and intervention into the material world.
Thomas Jay Oord offers a scathing criticism of divine impassibility in his various theological works. Oord argues that God's nature as love requires God to be relational, which means God is not impassible.
Anastasia Philippa Scrutton argues for passibilism on the basis of divine omniscience: if God is all knowing, God must have experiential as well as propositional knowledge, and in order to have experiential knowledge of emotions, God must experience emotions. Scrutton uses Augustine and Thomas Aquinas to distinguish between different kinds of emotions (passions and affections), arguing against the view employed by some impassibilists that all emotions are irrational, involuntary and require a body, and therefore inappropriate to a rational, all-powerful and incorporeal God.
Views in scripture
Other Christian views portray a God who does have emotions and emotional reactions to creation, but these emotions should not necessarily be viewed as altogether similar to human emotions. Genesis 1 says that humans were made in God's image, but human emotions, originally a reflection of God's emotional capacity, have been marred by the fall of man.
Human emotions are subject to time, space, and circumstance. God's emotions are always in keeping with His character as described by the scriptures and in the person of Jesus Christ, according to Christian scholars and the Bible. A few examples are found in Genesis, chapter 8, in the account of the Flood.
God is "grieved" at the pervasive evil of mankind, yet "pleased" with Noah's faithfulness. After the flood, God is "pleased" by Noah's burnt offering. Traditional Christian interpretation understood such depictions of changing emotion in God to be simply an anthropomorphic way of expressing his pleasure or displeasure with human actions. They believed God's eternal will for mankind and love for mankind in Christ does not undergo alteration; He is immutable.
Although there are differing opinions in Christian circles about the impassibility of God, Christian scholars consent that Jesus was completely human and completely God, and so expressed sanctified emotions and was subject to the same physical limitations as humanity, such as hunger or exhaustion. Most Christians traditionally believed these experiences to be proper only to Jesus' human nature.
The New Testament says in Hebrews, "For we do not have a high priest who is unable to sympathize with our weaknesses, but we have one who has been tempted in every way, just as we are—yet was without sin." For this reason, God accepted Christ's sacrifice on man's behalf and so is able to offer atonement through His Son.
Gnosticism
Some early adepts of gnosticism held that Jesus did not have a living body and was not able to suffer the Passion. This debate occupied a great deal of early Church Fathers, who took labours to prove that Jesus really did have a human body.
Theopaschism
A rival doctrine is called theopaschism, which highly insists on the suffering of the Lord Jesus at the Passion. However, theopaschism, along with patripassionism, has often been rejected by theologians as a form of modalism.
Judaism
Jews generally hold to the impassibility of God and do not believe that the Messiah is divine or spiritual, but rather that he is political. The belief in divine simplicity is at the heart of Judaism, and the gender of God (i.e., God the Father) is not specified.
Islam
The Islamic religion is based on the notion of the absolute impassibility of God, an impassibility which is only matched by transcendence. Again, Islam does not believe in incarnation, passion, Holy Trinity and resurrection and God the Father because it is seen as an attack on divine impassibility.
Although love and mercy are attributed to God, it is emphasised that God is completely dissimilar to created things. Al-Raheem, the Merciful, is one of the primary names of God in Islam, but meant in terms of God being beneficent towards creation rather than in terms of softening of the heart. The latter implies a psychological change, and contradicts God's absolute transcendence.
Greek mythology
Many polytheistic traditions portray their gods as feeling a wide range of emotions. For example, Zeus is famous for his lustfulness, Susano-o for his intemperance, and Balder for his joyousness and calm. Impassibility in the Western tradition traces back to ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Plato, who first proposed the idea of God as a perfect, omniscient, timeless, and unchanging being not subject to human emotion (which represents change and imperfection). The concept of impassibility was developed by medieval theologians like Anselm and continues to be in tension with more emotional concepts of God.
Bibliography
Helm, Paul. "The Impossibility of Divine Passibility". In The Power and Weakness of God. Ed. Nigel M. de Cameron. Edinburgh: Rutherford House Books, 1990.
Johnson, Phillip R. God Without Mood Swings: Recovering the Doctrine of Divine Impassibility
Keating, James F., Thomas Joseph White. Divine Impassibility and the Mystery of Human Suffering. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009.
Gavrilyuk, Paul L. The Suffering of the Impassible God: The Dialectics of Patristic Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004/ 2006.
Lister, Rob. God is Impassible and Impassioned: Toward a Theology of Divine Emotion. Wheaton: Crossway, 2012.
Weinandy, Thomas G. Does God Suffer? Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2000.
Creel, Richard E. Divine Impassibility. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
The Nature of Love: A Theology, Thomas Jay Oord (2010)
Sasser, Nathan. "God is Impassible and Impassioned".
Scrutton, Anastasia Philippa. Thinking through Feeling: God, Emotion and Passibility. New York: Continuum, 2011.
References
Conceptions of God
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253313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer | Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer | Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer (, lit.: Saint Marys of the Sea; Provençal Occitan: Li Santi Mario de la Mar) is the capital of the Camargue (Provençal Occitan Camarga) in the south of France. It is a commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department by the Mediterranean Sea. Its 2012 population was 2,495, though it can swell to 500,000 during the summer holidays. It covers the second-largest area of all communes in Metropolitan France, smaller only than that of neighbouring Arles.
Geography
The town is situated in the Rhône river delta, about 1 km east of the mouth of the Petit Rhône distributary. The commune comprises alluvial land and marshland, and includes the Étang de Vaccarès, a large lagoon. The main industry is tourism. Agriculture is also significant, and ranchers have raised horses and cattle unique to the Camargue; some of the bulls are used for bull-fighting and for the course camarguaise. There is bus service to Arles, 38 km away.
History
The village was noted as Ra (see below) in the 4th century AD by the Roman geographer Rufus Festus Avienus. In the 6th century, the archbishopric of Arles was active and created a monastery or church in the town, named St. Mary, a favorite of the fishermen. The village became known as Notre-Dame-de-Ratis (Our Lady of the Boat - Râ being used in ratis, or boat) in reference to the three Marys arriving by boat. (Droit, 1963, 19). The name was later changed to Notre-Dame-de-la-Mer (Our Lady of the Sea, a synonym for the Virgin Mary).
The current Church of the Saintes Maries de la Mer was built from the 9th to the 12th century, as a fortress and a refuge. It can be seen from 10 km away. It has a fresh water well inside, for when the villagers had to take shelter from raiders. In the 9th century, the town suffered raids from the Mediterranean Sea by the Vikings and later from the Saracens. In the 15th century, someone discovered the relics of Mary of Clopas and Mary Salome, who were said to have arrived there by sea (together with Mary Magdalene). The 500th anniversary of this event was celebrated in the 20th century by Pope John XXIII.
In 1720, the town was spared by the plague. During the anti-clerical fervor of the French Revolution, the church was partially destroyed and the stones recycled.
In 1838, the town was renamed Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, after the three Maries of its Catholic and local history. Shortly afterward, the pilgrimage (see below) was instituted. A narrow-gauge railway line to Arles operated from 1892 until 1953.
In 1888, Van Gogh made several paintings of the seascape and the town. In the early 20th century, the town was a literary and artistic center, with visits inter alios from such figures as American writer Ernest Hemingway and Spanish painter Picasso. The vicinity was used as a setting for various films.
Since the second half of the 20th century, the population has increased. Retired people and holiday accommodation largely supplanted the fishermen and farmers, with a corresponding political shift to the right in elections.
Religion
Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, an ancient town in the marshes of the Camargue, where the Rhône meets the Mediterranean Sea, is named after The Three Marys — in French, Marie Madeleine, Marie Salomé and Marie de Cléophas —, a group of three women closely linked to Jesus, as according to the gospels they came to his sepulchre three days after the Crucifixion and were the first witnesses of his Resurrection. The designation "de-la-Mer" (of the sea) derives from a medieval tradition that after Jesus' Resurrection, The Three Marys escaped the Christian persecution in Palestine and travelled across the sea by boat, living in the Camargue the rest of their lives and helping to bring Christianity to France.
The three saints Mary Magdalene, Mary Salome and Mary of Clopas are believed to be the women who were the first witnesses to the empty tomb at the resurrection of Jesus. After the Crucifixion of Jesus, the Marys were said to set sail from Alexandria, Egypt with their uncle Joseph of Arimathea. According to a longstanding French legend, they either sailed to or were cast adrift - arriving off the coast of what is now France, at "a sort of fortress named Oppidum-Râ". The location became known as "Our Lady of the Boat" () - Râ being used in ratis, or boat). The name was later changed to Notre-Dame-de-la-Mer. In 1838, it was changed to Les Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer.
Today, aside from being a working class summer beach destination with a picturesque Romanesque fortress-church, Church of the Saintes Maries de la Mer, Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer is known in France for the celebrations it holds for each Mary's feast, in May and October. The feast days in May draw large numbers of Roma Catholics and others from France and beyond — typically 25,000-40,000 people all together — to the town for a week. The high points at that feast include a ritual when a painted reliquary chest, said to contain the bones of the Saintes Maries, is ceremoniously lowered from its high perch to the altar for veneration, and when the crypt is left open so that the statue of another figure, the Roma's own Saint Sarah, can be honored. On successive days, Romas and a large crowd process statues of Sara and the Saintes Maries from the church to the beach, carrying them right into the sea.
The Roma pilgrimage for the dark-skinned Saint Sara is said to have possibly been the Egyptian servant of the three Marys. In another version, Sara was a local woman who welcomed the three Marys on their arrival. A statue of Sarah is in the crypt of the church, which also encloses a 4th-century BC taurobolic altar once dedicated to the cult of the Indo-Iranian god Mithras, although a likely Celtic origin is claimed.
Population
Sport
Arènes des Saintes Maries de la Mer is a prominent bullfighting ring, staging festivals throughout the summer.
The windsurfing Canal (Canal de Vitesse) where 8 Outright World Sailing Speed Records were set between 1988 and 2009 is on the outskirts of the town. The first by British speed windsurfer Erik Beale 40.48 knots and last by French windsurfing legend Antoine Albeau at 49.09 in 2009.
Notable figures
Vincent van Gogh painted several paintings here, including Street in Saintes-Maries in 1888.
Hermann-Paul died here in 1940, two days before the French capitulation to Germany in the Battle of France.
Tori Amos wrote a song, "Marys of the Sea", inspired by Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, most notably Mary Magdalene.
Mick Softley wrote a song called "Just Flew In On A Jet Plane," featured on his Sunrise/Streetsinger album, in which he refers to flying "from Montpelier, from the festival of gypsies, at Les Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, and in a church in the village, 1000 candles glow, for Magdalene of the sea, from 2000 years ago".
Bob Dylan claimed to have composed the song "One more cup of coffee," included on his album Desire while visiting the Roma festival in 1975 on his 34th birthday.
Czon the Swedish artist did a portrait of Sara La Kali here 2018.
CocoRosie's Sierra and Bianca Casady have created several albums at their mother's farm in Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer.
See also
Communes of the Bouches-du-Rhône department
Bac du Sauvage
Myrrhbearers
References
External links
Tourism office website
CatholicsandCultures website
Christian pilgrimages
Communes of Bouches-du-Rhône
Romani religion
Romani in France | [
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253314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester%20Metrolink | Manchester Metrolink | Manchester Metrolink (branded locally simply as Metrolink) is a tram/light rail system in Greater Manchester, England. The network has 99 stops along of standard-gauge route, making it the most extensive light rail system in the United Kingdom. Metrolink is owned by the public body Transport for Greater Manchester (TfGM) and operated and maintained under contract by a Keolis/Amey consortium. In 2019/20, 44.3 million passenger journeys were made on the system.
The network consists of eight lines which radiate from Manchester city centre to termini at Altrincham, Ashton-under-Lyne, Bury, East Didsbury, Eccles, Manchester Airport, Rochdale and Trafford Centre. It runs on a mixture of on-street track shared with other traffic; reserved track sections segregated from other traffic, and converted former railway lines. Metrolink is operated by a fleet of high-floor Bombardier M5000 light rail vehicles. Each service runs to a 12-minute headway; stops with more than one service experience combined headways of 6 minutes or less. At the busiest times some services operate as 'doubles', with two vehicles coupled together.
A light rail system for Greater Manchester emerged from the failure of the 1970s Picc-Vic tunnel scheme to obtain central government funding. A light-rail scheme was proposed in 1982 as the least expensive rail-based transport solution for Manchester city centre and the surrounding Greater Manchester metropolitan area. Government approval was granted in 1988, and the network began operating services between Bury Interchange and on 6 April 1992. Metrolink became the United Kingdom's first modern street-running rail system; the 1885-built Blackpool tramway being the only first-generation tram system in the UK that had survived up to Metrolink's creation.
Expansion of Metrolink has been a critical strategy of transport planners in Greater Manchester, who have overseen its development in successive projects, known as Phases 1, 2, 3a, 3b, 2CC and Trafford Park. The latest extension, the Trafford Park Line from to the Trafford Centre, opened in March 2020. The Greater Manchester Combined Authority has proposed numerous further expansions of the network, including the addition of tram-train technology to extend Metrolink services onto local heavy-rail lines.
History
Predecessors
Manchester's first tram age began in 1877 with the first horse-drawn trams of Manchester Suburban Tramways Company. Electric traction was introduced in 1901, and the municipal Manchester Corporation Tramways expanded across the city. By 1930, Manchester's tram network had grown to , making it the third-largest tram system in the United Kingdom. After World War II, electric trolleybuses and motor buses began to be favoured by local authorities as a cheaper transport alternative, and by 1949 the last Manchester tram line was closed. Trolleybuses were withdrawn from service in 1966.
Origins
Greater Manchester's railway network historically suffered from poor north–south connections because Manchester's main railway stations, Piccadilly and Victoria, were built in the 1840s on peripheral locations outside Manchester city centre. The central commercial district had no rail links, and over the years, several unsuccessful schemes were proposed to connect Manchester's rail termini. In the 1960s, transport design studies were undertaken to address the problems of increasing traffic congestion. Many urban public transport schemes were evaluated for Manchester, including several types of monorail systems and metro-style systems.
While the monorail schemes were all abandoned, a scheme to create a tunnel link gained momentum. The SELNEC Passenger Transport Executive — the body formed in 1969 to improve public transport for Manchester and its surrounding municipalities – promoted the 'Picc-Vic tunnel' project. The project was a proposal to link Piccadilly and Victoria stations via a tunnel under the city centre and enable train services to run across the Manchester conurbation. Greater Manchester County Council (GMC) inherited the project and presented it to the United Kingdom Government in 1974, but the council failed to secure the necessary funding, and the project was abandoned in 1977. The Centreline shuttle bus service provided inter-station links for many years.
The Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive (GMPTE), the successor to SELNEC, continued to examine possible rail link solutions. Light rail emerged in the early 1980s as a cost-effective option that could make use of existing railway lines and run through the city centre at street level, eliminating the need for costly tunnelling works. A Rail Study Group, composed of officials from British Rail, GMC and GMPTE formally endorsed the Project Light Rail scheme in 1984. Initial abstract proposals, based on light rail systems in North America and continental Europe, illustrated a draft network consisting of three lines: Altrincham–/, Bury–/ and –. To promote the scheme, GMPTE held a public proof of concept demonstration in March 1987 using a Docklands Light Railway P86 train on a freight-only line adjacent to Debdale Park. The Project Light Rail proposals were presented to the UK Government for taxpayer funding; following route revisions in 1984 and 1987, Project Light Rail was approved. Because of the central government's constraints on financial support for innovative transport projects, funding was granted by HM Treasury with the strict condition that the system is constructed in phases. Additional taxpayer funding came from the European Regional Development Fund and bank lending.
Construction
Parliamentary authority to proceed with Phase 1 construction was obtained with two Acts of Parliament – the Greater Manchester (Light Rapid Transit System) Act 1988 and Greater Manchester (Light Rapid Transit System) (No. 2) Act 1988.
Phase 1: Bury, Altrincham and Manchester city centre
Beginning in July 1991, the first Phase of Metrolink involved the conversion of two suburban heavy rail lines to light rail operation — the Bury-Victoria line in the north and the Altrincham-Piccadilly line in the south — and the construction of a street-level tramway through the city centre to connect the two. Tracks were laid down along a route from Victoria station, via Market Street to the G-Mex, with a branch to Piccadilly station. This route is now known as the First City Crossing (1CC), and it was built with network expansion in mind.
A fleet of 26 AnsaldoBreda T-68 light rail vehicles was procured to operate the network. Construction was carried out by the GMA Group (a consortium of AMEC, GM Buses, John Mowlem & Company and GEC), costing £145 million (equivalent to £ million in ).
Metrolink was initially scheduled to open in September 1991, but services did not begin until 1992, when the Bury Line opened as far as Victoria on 6 April. The first street-level trams began running on 27 April between Victoria and G-Mex (now ), the Altrincham line opened on 15 June, and the branch to Piccadilly station opened on 20 July. Metrolink was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 July 1992.
Phase 2: Salford Quays, Eccles
In Phase 2 the Metrolink network was extended westwards to Eccles along the new Eccles Line, as part of the 1990s urban regeneration of Salford Quays, increasing the total Metrolink route length to . The extension cost £160 million (equivalent to £ million in ) and was funded by the GMPTA, the ERDF and private developers. It was constructed 1997–99 by Altram (a consortium of Serco, Ansaldo and John Laing) and six new AnsaldoBreda T-68 A trams were bought to operate services. The line was inaugurated by Prime Minister Tony Blair on 6 December 1999 and officially opened by Princess Anne on 9 January 2001.
Phase 3
The Phase 3 extension project, nicknamed the "Big Bang", was promoted by GMPTE and the Association of Greater Manchester Authorities (AGMA) in the early 2000s. The project, costing £489,000,000 (equivalent to £ million in ), would create four new lines: the Oldham and Rochdale Line, the East Manchester Line, the South Manchester Line and the Airport Line. Phase 3 was put in doubt when central government funding was withdrawn due to increasing costs, but after negotiations with the Department for Transport, Phase 3 was split into two parts, 3a and 3b, to secure investment. Phase 3b was delayed after a failed bid to raise funding through the Greater Manchester Transport Innovation Fund and a proposed traffic congestion charge in 2008. GMPTE and AGMA instead funded Phase 3b through a combination of council tax, government grants, Metrolink fares and contributions from the Manchester Airports Group and other bodies. The new spur off the Eccles Line to was funded separately by the Northwest Regional Development Agency. As part of Phase 3, the original blue T-68 trams were also phased out and replaced with a new fleet of Bombardier M5000 trams, which entered service in December 2009.
Phase 3a: Oldham, Rochdale, South and East Manchester
Beginning in October 2009, Phase 3a involved converting the Oldham Loop heavy rail line to light rail operation and adding several new tram stops on the route; re-opening a disused section of Cheshire Lines Committee railway to use as the first part of the South Manchester Line (to ); and building a new East Manchester Line as far as . When completed in 2013, Phase 3a increased Metrolink's total network length to .
Phase 3b: Ashton-under-Lyne, East Didsbury and Manchester Airport
Phase 3b involved the construction of a new Airport Line to Manchester Airport, and extending three of the new Phase 3a lines: the East Manchester Line to Ashton-under-Lyne; the South Manchester Line to East Didsbury; and adding street-running routes through Oldham and Rochdale town centres to the Oldham and Rochdale Line. Construction work began in March 2011, and Phase 3b was completed in November 2014 with the opening of the Airport line.
Phase 2CC – Second City Crossing
With increased tram traffic brought about by the expansion of the Metrolink network, it became necessary to build a new route across Manchester City Centre to alleviate congestion and improve capacity.
Known as the Second City Crossing (or 2CC), the project involved laying of tram tracks from St Peter's Square tram stop via Princess Street, Albert Square, Cross Street and Corporation Street to rejoin the original Metrolink line just before Victoria station. One new tram stop was built at . The project also involved re-ordering St Peter's Square and re-siting the Cenotaph to accommodate an enlarged tram interchange and junction. Construction began in 2014, and the 2CC route opened fully in February 2017.
Trafford Park extension
The Transport & Works Act Order for the 3.4 mile (5.4 km) Trafford Park Line was granted in October 2016. Enabling works began in January 2017. The line opened on 22 March 2020.
Current network
Routes and stops
Frequencies
Before the inauguration, GMPTE's original concept was for Metrolink's operator to provide a service every ten minutes from Bury to Piccadilly and Altrincham to Piccadilly from 6 am to midnight, Monday to Saturday. Greater Manchester Metro Limited, the system's original operator, argued for adjustments, citing the need to provide an efficient and commercially viable operation in line with vehicle running times and passenger demand. Due to power limitations, this pattern was modified to a twelve-minute service throughout the day, doubling to a six-minute service in peak periods, resulting in a "ten trams per hour" service pattern on routes running from Altrincham and Bury to Manchester every six minutes. Operators are required to provide this level of service at least 98% of the time or incur a financial penalty charge. This six-minute service pattern has been adopted on the rest of the network as the system has grown. Heavy snowfall during the winter of 2009/10 impaired Metrolink services and the operator was criticised for failing to have cold weather procedures. This prompted a programme to improve the reliability and performance of the system in freezing conditions. Metrolink operated icebreaker-style vehicles at night during snowfall in January 2013 to provide standard services.
In January 2016, Transport for Greater Manchester agreed on a baseline Service Specification to grade bidders seeking to operate the concession from July 2017, once the Second City Crossing is in operation. In the baseline service pattern, there are no designated 'peak' periods of service operation; instead, there will be an 'enhanced' service operating from start of service to 8 pm Monday to Friday, and to 6 pm Saturday; and a 'core' service running at all other times. In the 'enhanced' service pattern, trams will run with a 6-minute frequency to Shaw & Oldham, Bury, Ashton, Altrincham, Manchester Airport and East Didsbury; and with a 12-minute frequency to Rochdale, Eccles and MediacityUK. When the Trafford line opens, services will run to the Trafford Centre with a 12-minute frequency. In the 'core' service pattern, all lines will run with a 12-minute frequency.
Daytime services
The following services run 07:15–19:30 on weekdays and 09:30–18:00 on Saturdays.
Nine services which run every 12 minutes:
–
–
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Etihad Campus – (Withdrawn indefinitely due to COVID 19 pandemic)
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–
–
–
–
Thus the combined frequency for some routes is at least every 6 minutes, if not higher.
All-day services
The following services run all day from 06:00 until 23:30 on Mondays to Thursdays, and from 06:00 until 00:30 on Fridays and Saturdays, and from 07:00 – 22:30 on Sundays and bank holidays.
Six services which all run every 12 minutes:
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– (via outside Mon–Sat daytime hours)
–
–
–
–
Early morning service
The early morning service operates from 03:00–06:00 Monday to Saturday and 03:00–07:00 on Sundays and bank holidays.
One service which runs every 20 minutes:
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This is mostly to support airport shift workers and people with early flights.
These services were removed in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As of August 2021 there are no plans to reintroduce this service.
Services during COVID-19 pandemic
Due to changing travel patterns as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, advice is against all but essential travel. Thus Metrolink have temporarily introduced a reduced timetable, with trams running every 20 minutes on the following lines only. In September 2020 with more people returning to work and social activities there is now a 10-minute frequency operating Monday – Friday and at some service at the weekend. The 10 minute frequency has also led to double units being used on most workings: The 6 minute service was reintroduced on 5 July 2021, although temporarily removed in August 2021 due the number of staff having to self isolate. The Altrincham to Bury direct services resumed on Tuesday 31 August with the Shaw to East Didsbury services on Monday 6 September 2021.
–
– (via )
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–
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Rolling stock
Current fleet
, Metrolink operated a fleet of 128 trams.
Because low-floor tram technology was in its infancy when Metrolink was in its planning stages, and in order to be compatible with the former British Rail stations that Metrolink inherited, the network uses high-floor trams with a platform height of , the same height as main line trains.
Trams on Metrolink operate either single units, or coupled together to form double units, which regularly run during peak hours.
Bombardier M5000
In December 2009, Metrolink took delivery of the first Bombardier M5000 tram. Built by Bombardier Transportation and Vossloh Kiepe, the initial eight M5000s were ordered to allow services to be increased. They are part of the Bombardier Flexity Swift range of light rail vehicles and have a design similar to the K5000 vehicle used on the Cologne Stadtbahn.
With the approval of the spur to MediaCityUK, a further four were ordered. To provide rolling stock for the phase 3 extensions and replace the existing fleet, the order was increased successively to 94. In December 2013, a further 10 M5000s were ordered to provide trams for the Trafford Park Line planned to open in 2020, while in the interim supporting a service between MediaCityUK and Manchester city centre and other capacity enhancements. In September 2014, a further 16 were ordered; the final one of which was delivered in October 2016, bringing the fleet up to 120.
In July 2018, a further 27 were ordered to help relieve overcrowding. It was originally announced that these would be delivered from February 2020 to June 2021, but are now expected to be running from August 2020.
Ancillary vehicles
Metrolink has one Special Purpose Vehicle from 1991. Numbered 1027 with its support wagon 1028, it is a bespoke diesel-powered vehicle with a crane, inspection platform, mobile workshop, and capacity for a driver and three passengers. It was designed to assist with vehicle recovery and track and line repairs.
Former fleet
Manchester Metrolink has previously operated the following trams:
T-68/68A
To commence operations, a fleet of 26 T-68 trams manufactured by AnsaldoBreda in Italy was delivered in 1992. To provide extra trams for the Eccles Line, six modified T-68A trams were purchased in 1999. The T-68A vehicles were based on the original T-68s but had modifications replacing destination rollblinds with dot matrix displays, and retractable couplers and covered bogies necessary for the high proportion of on-street running close to motor traffic.
Three of the earlier T-68 fleet were similarly equipped and were known as T-68Ms. Mechanically and electrically, the T-68M vehicles were essentially a T-68 with modifications to its brakes, mirrors, and speed limiters to suit the Eccles line. Initially only these vehicles were permitted to operate the Eccles line but the entire fleet except for 3 (1018, 1019, 1020) were modified between 2008 and 2012 for universal running, under a programme known as the T-68X Universal Running programme.
The newer M5000 trams proved to be considerably more reliable than the T-68/A fleet, which averaged 5,000 miles between breakdowns, while the M5000s averaged 20,000 miles. This led to a decision in 2012 to withdraw the entire fleet from service and replace them with M5000s. The T-68 and T-68As were withdrawn between April 2012 and April 2014.
Tram numbers 1007 and 1023 are owned by the Manchester Transport Museum Society, who run the Heaton Park Tramway, 1007 remains in store at Old Trafford depot while 1023 is at the Crewe Heritage Centre on display. Both will move to Heaton Park upon construction of an extension to the current depot.
San Francisco trams
In 2002, in the lead up to Manchester hosting the Commonwealth Games, a requirement to increase capacity for the event led to Metrolink investigating the purchase of redundant second-hand Boeing LRV vehicles from the Muni Metro system in San Francisco. Two were procured for testing, and shipped to the UK, with one taken to Metrolink's Queen's Road depot. In the end, the proposal was not taken forward as the vehicles were found to be unsuitable for use in the UK.
Infrastructure
Lines
As of March 2020, Metrolink has a network length of and 99 stops — along eight lines which radiate from a "central triangular junction at Piccadilly Gardens which forms the hub of the Metrolink system" in Zone 1.
The lines are: the Airport Line (which terminates at Manchester Airport), the Altrincham Line (which terminates in Altrincham), the Bury Line (which terminates in Bury), the East Manchester Line (which terminates in Ashton-under-Lyne), the Eccles Line (which terminates in Eccles), the Oldham and Rochdale Line (which terminates in Rochdale), the South Manchester Line (which terminates in East Didsbury), and the Trafford Park Line (which terminates at the Trafford Centre).
Tram stops
There are 99 tram stops on Metrolink, as of 2020. Low-floor platforms commonly used for light rail throughout the world were ruled out for Metrolink because the system inherited high-floor platforms from British Rail on lines formerly used for heavy rail. The first stops on the Bury Line and Altrincham Line, opened in phase one, were formerly railway stations and were changed little from British Rail days, as available funding only allowed minimum upgrades to be made. When the Oldham and Rochdale Line was converted from a railway, however, all of the former railway stations were completely rebuilt.
Some stops, such as , are shared between lines, and may be used as interchange stations; others, such as Altrincham Interchange, or are transport hubs that integrate with heavy rail and bus stations.
Metrolink stops are unstaffed. Each contains at least two ticket vending machines (except for Pomona, which only has one). Card readers are installed on all stop platforms for use with contactless pay-as-you-go, the TfGM 'My Get Me There' smart card, and concessionary passes. All card users are required to touch-in at these platform readers before commencing their journey and to touch-out at their final destination. Stops are provided with help/emergency call points to enable passengers to speak to control. Each stop is monitored by CCTV for public safety, and the images are continuously recorded. Route maps and general information are provided on each platform. Each stop has at least one high-floor platform measuring a minimum of wide, accessed by ramp, stairs, escalator, lift or combination thereof. Shelters and canopies at stops were supplied by JCDecaux, and ticket vending machines by Scheidt & Bachmann.
Power supply
The trams are electrically powered from 750 V DC overhead lines. Between 1992 and 2007, electricity for the Metrolink system was procured by the operator, based on price only. In 2007, GMPTE changed the contractual requirements to ensure that sustainable power would be factored into choosing an energy supplier, and in July 2007, Metrolink became the first light rail network in the UK with electricity supplied entirely from sustainable energy via hydropower. Now, energy for the system is generated by biomass.
Depots
Metrolink has two depots, at Queens Road and Old Trafford: Metrolink House at Queens Road in Cheetham Hill was the original headquarters of Metrolink. Constructed during Phase 1 alongside the Bury Line, it served jointly as a control centre, HQ, office space, and depot for the storage, maintenance and repair of vehicles. Under the original proposals, Metrolink House was intended to be much larger, with a design which would support network expansion, but this design did not obtain the necessary planning permission from Manchester City Council. Consequently, Metrolink House was scaled down to a £8,000,000 site with limited capacity, and, in light of Phase 3a network expansion, the second depot in Old Trafford was built in 2011. This second depot, adjacent to the Old Trafford tram stop, occupies the site of a former warehouse and can stable up to 96 vehicles, it also has a washing plant and maintenance workshops. On 7 May 2013 Metrolink completed the transfer of its main operational functions from Queens Road to Old Trafford, meaning its control room – known as the Network Management Centre – is housed jointly with the Customer Services team by its newer depot.
Fares and ticketing
Metrolink fares were initially set by the system's operator, but are now set by the TfGM Committee at levels that cover both the running costs and the cost of borrowing that has part-funded the expansion of the system; Metrolink receives no public subsidy. Fares typically rise each January above the rate of inflation. The fare tariff is based on a division of the network's stops into fare zones. Persons under 16 years of age, persons of pensionable age, and people with disabilities qualify for concessionary fares, some of which are mandatory and others discretionary, as determined by the Greater Manchester Combined Authority. The Greater Manchester Combined Authority permits reduced fares for persons under 16 years of age, and free or reduced fares on Metrolink after for pensioners. In normal circumstances, tickets cannot be purchased on board Metrolink vehicles and must be purchased from a ticket vending machine before boarding the vehicle.
Fare evasion in 2006 was estimated at 2–6% of all users, and in 2012 at 2.5% of all users. Checking tickets and passes and issuing Standard fares (similar to penalty fare) is the responsibility of Metrolink's Passenger Services Representatives (PSRs), who provide security and assistance on the network; between 1992 and 2008, Greater Manchester Police had a dedicated Metrolink unit responsible for policing the system.
Thorn EMI designed the original ticket vending machines. In 2005 GMPTE announced that rail passengers travelling from within Greater Manchester into Manchester city centre could use the Metrolink service between the then eight City Zone stops for free. Passengers must present a valid rail ticket, correctly dated with Manchester Ctlz as the destination. In 2007 TfGM rolled out new ticket vending machines, designed to accept credit/debit card payments and permit the purchase of multiple tickets in a single transaction. These were replaced in 2009 with touchscreen machines, designed with the Scheidt & Bachmann Ticket XPress system.
In October 2012, TfGM announced it was devising a more straightforward zonal fare system, comparable to London fare zones, and preparing to introduce get me there, the region's new contactless smartcard system, for use on all public transport modes in Greater Manchester, including Metrolink. After years of consultation, a new system using four concentric zones was implemented on 13 January 2019. From 15 July 2019, a new contactless pay-as-you-go service began, allowing passengers to tap in and out on smart readers using their contactless bank cards. Contactless fares were originally capped to no more than the cost of the equivalent daily travelcard. In September 2021 an additional weekly cap was introduced.
Services
Accessibility
Metrolink trams and stops have been designed to be accessible to disabled passengers: each stop has been provided with access ramps or lifts, tactile paving, high visibility handrails, disabled boarding points, and help points on the platforms. The trams have also been designed with large areas available for the provision of wheelchairs and pushchairs.
However, this access was not in the original plans (which were based on tram-side extending steps and low-level platforms in the city centre) and accessibility took four years of concerted campaigning by disabled people in Greater Manchester from 1984 to 1988, and particularly the efforts of Neville Strowger (1939–2015), a disabled person working as the access officer at Manchester City Council, and a founding member of the Greater Manchester Coalition of Disabled People. The campaign was to change the design policy to create full access, including retrofitting access to the legacy train stations on the Bury line and the Altrincham line. An early milestone in the campaign was a large meeting between GMPTE officers and around 70 disabled people at County Hall on 22 November 1984, including a speech from the invited disability rights campaigner Vic Finkelstein. A further key meeting was in May 1987 with over 100 disabled people and elected Councillor Guy Harkin as Chair of GMPTA plus other officials, but the policy in 1987 that was repeated at this meeting was that access would only be possible "if the budget allows." Full access was finally agreed in the summer of 1988, and productive meetings followed with disabled people on the implementation details. This campaigning was researched in detail starting in 2019 and written up in an 8-page pamphlet in February 2020.
Mobility scooters were initially banned from Metrolink. However, in 2014 a scheme was introduced whereby scooters could be allowed on trams, provided they have a permit which can be obtained after an assessment of the scooter's size and manoeuvrability.
Currently the Metrolink operator company consults with a group of disabled people, via TfGM's relationship with the independent Disability Design Reference Group, on any proposed changes to the services or infrastructure.
Bicycle policy
Metrolink does not allow full-sized bicycles on to trams but does permit the carriage of "fully covered" folding bicycles. The ban on non-folding bicycles was upheld in 2010, despite a campaign by cycling and green groups for the trams to be adapted to allow them. Campaigners against the policy had argued that the ban on bicycles was anomalous, as other large objects such as ironing boards and deckchairs were allowed on the trams under current rules.
Wi-Fi
In July 2013, the Transport for Greater Manchester Committee announced that it planned to enhance the experience of travelling on Metrolink by tapping into Manchester City Council's grant from the UK Urban Broadband Fund and using it to provide Metrolink passengers with free Wi-Fi when on board. The scheme began with a trial on a single tram – number 3054 – connected to the FreeBeeMcr broadband network with the intention of rolling it out across the whole Metrolink network by Spring 2015. It was rolled out fleet wide in March 2015. On board Wi-Fi was later suspended indefinitely in March 2020.
Corporate affairs
Ownership and structure
Manchester Metrolink is owned by TfGM, and is currently operated and maintained by KeolisAmey Metrolink, a joint venture between Keolis and Amey, who were awarded the contract for a period of up to 10 years from 15 July 2017.
Between 1992 and 1997 Metrolink was operated and maintained as a concession by Greater Manchester Metro Limited, and between 1997 and 2007 by Serco. When next tendered, a 10-year contract was awarded to the Stagecoach Group from 15 July 2007. On 1 August 2011, RATP Group bought the balance of the contract from Stagecoach.
In January 2017, the Keolis/Amey consortium was announced as the successful bidder for the operating and maintenance (O&M) contract to run from 15 July 2017. Unsuccessful competing bidders were RATP, National Express and Transdev.
Business trends
The key trends in recent years for Manchester Metrolink are (years ending 31 March):
Activities in the financial year 2020/21 were severely reduced by the impact of the coronavirus pandemic; the shortfall in fare income was funded by a grant from the UK central government's Department for Transport.
Passenger numbers
Detailed passenger journeys since Metrolink commenced operations in 1992 were:
Metrolink revised its method for calculating passenger boardings in 2010/11, meaning figures are not directly comparable with previous years.
A survey in 2012 revealed that 12% of people in Greater Manchester use Metrolink to travel to work, and 8% use the system every day. The system is most commonly used by 21- to 30-year-olds, and was used most markedly by residents of the Metropolitan Borough of Bury — accounting for around a third of their commuter journeys.
Passenger satisfaction
A survey in 2012 revealed that passengers who used Metrolink every day for commuting rated service levels as poor and/or unreliable, with those respondents particularly frustrated by delays and disruptions. TfGM recognised that the older vehicles in its fleet – the T68/T68As — were outdated and the cause of much disruption, and agreed to replace them with M5000s by 2014. Among those who used Metrolink less regularly, the system scored far better in the survey. A survey in 2013 by the non-departmental government body Passenger Focus found that of the five major light rail systems in the United Kingdom – Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram, Nottingham Express Transit, Midlands Metro and Blackpool tramway – Metrolink had the lowest overall satisfaction rating in the United Kingdom. Respondents were surveyed on value for money, punctuality, seating availability, tram stops and overall satisfaction. Metrolink was below average on all criteria, and 47% believed Metrolink was value for money compared to a national average of 60%.
Subsequent surveys have shown increases in passenger satisfaction. A further survey in late 2015 by watchdog Transport Focus, found that satisfaction levels had increased; 89% of passengers surveyed said they were either ‘very’ or ‘fairly’ satisfied with their overall journey, up from 83% in 2013, but still below the national average of 92%. It also found that 58% felt the service was value for money. The national average rating for value for money on all tram networks was 69%. The follow up survey in 2016 found further improvements, with 90% of respondents reporting they were either ‘very’ or ‘fairly’ satisfied with their overall journey, compared to the national average of 93%. 62% now felt the service was value for money, against a national average still of 69%, which although improved was still the lowest ranking of the six systems covered by the survey.
Corporate identity
The standard corporate identity across the Metrolink system uses a pale yellow and metallic silver colour scheme, with a logotype that consists of a diamond motif formed from a pattern of repeating circles and the Metrolink name. The logo, signage and publicity use the Pantograph sans regular typeface. Tram livery features yellow at the vehicle ends with grey sides and black doors, and a pattern of circles.
The corporate identity was created in October 2008 by Hemisphere Design & Marketing Consultants of Manchester, in collaboration with designer Peter Saville and the transport design agency Design Triangle. The Pantograph typeface was specially commissioned from the Dalton Maag type foundry. The design standard was applied to the Metrolink network when the new M5000 trams were introduced to the network. Hemisphere chose yellow for its high visibility and to reflect Greater Manchester's culture of confidence and optimism.
When the Metrolink network first came into operation in 1992, it used a system-wide colour scheme and vehicle livery of aquamarine, black and grey, along with a stylised "M" monogram placed at an angle within a circle. This branding, along with the Metrolink brand name, was devised by Fitch RS and Design Triangle, and first revealed at a press launch in June 1988. Before this, during the planning stage, the system was known as "Light Rapid Transit" (LRT) and promotional material used an orange and brown identity used by Greater Manchester Transport and GM Buses.
Public relations
Transport planners in Greater Manchester describe Metrolink as both "an icon of Greater Manchester", and "an integral part of the landscape in Greater Manchester". The Guardian describes Metrolink as "Manchester's efficient and much-loved tram system". Under the ownership of the Guardian Media Group, the Manchester Evening News spearheaded the Get Our Metrolink Back on Track campaign in 2004–05. Under Trinity Mirror ownership, the Manchester Evening News used the Freedom of Information Act 2000 to reveal that Metrolink received over 10,000 complaints between May 2011 and May 2012.
Metrolink has had close connections with popular culture in Manchester and has taken advantage of the city's strong associations with football culture. Metrolink has been a "Football Development Partner" with the Manchester Football Association since August 2010, meaning it is the association's Official Travel Partner and supports grassroots association football in Greater Manchester by selecting a "Team of the Month". In 2013, then Manchester City manager Roberto Mancini and players Joe Hart, Vincent Kompany and James Milner recorded special stop announcements to be used on Metrolink's East Manchester Line on dates when Manchester City play at home at the City of Manchester Stadium (served by the Etihad Campus tram stop). The announcements were first used on 17 February 2013, for Manchester City's FA Cup Fifth Round tie against Leeds United
Metrolink is a sponsor of the annual Manchester Food and Drink Festival.
Metrolink has also featured in television drama. On 6 December 2010, the soap opera Coronation Street featured a storyline with an explosion which caused a crash on the Metrolink system at Weatherfield. The episode was written to celebrate the soap opera's 50th anniversary. Although a fictitious event, at least six calls were made to GMPTE asking if services had been affected.
Future developments
Many speculative expansion proposals exist for new lines and the addition of tram-train technology.
As part of developments related to bringing High Speed 2 and Northern Powerhouse Rail to Manchester, High Speed Two Limited has proposed the present two-platform Piccadilly Metrolink stop at ground-level below the existing station platforms is relocated. A new larger four-platform stop located underground below the Manchester Piccadilly High Speed station is planned to replace it. Provision for a second ground-level Metrolink stop at the eastern end of the high speed station to service future Metrolink extensions, to be called Piccadilly Central, also forms part of the plans. At the proposed Manchester Airport High Speed station provision for a new Metrolink stop — potentially serving an extension from the existing Airport line — is also envisaged.
See also
List of tram and light-rail transit systems
Manchester Corporation Tramways
Transport in Manchester
List of town tramway systems in England
List of town tramway systems in the United Kingdom
Notes
References
Bibliography
Worthington, Barry (2014) The Metrolink Companion. Sigma Leisure.
External links
Official route map
Track plan of Manchester Metrolink
www.lrta.org/manchester, a historical account of Metrolink from the Light Rail Transit Association
Electric railways in the United Kingdom
Light rail in the United Kingdom
Railway lines opened in 1992
Keolis
Stagecoach Group
Tram transport in England
1992 establishments in England
750 V DC railway electrification | [
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253321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonesboro | Jonesboro | Jonesboro or Jonesborough is the name of a number of settlements in the United States and the United Kingdom:
United States
Jonesboro, Arkansas
Jonesboro massacre, a school shooting incident
Jonesboro, Georgia, originally Jonesborough
Battle of Jonesborough, final battle of the Atlanta Campaign
Jonesboro, Illinois, site of the third of the Lincoln–Douglas debates
Jonesboro, Indiana
Jonesboro, Louisiana
Jonesboro, Maine
Jonesboro, Ohio
Jonesboro, Oregon
Jonesborough, Tennessee, "Tennessee's oldest town"
United Kingdom
Jonesborough, County Armagh, a small village in Northern Ireland | [
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253323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joppa | Joppa | Joppa (a latinization of the 4th century Greek name, Ἰόππη) appears in the Bible as the name of the Israeli city of Jaffa.
Joppa may also refer to:
Places
United Kingdom
Joppa, Edinburgh, in the eastern suburbs of Edinburgh, Scotland
Joppa, Ayrshire, on the outskirts of Ayr, Scotland
Joppa, Cornwall, a location in Cornwall, England
United States
Joppa, Alabama
Joppa, Illinois
Joppa, Indiana
Joppa, Kentucky
Joppa, Maryland
Joppa Road
Joppa, Tennessee, in the Great Smoky Mountains foothills of Grainger County
Joppa, Texas
Joppa, West Virginia
Australia
Joppa Junction is a junction on the Sydney–Melbourne railway line near Yarra railway station.
See also
Joppe (disambiguation) | [
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253324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keene | Keene | Keene may refer to:
Places
In Canada
Keene, Ontario, a small community in Ontario, Canada
In the United States
Keene, California, a census-designated place
Keene, Kansas, an unincorporated community
Keene, Kentucky, a city
Keene, Nebraska, an unincorporated community
Keene, New Hampshire, city and county seat of Cheshire County
Keene, New York, a town
Keene, North Dakota, a city
Keene, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Keene, Texas, a city
Keene, Virginia, an unincorporated town community
Keene, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Keene Township (disambiguation)
Keene Pond, pond in Duxbury, Massachusetts
In education
Keene State College, an institution of the University System of New Hampshire
Keene High School, public high school located in Keene, New Hampshire
Keene Independent School District, public school district based in Keene, Texas
People
Keene (surname), people with that name
Keene Fitzpatrick (1864-1944), American track coach, athletic trainer, professor of physical training and gymnasium director considered "one of the pioneers of intercollegiate sport"
Other uses
Keene/Elmhirst's Resort Airport, airport near Keene, Ontario
Keene & Simpson, American architectural firm
Keene Swamp Bats, collegiate summer baseball team based in Keene, New Hampshire
Keene, 1969 film starring Joseph Cotten
See also
Keen (disambiguation)
Kene, a given name and surname
Keane (disambiguation)
Keenes, Illinois
Keeney (surname) | [
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] |
253325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xungen%20movement | Xungen movement | Literary movements
Chinese literary schools and movements
1980s establishments in China
The xúngēn movement () is a cultural and literary movement in mainland China emphasizing local and minority cultures. It began in the late 1980s. Its premise is that the Cultural Revolution damaged a pluralistic Chinese identity and traditions that had existed for centuries, and that the reconstruction of that identity requires a healthy appreciation of local cultures. Furthermore, the century of modernization and cultural and political iconoclasm had only severed Chinese traditions. Some of the key writers are Han Shaogong (韓少功), Mo Yan, Ah Cheng (阿城), and Jia Pingwa (賈平凹). | [
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253326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mayors%20of%20Washington%2C%20D.C. | List of mayors of Washington, D.C. | Below is a list of mayors of Washington, D.C. and associated political entities.
History of offices
The federal district of the United States was first designated by the amended Residence Act of 1790. That Act designated that the President could appoint three commissioners to locate, define and survey an area not exceeding ten miles square as the capital district, following the Constitutional mandate to do so. From 1791 to 1802 the District was managed by that three-member Board of Commissioners of the Federal City as listed below.
With the passage of the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, the District was brought under the direct political control of Congress. The Board of Commissioners was dissolved. That Act made no provision for an executive for the District as a whole. The District consisted of five political subdivisions: three cities with their own municipal governments, and two rural counties. The pre-existing city of Georgetown and its mayors are listed below. The pre-existing city of Alexandria, Virginia, had its own list of mayors before, during and after its inclusion in the District. And the new City of Washington was chartered shortly after the District, in 1802. Its mayors also appear below. The rural county west of the Potomac, formerly Virginia, was Alexandria County. Finally to the east and outside the cities, formerly Maryland, lay Washington County, D.C. (Both counties were governed by levy courts made of providentially appointed Justices of the Peace, whose members do not appear below.)
In 1846, Alexandria County and the City of Alexandria returned to Virginia, leaving the District with two independent cities and one county.
In 1871, with the District of Columbia Organic Act, those three subdivisions within the District were unified into a single government, whose chief executive was a territorial Governor. As listed below, only two served before this office was abolished in 1874, and replaced with a temporary three-member Board of Commissioners appointed by the President. The board was made permanent in 1878 and this system continued until 1967, when it was replaced by a single mayor-commissioner and city council appointed by the President. Finally, in 1974, the District of Columbia Home Rule Act allowed for District residents to elect their own mayor.
Currently, the Mayor of the District of Columbia is popularly elected to a four-year term with no term limits. Even though District of Columbia is not a state, the district government also has certain state-level responsibilities, making some of the mayor's duties analogous to those of United States governors. The current mayor of the District of Columbia is Muriel Bowser, a Democrat, who has served in the role since January 2, 2015.
The lists on this page include all of the chief executives of the District of Columbia in their various forms.
1791–1802: Board of Commissioners of the Federal City
The 1790 Act for establishing the temporary and permanent seat of the Government of the United States, Act of March 3, 1791, 1 Stat. 214, set up a board of three commissioners to survey and define the territory of the Federal City, and to purchase land for development and oversee the construction of all federal buildings. Some reports name Thomas Johnson as the chairman of the Board of Commissioners, but it appears there was no chair, even if Johnson acted in the manner of a chair.
1802–1871: Mayors of the City of Washington
The persons listed below are the mayors of the now-defunct City of Washington, which was officially granted a formal government in 1802. The Mayor of Washington had authority over city services, appointments, and local tax assessments; however, the duties of the mayor mostly consisted of requesting appropriations from Congress to finance the city. From 1802 to 1812, the mayor was appointed by the President of the United States. Between 1812 and 1820, the city's mayors were then selected by a city council. From 1820 to 1871 the mayor was popularly elected. The present-day boundaries of the "Old City" were Rock Creek to the west, Florida Avenue to the north, and the Anacostia River to the east and south.
1790–1871: Mayors of Georgetown
From 1751 to 1789, Georgetown was governed by Commissioners who were either appointed by an act of Maryland or were elected by the other commissioners to fill vacancies. in 1790 the government was changed to include a Mayor, a Recorder, Aldermen and a Common Council. During this time it was governed by nineteen different commissioners.
Georgetown was a town in Maryland until 1801, when it became a municipality within the District of Columbia. From 1802 until 1871, mayors of Georgetown were elected to one-year terms, with no term limits. Like the City of Washington and Washington County, Georgetown's local government ceased to exist in 1871, when Congress merged the three entities into the single District government.
1871–1874: Governors of the District of Columbia
In 1871, Congress created a territorial government for the entire District of Columbia, which was headed by a governor appointed by the President of the United States to a four-year term. Due to alleged mismanagement and corruption, including allegations of contractors bribing members of the District legislature to receive contracts, the territorial government was discontinued in 1874.
1874–1878: Commissioners of the District of Columbia
From 1874 to 1878 the District was administered by a three-member, temporary Board of Commissioners with both legislative and executive authority, all appointed by the President. They were assisted by an engineer (Captain Richard L. Hoxie). The law made no provision for a President to this board of temporary Commissioners, and none was ever elected, but Commissioner Dennison acted in that capacity at all board meetings he attended.
1878–1967: Presidents of the Board of Commissioners
In 1878, the Board of Commissioners was made permanent and re-organized. From 1878 to 1967, the District was administered by this new three-member Board of Commissioners with both legislative and executive authority, all appointed by the President. The board comprised one Democrat, one Republican, and one civil engineer with no specified party. The three Commissioners would then elect one of their number to serve as president of the board. While not quite analogous to the role of a mayor, the president of the board was the district's Chief Executive.
1967–1975: Mayor-Commissioner
In 1967, President Lyndon Johnson presented to Congress a plan to reorganize the District's government. The three-commissioner system was replaced by a government headed by a single mayor-commissioner, an assistant mayor-commissioner, and a nine-member district council, all appointed by the president. The mayor-commissioner and his assistant served four-year terms, while the councilmembers served three-year terms. While the council was officially nonpartisan, no more than six of Councilmembers could be of the same political party. Councilmembers were expected to work part-time. All councilmembers and either the mayor-commissioner or his assistant was required to have been a resident of the District of Columbia for the three years preceding appointment. All must be District residents while serving their terms in office.
Council members had the quasi-legislative powers of the former Board of Commissioners, approving the budget and setting real estate tax rates. The mayor-commissioner could, without any Congressional approval, consolidate District agencies and transfer money between agencies, powers that the preceding Board of Commissioners had not possessed since 1952. The mayor-commissioner could veto the actions of the council, but the council could override the veto with a three-fourths vote.
Despite a push by many Republicans and conservative Democrats in the House of Representatives to reject Johnson's plan, the House of Representatives accepted the new form of government for the District by a vote of 244 to 160. Johnson said that the new District government would be more effective and efficient.
Walter E. Washington was appointed the first mayor-commissioner, and Thomas W. Fletcher was appointed the first assistant mayor-commissioner. The first Council appointments were Chairman John W. Hechinger, Vice Chairman Walter E. Fauntroy, Stanley J. Anderson, Margaret A. Haywood, John A. Nevius, William S. Thompson, J.C. Turner, Polly Shackleton, and Joseph P. Yeldell.
1975–present: Mayors of the District of Columbia
Since 1975, the District has been administered by a popularly elected mayor and district council.
Parties
Succession
See also
Timeline of Washington, D.C.
References
External links
01
01
Washington, DC
Mayors
Mayors, List
Mayors, List
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253327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keswick | Keswick | Keswick may refer to:
Places
Australia
Keswick, South Australia, a suburb of Adelaide
Keswick railway station, Adelaide
Adelaide Parklands Terminal (formerly Keswick Rail Terminal)
Canada
Keswick, Edmonton, Alberta
Keswick, Ontario
Keswick, New Brunswick, on the Saint John River near Fredericton
Keswick Ridge, New Brunswick
United Kingdom
Keswick, Cumbria
Keswick, North Norfolk, part of Bacton
Keswick, South Norfolk
United States
Keswick, California
Keswick, Iowa
Keswick, Baltimore, Maryland
Keswick, Michigan
Keswick, Pennsylvania, see Keswick Theatre
Keswick, Virginia
Keswick (Powhatan, Virginia), listed on the National Register of Historic Places
People
Keswick family, descendants of the founders of Jardine Matheson
Other uses
Keswick Christian School, Florida
Keswick Convention, an annual gathering of evangelical Christians in Keswick, Cumbria
Keswick (T.U.F.F. Puppy), a fictional secret agent in the animated series T.U.F.F. Puppy | [
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253328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20Leh%C3%A1r | Franz Lehár | Franz Lehár ( ; ; 30 April 1870 – 24 October 1948) was an Austro-Hungarian composer. He is mainly known for his operettas, of which the most successful and best known is The Merry Widow (Die lustige Witwe).
Life and career
Lehár was born in the northern part of Komárom, Kingdom of Hungary (now Komárno, Slovakia), the eldest son of Franz Lehár (senior) (1838–1898), an Austrian bandmaster in the Infantry Regiment No. 50 of the Austro-Hungarian Army and Christine Neubrandt (1849–1906), a Hungarian woman from a family of German descent. He grew up speaking only Hungarian until the age of 12. Later he put an acute accent above the "a" of his father's surname "Lehár" to indicate the vowel in the corresponding Hungarian orthography.
While his younger brother Anton entered cadet school in Vienna to become a professional officer, Franz studied violin at the Prague Conservatory, where his violin teacher was Antonín Bennewitz, but was advised by Antonín Dvořák to focus on composition. However, the Conservatory's rules at that time did not allow students to study both performance and composition, and Bennewitz and Lehár senior exerted pressure on Lehár to take his degree in violin as a practical matter, arguing that he could study composition on his own later. Lehár followed their wishes, against his will, and aside from a few clandestine lessons with Zdeněk Fibich he was self-taught as a composer. After graduation in 1888 he joined his father's band in Vienna, as assistant bandmaster. Two years later he became bandmaster at Losonc (today Lučenec, Slovakia), making him the youngest bandmaster in the Austro-Hungarian Army at that time, but he left the army and joined the navy. With the navy he was first Kapellmeister at Pola (Pula) from 1894 to 1896, resigning in the later year when his first opera, Kukuschka (reworked as Tatjana in 1906), premiered in Leipzig. It was only a middling success and Lehár eventually rejoined the army, with service in the garrisons at Trieste, Budapest (1898) and finally Vienna from 1899 to 1902. In 1902 he became conductor at the historic Vienna Theater an der Wien, where his operetta Wiener Frauen was performed in November of that year.
He is most famous for his operettas – the most successful of which is The Merry Widow (Die lustige Witwe) – but he also wrote sonatas, symphonic poems and marches. He also composed a number of waltzes (the most popular being Gold und Silber, composed for Princess Pauline von Metternich's "Gold and Silver" Ball, January 1902), some of which were drawn from his famous operettas. Individual songs from some of the operettas have become standards, notably "Vilja" from The Merry Widow and "You Are My Heart's Delight" ("Dein ist mein ganzes Herz") from The Land of Smiles (Das Land des Lächelns). His most ambitious work, Giuditta in 1934 is closer to opera than to operetta. It contains the ever popular "Meine Lippen, sie küssen so heiß" ("On my lips every kiss is like wine").
Lehár was also associated with the operatic tenor Richard Tauber, who sang in many of his operettas, beginning with a revival of his 1910 operetta Zigeunerliebe in 1920 and then in 1922, in which Lehár once again found a suitable post-war style. Lehár made a brief appearance in the 1930 film adaptation The Land of Smiles starring Tauber. Between 1925 and 1934 he wrote six operettas specifically for Tauber's voice. By 1935 he decided to form his own publishing house, Glocken-Verlag (Publishing House of the Bells), to maximize his personal control over performance rights to his works.
Lehár and the Third Reich
Lehár's relationship with the Nazi regime was an uneasy one. He had always used Jewish librettists for his operas and had been part of the cultural milieu in Vienna which included a significant Jewish contingent. Further, although Lehár was Roman Catholic, his wife, Sophie (née Paschkis) had been Jewish before her conversion to Catholicism upon marriage, and this was sufficient to generate hostility towards them personally and towards his work. Hitler enjoyed Lehár's music, and hostility diminished across Germany after Joseph Goebbels' intervention on Lehár's part. In 1938 Mrs. Lehár was given the status of "Ehrenarierin" (honorary Aryan by marriage). Nonetheless, attempts were made at least once to have her deported. The Nazi regime was aware of the uses of Lehár's music for propaganda purposes: concerts of his music were given in occupied Paris in 1941. Even so, Lehár's influence was limited. It is alleged that he tried personally to secure Hitler's guarantee of the safety of one of his librettists, Fritz Löhner-Beda, but he was not able to prevent the murder of Beda in Auschwitz-III. He also tried to prevent the arrest of Louis Treumann, the first Danilo in The Merry Widow, but the 70-year old Treumann and his wife Stefanie were sent to Theresienstadt concentration camp on 28 July 1942, where Stefanie died in September of that year and Louis died on 5 March 1943.
On 12 January 1939 and 30 April 1940 Lehár personally received awards from Hitler in Berlin and Vienna, including the Goethe Medal. On Hitler's birthday in 1938 Lehár had given him as a special gift a red Morocco leather volume in commemoration of the 50th performance of The Merry Widow.
Later years
He died aged 78 in 1948 in Bad Ischl, near Salzburg, and was buried there. His younger brother Anton became the administrator of his estate, promoting the popularity of Franz Lehár's music.
Honours
He was elected an honorary citizen of Sopron in 1940.
In 1940 Hitler awarded him the Goethe-Medaille für Kunst und Wissenschaft.
There is a street in Vienna named after him. Additionally, several towns in the Netherlands have named streets after him (e.g. in The Hague, Leidsche Rijn, Utrecht, Eindhoven and Tilburg). Also, there are streets in Sarajevo and Pula named after him.
Asteroid 85317 Lehár, discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen in 1995, was named in his memory. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 23 May 2005 ().
Stage works
Lehár recording
In 1908, the German branch of The Gramophone Company Ltd (afterwards HMV) issued twelve extracts (mostly ensembles) from Lehár's latest operetta, Der Mann mit den drei Frauen, with the composer conducting. The singers included Mizzi Günther, Louise Kartousch and Ludwig Herold.
In 1929 and 1934, Lehár had conducted for Odeon Records The Land of Smiles and Giuditta, starring Richard Tauber, Vera Schwarz and Jarmila Novotná. A 1942 Vienna broadcast of his operetta Paganini conducted by the composer has survived, starring soprano, Esther Réthy and tenor, Karl Friedrich. A 1942 Berlin radio production of Zigeunerliebe with Herbert Ernst Groh, conducted by Lehár, also survives.
In 1947, Lehár conducted the Tonhalle-Orchester Zürich in a series of 78-rpm recordings for English Decca (released in the U.S. by London Records) of overtures and waltzes from his operettas. The recordings had remarkable sound for their time because they were made using Decca's Full Frequency Range Recording process, one of the first commercial high fidelity techniques. These recordings were later issued on LP (in 1969 on Decca eclipse ECM 2012 and reprocessed stereo on ECS 2012) and CD. A compilation of his recordings has been released by Naxos Records.
Following the collapse of the Berlin Wall, a set of discs recording the 1939 Saarbrücken concert of Lehár's works by German State Transmitter Saarbrücken conducted by Franz Lehár himself was discovered in East German state archives. This was released on CDs by Classic Produktion Osnabrück in 2000.
Anecdotes
Gustav Mahler and his young wife Alma went to see Lehár's The Merry Widow in Vienna and loved it so much that they danced to its tunes as soon as they were home. From memory they played the waltz on the piano, but could not remember the exact run of one passage. The next day they went to Vienna's main music shop , but hesitated to admit that they were looking for the score of what would be considered a "popular" operetta. While Mahler distracted the staff by questioning them about the sales of his own compositions, Alma browsed through the music score of The Merry Widow. As soon as they were out on the street, Alma sang the complete waltz to Mahler.
References
Informational notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Bordman, Gerald. American Operetta. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.
Gänzl, Kurt. The Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre (3 volumes). New York: Schirmer Books, 2001.
Grun, Bernard. Gold and Silver: The Life and Times of Franz Lehár. New York: David McKay Co., 1970.
Melchior, Paul. Franz Lehár musical, Pascal Maurice éditeur, Paris, 2012, (in French, German and English), second edition : Franz Lehár's musical, etc., 2015.
Traubner, Richard. Operetta: A Theatrical History. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1983
External links
Recording Alfie Boe's Franz Lehár: Love was a Dream
Musical Theatre Guide page
Vocal score to Alone at Last (1915)
Vocal score to Gypsy Love (1911)
1870 births
1948 deaths
19th-century Austrian composers
20th-century Austrian composers
19th-century classical composers
19th-century male musicians
20th-century classical composers
20th-century Hungarian male musicians
Austrian male classical composers
Austrian Romantic composers
Burials at the Bad Ischl Friedhof
Hungarian classical composers
Hungarian male classical composers
Hungarian operetta composers
Hungarian Roman Catholics
Male opera composers
People from Komárno
Composers from Vienna | [
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253329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkland | Kirkland | Kirkland may refer to:
Places
Canada
Kirkland, Quebec, Canada
Kirkland Island, British Columbia, Canada
Kirkland Lake, Ontario, Canada
United Kingdom
Kirkland, Allerdale, Cumbria, England, a hamlet
Kirkland, Copeland, Cumbria, England, a village
Kirkland, Eden, Cumbria, England, a village
Kirkland, South Lakeland, a former parish now in Kendal
Kirkland, Lancashire, England, a parish
Kirkland, Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, a location
Kirkland, Fife, Scotland; a former village, absorbed by Methil
United States
Kirkland, Arizona
Kirkland, Georgia
Kirkland, Illinois
Kirkland, New York
Kirkland, North Carolina
Kirkland, Lincoln County, Tennessee
Kirkland, Williamson County, Tennessee
Kirkland, Texas
Kirkland, Washington
People
Kirkland (surname)
Brands and enterprises
Kirkland & Ellis, a law firm in the United States, based in Chicago, Illinois
Kirkland Signature, the store brand of Costco
Kirkland's, a retail chain in the United States that sells home decor
Education
Kirkland High School and Community College, Methil, Scotland
Kirkland College, a former college in New York, now merged with Hamilton College
Kirkland House, one of the 12 undergraduate houses at Harvard University
Other
Kirkland (horse), 1905 Grand National winner
See also | [
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253331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion%20Barry | Marion Barry | Marion Shepilov Barry (born Marion Barry Jr.; March 6, 1936 – November 23, 2014) was an American politician who served as the second and fourth mayor of the District of Columbia from 1979 to 1991 and 1995 to 1999. A Democrat, Barry had served three tenures on the Council of the District of Columbia, representing as an at-large member from 1975 to 1979 and in Ward 8 from 1993 to 1995, and again from 2005 to 2014.
In the 1960s, he was involved in the civil rights movement, first as a member of the Nashville Student Movement and then serving as the first chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Barry came to national prominence as mayor of the national capital, the first prominent civil rights activist to become chief executive of a major American city. He gave the presidential nomination speech for Jesse Jackson at the 1984 Democratic National Convention. His celebrity was transformed into international notoriety in January 1990, when he was videotaped during a sting operation smoking crack cocaine and was arrested by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) officials on drug charges. The arrest and subsequent trial precluded Barry from seeking re-election, and he served six months in a federal prison. After his release, he was elected to the Council of the District of Columbia in 1992. He was elected again as mayor in 1994, serving from 1995 to 1999.
Despite his history of political and legal controversies, Barry was a popular and influential figure in Washington, D.C. The alternative weekly Washington City Paper nicknamed him "Mayor for life", a designation that remained long after Barry left the mayoralty. The Washington Post once stated that "to understand the District of Columbia, one must understand Marion Barry".
1936–1954: Early life
Marion Barry was born in rural Itta Bena, Mississippi, the third child of Mattie Cummings and Marion Barry. His father died when he was four years old, and a year later his mother moved the family to Memphis, Tennessee, where her employment prospects were better. His mother married David Cummings, a butcher, and together they raised eight children. Growing up on Latham Street near South Parkway, Marion Barry attended Florida Elementary and graduated from Booker T. Washington High.
The first time Barry noticed racial issues was when he had to walk to school while the white students were assigned a school bus to ride. The schools were segregated, as were public facilities. He had a number of jobs as a child, including picking cotton, delivering and selling newspapers, and bagging groceries. While in high school, Barry worked as a waiter at the American Legion post and, at age 17, earned the rank of Eagle Scout.
Marion Barry first began his spirit of civil rights activism when he was a paperboy in Memphis. The paper he worked for organized a contest in which any boys who gained 15 new customers could win a trip to New Orleans. Barry and a couple of the other black paperboys reached the quota of 15 new customers yet were not allowed to go on the trip to New Orleans, a segregated city. The paper said it could not afford to hire two buses to satisfy Mississippi's segregation rules. Barry decided to boycott his paper route until they agreed to send the black paperboys on a trip. After the paper offered the black paperboys a chance to go to St. Louis, Missouri on a trip, because it was not a segregated city, Barry resumed his paper route.
1955–1970: Education and civil rights activism
Undergraduate studies at LeMoyne College
Barry attended LeMoyne–Owen College, in Memphis, graduating in 1958. In his junior year, the racial injustices he had seen started to come together. He and his friends went to a segregated fairground in Memphis, and went at a time reserved for whites, because they wanted to see the science exhibit. When they were close to the exhibit, a policeman stopped them and asked them to leave. Barry and his friends left without protest. At that time, Barry did not know much about his race, or why they were treated poorly, but he resented the incident. Barry became more active in the NAACP chapter at LeMoyne-Owens, serving as president. It is sometimes said that his ardent support of the civil rights movement earned him the nickname "Shep", in reference to Soviet politician Dmitri Shepilov, and then Barry began using Shepilov as his middle name. But Barry stated in his autobiography that he chose the name with regard to his middle initial S, which had initially stood for nothing, after having found Shepilov's name in newspapers: "I had picked out "Shepilov" as a middle name because it was the only one that I knew and liked".
In 1958, at LeMoyne-Owens, he criticized a college trustee for remarks he felt were demeaning to African Americans, for which he was nearly expelled. While a senior and the president of the NAACP chapter, Barry heard of Walter Chandler—the only white member on LeMoyne-Owen's board of trustees—making comments that black people should be treated as a "younger brother not as an adult". Barry wrote a letter to LeMoyne's president objecting to the comments and asking if Walter Chandler could be removed from the board. A friend of Barry's was the editor of the school newspaper, the Magician, and told Barry to run the letter in the paper. From there, the letter made it to the front page of Memphis' conservative morning paper.
Master's degree, Nashville Student Movement, SNCC
Barry earned an M.S. in organic chemistry from Fisk University in 1960. He was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. While in graduate school at Fisk, Barry was arrested several times while participating in the Nashville sit-ins to desegregate lunch counters and other Civil Rights Movement events. After graduating from Fisk, Barry continued to work in the Civil Rights Movement, focusing on the elimination of the racial segregation of bus passengers.
In 1960, Barry was elected as the first chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). He helped develop an organizing project in McComb, Mississippi. The project was both a voter registration and a direct action endeavor. Barry said he and other activists lived with the local people in order to stay safe, as well as to learn what it was like to live there. They could use that information to organize the members of the SNCC accordingly.
Doctoral studies
Barry began doctoral studies at the University of Kansas, but soon quit the program. He contemplated law school to help with his activism, but decided against it, because the delayed admission would mean that he would have to take a year off from school. Had he taken a year off, there was a chance of his being drafted into the military, and he did not want to be drafted.
He decided to go to the University of Tennessee where he was awarded a graduate fellowship. Despite being located in the South, the University of Tennessee was an integrated educational institution, a new experience for Barry. He began doctoral chemistry studies at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville, the only African American in the program. He learned that he was prohibited from tutoring white children, and his wife Blantie Evans was not allowed to work at the white school. He quit the program in favor of his new duties at SNCC.
In the spring of 1964, he attended a conference in Nashville and became one of the founders of the Southern Student Organizing Committee (SSOC).
Working for SNCC
As head of SNCC, Barry led protests against racial segregation and discrimination. After he left McComb, Barry's lobbied the state legislatures to try to convince them to vote to make the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) the recognized Democratic party of Mississippi in the 1964 Democratic National Convention. In a protest of their continuing disenfranchisement, African Americans had organized this party to prove that blacks wanted to vote and conducted a trial election. Barry slept on the boardwalk in Atlantic City the night after speaking to the New Jersey Legislature.
After he left the New York legislature, James Forman asked Barry to go to Washington, D.C. to manage SNCC's office. At the time, over half of the population of the District of Columbia were black, however the District of Columbia is administered as a special federal district, not as a state, and therefore did not have voting representation in Congress.
In 1965, Barry and Evans moved to Washington, D.C. to open a local chapter of SNCC. He was deeply involved in coordinating peaceful street demonstrations as well as a boycott to protest bus fare increases. Barry organized rides to work for those who needed them. The boycott cost the bus line thousands of dollars, and Barry proved his ability to organize.
He also served as the leader of the Free D.C. Movement, strongly supporting increased home rule, as a Congressional committee exercised administrative rule over the district. Barry quit SNCC in 1967, when H. Rap Brown became chairman of the group. In 1967, Barry and Mary Treadwell co-founded Pride, Inc., a Department of Labor-funded program to provide job training to unemployed black men. The group employed hundreds of teenagers to clean littered streets and alleys in the district. Barry and Treadwell had met while students at Fisk University, and they later met again while picketing in front of the Washington Gas Light Company.
Barry and Treadwell married in 1972. They separated five years later.
Barry was active in the aftermath of the 1968 Washington, D.C. riots that followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis. He organized through Pride Inc. a program of free food distribution for poor black residents whose homes and neighborhoods had been destroyed in the rioting. Barry convinced the Giant Food supermarket chain to donate food, and he spent a week driving trucks and delivering food throughout the city's housing projects. He also became a board member of the city's Economic Development Committee, helping to route federal funds and venture capital to black-owned businesses that were struggling to recover from the riots.
When President Richard Nixon declared July 21, 1969, National Day of Participation in honor of the moon landing by Apollo 11, Barry criticized him. Barry believed that Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. deserved a national honor day on his birthday, which Nixon had opposed. Said Barry, "Why should blacks feel elated when we see men eating on the moon when millions of blacks and poor whites don't have enough money to buy food here on earth?"
1971–1974: D.C. Board of Education
In 1971, Barry announced his candidacy for at-large member of the school board, running against the incumbent, Anita L. Allen. Barry said he wanted to steer the school board back to the "issues of education" and away from problems of personalities. Barry defeated Allen, with 58 percent of the vote to Allen's 34 percent.
After Barry was seated in 1972, he was unanimously elected as president of the board. He served as board president for two years, reorganizing the school system's finances and building consensus on the board.
In response to the 1972 blaxploitation film Super Fly, Barry quickly formed a protest group named Blacks Against Narcotics and Genocide (BANG). Barry said the film was harmful to black youth, and that it glorified drug abuse. BANG called for a boycott of the film.
Barry advocated for a larger budget for education and raises for teachers. Barry also supported the appointment of Barbara Sizemore as the district's superintendent, making of the District of Columbia the country's first major urban area with a woman as School Board Superintendent.
When the Senate held up annual payments to the district because of debate over whether the federal government should continue to pay for holding the district's partisan elections, Barry called for public hearings on the matter. He also commented, "Since it is a known fact that the majority makeup of an elected government will be black, the conferees' agreement indicates to me that some members of Congress are saying that black people cannot be fiscally responsible, and therefore, have to have a predominantly white Congress overseeing how our monies are spent."
1974–1979: D.C. Council and shooting
Upon establishment of Washington's home rule in 1974, Barry was elected an at-large member of Washington's first elected city council. In that position, he served as chair of the District of Columbia Committee on Finance and Revenue. He was re-elected in 1976.
While serving on the D.C. City Council, Barry was shot accidentally on March 9, 1977, by radical Hanafi Muslims (a breakaway sect of the Nation of Islam) when they overran the District Building. Barry was shot near his heart during the two-day 1977 Hanafi Siege in which hostages were held by the terrorists. This was finally defused by the FBI and Muslim ambassadors. Barry recovered from his injury.
1978 mayoral election
Having credentials as an activist, legislator, and "hero" in a hostage crisis, as well as an early endorsement from The Washington Post, Barry was elected as mayor after Walter Washington, the district's first mayor, fell out of political favor in the 1978 election.
In the Democratic primary, the real contest in the heavily Democratic, black-majority city, Barry ran with the campaign slogan "Take a Stand" and the promise to improve the "bumbling and bungling" District of Columbia administration. He won the Democratic primary election against his main rivals Mayor Washington and council chairman Sterling Tucker. The vote was so close that final tally was in doubt for over two weeks. Barry defeated his Republican opponent Arthur Fletcher and two other minor candidates in a landslide general election in November. He was the second person elected to the mayor's office.
1979–1991: Mayor of the District of Columbia
First term
Barry's first four years in office were characterized by increased efficiency in city administration and government services, in particular the sanitation department. Barry also instituted his signature summer jobs program, in which summer employment was made available to every school-age resident. At the same time, Barry straightened the city's chaotic finances and attacked the deficit by introducing spending controls and laying off ten percent of the city's workforce. Each year of his first term saw a budget surplus of at least US$13 million. District of Columbia political reporter Jonetta Rose Barras characterized the first Barry administration as "methodical, competent, and intellectually superior."
However, unemployment rose dramatically during Barry's first administration, as did crime rates, in part because many of his layoffs were centered in the police department (1,500 terminations by 1981). His campaign promise to "take the boards off" public housing—i.e., to rehabilitate dilapidated and condemned public housing units—was slow in fulfillment. The city's debt was a constant problem as well: Barry had recalculated the Washington Administration's claim of a $41 million surplus and found that the city was $285 million in debt, a long-term accrual that his annual surpluses were unable to surmount by the end of his term. Graft and embezzlement among Barry appointees, such as Employment Services director Ivanhoe Donaldson, began late in Barry's first term, although it would not be discovered for several years. Barry was personally touched by a number of "mini-scandals". He had travels with finances he often kept secret. He was first reported to be using cocaine at downtown nightclubs.
Second term
In 1982, Barry faced re-election against a challenge from fellow Democrat Patricia Roberts Harris, an African-American woman who had served in two cabinet positions under President Jimmy Carter, as well as from council members John L. Ray and Charlene Drew Jarvis. In the primary election held September 14, 1982, Barry won by a landslide, with over 58% of the vote. He won 82% of the vote in the November 11 general election against Republican candidate E. Brooke Lee.
Barry's second term was much more troublesome than his first. Though Washington experienced a massive real estate boom that helped alleviate the city's fiscal problems for a time, government spending skyrocketed; the administration posted a fifth straight budget surplus, but the next year struggled with a $110 million deficit. Much of the disparity was caused by Barry's policy of combating unemployment by creating government jobs; the city government's payrolls swelled so greatly that by 1986, nobody in the administration knew exactly how many employees it had.
Wasteful contract spending also became a problem in the second Barry administration. In his first term, Barry had made a point of insisting that any firm wishing to do business with the city have minority partners, and shepherding legislation requiring 35% of all contracts to go to minority-owned firms. The policy was modified in his second term such that the administration gave contracts to Barry's political connections and high-end campaign contributors to the tune of $856 million. The city did not exercise sufficient oversight. The cost of services such as heating oil for the public schools inflated 40 percent, without any guarantee that the goods and services were being provided. City councilman John A. Wilson commented that "What started out to benefit the minority community at large has meant some politically influential blacks can move out to posh suburbs."
Major scandal caught up to the mayor in his second term. Several of his associates were indicted for financial malfeasance, including former administration officials Ivanhoe Donaldson and Alphonse G. Hill. Barry began to be plagued by rumors and press reports of womanizing and of alcohol and drug abuse; in particular, stories abounded of his cocaine use in the city's nightclubs and red-light district. In 1983, Barry's ex-wife, Mary Treadwell, was convicted of fraudulently using federal funds given to Pride, Inc., a group that helped local youth find employment. In 1984, Barry's one-time lover Karen Johnson was convicted of cocaine possession and contempt of court for refusing to testify to a grand jury about Barry's drug use. Barry's second four years in office had some high points, including the District's entry into the open bond market with Wall Street's highest credit rating, and Barry's nomination speech for Jesse Jackson at the 1984 Democratic Convention.
Third term
Barry sought a third term as mayor in 1986. By this time, his dominance of city politics was so absolute that he faced only token opposition in the Democratic primary in the form of former school board member Mattie Taylor, whom Barry dispatched rather easily. Barry had expected to face Jesse Jackson, who had been encouraged by colleagues to seek the mayoralty, and who had been relatively popular in stark contrast to Barry's declining reputation. Barry, who knew that most of Jackson's income came from delivering speeches, used his political clout to arbitrarily disqualify Jackson by getting a law passed that said anyone who made more than a certain amount in honoraria was ineligible to run for D.C. office. Council members jokingly called this the "Jesse Jackson law," as it was legislated expressly to keep Jackson out of the mayoral race. As expected, Barry defeated Republican city councilwoman Carol Schwartz fairly handily in the November 4 general election. However, Schwartz managed to win 33 percent of the vote—the first time a Republican had crossed the 30-percent barrier in a general election. For the third time, Barry received the endorsement of The Washington Post but "with far greater reservations and misgivings" than at any time in the past.
By this time, Barry was openly suffering from the effects of longstanding addictions to cocaine and alcohol; he would later admit that he lost control of his drug habit soon after being sworn in for a third term. His public appearances were marked by his glassy eyes and slurred speech. His aides began scheduling all of his daily events later and later in the day as he was arriving to work as late as lunchtime, and nodding off to sleep at his desk. His ability to function as mayor had become so impaired that even his closest associates urged him not to run again. They tried to create an endowed professorship for him at the University of the District of Columbia. In the wake of Barry's inattention, the city declined badly. Barry was watching Super Bowl XXI in Pasadena, California when a winter blizzard struck Washington in January 1987; city crews were accused of badly mishandling the road clearing, adversely affecting local businesses.
In 1987, crack use exploded in the city, as did territorial wars among drug dealers; in 1988 there were 369 homicides in the District of Columbia, the most ever in the city. That record was broken when the next year had 434 homicides, and it was broken again in 1990 with 474 homicides, making District of Columbia's murder rate the highest in the nation. The District of Columbia government's employment and deficits grew as city services suffered; in particular, there were frequent press reports of deaths occurring because police lacked cars to get to crime scenes, and EMS services responded slowly or went to the wrong address.
1990 arrest and drug conviction
By late 1989, federal officials had been investigating Barry on suspicion of illegal drug possession and use; that fall, they prosecuted several of Barry's associates for cocaine use, including Charles Lewis, a native of the United States Virgin Islands. He was implicated in a drug investigation involving Barry and a room at Washington's Ramada Inn in December 1988.
On January 18, 1990, Barry was arrested with a former girlfriend, Hazel Diane "Rasheeda" Moore, in a sting operation at the Vista International Hotel by the FBI and D.C. police for crack cocaine use and possession. Moore was an FBI informant when she invited Barry to the hotel room and insisted that he smoke freebase cocaine before they had sex, while agents in another room watched on camera, waiting for Barry to accept her offer. During the videotaped arrest, Barry says of Moore, "Bitch set me up...I shouldn't have come up here...goddamn bitch".
Barry was charged with three felony counts of perjury, 10 counts of drug possession, and one misdemeanor count of conspiracy to possess cocaine, even though the cocaine belonged to the government informant. The criminal trial ended in August 1990 with a conviction for only one possession incident, which had occurred in November 1989, and an acquittal on another. The jury deadlocked on the remaining charges. Six or seven jurors (of whom two were white and the rest black) believed that the evidence against Barry was overwhelming and that he had displayed "arrogance" during the trial. Against these, five black jurors were convinced that the prosecution had falsified evidence and testimony as part of a racist conspiracy against Barry, and even disputed factual findings that had not been contested in court. After scolding the jurors for not following his instructions, presiding judge Thomas Penfield Jackson declared a mistrial on the remaining charges.
As a result of his arrest and the ensuing trial, Barry decided in June 1990 not to seek re-election as mayor. After his arrest and through his trial, Barry continued as mayor. He even ran as an independent for an at-large seat on the council against 74-year-old incumbent Hilda Mason. Mason, a former ally who had helped Barry recuperate after the 1977 shooting, took the challenge personally, saying, "I do feel very disappointed in my grandson Marion Barry." Mason was endorsed by a majority of the council members and by Jesse Jackson, who was running for shadow senator.
Barry was sentenced to six months in federal prison shortly before the November election, which he lost—the first and only electoral loss of his career—receiving 20 percent of the overall vote, but doing well among the voters of Ward 8. His wife and son moved out of the house later that month.
In October 1991, Barry surrendered himself at a correctional facility in Petersburg, Virginia. While serving his time, Barry was accused of letting a woman perform oral sex on him in a prison waiting room, a charge Barry denied. Barry was transferred to another federal prison in Loretto, Pennsylvania. Barry was released in April 1992.
In May 2013, after Toronto mayor Rob Ford was allegedly videotaped smoking what was reported to be crack, parallels were made with the similarity to the 1990 incident. Barry denied any similarity, stating: "Unless he was entrapped by the government, it's not similar."
1992–1994: Political comeback
D.C. Council
Barry was released from prison in 1992, and two months later filed papers to run for the Ward 8 city council seat in that year's election. Barry ran under the slogan "He May Not Be Perfect, But He's Perfect for D.C." He defeated the four-term incumbent, Wilhelmina Rolark, in the Democratic primary, winning 70 percent of the vote, saying he was "not interested in being mayor", and went on to win the general election easily.
1994 mayoral election
Despite his earlier statements to the contrary, observers of Barry's council victory expressed beliefs that he was laying ground for a mayoral run in 1994. Indeed, Barry fulfilled expectations when he formally announced his candidacy for mayor on May 21, 1994, and was immediately regarded as a serious challenge to the unpopular incumbent mayor, Sharon Pratt Kelly. Despite much opposition, including an abortive effort to recall his 1992 council election, Barry won a three-way Democratic primary contest for mayor with 48% of the vote on September 13, pushing Kelly into last place. The victory, coming after Barry's videotaped crack use and conviction shocked the nation, carried front-page headlines in newspapers such as the Los Angeles Times and Boston Globe.
An oft-repeated Barry quote came in the aftermath of his victory in the Democratic primary election, in which he counseled those voters who opposed his mayoral campaign to "get over it."
Though facing a credible challenge from Republican councilmember Carol Schwartz, who received the endorsement of The Washington Post, Barry was victorious in the general election with 56% to Schwartz's 42% of the vote. Not only was this easily the strongest showing by a Republican mayoral candidate since the restoration of home rule, but it was also the first time since then that a Democratic candidate for mayor had dropped below the 60 percent mark. It would not occur again until Muriel Bowser won the 2014 general election with 54% of the vote.
1995–1999: D.C. Mayor fourth term
Barry was sworn into office on January 2, 1995, and was almost immediately confronted with a financial crisis. The budgetary problems of his previous administrations had only increased during Kelly's term, with city officials estimating a fiscal 1996 deficit between $700 million and $1 billion. In addition, city services remained extremely dysfunctional due to mismanagement. One month into his term, Barry declared that the city government was "unworkable" in its present state and lobbied Congress to take over the areas of its operation that were analogous to typical state government functions. Wall Street, which Barry had convinced just after his election to continue investing in municipal bonds, reduced the city's credit rating to "junk status." Instead of implementing Barry's proposals, the newly Republican Congress (who had come to power on promises of decreasing federal spending) placed several city operations into receivership and created the District of Columbia Financial Control Board to assume complete authority over the city's day-to-day spending and finances, including overrule of the mayor's fiscal decisions.
The next two years were dominated by budgetary and policy battles between Barry and the control board—along with Chief Financial Officer Anthony A. Williams—for power over the District of Columbia's operation. The conflict was ultimately settled when in 1997 the Clinton Administration and Senator Lauch Faircloth agreed on legislation that rescued the city from its financial crisis but stripped Barry of all authority (including hiring and firing) over nine district agencies, making them directly answerable to the control board. Barry was left with control of only the Department of Parks and Recreation, the public libraries, and the Board of Tourism, as well as the ceremonial trappings of his office—a condition he characterized "a rape of democracy."
Barry declined to run for a fifth term in office in June 1998, stating his belief that Congress would not restore full home rule while he was mayor. He was succeeded by city CFO Anthony A. Williams.
2000–2014: D.C. Council
After leaving office, Barry performed consulting work for an investment banking firm. On March 6, 2002, Barry declared his intention to challenge at-large council member Phil Mendelson in the Democratic primary. Within a month, he decided against running, after an incident in which U.S. Park Police found traces of marijuana and cocaine in his car.
On June 12, 2004, Barry announced that he was running in the Democratic primary for the Ward 8 council seat, a position he held before becoming mayor. Barry received 58% of the vote, defeating the incumbent council member, Sandy Allen, on September 14, 2004. Barry received 95% of the vote in the general election, giving him a victory in the race to represent Ward 8 in the council.
During the 2006 mayoral election, Barry endorsed Adrian Fenty despite Linda Cropp hiring many members of Barry's former political machine. Barry has publicly clashed with Fenty over D.C. United's proposed soccer stadium in Barry's Ward 8. Barry was the stadium's most outspoken supporter on the council, whereas Fenty attempted to distance himself from his initial support for the project.
In July 2007, Marion Barry was chosen as one of fifty wax statues to debut in the Washington D.C. franchise of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Barry was chosen by a majority of Washington residents and tourists from Tussauds' "Top 10 Wish List," in a contest that pitted him against Cal Ripken Jr., Al Gore, Denzel Washington, Carl Bernstein, Halle Berry, Martin Sheen, Marilyn Monroe, Nancy Reagan and Oprah Winfrey.
Barry ran for re-election in 2008 and easily held off all five challengers in the Democratic primary: Ahmad Braxton-Jones, Howard Brown, Chanda McMahan, Sandra Seegars and Charles Wilson. No Republican or Statehood Green candidates filed to run in the Ward 8 council race.
Vote on gay marriage
In May 2009, Barry voted against a bill committing Washington, D.C. to recognize same-sex marriages performed elsewhere. During his 2008 reelection campaign, Barry had told members of the Gertrude Stein Democratic Club, the city's largest LGBT political group, "I don't think you should make [supporting the bill] a litmus test. But if a bill like that were to come up, I would vote for it." Following his May 2009 vote against recognizing gay marriages, Barry was criticized for what activists believed to be an apparent flip-flop. Councilman Phil Mendelson said he was surprised by the vote because Barry had signed on as a co-introducer of the marriage bill. Barry said his position had not changed and warned that the council needed to move slowly on this issue. Citing his belief that the local African-American community was overwhelmingly opposed to gay marriage, "All hell is going to break loose", Barry said. "We may have a civil war. The black community is just adamant against this."
Legal problems
Failures to file tax returns and pay taxes
On October 28, 2005, Barry pleaded guilty to the misdemeanor charges stemming from an IRS investigation. The mandatory drug testing for the hearing showed Barry as being positive for cocaine and marijuana. On March 9, 2006, he was sentenced to three years' probation for misdemeanor charges of failing to pay federal and local taxes, and underwent drug counseling.
In 2007, federal prosecutors sought to have his probation revoked for failure to file his 2005 tax return. U.S. Magistrate Judge Deborah Robinson refused, saying that prosecutors had not proved that the failure was willful, even if Barry was aware he had missed the deadline. According to Judge Robinson, sentencing Barry to jail without proving that he willfully failed to file his taxes would contradict precedent set by the United States Supreme Court.
On February 9, 2009, prosecutors filed a motion in federal court to revoke Barry's probation for not filing his 2007 tax return, which violated his probation. According to one prosecutor, Barry had not filed his taxes eight of the last nine years. Barry said the reason he did not file his taxes was because of distractions from his medical problems, although he noted that there is "no excuse" for not filing. In an interview, Barry said he had been undergoing four-hour dialyses three times a week as treatment for a problem with his kidney. At that point, a kidney donor had been identified, but the operation had yet to be scheduled. On February 17, WTOP-FM reported that, according to Barry's attorney, Barry had filed his federal and District tax returns for 2007. The same day, Barry was admitted to Howard University Hospital to prepare for a kidney transplant the next day. Barry was released from the hospital on February 27, but he was readmitted on March 2 due to large amounts of air in his abdominal cavity and also due to Barry's complaints of serious pains, both of which were caused by the combination of medications Barry was taking after the operation. Barry was released from the hospital on March 6. On April 17, 2009, the prosecution withdrew their request to revoke Barry's probation.
On September 9, 2011, the Internal Revenue Service filed a notice of federal tax lien against Barry because of $3,200 of unpaid federal income taxes for 2010. Barry attributed the lien to poor communication between the Internal Revenue Service and his representatives.
Alleged traffic violations
On September 10, 2006, Barry was stopped by Secret Service Uniformed Division police officers after stopping at a green light and running a red light. According to a Secret Service spokesman, the police officers pulled over his car, smelled alcohol, and administered a field sobriety test. Barry was then taken to the U.S. Capitol Police station for a breathalyzer test. The Secret Service said that the breathalyzer test did not give an accurate reading, but Barry later said that it gave a successful reading of 0.02%, which is less than the legal limit of 0.08%. The police officers asked Barry to give a urine analysis, which Barry refused. The officers gave Barry a ticket for running a red light and failing to submit to a urine analysis. He was also charged with driving an unregistered vehicle and misuse of temporary tags. Barry pleaded not guilty to the charges. Prosecutors offered Barry a deal to drop the charge of driving under the influence in exchange for a guilty plea from Barry; he declined. A judge found him not guilty of the charges.
On December 16, 2006, the Park Police pulled over Barry for driving too slowly, which Barry later said was because he was trying to figure out where to enter an elementary school's parking lot for a nonprofit foundation's event. After looking up Barry's record, the police officer told Barry that his license had been suspended and ticketed Barry for operating a vehicle on a suspended license, despite Barry's insistence to the contrary. Two days later, the D.C. Department of Motor Vehicles confirmed that Barry's license had not actually been suspended and said a computer glitch must have caused the error.
On August 2, 2014, Barry was in a traffic accident in the district, which his spokesperson blamed on a "hypoglycemic attack" due to his diabetes. At the time of the accident Barry had $2,800 in unpaid tickets for speeding and parking violations accumulated since 2012.
Conflict of interest: personal benefit from contract to girlfriend
On July 4, 2009, Barry was taken into custody by the Park Police after political consultant Donna Watts-Brighthaupt, his ex-girlfriend, claimed he was stalking her. Barry was arrested and charged with "misdemeanor stalking". Following an interview with authorities, he was released on citation and told he must appear before the Superior Court of the District of Columbia on July 9. However, all charges were dropped on July 8.
An investigative report by a special counsel said that Barry had personally benefited from a contract that he had awarded to his then-girlfriend Donna Watts-Brighthaupt. The report stated that Barry had awarded a contract to Watts-Brighthaupt, who then repaid money owed to Barry with the proceeds of the contract. When interviewed by the special counsel, Watts-Brighthaupt admitted to plagiarizing substantial portions of her study from a publicly available study by the United States Department of Education. The special counsel report also said that Barry had requested 41 earmarks in 2009 worth $8.4 million, some of which were paid to organizations "rife with waste and abuse." The report also said that Barry had impeded the investigation by refusing to respond to questions and by telling witnesses not to respond to questions and not give subpoenaed documents to the special counsel.
Barry responded to the special counsel report by claiming he had violated no written rules or procedures on such contracts and that there was no conflict of interest. Barry apologized for his "very, very poor judgment."
In response to the special counsel's report, several council members said they would like to hear a response from Barry before considering a censure. On March 2, 2010, the Council of the District of Columbia voted 12–0 in favor of stripping Barry of all committee assignments, ending his chair of the Committee on Housing and Workforce Development, and removing him from the Committee on Finance and Revenue.
Asian American racist remarks controversy
At a party celebrating his primary victory for his D.C. council seat on April 3, 2012, Barry said, "We've got to do something about these Asians coming in, opening up businesses, those dirty shops. They ought to go, I'll just say that right now, you know. But we need African-American businesspeople to be able to take their places, too."
Several other council members, Mayor Vincent Gray, and Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton criticized Barry's comments. Five Asian American members of the Maryland General Assembly also called on Barry to apologize in a statement, saying, "At best, Mr. Barry's attack on Asian Americans is deeply troubling, and at worst it is race baiting."
Barry apologized for his comments, saying in a written statement, "It is to these less than stellar Asian-American businessmen in Ward 8 that my remarks were directed, not the whole of Asian businessmen in Ward 8 or the Asian-American population."
Several weeks later, Barry sparked a diplomatic incident with the diplomatic mission from the Philippines, after he said at a meeting with UDC personnel that "it’s so bad, that if you go to the hospital now, you’ll find a number of immigrants who are nurses, particularly from the Philippines ... And, no offense, but let’s grow our own teachers, let’s grow our own nurses, so that we don’t have to be scrounging around in our community clinics and other kinds of places, having to hire people from somewhere else."
While apologizing to Asian Americans for his previous comments, Barry used the anti-Polish slur Polack.
Personal life
Barry married Effi Slaughter, his third wife, just after announcing his candidacy for mayor in 1978. The couple had one son, Marion Christopher Barry, who died of a drug overdose on August 14, 2016. The Barrys separated in November 1990, soon after he was caught on videotape smoking crack cocaine with an ex-model and propositioning her for sex. They divorced in 1993, but she returned to Washington and supported him in his successful bid for a city council seat in 2004. Effi died on September 6, 2007, after an 18-month battle with acute myeloid leukemia.
Barry married Cora Masters on January 8, 1993. Masters was a political science professor at the University of the District of Columbia and his former spokeswoman. Barry's mother, Mattie Cummings, died at age 92 in Memphis on November 8, 2009.
During his first three terms as mayor, Barry lived and raised his family at 3607 Suitland Road SE in the Anacostia section of DC.
Death
Barry died at United Medical Center in Washington, D.C., on November 23, 2014, from cardiac arrest, aged 78. Following three days of memorial observances, he was buried December 6 at Washington's Congressional Cemetery.
A private monument to Barry was erected over his grave and unveiled on November 22, 2016. The event was attended by current and former D.C. Council members, former mayor Sharon Pratt Kelly, and about 150 other dignitaries, family members, and friends of Barry. The memorial, conceived and largely designed by Cora Masters Barry and Marion Christopher Barry, was carved by nationally prominent sculptor and engraver Andy Del Gallo and manufactured by Eastern Memorials (a D.C.-based funerary monument company).
Legacy
In June 2009, a documentary of Barry's life was released at Silverdocs. The documentary was released in August 2009 on HBO.
In April 2014, in the midst of a contentious mayoral race in Newark, New Jersey, the future victor Ras Baraka was asked by Rutgers University professor and Newark city historian Clement A. Price to choose his role models as mayor. In response, Baraka named Barry and Chokwe Lumumba of Jackson, Mississippi.
Electoral history
See also
List of Alpha Phi Alpha brothers
List of Eagle Scouts
List of mayors of Washington, D.C.
List of members of the Council of the District of Columbia
The Nine Lives of Marion Barry
List of federal political scandals in the United States
References
Further reading
Barry, Marion, and Omar Tyree. Mayor For Life : The Incredible Story of Marion Barry, Jr. New York: Strebor Books, 2014. Print.
The Influence – The Four Stages of Every Political Drug Scandal
External links
SNCC Digital Gateway: Marion Barry, Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee & grassroots organizing from the inside-out
District of Columbia Council Member Marion Barry – official site
– District of Columbia
Interview on WHUT's Evening Exchange (1981) in the American Archive of Public Broadcasting
Guide to the Marion Barry 1978 campaign oral history project, 1975-2018, Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, The George Washington University.
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Mayors of Washington, D.C.
African-American mayors of Washington, D.C.
African-American people in Washington, D.C. politics
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Activists for African-American civil rights
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Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
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1936 births
2014 deaths | [
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253333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20Delicious | Golden Delicious | 'Golden Delicious' is a cultivar of apple. It is one of the 15 most popular cultivars in the United States. It is not closely related to 'Red Delicious'.
History
Golden Delicious arose from a chance seedling, possibly a hybrid of 'Grimes Golden' and 'Golden Reinette'. The original tree was found on the Mullins' family farm in Clay County, West Virginia, United States, and was locally known as Mullin's Yellow Seedling and Annit apple. Anderson Mullins sold the tree and propagation rights to Stark Brothers Nurseries for $5000, which first marketed it as a companion of their Red Delicious in 1914.
In 2010, an Italian-led consortium announced they had decoded the complete genome of the 'Golden Delicious' apple. It had the highest number of genes (57,000) of any plant genome studied to date.
'Golden Delicious' was designated the official state fruit of West Virginia by a Senate resolution on February 20, 1995. Clay County has hosted an annual Golden Delicious Festival since 1972.
Other West Virginia apples include Grimes Golden, and Guyandotte, which is believed extinct.
'Golden Delicious' was one of four apples honored by the United States Postal Service in a 2013 set of four 33¢ stamps commemorating historic strains, joined by 'Northern Spy', 'Baldwin', and 'Granny Smith'.
Appearance and flavor
'Golden Delicious' is a large, yellowish-green skinned cultivar and very sweet to the taste. It is prone to bruising and shriveling, so it needs careful handling and storage. It is a favorite for salads, apple sauce, and apple butter.
Season
'Golden Delicious' are harvested from fall through winter.
Descendant cultivars
'Akita Gold' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Fuji')
'Ambrosia' (believed to be 'Starking Delicious' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Arlet' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Idared')
'Autumn Glory' ('Golden Delicious' x 'Fuji')
'Bohemia' ('Lord Lambourne' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Cadel' '(Jonathan' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Cameo' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Red Delicious')
'Caudle' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Red Delicious')
'Champion' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Cox Orange')
'Chantecler' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Reinette Clochard')
'Cripps Pink' (marketed as ; 'Golden Delicious' × 'Lady Williams')
'Delbarestivale' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Stark Jonagrimes')
'Elstar' ('Ingrid Marie' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Firm Gold' (Starkspur 'Golden Delicious', U.S. PP 2024 × Starkrimson 'Red Delicious', U.S. PP 1565)
'Gala' ('Kidds Orange' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Ginger Gold' ('Albemarle Pippin' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Goldspur' a 'Golden Delicious'-like cultivar from Holland which is spur bearing
'Iduna' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Glockenapfel')
'Jonagold' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Jonathan')
'Lucky Rose Golden' A patented 'Golden Delicious' mutant
'Maigold' ('Fraurotacher' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Mutsu (apple)' (Indo apple × 'Golden Delicious')
'Opal (apple)' ('Topaz' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Pinova' ('Clivia' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Rubinette' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Cox Orange')
'Sekai Ichi' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Red Delicious')
'Spigold' ('Northern Spy' × 'Golden Delicious')
'Sundowner' ('Golden Delicious' × 'Lady Williams')
'Tentation delblush' ('Grifer' (Blushing Golden) × 'Golden Delicious')
References
External links
Overview of various apple cultivars
A cook's overview of various apple cultivars
Golden Delicious apple, in What Am I Eating? A Food Dictionary
Trees of the Northeastern United States
Symbols of West Virginia
Cuisine of West Virginia
American apples
Apple cultivars | [
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253334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick%20Burrs | Mick Burrs | Mick Burrs (April 1940 – April 20, 2021) was a Canadian poet who lived in Toronto, Ontario. He was born and raised in California, and after leaving the United States to avoid the Vietnam War, he spent much of his life in Yorkton, Saskatchewan. He won the 1998 Saskatchewan Book Award for Poetry for a volume of his collected works, Variations on the Birth of Jacob. This book was published under his birth name, Steven Michael Berzensky, as was a comprehensive collection of his poetry, The Names Leave the Stones: Poems New and Selected (2001 Canada, 2002 United States). He was the former editor of Grain magazine. He died on April 20, 2021, at the age of 81 just 10 days after his birthday.
Works
1973: Children on the Edge of Space
1975: Game Farm: Poems for Intereflection 1967-1975 Limited to 500 Copies.
1976: Moving in from Paradise
1982: The Waking Image Bedside Companion
1983: The Blue Pools of Paradise
1993: Dark Halo
1997: Variations on the Birth of Jacob
2001: The Names Leave the Stones: Poems New and Selected (Coteau Books),
References
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male poets
People from Yorkton
1940 births
2021 deaths
American emigrants to Canada | [
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253335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maciste | Maciste | Maciste () is one of the oldest recurring characters of cinema, created by Gabriele d'Annunzio and Giovanni Pastrone. He is featured throughout the history of the cinema of Italy from the 1910s to the mid-1960s.
He is usually depicted as a Hercules-like figure, utilizing his massive strength to achieve heroic feats that ordinary men cannot. Many of the 1960s Italian movies featuring Maciste were retitled in other countries, substituting more popular names in the titles (such as Hercules, Goliath or Samson).
Name
There are a number of references to the name in literature. The name of Maciste appears in a sentence in Strabo's Geography (Book 8, Chapter 3, Section 21), in which he writes: – "And in the middle is the temple of the Macistian Heracles, and the river Acidon." The epithet Μακίστιος (Makistios, Latinized as Macistius) is generally understood to be an adjective referring to a town called Μάκιστος (Makistos) in the province of Triphylia in Elis.
In the first volume of the Dizionario universale archeologico-artistico-technologico (1858) Macistius is given as one among several epithets of Hercules (Ercole). In the second volume of the same dictionary (1864) this name appears Italianized as Maciste, defined as uno dei soprannomi d'Ercole ("one of the nicknames of Hercules").
According to William Smith's A Dictionary of Greek and Roman mythology, Macistus (Μάκιστος) was "a surname of Heracles, who had a temple in the neighbourhood of the town of Macistus in Triphylia". Makistos was also the third child of Athamas and Nephele, according to the Greek mythology.
In the original draft outline of the 1914 movie Cabiria by director Giovanni Pastrone, the muscular hero's name had been Ercole. In the revised script, writer Gabriele d'Annunzio gave the character the name Maciste, which he understood (based on the above or similar sources) to be an erudite synonym for Hercules.
By later writers using the character the original etymology was generally forgotten, and a folk etymology was constructed based on the name's superficial similarity to the Italian word macigno "large stone"; in the first of the 1960s films, Maciste tells another character in the film that his name means "born of the rock", and in a later film, Maciste is actually shown in one scene appearing from within a solid rock wall in a cave as if by magic.
Cabiria
Maciste made his debut in the 1914 Italian silent movie classic Cabiria. Cabiria is a story about a slave named Maciste (played by Bartolomeo Pagano) who was involved in the rescue of a Roman girl named Cabiria (played by Lidia Quaranta) from an evil Carthaginian priest who plotted to sacrifice her to the cruel god Moloch. The film was based very loosely on Salammbo, a historical novel by Gustave Flaubert, and had a plot and screenplay by Gabriele D'Annunzio.
Maciste's debut set the tone for his later adventures. Including Cabiria itself, there have been at least 52 movies featuring Maciste, 27 of them being pre-1927 silent films starring Bartolomeo Pagano and the other 25 being a series of sound and color films produced in the early 1960s. Typical plots involve tyrannical rulers who practice vile magical rituals or worship evil gods. Typically, the young woman who is the love interest runs afoul of the evil ruler. Maciste, who possesses superhuman strength, must rescue her. There is often a rightful king who wants to overthrow the evil usurper, as well as a belly dance scene. There is often an evil queen who has carnal designs on the hero. These films were set in locales including Mongolia, Peru, Egypt, and the Roman Empire.
Bartolomeo Pagano's Maciste films
As a character, Maciste had two distinct moments in the spotlight. The first was in the Italian silent movie period, in which the original Maciste from Cabiria, the muscular actor Bartolomeo Pagano, starred in a series of at least 26 sequels over the period from 1915 through 1926. Then decades later, (following on the heels of the success of the two 1950s Steve Reeves "Hercules" films) Maciste was revived by Italian filmmakers for a series of 25 sound films (all made between 1960 and 1965).
The Bartolomeo Pagano silent Maciste films established the character as someone who could appear at any place and at any time. Some of the earlier ones, made during World War I, had the distinct flavour of propaganda, and cast the hero in the role of a soldier. Later films in the series return to fantasy, but the fantasy was not always mythological. Maciste appears as an Olympic athlete, in contemporary settings, or in the afterlife. His character and his plots remained consistent in whatever setting; he was always a populist Hercules, using his physical prowess to overcome the evil ruses of effete aristocrats and authority figures.
Revival of the 1960s
The character was revived in the 1960s. In 1957, Steve Reeves' Hercules, an Italian production, created a minor boom in Italian dramas featuring American bodybuilders in vaguely mythological or classical historical subjects. Maciste was the hero in 25 of these films. Other films starred such heroes as Ursus, Samson, Hercules and Goliath.
Maciste was never given an origin, and the source of his mighty powers was never revealed, nor was he confined to one specific time period or setting in his adventures. However, in the first of the 1960s Maciste films, he mentions to another character that the name "Maciste" means "born of the rock" (almost as if he was a god who would just appear out of the earth in times of need). One of the 1920s silent Maciste films was actually entitled "The Giant from the Dolomite" (another reference that he was not born as an ordinary mortal man would have been). Hence it is hinted that Maciste is more god than man, which would explain his great strength.
This sword and sandal fad continued for about six years, until the new fad for spaghetti Westerns and spy films took over the attention of the Italian cinema industry. The name Maciste was not in the title of the English versions of most of these films: when the films were imported into the USA and dubbed in English, the hero's name was often changed to Hercules, Samson, Goliath, Atlas, Ulysses, or Colossus, because the name Maciste was not widely recognised in the USA.
Some Italian sword and sandal films were not theatrically released in the USA; rather they premiered on American television in a syndication package called The Sons of Hercules, usually broadcast on Saturday afternoons. Best remembered for its stirring theme song, films originally featuring Maciste were dubbed into a variety of different "Sons of Hercules" pictures, with stock narration at the opening attempting to tie the film's lead character in to Hercules any way they could. A number of Italian musclemen played Maciste in the 1960s films, but Mark Forest was the actor who played Maciste the most (7 times). The other actors included Gordon Scott, Reg Park, Gordon Mitchell, Reg Lewis, Kirk Morris, Samson Burke, Alan Steel, Richard Lloyd, Renato Rossini and Frank Gordon.
Influence
The Cabiria scene in which Maciste pushes a mill wheel for ten years may have inspired John Milius, who shot a similar one for his movie Conan the Barbarian (1982).
Federico Fellini said that Maciste all'inferno (1925) was the first movie he remembered seeing as a child. His 1954 film La Strada features a brutish strongman performer.
The 1960s adventures have been enjoyed mostly by devotees of camp style. Two of the films, Maciste contro i cacciatori di teste (translated as Colossus and the Headhunters) and Maciste e la regina di Samar (as Hercules Against the Moon Men) appeared on the comedy television program Mystery Science Theater 3000 in the 1990s. In Colossus and the Headhunters, the pronunciation of Maciste's name was frequently mocked as "my cheesesteak."
The Belgian strongman John Massis based his pseudonym on Maciste.
The 2006 film The Caiman features an Italian exploitation film producer who made the film Machiste Against Freud.
In the 2013 film Il Futuro Rutger Hauer plays a retired actor and bodybuilder nicknamed "Machiste" for having starred in the role in the 1960s. The film is based on Roberto Bolaño's A Little Lumpen Novelita, featuring the character.
Filmography
The Silent Film Series (in chronological order)
Cabiria (1914) introduced the Maciste character
Maciste (1915) aka "Marvelous Maciste, the Giant of Cabiria"
Maciste bersagliere ("Maciste the Ranger", 1916)
Maciste alpino (1916) aka "Maciste The Warrior"
Maciste atleta ("Maciste the Athlete", 1917)
Maciste medium ("Maciste the Clairvoyant", 1917)
Maciste poliziotto ("Maciste the Detective", 1917)
Maciste turista ("Maciste the Tourist", 1917)
Maciste sonnambulo ("Maciste the Sleepwalker", 1918)
Il Testamento di Maciste ("Maciste's Last Will and Testament", 1919)
Il Viaggio di Maciste ("Maciste's Journey", 1919)
Maciste I ("Maciste the First", 1919)
Maciste contro la morte ("Maciste vs Death", 1919)
Maciste innamorato ("Maciste in Love", 1919)
Maciste salvato dalle acque ("Maciste, Rescued from the Waters", 1920)
La Rivincita di Maciste ("The Revenge of Maciste", 1921)
Maciste in vacanza ("Maciste on Vacation", 1921)
Maciste e la figlia del re della Plata ("Maciste and the Silver King's Daughter", 1922)
Maciste und die Japanerin ("Maciste and the Japanese", 1922)
Maciste contro Maciste ("Maciste vs Maciste", 1923)
Maciste und die chinesische truhe ("Maciste and the Chinese Chest", 1923)
Maciste e il nipote di America ("Maciste's American Nephew", 1924)
Maciste imperatore ("Emperor Maciste", 1924)
Maciste contro lo sceicco ("Maciste vs the Sheik", 1925)
Maciste all'inferno ("Maciste in Hell", 1925)
Maciste nella gabbia dei leoni ("Maciste in the Lion's Cage", 1926)
il Gigante delle Dolemite ("The Giant of the Dolomites", 1927)
The 1960s film series (in chronological order)
There were a total of 25 Maciste films from the 1960s peplum craze. By 1960, seeing how well the two Steve Reeves Hercules films were doing at the box office, Italian producers decided to revive the 1920s silent film character Maciste in a new series of color and sound films. Unlike the other Italian peplum protagonists, Maciste appeared in a variety of time periods ranging from the Ice Age to 16th Century Scotland. Maciste was never given an origin, and the source of his mighty powers was never revealed. However, in the first film of the 1960s series, he mentions to another character that the name "Maciste" means "born of the rock", as if he were a god who would appear out of the earth itself in times of need. One of the 1920s silent Maciste films was entitled "The Giant from the Dolomite", suggesting that Maciste may be more god than man, which would explain his great strength.
The first title listed for each film is the film's original Italian title along with its English translation, while the U.S. release title follows in bold type in parentheses (Maciste's name in the Italian title is usually altered to an entirely different name in the American title):
Maciste nella valle dei re / Maciste in the Valley of the Kings (Son of Samson, 1960) a.k.a. Maciste the Mighty, aka Maciste the Giant, starring Mark Forest & Chelo Alonso
Maciste nella terra dei ciclopi / Maciste in the Land of the Cyclops (Atlas in the Land of the Cyclops, 1961) starring Gordon Mitchell & Chelo Alonso
Maciste contro il vampiro / Maciste Vs. the Vampire (Goliath and the Vampires, 1961) starring Gordon Scott
Il trionfo di Maciste / The Triumph of Maciste (Triumph of the Son of Hercules, 1961) starring Kirk Morris
Maciste alla corte del gran khan / Maciste at the Court of the Great Khan (Samson and the Seven Miracles of the World, 1961) starring Gordon Scott
Maciste, l'uomo più forte del mondo / Maciste, the Strongest Man in the World (Mole Men vs the Son of Hercules, 1961) starring Mark Forest
Maciste contro Ercole nella valle dei guai / Maciste Against Hercules in the Vale of Woe (Hercules in the Vale of Woe, 1961) starring Kirk Morris as Maciste
Totò contro Maciste / Toto vs. Maciste (No American title, 1962) starring Samson Burke; this was a comedy satirizing the peplum genre (part of the Italian "Toto" film series) and was never distributed in the USA; it is apparently not available in English
Maciste all'inferno / Maciste in Hell (The Witch's Curse, 1962) starring Kirk Morris
Maciste contro lo sceicco / Maciste Against the Sheik (Samson Against the Sheik, 1962) starring Ed Fury
Maciste, il gladiatore più forte del mondo / Maciste, the World's Strongest Gladiator (Colossus of the Arena, 1962) starring Mark Forest
Maciste contro i mostri / Maciste Against the Monsters (Fire Monsters Against the Son of Hercules, 1962) starring Reg Lewis
Maciste contro i cacciatori di teste / Maciste Against the Headhunters (Colossus and the Headhunters, 1962) starring Kirk Morris
Maciste, l'eroe più grande del mondo / Maciste, the World's Greatest Hero (Goliath and the Sins of Babylon, 1963) starring Mark Forest
Zorro contro Maciste / Zorro Against Maciste (Samson and the Slave Queen, 1963) starring Alan Steel
Maciste contro i mongoli / Maciste Against the Mongols (Hercules Against the Mongols, 1963) starring Mark Forest
Maciste nell'inferno di Gengis Khan / Maciste in Genghis Khan's Hell (Hercules Against the Barbarians, 1963) starring Mark Forest
Maciste alla corte dello zar / Maciste at the Court of the Czar (Atlas Against The Czar, 1964) starring Kirk Morris (a.k.a. Samson vs. the Giant King)
Maciste, gladiatore di Sparta / Maciste, Gladiator of Sparta (The Terror of Rome Against the Son of Hercules, 1964) starring Mark Forest
Maciste nelle miniere de re salomone / Maciste in King Solomon's Mines (Samson in King Solomon's Mines, 1964) starring Reg Park
Maciste e la regina de Samar / Maciste and the Queen of Samar (Hercules Against the Moon Men, 1964) starring Alan Steel
La valle dell'eco tonante / Valley of the Thundering Echo (Hercules of the Desert, 1964) starring Kirk Morris, a.k.a. Desert Raiders, a.k.a. in France as Maciste and the Women of the Valley
Ercole, Sansone, Maciste e Ursus: gli invincibili / Hercules, Samson, Maciste and Ursus: The Invincibles (Samson and His Mighty Challenge, 1964) starring Renato Rossini as Maciste (a.k.a. Combate dei Gigantes or Le Grand Defi)
Gli invincibili fratelli Maciste / The Invincible Maciste Brothers (The Invincible Brothers Maciste, 1964) a.k.a. The Invincible Gladiators, starring Richard Lloyd as Maciste
Maciste il Vendicatore dei Mayas / Maciste, Avenger of the Mayans (has no American title, 1965) (This Maciste film was made up almost entirely of re-edited stock footage from two older Maciste films, Maciste contro i mostri and Maciste contro i cacciatori di teste, so Maciste switches from Kirk Morris to Reg Lewis in various scenes; this movie is very scarce since it was never distributed in the USA and is not available in English.)
The 1973 films of Jesús Franco
In 1973, the Spanish cult film director Jesús Franco directed two low-budget "Maciste" films for French producers: Maciste contre la Reine des Amazones (Maciste vs the Queen of the Amazons) and Les exploits érotiques de Maciste dans l'Atlantide (The Erotic Exploits of Maciste in Atlantis), both starring Wal Davis as Maciste. The films have almost identical casts and appear to have been shot back-to-back. Despite their titles, the plots were totally unrelated to the 1960s Italian Maciste series. Maciste was presented as a 16th-century French adventurer who travels overseas to exotic lands.
Maciste contre la Reine des Amazones was distributed in Italy as a "Karzan" film (a Tarzan imitation), while Les exploits érotiques de Maciste dans l'Atlantide was released, also in France, in a second version with hardcore pornographic inserts entitled Les Gloutonnes (literally: "The Gobblers").
See also
Sword and Sandal
Samson
Hercules
The Sons of Hercules
Steve Reeves
References
External links
The Many Faces of Hercules at Brian's Drive-In Theater
Santo and Friends, website on Mexico's equivalent of the 1950s-1960s pop culture Hercules
Cinema of Italy
Fantasy film characters
Peplum films
Film characters introduced in 1914
Gabriele D'Annunzio
Film superheroes
Sword and sandal films
Italian film series | [
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253340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peking%20Man | Peking Man | Peking Man (Homo erectus pekinensis) is a subspecies of H. erectus which inhabited the Zhoukoudian Cave of northern China during the Middle Pleistocene. The first fossil, a tooth, was discovered in 1921, and the Zhoukoudian has since become the most productive H. erectus site in the world. Peking Man was instrumental in the foundation of Chinese anthropology, and fostered an important dialogue between Western and Eastern science for decades to come. The fossils became the centre of anthropological discussion, and were classified as a direct human ancestor, propping up the Out of Asia hypothesis that humans evolved in Asia. Peking Man also played a vital role in the restructuring of the Chinese identity following the Chinese Communist Revolution, and was intensively communicated to working class and peasant communities to introduce them to Marxism and science (overturning deeply-rooted superstitions and creation myths). As a consequence of the former, early models of Peking Man society strongly leaned towards communist or nationalist ideals, leading to discussions on primitive communism and polygenism. This produced a strong schism between Western and Eastern interpretations, especially as the West adopted the Out of Africa hypothesis by the late 20th century, and Peking Man's role in human evolution diminished as merely an offshoot of the human line. Now that the hypothesis is ubiquitous, Peking Man interbreeding with human ancestors is frequently discussed especially in Chinese circles.
Peking Man is characterised by a long and heavily fortified skull, featuring an inflated bar of bone circumscribing the crown, crossing along the brow ridge, over the ears, and connecting at the back of the skull, as well as a sagittal keel running across the midline. The bone of the skull and long bones is exorbitantly thickened. The face was protrusive (midfacial prognathism), eye sockets wide, jaws robust and chinless, and teeth large. Brain volume ranged from 850 to 1,225 cc, for an average of just over 1,000 cc (compared to an average of 1,270 cc for present-day modern males and 1,130 for present-day modern females). The limbs are broadly anatomically comparable to those of modern humans. H. erectus in such northerly latitudes may have averaged roughly in height, compared to for more tropical populations.
Peking Man lived in a cool, predominantly steppe, partially forested environment, alongside deer, rhinos, elephants, bison, buffalo, bears, wolves, big cats, and a menagerie of other creatures. Peking Man intermittently inhabited the cave, but the exact chronology is unclear, with estimates as far back as 780,000 years ago and as recent as 230,000 years ago. This spans several cold glacial and warm interglacial periods. The cultural complexity of Peking Man is fiercely debated. If the inhabitants were capable of hunting (as opposed to predominantly scavenging), making clothes, and controlling fire, they would have been well-equipped to survive frigid glacial periods. If not, they would have had to retreat southward and return later. It is further disputed how the Peking Man fossils were predominantly deposited in the cave, either because they lived and died there, or they were killed by giant hyenas (Pachycrocuta) and dumped there, in addition to other natural process. Over 100,000 pieces of stone tools were recovered, mainly small and inconsistently shaped flakes no more than long, but they were sometimes refined into scrapers, choppers, and, towards the later end of occupation, points, burins, and awls.
Taxonomy
Research history
Discovery
In 1921, near the city of Beijing (also romanised as Peking), Swedish archaeologist Johan Gunnar Andersson was teaching Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky and American archaeologist Walter Granger how to work on Chinese sites near the village of Zhoukoudian ("shop on the Zhoukou”) at the Chi Ku Shan ("Chicken Bone Hill") locality, when they were advised by local quarrymen to dig at the nearby Longgushan ("Dragon Bone Hill") locality. Zdansky found the first human teeth in the site that year, but only reported it in 1926. In 1927, Swedish archaeological student Bergir Bohlin extracted another tooth.
That year, Chinese geologist Wēng Wénhào drafted an agreement with all the Zhoukoudian scientists at the time that the Zhoukoudian remains remain in China. In 1928, the Chinese government similarly clamped down on the exportation of Chinese artefacts and other archaeologically relevant materials to the West for study, as this was viewed as an imperialistic attack; foreign scientists were instead encouraged to research these materials within China. In 1929, Canadian palaeoanthropologist Davidson Black persuaded the Peking Union Medical College (his employer), the Geological Survey of China (headed by Wēng), and the Rockefeller Foundation to found and fund the Cenozoic Research Laboratory and continue excavation.
Later that year, Chinese anthropologist Péi Wénzhōng discovered a surprisingly complete skullcap, and the Zhoukoudian proved to be a valuable site, with a preponderance of human remains, stone tools, and potential evidence of early fire use, becoming the most productive Homo erectus site in the world. An additional four rather complete skullcaps were discovered by 1936, three of which were unearthed over an 11 day period in November 1936, overseen by Chinese palaeoanthropologist Jiǎ Lánpō. Excavation employed 10 to over 100 local labourers depending on the stage, who were paid five or six jiao per day, in contrast to local coal miners who only received a pittance of 40 to 50 yuan annually. The Zhoukoudian also employed some of the biggest names in Western and Chinese geology, palaeontology, palaeoanthropology, and archaeology, and facilitated an important discourse and collaboration between these two civilisations. After Black's sudden death in 1934, Jewish anatomist Franz Weidenreich, who fled Nazi Germany, carried on Black's study of the Zhoukoudian.
Loss of specimens
In 1941, to safeguard them during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Zhoukoudian human fossils — representing at least 40 different individuals — and artefacts were deposited into two wooden footlockers and were to be transported by the United States Marine Corps from the Peking Union Medical College to the SS President Harrison which was to dock at Qinhuangdao Port (near the Marine basecamp Camp Holcomb), and eventually arrive at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. En route to Qinhuangdao, the ship was attacked by Japanese warships, and ran aground. Though there have been many attempts to locate the crates — including offering large cash rewards — it is unknown what happened to them after they left the college.
Rumours about the fate of the fossils range from their having been onboard a Japanese ship (the Awa Maru) or an American ship that was sunk, to being ground up for traditional Chinese medicine. The affair also provoked allegations of robbery against Japanese or American groups, especially during the Resist America, Aid Korea Campaign in 1950 and 1951 to promote anti-American sentiment during the Korean War.
Marine Richard Bowen recalled finding a box filled with bones while digging a foxhole one night next to some stone barracks in Qinhuangdao. This happened while the city was under siege by the CCP Eighth Route Army, who were under fire from Nationalist gunboats (a conflict of the Chinese Civil War). According to Mr. Wang Qingpu who had written a report for the Chinese government on the history of the port, if Bowen's story is accurate, the most probable location of the bones is underneath roads, a warehouse, or a parking lot.
Four of the teeth from the original excavation period are still in the possession of the Paleontological Museum of Uppsala University in Sweden.
Further excavation
Excavation of the Zhoukoudian had halted from 1941 until the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War and the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 under Mao Zedong. Field work took place in 1949, 1951, 1958–1960, 1966, and 1978–1981. Given the meticulousness of the dig teams, going so far as to sieve out unidentifiable fragments as small as long, excavation of the Zhoukoudian is generally considered to be more or less complete.
Through the Mao era, but most especially in 1950 and 1951, Peking Man took on a central role in the restructuring of the Chinese identity under the new government, specifically to link socialist ideologies with human evolution. Peking Man was taught in educational books for all levels, pop science magazines and articles, museums, and lectures given in workspaces, including factories. This campaign was primarily to introduce the general populace (including those without advanced education) to Marxism, as well as to overturn widespread superstitions, traditions, and creation myths. Nonetheless, research was constricted as scientists were compelled to fit new discoveries within the frame of communism. In 1960, the lab was converted into an independent organisation as the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP), a division of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and was headed by Péi, Jiǎ, and Chinese palaeoanthropologist Yang Zhongjian.
During the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, all intellectuals, including scientists, came under much persecution, and among other things were conscripted into manual labour as part of a campaign to turn "intellectuals into labourers and labourers into intellectuals", which impeded research. Though palaeoanthropology was still able to continue, the field became much less important to the Chinese government with its new resolve to become economically independent, and popular science topics switched from human evolution to production-related matters. As the Revolution's policies relaxed after 1970, palaeoanthropology and academia resurged, especially with the rise of Deng Xiaoping in 1978 (renowned as a "springtime for science"). The Zhoukoudian had been threatened several times by nearby mining operations or acid rain from air pollution, but the post-Mao China also witnessed budding environmentalist actions. To this extent, the United Nations declared the Zhoukoudian to be a World Heritage Site in 1987, and custody of the site was handed over from the IVPP to the city of Beijing (which has greater resources) in 2002.
The productivity of the Zhoukoudian elicited strong palaeoanthropological interest in China, and 14 other fossil-bearing sites have since been discovered across the country as of 2016 in: Yuanmou, Tiandong, Jianshi, Yunxian, Lantian, Luonan, Yiyuan, Nanzhao, Nanjing, Hexian, and Dongzhi Counties.
Age and taphonomy
The Zhoukoudian currently sits above sea level. The fossil-bearing sediments are divided into 27 localities, and Peking Man is known from Locality 1 ("Dragon Bone Hill"). This deep locality is further divided into 17 layers, of which fossils are found above Layer 13, and Peking Man from Layers 10–3. The fossil-bearing regions can also be organised into Loci A–O. Major stone tool accumulations occur in Layers 3 and 4, and the tops of Layers 8 and 10. The animal fossils in the locality suggest it dates to the Middle Pleistocene. There have been a myriad of attempts and methodologies to more finely tune the date of each layer, starting in the late 1970s. In 1985, Chinese scientist Zhao Shusen proposed the chronology: 700,000 years ago for Layer 13; 500,000 years ago for Layer 10; and 230,000 years ago for Layers 3. Though these general timeframes are normally agreed upon, the exact date of each layer is subject to intense discussion. In 2004, Shen Chengde and colleagues argued Layer 3 was deposited 400 to 500 thousand years ago, and Layer 10 as far back as about 600 to 800 thousand year ago, during a mild glacial period. The earliest H. erectus fossils in all of China, Yuanmou Man, may date to 1.7 million years ago, though stone tools from the Shangchen site in Lantian, central China, extend the occupation of the region to as far back as 2.12 million years ago.
Because human remains (encompassing men, women, and children), tools, and evidence of fire were found in so many layers, it has often been assumed Peking Man lived in the cave for hundreds of thousands of years. In 1929, French archaeologist Henri Breuil suggested the overabundance of skulls compared to body remains is conspicuous, and hypothesised the remains represent the trophies of cannibalistic headhunters, either a band of H. erectus or a more "advanced" species of human. In 1937, French palaeoanthropologist Marcellin Boule believed the Peking Man brain was insufficiently developed for such behaviour, based on its small size, and suggested the skulls belonged to a primitive species and the limbs to a more evolved one, the latter manufacturing stone tools and cannibalising the former. Weidenreich did not believe brain size could be a dependable measure of cultural complexity, but, in 1939, he detailed the pathology of the Peking Man fossils and came to the conclusion of cannibalism or headhunting. The majority of the remains bear evidence of scars or injuries which he ascribed to attacks from clubs or stone tools; all the skulls have broken-in bases which he believed was done to extract the brain; and the femora (thigh bones) have lengthwise splits, which he supposed was done to harvest the bone marrow. Weidenreich's sentiments became widely popular. Another school of thought, proposed by Péi in 1929, held that individuals were dragged in by hyenas. In 1939, pioneering the field of taphonomy (the study of fossilisation), German palaeontologist highlighted parallels between the Zhoukoudian fossils and cow bones gnawed by hyenas he studied at Vienna Zoo. Weidenreich subsequently conceded in 1941 that the breaking-off of the epiphyses of long bones is most likely due to hyena activity, but he was unconvinced that hyenas broke open the skull base or were capable of creating the long splits in the robust femora, still ascribing those to stone-tool-wielding cannibals.
After World War II, the hypothesis that Peking Man inhabited the cave once again became the mainstay, modeled around Jiǎ's 1975 book The Cave Home of Peking Man. In 1985, American archaeologist Lewis Binford and Chinese palaeoanthropologist Ho Chuan Kun instead hypothesised that Zhoukoudian was a "trap" which humans and animals fell into. They further proposed deer remains, earlier assumed to have been Peking Man's prey, were, in fact, predominantly carried in by the giant hyena Pachycrocuta, and ash was deposited by naturally occurring wildfires, fueled by bat guano, as they did not believe any human species had yet mastered hunting or fire at this time. In 2001, American geologist Paul Goldberg, Israeli archaeologist Steve Weiner, and colleagues determined Layer 4 was primarily deposited with loess (wind-blown dust), and Layer 3 with travertine (water-lain limestone). They also concluded that supposed evidence of fire is actually a result of completely different depositional circumstances related to water. In 2000, American anthropologist Noel T. Boaz and colleagues argued the state of the bones is consistent with general hyena biting, gnawing, and bone-crunching, and suggested Pachycrocuta, the largest known hyena to have ever lived, was more than capable of splitting robust bones, contrary to Weidenreich. They identified bite marks on 67% of the Peking Man fossils (28 specimens), and attributed this and all other perimortem (around the time of death) damage to hyenas. Boaz and colleagues conceded that stone tools must indicate human activity in (or at least near) the cave, but, with few exceptions, tools were randomly scattered across the layers (as mentioned by several previous scientists), which Goldberg and colleagues ascribed to bioturbation . This means that the distribution of the tools gives no indication of the duration of human habitation. In 2016, Shuangquan Zhang and colleagues were unable to detect significant evidence of animal, human, or water damage to the few deer bones collected from Layer 3, and concluded they simply fell into the cave from above. They noted taphonomic debates are nonetheless still ongoing. Indeed, the fire debate is still heated, with Chinese palaeoanthropologist Xing Gao and colleagues declaring "clear-cut evidence for intentional fire use" in 2017.
Classification
Background
Despite what Charles Darwin had hypothesised in his 1871 Descent of Man, many late-19th century evolutionary naturalists postulated that Asia (instead of Africa) was the birthplace of humankind as it is midway between all continents via land routes or short sea crossings, providing optimal dispersal routes throughout the world. Among the latter was Ernst Haeckel who argued that the first human species (which he proactively named "Homo primigenius") evolved on the now-disproven hypothetical continent "Lemuria" in what is now Southeast Asia, from a genus he termed "Pithecanthropus" ("ape-man"). "Lemuria" had supposedly sunk below the Indian Ocean, so no fossils could be found to prove this. Nevertheless, Haeckel's model inspired Dutch scientist Eugène Dubois to join the Dutch East India Company and search for his "missing link" in Java. He found a skullcap and a femur (Java Man) which he named "P. erectus" (using Haeckel's hypothetical genus name) and unfruitfully attempted to convince the European scientific community that he had found an upright-walking ape-man dating to the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene, who dismissed his findings as some kind of malformed non-human ape. Dejected, Dubois fully withdrew from anthropology by the turn of the century.
Instead, in regard to the ancestry of Far Eastern peoples, racial anthropologists had long placed the origin of Chinese civilisation in the Near East, namely Babylon as suggested by French archaeologist Terrien de Lacouperie in 1894, whereby the Chinese peoples regressed compared to the superior races of Europe (degeneration theory). This came under fire by the time Peking Man was discovered, when China was in the midst of the New Culture Movement and surging nationalism subsequent to the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. These ideologies not only aimed to remove imperialistic influences, but also to replace ancient Chinese traditions and superstitions with western science to modernise the country, and lift its standing on the world stage to that of Europe. Consequently, unlike previously discovered extinct human species, notably the Neanderthal and Java Man, the Peking Man was readily accepted into the human family tree. In the West, this was aided by a popularising hypothesis for the origin of humanity in Central Asia, championed primarily by American palaeontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn and his apprentice William Diller Matthew. They believed that Asia was the "mother of continents" and the rising of the Himalayas and Tibet and subsequent drying of the region forced human ancestors to become terrestrial and bipedal. They also believed that populations which retreated to the tropics – namely Dubois' Java Man and the "Negroid race" — substantially regressed (again, degeneration theory). This required them to reject Raymond Dart's far more ancient South African Taung child (Australopithecus africanus) as a human ancestor, favouring the hoax Piltdown Man from Britain.
"Out of Asia" theory
In 1927, Black classified newly discovered human remains from the Zhoukoudian into a new genus and species as "Sinanthropus pekinensis". The Peking Man, with a brain volume much larger than living apes, was used to further invalidate African or European origin models. Peking Man's importance in human evolution was championed by geologist Amadeus William Grabau in the 1930s, who pushed that the lifting of the Himalayas caused the emergence of proto-humans ("Protanthropus") in the Miocene, who then dispersed during the Pliocene into the Tarim Basin in Northwest China where they learned to control fire and make stone tools, and then went out to colonise the rest of the Old World where they evolved into "Pithecanthropus" in Southeast Asia, "Sinanthropus" in China, "Eoanthropus" (Piltdown Man) in Europe, and "Homo" in Africa (again abiding by degeneration theory). To explain the paucity of stone tools in Asia compared to Europe (an apparent contradiction if humans had occupied Asia for longer), he also stated that Pleistocene Central Asia was too cold to permit back-migration by early modern humans or Neanderthals until the Neolithic. The Central Asia model was the leading consensus of the time.
Peking Man became an important matter of national pride, and was used to extend the antiquity of the Chinese people and the occupation of the region to 500,000 years ago, with discussions of human evolution becoming progressively Sinocentric even in Europe. In the 1930s, Weidenreich already began arguing that Peking Man was ancestral to the "Mongoloid race", forwarding his multiregional theory where local populations of archaic humans evolved into the local modern humans (polygenism), though other scientists working on the site made no such claims. This sentiment, that all Chinese ethnic groups—including the Han, Tibetan, and Mongols—were indigenous to the area for such a long time, became more popular during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the occupation of China by Japan. By the Maoist era, Peking Man was ubiquitously heralded as a human ancestor in China.
In the 1950s, Ernst Mayr had entered the field of anthropology, and, surveying a "bewildering diversity of names," decided to subsume human fossils into 3 species of Homo: "H. transvaalensis" (the australopithecines), H. erectus (including "Sinanthropus", "Pithecanthropus", and various other putative Asian, African, and European taxa), and Homo sapiens (including anything younger than H. erectus, such as modern humans and Neanderthals), as had been broadly recommended by various priors. Mayr defined them as a sequential lineage, with each species evolving into the next (chronospecies). Though later Mayr changed his opinion on the australopithecines (recognising Australopithecus), his more conservative view of archaic human diversity became widely adopted in the subsequent decades. Thus, Peking Man was considered a human ancestor in both Western and Eastern thought. Nonetheless, Chinese and Soviet scientists wholly denounced polygenism, viewing it as scientific racism propagated by Western capitalist scholars. They instead argued all modern human races are closely related to each other.
"Out of Africa" theory
The contributions of Chinese scientists during the Mao era were under much suspicion in the West for fears of propagandic contamination. In the 60s and 70s, the position of the more ancient Australopithecus in human evolution once again became a centre of debate; in China, Wú Rǔkāng argued that Australopithecus was the "missing link" between apes and humans, but was met with much derision from Chinese peers, most notably soldier Lài Jīnliáng. Following the "opening" of China with the rise of Dèng Xiǎopíng in 1978, Western works contradictory to Maoist ideology disseminated through China, radically altering Eastern anthropological discussions. By the late 20th century, human evolution had become Afrocentric with the gradual acceptance of Australopithecus as human ancestors, and consequent marginalisation of Peking Man.
To counter this, many Chinese scientists commonly pushed Sinocentric and often polygenic arguments, forwarding the antiquity of racial distinctness before the evolution and dispersal of modern humans, and racial continuity between local H. erectus and modern descendent races (for example, the "typically 'Mongoloid' features" of a flat face and shovel-like incisors carried over from Peking Man to modern Chinese). They often cited the 2 million year old Wushan Man from central China, which is no longer classified as a human, and asserted several Chinese apes millions of years old were human ancestors. Jiǎ proposed the earliest human species evolved on the Tibetan Plateau, and the adjacent Guizhou Province was another popularly proposed genesis point. Various late Middle Pleistocene Chinese specimens have been argued, namely by Chinese palaeoanthropologist Wu Xinzhi, to represent hybrid populations between Peking Man and the ancestors of modern humans, such as the Dali Man or the Jinniushan Man.
Peking Man's ancestral position is still widely maintained among especially Chinese scientists using the assimilation model, wherein archaic humans such as Peking Man interbred with and were effectively absorbed into modern humans in their respective locations (so according to this, Peking Man has lent some ancestry to modern Chinese populations). On this matter, palaeogenetic analyses — the first in 2010 — have reported that all humans whose ancestry lies beyond Subsaharan Africa contain genes from the archaic Neanderthals and Denisovans indicating early modern humans interbred with archaic humans. The common ancestor of Neanderthals and Denisovans in turn interbred with another archaic species even farther removed from modern humans.
Anatomy
Peking Man is known from 13 skull and cranial fragments, 15 mandibles (lower jawbone), 157 isolated and in situ teeth, an atlas (the first neck vertebra), a clavicle, 3 humeri (upper arm bones), potentially 2 iliac fragments (the hip), 7 femora, a tibia (shinbone), and a lunate bone (a wrist bone). The material may represent as many as 40 individuals.
Peking Man and anatomically similar East Asian contemporaries are sometimes referred to as "classic" H. erectus.
Skull
In 1937, Weidenreich and his assistant Lucille Swan attempted to reconstruct a complete skull, though only considered a skullcap (Skull XI), a left maxillary (upper jawbone) fragment (Skull XII/III), and a right mandibular fragment, which are the presumed-female specimens based on relatively smaller size. Though larger presumed-male specimens are much more numerous, they probably chose female specimens because a presumed-male maxilla would not be discovered until 1943.
In 1996, anthropologists Ian Tattersall and Gary Sawyer revised the skull with high-quality casts of six presumed-male specimens and three additional isolated tooth specimens (as the original fossils were lost). With this extended sample, virtually the entire skull could be more accurately restored, except the bottom margin of the piriform aperture (the nose hole). They deflated the cheeks and inflated the lateral margins (towards the side of the head) of the brow ridge, which caused the nose to project out even farther (increased midfacial prognathism), though they reduced subnasal prognathism. Overall, their reconstruction aligns more closely with other Asian H. erectus and African H. e? ergaster specimens.
Shape
Weidenreich characterised the Peking Man skull as being relatively low and long; consequently, the breadth is widest at the ear level, and sharply reduces especially at the strongly receding forehead. There is marked post-orbital constriction, and behind the skull has an ellipsoid shape. Most strikingly, the skull is circumscribed by a torus (a strongly projecting bar of bone) most prominently at the brow ridge (supraorbital torus) and at the back of the skull (occipital torus). All have an eminence projecting just above the supraorbital torus, developed to varying degrees, which is not exhibited in any other population. The frontal sinuses are restricted to the nasal area below the brows, ergo the supraorbital torus is completely solid, unlike that of Java Man. The eye sockets are wide. The superior orbital fissure in the eye socket was probably a small opening like in non-human apes rather than a long slit like in modern humans. The nasal bones between the eyes are double the width of that of the average modern human, though not as wide as those of Neanderthals. Weidenreich suggested Peking Man had a short, broad nose.
Peking Man also features a sagittal keel running across the midline, highest when it intersects the coronal suture halfway across, and recedes around the obelion (near the base of the parietal bones at the level of the parietal foramina). All skulls feature an equally developed keel (proportionally), including subadult and presumed-female specimens (there are no infant specimens). The keel produces a depression on either side, which accentuates the parietal eminence. The temporal lines arcing in pairs across either side of the skull often merge into a single ridge near the midline of the skull. The squamous part of temporal bone (the flat region) is positioned quite low, and the temporal fossa (the depression between the temporal lines and cheek) is relatively narrow. The mastoid part of the temporal bone features a high crest above which overshadows the ear canal. The crest accentuates the mastoid process, which bends inwards as opposed to the modern human condition of vertical; bending is much more pronounced in presumed-male specimens. Peking Man lacks a true postglenoid process behind the jaw hinge, only a broad-based, triangular projection. The zygomatic bones (cheekbones) project far off the face, and would have been visible when viewing the skull from the top. The zygomatics are also quite high, as much as , whereas modern humans do not exceed .
At the back of the skull, the occipital torus extends in a relatively straight line, though laterally curves downward at termination (at the sides of the head). The occipital torus can be bordered by furrows (sulci) on the top and bottom margins, though these only indicate muscle attachment, and the bottom margin of the torus actually gradually fades. The midpoint of the torus features an additional prominence, the occipital bun. The foramen magnum (where the spine connects with the skull) appears to have been positioned near the centre like in humans, though was proportionally narrower.
The strongly developed tori and crests greatly fortify the skull, and the braincase is additionally exceptionally thickened like in other H. erectus. Similar thickening can also rarely occur in modern humans when the diploë (the spongy layer between the two hard layers of bone in the skull) abnormally expands, but for Peking Man, all three layers of cranial bone have equally thickened.
Mouth
Peking Man has remarkably defined canine juga (a bony ridge corresponding to the tooth root). There is subnasal prognathism (the area between the nose and mouth juts out). The upper jaw commonly features exostoses (bony lumps) in the molar region, which infrequently occurs in modern humans (>6%). Like modern humans and Neanderthals but unlike Java Man, Peking Man has a long, rugose palate (roof of the mouth). The mandibles are rather big and, like other archaic humans, lack chins. The extramolar sulci bordering the cheek side of the molars are broad. Some mandibles feature a torus on the tongue side, or multiple mental foramina.
The dental arches (tooth rows) are U-shaped. The incisors feature an eminence at the base, finger-like ridges on the tongue-side, and for the upper ones marked shovelling (the tooth strongly bends in). Modern human incisors can exhibit shovelling, quite frequently in Chinese populations. The mandibular incisors are narrow. Weidenreich originally restored the teeth as peg-like, but Tattersall and Sawyer found the teeth to be much larger and obtrusive. Like other H. erectus, the premolars are ellipse-shaped and asymmetrical, but the first premolar (P3) frequently has three roots instead of the more common two. The molar crowns exhibit several extraneous ridges in addition to the essential cusps, which produced a "dendrite-like" enamel-dentine junction, typical of "classic" H. erectus. M1 is rather long, and M2 is round.
Brain
The brain capacities of the seven Peking Man skulls for which the metric is measurable range from 850 to 1,225 cc, with an average of about 1,029 cc. For comparison, present-day modern humans average 1,270 cc for males and 1,130 cc for females, with a standard deviation of roughly 115 and 100 cc, and Asian H. erectus overall are rather big-brained, averaging roughly 1,000 cc. Encephalisation quotients (the ratio between observed to predicted brain mass for an animal of a given size, cautiously used as an indicator of intelligence) typically score from three to four for "classic" H. erectus assuming a body weight on the whereabouts of .
The endocast (the cast of the inside of the braincase) is ovoid in top-view. The frontal lobe is narrowed like in other H. erectus, the parietal lobes are depressed unlike Javan and African H. erectus or modern humans (though this seems to be somewhat variable among the Peking Man material), the temporal lobes are narrow and slender unlike most other human species, the occipital lobes are flattened dorsoventrally (from top to bottom) and strongly project backwards which is a rather variable trait among archaic human populations, and the cerebellum compared to that of modern humans is not as globular and the lobes diverge more strongly from the midline like other archaic humans.
Postcranium
Aside from the skull, most of the anatomy of H. erectus is based on the adolescent H. e? ergaster specimen Turkana Boy from Africa, as well as a few other isolated skeletons from Africa and Western Eurasia. This is because the archaeological record of East Asia is quite scanty. The long bones of all H. erectus have thickened cortical bone (hard exterior bone) and consequently narrowed medullary cavities (where the bone marrow is stored). Peking Man appears to have much more robust humeri than H. e? ergaster. At maximum constriction at the mid-shaft, the femoral walls of Peking Man take up about 's of the interior space, as opposed to only 's in modern humans. For the lateral walls (towards the sides), the exorbitant thickness sharply reduces above the greater trochanter, whereas the medial walls (towards the middle) are three times as thick as those of modern humans at that point. In modern humans, the femoral heads feature two main strips of cancellous bone (spongy interior bone) that converge into a triangle (Ward's triangle), which is absent in Peking Man, likely due to the intense thickening of the cortical bone.
Externally, the humerus is like that of a modern human, and exhibits exceptionally developed muscle attachments, but the shaft is more slender. The lunate bone (in the wrist) is modern humanlike, though proportionally small and broad. The femur is also mostly consistent with that of a modern human externally, except it is much stouter, flatter, slenderer, straighter (and maximum curvature occurs nearer the knee joint instead of at the mid-shaft), the femoral neck was probably truncated like in other archaic humans and non-human apes, the subtrochanteric crest terminates up at the greater trochanter with a bony growth like in Neanderthals, and the anteposterior (from front to back) diameter is smaller than the transverse (from left to right) diameter. These traits are not outside the range of variation for modern humans, though are quite rare.
The torso is poorly known, but because the limbs and clavicle are proportionally like those of modern humans, it is typically assumed the rest of the body was as well. In 1938, Weidenreich reconstructed a presumed-female femur to be in length in life, which would equate to a female height of . He speculated males averaged . In 1944, Weidenreich reconstructed a presumed-male femur to be long, equating a male height of . He speculated an average female height of . In 2018, Chinese palaeoanthropologist Song Xing estimated the living weight for Humeri II and III as about , Femur I , Femur IV , and Femur VI . Weidenreich assumed all these represent males. Overall, northerly H. erectus populations tend to be shorter than tropical populations, with colder climate populations including Zhoukoudian and Dmanisi averaging roughly , and hotter climate populations including African and Javan H. erectus .
Culture
Palaeoenvironment
Stone tools are strewn throughout Layers 10–1 with a few notable clusters, which has variously been interpreted as either short-lived occupation of the cave except intervals corresponding to those clusters, or occupation only during cluster intervals with the strays being randomly mixed throughout the layers by digging creatures. In 1985, Péi and Chinese palaeoanthropologist Zhang Shenshui identified one in Layers 9–8 right next to the supposed ash layer by Locus G, near what would have been the east cave entrance. Locus K (in about the same location and time interval) similarly yielded a cluster of tools. Occupation of the eastern side seems to end in Layer 6 coinciding with the cave-in of that entrance. The other cluster is in the southwestern region of Layer 3 by Locus H, which either indicates a new cave entrance or ceiling opening there.
The mammal assemblage indicates Layers 11–10 represent a mixed warm forest and cool/dry grassland environment, Layers 9–8 a warmer and more forested environment, Layers 7–6 a similar environment but wetter climate, Layers 5–4 a cooling trend, and Layers 3–1 a warm and wet predominantly steppeland environment. These can be broadly stratified into three major environmental units: Layers 11–10 a cold and dry, predominantly grassland environment; Layers 9–5 a warm, predominantly forested environment; and Layers 4–1 another cold and dry, predominantly grassland environment.
The mammal assemblage and oxygen isotope analyses of Layers 9–8 are consistent with a cool steppe environment, gradually encroaching forested areas despite later layers indicating a general warming trend. The mammal assemblage includes macaques, the Zhoukoudian wolf, the Asian black bear, brown bear, the rhino Dicerorhinus choukoutienensis, the woolly rhinoceros, the horse Equus sanmeniensis, the Siberian musk deer, the giant deer Sinomegaceros pachyosteus, sheep, bison, the Asian straight-tusked elephant, bats, pika, rodents, and shrews. The mammal assemblage of Layers 4–3 is broadly similar to that of Layers 9–8, in addition to several warm-to-mild climate steppe and forest creatures, including the raccoon dog Nyctereutes sinensis, the dhole Cuon antiquus, the corsac fox, the Asian badger, wolverines, the giant hyena Pachycrocuta, the saber-toothed cat Machairodus inexpectatus, the tiger, the leopard, sika deer, the antelope Spirocerus peii, and the water buffalo Bubalus teilhardi. The Zhoukoudian fauna are not entirely exclusive to either glacial or interglacial periods.
H. erectus seems to have typically favoured open environments. It is debated if Peking Man occupied the region during colder glacial periods or only took residence during warmer interglacials, tied to the uncertain chronology of the Zhoukoudian, as well as arguments regarding fire usage, clothing technology, and hunting ability. Given the abundance of deer remains, it was quite early on assumed Peking Man was a prolific deer hunter, but since the establishment of non-human carnivores as a major depositional agent, the dependence on hunting has become a controversial topic. Indeed, most of the Peking Man fossils were at least fed upon by likely hyenas. Nonetheless, some of the animal fossils seem to have been modified by humans. In 1986, Binford and colleagues reported a few horse fossils with cutmarks left by stone tools, and two upper premolars from Layer 4 appearing to him to have been burned while still fresh, which he ascribed to horse-head roasting (but he believed Peking Man was simply scavenging from hyenas because all tool cuts he analysed were always overlapping hyena gnaw marks instead of vice versa.) The Zhoukoudian also preserves the remains of edible plants, nuts, and seeds which Peking Man may have been eating: Chinese hackberry, walnut, hazelnut, pine, elm, and rambler rose.
H. erectus, a specialist in woodland and savannah biomes, likely went extinct with the takeover of tropical rainforests. Peking Man's final stay at Zhoukoudian may have taken place sometime between 400,000 and 230,000 years ago, though a more exact time interval is difficult to arrive at. The Hualongdong site is among the youngest Chinese H. erectus sites at roughly 150,000 years old.
Society
During the Mao era, the dissemination of communist ideology among the general populace was imperative. The prospect of "labour created humanity" created by prominent communist Friedrich Engels in his 1876 essay "The Part Played by Labour in the Transition from Ape to Man" became central to Chinese anthropology, and was included in almost any discussion regarding human evolution — including educational media for laypersons. Engels supposed that walking upright instead of on all-fours as other apes do freed the hands for labour, facilitating the evolution of all characteristically human traits, such as language, cooperation, and most importantly the growth of brain size to "perfection," stating, "the hand is not only the organ of labour, it is also the product of labour." Therefore, labour stimulates intelligence, detected in the archaeological record with stone tools.
As for the society of these ancient humans, including Peking Man, Engel's 1884 book The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State and his concept of primitive communism became the mainstay. Engels had largely based it on American ethnologist Lewis H. Morgan's 1877 book Ancient Society detailing Morgan's studies on "primitive" hunter-gatherer societies, namely the Iroquois. In the Mao era, Peking Man was consequently often painted as leading a dangerous life in the struggle against nature, organised into simple, peaceful tribes which foraged, hunted, and made stone tools in cooperative and amiable groups; a classless, stateless, and strong society in which all members laboured for the common good. As for gender roles, Peking Man society was most often described as "men hunt and women gather."
These concepts were mostly compatible with Maoist ideology, but restrictive for scientists especially when interpreting new discoveries. Most notable was Chinese anthropologist Liú Xián who, in his 1950 book The History of Development from Ape to Human, was unable to reconcile "labour created humanity" with what he was taught while studying under Arthur Keith in London, instead arguing human ancestors came down from the trees by sheer bravery rather than learning to labour (essentially voluntarism vs materialism), which was met with much derision from peers. The frustrations of Chinese scientists with such alternate views came out during the Hundred Flowers Campaign from 1956 to 1957, which encouraged people to speak honestly of their opinions of communism and the government.
To the West, emphasis was usually placed on intelligence rather than labour, especially after English primatologist Jane Goodall discovered chimpanzees could make tools in 1960 (i.e., the labour of tool manufacturing is not unique to humans). Nonetheless, popular Western and Eastern interpretations of ancient humans at this time converged greatly. In China, the influence of "labour created humanity" as well as Engel's rhetoric waned after the rise of Deng with the dissemination throughout China of Western research and theories contradictory to Maoist ideology, particularly after 1985, though labour was still regarded as an important adaption. By this time, the concept of labour had expanded from purely manual to also intellectual work; a sense of aesthetics was instead heralded as a uniquely human trait.
Consistent with other prehistoric human populations, Peking Man had a rather short average lifespan. Out of a sample of 38 individuals, 15 died under the age of 14 years (39.5%), 3 died around 30 years (7%), 3 died from 40 to 50 years (7%), and 1 at 50 to 60 years (2.6%). The ages of the remaining 16 individuals (43%) could not be determined.
Stone tools
Despite the Zhoukoudian being one of the most productive sites for East Asian stone tools, the IVPP prioritised human and animal fossils, and archaeological research has stalled. This strongly contrasts with the rest of the world, especially Europe, where tools and manufacturing techniques have been categorised even on regional levels. Consequently, China's archaeological record has generally been viewed as stagnant. Nonetheless, markers of broader periods to the west are conspicuously rare in the East, most notably bifaces characteristic of the Acheulean culture (typically associated with western H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis) or the Levallois technique of the Mousterian culture (Neanderthals). The apparent technological divide inspired American archaeologist Hallam L. Movius to draw the "Movius Line" dividing the East and West in 1944. Though this is not well supported anymore with the discovery of some bifacial technology in Middle Pleistocene East Asia, bifaces are still conspicuously rare and crude compared to western contemporaries. This has been variously explained as: the Acheulean was invented in Africa after human dispersal through East Asia (but this would require that the two populations remained separated for nearly two million years); East Asia had poorer quality raw materials, namely quartz and quartzite (but some Chinese localities yielded bifaces made of these materials, and East Asia is not completely void of higher-quality minerals); East Asian H. erectus used biodegradable bamboo instead of stone for chopping tools (but this is difficult to test); or East Asia had a lower population density, leaving few tools behind in general (though demography is difficult to approximate in the fossil record).
The Zhoukoudian Locality 1 has produced more than 100,000 lithic pieces. In 1979, to highlight technological evolution, Péi and Zhang partitioned the Zhoukoudian industry into three stages: the early stage typified by the simple hammer and anvil technique (slamming the core against a rock) which produced large flakes namely from soft minerals such as sandstone, weighing up to and measuring from Layer 11; the middle stage typified by the bipolar technique (smashing the core into several flakes with a hammerstone, out of which at least a few should be the correct size and shape) which made smaller flakes up to in weight and in length; and the late stage above Layer 5 typified by even smaller flakes made with harder and higher quality quartz and flint among other cobble. Quartz had to be collected some distance from the cave from local granite outcrops by the hills and riverbed. In addition to simple flakes, they also manufactured scrapers, choppers, and, towards the later end of occupation, points, burins, and awls. Nonetheless, these techniques produced highly ununiform tools, and Binford was skeptical of any evidence of cultural evolution at all. There is scanty and indefinite evidence for the modification of bones into tools. Productive contemporaneous Chinese stone tool sites include Xiǎochángliáng (similar to Zhoukoudian), Jīgōng Shān, Bose Basin (which produced large tools often in excess of 10 cm, or 4 in), Jinniushan, Dingcun, and Panxian Dadong.
The debate as to whether Peking Man was the first human species to manufacture tools fleshed out in the early 1960s in the period of relative stability between the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. The argument centered around whether the Zhoukoudian tools were the most primitive and therefore the earliest tools (i. e., Peking Man is the most ancient human) championed by Péi, or if there were even more primitive and as of yet undiscovered tools (i. e., Peking Man is not the most ancient human) championed by Jiǎ. In Western circles, Louis Leakey had already reported an apparent pebble industry in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, in 1931, the first hard (albeit, controversial) evidence of a culture more primitive than the Acheulean. Radiometric dating in the 1960s established the Oldowan as the oldest known culture at 1.8 million years old.
Fire
In 1929, Péi oversaw the excavation of Quartz Horizon 2 of the Zhoukoudian, and reported burned bones and stones, ash, and redbud charcoal, which they interpreted as evidence of early fire use by Peking Man. The evidence was widely accepted. Further excavation in 1935 of Locality 1 Layers 4–5 revealed more burned stones, ash, and hackberry seeds. Ash was deposited in horizontal and vertical patches, reminiscent of hearths.
In 1985, Binford and Ho doubted Peking Man actually inhabited Zhoukoudian, and asserted the material was burned by naturally occurring fires fueled by guano; though, the next year, Binford interpreted burned horse teeth as evidence of horse-head roasting. In 1998, Weiner, Goldberg, and colleagues found no evidence of hearths or siliceous aggregates (silicon particles, which form during combustion) in Layers 1 or 10; they therefore concluded the burned material was simply washed into the cave rather than being burned in the cave. The IVPP immediately responded, and, in 1999, Chinese palaeoanthropologist Wu Xinzhi argued Weiner's data was too limited to reach such conclusions. In 2001, Goldberg, Weiner, and colleagues concluded the ash layers are reworked loessic silts, and blackened carbon-rich sediments traditionally interpreted as charcoal are instead deposits of organic matter left to decompose in standing water. That is, there is no evidence of ash or fire at all.
Nonetheless, in 2004, Shen and colleagues reported evidence of a massive fire at Layer 10 — ostensibly as old as 770,000 years ago, during a glacial period — and asserted Peking Man needed to control fire so far back in time in order to survive such cold conditions. In 2014, Chinese anthropologist Maohua Zhong and colleagues reported elements associated with siliceous aggregates in Layers 4 and 6, and they also doubted the validity of Weiner's analysis of Layer 10. The question of fire usage at the Zhoukoudian remains an open debate. Worldwide, evidence of fire usage is scarce in the archaeological record until 400 to 300 thousand years ago, which is generally interpreted as fire not being an integral part of life until this time, either because they could not create or well-maintain it.
Gallery
See also
Gigantopithecus
Lantian Man
Nanjing Man
Peopling of China
Yuanmou Man
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Peking Man fossils from Zhoukoudian
Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
Archaeology of China
Early species of Homo
Pleistocene
Pleistocene mammals of Asia
Prehistoric China
Mammals of China
Homo erectus fossils
History of Beijing
Fossil taxa described in 1927
1927 archaeological discoveries
Taxa named by Davidson Black | [
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] |
253341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20industrial%20engineers | List of industrial engineers | This is a list of notable industrial engineers, people who were trained in or practiced industrial engineering who have established prominence in their profession.
A
Bud Adams – oil tycoon and owner of the Tennessee Titans.
Ravindra K. Ahuja – editor of journals Operations Research, Transportation Science, and Networks
Horace Lucian Arnold – American engineer, inventor, engineering journalist, and early writer on management
B
Ali Babacan – State Minister for Economy of Republic of Turkey (Middle East Technical University)
Carl Georg Barth – Norwegian-American mathematician and mechanical engineer who improved and popularized the industrial use of compound slide rules
Leslie Benmark – known for work in engineering education, specifically accreditation
C
Alexander Hamilton Church – English efficiency engineer, accountant and early writer on accountancy and management
Timothy D. Cook – Chief Executive Officer of Apple Inc. (Auburn University) aug 2011
Roger Corman – American film producer and director (Stanford University)
Nancy Currie – astronaut
D
John Dasburg – former CEO of Northwest Airlines and Burger King (University of Florida)
John Z. DeLorean – former General Motors executive; founder of DeLorean Motors
W. Edwards Deming – forerunner of Total Quality Management (TQC)
Mike Duke – President and CEO of Wal-Mart Stores USA (Georgia Institute of Technology)
E
Harrington Emerson – American efficiency engineer and early management theorist
A. K. Erlang – communications, queueing (University of Copenhagen)
Michael Eskew – CEO of United Parcel Service (Purdue University)
F
Henry Ford – founder of the Ford Motor Company; revolutionized industrial production by being the first to apply assembly line manufacturing to a production process
Joe Forehand – Chairman of the board and former CEO of Accenture (Auburn University)
G
Henry Gantt – inventor of the Gantt chart
Frank Gilbreth – time and motion studies
Lillian Gilbreth – time and motion studies (University of California, Berkeley)
Samuel Ginn – wireless communications pioneer; former chairman of Vodafone (Auburn University)
Joe Girardi – manager, Florida Marlins and New York Yankees (Northwestern University)
Eliyahu M. Goldratt – inventor of the theory of constraints
H
Joe Hardy – founder and CEO of 84 Lumber (University of Pittsburgh)
Homer Hickam – NASA engineer; author of The Coalwood Way, Rocket Boys, October Sky, Torpedo Junction and Back to the Moon (Virginia Tech)
Charles O. Holliday – CEO of DuPont (University of Tennessee)
Linda Hudson – President and CEO of BAE Systems Inc. (University of Florida)
I
Lee Iacocca – former CEO of Chrysler (Lehigh University)
K
Shahid Khan – owner of automotive parts manufacturer Flex-N-Gate and the Jacksonville Jaguars
Charles Edward Knoeppel – American organizational theorist, consultant, and early management author
Dick Kovacevich – CEO of Wells Fargo
L
Lars Lallerstedt – pioneer of Swedish industrial design.
Tom Landry – former Dallas Cowboys Coach (University of Houston).
Manny Lawson – active Buffalo Bills player (North Carolina State University).
J. Slater Lewis – British engineer, inventor, business manager, and early author on management and accounting.
M
Lydia Meredith – CEO of the Renaissance Learning Center
Francesco Merloni – Italian industrialist and politician
Captain Henry Metcalfe – American Army ordnance officer, inventor and early organizational theorist
Edwin Moses – world record hurdler
John Muir – founder of Sierra Club
Alphonse Munchen – Luxembourgian engineer and Mayor of Luxembourg City
Richard Muther – consultant; author of several influential books on plant layout and material handling
N
Shimon Y. Nof – Professor of Industrial Engineering at Purdue University; creator and Head of the PRISM (Production and Robotics Software for Manufacturing and Management) lab
O
Taiichi Ohno – "father of the Toyota Production System", also known as Just In Time
P
R.K. Pachauri – Chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and Director, Tata Energy Research Institute
Oscar E. Perrigo – American mechanical engineer, inventor, and early technical and management author
Guy Primus – COO of Overbrook Entertainment (Georgia Institute of Technology)
A. Alan Pritsker – industrial engineer and teacher, pioneer of computer simulation languages (Purdue University)
Paolo Lavadia – industrial engineer (SLSUniversity)
Q
Jorge Quiroga – former president of Bolivia (Texas A&M University)
R
Jacob Rubinovitz – developer of instructional computer-integrated manufacturing and the robotics lab at the Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management of the Technion
S
Shigeo Shingo – creator of SMED (Single Minute Exchange of Die) technique and Poka-Yoke (fail-safe) devices
William H. Swanson – President and CEO of Raytheon Co. (California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo)
T
Frederick Winslow Taylor – leader of the Efficiency Movement and a champion of standardisation and division of tasks
Henry R. Towne – American mechanical engineer and businessman, known as an early systematizer of management
John Tregoning (1840s–1920s) – American mechanical engineer; wrote the first books on factory management
Laura Tremosa – first Catalan woman to qualify as an industrial engineer
W
Edward Whitacre, Jr. – Chairman of General Motors; former Chairman and CEO of AT&T Inc. (Texas Tech University)
Clinton Edgar Woods – American electrical and mechanical engineer, inventor, manufacturer of automobiles, and early management
See also
Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers
References
Lists of engineers
engineers | [
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253346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow%20of%20the%20Beast%20%281989%20video%20game%29 | Shadow of the Beast (1989 video game) | Shadow of the Beast is a platform game developed by Reflections and published by Psygnosis in 1989. The original version was released for the Amiga, and was later ported to many other systems. The game was known for its graphics, with many colours on screen and up to twelve levels of parallax scrolling backdrops, and for its atmospheric score composed by David Whittaker that used high-quality instrument samples.
It was followed by two sequels, Shadow of the Beast II in 1990 and Shadow of the Beast III in 1992. A remake was released for the PlayStation 4 in May 2016, and included the Amiga original.
Gameplay
Plot
A man named Aarbron is kidnapped as a child and corrupted through magic into a monstrous warrior-servant for the evil beast lord Maletoth. The creature's memory of his human life returns when he watches a man being executed, whom he later recognizes as his father. This prompts Aarbron to seek revenge on Maletoth. A long arduous journey ensues, with Aarbron forced to battle his way through both hostile terrain and Maletoth's forces. He eventually confronts one of Maletoth's minions, a gargantuan creature whose only visible body parts are its hand and foot. Defeating the creature, Aarbron is freed from his curse, the eponymous "Shadow of the Beast", and returned to a more humanoid form.
Development
Shadow of the Beast was designed by Martin Edmondson and Paul Howarth of Reflections Interactive over the course of nine months, and it was their second 16-bit game after their previous game, Ballistix. Edmondson and Howarth described it as their "most ambitious project to date", and stated that they wanted the game to push both the Amiga and Atari ST to their technical limits. To achieve this, the Amiga version was written first, so that they would take advantage of all of the computer's advanced hardware capabilities. The developers made use of the hardware sprites and scrolling rather than using the blitter, which they felt that the blitter "does not run quite as fast as some people would believe." To get the speed they wanted, the developers employed difficult techniques such as the sprite multiplexing. The game uses up to twelve levels of parallax scrolling, and up to a maximum of 128 colours on screen.
The game was also designed to be as difficult as possible; Edmondson remarked that he liked difficult games at the time and he "used to get frustrated if the game was too easy." The game's cover art was designed by British artist Roger Dean, who has also done cover artwork for other Psygnosis-published games. The music for Shadow of the Beast was composed by David Whittaker. Whittaker wrote six main pieces of music, with each pieces contains its own sub-theme, to "fit the changing scenes in the game." The instruments were created using the Korg M1 synthesiser and then sampled at 20 kHz. Ruben Monteiro's arrangement of the game's music was released in 1999, on an Amiga music compilation album Immortal.
In an interview with The One regarding Shadow of the Beast III's development, the development team behind Beast III note that the original Shadow of the Beast's selling point was its graphics, and Edmondson states that "It was definitely a case of being in the right place at the right time. Apart from how many colours and layers of parallax and monsters we could squeeze on screen, no thought went into it whatsoever", and furthermore calls Shadow of the Beast a "graphics showcase". In regards to Beast I's parallax scrolling, Edmondson expresses that "In Beast I, we chose the most obvious and the easiest way of doing it, but the problem with that was that you couldn't have monsters running over the foreground at the same time. They had to be very spaced out and nowhere near interesting parts of the map." Beast III reused no assets from the first two games, with Edmondson stating with regards to Beast I that "the original code for Beast I was so bad. It was the first thing we really did seriously and when you look back on it, it's very slow and inefficient and could have been done 10 times better."
Shadow of the Beast was released in 1989 by Psygnosis. It was initially retailed for £35, and was bundled with a T-shirt. It has been ported for various other platforms since its original release. It was ported to the Atari ST by Eldritch the Cat. It was ported to the ZX Spectrum and the Amstrad CPC by Gremlin Graphics, to the TurboGrafx-16's Super CD-ROM² System and the Commodore 64 by DMA Design, to the Mega Drive by WJS Design, to the Atari Lynx by Digital Developments, to the Master System by TecMagik, and to the FM Towns by Tim Ansell of Creative Assembly. An Atari 8-bit version was in development in 1990 to be published by Harlequin, but it was never finished due to collapse of the company. A port for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System titled Super Shadow of the Beast was shown at the 1992 Summer Consumer Electronics Show, and it was planned to be released by Information Global Service, however it never materialised. The Mega Drive and Super CD-ROM² versions of Shadow of the Beast were released in Japan by Victor Musical Industries on 27 March 1992. The FM Towns and Super CD-ROM² versions feature a soundtrack arranged by Chris Howlett and Ian Henderson of DC Productions.
Reception
Shadow of the Beast and Shadow of the Beast II were reviewed in 1991 in Dragon where both games got 5 out of 5 stars. Sega Pro praised the Master System version for its graphics and sound, but criticised the "awkward" controls method.
In a retrospective article for Digital Spy, Mark Langshaw remarked that Shadow of the Beast "will always be remembered as one of many jewels in the crown of Studio Liverpool." Langshaw however said that the Mega Drive version was considered inferior to other versions, and because of its poor conversion rate, the game ran faster than intended on the North American Genesis console and "went from unforgiving to near impossible." Travis Fahs of IGN considered the FM Towns port a superior version of the game.
In 1996, Computer Gaming World declared Shadow of the Beast the 76th-best computer game ever released.
Remake
A re-imagined version of Shadow of the Beast was revealed at Gamescom 2013, developed by Heavy Spectrum Entertainment Labs and released by Sony Interactive Entertainment for the PlayStation 4 in May 2016. The original Amiga version is included along with the remake.
References in other games
Graphics from Shadow of the Beast and Shadow of the Beast II were featured in two special levels in the original Lemmings game (Amiga, Mega Drive, PC, Super NES, and Atari ST versions), called "A Beast of a Level" and "A Beast II of a Level". These references were supported by cameo versions of the title music from each version, in this case both pieces were arranged by Tim Wright.
References
Additional references
External links
Shadow of the Beast at Hall of Light
1989 video games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Atari Lynx games
Atari ST games
Cancelled Atari 8-bit family games
Commodore 64 games
Creative Assembly games
Dark fantasy video games
FM Towns games
Master System games
Platform games
Psygnosis games
Sega Genesis games
Side-scrolling platform games
Single-player video games
Sony Interactive Entertainment franchises
TurboGrafx-CD games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games scored by David Whittaker
ZX Spectrum games | [
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253350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20World%20porcupine | Old World porcupine | The Old World porcupines, or Hystricidae, are large terrestrial rodents, distinguished by the spiny covering from which they take their name. They range over the south of Europe and the Levant, most of Africa, India, and the maritime Southeast Asia as far east as Flores. Although both the Old World and New World porcupine families belong to the infraorder Hystricognathi of the vast order Rodentia, they are quite different and are not particularly closely related.
Characteristics
Old World porcupines are stout, heavily built animals, with blunt, rounded heads, fleshy, mobile snouts, and coats of thick cylindrical or flattened spines, which form the whole covering of their bodies, and are not intermingled with ordinary hairs. The habits of most species are strictly terrestrial. They vary in size from the relatively small long–tailed porcupine with body lengths of , and a weight of , to the much larger crested porcupines, which are long, discounting the tail, and weigh from .
The various species are typically herbivorous, eating fruit, roots, and bulbs. Some species also gnaw on dry bones, perhaps as a source of calcium. Like other rodents, they have powerful gnawing incisors, and no canine teeth. Their dental formula is . The prominent diastema allows the lips to be drawn inwards while gnawing. Similar to other hystricomorphs, their chewing muscles are unique. Through an arm of the masseter muscles, passing through the infraorbital foramen, chewing movements are very efficient.
One or two (or, rarely, three) young are born after a gestation period between 90 and 112 days, depending on the species. Females typically give birth only once a year, in a grass-lined underground chamber within a burrow system. The young are born more or less fully developed, and the spines, which are initially soft, harden within a few hours of birth. Although they begin to take solid food within two weeks, they are not fully weaned until 13 to 19 weeks after birth. The young remain with the colony until they reach sexual maturity at around two years of age, and share the burrow system with their parents and siblings from other litters. Males, in particular, help defend the colony from intruders, although both sexes are aggressive towards unrelated porcupines.
These rodents are also characterized by the imperfectly rooted cheek-teeth, imperfect clavicles or collar-bones, cleft upper lip, rudimentary first front-toes, smooth soles, six teats arranged on the side of the body, and many cranial characters.
Species
Of the three genera, Hystrix is characterized by an inflated skull, in which the nasal cavity is often considerably larger than the brain case, and a short tail, tipped with numerous slender-stalked open quills, which make a rattling noise whenever the animal moves. When threatened, most porcupines will wag their tails, making a louder rattling noise to scare off predators. The African brush-tailed porcupine (A. africanus) will simultaneously raise sharp quills, 40 cm (16 inches) in length, on its back and sides.
The crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata), a typical representative of the Old World porcupines, occurs throughout the south of Europe and North and West Africa. It is replaced in southern and central Africa by the Cape porcupine, H. africaeaustralis, and in India by the Malayan porcupine (H. brachyura) and Indian (crested) porcupine (H. indica). The latter also lives throughout the Middle East.
Besides these large-crested species, several smaller species without crests occur in northeast India, and the Malay region from Nepal to Borneo.
The genus Atherurus includes the brush-tailed porcupines which are much smaller animals, with long tails tipped with bundles of flattened spines. One species is found in the Malay region and one in Central and West Africa. The latter species, the African brush-tailed porcupine, is often hunted for its meat.
Trichys, the last genus, contains one species, the long-tailed porcupine (T. fasciculata) of Borneo. This species is externally very similar to Atherurus, but differs from the members of that genus in many cranial characteristics.
Fossil species are also known from Africa and Eurasia, with one of the oldest being Sivacanthion from the Miocene of present-day Pakistan. However, it was probably not a direct ancestor of modern porcupines.
Species list
The extant species and fossil genera are:
Family Hystricidae
Hystrix
Subgenus Acanthion
Malayan porcupine (H. brachyura)
Sunda porcupine (H. javanica)
Subgenus Hystrix
Cape porcupine (H. africaeaustralis)
Crested porcupine (H. cristata)
Indian porcupine (H. indica)
Subgenus Thecurus
Thick-spined porcupine (H. crassispinis)
Philippine porcupine (H. pumila)
Sumatran porcupine (H. sumatrae)
†Hystrix arayanensis
†Hystrix depereti
†Hystrix paukensis
†Hystrix primigenia
†Hystrix refossa
†Miohystrix
†Xenohystrix
†Sivacanthion
Atherurus
African brush-tailed porcupine (A. africanus)
Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine (A. macrourus)
Trichys
Long-tailed porcupine (T. fasciculata)
See also
Porcupine
New World porcupines
References
External links
Hystricognath rodents
Extant Miocene first appearances
Taxa named by Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim | [
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253353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sons%20of%20Hercules | The Sons of Hercules | The Sons of Hercules was a syndicated Embassy Pictures television show that aired in the United States of America in the 1960s. The series repackaged 13 Italian sword-and-sandal films by giving them a standardized theme song for the opening and closing titles, as well as a standard introductory narration attempting to relate the lead character in each film to the Greek demigod Hercules. These films however were not all originally made as "Hercules" films in Italy. Although two of them did originally feature Hercules (and not his sons),
four of the films were originally Maciste movies in Italy, and the others were just isolated gladiator or mythological hero movies not released theatrically in the US.
Films in the series
There were 13 films in the Sons of Hercules syndication package. The first title listed for each film was its American television title, followed by the translated original Italian title in parentheses:
(Note* - Some channels broke the films up into two parts, and showed them in two weekly one-hour time slots as if it were a weekly TV series.)
Mole Men vs the Son of Hercules (Maciste, the Strongest Man in the World) 1961, starring Mark Forest
Triumph of the Son of Hercules (The Triumph of Maciste) 1961, starring Kirk Morris
Fire Monsters Against the Son of Hercules (Maciste vs the Monsters) 1962, starring Reg Lewis
Venus Against the Son of Hercules (Mars, God Of War) 1962, starring Roger Browne
Ulysses Against the Son of Hercules (Ulysses against Hercules) 1962, starring Mike Lane
Medusa Against the Son of Hercules (Perseus the Invincible) 1962, starring Richard Harrison
Son of Hercules in the Land of Fire (Ursus In The Land Of Fire) 1963, starring Ed Fury
Tyrant of Lydia Against The Son of Hercules (Goliath and the Rebel Slave) 1963, starring Gordon Scott
Messalina Against the Son of Hercules (The Last Gladiator) 1963, starring Richard Harrison
The Beast of Babylon Against the Son of Hercules (Hero Of Babylon) 1963, a.k.a. Goliath, King of the Slaves, starring Gordon Scott
Terror of Rome Against the Son of Hercules (Maciste, Gladiator of Sparta) 1964, starring Mark Forest
Son of Hercules in the Land of Darkness (Hercules the Invincible) 1964, starring Dan Vadis
Devil of the Desert Against the Son of Hercules (Anthar the Invincible) 1964, (a.k.a. The Slave Merchants, a.k.a. Soraya, Queen of the Desert) starring Kirk Morris, directed by Antonio Margheriti
See also
Samson
Steve Reeves
Sword-and-sandal
External links
The Many Faces of Hercules
Theme Song
Film series
Peplum films
American motion picture television series
Sword and sandal films | [
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63800873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico%20Bonito | Ludovico Bonito | Ludovico Bonito (died 1413) was a Roman Catholic cardinal.
Biography
On 1 Jun 1387, Ludovico Bonito was appointed during the papacy of Pope Urban VI as Archbishop of Palermo.
In 1395, he was transferred by Pope Boniface IX to the Archdiocese of Bar.
On Dec 1395, he was named during the papacy of Pope Boniface IX as Titular Archbishop of Thessalonica.
On 5 Sep 1399, he was appointed during the papacy of Pope Boniface IX as Archbishop (Personal Title) of Bergamo.
On 15 Nov 1400, he was transferred by Pope Boniface IX to the Archdiocese of Pisa.
On 29 Jul 1407, he was transferred by Pope Gregory XII to the Archdiocese of Taranto.
On 9 May 1408, he was created cardinal priest of Santa Maria in Trastevere by Pope Gregory XII; he kept the administration of his see until 1412.
He died in 1413.
References
14th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in Serbia
15th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops
Bishops appointed by Pope Urban VI
Bishops appointed by Pope Boniface IX
Bishops appointed by Pope Gregory XII
1413 deaths | [
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253354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shufflepuck%20Caf%C3%A9 | Shufflepuck Café | Shufflepuck Café is a computer air hockey game developed by Christopher Gross, Gene Portwood and Lauren Elliott for Broderbund (not a table shuffleboard video game, as the name would suggest—though that was the intention when the name was first coined by Christopher Gross). Originally developed for the Macintosh, it was later adapted by Broderbund for the Amiga, Atari ST, Amstrad CPC, Nintendo Entertainment System, Sharp X68000, NEC PC-9801, and MS-DOS.
Gameplay
There are two game modes. The player can compete in a tournament, playing against opponents who visit the Café, or can practice against each opponent to find out their weakness in a single-player match.
The game is controlled via the computer's mouse. The bat on the playing field bounces a hockey puck between the player and the opponent. When one of the players manages to knock the hockey puck past the opponent's bat, the player scores. The first player to score a set number of points (usually 15) wins the match.
Shufflepuck Café includes nine opponents:
Skip Feeney: A short male human in his early 20s, wearing glasses. Has just started in shufflepuck and thus is very nervous and slow to react, making him easy to beat.
Visine Orb: A green-coloured alien with huge eyes, who is only about 1.5 metres tall and can barely see over his end of the table. He jitters his paddle all over his end of the table, so that his serves often bounce back and forth on their way to the player.
Vinnie the Dweeb: A veteran shufflepuck player who keeps his calm and is not easily surprised. While not particularly strong, his playing style is consistent and is a slight step up in difficulty from the two previous opponents.
Lexan Smythe-Worthington: A lizard-like alien, a filthy rich playboy who gets 30,000 credits per year to keep away from his home world. He begins playing fiercely and hard to beat, but as play progresses, he sips his champagne, making him inebriated and less focused on the game, thus easier to beat. When defeated, he hiccups and passes out.
The General (also known as Eneg Doowtrop - "Gene Portwood" spelled backwards): A pig-like alien who pretends to be a military general, although he really is just a militaristic gung-ho enthusiast. Recently divorced, he is addicted to shufflepuck, which he plays with fierceness and devotion.
Nerual Ttoille ("Lauren Elliott" spelled backwards): A non-corporeal alien. Mimics the player's own shot power and angle. He occasionally opens his robe to expose a one-eyed alien at chest level, who either smirks or snarls at the player depending on whether he has just won or lost a point.
Princess Bejin: A woman with supernatural powers. When it is her turn to serve the puck, she uses telekinesis to float it out to the center of the table and drift it to one side before sending it toward the player. One of two different sound effects accompanies each serve, indicating whether the puck will move in the same or opposite direction. When defeated, she reveals a little bit of her cleavage.
Biff Raunch: The reigning champion. A tough, street-hardened biker dude who plays a mean game. He has no weaknesses and only the best players will be able to beat him.
DC3: A robot waiter. DC3 serves as a training partner, who can be customised to be as easy or as difficult as the player wishes. He does not play in the main championship.
In some versions, during gameplay there is a cheat option, which gives the player the option of winning or losing the game, winning or losing the tournament or gaining or losing five points.
Subsequent releases include Shufflepuck Revolution (an OS X version, now discontinued) and Shufflepuck (from the same developer).
Plot
There is a general storyline behind the Amiga and NES versions of the game in which the player is an inter-galactic salesman whose spaceship has broken down. He needs to find a telephone to call the breakdown service and get the spaceship fixed. Shufflepuck Café is the nearest place for miles, so he goes in to use their telephone. The main eight Shufflepuck players are standing in his way and will not let him get to the phone until he has beaten them all. Once all are defeated, the player gets in his spaceship and flies off into the distance.
Reception
The game was reviewed in 1989 in Dragon #142 by Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser in "The Role of Computers" column. The reviewers gave the game 4 out of 5 stars. On release, Famitsu magazine scored the Famicom version of the game a 23 out of 40. A retrospective review for Retrogamer from 2008 said the game was a "forgotten gem" although unfortunately lacking a 2 player mode.
References
External links
Shufflepuck Café at Lemon Amiga
1989 video games
Air hockey
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Apple II games
Apple IIGS games
Atari ST games
Broderbund games
Infogrames games
Ubisoft games
Cancelled Commodore 64 games
Cancelled ZX Spectrum games
DOS games
Classic Mac OS games
NEC PC-9801 games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Sharp X68000 games
Hockey video games
Video games developed in the United States | [
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253360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Great%20Giana%20Sisters | The Great Giana Sisters | The Great Giana Sisters is a 1987 platform game developed by German studio Time Warp Productions and published by Rainbow Arts. The scroll screen melody of the game was composed by Chris Huelsbeck and is a popular Commodore 64 soundtrack. The game is heavily based on Nintendo's Super Mario Bros. (1985), which led to production being stopped shortly after release, but it later inspired a number of sequels.
Plot
The player takes the role of Giana (referred to as "Gianna" in the scrolling intro and also the intended name before a typo was made on the cover art and the developers just went with that rather than having the cover remade), a girl who suffers from a nightmare, in which she travels through 33 stages full of monsters, while collecting ominous diamonds and looking for her sister Maria. If the player wins the final battle, Giana will be awakened by her sister.
Gameplay
The Great Giana Sisters is a 2D side-scrolling arcade game in which the player controls either Giana or her sister Maria. The game supports alternating 2 players, with the second player taking control of Maria.
Each level contains a number of dream crystals, which, when collected, give points to make the game's high score. An extra life can be gained by collecting 100 dream crystals. Extra lives can also be found in the form of hidden "Lollipop" items.
Enemies can be defeated by jumping on them or shooting them after obtaining the relevant power-ups. The enemies include owls, rolling eyeballs, flesh-eating fish and deadly insects. The "fire wheel" transforms Giana into a punk with the ability to crush rocks by jumping and hitting them from below. The "lightning bolt" awards Giana "dream bubbles", a single projectile shot. "Double lightning" gives her the ability to shoot recoiling projectiles. "Strawberries" give her the ability to shoot homing projectiles. There is one defensive item in the game, the "water drop", which protects Giana against fire. A number of special items can also be triggered that affect the entire screen, such as the "clock", which freezes all enemies on-screen, and the "magic bombs", which kill all enemies. These items are found in the item blocks scattered around the stages.
There are two types of stages in the game: an "overworld" and an "underground" stage. The "overworld" stages feature green scenery and pipe-shaped objects, along with bottomless pits for Giana to avoid. The "underground" stages feature additional hazards such as water and fire, as well as bosses.
There are a total of 33 stages in the game. Hidden "warp blocks" can be found to jump through portions of the game.
Development
History
The Great Giana Sisters was programmed by Armin Gessert, with graphics by Manfred Trenz and a soundtrack composed by Chris Huelsbeck under the label of Time Warp Production Inc. The first original game version was released in 1987 on Commodore 64. Shortly after, it was released on Amiga, Amstrad CPC and Atari ST. The license is held by Black Forest Games, who have developed the sequel Giana Sisters: Twisted Dreams.
Alleged lawsuit
According to several urban legends, Nintendo initiated a copyright infringement lawsuit against Time Warp Productions and Rainbow Arts because of similarities to its new game Super Mario Bros., but there has never been such a lawsuit. Rather, Nintendo directly influenced The Great Giana Sisters being withdrawn from sale, as the company had already done with other games.
Several factors influenced the withdrawal of the game, including conspicuous similarities: the general gameplay and the first level of The Great Giana Sisters are nearly identical in layout to the first stage found in Nintendo's Super Mario Bros. The immediate similarity to Super Mario Bros. ensured that The Great Giana Sisters was quickly noticed by both the public and the video game industry itself. Nintendo urged the makers of The Great Giana Sisters to withdraw the game from sale, arguing that it was obvious copyright infringement. Time Warp Productions and Rainbow Arts immediately stopped production and, at the same time, the game began vanishing from stores. The rarity of the game has led to copies of it becoming collector's items.
Release
The game has been ported to numerous systems since its release. A planned port for the ZX Spectrum was reviewed in magazines, though eventually cancelled due to legal pressures. In 1993, Dutch publisher Sunrise released a version for the MSX2, programmed by Jan van Valburg. Unofficially, the game has been cloned on Windows, DOS, Linux, Mac OS X, AmigaOS 4, NetBSD, AROS, MorphOS, and Symbian OS. An unofficial clone of the Commodore 64 version was also made for the Nintendo DS.
In 2005, a Java-based port for feature phones called "Giana Sisters" was created by Mobile Gangsters and Spellbound where the full 32 levels were split in half. In 2006, the second half of the levels were included in a separate release called "Giana Sisters 2"
Reception
Upon its release, The Great Giana Sisters received strong critical praise and acclaim from the gaming magazines across Europe. Zzap!64 described the game as "amazing" and concluded with the overall opinion that Great Giana Sisters was "a fabulous, compelling and constantly rewarding arcade adventure". Powerplay's review stated that they felt the game did not live up to the standards set by Super Mario Bros., but "still achieves being an entertaining pleasure".
Despite never seeing a release, the ZX Spectrum version gained favorable reviews from Spectrum-based magazines. Crash noted that the game was "highly addictive and great fun to play. Plenty of hidden passages and surprise features should keep you hooked for weeks".
Great Giana Sisters has gained a strong cult following over the years, citing its strong soundtrack and unique charm.
Chris Hülsbeck's soundtrack for the game has become one of the most popular video game soundtracks of all time. It has received over 50 remixes on the popular music arrangement resource Remix64. The music of Great Giana Sisters was featured in the live orchestra concert Symphonic Shades held in Cologne, Germany on August 23, 2008. The arrangement was made by Jonne Valtonen, and performed by the WDR Radio Orchestra. The concert was the first video game orchestra concert to be broadcast live on radio. The concert recording received an album release in 2009. The album is now out of print, but can still be bought digitally through Amazon.
Since 2009 with endorsement of Manfred Trenz a fan-made open-source remake of the C64 version, called OpenGGS, was in development and is hosted on SourceForge. The remake was ported to mobile devices like the Pandora in 2015.
Sequels
Hard'n'Heavy
Shortly after the release of The Great Giana Sisters, Time Warp began developing a sequel which was announced as Giana 2: Arthur and Martha in Future World, a new game with a futuristic setting. Due to the trouble caused by the legal pressure coming from Nintendo, it was deemed too risky for the small developer to once again produce a game associated with the Giana Sisters brand. Time Warp renamed the game Hard'n'Heavy, and changed the game's protagonists into robots rather than the Giana sisters. Hard'n'Heavy was released on the Commodore 64 and Amiga in 1989.
Giana Sisters DS
In April 2009, publisher DTP Entertainment and developer Spellbound Interactive, then owner of the game's intellectual property, released a new Giana Sisters game in Europe with a graphical update for the Nintendo DS, titled Giana Sisters DS. It has been released in Australia. The game features all-new levels and more gameplay elements, and a recreation of the original game's levels can be unlocked. Giana Sisters DS was released in North America in February 2011 by publisher Destineer, though their official website does not have it listed, and is only available through several retailers such as Walmart and Newegg.com.
In 2009, a mobile version of the game, titled simply Giana Sisters, was released for Android phones, and appears in the Ouya's Discover Store at launch.
Giana Sisters 2D
Giana Sisters 2D is an HD remake of the Nintendo DS game. It was released on October 2015 for the PC.
Giana Sisters: Twisted Dreams
In July 2012, Black Forest Games started a Kickstarter campaign for a new installment of The Great Giana Sisters, originally titled Project Giana and later retitled Giana Sisters: Twisted Dreams, describing the project as "the grandchild of The Great Giana Sisters". The Kickstarter was funded successfully, netting $186,158 with a goal of $150,000. The game, which is described as a direct sequel to Giana Sisters DS, features music from The Great Giana Sisters original composer Chris Huelsbeck (in cooperation with Fabian Del Priore) and the Swedish "SID metal" band Machinae Supremacy. Giana Sisters: Twisted Dreams was released on October 23 for PC with later releases on Xbox Live Arcade, PlayStation Network, Nintendo eShop, and possibly on Ouya.
Giana Sisters: Dream Runners
Giana Sisters: Dream Runners is a multiplayer-focused platform game. It was released in August 2015 for the PC, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It received negative reviews.
References
External links
1987 video games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Cancelled ZX Spectrum games
Commodore 64 games
MacOS games
MSX2 games
Nintendo DS games
IOS games
Giana Sisters
Side-scrolling platform games
Video games about nightmares
Video game clones
Unauthorized video games
Video games scored by Chris Huelsbeck
Video games scored by Jochen Hippel
Video games developed in Germany
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games involved in plagiarism controversies
Android (operating system) games
Symbian games
Cooperative video games | [
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253362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Pond%3A%20Underwater%20Agent | James Pond: Underwater Agent | James Pond: Underwater Agent is a 1990 platform video game that was developed by British video game developer Millennium Interactive and published by Millennium Interactive and Electronic Arts for the Amiga, Atari ST, Acorn Archimedes, and Sega Genesis. It was the first of three James Pond games.
Gameplay
James Pond has to solve puzzles to defeat the enemy and the gameplay revolves around finding objects to perform specific tasks, such as keys to rescue captured lobsters, or sponges to bung up the holes in leaking oil tankers. James must also fire bubbles at his enemies to trap them, before popping them to finish them off.
Plot
A nefarious supervillain named "Doctor Maybe" (a play on Dr. No) has overtaken the ruthless megacorporation Acme Oil Company, and is not only filling the oceans with radiation and toxic waste but even threatening all the world from his underwater lair. The protagonist of the story and player character of the game is an intelligent, mutated anthropomorphic mudskipper who is given the name "James Pond" (after the legendary spy James Bond) and hired by the British Secret Service to protect the seas and take out the bad guys in underwater areas. He is also suave enough to seduce numerous attractive mermaids, some of whom act as double agents as is common with James Bond's love interests. The game spoofs James Bond movies with levels mimicking their titles, with level names like "License to Bubble" (after Licence to Kill), "A View to a Spill" (after A View to a Kill), "Leak and Let Die" (after Live and Let Die) and "From Three Mile Island with Love" (after From Russia with Love).
Reception
James Pond received mixed but mostly positive reviews. VideoGames & Computer Entertainment gave the game seven out of ten, calling it "an entertaining and challenging undersea caper that should please just about anyone". Electronic Gaming Monthly gave it a four, four, three, and six, out of ten, calling it "not exciting or fun", but "a nice kids [sic] game".
Legacy
James Pond was followed by two sequels: James Pond 2: Codename Robocod and James Pond 3: Operation Starfish. There was also a spin-off sports-themed game The Aquatic Games and a cameo in Rolo to the Rescue.
James Pond returned in James Pond in the Deathly Shallows for the iPhone and the iPad on June 30, 2011.
In September 2013, Gameware Europe, who acquired the James Pond license in 2003, launched a Kickstarter for a new game in the series, James Pond: Pond is Back!, featuring the game's original designer, Chris Sorrell. The Kickstarter was canceled on October 7 as the funding target looked unlikely to be achieved.
References
External links
Game review.
Article on James Pond from Sega-16.com
Environment Agency 'Licence to Fish' film
1990 video games
Acorn Archimedes games
Amiga games
Atari ST games
Pond, James
Game Boy games
Millennium Interactive games
Parody video games
Platform games
Sega Genesis games
Video games scored by Richard Joseph
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games with underwater settings | [
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253372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divinization%20%28Christian%29 | Divinization (Christian) | In Christian theology, divinization ("divinization" may also refer to apotheosis, lit. "making divine"), or theopoesis or theosis, is the transforming effect of divine grace, the spirit of God, or the atonement of Christ. Although it literally means to become divine, or to become God, most Christian denominations do not interpret the doctrine as implying an overcoming of a fundamental metaphysical difference between God and humanity, for example John of the Cross had it: "it is true that its natural being, though thus transformed, is as distinct from the Being of God as it was before".
Patristic writings
The term originally was used in Greco-Roman pagan society to venerate a ruler. It was inconceivable to Jewish piety. Yet, with a time, it was adopted in Eastern Christianity by the Greek Fathers to describe spiritual transformation of a Christian. The change of human nature was understood by them as a consequence of a baptized person being incorporated into the Church as the Body of Christ. Divinization was thus developed within the context of incarnational theology. The teaching about deification of a Christian can be found as early as in the works of Irenaeus, a Greek Father who was a head of the church of Lyons (c. 130–202) e.g. in the preface to his Adversus Haereses vol. 5. Athanasius of Alexandria was an author of the phrase about Jesus Christ which has become popular in Christmas homilies: "He was made human so that he might make us gods" (De incarnatione 54,3, cf. Contra Arianos 1.39). Divinization in the context of the Eucharist was taught by Gregory of Nyssa and Cyril of Alexandria. The term never meant for them breaching the absolute ontological distinction between God and his creation.
There were many different references to divinization in the writings of the Church Fathers.
In the second century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (c. 130–202) said that God had "become what we are, that He might bring us to be even what He is Himself." He added:
Do we cast blame on him [God] because we were not made gods from the beginning, but were at first created merely as men, and then later as gods? Although God has adopted this course out of his pure benevolence, that no one may charge him with discrimination or stinginess, he declares, "I have said, Ye are gods; and all of you are sons of the Most High." ... For it was necessary at first that nature be exhibited, then after that what was mortal would be conquered and swallowed up in immortality.
At about the same time, Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215), wrote: "Yea, I say, the Word of God became a man so that you might learn from a man how to become a god." Clement further stated that "[i]f one knows himself, he will know God, and knowing God will become like God. . . . His is beauty, true beauty, for it is God, and that man becomes a god, since God wills it. So Heraclitus was right when he said, 'Men are gods, and gods are men.'" Clement of Alexandria also stated that "he who obeys the Lord and follows the prophecy given through him ... becomes a god while still moving about in the flesh."
Justin Martyr c. 100–165) insisted that in the beginning men "were made like God, free from suffering and death," and that they are thus "deemed worthy of becoming gods and of having power to become sons of the highest."
Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria (c. 296–373), stated his belief in literal deification: "The Word was made flesh in order that we might be made gods. ... Just as the Lord, putting on the body, became a man, so also we men are both deified through his flesh, and henceforth inherit everlasting life." Athanasius also observed: "For the Son of God became man so that we might become God."
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) said: "But he himself that justifies also deifies, for by justifying he makes sons of God. 'For he has given them power to become the sons of God' [referring to John 1:12]. If then we have been made sons of god, we have also been made gods." "To make human beings gods," Augustine said, "He was made man who was God" (sermon 192.1.1). Augustine goes on to write that "[they] are not born of His Substance, that they should be the same as He, but that by favour they should come to Him... (Ibid)".
Other references to divinization in the writings of the Church Fathers include the following:
Irenaeus (c. 130-200)
"[T]he Word of God, our Lord Jesus Christ, who did, through His transcendent love, become what we are, that He might bring us to be even what He is Himself."
"'For we cast blame upon [God], because we have not been made gods from the beginning, but at first merely men, then at length gods; although God has adopted this course out of His pure benevolence, that no one may impute to Him invidiousness or grudgingness he declares, "I have said, Ye are gods; and all of you are sons of the Most High." "
"For it was necessary, at first, that nature should be exhibited; then, after that, that what was mortal should be conquered and swallowed up by immortality, and the corruptible by incorruptibility, and that man should be made after the image and likeness of God."
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215)
"[T]he Word of God became man, that thou mayest learn from man how man may become God."
"For if one knows himself, he will know God; and knowing God, he will be made like God"
"[H]is is beauty, the true beauty, for it is God; and that man becomes God, since God so wills. Heraclitus, then, rightly said, "Men are gods, and gods are men." For the Word Himself is the manifest mystery: God in man, and man God"
"[H]e who listens to the Lord, and follows the prophecy given by Him, will be formed perfectly in the likeness of the teacher—made a god going about in flesh."
"And to be incorruptible is to participate in divinity..."
Justin Martyr (c. 100-165)
"[Men] were made like God, free from suffering and death, provided that they kept His commandments, and were deemed deserving of the name of His sons, and yet they, becoming like Adam and Eve, work out death for themselves; let the interpretation of the Psalm be held just as you wish, yet thereby it is demonstrated that all men are deemed worthy of becoming "gods," and of having power to become sons of the Highest."
Theophilus of Antioch (c. 120-190)
"For if He had made him immortal from the beginning, He would have made him God. Again, if He had made him mortal, God would seem to be the cause of his death. Neither, then, immortal nor yet mortal did He make him, but, as we have said above, capable of both; so that if he should incline to the things of immortality, keeping the commandment of God, he should receive as reward from Him immortality, and should become God..."
Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170-235)
"And you shall be a companion of the Deity, and a co-heir with Christ, no longer enslaved by lusts or passions, and never again wasted by disease. For you have become God: for whatever sufferings you underwent while being a man, these He gave to you, because you were of mortal mould, but whatever it is consistent with God to impart, these God has promised to bestow upon you, because you have been deified, and begotten unto immortality."
"If, therefore, man has become immortal, he will also be God. And if he is made God by water and the Holy Spirit after the regeneration of the laver he is found to be also joint-heir with Christ after the resurrection from the dead."
Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 296-373)
"Therefore He was not man, and then became God, but He was God, and then became man, and that to deify us"
"for as the Lord, putting on the body, became man, so we men are deified by the Word as being taken to Him through His flesh."
"For He was made man that we might be made God."
Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335-395)
"Since the God who was manifested infused Himself into perishable humanity for this purpose, viz. that by this communion with Deity mankind might at the same time be deified, for this end it is that, by dispensation of His grace, He disseminated Himself in every believer."
"For just as He in Himself assimilated His own human nature to the power of the Godhead, being a part of the common nature, but not being subject to the inclination to sin which is in that nature (for it says: "He did no sin, nor was deceit found in his mouth), so, also, will He lead each person to union with the Godhead if they do nothing unworthy of union with the Divine."
Augustine of Hippo (c. 354-430)
"'For He hath given them power to become the sons of God.' If we have been made sons of God, we have also been made gods."
Maximus the Confessor
"Nothing in theosis is the product of human nature, for nature cannot comprehend God. It is only the mercy of God that has the capacity to endow theosis unto the existing... In theosis, man (the image of God) becomes likened to God, he rejoices in all the plenitude that does not belong to him by nature, because the grace of the Spirit triumphs within him, and because God acts in him."
Cyril of Alexandria
"[H]e came down into our condition solely in order to lead us to his own divine state."
"It follows, therefore, that He Who Is, The One Who Exists, is necessarily born of the flesh, taking all that is ours into himself so that all that is born of the flesh, that is us corruptible and perishing human beings, might rest in him. In short, he took what was ours to be his very own so that we might have all that was his."
"For we too are sons and gods by grace, and we have surely been brought to this wonderful and supernatural dignity since we have the Only Begotten Word of God dwelling within us."
Gregory of Nazianzus
implores humankind to "become gods for (God's) sake, since (God) became man for our sake.".
Likewise, he argues that the mediator "pleads even now as Man for my salvation; for He continues to wear the Body which He assumed, until He make me God by the power of His Incarnation."
"Through the medium of the mind he had dealings with the flesh, being made that God on earth, which is Man: Man and God blended. They became a single whole, the stronger side predominating, in order that I might be made God to the same extent that he was made man."
Basil of Caesarea stated that "becoming a god is the highest goal of all"
Biblical citations
Paul the Apostle taught in numerous passages that men are sons of God (as in chapter 8 of Paul's Epistle to the Romans). Paul conceives of the resurrection as immortalization of both the body and the soul (1 Cor 15:42-49). says that "we all, with unveiled face, beholding the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from one degree of glory to another."
In , Jesus defends himself against a charge of blasphemy by stating: "Have I not said that ye are gods?" It is widely believed that Jesus is referring to in saying "Ye are gods and children of the most high."
Christ's defence against the charge of blasphemy includes the following passages from
In (;), the apostle, John the Beloved, speaks about how men can overcome the world, as Christ did, through Christ's sacrifice.
There are several Bible verses which, if summarized state that, through Christ, men may become "heirs of God and joint heirs with Christ" and "will inherit all things" just as Christ inherits all things.
Eastern Orthodox
The teaching of deification or theosis in Eastern Orthodoxy refers to the attainment of likeness of God, union with God or reconciliation with God. Deification has three stages in its process of transformation: katharsis, theoria, theosis. Theosis as such is the goal, it is the purpose of life, and it is considered achievable only through a synergy (or cooperation) between humans' activities and God's uncreated energies (or operations). Theosis is an important concept in Eastern Orthodox theology deriving from the fact that Eastern Orthodox theology is of an explicitly mystical character. Theology in the Eastern Orthodox Church is what is derived from saints or mystics of the tradition, and Eastern Orthodoxy considers that "no one who does not follow the path of union with God can be a theologian." In Eastern Orthodoxy, theology is not treated as an academic pursuit, but it is based on revelation (see gnosiology), meaning that Eastern Orthodox theology and its theologians are validated by ascetic pursuits, rather than academic degrees (i.e. scholasticism).
According to the Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology, as quoted by Millet and Reynolds:
Vision of God
According to Hierotheos Vlachos, divinization, also called theosis, "is the participation in the Uncreated grace of God" and "is identified and connected with the theoria (vision) of the Uncreated Light". "Theoria is the vision of the glory of God. Theoria is identified with the vision of the uncreated Light, the uncreated energy of God, with the union of man with God, with man's theosis. This vision, by which faith is attained, is what saves: "Faith comes by hearing the Word and by experiencing theoria (the vision of God). We accept faith at first by hearing in order to be healed, and then we attain to faith by theoria, which saves man." It is also one of the means by which Christians came to know the Trinity: "The disciples of Christ acquired the knowledge of the Triune God in theoria (vision of God) and by revelation."
As a patristic and historical teaching
For many Church Fathers, theosis goes beyond simply restoring people to their state before the Fall of Adam and Eve, teaching that because Christ united the human and divine natures in Jesus' person, it is now possible for someone to experience closer fellowship with God than Adam and Eve initially experienced in the Garden of Eden, and that people can become more like God than Adam and Eve were at that time. Some Eastern Orthodox theologians go so far as to say that Jesus would have become incarnate for this reason alone, even if Adam and Eve had never sinned.
Ascetic practice
The journey toward theosis includes many forms of praxis. The most obvious form being Monasticism and Clergy. Of the Monastic tradition the practice of hesychasm is most important as a way to establish a direct relationship with God. Living in the community of the church and partaking regularly of the sacraments, and especially the Eucharist, is taken for granted. Also important is cultivating "prayer of the heart", and prayer that never ceases, as Paul exhorts the Thessalonians (1 and 2). This unceasing prayer of the heart is a dominant theme in the writings of the Fathers, especially in those collected in the Philokalia. It is considered that no one can reach theosis without an impeccable Christian living, crowned by faithful, warm, and, ultimately, silent (hesychast), continuous Prayer of the Heart. The "doer" in deification is the Holy Spirit, with whom the human being joins his will to receive this transforming grace by praxis and prayer, and as Saint Gregory Palamas teaches, the Christian mystics are deified as they become filled with the Light of Tabor of the Holy Spirit in the degree that they make themselves open to it by asceticism (divinization being not a one-sided act of God, but a loving cooperation between God and the advanced Christian, which Palamas considers a synergy). This synergy or co-operation between God and Man does not lead to mankind being absorbed into God as was taught in earlier pagan forms of deification like Henosis. Rather it expresses unity, in the complementary nature between the created and the creator. Acquisition of the Holy Spirit is key as the acquisition of the spirit leads to self-realization.
Western Christianity
In Western Christian theology, divinization is emphasized among Catholics, as well as among Quakers who emphasize the living presence of Christ within each person and Christ-centered community. Methodists, whose religious tradition has always placed strong emphasis on entire sanctification, and whose doctrine of sanctification has many similarities with the Eastern Orthodox concept of theosis or divinization teach the doctrine.
Patristic scholar Donald Fairbairn has argued that theosis in the Greek Fathers is not an ontological exchange between the Son and the Christian. In general Fairbairn argues that the change that occurs in theosis is "something more than mere status but less than the possession of God's very substance." In his book, Life in the Trinity, he argues that through our relationship with the Son we are brought into the same kind of relationship with the Father (and Spirit) that the Son has. He supports this argument by identifying a distinction between the Son's warm-fellowship with the Father, and his ontological union with the Father. He argues that the Greek Fathers, primarily Athanasius and Cyril of Alexandria were clear that we never share ontological union with God, but only this intimate fellowship.
Catholic theology (including Latin and Eastern Churches)
The term divinization is characteristic of Eastern Christian thought. Western Christianity, at least since Augustine of Hippo (354-430) named as the doctor of grace, has always preferred to speak about supernatural grace transforming a Christian according to the Image of Christ. One cannot say, though, that the action of God on human nature conveyed in the term divinization (theosis) is alien to the Roman Catholic teaching, as is evident in Augustine repeating the famous phrase of Athanasius of Alexandria: "To make human beings gods, he was made man, who was God" (Deos facturus qui homines erant, homo factus est qui Deus erat ). It is evident from what the Catechism of the Catholic Church says of Christians as partakers of the divine nature:
Arguably the most prolific of the medieval scholastic theologians, St. Thomas Aquinas, wrote:
He also wrote of God's "special love, whereby He draws the rational creature above the condition of its nature to a participation of the Divine good". and he ultimately roots the purpose of the Incarnation in theosis. It is important to note, however, that the divinization taught by Aquinas, Augustine, and other Fathers is not ontological, meaning that souls do not take on the substance of God, but rather through grace, are gifted with the participation in the Divine Life.
Of a more modern Roman Catholic theologian it has been said: "The theological vision of Karl Rahner, the German Jesuit whose thought has been so influential in the Roman Catholic Church and beyond over the last fifty years, has at its very core the symbol of theopoiesis. The process of divinization is the center of gravity around which move Rahner's understanding of creation, anthropology, Christology, ecclesiology, liturgy, and eschatology. The importance of this process for Rahner is such that we are justified in describing his overall theological project to be largely a matter of giving a coherent and contemporary account of divinization." Joshua Bloor in his article reveals the rise in deification from an array of Western traditions, looking closely at the Catholic Theologian Catherine LaCugna, arguing that LaCugna sees deification as "personal communion with God, which deifies the human in the process, conforming him/her into being Christ-like".
The Roman Rite liturgy expresses the doctrine of divinization or theosis in the prayer said by the deacon or priest when preparing the Eucharistic chalice: "" ("By the mystery of this water and wine may we come to share in the divinity of Christ who humbled himself to share in our humanity.")
The Catholic Church teaches that God gives to some souls, even in the present life, a very special grace by which they can be mystically united to God even while yet alive: this is true mystical contemplation. This is seen as the culmination of the three states, or stages, of perfection through which the soul passes: the purgative way (that of cleansing or purification, the Greek term for which is , katharsis), the illuminative way (so called because in it the mind becomes more and more enlightened as to spiritual things and the practice of virtue, corresponding to what in Greek is called , theoria), and the unitive way (that of union with God by love and the actual experience and exercise of that love, a union that is called , theosis).
The writings attributed to St. Dionysius the Areopagite were highly influential in the West, and their theses and arguments were adopted by Peter Lombard, Alexander of Hales, Albert the Great, St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Bonaventure. According to these writings, mystical knowledge must be distinguished from the rational knowledge by which we know God, not in his nature, but through the wonderful order of the universe, which is a participation of the divine ideas. Through the more perfect knowledge of God that is mystical knowledge, a knowledge beyond the attainments of reason even enlightened by faith, the soul contemplates directly the mysteries of divine light. In the present life this contemplation is possible only to a few privileged souls, through a very special grace of God: it is the (theosis), (mystical union). Meister Eckhart too taught a deification of man and an assimilation of the creature into the Creator through contemplation.
Deification, to which, in spite of its presence in the liturgical prayers of the West, Western theologians have given less attention than Eastern, is nevertheless prominent in the writing of Western mystics.
St. Catherine of Siena stated God as saying:
St. John of the Cross wrote:
Orestes Brownson wrote:
Lutheran theology
More recently, the Finnish school of Lutheran thought has drawn close associations between theosis and justification. Primarily spearheaded by Tuomo Mannermaa, this line of theological development grew out of talks between the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland and the Russian Orthodox Church between 1970 and 1986. Mannermaa argues in his book, Christ Present in Faith, that the real exchange between Christ and sinful humanity, a theme prevalent in Luther's writing, is synonymous with Eastern views of theosis. It is in this real exchange which Mannermaa says "the union between Christ and the believer makes the latter a ‘completely divine [person] ." While this departure from traditional Lutheran thought is sometimes hailed as "the threshold of a third Luther Renaissance," other Lutheran scholars disagree and argue that the idea of theosis violates Luther's theology of the cross principles by ignoring the real distinction that is axiomatic for not only Luther, but for orthodox Christianity as a whole. One of the most prominent scholars is Robert Kolb, who primarily roots this critique in Luther's use of marriage metaphors concerning the Christian's relationship with God. Kolb writes "This view ignores the nature of the ‘union’ of bride and bridegroom that Luther employed so far."
Reformed theology
Early during the Reformation, thought was given to the doctrine of union with Christ (unio cum Christo) as the precursor to the entire process of salvation and sanctification. This was especially so in the thought of John Calvin.
Henry Scougal's work The Life of God in the Soul of Man is sometimes cited as important in keeping alive among Protestants the ideas central to the doctrine. In the introductory passages of his book, Scougal describes "religion" in terms that evoke the doctrine of theosis:
Anglican theology
Out of the English Reformation, an understanding of salvation in terms closely comparable to the Eastern Orthodox doctrine of theosis was recognized in the Anglican tradition, J. Bloor examines deification/theosis in the late Anglican Priest and theologian Canon A. M. (Donald) Allchin, but it is also explored in the writings of Lancelot Andrewes, who described salvation in terms vividly reminiscent of the early fathers:
C.S. Lewis, speaking on his personal belief in the subject of literal deification, stated as follows:
In a more complete statement on his beliefs in literal deification, C.S. Lewis stated in his book, "Mere Christianity" as follows:
Methodist theology
Theosis as a doctrine developed in a distinctive direction among Methodists, and elsewhere in the pietist movement which reawakened Protestant interest in the asceticism of the early Catholic Church, and some of the mystical traditions of the West. Distinctively, in Methodist (Wesleyan-Arminian) theology, the doctrine of entire sanctification teaches, in summary, that it is the Christian's goal, in principle possible to achieve, to live without any (voluntary) sin (Christian perfection).
In 1311 the Catholic Council of Vienne declared this notion, "that man in this present life can acquire so great and such a degree of perfection that he will be rendered inwardly sinless, and that he will not be able to advance farther in grace" (Denzinger §471), to be a heresy. Thus this Methodist understanding of theosis is substantially different from that of the Catholic Church, as well as other Protestant Churches. The Wesleyan-Arminian doctrine of Christian perfection was sharply criticized by many in the Church of England during the ministry of John Wesley and outside the Methodist tradition, it continues to be controversial among to this day among other Christian denominations.
Quaker theology
Based on their spiritual experiences and tested against the testimony of scripture, George Fox and early Quakers believed that transformation by the Holy Spirit was a normal experience within the early church, where individuals and communities were led by the living presence of Christ dwelling within them. George Fox wrote:
"The scriptures saith God will dwell in men, and walk in men … Doth not the Apostle say, the saints were partakers of the divine nature? And that God dwells in the saints, and Christ is in them, except they be reprobates? And do not the saints come to eat the flesh of Christ? And if they eat his flesh, is it not within them?"
Christian universalist theology
There has been a modern revival of the concept of theosis (often called "manifest sonship" or "Christedness") among Christians who hold to the doctrine of universal reconciliation or apocatastasis, especially those with a background in the charismatic Latter Rain Movement or even the New Age and New Thought movements. The statement of faith of the Christian Universalist Association includes theosis in one of its points.
A minority of charismatic Christian universalists believe that the "return of Christ" is a corporate body of perfected human beings who are the "Manifested Sons of God" instead of a literal return of the person of Jesus, and that these Sons will reign on the earth and transform all other human beings from sin to perfection during an age that is coming soon (a particularly "universalistic" approach to millennialism). Some liberal Christian universalists with New Age leanings share a similar eschatology.
Western views on hesychasm
The practice of ascetic prayer called hesychasm in the Eastern Orthodox Church is centered on the enlightenment or deification, theosis of man.
While Constantinople experienced a succession of councils alternately approving and condemning doctrine concerning hesychasm, the Western Church held no council in which to make a pronouncement on the issue, and the word "hesychasm" does not appear in the Enchiridion Symbolorum et Definitionum (Handbook of Creeds and Definitions), the collection of Roman Catholic teachings originally compiled by Heinrich Joseph Dominicus Denzinger.
Despite the fact that the hesychast doctrine of Gregory Palamas has never been officially condemned by the Catholic Church, Western theologians tended to reject it, often equating it with quietism. This identification may have been motivated in part by the fact that "quietism" is the literal translation of "hesychasm". However, according to Kallistos Ware, "To translate 'hesychasm' as 'quietism', while perhaps etymologically defensible, is historically and theologically misleading." Ware asserts that "the distinctive tenets of the seventeenth century Western Quietists are not characteristic of Greek hesychasm." Elsewhere too, Ware argues that it is important not to translate "hesychasm" as "quietism".
For long, Palamism won almost no following in the West,. and the distrustful attitude of Barlaam in its regard prevailed among Western theologians, surviving into the early 20th century, as shown in Adrian Fortescue's article on hesychasm in the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia. In the same period, Siméon Vailhé described some aspects of the teaching of Palamas as "monstrous errors", "heresies" and "a resurrection of polytheism", and called the hesychast method for arriving at perfect contemplation "no more than a crude form of auto-suggestion"
The 20th century saw a remarkable change in the attitude of Roman Catholic theologians to Palamas, a "rehabilitation" of him that has led to increasing parts of the Western Church considering him a saint, even if uncanonized. John Meyendorff describes the 20th-century rehabilitation of Palamas in the Western Church as a "remarkable event in the history of scholarship." Andreas Andreopoulos cites the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia article by Fortescue as an example of how Barlaam's distrustful and hostile attitude regarding hesychasm survived until recently in the West, adding that now "the Western world has started to rediscover what amounts to a lost tradition. Hesychasm, which was never anything close to a scholar's pursuit, is now studied by Western theologians who are astounded by the profound thought and spirituality of late Byzantium."
Some Western scholars maintain that there is no conflict between Palamas's teaching and Roman Catholic thought, and some have incorporated the essence-energies distinction into their own thinking. For example, G. Philips asserts that the essence-energies distinction as presented by Palamas is "a typical example of a perfectly admissible theological pluralism" that is compatible with the Roman Catholic magisterium.
Jeffrey D. Finch claims that "the future of East-West rapprochement appears to be overcoming the modern polemics of neo-scholasticism and neo-Palamism".
Pope John Paul II repeatedly emphasized his respect for Eastern theology as an enrichment for the whole Church, declaring that, even after the painful division between the Christian East and the See of Rome, that theology has opened up profound thought-provoking perspectives of interest to the entire Church. He spoke in particular of the hesychast controversy. The term "hesychasm", he said, refers to a practice of prayer marked by deep tranquillity of the spirit intent on contemplating God unceasingly by invoking the name of Jesus. While from a Catholic viewpoint there have been tensions concerning some developments of the practice, the Pope said, there is no denying the goodness of the intention that inspired its defence, which was to stress that man is offered the concrete possibility of uniting himself in his inner heart with God in that profound union of grace known as theosis, divinization.
Among the treasures of "the venerable and ancient tradition of the Eastern Churches" with which he said Catholics should be familiar, so as to be nourished by it, he mentioned in particular "the teaching of the Cappadocian Fathers on divinization (which) passed into the tradition of all the Eastern Churches and is part of their common heritage. This can be summarized in the thought already expressed by Saint Irenaeus at the end of the second century: God passed into man so that man might pass over to God. This theology of divinization remains one of the achievements particularly dear to Eastern Christian thought."
Latter Day Saint theology
Mormonism includes a belief in the doctrine of exaltation, by which is meant a literal divinization. According to Mormon scholars, there are similarities between the Mormon belief of eternal progression and the beliefs found in the patristic writings of the first, second, and third centuries A.D.
According to Mormonism's founder, Joseph Smith, through obedience to Christ and the gradual acquisition of knowledge, the faithful may eventually become heirs of God in the afterlife and "inherit all things" as Christ himself "inherited all things." Mormons believe they will continue to worship and be subject to God the Father in the name of Christ in the afterlife.
Mormons do not characterize the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in terms of an immaterial, formless substance or essence that sets godhood apart as a separate genus from humanity. They believe that this classification of divinity was originated by post-apostolic theologians, whose speculations on God were influenced by Greek metaphysical philosophers such as the Neoplatonists, who described their notions of deity in similar terms of a divine substance/essence (ousia)—i.e. terms which were unknown to the pre-Nicean Christian world. Mormons believe that through modern day revelation, God restored the doctrine that all humans are spiritually begotten (Hebrews 12:9, Acts 17:28–29) sons and daughters of Heavenly Father, and thus are all part of the same heavenly family. Because humans are literally God's children, they can also be heirs of his glory, and joint heirs with Jesus Christ (Romans 8:16–17).
Mormons believe that the "glory of God is intelligence, in other words, light and truth" (D&C 93:36). Therefore the process of inheriting his glory is a process of learning. As a crucial step in this process, all of God's spirit children had the choice to come to earth in order to receive a body and continue their development. Mormons believe that the fallen state of humanity (mortality) was not the result of an unplanned cancellation of God's plan for an eternal earthly paradise, rather it was a crucial step that provides the opportunity to learn and grow in the face of opposition (2 Nephi 2:11, 25). Thus, the purpose of earth life is to gain knowledge and experience—which includes overcoming trials and mistakes through the atonement of Jesus Christ and, using the lessons learned, to become stronger and wiser, more like their Heavenly Father (D&C 98:3). Those who endure to the end (Matthew 24:13, Mark 13:13) while in mortality, as well as those who accept the gospel after death (see baptism for the dead), will be able to dwell in the presence of God, where they can continue to grow in light and truth, which "light groweth brighter and brighter until the perfect day" (D&C 50:24). Mormons believe that the Father and the Son both possess glorified, immortal, physical bodies (D&C 130:22) and that thanks to Christ's resurrection, humans will also be resurrected and inherit this same type of body (Philippians 3:21).
Primary source citations
Secondary source citations
References
Harris, William E. (1989). From Man to God: an L.D.S. Scientist Views Creation, Progression, and Exaltation. Bountiful, Utah: Horizon Publishers.
Christian soteriology
Christian universalism
Christian terminology | [
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253373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards | 1996 Governor General's Awards | The 1996 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were presented on November 14, 1996.
English
French
Governor General's Awards
Governor
Governor | [
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253374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis%20Thatcher | Denis Thatcher | Sir Denis Thatcher, 1st Baronet, (10 May 1915 – 26 June 2003) was an English businessman and the husband of Margaret Thatcher, who served as the first female British prime minister from 1979 to 1990; in turn, he became the first male prime ministerial spouse.
Thatcher was granted the Thatcher baronetcy in 1990 and remains the most recent commoner to have been awarded a hereditary title.
Early life
Thatcher was born in Lewisham, London, as the first child of New Zealand-born British businessman Thomas Herbert "Jack" Thatcher (15 October 1885 – 24 June 1943) and Lilian Kathleen Bird At age eight, Denis entered a preparatory school as a boarder in Bognor Regis, following which he attended the nonconformist public school Mill Hill School in north London. At school he excelled at cricket, being a left-handed batsman.
Thatcher left Mill Hill at age 18 to join the family paint and preservatives business, Atlas Preservatives. He also studied accountancy to improve his grasp of business, and in 1935 was appointed works manager. He joined the Territorial Army shortly after the Munich crisis, as he was convinced war was imminent a view reinforced by a visit he made to Nazi Germany with his father's business in 1937.
War record
During the Second World War, Thatcher was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the 34th Searchlight (Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment) of the Royal Engineers. He transferred to the Royal Artillery on 1 August 1940. During the war he was promoted to war substantive captain and temporary major. He served throughout the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Italian campaign and was twice mentioned in dispatches, and in 1945 was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). The first mention in dispatches came on 11 January 1945, for service in Italy, and the second on 29 November 1945, again for Italian service.
His MBE was gazetted on 20 September 1945, and was awarded for his efforts in initiating and supporting Operation Goldflake, the transfer of I Canadian Corps from Italy to the north-west European theatre of operations. By this time, Thatcher was based in Marseille, attached to HQ 203 sub-area. In the recommendation for the MBE (dated 28 March 1945), his commanding officer wrote: "Maj. Thatcher set an outstanding example of energy, initiative and drive. He deserves most of the credit for [...] the excellence of the work done."
Thatcher also received the French approximate equivalent of a mention when he was cited in orders at Corps d'Armée level for his efforts in promoting smooth relations between the Commonwealth military forces and the French civil and military authorities. He was promoted to substantive lieutenant on 11 April 1945. Demobilised in 1946, he returned to run the family business his father having died (aged 57) on 24 June 1943, when Thatcher was in Sicily. Because of army commitments, Thatcher was unable to attend the funeral.
He remained in the Territorial Army reserve of officers until reaching the age limit for service on 10 May 1965, when he retired, retaining the honorary rank of major.
On 21 September 1982 he was awarded the Territorial Decoration (TD) for his service.
Marriages
Thatcher married twice, during wartime to Margot Kempson in 1942 (divorced in 1948), and in 1951 to Margaret Roberts.
Margot Kempson
On 28 March 1942, Thatcher married Margaret Doris "Margot" Kempson, the daughter of a businessman, at St Mary's Church in Monken Hadley. They met at an officers' dance at Grosvenor House the year before.
Although initially very happy, Thatcher and his first wife never lived together. Their married life became confined to snatched weekends and irregular leaves as Thatcher was often abroad during the war. When Thatcher returned to England after being demobilised in 1946, his wife told him she had met someone else and wanted a divorce.
Thatcher was so traumatised by the event that he completely refused to talk about his first marriage or the separation, even to his daughter, as she states in her 1996 biography of him. Thatcher's two children found out about his first marriage only in 1976, by which time their mother was Leader of the Opposition, and only when the media revealed it.
Margaret Thatcher
In February 1949, at a Paint Trades Federation function in Dartford, he met Margaret Hilda Roberts, a chemist and newly-selected parliamentary candidate. When she met Denis for the first time she described him as "not a very attractive creature" and "very reserved but quite nice". They married on 13 December 1951, at Wesley's Chapel in City Road, London; the Robertses were Methodists. Margaret Thatcher was elected Leader of the Conservative Party in 1975 and went on to win the 1979 general election to become the first female prime minister in British history. Denis became the first husband of a British prime minister.
In 1953, they had twin children (Carol and Mark), who were born on 15 August at Queen Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital in Hammersmith, seven weeks premature. Thatcher was watching the deciding Test of the 1953 Ashes series at the time of the twins' birth.
Not long after the 1964 general election, Thatcher suffered a nervous breakdown which put a severe strain on his marriage. The breakdown was probably caused by the increasing pressure of running the family business, caring for his relatives, and his wife's preoccupation with her political career, which left him lonely and exhausted. Thatcher sailed to South Africa and stayed there for two months to recuperate. His wife's biographer David Cannadine described it as "the greatest crisis of their marriage", but immediately after, he recovered and returned home, he maintained a happy marriage for the rest of his life.
This second marriage for Thatcher led to the future prime minister being sometimes referred to as "Mrs Denis Thatcher" in such sources as selection minutes, travel itineraries, and society publications such as Queen, even after her election as a Member of Parliament. As Margaret's political career progressed, she preferred to be known only as "Mrs Thatcher".
According to John Campbell, a biographer of his wife, "their marriage was more a partnership of mutual convenience than a romance", quoting their daughter Carol in her biography of Denis:
Business career
Thatcher was already a wealthy man when he met Margaret and financed her training as a barrister, and a home in Chelsea, London; he also bought a large house in Lamberhurst, Kent, in 1965. His firm employed 200 people by 1957.
Thatcher became managing director of his family's firm Atlas in 1947 and chairman in 1951, and led its overseas expansion. By the early 1960s he found being in sole control of the family company difficult; this, his wife's political career, and their desire for financial security caused Thatcher to sell Atlas to Castrol in 1965 for £530,000 (£ today). He continued to run Atlas and received a seat on Castrol's board; after Burmah Oil took over Castrol in 1966, Thatcher became a senior divisional director, managing the planning and control department. He retired from Burmah in June 1975, four months after his wife won the Conservative Party leadership election.
In addition to being a director of Burmah Oil, Thatcher was vice-chairman of Attwoods from 1983 to January 1994, a director of Quinton Hazell from 1968 to 1998, and a consultant to AMEC and CSX. He was also a non-executive director of retail giant Halfords during the 1980s.
His wife's biographer Robin Harris concludes:
Public life and perceptions
Thatcher refused press interviews and made only brief speeches. When he did speak to the press, he called his wife "The Boss". Margeret Thatcher often acknowledged her husband's support. In her autobiography, she wrote: "I could never have been Prime Minister for more than 11 years without Denis by my side." Thatcher saw his role as helping her survive the stress of the job, which he urged her to resign on the tenth anniversary of her becoming prime minister in 1989, sensing that otherwise she would be forced out.
In an interview with The Times in October 1970, Thatcher said: "I don't pretend that I'm anything but an honest-to-God right-wingerthose are my views and I don't care who knows 'em." His public image was shaped by the satirical "Dear Bill" columns appearing since 1979 in Private Eye, which portrayed him as a "juniper-sozzled, rightwing, golf-obsessed halfwit", and Thatcher found it useful to play along with this image to avoid allegations of unduly influencing his wife in political matters.
Given his professional background, Thatcher served as an advisor on financial matters, warning Margaret about the poor condition of British Leyland after reviewing its books. He often insisted that she avoid overwork, to little avail, sometimes pleading, "Bed, woman!" They otherwise usually kept their careers separate; an exception was when Thatcher accompanied his wife on a 1967 visit to the United States sponsored by the International Visitor Leadership Program.
Thatcher was consistent in his strong opposition to the death penalty, calling it "absolutely awful" and "barbaric", as well as saying that he was against because of innocent people being wrongly hanged and because juries could also be afraid to convict for fear of making a mistake. Like his wife, Thatcher was consistently anti-socialist. He told his daughter in 1995 that he would have banned trade unions altogether in Britain. He had low regard for the BBC, thinking it was biased against his wife and her government, as well as unpatriotic. In his most famous outburst about the corporation, he claimed his wife had been "stitched up by bloody BBC poofs and Trots" when she was questioned by a member of the public about the sinking of the on Nationwide in 1983.
Thatcher was reported by New Zealand (NZ) broadcaster and former diplomat Chris Laidlaw—at the time NZ High Commissioner to Zimbabwe—as leaning towards him during a Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, asking "So, what do you think the fuzzy wuzzies are up to?"
In December 1990, following the resignation of his wife as prime minister, it was announced that Thatcher would be created a baronet (the first such creation since 1964). The award was gazetted in February 1991, giving his title as Sir Denis Thatcher, 1st Baronet, of Scotney in the County of Kent. Thus his wife was entitled to style herself Lady Thatcher, while retaining her seat in the House of Commons; however she made it known that she preferred to remain addressed as "Mrs Thatcher", and would not use the style. She was created a life peeress as Baroness Thatcher (Lady Thatcher in her own right) shortly after she retired from the Commons in 1992.
In July 1991, Thatcher was created a Commander of the Order of St John; his wife was also made a Dame of the order.
Thatcher's baronetcy was a hereditary title that was to be inherited by his son on his death. The first British baronetage to be granted since 1964, there have been no baronetages created thereafter.
Illness and death
In the autumn of 1992, Thatcher was diagnosed with prostate cancer but it was caught early. He responded well to treatment.
On 17 January 2003, Thatcher underwent a six-hour heart-bypass operation and aortic valve operation at a Harley Street clinic. He had complained of breathlessness for several weeks before Christmas 2002, and the problem was diagnosed in early January. He left the clinic on 28 January 2003, and after recuperation, appeared to have made a full recovery. Thatcher returned home on 14 February and visited his son Mark in South Africa in April, but in early June, he again complained of breathlessness and listlessness. Lady Thatcher's staff also thought he also looked unwell, and on 13 June he was admitted to the Royal Brompton Hospital for further tests. Nothing wrong was found with his heart but terminal pancreatic cancer was diagnosed, along with fluid in his lungs. He was told nothing could be done for him, and after seven days there, on 20 June he was transferred to the Lister Hospital. He lost consciousness on 24 June and never regained it. He died on the morning of 26 June.
His funeral service took place on 3 July 2003, at the chapel of the Royal Hospital Chelsea in London, followed by a cremation at Mortlake Crematorium in Richmond, London. On 30 October, a memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey. His ashes were buried under a white marble marker just outside the Royal Hospital in Chelsea. His wife's ashes were later buried near his following her death in 2013.
Profiles
Married to Maggie
Produced by his daughter Carol, Thatcher's single public interview was made into a documentary film titled Married to Maggie, broadcast after his death. In it he revealed that the spouses he liked were Raisa Gorbacheva, Nancy Reagan and Barbara Bush. He called his wife's successor, John Major, "a ghastly prime minister", saying that "[i]t would have been a [...] very good thing" had he lost the 1992 general election. He added that he thought his wife was "the best prime minister since Churchill."
Below the Parapet
(1996) is the biography by his daughter Carol. In it he said that politics as a profession or way of life did not appeal to him. World leaders he got on with included George H. W. Bush, F. W. de Klerk, Hussein of Jordan and Mikhail Gorbachev, whilst he disliked Indira Gandhi and Sir Sonny Ramphal. Thatcher admitted that he was not sure where the Falkland Islands were until they were invaded in 1982.
Medals and honours
Thatcher was awarded the following British medals and honours:
References
Works cited
External links
British Army Officers 1939−1945
1915 births
2003 deaths
Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
British Army personnel of World War II
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Members of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Mill Hill School
People from Lewisham
Royal Artillery officers
Royal Engineers officers
Spouses of life peers
Spouses of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Burmah-Castrol
English Anglicans
British people of New Zealand descent
Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment officers
Husbands of national leaders
People from Lamberhurst | [
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253375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins | HarperCollins | HarperCollins Publishers LLC is one of the Big Five English-language publishing companies, alongside Penguin Random House, Simon & Schuster, Hachette, and Macmillan. The company is headquartered in New York City and is a subsidiary of News Corp. The name is a combination of several publishing firm names: Harper & Row, an American publishing company acquired in 1987—whose own name was the result of an earlier merger of Harper & Brothers (founded in 1817) and Row, Peterson & Company—together with Scottish publishing company William Collins, Sons (founded in 1819), acquired in 1989.
The worldwide CEO of HarperCollins is Brian Murray. HarperCollins has publishing groups in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, India, and China. The company publishes many different imprints, both former independent publishing houses and new imprints.
History
Collins
Harper
Mergers and acquisitions
Collins was bought by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation in 1989, and was combined with Harper & Row, which NewsCorp had acquired two years earlier. In addition to the simplified and merged name, the logo for HarperCollins was derived from the torch logo for Harper and Row, and the fountain logo for Collins, which were combined into a stylized depiction of flames atop waves.
In 1990, HarperCollins sold J. B. Lippincott & Co., its medical publishing division, to the Dutch publisher Wolters Kluwer.
In 1996, HarperCollins sold Scott Foresman and HarperCollins College to Pearson, which merged them with Addison-Wesley Longman.
News Corporation purchased the Hearst Book Group, consisting of William Morrow & Company and Avon Books, in 1999. These imprints are now published under the rubric of HarperCollins. HarperCollins bought educational publisher Letts and Lonsdale in March 2010.
In 2011, HarperCollins announced they had agreed to acquire the publisher Thomas Nelson. The purchase was completed on July 11, 2012, with an announcement that Thomas Nelson would operate independently given the position it has in Christian book publishing. Both Thomas Nelson and Zondervan were then organized as imprints, or "keystone publishing programs," under a new division, HarperCollins Christian Publishing. Key roles in the reorganization were awarded to former Thomas Nelson executives.
In 2012, HarperCollins acquired part of the trade operations of John Wiley & Son in Canada.
In 2014, HarperCollins acquired Canadian romance publisher Harlequin Enterprises for C$455 million.
In 2018, HarperCollins acquired the business publisher Amacom from the American Management Association.
In 2020, HarperCollins acquired the children's publishers Egmont Books UK, Egmont Poland and Schneiderbuch Germany from the Egmont Group.
On March 29, 2021, HarperCollins announced that it would acquire HMH Books & Media, the trade publishing division of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, for $349 million. The deal would allow HMH to pay down its debt and focus on digital education. The deal was completed on May 10. As of July 7, 2021, HMH's adult books will be published as Mariner Books, while HMH's children's books will be published as Clarion Books.
Management history
Brian Murray, the current CEO of HarperCollins, succeeded Jane Friedman who was CEO from 1997 to 2008. Notable management figures include Lisa Sharkey, current senior vice president and director of creative development and Barry Winkleman from 1989 to 1994.
United States v. Apple Inc.
In April 2012, the United States Department of Justice filed United States v. Apple Inc., naming Apple, HarperCollins, and four other major publishers as defendants. The suit alleged that they conspired to fix prices for e-books, and weaken Amazon.com's position in the market, in violation of antitrust law.
In December 2013, a federal judge approved a settlement of the antitrust claims, in which HarperCollins and the other publishers paid into a fund that provided credits to customers who had overpaid for books due to the price-fixing.
US warehouse closings
On November 5, 2012, HarperCollins announced to employees privately and then later in the day publicly that it was closing its remaining two US warehouses, to merge shipping and warehousing operations with R. R. Donnelley in Indiana. The Scranton, Pennsylvania, warehouse closed in September 2013 and a Nashville, Tennessee, warehouse, under the name Thomas Nelson (which distributes the religious arm of HarperCollins/Zondervan Books), in the winter of 2013. Several office positions and departments continued to work for HarperCollins in Scranton, but in a new location.
The Scranton warehouse closing eliminated about 200 jobs, and the Nashville warehouse closing eliminated up to 500 jobs; the exact number of distribution employees is unknown.
HarperCollins previously closed two US warehouses, one in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, in 2011 and another in Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 2012. "We have taken a long-term, global view of our print distribution and are committed to offering the broadest possible reach for our authors," said HarperCollins Chief Executive Brian Murray, according to Publishers Weekly. "We are retooling the traditional distribution model to ensure we can competitively offer the entire HarperCollins catalog to customers regardless of location." Company officials attribute the closings and mergers to the rapidly growing demand for e-book formats and the decline in print purchasing.
Internet Archive lawsuit
In June 2020, HarperCollins was one of a group of publishers who sued the Internet Archive, arguing that its collection of e-books was denying authors and publishers revenue and accusing the library of "willful mass copyright infringement".
Lindsay Lohan lawsuit
In September 2020, HarperCollins sued Lindsay Lohan for entering into a book deal and collecting a $350,000 advance for a tell-all memoir that never materialized.
Noted books
HarperCollins maintains the backlist of many of the books originally published by its many merged imprints, in addition to having picked up new authors since the merger. Authors published originally by Harper include Mark Twain, the Brontë sisters, and William Makepeace Thackeray. Authors published originally by Collins include H. G. Wells and Agatha Christie. HarperCollins also acquired the publishing rights to J. R. R. Tolkien's work in 1990 when Unwin Hyman was bought. This is a list of some of the more noted books and series published by HarperCollins and their various imprints and merged publishing houses.
The Hobbit, J. R. R. Tolkien (1937) (originally published by George Allen & Unwin)
The Lord of the Rings, J. R. R. Tolkien (1954–55) (originally published by George Allen & Unwin)
The Art of Loving, Erich Fromm (1956)
Master and Commander, Patrick O'Brian (1970) (adapted into the 2003 film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World)
the Leaphorn and Chee books, Tony Hillerman (1970–2006)
The Silmarillion, J. R. R. Tolkien (ed. Christopher Tolkien with Guy Gavriel Kay) (1977) (originally published by George Allen & Unwin)
Collins English Dictionary (1979), a major dictionary
Sharpe series, Bernard Cornwell (1981–2006)
Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo, Hayden Herrera (1983), adapted into the 2002 film Frida
The History of Middle-earth series, J. R. R. Tolkien (ed. Christopher Tolkien) (1983-1996)
Weaveworld, Clive Barker (1987)
the Paladin Poetry Series (1987–1993)
The Alchemist, Paulo Coelho, (1988) (first published in Portuguese as O Alquimista, 1988)
subsequent novels in the Take Back Plenty series, Colin Greenland (1990+)
Where There's a Will: Who Inherited What and Why, Stephen M. Silverman (1991)
The Language of the Genes, Steve Jones (1993)
The Gifts of the Body, Rebecca Brown (1994)
Microserfs, Douglas Coupland (1995)
Thoughts, Tionne Watkins (1999)
Shuka Saptati: Seventy tales of the Parrot a new translation from the Sanskrit by A. N. D. Haksar (2000)
First They Killed My Father: A Daughter of Cambodia Remembers, Loung Ung (2000)
Bel Canto, Ann Patchett (2001)
A Theory of Relativity, Jacquelyn Mitchard (2001)
recent volumes in the Discworld series by Terry Pratchett (books from 2001 to present)
American Gods, Neil Gaiman (2001)
Boonville, Robert Mailer Anderson (2003 reprint)
Quicksilver, Neal Stephenson (2003)
Don Quixote, a new translation by Edith Grossman (2003, Ecco)
Acquainted with the Night, Christopher Dewdney (2004)
State of fear, by Michael Crichton (2004)
Darkhouse, Alex Barclay (2005)
Anansi Boys, Neil Gaiman (2005)
The Hot Kid, Elmore Leonard (2005)
Freaky Green Eyes, by Joyce Carol Oates (2006)
Next, Michael Crichton (2006)
Domicilium Decoratus, Kelly Wearstler (2006)
Pretty Little Liars, Sara Shepard (2006)
Mister B. Gone, Clive Barker (Harper) (2007)
Loving Natalee: A Mother's Testament of Hope and Faith, Beth Holloway (2007) (about Natalee Holloway)
The Raw Shark Texts, Steven Hall (2007)
The Children of Húrin, J. R. R. Tolkien (ed. Christopher Tolkien) (2007)
The Family: The Secret Fundamentalism at the Heart of American Power, Jeff Sharlet (2008)
Going Rogue: An American Life, Sarah Palin (2009)
Pirate Latitudes, Michael Crichton (2009) (posthumous publication)
Wolf Hall, Hilary Mantel (2009)
Shattered: The True Story of a Mother's Love, a Husband's Betrayal, and a Cold-Blooded Texas Murder, Kathryn Casey (2010)
Micro, Michael Crichton (2011) (posthumous publication)
The Dressmaker of Khair Khana, Gayle Tzemach Lemmon (2011)
A Shot at History: My Obsessive Journey to Olympic Gold by Abhinav Bindra (2011)
Go Set a Watchman, Harper Lee (2015)
The Poppy War, R.F. Kuang (2018)
Harper children's books
Children's book editor Ursula Nordstrom was the director of Harper's Department of Books for Boys and Girls from 1940 to 1973, overseeing the publication of classics such as Goodnight Moon, Where the Wild Things Are, The Giving Tree, Charlotte's Web, Beverly Cleary's series starring Ramona Quimby, and Harold and the Purple Crayon. They were the publishing home of Maurice Sendak, Shel Silverstein, and Margaret Wise Brown. In 1998, Nordstrom's personal correspondence was published as Dear Genius: The Letters of Ursula Nordstrom (illustrated by Maurice Sendak), edited by Charlotte Zolotow. Zolotow began her career as a stenographer to Nordstrom, became her protégé, and went on to write more than 80 books and edit hundreds of others, including Nordstrom's The Secret Language and the works of Paul Fleischman. Zolotow later became head of the children's books department, and went on to become the company's first female vice president.
The Chronicles of Narnia series by C.S. Lewis, while not originally published by a merged imprint of HarperCollins, was acquired by the publisher.
HarperCollins has published these notable children's books:
the I Can Read! series for beginning readers, including the Amelia Bedelia (Peggy Parish), Frog and Toad (Arnold Lobel) and Little Bear (Else Holmelund Minarik and Maurice Sendak) books
the Warriors series
the Pretty Little Liars series, by Sara Shepard (2007–present)
A Series of Unfortunate Events, Lemony Snicket
A Taste of Blackberries, Doris Buchanan Smith (1973)
Skulduggery Pleasant series, Derek Landy
Bart Simpson's Guide to Life (1993)
international rights to Dr. Seuss (inherited from Collins; 1950s-present)
Love That Dog, Sharon Creech (2001)
The Giving Tree, Shel Silverstein (1964)
Where the Sidewalk Ends (book), Shel Silverstein (1974)
The Saga of Darren Shan, Darren Shan (2000–2004)
Cirque du Freak manga series, Darren Shan and Takahiro Arai (2006–2009)
The Dangerous Book for Boys, Conn and Hal Iggulden (2006)
Sabriel, Garth Nix (1995)
A Barrel of Laughs, a Vale of Tears, Jules Feiffer (1995)
Mister God, This Is Anna, Fynn (pseudonym of Sydney Hopkins) (1974)
the Little House on the Prairie series, Laura Ingalls Wilder (1932–2006)
The Wolves in the Walls, Neil Gaiman and Dave McKean (2003)
Monster, Walter Dean Myers (1999)
Coraline, Neil Gaiman and Dave McKean (2002)
Surviving the Applewhites, Stephanie S. Tolan (2002)
The Gollywhopper Games (2008)
Ruby Redfort (series), Lauren Child (2011)
Divergent, Veronica Roth (2011)
The School for Good and Evil, Soman Chainani (2013–present)
Splat the Cat, Rob Scotton (2007–present)
Charlotte's Web, E. B. White (2015)
Little Penguin, Tadgh Bentley (2015–present)
Elinor Wonders Why adapted books (2021–present)
Imprints
HarperCollins has more than 120 book imprints, most of which are based in the United States. Collins still exists as an imprint, chiefly for wildlife and natural history books, field guides, as well as for English and bilingual dictionaries based on the Bank of English, a large corpus of contemporary English texts.
On February 8, 2013, it was announced that some parts of the Collins non-fiction imprint would be merged with the HarperPress imprint to form the new William Collins imprint.
HarperCollins imprints (current and defunct, including imprints that existed prior to various mergers) include:
Current
Adult
Children
HarperCollins Children's Books
Harper Festival, a publisher of novelty books founded in 1992
HarperTeen
HarperTeen Impulse (digital imprint)
HarperTrophy
Amistad
Balzer + Bray
Collins
Clarion Books
Greenwillow Books
HMH Books for Young Readers
Katherine Tegen Books
Walden Pond Press
Blink Young Adult
Christian
Thomas Nelson
Grupo Nelson
Nelson Books
Tommy Nelson
W Publishing Group
WestBow Press
Zondervan
Editorial Vida
Zonderkidz
Zondervan Academic
Zondervan Reflective
Audio
HarperAudio
Caedmon, audiobooks
HarperCollins Children's Audio
Bureau
HarperCollins Speakers Bureau
Digital
HarperCollins e-Books
HarperCollins Productions
Defunct
Business strategy
Web approach
In 2008, HarperCollins launched a browsing feature on its website to allow customers can read selected excerpts from books before purchasing, on both desktop and mobile browsers. This functionality gave the publisher's website the ability to compete with physical bookstores, in which customers can typically look at the book itself, and Amazon's use of excerpts ("teasers") for online book purchasers.
At the beginning of October 2013, the company announced a partnership with online digital library Scribd. The official statement revealed that the "majority" of the HarperCollins US and HarperCollins Christian catalogs will be available in Scribd's subscription service. Chantal Restivo-Alessi, chief digital officer at HarperCollins, explained to the media that the deal represents the first time that the publisher has released such a large portion of its catalog.
HarperCollins formerly operated authonomy, an online community of authors, from 2008 to 2015. The website offered an alternative to the traditional "slush pile" approach for handling unsolicited manuscripts sent to a publisher with little chance of being reviewed. Using authonomy, authors could submit their work for peer review and ranking by other members; the five highest-ranked manuscripts each month would be read by HarperCollins editors for potential publication. The site was closed after authors "learned to game the system" to earn top-five rankings, and fewer authonomy titles were selected to be published.
From 2009 to 2010, HarperCollins operated Bookarmy, a social networking site.
Speakers Bureau
The HarperCollins Speakers Bureau (also known as HCSB) is the first lecture agency to be created by a major publishing house. It was launched in May 2005 as a division of HarperCollins to book paid speaking engagements for the authors HarperCollins, and its sister companies, publish. Andrea Rosen is the director.
Some of the notable authors the HCSB represents include Carol Alt, Dennis Lehane, Gregory Maguire, Danny Meyer, Mehmet Oz, Sidney Poitier, Ted Sorensen, and Kate White.
HarperAcademic
HarperAcademic is the academic marketing department of HarperCollins. HarperAcademic provides instructors with the latest in adult titles for course adoption at the high school and college level, as well as titles for first-year and other common read programs at academic institutions. They also attend several major academic conferences to showcase new titles for academic professionals.
HarperAcademic Calling, a podcast produced by the department, provides interviews with authors of noteworthy titles.
HarperStudio
HarperCollins announced HarperStudio in 2008 as a "new, experimental unit... that will eliminate the traditional profit distributions to authors. The long-established author advances and bookseller returns has not proved to be very profitable to either the author or the publisher. The approach HarperStudio is now taking is to offer little or no advance, but instead to split the profit 50% (rather than the industry standard 15%), with the author." The division was headed by Bob Miller, previously the founding publisher of Hyperion, the adult books division of the Walt Disney Company. HarperStudio folded in March 2010 after Miller left for Workman Publishing.
HarperCollins India
HarperCollins Publishers India Pvt Ltd. is a wholly owned subsidiary of HarperCollins Worldwide. It came into being in 1992.
Controversies
If I Did It
If I Did It was a book written by O. J. Simpson about his alleged murder of Nicole Simpson, which was planned as a HarperCollins title, and which attracted considerable controversy and a legal battle over publication.
Ben Collins
In August 2010, the company became embroiled in a legal battle with the BBC after a book it was due to publish, later identified as the forthcoming autobiography of racing driver Ben Collins, revealed the identity of The Stig from Top Gear. In his blog, Top Gear executive producer Andy Wilman accused HarperCollins of "hoping to cash in" on the BBC's intellectual property, describing the publishers as "a bunch of chancers". On September 1, the BBC's request for an injunction preventing the book from being published was turned down, effectively confirming the book's revelation that "The Stig" was indeed Collins.
East and West
The company became embroiled in controversy in 1998 after it was revealed it blocked Chris Patten's (the last British governor of Hong Kong) book East and West after a direct intervention by the then-CEO of News International, Rupert Murdoch. It was later revealed by Stuart Proffitt, the editor who had worked on the book for HarperCollins, that this intervention was designed to appease the Chinese authorities‒of whom the book was critical‒as Murdoch intended to extend his business empire into China and did not wish to cause problems there by allowing the book to be published.
Murdoch's intervention caused both Proffitt's resignation from the company and outrage from the international media apart from affiliated companies. Chris Patten later published with Macmillan Publishing, initially in America, where it carried the logo "The book that Rupert Murdoch refused to publish". After a successful legal campaign against HarperCollins, Patten went on to publish the book in the UK in September 1998 after accepting a sum of £500,000 and receiving an apology from Rupert Murdoch.
eBooks
In March 2011, HarperCollins announced it would distribute eBooks to libraries with DRM enabled to delete the item after being lent 26 times. HarperCollins has drawn criticism of this plan, in particular its likening eBooks, which are purely digital, to traditional paperback trade books, which wear over time.
Omission of Israel from an atlas
In December 2014, The Tablet reported that an atlas published for Middle East schools did not label Israel on a map of the Middle East. A representative for Collins Bartholomew, a subsidiary of HarperCollins that specializes in maps, explained that including Israel would have been “unacceptable” to their customers in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf and the omission was in line with “local preferences”. The company later apologized and destroyed all the books.
What the (Bleep) Just Happened?
HarperCollins announced in January 2017 that they would discontinue selling copies of Monica Crowley's book What the (Bleep) Just Happened?, due to allegations of plagiarism. The 2012 book had lifted passages from a number of sources including columns, news articles and think tank reports. HarperCollins said in a statement to CNN's KFile, "The book which has reached the end of its natural sales cycle, will no longer be offered for purchase until such time as the author has the opportunity to source and revise the material.
See also
Books in the United States
COBUILD – a research facility set up by Collins in conjunction with the University of Birmingham
Harper's Magazine – a separately owned magazine, although begun by the original Harper & Brothers
List of largest UK book publishers
The Lord of the Rings; HarperCollins is the current non-US publisher of the Tolkien series
References
External links
Greenwillow Books records, 1974–2014
1989 establishments in New York City
Book publishing companies based in New York (state)
Book publishing companies of the United Kingdom
News Corporation subsidiaries
Publishing companies based in New York City
Publishing companies established in 1989 | [
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253377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster | Merriam-Webster | Merriam-Webster, Inc. is an American company that publishes reference books and is especially known for its dictionaries. It is the oldest dictionary publisher in the United States.
In 1831, George and Charles Merriam founded the company as G & C Merriam Co. in Springfield, Massachusetts. In 1843, after Noah Webster died, the company bought the rights to An American Dictionary of the English Language from Webster's estate. All Merriam-Webster dictionaries trace their lineage to this source.
In 1964, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. acquired Merriam-Webster, Inc. as a subsidiary. The company adopted its current name in 1982.
History
Noah Webster
In 1806, Webster published his first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language. In 1807 Webster started two decades of intensive work to expand his publication into a fully comprehensive dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language. To help him trace the etymology of words, Webster learned 26 languages. Webster hoped to standardize American speech, since Americans in different parts of the country used somewhat different vocabularies and spelled, pronounced, and used words differently.
Webster completed his dictionary during his year abroad in 1825 in Paris, and at the University of Cambridge. His 1820s book contained 70,000 words, of which about 12,000 had never appeared in a dictionary before. As a spelling reformer, Webster believed that English spelling rules were unnecessarily complex, so his dictionary introduced American English spellings, replacing colour with color, waggon with wagon, and centre with center. He also added American words, including skunk and squash, that did not appear in British dictionaries. At the age of 70 in 1828, Webster published his dictionary; it sold poorly, with only 2,500 copies, and put him in debt. However, in 1840, he published the second edition in two volumes with much greater success.
Merriam as publisher
In 1843, after Webster's death, George Merriam and Charles Merriam secured publishing and revision rights to the 1840 edition of the dictionary. They published a revision in 1847, which did not change any of the main text but merely added new sections, and a second update with illustrations in 1859. In 1864, Merriam published a greatly expanded edition, which was the first version to change Webster's text, largely overhauling his work yet retaining many of his definitions and the title "An American Dictionary. This began a series of revisions that were described as being "unabridged" in content. In 1884 it contained 118,000 words, "3000 more than any other English dictionary".
With the edition of 1890, the dictionary was retitled Webster's International. The vocabulary was vastly expanded in Webster's New International editions of 1909 and 1934, totaling over half a million words, with the 1934 edition retrospectively called Webster's Second International or simply "The Second Edition" of the New International.
The Collegiate Dictionary was introduced in 1898 and the series is now in its eleventh edition. Following the publication of Webster's International in 1890, two Collegiate editions were issued as abridgments of each of their Unabridged editions. Merriam overhauled the dictionary again with the 1961 Webster's Third New International under the direction of Philip B. Gove, making changes that sparked public controversy. Many of these changes were in formatting, omitting needless punctuation, or avoiding complete sentences when a phrase was sufficient. Others, more controversial, signaled a shift from linguistic prescriptivism and towards describing American English as it was used at that time.
With the ninth edition (Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (WNNCD), published in 1983), the Collegiate adopted changes which distinguish it as a separate entity rather than merely an abridgment of the Third New International (the main text of which has remained virtually unrevised since 1961). Some proper names were returned to the word list, including names of Knights of the Round Table. The most notable change was the inclusion of the date of the first known citation of each word, to document its entry into the English language. The eleventh edition (published in 2003) includes more than 225,000 definitions, and more than 165,000 entries. A CD-ROM of the text is sometimes included. This dictionary is preferred as a source "for general matters of spelling" by the influential The Chicago Manual of Style, which is followed by many book publishers and magazines in the United States. The Chicago Manual states that it "normally opts for" the first spelling listed.
The G. & C. Merriam Company lost its right to exclusive use of the name "Webster" after a series of lawsuits placed that name in public domain. Its name was changed to "Merriam-Webster, Incorporated", with the publication of Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary in 1983. Previous publications had used "A Merriam-Webster Dictionary" as a subtitle for many years and will be found on older editions.
Since the 1940s, the company has added many specialized dictionaries, language aides, and other references to its repertoire. The company has been a subsidiary of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1964.
The dictionary maintains an active social media presence, where it frequently posts dictionary related content as well as its hot takes on politics. Its Twitter account has frequently used dictionary jargon to criticise and lampoon the Trump administration. In one viral tweet, Merriam Webster subtly accused Kyle Rittenhouse of fake crying at his trial.
Services
In 1996, Merriam-Webster launched its first website, which provided free access to an online dictionary and thesaurus.
Merriam-Webster has also published dictionaries of synonyms, English usage, geography (Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary), biography, proper names, medical terms, sports terms, slang, Spanish/English, and numerous others. Non-dictionary publications include Collegiate Thesaurus, Secretarial Handbook, Manual for Writers and Editors, Collegiate Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Literature, and Encyclopedia of World Religions.
On February 16, 2007, Merriam-Webster announced the launch of a mobile dictionary and thesaurus service developed with mobile search-and-information provider AskMeNow. Consumers use the service to access definitions, spelling and synonyms via text message. Services also include Merriam-Webster's Word of the Day—and Open Dictionary, a wiki service that provides subscribers the opportunity to create and submit their own new words and definitions.
Pronunciation guides
The Merriam-Webster company once used a unique set of phonetic symbols in their dictionaries—intended to help people from different parts of the United States learn how to pronounce words the same way as others who spoke with the same accent or dialect did. Unicode accommodated IPA symbols from Unicode version 1.1 published in 1993, but did not support the phonetic symbols specific to Merriam-Webster dictionaries until Unicode version 4.0 published in 2003. Hence, to enable computerized access to the pronunciation without having to rework all dictionaries to IPA notation, the online services of Merriam-Webster specify phonetics using a less-specific set of ASCII characters.
Writing entries
Merriam creates entries by finding uses of a particular word in print and recording them in a database of citations. Editors at Merriam spend about an hour a day looking at print sources, from books and newspapers to less formal publications, like advertisements and product packaging, to study the uses of individual words and choose things that should be preserved in the citation file. Merriam-Webster's citation file contains more than 16 million entries documenting individual uses of words. Millions of these citations are recorded on 3-by-5 cards in their paper citation files. The earliest entries in the paper citation files date back to the late 19th century. Since 2009, all new entries are recorded in an electronic database.
See also
Befudiom
Kory Stamper, noted lexicographer/editor/social media personality at Merriam-Webster
Lists of Merriam-Webster's Words of the Year
Webster's Dictionary
Webster's Third New International Dictionary
References
External links
Merriam-Webster Online
G. & C. Merriam Company Collection, Amherst College Archives and Special Collections
Book publishing companies of the United States
Companies based in Springfield, Massachusetts
Online English dictionaries
Webby Award winners
Reference publishers
Publishing companies established in 1831 | [
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253378 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon%20Butala | Sharon Butala | Sharon Butala (born Sharon Annette LeBlanc, 1940 in Nipawin, Saskatchewan) is a Canadian writer and novelist.
Life
Butala was born in an outpost hospital in Nipawin, Saskatchewan. She was the second of five daughters born to Amy Graham and Achille LeBlanc, who ran a sawmill near Garrick, Saskatchewan. In 1946 her family moved to the French-Canadian town of St. Louis, Saskatchewan, and moved again when she was thirteen years old to the city of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. She attended the University of Saskatchewan obtaining both a Bachelor of Arts degree and a Bachelor of Education degree. Between her third and fourth year of university she married for the first time. This marriage lasted 14 years, and her son, Sean Hoy, was born during this time.
After graduating she taught English in Saskatchewan and British Columbia and also taught in a special program for the YMCA in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1969 she returned to Saskatoon and worked in special education at Princess Alexandra School. In 1972 she returned to the University of Saskatchewan to work on a post-graduate diploma in education and began teaching for the College of Education.
By 1975 she was divorced and working on her Master of Education degree with a budding academic career when she met Peter Butala. She abandoned her degree, and they were married on May 21, 1976, after which she moved to his ranch near Eastend, Saskatchewan. It was here that she began writing seriously, and this environment became the setting of much of her writing. Her first book, Country of the Heart, was published in 1984 and was shortlisted for the Books in Canada First Novel Award.
As head of the Eastend Arts Council she spearheaded the creation of the Wallace Stegner House Residence for Artists in which Wallace Stegner's childhood home was turned into a retreat for writers and artists. She lived near Eastend until 14 months after Peter's death in 2007. She now lives in Calgary, Alberta.
She was shortlisted for the Governor General's award three times, once for fiction for Queen of the Headaches, and twice for nonfiction, for The Perfection of the Morning and Where I Live Now. The Fall 2012 issue of Prairie Fire, entitled The Visionary Art of Sharon Butala was dedicated to Butala and her work and influence. She and her husband, Peter Butala, were also involved in the creation of the Old Man on His Back Prairie and Heritage Conservation Area. The Butala homestead is now the interpretive centre for this area of original and restored mixed grass prairie.
Awards
Marian Engel Award (1998)
Officer of the Order of Canada (2001)
Honorary Doctor of Laws, University of Regina (2000)
Honorary Doctor of Letters, University of Saskatchewan (2004)
Honorary Doctor of Letters, University of Alberta (2013)
Saskatchewan Order of Merit (2009)
Cheryl and Henry Kloppenburg Award for Literary Excellence. (2012)
Five Conservation Awards
Works
Fiction
Fever, HarperCollins, 1990
Upstream, Fifth House, 1991; HarperCollins, 1996
Country of the Heart, Fifth House, 1984; HarperCollins, 1999
The Fourth Archangel, HarperCollins, 1992
Luna, HarperPerennial Canada, 1994
Queen of the Headaches, Coteau Books, 1994 (nominated for a Governor General's Award)
The Gates of the Sun, HarperCollins, 2001
The Garden of Eden, HarperFlamingo Canada- A Phyllis Bruce Book, 2002
Real Life, HarperFlamingo Canada – A Phyllis Bruce Book, 2002
Wild Rose, Coteau Books, 2015
Zara's Dead, Coteau Books, 2018
Season of Fury and Wonder, 2019 (winner of the 2019 W.O. Mitchell City of Calgary Book Award)
Non-fiction
Harvest, Fifth House, 1992
The Perfection of the Morning: An Apprenticeship in Nature, HarperCollins, 1994 (nominated for a Governor General's Award)
Coyote's Morning Cry: Meditations & Dreams From a Life in Nature, HarperCollins, 1995
Wild Stone Heart: An Apprenticeship in the Fields, HarperFlamingo Canada, 2000
Old Man on His Back: Portrait of a Prairie Landscape, HarperCollins – A Phyllis Bruce Book, 2002 (with Courtney Milne)
Lilac Moon, HarperPerennial – A Phyllis Bruce Book, 2005 (winner of the 2005 Saskatchewan Book Award for non-fiction)
The Girl in Saskatoon: A Meditation on Friendship, Memory and Murder, HarperCollins – A Phyllis Bruce Book, 2008
Where I Live Now: A Journey through Love and Loss to Healing and Hope, Simon & Schuster, 2017 (nominated for a Governor General's Award)
This Strange Visible Air: Essays on Aging and the Writing Life, Freehand Books, 2021
References
External links
Western American Literature Journal: Sharon Butala
2008 Interview at books site Pickle Me This
SharonButala.com
1940 births
Living people
Officers of the Order of Canada
Canadian women novelists
People from Nipawin, Saskatchewan
Writers from Saskatchewan
Writers from Calgary
University of Saskatchewan alumni
Franco-Albertan people
Fransaskois people
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian women writers | [
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253383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjambok | Sjambok | The sjambok () or litupa is a heavy leather whip. It is traditionally made from an adult hippopotamus or rhinoceros hide, but is also commonly made out of plastic.
A strip of the animal's hide is cut and carved into a strip long, tapering from about thick at the handle to about at the tip. This strip is then rolled until reaching a tapered-cylindrical form. The resulting whip is both flexible and durable. A plastic version was made for the apartheid era South African Police, and used for riot control.
The sjambok was heavily used by the Voortrekkers driving their oxen while migrating from the Cape of Good Hope, and remains in use by herdsmen to drive cattle. They are widely available in South Africa from informal traders to regular stores from a variety of materials, lengths and thicknesses. They are an effective weapon to kill snakes and ward off dogs and other attackers and are still carried in public by many South Africans for self-defense.
Use by police
In South Africa, use of the sjambok by police is sometimes seen as synonymous with the apartheid era, but its use on people started much earlier. It is sometimes used outside the official judiciary by people who carry out punishments imposed by extralegal courts.
In 1963, an enquiry into the police force of Sheffield in the United Kingdom found that rhino whips had been used on suspects.
Other types
The name seems to have originated as cambuk in Indonesia, where it was the name of a wooden rod for punishing slaves, where it was possibly derived from the Persian chabouk or chabuk. When Malay slaves arrived in South Africa in the 1800s, the instrument and its name were imported with them, the material was changed to hide, and the name was finally incorporated into Afrikaans, spelled as sambok. It is known in Bengali as chabuk.
The instrument is also known as imvubu (hippopotamus in Zulu), kiboko (hippopotamus in Swahili) and as mnigolo (hippopotamus in Malinké). In the Portuguese African colonies and Congo Free State, it was called a chicote, from the Portuguese word for whip.
In the Belgian Congo, the instrument was also known as fimbo and was used to force labour from local people through flogging, sometimes to death. The official tariff for punishment in this case was lowered in time from twenty strokes to eight, then (in 1949) six, and progressively four and two, until flogging was outlawed completely in 1955. In North Africa, particularly Egypt, the whip was called a kurbash, after the Arabic for whip. The term shaabuug is used in the Somali language; it can also refer to a generic leather whip.
In popular culture
In the film Would You Rather, players are given the option to stab a fellow contestant with an ice pick or whip another contestant with a sjambok.
In Willard Price's Elephant Adventure, the cruel Arab slaver known as the Thunder Man enjoys flogging captives with a sjambok made from hippopotamus hide.
The Islamic preacher Shah Mustafa is known to have used a chabuk to defeat a snake which was on the throne of Raja Chandra Narayan Singh. This earned him the title of Chabukmar.
References
Whips
Police weapons
African weapons
Afrikaans words and phrases
South African English | [
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253385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Carpenter%20%28disambiguation%29 | David Carpenter (disambiguation) | David Carpenter is an American serial killer.
David Carpenter may also refer to:
David Carpenter, early Texas settler and namesake of Carpenters Bayou
David Carpenter, better known as Dave Carpender, guitarist
David Aaron Carpenter (born 1986), violist
David Carpenter (cricketer) (born 1935), English cricketer
David Carpenter (historian) (born 1947), British historian
David Carpenter (writer) (born 1941), Canadian novelist
Dave Carpenter (1959–2008), bassist
David G. Carpenter, U.S. Assistant Secretary of State
David Carpenter (baseball, born 1985), baseball player
David Carpenter (baseball, born 1987), baseball player
David O. Carpenter, professor of environmental health sciences | [
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253389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sim%20%28pencil%20game%29 | Sim (pencil game) | Sim is a pencil-and-paper game that is played by two players.
Gameplay
Six dots ('vertices') are drawn. Each dot is connected to every other dot by a line ('edge').
Two players take turns coloring any uncolored lines. One player colors in one color, and the other colors in another color, with each player trying to avoid the creation of a triangle made solely of their color (only triangles with the dots as corners count; intersections of lines are not relevant); the player who completes such a triangle loses immediately.
Analysis
Ramsey theory can also be used to show that no game of Sim can end in a tie. Specifically, since the Ramsey number R(3,3)=6, any two-coloring of the complete graph on 6 vertices (K6) must contain a monochromatic triangle, and therefore is not a tied position. This will also apply to any super-graph of K6. For another proof that there must eventually be a triangle of either color, see the Theorem on friends and strangers.
Computer search has verified that the second player can win Sim with perfect play, but finding a perfect strategy that humans can easily memorize is an open problem.
The game of Sim is one example of a Ramsey game. Other Ramsey games are possible. For instance, the players can be allowed to color more than one line during their turns. Another Ramsey game similar to Sim and related to Ramsey number R(4,4)=18, which again cannot end in a tie, is played on 18 vertices and the 153 edges between them. The two players must avoid to color a monochromatic tetrahedron (a three-dimensional pyramid with four triangular faces).
The Ramsey number R(3,3,3)=17 implies that any three-coloring of the complete graph on 17 vertices must contain a monochromatic triangle. A corresponding Ramsey game uses pencils of three colors. One approach can have three players compete, while another would allow two players to alternately select any of the three colors to paint an edge of the graph, until a player loses by completing a monochromatic triangle. Finding perfect winning strategies for these variants is most likely out of reach.
A technical report by Wolfgang Slany is available online, with many references to literature on Sim, going back to the game's introduction by Gustavus Simmons in 1969, including proofs and estimates of the difficulty as well as computational complexity of Sim and other Ramsey games.
Software
A self-improving Java applet including its source code is available for online play against a computer program.
An app including its source code in the visual multi-platform Catrobat programming language is available for playing it against one's smartphone.
An electronic version is available at: https://wideaperture.net/sim/
References
Ramsey theory
Mathematical games
Combinatorics
Combinatorial game theory
Paper-and-pencil games
Solved games
Positional games | [
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] |
253392 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiretap%20%28disambiguation%29 | Wiretap (disambiguation) | Wiretap may refer to:
Telephone tapping, the monitoring of telephone and Internet conversations by a third party
WireTap (radio program), a weekly radio program aired by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
WireTap (magazine), a Webby-award winning online magazine. | [
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253397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonation | Carbonation | Carbonation is the chemical reaction of carbon dioxide to give carbonates, bicarbonates, and carbonic acid. In chemistry, the term is sometimes used in place of carboxylation, which refers to the formation of carboxylic acids.
In inorganic chemistry and geology, carbonation is common. Metal hydroxides (MOH) and metal oxides (M'O) react with CO2 to give bicarbonates and carbonates:
MOH + CO2 → M(HCO3)
M'O + CO2 → M'CO3
In reinforced concrete, the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete is known as neutralisation. The similar reaction in which calcium hydroxide from cement reacts with carbon dioxide and forms insoluble calcium carbonate is carbonatation.
Henry's law
Henry's law states that P=KBx where P is the partial pressure of gas above the solution. KB is Henry's law constant. KB increases as temperature increases. x is the mole fraction of gas in the solution. According to Henry's law carbonation increases in a solution as temperature decreases.
Since carbonation is the process of giving compounds like carbonic acid (liq) from CO2 (gas) {i.e. making liquid from gasses} thus the partial pressure of CO2 has to decrease or the mole fraction of CO2 in solution has to increase {P/x = KB} and both these two conditions support increase in carbonation.
References
Inorganic chemistry
Organometallic chemistry
Transition metals
Coordination complexes | [
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253407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council | Council | A council is a group of people who come together to consult, deliberate, or make decisions. A council may function as a legislature, especially at a town, city or county/shire level, but most legislative bodies at the state/provincial or national level are not considered councils. At such levels, there may be no separate executive branch, and the council may effectively represent the entire government. A board of directors might also be denoted as a council. A committee might also be denoted as a council, though a committee is generally a subordinate body composed of members of a larger body, while a council may not be. Because many schools have a student council, the council is the form of governance with which many people are likely to have their first experience as electors or participants.
A member of a council may be referred to as a councillor or councilperson, or by the gender-specific titles of councilman and councilwoman.
In politics
Notable examples of types of councils encountered in politics include:
Turkic Council, also known as the Organisation of Turkic states is the body responsible for determining future of the Turkic countries.
Borough council, a form of local government
Catholic Ecumenical Councils, ecclesiastical gatherings for ordering the Catholic Church
City council, a form of local government
Community council, the most local official representative body in Scotland and in Wales
Council of Europe, a political, intergovernmental organization with 47 member countries
Council of the European Union, the upper house of the European Union
Council of State, an organ of government in many states
County council, a council that governs a county in the British Isles
District council, a unit of government in various jurisdictions
Ecumenical Councils, pan-Christian discussion bodies
European Council, the body of heads of states or of governments of the European Union
Labour council, an association of labour unions or union branches in a given area
Municipal council, a form of local government
National Security Council, an executive-branch governmental body responsible for coordinating policy on national security issues
Parish councils in England, a form of local government in part of the United Kingdom
Privy council, a body that advises the head of state of a country
Provincial council, a governing body for a province
Regional council, a local-government body in various countries
Shire Council, an entity of local government in Australia
Shura Council, the formerly upper house of the Egyptian parliament.
Town council, a democratically elected form of government for small municipalities or parishes
Tribal Council, First Nations' and Native American Nations' governing bodies
UK Research Councils, government agencies responsible for an area of research in the United Kingdom
United Nations Security Council, a decision-making body at the United Nations
Vatican Council, a high-level policy-council of the Roman Catholic Church
Village council (Palestinian Authority), a local-government body in Palestine
Workers' council, a council composed of working-class or proletarian members
In other fields
Types of councils encountered in other spheres include:
Arts council, a government or private, non-profit organization dedicated to promoting the arts
Bar council, a professional body that regulates the profession of barristers together with the Inns of Court
Buddhist councils, important historical events in the history of Buddhism
Council (Boy Scouts), a non-profit private corporation within Boy Scouts of America
Ecumenical council, a meeting of the bishops of the whole church convened to discuss and settle matters of Church doctrine and practice
Military council
Student council, a student organization present in many elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, colleges and universities
Synod in a Christian church
University Council running a university
War Council, discussions pertaining to a declaration of war, or tactics and strategy of a coming battle
Works council, a body representing the workers of a plant, factory, etc., elected to negotiate with the management about working conditions, wages, etc.
Youth council, an example of youth voice engaged in youth-led decision-making
See also
Articles
Consul
Legislative Council
Pontifical Council
Local government in Australia
United Nations Security Council
Directorial system a form is government where a group of people act as the head of State and/or Government.
Disambiguation pages
Accreditation Council
Advisory Council
Affairs Council
American Council
Australian Council
Canadian Council
Christian Council
Common Council
Cooperation Council
Council High School
Council house
Council of Elders
Crown Council
Dance Council
Danish Council
Defence Council
Dental Council
District council
Dutch Council
European Council
Examinations Council
Executive Council
Federal Council
Federation Council
French Council
Funding Council
General council
General Teaching Council
Grand Council
High Council
Hong Kong Council
Indian Council
International Council
Iraqi Council
Local Council
Medical Council
Military Council
Muslim Council
National Council
Olympic Council
Policy Council
Polish Council
Press Council
Regional Council
Restoration Council
Revolutionary Council
Scottish Council
State Council
Supreme Council
The Council
Valley Council
Vietnamese Council
World Council
External links
Deliberative groups
Legislatures
ja:評議会
ko:평의회 | [
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253408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler%20Motor%20Car | Chandler Motor Car | The Chandler Motor Car Company produced automobiles in the United States of America during the 1910s and 1920s.
Corporate strategy
It was incorporated in 1913, with Frederick C. Chandler as President, headquartered and with its factory in Cleveland, Ohio. Chandler was a former designer for the Lozier Motor Company, a top end luxury automobile manufacturer. Chandler and several other Lozier executives left the company to form his company.
Chandler concentrated on producing a good quality motor-car within the price range of middle class Americans. Chandlers were well received in the marketplace.
Production
In 1920, Chandler had a line of six cars, ranging from $1995 to $3595. This grew to 10 by 1922, ranging from $1495 to $2375. Like many other medium-price carmakers, in the middle 1920s Chandler introduced a lower-priced "companion car" called the Cleveland. In 1924, they introduced the "Traffic Transmission," a constant-mesh gearbox that reduced the need for extra clutching when downshifting. This was several years before General Motors offered the "Synchro-Mesh" transmission, which allowed the driver to shift into first gear while moving forward at low speeds.
Chandler's peak year was 1927, when they sold 20,000 cars. Hopes for continued growth of the market led to overexpansion by the company the following year, which finished 1928 over half a million dollars in debt.
In 1929, Chandler Motor Company was purchased by its expanding competitor Hupp Motor Car Company for its factory and manufacturing facilities, and the brand was discontinued.
Chandler, like most cars built before all-steel bodies became the industry standard in the mid-1930s, used bodies built with a metal skin around a wooden frame (an "armored wood" frame). Due to the use of fabric roofs, after a few decades the wood tended to rot; because of this Chandlers have survived in smaller numbers than some other popular automobiles of the era that used all-steel bodies.
Production models
Chandler Light Weight Model 19 Touring 1919
Chandler Metropolitan Sedan, 1922
References
Manufacturing companies based in Cleveland
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1913
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Ohio
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Ohio
Historic American Engineering Record in Ohio
Hupmobile
1913 establishments in Ohio
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1929
1929 disestablishments in Ohio | [
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253409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer%20%28dog%29 | Boxer (dog) | The Boxer is a medium to large, short-haired breed of dog, developed in Germany. The coat is smooth and tight-fitting; colors are fawn, brindled, or white, with or without white markings. Boxers are brachycephalic (they have broad, short skulls), have a square muzzle, mandibular prognathism (an underbite), very strong jaws, and a powerful bite ideal for hanging on to large prey. The Boxer was bred from the Old English Bulldog and the now extinct Bullenbeisser, which became extinct by crossbreeding rather than by a decadence of the breed. The Boxer is a member of both The Kennel Club and American Kennel Club (AKC) Working Group.
The first Boxer club was founded in 1895, with Boxers being first exhibited in a dog show for St. Bernards in Munich the next year. Based on 2013 AKC statistics, Boxers held steady as the seventh-most popular breed of dog in the United States for the fourth consecutive year. According to the AKC's website, though, the boxer is now the 11th-most popular dog breed in the United States.
Appearance
The head is the most distinctive feature of the Boxer. The breed standard dictates that it must be in perfect proportion to the body and above all it must never be too light. The greatest value is to be placed on the muzzle being of correct form and in absolute proportion to the skull. The length of the muzzle to the whole of the head should be a ratio of 1:3. Folds are always present from the root of the nose running downwards on both sides of the muzzle, and the tip of the nose should lie somewhat higher than the root of the muzzle. In addition, a Boxer should be slightly prognathous, i.e., the lower jaw should protrude beyond the upper jaw and bend slightly upwards in what is commonly called an underbite or "undershot bite".
Boxers were originally a docked and cropped breed, and this is still done in some countries, but due to pressure from veterinary associations, animal rights groups, and the general public, both cropping of the ears and docking of the tail have been prohibited in many countries around the world, and is not recognised by the breed standard laid down by The Kennel Club of the UK. The American Kennel club still permits cropped ears. A line of naturally short-tailed (bobtail) Boxers was developed in the United Kingdom in anticipation of a tail-docking ban there; after several generations of controlled breeding, these dogs were accepted in the Kennel Club (UK) registry in 1998, and today representatives of the bobtail line can be found in many countries. In 2008, the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) added a "naturally stumpy tail" as a disqualifying fault in their breed standard, meaning those Boxers born with a bobtail can no longer be shown in FCI member countries. In the United States and Canada as of 2012, cropped ears are still more common in show dogs, though the practice of cosmetic cropping is currently opposed by the American Veterinary Medical Association. In March 2005, the AKC breed standard was changed to include a description of the uncropped ear, but to severely penalize an undocked tail. The tail of a boxer is typically docked before the cartilage is fully formed, from 3–5 days old. The procedure does not require any sutures when performed at this young age, and anesthesia is not used. The docking of the tail is not permitted under the breed standard of The Kennel Club UK.
Coat and colors
The Boxer is a short-haired breed, with a smooth coat that lies tight to the body. The recognized colors are fawn and brindle, frequently with a white underbelly and white on the feet. These white markings, called "flash", often extend onto the neck or face, and dogs that have these markings are known as "flashy". "Fawn" denotes a range of colors, the tones of which may be described variously as light tan or yellow, reddish tan, mahogany, or stag/deer red, and dark honey-blonde. In the UK and Europe, fawn Boxers are typically rich in color and are often called "red". "Brindle" refers to a dog with black stripes on a fawn background. Some brindle Boxers are so heavily striped that they give the appearance of "reverse brindling", fawn stripes on a black body; these dogs are conventionally called "reverse brindles", but that is actually a misnomer—they are still fawn dogs with black stripes. In addition, the breed standards state that the fawn background must clearly contrast with or show through the brindling.
The Boxer does not carry the gene for a solid black coat color, so purebred black Boxers do not exist.
White Boxers
Boxers with white markings covering more than one-third of their coat – conventionally called "white" Boxers – are neither albino nor rare; about 20–25% of all Boxers born are white. Genetically, these dogs are either fawn or brindle, with excessive white markings overlying the base coat color. Like fair-skinned humans, white Boxers have a higher risk of sunburn and associated skin cancers than darker Boxers. The extreme piebald gene, which is responsible for white markings in Boxers, is linked to congenital sensorineural deafness in dogs. An estimated 18% of white Boxers are deaf in one or both ears, though Boxer rescue organizations see about double that number.
In the past, breeders often euthanized white puppies at birth. A 1998 study of Boxers in the Netherlands showed that 17% of Boxer pups were euthanized because they were white. Previously, the American Boxer Club "unofficially recommended euthanasia for these animals." Reasons for euthanizing white pups include the view that selling a dog with "faults" is unethical, which is in stark contrast to the AKC preference for docked tails. Additionally the perception that white Boxers are at higher risk of ending up abandoned in rescues. Today, breeders are increasingly reluctant to euthanize healthy pups, and may choose to neuter and place them in pet homes, instead.
Temperament
Boxers are a bright, energetic, and playful breed and tend to be very good with children. They are patient and spirited with children, but also protective, making them a popular choice for families.
They are active, strong dogs that require adequate exercise to prevent boredom-associated behaviors such as chewing, digging, or licking. Boxers have earned a slight reputation of being "headstrong", which can be related to inappropriate obedience training. Owing to their intelligence and working-breed characteristics, training based on corrections often has limited usefulness. Boxers, like other animals, typically respond better to positive reinforcement techniques such as clicker training, an approach based on operant conditioning and behaviorism, which offers the dog an opportunity to think independently and to problem-solve. Stanley Coren's survey of obedience trainers, summarized in his book The Intelligence of Dogs, ranked Boxers at number 48 – average working/obedience intelligence. Many who have worked with Boxers disagree quite strongly with Coren's survey results, and maintain that a skilled trainer who uses reward-based methods will find Boxers have far above-average intelligence and working ability.
The Boxer by nature is not an aggressive or vicious breed. It is an instinctive guardian and can become very attached to its family. Like all dogs, it requires proper socialization. Boxers are generally patient with smaller dogs and puppies, but difficulties with larger adult dogs, especially those of the same sex, may occur. Boxers are generally more comfortable with companionship, in either human or canine form. They are very patient and are great to adopt as family dogs because they are good with children and people of all kinds.
History
The Boxer is a hunting mastiff developed in Germany in the late 19th century from the now extinct Bullenbeisser, a dog of Mastiff descent, and Bulldogs brought in from Great Britain. The Bullenbeisser had been working as a hunting dog for centuries, employed in the pursuit of bear, wild boar, and deer. Its task was to seize the prey and hold it until the hunters arrived. In later years, faster dogs were favored and a smaller Bullenbeisser was bred in Brabant, in northern Belgium. The Brabanter Bullenbeisser is generally accepted as being a direct ancestor of today's Boxer.
In 1894, three Germans, Friedrich Robert, Elard König, and R. Höpner, decided to stabilize the breed and put it on exhibition at a dog show. This was done in Munich in 1896, and the year before they founded the first Boxer Club, the Deutscher Boxer Club. The club went on to publish the first Boxer breed standard in 1904, a detailed document that has not been changed much since.
The breed was introduced to other parts of Europe in the late 19th century and to the United States around the turn of the 20th century. The AKC registered the first Boxer in 1904, and recognized the first Boxer champion, Dampf vom Dom, in 1915. During World War I, the Boxer was co-opted for military work, acting as a valuable messenger dog, pack carrier, attack dog, and guard dog. The Boxer did not become popular around the world until after World War II. Taken home by returning soldiers, the dog was introduced to a wider audience and soon became a favorite as a companion, a show dog, and a guard dog.
Early genealogy
German citizen George Alt, a Munich resident, mated a brindle-colored female dog imported from France named Flora with a local dog of unknown ancestry, known simply as "Boxer", resulting in a fawn-and-white male, named Lechner's Box after its owner.
This dog was mated with his own dam, Flora, and one of his offspring was a female called Alt's Schecken. George Alt mated Schecken with a Bulldog named Dr. Toneissen's Tom to produce the historically significant dog Mühlbauer's Flocki. Flocki was the first Boxer to enter the German Stud Book after winning the aforementioned show for St. Bernards in Munich 1896, which was the first event to have a class specific for Boxers.
The white female dog Ch. Blanka von Angertor, Flocki's sister, was even more influential when mated with Piccolo von Angertor (Lechner's Box grandson) to produce the predominantly white (particolored) female dog Meta von der Passage, which, even bearing little resemblance with the modern Boxer standard (early photographs depict her as too long, weak-backed, and down-faced), is considered the mother of the breed. John Wagner, in The Boxer (first published in 1939) said the following regarding this female dog:
Breed name
The name "Boxer" is supposedly derived from the breed's tendency to play by standing on its hind legs and "boxing" with its front paws. According to Andrew H. Brace's Pet Owner's Guide to the Boxer, this theory is the least plausible explanation. He claims, "it's unlikely that a nation so permeated with nationalism would give to one of its most famous breeds a name so obviously anglicised".
German linguistic and historical evidence finds the earliest written source for the word Boxer in the 18th century, where it is found in a text in the Deutsches Fremdwörterbuch (The German Dictionary of Foreign Words), which cites an author named Musäus of 1782 writing . At that time, the spelling "baxer" equalled "boxer". Both the verb (boxen [English "to box, to punch, to jab"]) and the noun (Boxer) were common German words as early as the late 18th century. The term Boxl, also written Buxn or Buchsen in the Bavarian dialect, means "short (leather) trousers" or "underwear". The very similar-sounding term Boxerl, also from the Bavarian dialect, is an endearing term for Boxer. More in line with historical facts, Brace states that many other theories may explain the origin of the breed name, from which he favors the one claiming the smaller Bullenbeisser (Brabanter) dogs were also known as Boxl and that Boxer is just a corruption of that word.
In the same vein runs a theory based on the fact that a group of dogs was known as Bierboxer in Munich by the time of the breed's development. These dogs were the result from mixes of Bullenbeisser and other similar breeds. Bier (beer) probably refers to the Biergarten, the typical Munich beer garden, an open-air restaurant where people used to take their dogs along. The nickname "Deutscher Boxer" was derived from Bierboxer and Boxer could also be a corruption of the former or a contraction of the latter.
A passage from the book The Complete Boxer by Milo G Denlinger states:
Boxer is also the name of a dog owned by John Peerybingle, the main character in the best-selling 1845 book The Cricket on the Hearth by Charles Dickens, which is evidence that "Boxer" was commonly used as a dog name by the early 19th century, before the establishment of the breed by the end of that same century.
Health
Leading health issues to which Boxers are prone include cancers, heart conditions such as aortic stenosis and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (the so-called "Boxer cardiomyopathy"), hypothyroidism, hip dysplasia, and degenerative myelopathy and epilepsy; other conditions that may be seen are gastric dilatation volvulus (also known as bloat), intestinal problems, and allergies (although these may be more related to diet than breed). Entropion, a malformation of the eyelid requiring surgical correction, is occasionally seen, and some lines have a tendency toward spondylosis deformans, a fusing of the spine, or dystocia. Other conditions that are less common but occur more often in Boxers than other breeds are hystiocytic ulcerative colitis (sometimes called Boxer colitis), an invasive E. coli infection, and indolent corneal ulcers, often called Boxer eye ulcers.
About 22% of puppies die before reaching seven weeks of age. Stillbirth is the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increases significantly with increases in inbreeding.
According to a UK Kennel Club health survey, cancer accounts for 38.5% of Boxer deaths, followed by old age (21.5%), cardiac (6.9%) and gastrointestinal (6.9%) related issues. The breed is particularly predisposed to mast cell tumours, a cancer of the immune system. Median lifespan was 10.25 years. Responsible breeders use available tests to screen their breeding stock before breeding, and in some cases throughout the life of the dog, in an attempt to minimize the occurrence of these diseases in future generations.
Boxers are known to be very sensitive to the hypotensive and bradycardiac effects of a commonly used veterinary sedative, acepromazine. It is recommended that the drug be avoided in the Boxer breed.
As an athletic breed, proper exercise and conditioning is important for the continued health and longevity of the Boxer. Care must be taken not to overexercise young dogs, as this may damage growing bones, but once mature, Boxers can be excellent jogging or running companions. Because of their brachycephalic heads, they do not do well with high heat or humidity, and common sense should prevail when exercising a Boxer in these conditions.
Nutrition
Boxers need plenty of exercise, which means their diet should be high in quality calories. The main source of these calories should be lean animal protein, which include lean chicken, turkey, lamb, and fish. While on a high calorie diet, owners should be thoughtful of the amount of treats given as this tends to cause obesity. Owners should be mindful of the food to snack ratio being consumed by the Boxer when determining how many treats are acceptable. Some healthy snacks include raw fruits and vegetables.
Boxers are also prone to dental problems, increasing their susceptibility for bad breath; dry dog food that is large and difficult for them to chew improves the likelihood for plaque removal. Plaque can also be removed by crude fiber in kibble, which has a flexible structure that increases chewing time. Polyphosphates are often coated on the outside of dry dog food, which further reduce plaque buildup by preventing calcium production in saliva. Odor production from the boxer's mouth is likely to be reduced if its teeth and oral cavity are kept in healthy conditions.
Uses
Boxers are friendly, lively companions that are popular as family dogs. Their suspicion of strangers, alertness, agility, and strength make them formidable guard dogs. They sometimes appear at dog agility or dog obedience trials and flyball events. These strong and intelligent animals have also been used as service dogs, guide dogs for the blind, therapy dogs, police dogs in K9 units, and occasionally herding cattle or sheep. The versatility of Boxers was recognized early on by the military, which has used them as valuable messenger dogs, pack carriers, and attack and guard dogs in times of war.
Notable Boxers
Punch and Judy were awarded the Dickin Medal for conspicuous gallantry or devotion to duty while serving in a military conflict.
See also
Dogs portal
List of dog breeds
References
External links
FCI breeds
Dog breeds originating in Germany
Articles containing video clips
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253410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dickinsonia | Dickinsonia | Dickinsonia is an extinct genus of basal animal that lived during the late Ediacaran period in what is now Australia, China, India, Russia and Ukraine. The individual Dickinsonia typically resembles a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval. Its affinities are presently unknown; its mode of growth is consistent with a stem-group bilaterian affinity, though some have suggested that it belongs to the fungi, or even an "extinct kingdom". The discovery of cholesterol molecules in fossils of Dickinsonia lends support to the idea that Dickinsonia was an animal.
Description
Dickinsonia fossils are known only in the form of imprints and casts in sandstone beds. The specimens found range from a few millimetres to about in length, and from a fraction of a millimetre to a few millimetres thick.
They are nearly bilaterally symmetric, segmented, round or oval in outline, slightly expanded to one end (i.e. egg-shaped outline). The rib-like segments are radially inclined towards the wide and narrow ends, and the width and length of the segments increases towards the wide end of the fossil. The segments are separated by a thin ridge or groove along the axis of symmetry into right and left halves. The segments are organized in an alternating pattern according to glide reflection symmetry rather than bilateral symmetry; thus, these "segments" are isomers. This glide reflection is also found in Spriggina, Yorgia, Andiva, Cephalonega and other relatives of a Dickinsonia from the extinct Phylum Proarticulata.
The segments of Dickinsonia have been described by Adolf Seilacher as self-organising "pneu structures", chambers filled with a liquid at higher than ambient pressure, analogous to a quilted air mattress.
Some spectacular fossils attributed to Dickinsonia appear to preserve internal anatomy, believed to represent a tract that both digested food and distributed it throughout the organism.
Discovery and naming
The first species and specimens of this fossil organism was first discovered in the Ediacara Member of the Rawnsley Quartzite, Flinders Ranges in South Australia. Additional specimens of Dickinsonia are also known from the Mogilev Formation in the Dniester River Basin of Podolia, Ukraine, the Lyamtsa, Verkhovka, Zimnegory and Yorga Formations in the White Sea area of the Arkhangelsk Region, Chernokamen Formation of the Central Urals, Russia, (these deposits have been dated to 567–550 Myr.), the Dengying Formation in the Yangtze Gorges area, South China (ca. 551–543 Ma), and from the Bhimbetka rock shelters in India.
Reg Sprigg, the original discoverer of the Ediacaran biota in Australia, described Dickinsonia, naming it after Ben Dickinson, then Director of Mines for South Australia, and head of the government department that employed Sprigg.
Body fossils
As a rule, Dickinsonia fossils are preserved as negative impressions (“death masks”) on the bases of sandstone beds. Such fossils are imprints of the upper sides of the benthic organisms that have been buried under the sand. The imprints formed as a result of cementation of the sand before complete decomposition of the body. The mechanism of cementation is not quite clear; among many possibilities, the process could have arisen from conditions which gave rise to pyrite "death masks" on the decaying body, or perhaps it was due to the carbonate cementation of the sand. The imprints of the bodies of organisms are often strongly compressed, distorted, and sometimes partly extend into the overlying rock. These deformations appear to show attempts by the organisms to escape from the falling sediment.
Rarely, Dickinsonia have been preserved as a cast in massive sandstone lenses, where it occurs together with Pteridinium, Rangea and some others. These specimens are products of events where organisms were first stripped from the sea-floor, transported and deposited within sand flow. In such cases, stretched and ripped Dickinsonia occur. The first such specimen was described as a separate genus and species, Chondroplon bilobatum and later re-identified as Dickinsonia.
Trace fossils
Several trace fossils, including Epibaion and Phyllozoon, have been interpreted as feeding impressions of Dickinsonia and its relatives. Such fossils consist of large, rounded impressions with less relief that the usual upper side of these animals.
Species
Since 1947, a total of nine species have been described, of which five are currently considered valid:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Species !! Authority !! Location !! Status !! Synonyms !! Notes
|-
| Dickinsonia brachina || Wade1972 || Australia || synonym of Dickinsonia tenuis || ||
|-
| Dickinsonia costata || Sprigg1947 || Australia, Russia and Ukraine || valid || Dickinsonia elongata Dickinsonia minima Dickinsonia spriggi Papilionata eyrei
| Unlike other species, D. costata has comparatively fewer, wider segments / isomers.
|-
| Dickinsonia elongata || Glaessner & Wade1966 || Australia || synonym of Dickinsonia costata || ||
|-
| Dickinsonia lissa || Wade, 1972 || Australia || valid || || D. lissa is extremely elongated (up to 150 mm), almost ribbon-like in shape, with numerous thin isomers. The isomers of the head area are short in comparison with those of the rest of the body. The fossil bears a distinct axial ledge consisting of two parallel bands extending from the head region to the posterior end of the body.
|-
| Dickinsonia menneri || Keller1976 || Russia || valid || Vendomia menneri || D. menneri is a small organism up to 8 mm in length, and strongly resembles juvenile specimens of D. costata with its small number of isomers and well-marked head. D. menneri differs from juvenile D. costata by its slightly more elongated form.
Originally classified as Vendomia, it was re-identified as Dickinsonia by Ivantsov (2007)
|-
| Dickinsonia minima || Sprigg1949 || Australia || synonym of Dickinsonia costata || ||
|-
| Dickinsonia rex || Jenkins1992 || Australia || valid || || D. rex was erected for selected paratypes of D. elongata. This species is represented by only several very big specimens (up to more than 1 m in length), and does not have a distinct determination. A large size is the major reason for D. rex'''s species status. Individuals identified as D. rex may simply be large specimens of D. costata and or D. tenuis.
|-
| Dickinsonia spriggi || Harrington & Moore1955 || Australia || Synonym of Dickinsonia costata || ||
|-
| Dickinsonia tenuis || Glaessner & Wade1966 || Australia and Russia || valid || Dickinsonia brachina || Strongly resembles D. costata, but differs from it by more narrow and numerous segments, sparingly lengthened oval form of the body.
|}
Classification
The affinities of Dickinsonia are uncertain. It has been variously interpreted as a jellyfish, coral, polychaete worm, turbellarian, mushroom, xenophyophoran protist, sea anemone, lichen, and even a close ancestor of the chordates.
Genera such as Yorgia and Marywadea somewhat resemble Dickinsonia, and may be related. However, it is possible that Dickinsonia falls into a group of organisms that became extinct before the Cambrian. Its construction is loosely similar to other Ediacaran organisms, and the similarity of their architecture suggests that dickinsoniamorphs may belong in a clade with Charnia and other rangeomorphs. Paleontologist Adolph Seilacher even went so far as to suggest that most of the Ediacaran fauna represents a separate Kingdom termed "Vendozoa" (now: "Vendobionta") that thrived just before most of the modern multicellular animal phyla appeared in the fossil record.
There is an argument that Dickinsonia is more derived than a sponge, but less so than a eumetazoan. The idea that these organisms could move depends on whether Epibaion is its trace fossil or just a different preservation state. It lacks any convincing evidence for a mouth, anus or gut, and appears to have fed by absorption on its bottom surface, much like modern placozoans do. The placozoans are simple animals which absorb food through their bottom surface ("feed through the soles of their feet") and are phylogenetically between sponges and eumetazoa; this suggests that Dickinsonia may have been a stem-group placozoan, or somewhere more crown-wards than sponges on the eumetazoan stem.
A study of inferred growth patterns determined that Dickinsonia is a eumetazoan but a more accurate affiliation was not established. In a subsequent study Hoyal Cuthill & Han (2018) assigned Dickinsonia to the extinct animal group Petalonamae (placed as sister group to the Eumetazoa), which also included the genera Stromatoveris, Arborea and Pambikalbae, as well as rangeomorphs and erniettomorphs.
Interpretation as lichens and taphomorphs
Retallack (2007) proposed that some Ediacaran fossils were lichens, based on their unusual resistance to post-burial compaction. He suggests that the decay mode of the organisms most closely resembles that of leaves, fungi, or lichens, rather than soft-bodied animals, whose bodies clot and distort as they wilt and decay.
A detailed study of paleosols with Dickinsonia preserved in life position suggests, according to Retallack, that Dickinsonia could have lived on dry land. In addition, Dickinsonia and other Ediacaran fossils are found on and beneath eolian laminae of the kind known only on exposed sandy river banks. These proposals are not universally accepted. A paper announcing the discovery of cholesteroids in Dickinsonia fossils states: "Lichen-forming fungi only produce ergosteroids, and even in those that host symbiotic algae, ergosteroids remain the major sterols. Dickinsonia contained [either none] or a maximum of only 0.23% ergosteroids, conclusively refuting the lichen hypothesis".
Paleobiology
Under Retallack's (2007) hypothesis, the Dickinsonia spent most, if not all, of their lives with most of their bodies firmly anchored to the sediment, although they may have slowly moved from resting-place to resting-place. Their mode of anchorage may have been oyster-like concretion, lichen-like rooting with rhizines, or fungus-like attachment to an underground network of hyphae. Dickinsonia displayed isometric, indeterminate growth – that is to say, they kept growing until they were covered with sediment or otherwise killed.
The organisms are preserved in such a way that their resistant parts must have been a sturdy biopolymer (such as keratin) rather than a brittle mineral (such as calcite or a pyritized "death mask").
Halo-like "reaction rims" surround specimens; adjacent specimens deform, as if to avoid entering their neighbour's halo, suggesting they competed with one another. No overlapping body fossils have been found.
Trace fossils
They may be impressions the organism made while it rested on the sediment surface – perhaps by secreting slime in order to form a platform on the underlying microbial mat, or by sitting and dissolving the underlying microbes in order to devour them.
They have also been interpreted as "tumble tracks" created by an organism rolling along the sea floor, perhaps as it was buffeted by currents, and as the bases of lichens or "mushrooms arranged in fairy rings". However, in some cases these trackway imprints overlap. Ridges apparently produced by the channelling of sediment in digestive tubes also indicate body disruption. Thus an alternative interpretation is that Epibaion are dead individuals dislodged into rings by frost boils in periglacial paleosols. By this view, Epibaion is not a trace fossil, but rather a decayed body fossil (a taphomorph'').
See also
List of Ediacaran genera
References
Dipleurozoa
Ediacaran life
White Sea fossils
Fossil taxa described in 1947 | [
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253413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil%20McGraw | Phil McGraw | Phillip Calvin McGraw (born September 1, 1950), better known as Dr. Phil, is an American television personality, author, and the host of the television show Dr. Phil. He holds a doctorate in clinical psychology, though he ceased renewing his license to practice psychology in 2006.
McGraw rose to fame with appearances on The Oprah Winfrey Show in the late 1990s. Oprah Winfrey then helped McGraw launch his own program, Dr. Phil, in September 2002. The show is formatted as an advice show.
Early life and education
McGraw was born in Vinita, Oklahoma, on September 1, 1950, the son of Joseph J. McGraw Jr. and his wife, Anne Geraldine "Jerry" (née Stevens). He grew up with two older sisters, Deana and Donna, and younger sister Brenda in the oilfields of North Texas where his father was an equipment supplier. At age 13, he worked at an A&W Root Beer stand and a local chain called Pizza Planet in Oklahoma City.
McGraw moved to Kansas with his father as his father pursued his lifelong goal of becoming a psychologist. There he attended Shawnee Mission North High School in Overland Park, Kansas. He played linebacker on the high school football team and in 1968 earned a football scholarship to the University of Tulsa, where he played middle linebacker under coach Glenn Dobbs. He later transferred to Midwestern State University in Wichita Falls, Texas.
McGraw graduated in 1975 from Midwestern State University with a B.A. in psychology. He went on to earn an M.A. in experimental psychology in 1976, and a Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology in 1979 at North Texas State University (now the University of North Texas), where his dissertation was titled "Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Psychological Intervention." He did a year of post-doctoral training in forensic psychology at the Wilmington Institute. McGraw's PhD advisor was Frank Lawlis, who later became the primary contributing psychologist for the Dr. Phil television show.
Early career
After obtaining his doctorate, McGraw rejoined his father in Wichita Falls, Texas, where the elder McGraw had established his private psychology practice.
In 1985, McGraw and his father partnered with Thelma Box, a Texas businesswoman, in presenting "Pathways" self-help seminars. Six years after joining Box, in October 1991 McGraw sold his share in the company for $325,000.
In 1990, McGraw co-founded Courtroom Sciences, Inc. (CSI) with lawyer Gary Dobbs. CSI is a trial consulting firm which provides services in US litigation psychology, jury selection, trial consulting, witness training, and depositions. CSI has advised top trial lawyers, every major airline in the world, and dozens of Fortune 500 companies. McGraw is no longer an officer or director of the company. The TV show Bull is based on McGraw's experience as a trial consultant, and he is credited as one of the creators of the series. McGraw began working with Oprah Winfrey through CSI.
Television career
Oprah Winfrey and the Dr. Phil show
In 1995, Oprah Winfrey hired McGraw's legal consulting firm CSI to prepare her for the Amarillo Texas beef trial. Winfrey was so impressed with McGraw that she thanked him for her victory in that case, which ended in 1998. Soon after, she invited him to appear on her show. His appearance proved so successful that he began appearing weekly as a relationship and life strategy expert on Tuesdays starting in April 1998.
In September 2002, McGraw formed Peteski Productions and launched his own syndicated daily television show, Dr. Phil, produced by Winfrey's Harpo Studios. Dr. Phil is an advice show, in which McGraw tackles a different topic on each show, offering advice to his guests. He signed a five-year extension of his syndication deal with his show's distributors, King World Productions, Inc. The deal was to pay McGraw $15 million per year and keep the show in production through the 2013–2014 television season.
On May 21, 2007, Dr. Phil was ranked fourth by Nielsen Media Research, with 6.69 million viewers. About one year later, on May 12, 2008 the show was ranked sixth with 5.69 million viewers. In May 2008 the only talk show more popular than Dr. Phil was The Oprah Winfrey Show. In 2007 McGraw was 30th on the Forbes Celebrity 100 list. On December 11, 2018 Dr. Phil was the top syndicated show with a "2.9 live-plus-same-day" national Nielsen rating, ranking first among talk shows for the 117th consecutive week. His ranking improved, and by 2020 he was in the 22nd spot on the same Forbes list with earnings of $65.5 million.
Spin-off shows
In 2005, Jay McGraw and Phil McGraw formed Stage 29 Productions, and a week later, announced a new show called Moochers (similar to ABC's Kicked Out). Ultimately, the show was not produced.
In 2006, the Dr. Phil House (similar to CBS's Big Brother) began airing as part of the Dr. Phil television show. Following a protest by neighbors, the house in Los Angeles was shut down, and production resumed on a sound stage on a studio back lot.
Stage 29 launched Decision House in September 2007. It was executive produced by Jay McGraw. featured Judge Lynn Toler (from Divorce Court) on MyNetworkTV. The show produced 13 episodes during one season and ran until May 24, 2008.
Late in 2007, McGraw began promoting the Dr. Phil Show spinoff series The Doctors. The show, which first aired in 2008, is hosted by television personality and ER physician Travis Stork. McGraw's eldest son, Jay McGraw, was executive producer of the show. The Doctors debuted on September 8, 2008, and, as of November 10, 2008, had a 2.0 rating. The show was renewed for its 12th season in 2019.
The Doctors launched in 2008. The show won a Daytime Emmy Award as Outstanding Talk Show/Informative in 2010 and was nominated 8 times between 2009 and 2013.
Daily Mail TV, executive produced by Phil and Jay McGraw along with producers Martin Clarke, Carla Pennington, and Jeffrey Wilson, won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding News Program in 2019.
In August 2021, the reality television series House Calls with Dr. Phil aired on CBS. In the series, McGraw visits various families at home and offers advice on their home life.
Doctor on Demand
In 2012, McGraw founded the telehealth company Doctor On Demand, an online platform which allowed individuals to schedule virtual appointments with a network of physicians and therapists. The company launched a web and mobile service in 2014. The platform focuses on services related to preventative care, medication management, wellness and mental health. According to ABC News, the company had a network of around 11,000 board certified physicians as of 2015. In March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the company expanded its bandwidth and increased its pool of therapists in order to deal with the increasing volume of patients seeking virtual consultations and care.
Psychology license
McGraw stopped renewing his Texas license to practice psychology in 2006. The California Board of Psychology has determined that he does not need a license in that state because he does not practice psychology on his show.
Controversies and lawsuits
Texas State Board of Examiners of Psychologists (1988)
On October 21, 1988, the Texas State Board of Examiners of Psychologists determined that McGraw had hired a former patient for "part-time temporary employment". Specifically, the board cited "a possible failure to provide proper separation between termination of therapy and the initiation of employment", issued a letter of reprimand and imposed administrative penalties. The board also investigated claims made by the patient of inappropriate contact initiated by McGraw, but the "Findings of Fact" document issued by the board on October 21, 1988, at the end of its investigation includes no reference to any physical contact of any kind. It specifically identified "the therapeutic and business relationships" as constituting McGraw's sole issue with the board. McGraw fulfilled all terms of the board's requirements, and the board closed its complaint file in June 1990.
Weight loss products (2003)
In 2003, McGraw lent his name and image to a line of nutritional supplements, including vitamin packets, meal replacement drinks, and power bars under the brand name Shape Up, under a licensing agreement with CSA Nutraceuticals, a Texas start-up. The deal stipulated that a certain percentage of sales would be given to the Dr. Phil Foundation, a Dallas charity that works on issues like childhood obesity. CSA Nutraceuticals stopped producing the supplements in 2004, after the Federal Trade Commission began investigating it for false advertising. Three disappointed consumers filed a lawsuit in 2004, claiming that it made false or unproven claims. In 2006 a $10.5 million settlement was reached.
The Making of Dr. Phil unauthorized biography (2003)
The Making of Dr. Phil is an unauthorized biography by Sophia Dembling of The Dallas Morning News, and Lisa Gutierrez of The Kansas City Star, published by John Wiley and Sons. The book covers McGraw's personal and professional life, including allegations of abuse and unethical practices, with interviews of his childhood friends and former classmates.
American Media Inc. defamation lawsuit (2016)
In 2016, McGraw and his wife filed a $250 million defamation lawsuit against American Media Inc., a publishing company that owns the National Enquirer and Radar Online, due primarily to them publishing an interview from a former patient who had accused McGraw of sexually assaulting her in the 1980s while under his care. McGraw had denied the sexual abuse allegations since they were first made against him in 2003. The lawsuit was later dropped on mutual terms.
Dismissed lawsuits
Kalpoe lawsuit
McGraw was named a co-defendant, along with Paramount, CBS Television, and others in a 2006 lawsuit filed in relation to the disappearance of Natalee Holloway. The lawsuit was filed by Deepak Kalpoe and his brother Satish Kalpoe, who claimed that an interview they did with McGraw, aired in September 2005, was "manipulated and later broadcast as being accurate, and which portrays Deepak Kalpoe and Satish Kalpoe 'as engaging in criminal activity against Natalee Holloway and constitutes defamation.'"
On March 17, 2015, the lawsuit against McGraw and CBS was dismissed. The court records disclosed the lawsuit by Deepak and Satish Kalpoe was rejected one week before the civil trial was set to begin.
Riccio lawsuit
McGraw was sued by Thomas Riccio, the memorabilia collector responsible for taping the Las Vegas robbery that led to O. J. Simpson's conviction. Riccio sued McGraw in Los Angeles Superior Court for defamation, and other complaints stemming from an interview he did on the Dr. Phil Show which aired on October 8, 2008. The claims were dismissed, with the judge finding that it was protected speech under the First Amendment.
Britney Spears "intervention" (2008)
In January 2008, McGraw visited pop star Britney Spears in her hospital room. The visit by McGraw drew criticism from the Spears family and from mental health professionals.
The visit appeared to be part of an attempt at getting Spears and her parents to take part in an "intervention" on the Dr. Phil television show. Immediately after the visit, McGraw issued public statements about Spears' situation that Spears' family spokeswoman Lou Taylor said violated their family trust in McGraw. "This is another example of a trust being betrayed", Taylor told Today co-host Meredith Vieira. "Rather than helping the family’s situation, the celebrity psychologist caused additional damage", she said. Several mental health care professionals criticized McGraw for his actions, but fellow television psychologist Joyce Brothers defended McGraw. It was reported that a psychologist filed a complaint with the California Board of Psychology (BOP), alleging that McGraw had practiced psychology without a license and had violated doctor-patient privilege by discussing Spears' case with the media. A copy of the complaint appeared in the media, but there is no way to verify whether or not it was actually submitted to BOP as it does not disclose that information unless an investigation is opened. Martin Greenberg, a former BOP president, said on the Today Show that this incident was not a matter that the law covers or would be concerned about.
Copyright case (2017)
In September 2017, McGraw won a copyright case against a former employee who acquired a video in bad faith, and planned to sell it to the National Enquirer.
Allegations of hostile work environment
In February 2022, around a dozen current and former employees of Dr. Phil alleged that they experienced "verbal abuse in a workplace that fosters fear, intimidation, and racism." Seven current employees also claimed that the show's guests are often manipulated and treated unethically. Attorneys for McGraw and his co-producer, Carla Pennington, categorically denied every allegation made.
Approach to psychology
McGraw's advice and methods have drawn criticism from both fellow psychotherapists as well as non-experts. McGraw's critics regard advice given by him to be at best simplistic and at worst ineffective or harmful. The National Alliance on Mental Illness called McGraw's conduct in one episode of his television show "unethical" and "incredibly irresponsible". McGraw said in a 2001 Sun-Sentinel interview that he never liked traditional one-on-one counseling, and that "I'm not the Hush-Puppies, pipe and 'Let's talk about your mother' kind of psychologist."
McGraw frequently advises individuals to seek professional help, particularly psychotherapy. A 2016 study at Ohio State University found that viewers were more likely to seek professional mental health care for themselves and their children after seeing McGraw deal with similar issues on the Dr. Phil show. The study attributed this phenomenon to viewers tendency to form a parasocial bond with McGraw through watching the show, and have increased belief in their ability to seek help.
Awards and recognition
McGraw was inducted into the Broadcasting & Cable Hall of Fame in 2015. In 2020 he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. McGraw was invited to give the presidential address at the 2006 annual convention of the American Psychological Association, where he received the APA’s Presidential Citation for “highlighting mental health issues” to “more Americans than any other living psychologist.”
Personal life
McGraw married his first wife, Debbie Higgins McCall, in 1970, when he was 20 years old. According to her, McGraw was domineering and would not allow her to participate in the family business. She claimed that she was confined to domestic duties and instructed to begin lifting weights to improve her bustline. McCall also claimed that infidelity had ended their marriage.
During the process of annulling the marriage in 1973, McGraw met and began dating Robin Jo Jameson, whom he married in 1976. The couple have two children together, Jay McGraw and Jordan McGraw.
McGraw is also a private pilot, with an instrument rating, flying single-engine airplanes. McGraw is Christian. McGraw launched the charity, Dr. Phil Foundation, in October, 2003.
Writing career
In 1999, McGraw published his first book, Life Strategies. In the next six years, McGraw published three additional relationship books, Relationship Rescue, Self Matters, and Family First.
Selected works
Filmography
Discography
Guest appearances
References
External links
Official Biography
2003 interview with University of North Texas alumni magazine
Dallas Observer article details much of Dr. Phil's life, including many critical views.
Scholarly article in which authors claim that the narrative arc of Dr. Phil's show is comparable to the religious conversion story
Texas State Board of Examiners of Psychologists, Disciplinary Sanctions against McGraw, Philip C. detailed on page 25/41
1950 births
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American male actors
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American family and parenting writers
American health and wellness writers
American psychologists
American self-help writers
American television talk show hosts
Celebrity doctors
Diet food advocates
Living people
Male actors from Oklahoma
People from Wichita Falls, Texas
People from Vinita, Oklahoma
Popular psychology
Tulsa Golden Hurricane football players
University of North Texas alumni
University of Tulsa alumni
Writers from Oklahoma
Midwestern State University alumni
20th-century American male writers
American Christians
American male non-fiction writers
21st-century American male writers | [
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253414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewisham | Lewisham | Lewisham () is an area of south-east London, England, south of Charing Cross. It is the principal area of the London Borough of Lewisham, and is also within the historic county of Kent. It is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London, with a large shopping centre and street market.
Lewisham was a small village until the development of passenger railways in the 19th century. Lewisham had a population of 60,573 in 2011.
History
The earliest written reference to Lewisham — or Saxon ‘liofshema’ - is from a charter from 862 which established the boundaries with neighbouring Bromley
Lewisham is sometimes said to have been founded by a pagan Jute, Leof, who settled (by burning his boat) near St Mary's Church (Ladywell) where the ground was drier, in the 6th century, but there seems to be no solid source for this speculation
As to the etymology of the name, Daniel Lysons (1796) wrote:
"In the most ancient Saxon records this place is called Levesham, that is, the house among the meadows; leswe, læs, læse, or læsew, in the Saxon, signifies a meadow, and ham, a dwelling. A Latin legal record, dated 1440, mentions a place in Kent as Levesham which may refer to Lewisham. It is now written, as well in parochial and other records as in common usage, Lewisham."
"Leofshema" was an important settlement at the confluence of the rivers Quaggy (from Farnborough) and Ravensbourne (Caesar's Well, Keston), so the village expanded north into the wetter area as drainage techniques improved.
King Alfred was Lord of the Manor of Lewisham, as is celebrated by a plaque in Lewisham Library.
The Manor of Lewisham, with its appendages of Greenwich and Combe, was given by Elthruda, King Alfred's niece, to the Saint Peter's Abbey, Ghent in a Charter dated 18th September around 918, of which Lewisham then became a cell, or an alien priory. This grant is said to have been confirmed by King Edgar in 964, and by Edward the Confessor in 1044, with the addition of many privileges.
In the mid-17th century, the then vicar of Lewisham, Abraham Colfe, built a grammar school, a primary school and six almshouses for the inhabitants.
In the 17th century the Manor of Lewisham was purchased by George Legge, later Baron Dartmouth. His son William was raised by Queen Anne to several positions of honour and trust, and was a member of her privy council; and on 5 September 1711, was ennobled as Viscount Lewisham, and Earl of Dartmouth. His grandson George, Lord Dartmouth, obtained the privilege of holding a fair twice a year, and a market twice a week, upon Blackheath in the parish. The fair used to be held on 12 May and 11 October, but in 1772 it was discontinued, (except for the sale of cattle) by the Earl of Dartmouth, as lord of the manor.
The village of Lewisham had its nucleus in its southern part, around the parish church of St Mary, towards the present site of University Hospital Lewisham. The centre migrated north with the coming of the North Kent line to Dartford in 1849, encouraging commuter housing. The Official Illustrated Guide to South-Eastern and North and Mid-Kent Railways of June 1863, by George Measom, describes Lewisham as follows: "Lewisham Station, situated on the slope of an eminence amidst picturesque scenery, beautiful green meadows rising abruptly to the summit of the hill on the left, dotted with handsome residences and gardens, while the Common is seen intersected by various crossroads and studded with country inns and houses on the low ground or valley to the right. The area of the parish is 5,789 acres... Lord of the manor, the Earl of Dartmouth to whom it gives the title Viscount."
Lewisham was administratively part of Kent until 1889, and then formed part of the Metropolitan Borough of Lewisham in the County of London until 1965.
The town centre was hit by a V-1 flying bomb in 1944: there were over 300 casualties including 51 fatalities, and it devastated the high street, which was fully restored by the mid-1950s. This horrific event is commemorated by a plaque outside the Lewisham Shopping Centre (opened in 1977). The plaque was on the pavement outside the Marks & Spencer store in the main shopping precinct. However, suffering wear and tear, the local authority arranged for it to be mounted to the façade.
In 1955 Sainsbury's opened a store in Lewisham which was reported to be Europe's largest self-service supermarket, with 7,500 square feet of retail space, although the one now incorporated in the 1977 shopping centre is much smaller. The area at the north end of the High Street was pedestrianised in 1994. It is home to a daily street market and a local landmark, the clock tower, completed in 1900 to commemorate Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897. The police station, opened in 2004 to replace the station in Ladywell, is one of the largest in Europe.
Lewisham Cricket Club was one of the most prestigious London sides during the Victorian era. From 1864 they played at Lewisham Cricket Ground, which lay north of Ladywell Road, until its closure later in the 19th century. Lewisham Swimming Club was also very successful, with several of its members representing England at water polo and other gymkhana events. During the First World War, Lewisham Hospital's infirmary became the Lewisham Military Hospital, and during the Second World War the hospital was hit by a V-1 flying bomb, which destroyed two wards, injured 70 people and killed one nurse.
Lewisham is also the site of one of the worst disasters on the British railway network in the 20th century. On 4 December 1957 a crowded steam-hauled passenger express headed for the Kent coast overran signals at danger in thick fog near St Johns station and crashed into a stationary electric train for the Hayes branch line. The force of the impact brought down an overhead railway bridge onto the wreckage below. An electric multiple unit about to cross the bridge towards Nunhead managed to pull up in time. Ninety passengers and crew died in the accident.
In 1977, the Battle of Lewisham saw 500 members of the National Front, who were attempting to hold march through the area, and their police escort, attacked by more than 4000 counter-demonstrators.
The Docklands Light Railway was extended to Lewisham in 1999. Molesworth Street widened to create a bypass around the shopping area as part of the "Lewisham 2000" project, including sculptures by John Maine. This saw the demolition of the 1932 art deco Lewisham Odeon which had also provided a live music venue hosting artists from Johnny Cash to the Rolling Stones.
The 2010s and early 2020s saw the construction of many high-rise residential buildings around Loampit Vale and Molesworth Street. The former roundabout by Lewisham station was replaced with an "H" junction to release land for further private development. This was to be supported by the cancelled Bakerloo Line extension to Lewisham.
In 2013 the Glass Mill Leisure Centre opened opposite Lewisham station with its façade defined by a large scale embedded kinetic artwork "Razzle Dazzle Boogie Woogie" by the artist Phil Coy. The project was awarded the Best Built Project – Community Scale Scheme in the London Planning Awards 2013/14.
Governance
The parish of Lewisham was governed by a vestry; and from 1855 until 1900 by the Lewisham District Board of Works, in combination with Penge. Following the London Government Act 1899, the County of London was split into 28 metropolitan boroughs in 1900. Lewisham, with the parish of Lee, became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Lewisham. In 1965, under the London Government Act 1963, the current 32 London boroughs were formed and today Lewisham is part of the London Borough of Lewisham.
Lewisham London Borough Council is based in Catford. The current directly elected mayor is Damien Egan. In the London Assembly, the London Borough of Lewisham is joined with the Royal Borough of Greenwich to form the Greenwich and Lewisham constituency, with the current Assembly Member being Len Duvall. For Westminster elections, Lewisham is covered by the Lewisham Deptford constituency, whose Member of Parliament (MP) is Vicky Foxcroft.
Commercial area and amenities
Lewisham's commercial area is one of the largest in south-east London. Lewisham Shopping Centre, opened in 1977, has 70 stores and is over 330,000 square feet. Shops include Marks & Spencer, W H Smith, Sainsbury's, H&M, TK Maxx, JD Sports, SportsDirect.com, Argos and Boots. The centre is between Molesworth Street (a dual carriageway section of the A21) and Lewisham High Street. Lewisham Market and the Central Library are outside the shopping centre in the High Street. Also part of the complex is the Lewisham House office tower, the tallest building in the borough and formerly occupied by Citibank. There are proposals to convert this brutalist skyscraper to flats.
Lewisham has a bowling alley and the Glassmill Swimming pool and Gym.
Lewisham has a number of parks, such as Hilly Fields and Lewisham Park.
For 14 years between 2001 and 2015, Lewisham was the only London Borough not to have a cinema. Lewisham once had many cinemas, such as the Lewisham Odeon. In 1930 there were 30 venues showing films. As of 2019, there are three cinemas in the borough: Deptford Cinema; Curzon Goldsmiths, located inside the campus of Goldsmiths College in New Cross; and Catford Mews.
Opened in 1894, University Hospital Lewisham is a National Health Service, acute hospital run by the Lewisham and Greenwich NHS Trust serving the whole London Borough of Lewisham as well as some surrounding areas. In July 2012 the government recommended that Lewisham's Accident & Emergency ward should be closed, with emergency provision transferred to Queen Elizabeth Hospital, London. However, there was a strong campaign in Lewisham against the proposed closure, including a march on 24 November 2012, and a successful legal challenge. In July 2013, the High Court ruled that the closure of Lewisham A&E could not go ahead. In October 2013, the Court of Appeal ruled that Health Secretary Jeremy Hunt did not have power to implement cuts at Lewisham Hospital.
Education
Secondary schools in Lewisham include:
Addey and Stanhope School
Bonus Pastor Catholic College
Conisborough College
Deptford Green School
Forest Hill School (Boys only)
Haberdashers' Aske's Hatcham College
Haberdashers' Knights Academy
Prendergast School
Prendergast Ladywell School
Prendergast Vale School
St Matthew Academy
Sedgehill School
Sydenham School
Trinity Church of England School
Transport
National Rail
Lewisham station provides the area with Southeastern services to London Victoria, London Charing Cross, London Cannon Street, Dartford via Woolwich Arsenal, Dartford via Bexleyheath, Gravesend via Bexleyheath, Slade Green via Bexleyheath, Slade Green via Sidcup, Hayes and Orpington.
DLR
Lewisham station also provides DLR services to Bank via Canary Wharf.
Buses
Lewisham is served by many London Buses routes.
21 to Newington Green via New Cross, London Bridge and Moorgate
47 to Bellingham via Catford or to Shoreditch via Canada Water and London Bridge (24 Hour service)
54 to Elmers End via Catford and Beckenham or to Woolwich via Blackheath
75 to Croydon via Catford, Penge and South Norwood
89 to Slade Green via Blackheath, Welling and Bexleyheath
108 to Stratford via Blackheath, North Greenwich, Poplar and Bow (24 Hour service)
122 to Crystal Palace via Brockley, Forest Hill and Sydenham or to Plumstead via Eltham and Woolwich
136 to Elephant & Castle via New Cross and Peckham or to Grove Park via Catford
178 to Woolwich via Kidbrooke
180 to Belvedere via Greenwich and Woolwich
181 to Grove Park via Catford
185 to Victoria via Catford, Dulwich and Camberwell
199 to Bellingham via Catford or to Canada Water via Greenwich
208 to Orpington via Catford and Bromley
225 to Canada Water via New Cross or to Hither Green
261 to Locksbottom via Grove Park and Bromley
273 to Petts Wood via Grove Park and Chislehurst
284 to Grove Park via Catford
321 to Foots Cray via Eltham and Sidcup or to New Cross (24 Hour service)
380 to Belmarsh Prison via Blackheath and Woolwich
436 to Battersea via New Cross, Peckham and Camberwell
P4 to Brixton via Brockley and Dulwich
N21 to Bexleyheath via Eltham or to Trafalgar Square via New Cross and London Bridge (Night Bus)
N89 to Erith via Blackheath, Welling and Bexleyheath or to Trafalgar Square via New Cross, Peckham, Elephant & Castle and Blackfriars (Night Bus)
N136 to Oxford Circus via New Cross, Peckham, Camberwell, Victoria and Trafalgar Square or to Chislehurst via Catford and Grove Park (Night Bus)
N199 to St Mary Cray via Catford, Bromley and Petts Wood or to Trafalgar Square via Greenwich, Canada Water and London Bridge (Night Bus)
Redevelopment
Lewisham London Borough Council's local development plan was intended to improve Lewisham's town centre to become a metropolitan centre to rival Bromley, Croydon and Kingston upon Thames.
There is a skyscraper adjacent to the shopping centre which used to be owned by Citibank until they moved to the Docklands which may be converted to residential.
There are four major development sites around on Loampit Vale:
The Renaissance development comprises flats in buildings from five to 24 storeys, including private and L&Q social housing, as well as the new Glass Mill Leisure Centre, which opened in 2013 and replaced the Ladywell leisure centre.
Lewisham Gateway is a much-delayed redevelopment site bounded by the DLR station, Lewisham High Street, the shopping centre and the railway to Blackheath. The highway layout has been changed from a roundabout to two signalised junctions, while the rivers Ravensbourne and Quaggy have been re-routed. The development is intended to include shops, restaurants, bars, cafes, leisure facilities and up to 800 homes. The first phase of construction started in May 2014 with a 15 and 25-story residential building east of the DLR station.
Thurston Road industrial estate had planning consent granted in 2008; however, the development has been heavily delayed. The development was completed in 2016 and includes L&Q social housing. The scheme is a mixed used site, which includes residential and commercial buildings of between two and 17 storeys, as well a car park.
The former Sherwood Court industrial estate is now the Chapter student housing scheme.
Notable people
Among those who were born or have lived in Lewisham are:
D-Block Europe (hip hop collective) born and brought up in Lewisham
Russ Millions (rapper) born and brought up in Lewisham
Ginger Baker (drummer of Cream) born and brought up in Lewisham
Natasha Bedingfield (singer/songwriter) brought up in Lewisham
Rosa May Billinghurst (suffragette) lived in Lewisham.
Yannick Bolasie (footballer), brought up in Lewisham
Herbert Burden youngest soldier to be executed by the British Army in World War I, born in Lewisham
Kate Bush (musician) lived in Brockley and Lewisham
Ann Batten Cristall (1769–1848), poet and schoolteacher
General Sir John Crocker (British Army general, service in World War I and World War II), born in Lewisham
Leland Lewis Duncan (photographer, writer) born in Lewisham
Franz Goedecker (merchant and artist), lived in Lewisham
Malcolm Hardee (comedian) lived in Blackheath and Lewisham
Danielle Harold (actress best known for playing Lola in Eastenders) born and raised in Lewisham
Keeley Hazell (page-3 girl & model) born in Lewisham
Jessica Hynes (actress and comedian) born in Lewisham
Greg James (TV and radio presenter) born in Lewisham
Eman Kellam (TV presenter) born and brought up in Lewisham
Frank King (cricketer) born in Lewisham
Kwes (record music producer and Warp recording artist) born and brought up in Lewisham
Elsa Lanchester (Anglo-American actress) born in Lewisham
Lillie Langtry (actress) lived in Wickham Way, Lewisham
Jude Law (actor) lived in Lewisham
Neal Lawson (politician) was born in Lewisham
Angie Le Mar (comedian, radio broadcaster) was born and brought up in Lewisham
Delroy Lindo (actor) born in Lewisham
Marie Lloyd (entertainer) lived in Lewisham and New Cross
Ruben Loftus-Cheek (footballer)
Alexander McQueen (designer) born in Lewisham
Josh Maja (footballer), born in Lewisham
MNEK (musician) was born in Lewisham
Edith Nesbit (writer) lived in Blackheath, Grove Park and Lewisham
P Money (Grime music artist) born and brought up in Lewisham
Merky ACE (Grime music artist) born and brought up in Lewisham
Novelist (Grime music artist) born and brought up in Lewisham
Gary Oldman (actor) born and raised in New Cross
William Page (historian and general editor of the Victoria County History) lived in Lewisham from 1875 until he emigrated to Queensland in 1881
Jonathan Palmer former Formula One driver and commentator
Mica Paris (musician) lived in Lewisham.
Gladys Powers (centenarian), born in Lewisham
Maxi Priest (musician), born and raised in Lewisham
Luke Pritchard (musician), born in Lewisham
Louise Redknapp (singer, TV presenter and former wife of footballer Jamie Redknapp), born in Lewisham
Kieran Richardson (footballer) lived in Lewisham.
David Rocastle (footballer) born and raised in Lewisham and Brockley. Attended primary school in Brockley
George Solomos (American writer) lived in Catford.
Doris Stokes (spirit-medium) lived in Lewisham.
Doveton Sturdee British Admiral of the Fleet, born in Lewisham
David Sylvian (musician) lived in Lewisham.
Kae Tempest (spoken word performer, poet, recording artist, novelist and playwright) grew up in Brockley
Eamonn Walker (TV and film actor, husband of Sandra Walker), born in Lewisham
Richard Walsh (actor), born in Lewisham
Ian Wright (footballer) lived in Lewisham and Brockley.
Shaun Wright-Phillips (footballer and son of Ian Wright) grew up in Brockley
Conrad Williams Commonwealth Games 2014 gold medalist
Sid Vicious (musician), born in Lewisham
Troy von Scheibner (magician), born in Lewisham
Henry Williamson (author), born and raised in Lewisham
Bill Wyman, bass player of the Rolling Stones, born in Lewisham Hospital
Geography
Almost all of the SE13 postcode district, which is associated with Lewisham is within the London Borough of Lewisham, except for the Coldbath Estate and part of the Orchard Estate along Lewisham Road, which are covered by the Royal Borough of Greenwich. The town includes areas such as St Johns and Hither Green, as well as Lee and Ladywell to the south and east.
Climate
The nearest Met Office climate station is based in Greenwich Park:
See also
London Borough of Lewisham
Lewisham Shopping Centre
University Hospital Lewisham
Lewisam
Lewisham, Sydney, named after Lewisham
Lewisham Station
Battle of Lewisham
Lewisham Rail Crash
References
External links
Lewisham Local History Society
The Battle of Lewisham – an article on london based website libcom.org
Lewisham Law Centre
Lewisham cctv
Lewisham at Surbubia
Lewisham Photographs
Lewisham Voices
London Borough of Lewisham
Lewisham Forum
90 Years of Life in Lewisham
Lewisham Councillor Mike Harris
Districts of the London Borough of Lewisham
Areas of London
Major centres of London
Former civil parishes in London | [
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253415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mill%20Hill%20School | Mill Hill School | Mill Hill School is a 13–18 mixed independent, day and boarding school in Mill Hill, London, England that was established in 1807. It is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference.
History
A committee of Nonconformist merchants and ministers, including John Pye-Smith founded the school, originally called Mill Hill Grammar School, for boys on 25 January 1807. They located it sufficiently distant of London at that time, because of "dangers both physical and moral awaiting youth while passing through the streets of a large, crowded and corrupt city". A boarding house was opened in the residence once occupied by Peter Collinson, with about 20 boys. John Atkinson was the first headmaster and chaplain until 1810.
Mill Hill School occupies a site, part of which formed the gardens of Ridgeway House, the house of the botanist Peter Collinson. He was one of the most important importers of rare and exotic plants into English gardens. Many of the species that he introduced to Mill Hill in the 18th Century continue to grow today in the grounds of the School. In 1746 Collinson planted Britain's first hydrangea on the grounds, now located adjacent to School House.
The estate was purchased by the botanist Richard Salisbury in 1802, Ridgeway House became the setting for a long-running scientific dispute between the new owner and his guest, James Edward Smith. The flora of Mill Hill was supplemented by the work of the amateur botanist Richard William Bowry Buckland (died 1947), governor of the foundation from 1878 to 1889, who cultivated a garden in the south-west of the school's grounds for the enjoyment of future generations. He wrote in his diary:
In 1939, Mill Hill School's premises became a hospital. The school was evacuated to St. Bees School in Cumberland for the duration of the Second World War. Collinson House, a school for girls, was named for it. A St Bees Association was founded in commemoration of this period of evacuation in the school's history by Michael Berry and David Smith.
Mill Hill first admitted sixth form girls in 1975 and became fully co-educational in 1997. The BBC news website usually uses a picture taken at Mill Hill School for articles about boarding schools.
In 2005 the school was one of 50 of the country's leading independent schools which were found guilty of running an illegal price-fixing cartel, exposed by The Times. Together they had driven up fees for thousands of parents. Each school was required to pay a nominal penalty of £10,000, and all agreed to make ex-gratia payments totalling three million pounds into a trust. It is to benefit persons who were students at the schools during the cartel period.
In March 2007, Mill Hill celebrated its bicentenary. To mark the occasion, the school was granted a new coat of arms by Robert Noel, Her Majesty's Lancaster Herald.
In 2018, the school experienced controversy when it was featured in the music video of London rapper Stefflon Don. In it, she was shown nude in the changing room showers, dancing on tables in classrooms, and smoking marijuana in the dormitories.
Houses
Mill Hill School is divided into houses. These are:
Boarding houses
Burton Bank – Named to commemorate its original position on Burton Hole Lane
Collinson – Named after Peter Collinson, who once owned what is now the estate
New – Named to reflect the date of its founding in 2017, at which point it was the newest house
Ridgeway – Peter Collinson's original house on the site
Winterstoke House was converted into Grimsdell Mill Hill Pre-Preparatory School, in 1995.
Day houses
Atkinson – Named after the first headmaster, John Atkinson
Cedars – Named in honour of the cedars planted by Peter Collinson
McClure – Named after Sir John McClure, headmaster at the turn of the 20th century
Murray – Named in honour of Sir James Murray, teacher and longtime editor of the Oxford English Dictionary; who began compiling his dictionary while a master at Mill Hill
Priestley – Named after headmaster Thomas Priestley
School House – Named after Tite's famous building constructed in the 1820s
Weymouth – Named after headmaster Richard Weymouth
Winfield – Named after headmaster William Winfield
Heads
In January 2016, Frances King became the school's first female Head.
The following people have served as Head:
Evans served as head from January 1828 to June 1828.
Architecture
Chapel
Unveiled in 1896, the school chapel is a basilica in form. The architect was Basil Champneys, well known for his work at the University of Oxford and Winchester College.
School House
Designed by Sir William Tite, famous for his work on the London Royal Exchange, School House was erected in 1825 and is described as being in the Greco-Roman style.
Boarding houses
Although the number of day pupils has risen over recent years, both full and weekly boarding at Mill Hill is still possible.
Faculties and other
The school occupies a number of buildings within its site of both traditional and modern styling.
The cricket house was used as a set in the tenth episode of Inspector Morse.
In honour of Patrick Troughton the Mill Hill theatre was dedicated to the actor and named the Patrick Troughton Theatre in 2007.
Management
The school is run by the Mill Hill School Foundation, a registered charity under English law. The foundation offers education to boys and girls aged 3 to 18 in four schools. The foundation's other schools are:
Belmont School – a day school for pupils aged 7–13. Head: Leon Roberts
Grimsdell – a pre-preparatory day school for pupils aged 3–7. Head: Kate Simon
The Mount School – a mixed day and boarding school for international pupils aged 11–16. Head: Sarah Bellotti.
Cobham Hall School - an independent day and boarding school for girls in the English parish of Cobham, Kent. Head: Wendy Barrett.
Notable alumni
Michael Bishop, Baron Glendonbrook, businessman
Jasper Britton, actor
Russell Brain, 1st Baron Brain, neurologist
David Buck, actor
Richard Berengarten, poet
Francis Cammaerts
James Challis, astronomer
Ernest Cook, English philanthropist and businessman (grandson of Thomas Cook)
Chris Corner, producer and songwriter
Francis Crick, A sculpted bust of Francis Crick by John Sherrill Houser, which incorporates a single 'Golden' Helix, was cast in bronze in the artist's studio in New Mexico, US. The bronze was first displayed at the Francis Crick Memorial Conference (on Consciousness) at the University of Cambridge's Churchill College on 7 July 2012; it was bought by Mill Hill School in May 2013, and was displayed at their inaugural Crick Dinner on 8 June 2013.
Misha Crosby, director, actor and producer.
Richard Dimbleby, broadcaster
Sophia Dunkley, international cricketer
John Richard Easonsmith, officer
Sir Eric Errington, Bt. British barrister and Conservative Party politician
Ivor Malcolm Haddon Etherington, mathematician
David Dayan Fisher, actor
Seb Fontaine, house music DJ
Felix Francis, author of the 'Dick Francis' novels
Nicholas Franks, Professor of Biophysics and Anaesthetics at Imperial College London
Ben Glassberg, conductor
Inglis Gundry, composer, novelist, musicologist, music pedagogue and writer
Tanika Gupta, playwright and scriptwriter
Joseph Hardcastle, Liberal Member of Parliament
Sir Norman Hartnell, fashion designer
Hartley Heard, cricketer
Thomas Helmore, choirmaster and choral historian and writer
Francis Heron, England footballer and FA Cup winner
Hubert Heron, England footballer and FA Cup winner
Peter Youngblood Hills, actor
Stanislav Ianevski, actor
Chaz Jankel, musician
Simon Jenkins, newspaper columnist, editor and author
Robert Evan Kendell, psychiatrist
Evgeny Lebedev, owner of Independent and Evening Standard newspapers
Keith Levene, musician, Public Image Limited
Nick Leslau, businessman
Tom Lindsay, Rugby Union Player
Malcolm Mackintosh, Special Operations Executive operative and intelligence analyst
Norman Macrae, British journalist, former Deputy Editor of The Economist
Ernest Maddox, eye surgeon and inventor of numerous optical instruments such as Maddox rod and Maddox wing
Bob Marshall-Andrews, politician
Harry Melling, actor
Thanos Papalexis, businessman
Sajith Premadasa, Sri Lankan politician (Leader of the opposition)
Adam Rossington, Middlesex cricketer
Paul Sandifer, neurologist
Vir Sanghvi, journalist, columnist, and talk show host
Ernest Satow, British scholar, diplomat and Japanologist
Daniel Sharman, actor
Henry Shaw, botanist
Tulip Siddiq, Labour Member of Parliament
George Spencer-Brown, mathematician
Roger Spong, international rugby union footballer, England and Great Britain
Mitchell Symons, journalist and writer
Sir Denis Thatcher Bart., husband of the former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher
David Tinker, Royal Navy officer killed in the Falklands War
Lord Toulson, Justice of the Supreme Court
Patrick Troughton, actor
Austin Vince, long distance adventure motorcyclist
Eric A. Walker, Professor Emeritus of Imperial History at the University of Cambridge
Herbert Ward, explorer, writer and sculptor, whose statue Grief was presented to the school by the artist
Sir Frank William Wills Kt., architect, surveyor and Lord Mayor of Bristol. He was also a member of the Wills tobacco family.
Sir George Alfred Wills Bt. businessman and chairman of Imperial Tobacco
William Wills, 1st Baron Winterstoke, businessman, Liberal politician, High Sheriff of Bristol & 1st chairman of Imperial Tobacco
References
Notes
Citations
Further reading
External links
Profile on ISC website
Old Millhillians Club
Institute of Historical Research and the History of Parliament Trust's early history of Mill Hill School
1807 establishments in England
Boarding schools in London
Educational institutions established in 1807
Independent co-educational schools in London
Independent schools in the London Borough of Barnet
Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference
Mill Hill | [
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253416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Housing%20association | Housing association | In Ireland and the United Kingdom, housing associations are private, non-profit making organisations that provide low-cost "social housing" for people in need of a home. Any budget surplus is used to maintain existing housing and to help finance new homes and it cannot be used for personal benefit of directors or shareholders. Although independent, they are regulated by the state and commonly receive public funding. They are now the United Kingdom's major providers of new housing for rent, while many also run shared ownership schemes to help those who cannot afford to buy a home outright.
Housing associations provide a wide range of housing, some managing large estates of housing for families, while the smallest may perhaps manage a single scheme of housing for older people. Much of the supported accommodation in the UK is also provided by housing associations, with specialist projects for people with mental health issues or learning disabilities, with substance misuse problems (alcohol or illegal drugs), the formerly homeless, young people, ex-offenders, asylum seekers, and people fleeing domestic violence.
In Australia, the term "housing association" refers to larger, growth-oriented 'not-for-dividend' community-housing providers. Smaller community housing providers may include trusts, cooperatives etc. State and territory-owned public housing represents about 80% of social housing in Australia. Over the years these public housing entities have had different names including: 'housing commissions', and 'housing trusts'.
History
Housing associations first appeared in the second half of the nineteenth century as part of the growth in philanthropic and voluntary organisations brought about by the growth of the middle classes in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. Early examples are the Guinness Trust, Peabody Trust and the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes.
They increased in importance over the last decades of the twentieth century due to changes to council housing brought in by the Thatcher government, when rules were introduced that prevented councils subsidising their housing from local taxes, channelled grants for construction of new social housing to housing associations and allowed council tenants to buy their homes at a large discount. This, combined with cost-cutting initiatives in local government and a housing benefit scheme that was more generous to housing associations than local authorities, led to many councils transferring their housing stock to housing associations. These organisations are often referred to as large-scale voluntary transfer organisations or local housing companies.
The Housing Acts of 1985 and 1988 facilitated the transfer of council housing to not-for-profit housing associations. The 1988 Act redefined housing associations as non-public bodies, permitting access to private finance, which was a strong motivation for transfer as public sector borrowing had been severely constrained. These new housing associations were also the providers of most new public-sector housing. By 2003 36.5% of the social rented housing stock was held by housing associations. Currently, some of the biggest housing associations in the UK are Clarion, The Guinness Partnership, PA Housing, and Peabody, to name just a few. Some housing associations have partnerships with real estate investment trusts: Civitas Social Housing is the largest social housing real estate investment trust, working with 15 housing associations.
Legal status
Housing associations may be constituted using various forms of legal entity. Many are industrial and provident societies, but there are also trusts, co-operatives and companies. They may or may not be registered charities.
Registered social landlord (RSL) is the technical name for social landlords that in England were formerly registered with the Housing Corporation, or in Wales with the Welsh Government. From 2010 to 2012, associations were termed registered providers under the Housing and Regeneration Act 2008, irrespective of status (private, public, for-profit or not-for-profit). , the terms registered social landlord and private registered providers of social housing are both used as alternative names for housing association.
Housing associations are generally considered as private entities in that they are not owned or directly controlled by the state. This status, however, has been challenged by a number of legal rulings. In 2004 the British government accepted an EU ruling that considered housing associations as public bodies for the purposes of procurement.
Subsequently, the English High Court in Weaver v. London and Quadrant Housing Trust [2008] EWHC 1377 (Admin) ruled that housing associations were public authorities and as a result could be subject to judicial review in certain circumstances. The court stated that the housing association sector was 'permeated by state control and influence with a view to meeting the government's aims for affordable housing, and in which RSLs work side by side with, and can in a very real sense be said to take the place of, local authorities'.
This issue had wider political significance since housing associations' borrowing (which stood at approximately £30 billion in 2006) does not contribute to the UK's public sector borrowing requirement, the control of which is both a stated government objective and part of the EU's criteria for membership of the European single currency.
Management
A feature of housing associations is that, although the larger housing associations usually have paid staff, a committee or board of management made up of volunteers, or paid non-executive members, has overall responsibility for the work of the organisation. A board might include residents, representatives from local authorities and community groups, business people and politicians. There are more than 30,000 voluntary board members running housing associations throughout England.
Funding and regulation
Housing associations' day-to-day activities are funded by rent and service charges payments made by, or on behalf of, those living in its properties. In this sense, housing associations are run as commercial entities and the majority do not depend on donations for their general activities.
New housing generally receives economic subsidies, the source of which will depend on where the association is based:
In England, housing associations are funded and regulated by the Homes and Communities Agency (HCA), the exception being funding in London which from April 2012 is the responsibility of the Greater London Authority. The HCA's predecessor until 2008 was the Housing Corporation. The Housing Corporation's regulatory role was split out to a separate body from 2010, the Tenant Services Authority (TSA), but merged again into the HCA from April 2012.
In Northern Ireland, the same role is carried out by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive.
In Scotland, this function is fulfilled by the Scottish Government.
In Wales, the regulation and funding of housing associations is carried out by the Welsh Government.
Subsidies for new homes (often termed 'social housing grant') amount to sizeable public investments. In its 2008–11 prospectus, the Housing Corporation stated that in the three-year period to 2011 investment would be "at least £8 billion". The majority of this would go to housing associations for use in development projects. Since 2003, in an effort to seek greater value for money, much of the funding by the Housing Corporation for new house building has been channelled to fewer than 80 "developing housing associations" that have achieved "partner status" through Partner Programme Agreements. Long term lender option borrower option loans (LOBOs) have been taken out in the past by housing associations.
Housing associations borrow money to pay for new homes and improvements. After the Housing Act 1988, the proportion of the cost of new homes met by capital grant was scaled back by the Government, so borrowing became the primary source of funding for investment. Much of this was simply borrowed from banks and building societies, but after the late-2000s financial crisis these institutions ceased to offer long-term loans, so developing associations are increasingly turning to corporate bonds to raise funds for expansion.
The HCA implemented a new Government policy of "affordable rents" for its 2011–15 funding round, requiring associations to set rents at up to 80% of market rents, so that less up-front capital subsidy would be required. In September 2013, a group of London Boroughs initiated a judicial review to challenge this policy.
Landlord's obligations
A landlord’s obligations are set out in several pieces of legislation, including the Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, which applies to tenancies entered into after 1961. In summary, section 11 provides that a landlord shall:
keep in repair the structure and exterior of the dwelling, including drains, gutters and external pipes;
keep in repair and proper working order the installations in the dwelling for the supply of water, gas, and electricity, and for sanitation (including basins, sinks, baths and sanitary conveniences, but not other fixtures, fittings and appliances for making use of the supply of water, gas or electricity), and keep in repair and proper working order the installation in the dwelling for space heating and heating water.
If a landlord refuses to repair a rented property, the tenant can take action to require them to carry out necessary works and claim compensation.
Industry bodies
There are four industry bodies representing housing associations working in the UK, each covering a respective country. They are:
England – National Housing Federation (NHF)
Scotland – Scottish Federation of Housing Associations (SFHA)
Wales – Community Housing Cymru
Northern Ireland – Northern Ireland Federation of Housing Associations (NIFHA)
The NHF (formerly the National Federation of Housing Associations) claimed that at the start of 2003 they had around 1400 non-profit housing organisations in their membership, owning or managing approximately 1.8 million homes across England.
In the 2000s, some larger associations formed regional clubs for purposes including lobbying government bodies. The G15 group of London’s largest associations was followed by East Seven in East Anglia.
See also
Decent Homes Standard
Council house
Arms-length management organisation
Housing Action Trust
References
External links
National Housing Federation (covers England only)
Scottish Federation of Housing Associations
Community Housing Cymru
Northern Ireland Federation of Housing Associations
Housingnet
Social Housing Law Association
Chartered Institute of Housing | [
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253418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20computing | DNA computing | DNA computing is an emerging branch of computing which uses DNA, biochemistry, and molecular biology hardware, instead of the traditional electronic computing. Research and development in this area concerns theory, experiments, and applications of DNA computing. Although the field originally started with the demonstration of a computing application by Len Adleman in 1994, it has now been expanded to several other avenues such as the development of storage technologies, nanoscale imaging modalities, synthetic controllers and reaction networks, etc.
A brief history of DNA computing and molecular programming
Leonard Adleman of the University of Southern California initially developed this field in 1994. Adleman demonstrated a proof-of-concept use of DNA as a form of computation which solved the seven-point Hamiltonian path problem. Since the initial Adleman experiments, advances have occurred and various Turing machines have been proven to be constructible.
Since then the field has expanded into several avenues. In 1995, the idea for DNA-based memory was proposed by Eric Baum who conjectured that a vast of amount data can be stored in a tiny amount of DNA due to its ultra-high density. This expanded the horizon of DNA computing into the realm of memory technology although the in vitro demonstrations were made almost after a decade.
The field of DNA computing can be categorized as a sub-field of the broader DNA nanoscience field started by Ned Seeman about a decade before Len Adleman's demonstration. Ned's original idea in the 1980s was to build arbitrary structures using bottom-up DNA self-assembly for applications in crystallography. However, it morphed into the field of structural DNA self-assembly which as of 2020 is extremely sophisticated. Self-assembled structure from a few nanometers tall all the way up to several tens of micrometers in size have been demonstrated in 2018.
In 1994, Prof. Seeman's group demonstrated early DNA lattice structures using a small set of DNA components. While the demonstration by Adleman showed the possibility of DNA-based computers, the DNA design was trivial because as the number of nodes in a graph grows, the number of DNA components required in Adleman's implementation would grow exponentially. Therefore, computer scientist and biochemists started exploring tile-assembly where the goal was to use a small set of DNA strands as tiles to perform arbitrary computations upon growth. Other avenues that were theoretically explored in the late 90's include DNA-based security and cryptography, computational capacity of DNA systems, DNA memories and disks, and DNA-based robotics.
In 2003, John Reif's group first demonstrated the idea of a DNA-based walker that traversed along a track similar to a line follower robot. They used molecular biology as a source of energy for the walker. Since this first demonstration, a wide variety of DNA-based walkers have been demonstrated.
Applications, examples, and recent developments
In 1994 Leonard Adleman presented the first prototype of a DNA computer. The TT-100 was a test tube filled with 100 microliters of a DNA solution. He managed to solve an instance of the directed Hamiltonian path problem. In Adleman's experiment, the Hamiltonian Path Problem was implemented notationally as “travelling salesman problem”. For this purpose, different DNA fragments were created, each one of them representing a city that had to be visited. Every one of these fragments is capable of a linkage with the other fragments created. These DNA fragments were produced and mixed in a test tube. Within seconds, the small fragments form bigger ones, representing the different travel routes. Through a chemical reaction, the DNA fragments representing the longer routes were eliminated. The remains are the solution to the problem, but overall, the experiment lasted a week. However, current technical limitations prevent the evaluation of the results. Therefore, the experiment isn't suitable for the application, but it is nevertheless a proof of concept.
Combinatorial problems
First results to these problems were obtained by Leonard Adleman.
In 1994: Solving a Hamiltonian path in a graph with 7 summits.
In 2002: Solving a NP-complete problem as well as a 3-SAT problem with 20 variables.
Tic-tac-toe game
In 2002, J. Macdonald, D. Stefanovic and M. Stojanovic created a DNA computer able to play tic-tac-toe against a human player. The calculator consists of nine bins corresponding to the nine squares of the game. Each bin contains a substrate and various combinations of DNA enzymes. The substrate itself is composed of a DNA strand onto which was grafted a fluorescent chemical group at one end, and the other end, a repressor group. Fluorescence is only active if the molecules of the substrate are cut in half. The DNA enzymes simulate logical functions. For example, such a DNA will unfold if two specific types of DNA strand are introduced to reproduce the logic function AND.
By default, the computer is considered to have played first in the central square. The human player starts with eight different types of DNA strands corresponding to the eight remaining boxes that may be played. To play box number i, the human player pours into all bins the strands corresponding to input #i. These strands bind to certain DNA enzymes present in the bins, resulting, in one of these bins, in the deformation of the DNA enzymes which binds to the substrate and cuts it. The corresponding bin becomes fluorescent, indicating which box is being played by the DNA computer. The DNA enzymes are divided among the bins in such a way as to ensure that the best the human player can achieve is a draw, as in real tic-tac-toe.
Neural network based computing
Kevin Cherry and Lulu Qian at Caltech developed a DNA-based artificial neural network that can recognize 100-bit hand-written digits. They achieve this by programming on computer in advance with appropriate set of weights represented by varying concentrations weight molecules which will later be added to the test tube that holds the input DNA strands.
Improved speed with Localized (cache-like) Computing
One of the challenges of DNA computing is its speed. While DNA as a substrate is biologically compatible i.e. it can be used at places where silicon technology cannot, its computation speed is still very slow. For example, the square-root circuit used as a benchmark in field took over 100 hours to complete. While newer ways with external enzyme sources are reporting faster and more compact circuits, Chatterjee et al. demonstrated an interesting idea in the field to speedup computation through localized DNA circuits. This concept is being further explored by other groups. This idea, while originally proposed in the field computer architecture, has been adopted in this field as well. In computer architecture, it is very well-known that if the instructions are executed in sequence, having them loaded in the cache will inevitably lead to fast performance, also called as the principle of localization. This is because with instructions in fast cache memory, there is no need swap them in and out of main memory which can be slow. Similarly, in localized DNA computing, the DNA strands responsible for computation are fixed on a breadboard like substrate ensuring physical proximity of the computing gates. Such localized DNA computing techniques have shown to potentially reduce the computation time by orders of magnitude.
Renewable (or reversible) DNA computing
Subsequent research on DNA computing has produced reversible DNA computing, bringing the technology one step closer to the silicon-based computing used in (for example) PCs. In particular, John Reif and his group at Duke University have proposed two different techniques to reuse the computing DNA complexes. The first design uses dsDNA gates, while the second design uses DNA hairpin complexes.
While both the designs face some issues (such as reaction leaks), this appears to represent a significant breakthrough in the field of DNA computing. Some other groups have also attempted to address the gate reusability problem.
Using strand displacement reactions (SRDs), reversible proposals are presented in "Synthesis Strategy of Reversible Circuits on DNA Computers" paper for implementing reversible gates and circuits on DNA computers by combining DNA computing and reversible computing techniques. This paper also proposes a universal reversible gate library (URGL) for synthesizing n-bit reversible circuits on DNA computers with an average length and cost of the constructed circuits better than the previous methods.
Methods
There are multiple methods for building a computing device based on DNA, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Most of these build the basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) associated with digital logic from a DNA basis. Some of the different bases include DNAzymes, deoxyoligonucleotides, enzymes, and toehold exchange.
Strand displacement mechanisms
The most fundamental operation in DNA computing and molecular programming is the strand displacement mechanism. Currently, there are two ways to perform strand displacement:
Toehold mediated strand displacement (TMSD)
Polymerase-based strand displacement (PSD)
Toehold exchange
Beside simple strand displacement schemes, DNA computers have also been constructed using the concept of toehold exchange. In this system, an input DNA strand binds to a sticky end, or toehold, on another DNA molecule, which allows it to displace another strand segment from the molecule. This allows the creation of modular logic components such as AND, OR, and NOT gates and signal amplifiers, which can be linked into arbitrarily large computers. This class of DNA computers does not require enzymes or any chemical capability of the DNA.
Chemical reaction networks (CRNs)
The full stack for DNA computing looks very similar to a traditional computer architecture. At the highest level, a C-like general purpose programming language is expressed using a set of chemical reaction networks (CRNs). This intermediate representation gets translated to domain-level DNA design and then implemented using a set of DNA strands. In 2010, Erik Winfree's group showed that DNA can be used a substrate to implement arbitrary chemical reactions. This opened gates to design and synthesis of biochemical controllers since the expressive power of CRNs is equivalent to a Turing machine. Such controllers can potentially be used in vivo for applications such as preventing hormonal imbalance.
DNAzymes
Catalytic DNA (deoxyribozyme or DNAzyme) catalyze a reaction when interacting with the appropriate input, such as a matching oligonucleotide. These DNAzymes are used to build logic gates analogous to digital logic in silicon; however, DNAzymes are limited to 1-, 2-, and 3-input gates with no current implementation for evaluating statements in series.
The DNAzyme logic gate changes its structure when it binds to a matching oligonucleotide and the fluorogenic substrate it is bonded to is cleaved free. While other materials can be used, most models use a fluorescence-based substrate because it is very easy to detect, even at the single molecule limit. The amount of fluorescence can then be measured to tell whether or not a reaction took place. The DNAzyme that changes is then “used,” and cannot initiate any more reactions. Because of this, these reactions take place in a device such as a continuous stirred-tank reactor, where old product is removed and new molecules added.
Two commonly used DNAzymes are named E6 and 8-17. These are popular because they allow cleaving of a substrate in any arbitrary location. Stojanovic and MacDonald have used the E6 DNAzymes to build the MAYA I and MAYA II machines, respectively; Stojanovic has also demonstrated logic gates using the 8-17 DNAzyme. While these DNAzymes have been demonstrated to be useful for constructing logic gates, they are limited by the need for a metal cofactor to function, such as Zn2+ or Mn2+, and thus are not useful in vivo.
A design called a stem loop, consisting of a single strand of DNA which has a loop at an end, are a dynamic structure that opens and closes when a piece of DNA bonds to the loop part. This effect has been exploited to create several logic gates. These logic gates have been used to create the computers MAYA I and MAYA II which can play tic-tac-toe to some extent.
Enzymes
Enzyme-based DNA computers are usually of the form of a simple Turing machine; there is analogous hardware, in the form of an enzyme, and software, in the form of DNA.
Benenson, Shapiro and colleagues have demonstrated a DNA computer using the FokI enzyme and expanded on their work by going on to show automata that diagnose and react to prostate cancer: under expression of the genes PPAP2B and GSTP1 and an over expression of PIM1 and HPN. Their automata evaluated the expression of each gene, one gene at a time, and on positive diagnosis then released a single strand DNA molecule (ssDNA) that is an antisense for MDM2. MDM2 is a repressor of protein 53, which itself is a tumor suppressor. On negative diagnosis it was decided to release a suppressor of the positive diagnosis drug instead of doing nothing. A limitation of this implementation is that two separate automata are required, one to administer each drug. The entire process of evaluation until drug release took around an hour to complete. This method also requires transition molecules as well as the FokI enzyme to be present. The requirement for the FokI enzyme limits application in vivo, at least for use in "cells of higher organisms". It should also be pointed out that the 'software' molecules can be reused in this case.
Algorithmic self-assembly
DNA nanotechnology has been applied to the related field of DNA computing. DNA tiles can be designed to contain multiple sticky ends with sequences chosen so that they act as Wang tiles. A DX array has been demonstrated whose assembly encodes an XOR operation; this allows the DNA array to implement a cellular automaton which generates a fractal called the Sierpinski gasket. This shows that computation can be incorporated into the assembly of DNA arrays, increasing its scope beyond simple periodic arrays.
Capabilities
DNA computing is a form of parallel computing in that it takes advantage of the many different molecules of DNA to try many different possibilities at once. For certain specialized problems, DNA computers are faster and smaller than any other computer built so far. Furthermore, particular mathematical computations have been demonstrated to work on a DNA computer.
DNA computing does not provide any new capabilities from the standpoint of computability theory, the study of which problems are computationally solvable using different models of computation.
For example,
if the space required for the solution of a problem grows exponentially with the size of the problem (EXPSPACE problems) on von Neumann machines, it still grows exponentially with the size of the problem on DNA machines.
For very large EXPSPACE problems, the amount of DNA required is too large to be practical.
Alternative technologies
A partnership between IBM and Caltech was established in 2009 aiming at "DNA chips" production. A Caltech group is working on the manufacturing of these nucleic-acid-based integrated circuits. One of these chips can compute whole square roots. A compiler has been written in Perl.
Pros and cons
The slow processing speed of a DNA computer (the response time is measured in minutes, hours or days, rather than milliseconds) is compensated by its potential to make a high amount of multiple parallel computations. This allows the system to take a similar amount of time for a complex calculation as for a simple one. This is achieved by the fact that millions or billions of molecules interact with each other simultaneously. However, it is much harder to analyze the answers given by a DNA computer than by a digital one.
See also
Biocomputer
Chemical computer
Computational gene
DNA code construction
DNA digital data storage
DNA sequencing
Membrane computing
Molecular electronics
Peptide computing
Parallel computing
Quantum computing
Transcriptor
Wetware computer
References
Further reading
— The first general text to cover the whole field.
— The book starts with an introduction to DNA-related matters, the basics of biochemistry and language and computation theory, and progresses to the advanced mathematical theory of DNA computing.
— A new general text to cover the whole field.
External links
DNA modeled computing
How Stuff Works explanation
Dirk de Pol: DNS – Ein neuer Supercomputer?. In: Die Neue Gesellschaft / Frankfurter Hefte , Heft 2/96, Februar 1996, S. 170–172
‘DNA computer’ cracks code, Physics Web
Ars Technica
- The New York Times DNA Computer for detecting Cancer
Bringing DNA computers to life, in Scientific American
Japanese Researchers store information in bacteria DNA
International Meeting on DNA Computing and Molecular Programming
LiveScience.com-How DNA Could Power Computers
Classes of computers
Models of computation
Molecular biology
DNA
DNA nanotechnology
American inventions | [
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253421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective%20bargaining | Collective bargaining | Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between employers and a group of employees aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries, working conditions, benefits, and other aspects of workers' compensation and rights for workers. The interests of the employees are commonly presented by representatives of a trade union to which the employees belong. The collective agreements reached by these negotiations usually set out wage scales, working hours, training, health and safety, overtime, grievance mechanisms, and rights to participate in workplace or company affairs.
The union may negotiate with a single employer (who is typically representing a company's shareholders) or may negotiate with a group of businesses, depending on the country, to reach an industry-wide agreement. A collective agreement functions as a labour contract between an employer and one or more unions. Collective bargaining consists of the process of negotiation between representatives of a union and employers (generally represented by management, or, in some countries such as Austria, Sweden and the Netherlands, by an employers' organization) in respect of the terms and conditions of employment of employees, such as wages, hours of work, working conditions, grievance procedures, and about the rights and responsibilities of trade unions. The parties often refer to the result of the negotiation as a collective bargaining agreement (CBA) or as a collective employment agreement (CEA).
History
The term "collective bargaining" was first used in 1891 by Beatrice Webb, a founder of the field of industrial relations in Britain. It refers to the sort of collective negotiations and agreements that had existed since the rise of trade unions during the 18th century.
United States
In the United States, the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 made it illegal for any employer to deny union rights to an employee. The issue of unionizing government employees in a public-sector trade union was much more controversial until the 1950s. In 1962 President John F. Kennedy issued an executive order granting federal employees the right to unionize.
An issue of jurisdiction surfaced in National Labor Relations Board v. Catholic Bishop of Chicago (1979) when the Supreme Court held that the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) could not assert jurisdiction over a church-operated school because such jurisdiction would violate the First Amendment establishment of freedom of religion and the separation of church of state.
International protection
The right to collectively bargain is recognized through international human rights conventions. Article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights identifies the ability to organize trade unions as a fundamental human right. Item 2(a) of the International Labour Organization's Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work defines the "freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining" as an essential right of workers. The Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (C087) and several other conventions specifically protect collective bargaining through the creation of international labour standards that discourage countries from violating workers' rights to associate and collectively bargain.
In June 2007 the Supreme Court of Canada extensively reviewed the rationale for regarding collective bargaining as a human right. In the case of Facilities Subsector Bargaining Association v. British Columbia, the Court made the following observations:
The right to bargain collectively with an employer enhances the human dignity, liberty and autonomy of workers by giving them the opportunity to influence the establishment of workplace rules and thereby gain some control over a major aspect of their lives, namely their work... Collective bargaining is not simply an instrument for pursuing external ends... rather [it] is intrinsically valuable as an experience in self-government... Collective bargaining permits workers to achieve a form of workplace democracy and to ensure the rule of law in the workplace. Workers gain a voice to influence the establishment of rules that control a major aspect of their lives.
Empirical findings
Union members and other workers covered by collective agreements get, on average, a wage markup over their nonunionized (or uncovered) counterparts. Such a markup is typically 5 to 10 percent in industrial countries.
Unions tend to equalize the income distribution, especially between skilled and unskilled workers.
The deadweight loss associated with unions is 0.2 to 0.5 percent of GDP, which is similar to monopolies in product markets.
An empirical model for empirical analysis and computer-assisted collective bargaining is developed at the Hans Böckler Foundation.
Sweden
In Sweden the coverage of collective agreements is very high despite the absence of legal mechanisms to extend agreements to whole industries. In 2018, 83% of all private sector employees were covered by collective agreements, 100% of public sector employees and in all 90% (referring to the whole labor market). This reflects the dominance of self-regulation (regulation by the labour market parties themselves) over state regulation in Swedish industrial relations.
United States
In the United States, the National Labor Relations Act (1935) covers most collective agreements in the private sector. This act makes it illegal for employers to discriminate, spy on, harass, or terminate the employment of workers because of their union membership or to retaliate against them for engaging in organizing campaigns or other "concerted activities", to form company unions, or to refuse to engage in collective bargaining with the union that represents their employees. It is also illegal to require any employee to join a union as a condition of employment. Unions are also able to secure safe work conditions and equitable pay for their labor.
At a workplace where a majority of workers have voted for union representation, a committee of employees and union representatives negotiate a contract with the management regarding wages, hours, benefits, and other terms and conditions of employment, such as protection from termination of employment without just cause. Individual negotiation is prohibited. Once the workers' committee and management have agreed on a contract, it is then put to a vote of all workers at the workplace. If approved, the contract is usually in force for a fixed term of years, and when that term is up, it is then renegotiated between employees and management. Sometimes there are disputes over the union contract; this particularly occurs in cases of workers fired without just cause in a union workplace. These then go to arbitration, which is similar to an informal court hearing; a neutral arbitrator then rules whether the termination or other contract breach is extant, and if it is, orders that it be corrected.
In 24 U.S. states, employees who are working in a unionized shop may be required to contribute towards the cost of representation (such as at disciplinary hearings) if their fellow employees have negotiated a union security clause in their contract with management. Dues are generally 1–2% of pay. However, union members and other workers covered by collective agreements get, on average, a 5–10% wage markup over their nonunionized (or uncovered) counterparts. Some states, especially in the south-central and south-eastern regions of the U.S., have outlawed union security clauses; this can cause controversy, as it allows some net beneficiaries of the union contract to avoid paying their portion of the costs of contract negotiation. Regardless of state, the Supreme Court has held that the Act prevents a person's union dues from being used without consent to fund political causes that may be opposed to the individual's personal politics. Instead, in states where union security clauses are permitted, such dissenters may elect to pay only the proportion of dues which go directly toward representation of workers.
The American Federation of Labor was formed in 1886, providing unprecedented bargaining powers for a variety of workers.
The Railway Labor Act (1926) required employers to bargain collectively with unions.
In 1931, the Supreme Court, in the case of Texas & N.O.R. Co. v. Brotherhood of Railway Clerks, upheld the act's prohibition of employer interference in the selection of bargaining representatives. In 1962, President Kennedy signed an executive order giving public-employee unions the right to collectively bargain with federal government agencies.
The Office of Labor-Management Standards, part of the United States Department of Labor, is required to collect all collective bargaining agreements covering 1,000 or more workers, excluding those involving railroads and airlines. They provide public access to these collections through their website.
OECD
Only one in three OECD employees have wages which were agreed on through collective bargaining. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, with its 36 members, has become an outspoken proponent for collective bargaining as a way to ensure that the falling unemployment also leads to higher wages.
See also
11 U.S.C. § 1113 – Rejection of Collective Bargaining Agreements
2011 United States public employee protests
2011 Wisconsin protests, related to attempts to reduce or eliminate collective bargaining rights for public employee unions in Wisconsin
Boulwarism
Civic Openness In Negotiations
Enterprise bargaining agreement
Freedom of association
Labour economics
Labour law
Project Labor Agreement
Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949
Right-to-work law
Social corporatism
Solidarity economy
Surface bargaining
Notes
References
Buidens, Wayne, and others. "Collective Gaining: A Bargaining Alternative." Phi Delta Kappan 63 (1981): 244-245.
DeGennaro, William, and Kay Michelfeld. "Joint Committees Take the Rancor out of Bargaining with Our Teachers." The American School Board Journal 173 (1986): 38-39.
Herman, Jerry J. "With Collaborative Bargaining, You Work with the Union--Not Against It." The American School Board Journal 172 (1985): 41-42, 47.
Huber, Joe; and Jay Hennies. "Fix on These Five Guiding Lights, and Emerge from the Bargaining Fog." The American School Board Journal 174 (1987): 31.
Kjellberg, Anders (2019) "Sweden: collective bargaining under the industry norm", in Torsten Müller & Kurt Vandaele & Jeremy Waddington (eds.) Collective bargaining in Europe: towards an endgame, European Trade Union Institute (ETUI) Brussels 2019. Vol. III (pp. 583-604).
Liontos, Demetri. Collaborative Bargaining: Case Studies and Recommendations. Eugene: Oregon School Study Council, University of Oregon, September 1987. OSSC Bulletin Series. 27 pages. ED number not yet assigned.
McMahon, Dennis O. "Getting to Yes." Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Association of School Administrators, New Orleans, LA, February 20–23, 1987. ED 280 188.
Namit, Chuck; and Larry Swift. "Prescription for Labor Pains: Combine Bargaining with Problem Solving." The American School Board Journal 174 (1987): 24.
Nyland, Larry. "Win/Win Bargaining Takes Perseverance." The Executive Educator 9 (1987): 24.
Smith, Patricia; and Russell Baker. "An Alternative Form of Collective Bargaining." Phi Delta Kappan 67 (1986): 605-607.
Alberta Human Rights Act, RSA 2000, c A-25
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Donnelly, Jack. "Cultural and Universal Human Right". Human Right Quarterly 6(1984): 400-419
Dunmore v. Ontario (Attorney General), [2001] 3 S.C.R. 1016, 2001 SCC 94
Health Services and Support—Facilities Subcontractor Bargaining Assn. v. British Columbia, [2007] SCC 27, [2007] 2 S.C.R. 391
Mathiesen, Kay. "labor laws on unionization and collective bargaining — comparative study". Journal of information Ethics. 3(2009):245-567. Print.
Sitati, Ezekiel. "Examining the development sin the labor laws". Melbournes Journal of politic 3(2009):55-74. Print
Ontario (Attorney General) v. Fraser, 2011 SCC 20
Reference Re Public Service Employee Relations Act (Alberta), [1987] 1 S.C.R. 313
External links
Labor & Worklife Program at Harvard Law school
Collective Bargaining, Labor Law, and Labor History at DigitalCommons@ILR
Collective Bargaining Agreements at DigitalCommons@ILR
Austerity
Collective agreements
Labor relations
Labor rights
Industrial agreements
Bargaining theory | [
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253429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine%20VI | Constantine VI | Constantine VI (, Kōnstantinos; 14 January 771 – before 805) was Byzantine emperor from 780 to 797. The only child of Emperor Leo IV, Constantine was named co-emperor with him at the age of five in 776 and succeeded him as sole Emperor in 780, aged nine. His mother Irene exercised control over him as regent until 790, assisted by her chief minister Staurakios. The regency ended when Constantine reached maturity, but Irene sought to remain an active participant in the government. After a brief interval of sole rule Constantine named his mother empress in 792, making her his official colleague.
Constantine suffered military defeats and made controversial decisions, such as blinding his loyal general Alexios Mosele and illicitly marrying his mistress, Theodote. Taking advantage of her son's unpopularity, Irene had Constantine deposed, blinded and imprisoned in 797 and seized power for herself alone, becoming the first Empress regnant of the Empire. Constantine likely died shortly thereafter.
Constantine VI was the final ruler to be universally recognized as Roman emperor, being recognized as such by both the Empire which he ruled in the east, the papacy and the Western European powers over which the pope held suzerainty. The Byzantines' ability to protect the Papacy had waned following the Arab Conquests, leading to the Papacy to increasingly seek protection from the Franks. This culminated in 800 when Pope Leo III, who owed his power and position to the Franks, crowned Charlemagne as 'Emperor of the Romans'. Based on the assertion that a woman could not be Empress in her own right, this laid the foundations of a new polity, independent of the East, that would evolve into the Holy Roman Empire.
Early life and the regency of Irene
Constantine VI was the only child of Emperor Leo IV and Irene. Constantine was crowned co-emperor by his father in 776, and succeeded as sole emperor in 780, at the age of nine. Due to his minority, Irene and her chief minister Staurakios exercised the regency for him.
In 787 Constantine had signed the decrees of the Second Council of Nicaea, but he appears to have had iconoclast sympathies. By then Constantine had turned 16 years old, but his mother did not relinquish executive authority to him.
In 788, Irene herself broke off the engagement of Constantine with Rotrude, a daughter of Charlemagne. Turning against Charlemagne, the Eastern Romans now supported Lombard pretender Adalgis, who had been forced into exile after the Frankish invasion of Italy. Adalgis was given command of a Roman expeditionary corps, landing in Calabria towards the end of 788 but was defeated by the united armies of the Lombard dukes Hildeprand of Spoleto and Grimoald III of Benevento as well as Frankish troops under Winiges.
After a conspiracy against Irene was suppressed in the spring of 790 she attempted to get official recognition as empress. This backfired and with military support Constantine finally came to actual power in 790, after the Armeniacs rebelled against Irene. Nevertheless, after campaigning unsuccessfully in the Balkans, Constantine restored his mother in 792 after just two years out of power and made her co-ruler.
Reign
Once in control of the state, Constantine proved incapable of sound governance. His army was defeated by the Muslims, and Constantine himself suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of Kardam of Bulgaria in the 792 Battle of Marcellae. A movement developed in favor of his uncle, the Caesar Nikephoros. Constantine had his uncle's eyes put out and the tongues of his father's four other half-brothers cut off. His former Armenian supporters revolted after he had blinded their general Alexios Mosele. He crushed this revolt with extreme cruelty in 793.
He then divorced his wife Maria of Amnia, who had failed to provide him with a male heir, and married his mistress Theodote, an unpopular and canonically illegal act which sparked off the so-called "Moechian Controversy". Although the Patriarch Tarasios did not publicly speak against it, he did refuse to officiate the marriage. Popular disapproval was expressed by Theodote's uncle, Plato of Sakkoudion, who even broke communion with Tarasios for his passive stance. Plato's intransigence led to his own imprisonment, while his monastic supporters were persecuted and exiled to Thessalonica. The "Moechian Controversy" cost Constantine what popularity he had left, especially in the church establishment, which Irene took care to vocally support against her own son.
On 19 August 797 Constantine was captured, blinded, and imprisoned by the supporters of his mother, who had organized a conspiracy, leaving Irene to be crowned as first Empress regnant of Constantinople. It is unknown when exactly Constantine died; it was certainly before 805, though he may have died of his wounds shortly after being blinded. He was buried in the Monastery of St. Euphrosyne, which Irene had founded.
In the early 820s, the rebel Thomas the Slav claimed to be Constantine VI in an effort to gain support against Michael II.
Family
By his first wife Maria, Constantine VI had two daughters:
Euphrosyne (790 after 836), who married Emperor Michael II
Irene (789 after July 796), who became a nun
By his mistress and then second wife Theodote, Constantine VI had two sons, both of whom died young:
Leo (7 October 796 1 May 797)
An unnamed son (posthumously 797/8 between 802 and 808)
See also
List of Byzantine emperors
Notes
References
Sources
Barbe, Dominique (1990). Irène de Byzance: La femme empereur. Paris.
.
8th-century Byzantine emperors
Isaurian dynasty
Medieval child rulers
Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars
771 births
797 deaths
800s deaths
Saints from Anatolia
8th-century Christian saints
780s in the Byzantine Empire
790s in the Byzantine Empire
Sons of Byzantine emperors
Christian royal saints | [
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253430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse%20%28Magic%3A%20The%20Gathering%29 | Multiverse (Magic: The Gathering) | The Multiverse is the shared fictional universe depicted on Magic: The Gathering cards, novels, comics, and other supplemental products. Though Magic is a strategy game, an intricate storyline underlies the cards released in each expansion. On the cards, elements of this multiverse are shown in the card art and through quotations and descriptions on the bottom of most cards (called flavor text). Novels and anthologies published by HarperPrism and Wizards of the Coast (WOTC), and the comic books published by Armada Comics expand upon the settings and characters hinted at on the cards. WOTC also publishes a weekly story (most often related to the plane explored in the current expansion set) in the Magic Fiction column, previously known as Official Magic Fiction and Uncharted Realms.
In the early days of the game, the name 'Dominia' was used to describe the story universe but, due to confusion with the name of the plane/planet where the central events of Magic occur (Dominaria), it fell into disuse and was replaced.
Publication history
Creative origins
The way Magic storylines are conceived and deployed has changed considerably over the years. The main premise of Magic is that countless possible worlds (planes) exist in the Multiverse, and only unique and rare beings called Planeswalkers are capable of traversing the Multiverse. This allows the game to frequently change worlds so as to renew its mechanical inspiration, while maintaining planeswalkers as recurrent, common elements across worlds. Players represent planeswalkers able to draw on the magics and entities of these planes to do battle with others.
Richard Garfield established enough of this story for the game when it was first published. With the first sets, most of this story was told through the cards flavor text, and because most of the creatures and the keywords were based on common fantasy tropes (dragons with flying, for example), there was no significant driver for a backing narrative. In some cases, narrative was demanded to help with new gameplay mechanics and keywords that did not fit standard fantasy tropes, but these were still limited to flavor text. The first expansion Arabian Nights (1993) designed by Garfield was based on One Thousand and One Nights folklore and include figures from that like Aladdin.
Pre-revision era
With demand for more expansions, several different teams within Wizards of the Coast's research and development separately worked on these upcoming sets, with the card designers taking the lead in creating their narratives. Each of these teams had different approaches for implementing that in the cards. For example, the next expansion was Antiquities (1994) with design led by Skaff Elias. Elias' team wanted this set to focus on the use of colorless artifacts, and came up with the narrative idea of a battle between two brothers skilled in artifact use at a point in time before the other realms of magic had established themselves. This would tie into both their planned cards as well as help define the differences between the color mana schools better. Elias' planned out elaborate timelines, but as the set was only 100 cards, most of this was left on paper, giving players only glimpses of the larger picture through flavor text. In the case of Homelands (1995), R&D had two writers craft a story first and then worked alongside them to implement that into the cards for that set. Still, few elements of any of these sets were shared save for the common connection to the plane of Dominaria.
Separately to Wizards' own attempts at storytelling, in 1994, Wizards gave exclusive licenses to Harper Prism to publish novels, and to Armada Comics, an imprint of Acclaim Entertainment, to publish comic books. Neither of these were developed in concert with the game and created divergent ideas to the game. "Much of the lore established" by Armada Comics "is the foundation from which the rest of continuity was built. In fact, the idea of 'The Revision' stemmed in part from WotC publishing novels based loosely on many of the stories told in these comics. Some of the details changed (or were 'retconned', in popular fan speak), but for the most part the core of these stories stayed the same". The comics came to a sudden end in 1996 when Acclaim, parent company of Armada Comics, started to run into financial trouble. In 1997, "two video games connected to the comics, Shandalar and Battlemage, were also released [...]. In general, Pre-Revisionist materials are still canon unless contradicted by another source".
Pre-mending era
Wizards began to take back narrative control with the Mirage (1996) storyline. "Detailed story summaries for Mirage and Visions were available on the Wizards website, covering the events of the Mirage War. But it was with Weatherlight that Magic's first epic narrative began". Wizards wanted to try to create a more cohesive universe with the next major expansion, Weatherlight (1997), comparable to other works like Star Wars. Mark Rosewater and Michael G. Ryan developed a long-term story arc that would cross through several expansions as well as into the comics, magazines, and novels. With the cards, a small team of dedicated writers were used to make sure there were a consistent voice to the flavor text to help emphasize the story elements. "The next four years, from Tempest in 1997 through Apocalypse in 2001, would follow the story of the legendary Skyship Weatherlight and her crew". This saga was intended to last the next five years, but several factors came into play by the time the Urza block was released: there was a change in leadership in oversight of Magic: The Gathering and the direction it was heading, players were not interested in the lead characters of the saga, and players had found it difficult to follow the narrative from the cards alone.
In 1998, a new a four-issue limited comic series was published by Dark Horse. Around the same time, Wizards had regained control on the license to publish novels and comics and they decided to make the novels the primary route for the story of Magic: The Gathering which would tie in closely with the cards designed for the expansion. This approach was used through the Onslaught block in 2003, after which Wizards had found that novels were not a sufficient means to build out the details for cards; novels would be focused on how characters change over events, while the game presented a character at a single moment, and a novel could not flesh out all the other supporting elements that the card designers needed to build their sets without weighing down the readers.
Following Onslaught, the narrative of Magic: The Gathering took a more distanced approach. Once an idea for an expansion was presented, preliminary work was done simultaneously by the research and development team and by the creative staff to build out the basic gameplay concepts and the setting of that expansion, respectively. Once both sides agreed to that, the two teams then proceeded primarily on individual routes towards their end production. Brady Dommermuth, the Creative Director in 2006, said that "generally the cards provide the world in which the novels are set, and the novels sometimes provide characters represented on cards. But cards also introduce their own characters that might not appear in the novels. In short, the Magic creative team and the novelists work largely in parallel and inform each other as much as possible."
Post-mending era
The pre-mending and post-mending monikers come "from the event known as the Mending, which fundamentally changed the nature of planeswalkers from near-divine beings to mortals with a bit more oomph". During this time, Wizards further transitioned to ebooks as well as having their creative staff write more in "Uncharted Realms", a weekly column on the company's website. In September 2011, Hasbro and IDW Publishing accorded to make a four-issue mini-series about Magic: The Gathering with a new story but heavily based on MTG elements and with a new Planeswalker called Dack Fayden, the story of which mainly developed in the planes of Ravnica and Innistrad. In total, between 2011 and 2014, four four-issue mini-series were published by IDW. In 2013, Wizards saw that even with continued growth in player numbers, printed novel sales had fallen greatly and ebook sales remained flat, and made the decision to discontinue the larger narrative works in favor of having the creative team provide story coverage and shipments as of the "Uncharted Realms" column.
In 2014, Mark Rosewater wrote: "Unfortunately, the public has made it very clear that novels are not how they want the story told". Clayton Emery, on why he no longer writes Magic: The Gathering novels, wrote that after being invited to Gen Con he "arrived to find waiting for me — nothing. [...] No reading, no panels, no chance to meet fans, and not a single copy of any of my books anywhere in sight. Why did you invite me? [...] While there, I did get to ask, [...] Will you guys promote my work? 'No. If you catch fire with the fans, then we'll promote you.' How do I catch fire with the fans if you don't promote my work? 'Who knows? We don't promote Magic books as a rule anyway, because they don't sell well.' Then why produce them? And hey, you promoted Jeff Grubb's latest Magic book, advertising it on the inside front cover of every DC comic for three months during one summer. 'Oh, sure. His books sell.'" Sam Keeper, for CoolStuffInc, wrote "I can't attest to the accuracy of Emery's recollections, but it certainly feels familiar. [...] None of the ebook releases, to my knowledge, have ever been acknowledged by official accounts, aside from that single link to an incomplete list on mtgstory.com. [...] Nonetheless, it's a bit of a self fulfilling prophecy to not promote a product, and then conclude that there simply isn't an audience for it".
This approach continued through 2017. Then, Wizards of the Coast hired novelist and scriptwriter Nic Kelman as their Head of Story and Entertainment. Kelman's task was to assemble all of the lore established from previous card sets and the published novels, comics, and other materials as to create the game's "cosmology" or the story bible that established all the known planes and elements of those planes, the individual Planeswalkers and their connections to others, and other details that then could be passed not only to the teams developing new cards but also to those expanding the franchise with new novels and other content. This allows for highly connected events between the external media and the game; one example established the death of a major Planeswalker in the novel War of the Spark: Ravnica that was published just prior to the release of the new set War of the Spark, the first novel published by Wizards in several years, with the set containing cards referencing that death.
In 2018, as part of MTG's 25th anniversary, IDW began publishing another four-issue comic mini-series — this time centered around the Planeswalker Chandra Nalaar. In 2018, Kelman said:In the early days of Magic storytelling, there wasn’t necessarily a lot of communication between different storytellers, nor was there much long-term planning about where Magic story might be in 2, 5, or 10 years. Over the years, we’ve been trying to make the story more consistent in tone and voice, make the Multiverse more consistent from a cosmological perspective, and plan out stories and character appearances further in advance. In terms of emphasis, I think the early days were less about characters and more about lore. Magic has been trying to emphasize characters more and more over the years. [...] We’ve embarked on the very exciting effort to gain the same reputation for fantasy fiction that Magic has for fantasy art. To that end, we’re now hiring first class, globally recognized fantasy authors to write our web fiction. [...] On the micro level, we try to make sure every story has at least one character who new fans can relate to without needing to know years of history and at least one character who established fans know and love. On the macro level, we try to plan out sets, settings, and stories so over the course of any given year, there’s going to be something for everyone.In September 2019, the sequel Chandra comic series was cancelled before publication. In November 2019, War of the Spark: Forsaken (2019) was widely panned and Wizards of the Coast "canceled plans for the book that was intended for the game's next set, Theros: Beyond Death". Then in 2020, with the Zendikar Rising (2020) set, the Magic storyline returned via story articles on the official website. A new ongoing comic series began in 2021; the first issue went "for a third printing despite it already being the highest selling Magic comic book in history".
Cosmology
The Multiverse is a collection of planes (described somewhat like pocket universes) which are usually named after the primary planet contained within them. Travel between these planes is possible, and powerful beings known as Planeswalkers are capable of traversing between them.
The Blind Eternities
The Blind Eternities is the term more commonly used to describe the space between the planes of reality. Filled with chaotic, raw energies such as Aether, Mana and temporal energy, it is a place where matter and life as known within the planes of reality cannot subsist. (The only exceptions are the Planeswalkers, who briefly pass physically through it when they "walk" between planes.) As such, not much is known or understood about the Blind Eternities. Unfathomable, reality-warping cosmic horrors known as the Eldrazi are said to be born there.
Aether
Aether (previously spelled Æther) is the main type of energy filling the blind eternities, although it can also appear in variable quantities within the planes. It is inextricably associated with magic within Magic's shared fictional universe and the use of the word in several Magic cards implies that casting magic involves channeling and manipulating Aether. Similarly, "summoning" the creatures around which combat and much of gameplay in Magic revolves is described as "pulling (them) from the Aether".
Dominaria
The majority of the Magic story was set on the plane of Dominaria prior to Mirrodin, encompassing long time periods each detailed in certain card sets or books. Dominaria is a unique nexus between all the other planes of the Multiverse. Occasionally, such as in Time Spiral, the storyline returns to it.
Storylines
Each expansion set of MTG "tells a cohesive story across those sets. [...] Each new world comes with all its own themes, strife, magic, and complications. While some elements carry throughout each block (Planeswalkers can cross into other realms after all) and Magic game designers often returns to past favorites, every block is mostly a new story to hook new players while keeping Magic veterans interested".
The Thran: The Thran were a race of master artificers who were destroyed by Yawgmoth and his Phyrexians (converted Thran following him) during the Thran-Phyrexian War about 5,000 years before the Brothers. They are only hinted at in the game, but J. Robert King's novel The Thran explores their culture in some depth.
The Brothers' War: War between Urza and Mishra, two brothers who were trained by the archaeologist and artificer Tocasia in creating magical devices based on ancient Thran technology. As their powers grew, so did their enmity, eventually erupting in an all-out war utilizing powerful constructs. Marshalling vast armies aided by their impressive machines (some of the old Thran Empire, some newly made) the brothers staged a series of battles. The war devastated the land of Terisiare on the plane of Dominaria and culminated in a world-devastating climax on the island of Argoth. This caused the Dark, the climate changes which led to the Fall of the Sarpadian Empires and finally to the Ice Age. This story is the basis for the Antiquities expansion and later the Urza's Saga Block.
The Dark The devastation wrought by the Brothers led to the fall of many civilizations and the beginning of a Dark Age in Dominaria. The destruction of Argoth caused a nuclear winter that would later lead to the Dominarian Ice Age. This story is portrayed in the Fallen Empires and The Dark expansions. In this age Terisiare's survivors were bitterly opposed to magic. Tiny, insular villages dotted a wasted, goblin-infested landscape. Fanatical priests controlled a few powerful city-states. Preachers and witch-hunters hunted the countryside for the few remaining wizards. Despite this oppression, it is during this era that mortal wizards first discover the five-color nature of magic. This story is fully explained in the novel The Gathering Dark by Jeff Grubb. The following Ice Age is detailed in Eternal Ice and The Shattered Alliance, also by Jeff Grubb.
Fallen Empires The harsh climatic changes that followed the destruction of Argoth caused the southern continent, Sarpadia, to struggle for survival. The elves and humans of Sarpadia begin breeding primitive but adaptable subspecies: saprolings and thrulls, respectively. These creatures soon turn on their creators and terrorize the people of Sarpadia, while the Merfolk suffered an invasion of crustacean-like homarids, which benefitted from the cooling oceans. Barraged by invading orcs, goblins, homarids, thrulls, and even fungus, the civilizations of Sarpadia are destroyed, and the continent falls into darkness.
The Ice Age: The climate-altering effects of the devastation continued leading to a global ice age. New empires rose and fought in the cold. Eventually this cooling climate was reversed and life returned to normal. This story is portrayed in the Ice Age, Alliances, and Coldsnap expansions, and in the novels Eternal Ice and Shattered Alliance by Jeff Grubb. Jeff Grubb also wrote a short story "continuing" the story for Coldsnap, which is located in the Player's Guide insert you can find in a Coldsnap Fat Pack.
The Homelands This short interlude depicts the decimated plane of Ulgrotha, in which many civilizations struggle for power against Baron Sengir, a powerful vampire who has manipulated a number of other characters into serving his ends. The planeswalkers Serra and Feroz turn the balance in favor of the light, but are killed in battle against a crazed alien planeswalker. The story has no concrete ending.
Jamuraa: The story concerns three of the most powerful nations of Jamuraa (a tropical continent) — the militaristic kingdom of the Zhalfirins, the religious state of Femeref, and the trading province of the Suq'Ata empire. Zhalfir was the warrior nation, based mainly on red. Femeref was mainly white, and featured clerics and healers, while the seafaring traders of Suq'Ata were mostly blue. Mirage concerned these three nations and their struggle against the evil wizard Kaervek. Kaervek has imprisoned the powerful wizard and diplomat Mangara in an amber prison and the bulk of the story details the Jamuraans attempting to free Mangara. In addition to these events the planeswalker Teferi has caused his island to disappear from existence for almost 200 years. It is the phasing of the entire island that led Kaervek and Mangara to Jamuraa in the first place.
The Phyrexian Invasion: After millennia of peace, the machine-like Phyrexians, who originate on a hellish mechanical world, invade the world of Dominaria led by the former Thran Yawgmoth from the pocket universe of Rath. The Phyrexian invasion divides in many sub-stories.
The Urza Saga: Following the destruction of Argoth, Urza becomes a planeswalker and foresees the invasion of Dominaria. Urza's travels lead the war to the peaceful universe of Serra's realm which is destroyed by Phyrexian armies; survivors of the plane flee to Dominaria and Ulgrotha. In preparation for the invasion, Urza creates the Tolarian academy, a research and development laboratory-school in which he and other mighty wizards train mages for the upcoming invasion and experiment on weaponry development, time-travel and genetic manipulation in hopes of creating a defensive army. The time experiments lead to a temporal collapse and the academy becomes laced with time fractures, which are both dangerous and useful to the inhabitants. Urza himself develops a fearful Legacy Weapon and Karn, a self-aware golem which, combined, can defeat any foe. This story arc is linked to The Thran, Antiquities, The Dark, Ice Age and Homelands and is depicted in the books The Brothers War, Planeswalker and Time Streams.
The Legacy: This follows the travels of many brave adventurers from all across Dominaria who, aboard Urza's vessel "The Weatherlight", seek to collect the different artifacts left by Urza and necessary to assemble the Legacy Weapon. Opposed to them, many Phyrexian allies or lords will try to stop them from their quest. This story arc is the longest in the Magic continuity, and its characters are depicted in the Weatherlight, Tempest, Stronghold, Exodus, Mercadian Masques, and Nemesis card sets; later, the story continues and concludes in the Invasion arc.
Prophecy: Parallel to the "Legacy" history, and following the Mirage and Urza's Saga histories, in Dominaria the warrior kingdom of Keld ensues war all across Jamuraa. Many wizards from the Tolarian academy aid the federation of Jamuraa and succeed in stopping the Keldons' warmongering.
The Invasion: The dreaded Phyrexians finally come to Dominaria across many "planar portals" and Urza, who has been spending thousands of years planning a defense against the Invasion, implements his plans. The Weatherlight leads the Dominarian forces, but the widespread chaos, and the uncompromising nature of Urza's tactics, threaten to destroy the plane. The arrival of Yawgmoth himself leads to the Apocalypse, but he is finally defeated by the fully assembled Legacy Weapon. The Invasion itself occurs in the Invasion block, but is linked to all previous story arcs. From this point on, the publishers switch to a series of self-contained plotlines with occasional links to older stories, rather than sweeping epics spanning years of card releases.
Odyssey: One hundred years after the devastation of the Invasion, Dominaria is still in the process of rebuilding. This part of the story takes place in Otaria, a devastated continent that was, surprisingly, the place least affected by the Invasion. It centers on Kamahl, a barbarian, and his quest to get the Mirari, a magical orb of seemingly endless power.
Onslaught: Having acquired the Mirari with devastating effects, Kamahl renounces it and tries to be rid of it, but the events he triggered have gone far beyond his control. The story shifts to a battle between Akroma, an angel, and Phage, Kamahl's corrupted sister, who kills with a touch. As zealous armies gather behind each of them, Kamahl needs to end their escalating conflict before Otaria itself is decimated. To this end, he recovers the slumbering Mirari and allies himself with three ancient gods who have been waiting for these events to happen again. This story is linked to Mirrodin, and sets the scene for the first major storyline not set on Dominaria.
Mirrodin: The story of Mirrodin takes place on a new, metal world, created by the planeswalker Karn and populated by races stolen from other worlds. Glissa, an elf, and her allies strive to assemble the mythical Kaldra, so that they can defeat the crazed Memnarch, who lives inside the hollow world. All the while, we learn about the history of Mirrodin, and its loose, but nonetheless present, connection to previous storylines based on Dominaria. The Mirrodin story is the first of the new year-long, three-set story arcs, having started in 2003 with the release of Moons of Mirrodin and continuing with 2004's The Darksteel Eye and The Fifth Dawn.
The Kami War: The plane of Kamigawa is naturally divided in two: the kakuriyo Kami world (spirit world) and the utsushiyo material world; both working and operating harmoniously until the Kami began to attack the material world twenty years before the story opens. The books follow the lone samurai Toshiro Umezawa and the princess Michiko as they try to bring peace to Kamigawa. As well as giving the game an unusual, strong Oriental feel, this storyline is interesting in that the designers deliberately tried to give the story a strong influence over the game itself. Instead of relying on the traditional "color wheel" conflict (the game of Magic: the Gathering is based on a five-point circle of allied and enemy color affiliations), the color of any given card may often be less important than whether it has a Kami or Material theme.
Ravnica: Ravnica is a plane covered almost entirely in cityscape. The city's ten "guilds", political organizations each based on a different two-color mana pairing, warred for a long period of time. After the conflict, a magical document, the Guildpact, was created to ensure that the plane remained at peace and that the guilds would constrain themselves to their social roles. The main storyline begins 9,999 years later, as anticipation of the decimillennial anniversary builds. The once-noble guilds have corrupted and decayed over time, and a great political gridlock is all that keeps Ravnica stable. A series of protagonists - most notably Agrus Kos, a law enforcement officer from the Boros League, and Teysa Karlov, a lawmage from the Orzhov Syndicate, uncover the plots of the various guildmasters, as well as the ambitions of the "secret guild", House Dimir. The flavor of the cards again exerted considerable influence over the mechanics of the game, encouraging players to build decks devoted to a particular guild.
Time Spiral: The Time Spiral block returns to a post-apocalyptic Dominaria. Teferi, a planeswalker, abandoned Urza during the Phyrexian Invasion by "phasing" (temporarily removing from reality) two landmasses known as Shiv and Zhalfir out. He returns to Dominaria to find it in a state of ruin. In addition to having been almost totally devastated by the Apocalypse, mysterious "time rifts" have opened in the skies across the plane, making planeswalking and spellcasting more difficult. Teferi wants to ensure that Zhalfir and Shiv return to Dominaria safely - however, the time rifts, and the considerably deteriorated state of the plane itself, mean that the two continents no longer "fit." Should Zhalfir and Shiv land, Dominaria and the entire Multiverse would be destroyed. The Time Spiral block was billed as Magic's nostalgia block, and would revisit themes and characters from every storyline up to the end of the Otaria arc. As the Invasion did before, the Time Spiral story is linked to any other story arc before it, harkening back to many earlier settings and characters, even those outside of Dominaria. It was during this block that The Mending occurred, greatly reducing the powers of all planeswalkers.
Lorwyn: Whereas most blocks consist of three sets, it was decided to turn the 2007/08 block into two mini blocks of two sets each. The focus of the first is the plane of Lorwyn, an idyllic, perpetually sunlit world populated by a wide variety of civilized species. These tribes are generally peaceful but keen to keep to themselves. The story centers around an elf outcast named Rhys who has triggered a series of events foreseen by his mentor, Colfenor, and a flamekin pilgrim named Ashling who believes her path and Rhys's are the same. The coming Aurora, an annual event when the plane darkens and lights appear in the sky, is the key to whatever it is that Rhys needs to do.
Shadowmoor: Rather than passing harmlessly as it normally does, the Aurora instead transforms Lorwyn into an eerie reflection of itself. The idyllic, sunlit world is replaced by the shadows and omnipresent malice of Shadowmoor. Landscapes, races and even individuals become twisted alternatives with no indication that their Lorwyn selves ever existed. Ashling, now known as the Extinguisher, has a central role in this shift, and it falls to Rhys (an elvish hero in this place) and Maralen, a mysterious elf and one of the very few unchanged by the transformation, to discover why.
Alara: The plane of Alara was shattered long ago by an unknown force; it is now split unequally into five unique shards, each having no knowledge of the others. Each shard was denied two of the five colors of magic by the event (the inhabitants of each shard have had no recollection of the missing two colors of mana for centuries), and have evolved around their remaining three: The militant, feudal, sun-dappled plane of Bant; the scientific, order-obsessed, windy and cloud covered plane of Esper; the desperate, lifeless, blackened plane of Grixis; the violent, harsh, volcanic plane of Jund; and the green, lush, stampeding plane of Naya. Many species die off, evolve, or border extinction in each shard due to insufficient mana sustenance (Zombies can't survive without black mana, angels can't survive without white mana, etc.), and others thrived. The force that shattered the plane is unknown, but believed to be the five-headed hydra Progenitus (for unknown reasons) who disappears at the shattering of the plane and reappears in the expansion "Alara - Conflux" when the shards are reunited.
Conflux: As the Shards of Alara draw closer together, the millennia-long machinations of a hidden evil come closer to bearing a dire harvest. Nicol Bolas, once one of the most powerful planeswalkers, has been manipulating the civilizations of Alara for his own reasons. As the shards violently collide with each other after centuries apart, war erupts on all sides, and in the chaos, Bolas seeks to harness the power of the Maelstrom, the chaotic center of the plane where all five colors come together in a magical storm of unimaginable energies and power. The planeswalker Elspeth Tirel and the valiant knight Rafiq start to catch wind of an insidious plot and begin investigating.
Zendikar: A new plane is introduced: Zendikar, a world with powerful, uncontrollable mana and many dangerous features, including the Roil. Planeswalkers are drawn to Zendikar because of its powerful mana. Many of Zendikar's residents must fight against the land itself as mountains become alive and forests move. It is revealed that thousands of years ago three planeswalkers locked powerful, unstoppable beings known as the Eldrazi in a complex prison on Zendikar, causing the plane's complex problems. When three more planeswalkers enter the prison, the Eldrazi are released and start destroying Zendikar as they cannot escape from the plane.
Scars of Mirrodin: As the storyline returns to the metallic plane of Mirrodin, it is found divided. A corrupted Karn has returned and brought with him the rot of Phyrexia. As the world faces off, Mirran versus Phyrexian, the idyllic plane is brought to a new form. This set also marked a deviation from the five color wheel, instead pushing players to align their decks to the Mirran or Phyrexian side of the conflict; to reenforce this, they created a web site devoted to the war where the player can switch between sides. In February 2011, it was announced that Phyrexia had won, and the set New Phyrexia played out as a war amongst five Praetors of Phyrexia, battling each other for dominance.
Innistrad: A new plane is introduced: Innistrad, set in a gothic-themed world, where vampires, werewolves, and demons run rampant. Before the events of the block, the human population of Innistrad was constantly beset by supernatural creatures. In response, the planeswalker Sorin created the arch-angel Avacyn to protect the humans. Avacyn set out to eradicate all of Innistrad's demons, leading to an epic battle against the elder demon, Griselbrand. During the battle, Griselbrand was able to trick Avacyn into locking both beings in the magical prison known as the Helvault. With Avacyn gone, the angel's protection disappeared and soon creatures of darkness were free to prey on mankind once more. When Sorin finds out about this he goes straight to Innistrad (presumably from Zendikar) to see what can be done. While he is searching for Avacyn, Liliana Vess is there searching for Griselbrand so she can slay him and release herself from their bargain for Liliana's soul. Liliana discovers the Hellvault and releases Griselbrand and Avacyn. Liliana slays Griselbrand, and Avacyn's restored powers guard humanity from the zombies, werewolves, and dangers of Innistrad.
Return to Ravnica: Returning to the megalopolis of Ravnica, the guilds have been in a state of constant warfare ever since the events of Dissension, when the Guildpact was dissolved. The Izzet League's guild leader Niv-Mizzet discovers a maze passing through the Tenth District of the city. He sets his entire guild on figuring out the point of this "Implicit Maze". It is learned later in the story that the being who traverses the maze will become the Ruler of Ravnica. Niv-Mizzet makes an announcement all over the city of Ravnica, asking all guilds to send a champion to run the maze. The planeswalker Jace Beleren solves the mystery of the maze and lauds himself the Living Guildpact, settling disputes for the ten guilds.
Theros: On a new plane, Theros, based on the heroes, myths, and monsters of Ancient Greece, Elspeth arrives and is declared the Champion of the sun god, Heliod. The planeswalker Xenagos becomes the God of Revels, angering the established pantheon of the other Gods. Heliod gives Elspeth the Godsend, a sword with which to slay Xenagos. Ajani Goldmane, another planeswalker, helps Elspeth to kill Xenagos. Meanwhile, the planeswalker Kiora is searching the seas of Theros for something that will help to defeat the Eldrazi that will inevitably eventually destroy the Multiverse. The merfolk begin to worship Kiora, mistaking her for Thassa, the God of the Sea. At this point all of the Gods of Theros are very angry at the planeswalkers. After Elspeth kills Xenagos, Heliod takes the Godsend and kills Elspeth with it, sending Elspeth to the underworld of Theros. Ajani is angered and stays on Theros looking for a way to get even with the Gods.
Khans of Tarkir: A new plane (Tarkir) is the setting of this block. Tarkir is the homeworld of Sarkhan Vol, a planeswalker known for an obsession with dragons, and the five warring clans, each aligned towards 3 colours. The Mardu (RWB), The Abzan (WBG), The Jeskai (URW), The Sultai (BGU) and the Temur (GUR). All dragons have gone extinct on Tarkir, hunted to extinction by the 5 clans many years ago, but Sarkhan returns to find the source of the voice within his mind. The Planeswalker Sorin also comes to Tarkir where he discovers that Ugin, one of the Planeswalkers that helped to seal the Eldrazi on Zendikar, has died many years ago. Sorin leaves Tarkir saddened by this loss. With the help of the Jeskai leader Narset, Sarkhan makes his way to the resting place of Ugin and travels back in time through the Nexus (the remains of Ugin form this Nexus) but not before he sees Narset killed by Zurgo Helmsmasher, Khan of the Mardu.
Fate Reforged: Sarkhan travels through the Nexus 1000 years into the past and discovers the world of Tarkir before the fall of the Dragons. He discovers that the Dragons are formed within great tempests and that these tempests are powered by Ugin himself. He arrives in time to see Ugin confront his nemesis Nicol Bolas, Sarkhan's old master (although at this point in time Nicol Bolas had not met Sarkhan yet). Sarkhan sees Nicol Bolas kill Ugin and leave Tarkir, leaving Sarkhan distraught that he could not save the great Dragon. Using the power of the Hedron he had recovered from Zendikar, Sarkhan encases Ugin within a cocoon of Hedrons and seals him away to save his life. This act changes the future history of Tarkir, as with Ugin still alive the Dragon Tempests would never end, preventing the humans from hunting the Dragons into extinction. Due to his actions changing his own past, Sarkhan is pulled from the past Tarkir and back into the present.
Dragons of Tarkir: Sarkhan returns to the present day Tarkir to find the Dragons have survived and now live together with the humans. Although the 5 clans still clash among each other, they are now led by the powerful Dragon Lords instead of the human Khans of Sarkhan's own past. He sees many people he knew from his own timeline, however none of them remember him and all have changed as Sarkhan's actions have influenced this new Tarkir. Sarkhan travels again to the resting place of Ugin and discovers the revived Elder Dragon is gone. He cannot sense Ugin's power in his plane but takes refuge in the fact that Ugin is safe. Sarkhan then goes to find Narset where he discovers his old friend has now left the confines of the Dragons Clans and has learnt the secret history of Tarkir, including the history of Sarkhan himself. We also learn that Narset's spark has ignited and she has become a Planeswalker. We leave the pair on Tarkir, neither of them intending to leave for a long time, with too much to see and learn upon the reinvigorated plane of Tarkir.
Battle for Zendikar: The set picks up the storyline of Zendikar where the released Eldrazi devastate the plane. Ulamog, one of the 3 released Eldrazi titans, slowly consumes the land itself. The Zendikari population either flees or unites their strength to fight the Eldrazi together under the leadership of the planeswalker Gideon Jura. Gideon also convinces Jace on Ravnica to help Zendikar. Jace agrees, also since he is partly responsible for releasing the Eldrazi from their prison. He is convinced that the hedrons and leylines of the plane are the key to imprison the Eldrazi once again. The planeswalker Nissa with her unique connection to the plane itself and Kiora, with the weapon she stole from Thassa on Theros join the fight as well. With joint forces the Planeswalker and the Zendikari build a trap of aligned hedrons. For a moment they can imprison Ulamog again, but they were sabotaged by the reignited Demon Planeswalker Ob Nixilis who frees Ulamog, seeking revenge on Nissa and destruction of the plane he despises. He awakens Kozilek as well leaving the Plane with two ravaging Eldazi titans.
Shadows over Innistrad: The denizens of Innistrad are beset on all sides. Their faith in the archangel Avacyn brought them strength when fighting against demons, werewolves, vampires, and all manners of horrors. But, now the mighty protector of the plane has been twisted into something monstrous by an outside influence. A very familiar force has stepped into the gothic world, and its corrupting tendrils now touch everything. The next set, Eldritch Moon, focuses on the fact that Emrakul, the most powerful Eldrazi titan who had been missing from the Battle for Zendikar storyline, is now on Innistrad. Together, the Gatewatch must find a way to save the plane from Emrakul's influence. This story also focuses on cosmic horror instead of the traditional gothic horror of old Innistrad.
Kaladesh: The Gatewatch go to Chandra Nalaar's home world, the titular plane of Kaladesh, where she finds her mother (presumed dead) and almost kills Tezzeret. Tezzeret later kidnaps Rashmi, winner of the famous Inventor's Fair, and begins a dastardly plot to control the ruling Consulate. With the Consulate imprisoning inventors and confiscating their devices following the Fair, tensions between the populace and the government reach a boiling point, as depicted in Aether Revolt. The block focuses on a Steampunk aesthetic, with the steam replaced by the powerful material aether.
Amonkhet: The Gatewatch set out to destroy the evil dragon planeswalker Nicol Bolas after learning of his dominion over the titular desert plane Amonkhet. In the desert, they find a city (Naktamun) teeming with food, water, and life, ruled by five gods, with Bolas seemingly absent altogether. The people of Naktamun train their entire lives to die in ritual combat, hoping to experience pure bliss in the afterlife when the God-Pharaoh (Bolas) returns to Amonkhet. In Hour of Devastation, Bolas returns as prophesied, only to raze Naktamun and reveal the true purpose of the training and combat: to create an army of physically-perfect and combat-adept mummies to serve as an unquestionably loyal army. The block's setting is based ancient Egypt, with themes of social hierarchy and contrast between life and death.
Ixalan: The plane is home to four primary tribes, each with distinct synergies and advantages that draw off of one another. As for the tale: the golden city of Orazca, buried deep in the jungle, houses a great secret. The immortal sun, an artifact of immense power, is hidden there. Now, that secret has become known. The great forces of the plane gather to combat one another in a contest to see who will claim the mighty prize. The merfolk River Heralds, the vampiric Legion of Dusk, the Brazen Coalition of pirates, and the Sun Empire's dinosaur riders all meet in open conflict to decide the fate of their world.
Dominaria: A return to the place of so many of Magic: The Gathering's storylines in celebration of the game's 25th anniversary.
Additional plots
There are numerous other smaller plots and subplots that take place in Dominaria and on the many planes of the multiverse of Dominia as well as events after the invasion of Dominaria by the Phyrexians.
The sets from Weatherlight up to Apocalypse follow the epic story arc of the crew of the airship Weatherlight, their trek across several planes, and their ultimate role in defending Dominaria from the Phyrexian invasion.
The sets from Odyssey to Scourge, set in the era of upheaval after the Invasion, involve the Dominarian continent of Otaria and the struggle between various factions for the powerful artifact known as the Mirari.
The sets from Mirrodin to Fifth Dawn are set in the world of Mirrodin, where artificial and natural life are inseparably entwined.
Several Magic: The Gathering video games have their own storylines and worlds.
Starting with The Mending during Time Spiral, many of the stories revolve around the newly created, de-powered Planeswalkers. These characters recur in multiple sets, and may receive reprints or entirely new cards in new sets.
Reception
In 2016, Cameron Kunzelman, for Paste, highlighted the Kaladesh storyline and wrote: "This might be the appropriate time to say that the Kaladesh leans very hard into the visual stylings of a fantastical, precolonial India (as one of the set’s key characters, Saheeli Rai, might suggest). While I can’t speak to how successful they have been at synthesizing the cultural references with the fantasy elements, my general impression is that the gesture toward Indian culture is just that: a vague gesture. I’ve yet to see a card that really felt like it “landed” in that cultural space. At the same time, Magic has gotten better and better at melding the mechanical elements of the game with the narrative ones, and Kaladesh is the best that this current formation of the company has done so far".
In 2018, Kunzelman, for Kotaku, highlighted a card from 1993 that was reprinted as part of the 25th anniversary — the newer card now has an elaboration on how it connects to the Planeswalker Liliana Vess. Kunzelman wrote: "This is the smallest trickle of narrative, literally buried at the bottom of a card, and yet it allows a player who is familiar with the game to grasp onto it and get a huge amount of new contextual information about the world [...]. It’s a really great touch that makes a world that we access through card stock to feel like it is a living, breathing world with its own mythology that we’ve been living in for the past 25 years. That’s the real selling point of this kind of contextual storytelling on collectable cards for me. [...] This story, appearing on the bottom of a card and giving a whole new dimension to a narrative I’m already familiar with, sells me on the idea that all the pieces matter. Each card is a piece of a larger world, and I’m supposed to pay attention to them and connect them up like breadcrumbs".
Aidan Moher, for Tor.com, wrote "Magic’s storytelling has come a long way from its early days. It’s no longer a plain fantasy world filled with generic tchotchkes and epic fantasy tropes. It’s grown into something way bigger and more expansive than Richard Garfield, the game’s creator, could have ever imagined. Magic was my gateway into fantasy—and as an adult, I’m stilled thrilled by its ever-expanding world. [...] It’s also an experience shared by the game’s millions of players—a story of community and hope, overcoming odds, coming together over a shared love of the game, and, of course, blasting dragons with lightning bolts".
In 2018, Sam Keeper, for CoolStuffInc, wrote "It's bewildering that the main website of this game offers no comprehensive list of all the art books, novels, comics, and webcomics, with new releases coming out this very week highlighted and promoted all over every relevant article. This is the kind of thing bloggers and webcomic artists recognize the need to establish, so why does a company owned by Hasbro have such a disorganized back-and-current catalog? For goodness sake, this has actually gotten worse recently, with the former list of ebooks getting killed in the still buggy and archive-destroying site redesign a few years back. Even that, mind, was a bizarre mess, with single books missing from trilogies on different platforms, and no mention of Godsend, which had come out a month before this archive capture. Wizards seems to want to turn the storyline, somehow, into a global franchise and brand, but they seem pathologically unwilling to pay for the venture. [...] Certainly, it's hard to feel very invested in a fandom where I feel so little like I know what's going on, what is being released when, and how to actually give Wizards of the Coast my dang money!"
Book titles
Harper Prism
Wizards of the Coast
Dungeons & Dragons
The Magic Multiverse as a setting for Dungeons & Dragons was officially added to the game in November 2018.
Comics titles
Armada (Acclaim Comics)
Dark Horse Comics
IDW Publishing
Boom! Studios
References
External links
Wizards of the Coast's Magic Expansion Story Summaries
Phyrexia.com Storyline Central - information about major characters, places, and artifacts.
The Legends of Magic (Warning: information from this site is pre-revisionist and occasionally inaccurate)
The Wizards of the Coast Message Board -- Storyline Info Booth
MTGSalvation Wiki MTGSalvation Wiki with much storyline information
Magic: The Gathering
Fictional universes
Continuity (fiction) | [
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253432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTG | MTG | Mtg is as an abbreviation for the words "meeting" and "mortgage".
MTG may also refer to:
Businesses and organizations
Mağusa Türk Gücü S.K., a Turkish Cypriot sports club
Maria-Theresia-Gymnasium, a Munich school for gifted students
Metalogenia, a ground engaging tools company based in Spain
Metro Tunneling Group, joint venture of Five Companies
Modern Times Group, a Swedish media company and owner of Viasat and Metro International
Science and technology
Methanol to gasoline, a process for producing liquid hydrocarbons from methanol
Middle temporal gyrus, a region in the brain
Meteosat Third Generation, geostationary meteorological satellites built for EUMETSAT
Monothioglycerol, a thiol used in mass spectrometry and cell culturing
Other
Magic: The Gathering, a card game
Marjorie Taylor Greene (born 1974), Republican member of the United States House of Representatives
MTG Hawke's Bay, a museum, art gallery and theatre in New Zealand
Mind the Gap, a train announcement | [
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] |
253433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillian%20Chan | Gillian Chan | Gillian Chan (born 1954) is a Canadian children's author who lives in Dundas, Ontario.
She was educated at Orange Hill Grammar School and the University of East Anglia (BEd, 1980).
Chan is also the author of a short diary entry of Chin Mei-ling's during the Christmas week a year or so after the original diary ended for the Christmas treasury from the Dear Canada series, A Season for Miracles: Twelve Tales of Christmas.
On October 27, 2006, Chan competed on the television show Jeopardy!, finishing in last place.
Works
Golden Girl and Other Stories - 1994
Glory Days and Other Stories - 1996 (Nominated for a Governor General's Award)
The Carved Box - 2001
A Foreign Field - 2002
An Ocean Apart: The Gold Mountain Diary of Chin Mei-ling (Dear Canada) - 2004
The Turning - 2005
I Am Canada: A Call to Battle - 2012
References
1954 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of East Anglia
Canadian children's writers
People from Dundas, Ontario
Writers from Hamilton, Ontario | [
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253436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall%20Rot | Fall Rot | Fall Rot (Case Red) was the plan for a German military operation after the success of (Case Yellow), the Battle of France, an invasion of the Benelux countries and northern France. The Allied armies had been defeated and pushed back in the north to the Channel coast, which culminated in the Dunkirk evacuation. The operation to complete the conquest of France by the German Army began on 5 June 1940. began with a preliminary attack over the river Somme on the Channel Coast to the Seine, beginning on 5 June and the main offensive by Army Group A on 9 June further east over the river Aisne.
Background
French defensive preparations
By the end of May 1940, the best-equipped French armies had been sent north and lost in and the evacuation from Dunkirk, which cost the Allies French commander Maxime Weygand was faced with the prospect of defending a front from Sedan, along the Aisne and Somme rivers to Abbeville on the Channel, with divisions. The 51st (Highland) Infantry Division and a few British divisions being sent to French ports south of the Somme to form the "2nd BEF" were the only British contribution. Weygand lacked reserves to counter a breakthrough against divisions and the , which had air supremacy, except over the English Channel.
Between six and ten million civilian refugees had fled the fighting and clogged the roads, in what became known as (The Exodus) and few arrangements had been made for their reception. The population of Chartres declined from 23,000 to 800 and Lille from 200,000 to 20,000, while cities in the south such as Pau and Bordeaux rapidly grew in size.
Prelude
Battle of Abbeville
The Battle of Abbeville took place from the 28 May to 4 June 1940 near Abbeville during the Battle of France in the Second World War. While Operation Dynamo, the Dunkirk evacuation, was under way, Weygand tried to exploit the immobilisation of German forces, to attack northwards over the Somme and rescue the trapped Allied forces in the Dunkirk pocket. The attack was carried out by the French (2nd DCr, heavy armoured division) and (4th DCr) and the British 1st Armoured Division. The attacks reduced the size of the German bridgehead by about 50 per cent.
Weygand line
The French armies had fallen back on their lines of supply and communications and had easier access to repair shops, supply dumps and stores. About 112,000 evacuated French soldiers were repatriated via the Normandy and the Brittany ports. It was some substitute for the lost divisions in Flanders. The French were also able to make good a significant amount of their armoured/armored losses and raised the 1st and 2nd DCr; the 4th DCr also had its losses replaced; morale rose and was very high by the end of May 1940.
Morale improved because most French soldiers knew of German success only by hearsay; surviving French officers had gained tactical experience against German mobile units and had increased confidence in their weapons, after seeing their artillery (which the post-battle analysis of the recognised as technically excellent) and tanks perform better in combat than German armour. The French tanks had heavier armour/armor and bigger guns. Between 23 and 28 May, the French reconstituted the Seventh and Tenth armies. Weygand decided on hedgehog tactics, in defence in depth, to inflict maximum attrition on German units. He employed units in towns and small villages, which were prepared for all-round defence. Behind that, the new infantry, armoured and half-mechanised divisions were ready to counter-attack and relieve the surrounded units, which were ordered to hold out at all costs.
Battle
Army Group B attacked either side of Paris; in its 47 divisions it had the majority of the mobile units. After 48 hours, the Germans had not broken through the French defence. On the Aisne, the XVI (General Erich Hoepner) employed over 1,000 armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs) in two panzer divisions and a motorised division against the French. The assault was crude and Hoepner lost 80 out of 500 AFVs in the first attack. The German 4th Army had captured bridgeheads over the Somme but the Germans struggled to get over the Aisne as the French defence in depth frustrated the crossing. At Amiens, the Germans were repeatedly driven back by powerful French artillery concentrations, a marked improvement in French tactics.
The German Army relied on the to silence French artillery as the German infantry inched forward, only forcing crossings on the third day. The (French Air Force) attempted to bomb them but failed. German sources acknowledged the battle was "hard and costly in lives, the enemy putting up severe resistance, particularly in the woods and tree lines continuing the fight when our troops had pushed past the point of resistance". South of Abbeville, the French Tenth Army (General Robert Altmayer) had its front broken and it was forced to retreat to Rouen and southwards over the Seine river. The 7th Division headed west over the Seine river through Normandy and captured the port of Cherbourg on 18 June, forcing the surrender of much of the 51st (Highland) Division on 12 June. German spearheads were overextended and vulnerable to counter strokes but the denied the French the ability to concentrate and the fear of air attack negated their mass and mobile use by Weygand.
On 10 June, the French government declared Paris an open city. The German 18th Army advanced on Paris against determined French opposition but the line was broken in several places. Weygand asserted it would not take long for the French Army to disintegrate. On 13 June, Churchill attended a meeting of the Anglo-French Supreme War Council at Tours. He suggested a Franco-British Union, which the French rejected. On 14 June, Paris fell and the Parisians unable to flee the city found that in most cases the Germans were extremely well mannered.
The air superiority established by the became air supremacy, with the on the verge of collapse. The French had only just begun to make the majority of bomber sorties; between 5 and 9 June during Operation Paula, when over 1,815 sorties were flown, 518 by bombers. The number of sorties flown declined as losses became impossible to replace. The RAF attempted to divert the attention of the with 660 sorties flown against targets over the Dunkirk area but lost many aircraft; on 21 June, 37 Bristol Blenheims were destroyed. After 9 June, French aerial resistance virtually ceased and some surviving aircraft withdrew to French North Africa. attacks concentrated on the direct and indirect support of the army. The attacked lines of resistance which then quickly collapsed under armoured attack.
Maginot Line
Army Group C in the east was to help Army Group A to encircle and capture the French forces on the Maginot Line. The goal of the operation was to envelop the Metz region, with its fortifications, to prevent a French counter-offensive from Alsace against the German line on the Somme. The XIX (General Heinz Guderian) was to advance to the French border with Switzerland and trap the French forces in the Vosges Mountains while the XVI attacked the Maginot Line from the west, into its vulnerable rear to take the cities of Verdun, Toul and Metz. The French had moved the 2nd Army Group from the Alsace and Lorraine to the Weygand line on the Somme, leaving only small forces guarding the Maginot Line. After Army Group B had begun its offensive against Paris and into Normandy, Army Group A began its advance into the rear of the Maginot Line. On 15 June, Army Group C launched Operation Tiger, a frontal assault across the Rhine into France.
German attempts to break the Maginot Line prior to Tiger had failed. One assault lasted for eight hours at the north end of the line, costing the Germans 46 dead and 251 wounded for two French were killed at (Chappy Farm shelter) and one at . On 15 June, the last well-equipped French forces, including the Fourth Army, were preparing to leave as the Germans struck; only a skeleton force held the line. The Germans greatly outnumbered the French and could call upon I of seven divisions and 1,000 guns, although most were First World War vintage and could not penetrate the thick armour of the fortresses. Only 88 mm guns were effective and 16 were allocated to the operation; guns and eight railway batteries were also employed. The deployed .
The battle was difficult and slow progress was made against strong French resistance but the fortresses were overcome one by one. fired 15,802 rounds at German infantry. It was the most bombarded of all the French positions but its armour protected it from fatal damage. The same day that Tiger began, started. Five assault divisions of the VII crossed the Rhine into the Colmar area with a view to advancing to the Vosges Mountains. It had 400 artillery pieces including heavy artillery and mortars. The French 104th Division and 105th Division were driven back into the Vosges Mountains on 17 June. On the same day, XIX reached the Swiss border and the Maginot defences were cut off from France. Most units surrendered on 25 June and the Germans claimed to have taken 500,000 prisoners. Some main fortresses continued the fight, despite appeals for surrender. The last fort did not surrender until 10 July and then only under protest and after a request from General Alphonse Georges. Of the 58 big fortifications on the Maginot Line, ten were captured by the German army.
Aftermath
Second BEF evacuation
The evacuation of the second BEF took place during Operation Aerial between 15 and 25 June. The Luftwaffe, with complete domination of the French skies, was determined to prevent more Allied evacuations after the Dunkirk debacle. was assigned to the Normandy and Brittany sectors. On 9 and 10 June, the port of Cherbourg was subject to 15 tonnes of German bombs, while Le Havre received 10 bombing attacks that sank 2,949 GRT of escaping Allied shipping. On 17 June, Junkers Ju 88s (mainly from 30) sank a "10,000 tonne ship" which was the 16,243 GRT liner off St Nazaire, killing some 4,000 Allied personnel (nearly doubling the British killed in the Battle of France), yet the failed to prevent the evacuation of some 190,000–200,000 Allied personnel.
Armistice
Discouraged by the hostile reaction in the cabinet to a British proposal for a Franco-British Union and believing his ministers no longer supported him, Prime Minister Paul Reynaud resigned on 16 June. He was succeeded by Marshal Philippe Pétain, who delivered a radio address to the French people, announcing his intention to ask for an armistice with Germany. When Hitler received word from the French government that they wished to negotiate an armistice, he selected the Forest of Compiègne, the site of the 1918 Armistice, as the venue. On 21 June 1940, Hitler visited the site to start the negotiations, which took place in the railway carriage in which the 1918 Armistice was signed. After listening to the preamble, Hitler left the carriage in a calculated gesture of disdain for the French delegates and negotiations were turned over to Wilhelm Keitel, the Chief of Staff of Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW). The armistice was signed on the next day at 6:36 p.m. (French time), by General Keitel for Germany and General Charles Huntziger for France and came into effect at 12:35 a.m. on 25 June, once the Franco-Italian Armistice had been signed, at 6:35 p.m. on 24 June, near Rome.
Italy
Italy declared war on France and Britain on the evening of 10 June, to take effect just after midnight. The two sides exchanged air raids on the first day of war but little transpired on the Alpine front, since both France and Italy had adopted a defensive strategy. There was some skirmishing between patrols and the French forts of the exchanged fire with their Italian counterparts of the . On 17 June, France announced that it would seek an armistice with Germany and on 21 June, with a Franco-German armistice about to be signed, the Italians launched a general offensive all along the Alpine front, with the main attack in the northern sector and a secondary advance along the coast. The offensive was conducted by 32 Italian divisions and penetrated a few kilometres into French territory, against the Army of the Alps (General René Olry) which held the frontier with three divisions. The coastal town of Menton was captured but on the Côte d'Azur the invasion was held up by a French NCO and seven men. On the evening of 24 June, a Franco-Italian Armistice was signed at Rome and came into effect at the same time as the Second Armistice at Compiègne with Germany (22 June), just after midnight on 25 June.
See also
List of Axis operational codenames in the European Theatre
List of French military equipment of World War II
List of German military equipment of World War II
Footnotes
References
Books
Journals
Further reading
External links
Maginot Line at War
Rot
Conflicts in 1940
Military operations of World War II involving Germany | [
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253441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20VI%20the%20Wise | Leo VI the Wise | Leo VI, called the Wise (, 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well read, leading to his epithet. During his reign, the renaissance of letters, begun by his predecessor Basil I, continued; but the Empire also saw several military defeats in the Balkans against Bulgaria and against the Arabs in Sicily and the Aegean. His reign also witnessed the formal discontinuation of several ancient Roman institutions, such as the separate office of Roman consul.
Early life
Born on 19 September 866 to the empress Eudokia Ingerina, Leo was either the illegitimate son of Emperor Michael III or the second son of Michael's successor, Basil I the Macedonian. Eudokia was both Michael III's mistress and Basil's wife. In 867, Michael was assassinated by Basil, who succeeded him as emperor. As the second-eldest son of the Emperor, Leo was associated on the throne in 870 and became the direct heir on the death of his older half-brother Constantine in 879. However, Leo and Basil did not like each other; a relationship that only deteriorated after Eudokia's death, when Leo, unhappy with his marriage to Theophano, took up a mistress in the person of Zoe Zaoutzaina. Basil married Zoe off to an insignificant official, and later almost had Leo blinded when he was accused of conspiring against him. On 29 August 886, Basil died in a hunting accident, though he claimed on his deathbed that there was an assassination attempt in which Leo was possibly involved.
Domestic policy
One of the first actions of Leo VI after his succession was the reburial, with great ceremony, of the remains of Michael III in the imperial mausoleum within the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. This contributed to the suspicion that Leo was (or at least believed himself to be) in truth Michael's son. Seeking political reconciliation, the new emperor secured the support of the officials in the capital, and surrounded himself with bureaucrats like Stylianos Zaoutzes (the father of his mistress, Zoe Zaoutzaina) and the eunuch Samonas, an Arab defector whom Leo raised to the rank of patrikios and who stood in as godfather to Leo's son, Constantine VII. His attempts to control the great aristocratic families (e.g., the Phokadai and the Doukai) occasionally led to serious conflicts, the most significant being the revolt of Andronikos Doukas in 906.
Leo also attempted to involve himself in the church through his arbitrary interference with the patriarchate. Using his former tutor Patriarch Photios's excommunication by Pope John VIII as an excuse, Leo dismissed him and replaced him with his own 19-year-old brother Stephen in December 886. On Stephen's death in 893, Leo replaced him with Zaoutzes' nominee, Antony II Kauleas, who died in 901. Leo then promoted his own Imperial secretary (mystikos) Nicholas, but suspicions that he was involved in the failed assassination attempt against Leo in 903 as well as his opposition to Leo's fourth marriage saw Nicholas replaced with Leo's spiritual father Euthymios in 907.
The magnificent Church of Ayios Lazaros in Larnaca was constructed during the rule of Leo VI in the late 9th century, and it was built after the relics of St. Lazaros were transported from Crete to Constantinople. The church is one of the best examples of Byzantine architecture. Leo also completed work on the Basilika, the Greek translation and update of the law code issued by Justinian I, which had been started during the reign of Basil.
Bishop Liutprand of Cremona gives an account similar to those about Caliph Harun al-Rashid, to the effect that Leo would sometimes disguise himself and go about Constantinople looking for injustice or corruption. According to one story, he was even captured by the city guards during one of his investigations. Late in the evening, he was walking alone and disguised. Though he bribed two patrols with 12 nomismata and moved on, a third city patrol arrested him. When a terrified guardian recognized the jailed ruler in the morning, the arresting officer was rewarded for doing his duty, while the other patrols were dismissed and punished severely.
Foreign policy
Leo VI's fortune in war was more mixed than Basil's had been. In indulging his chief counselor Stylianos Zaoutzes, Leo provoked a war with Simeon I of Bulgaria in 894, but he was defeated. Bribing the Magyars to attack the Bulgarians from the north, Leo scored an indirect success in 895. However, deprived of his new allies, he lost the major Battle of Boulgarophygon in 896 and had to make the required commercial concessions and to pay annual tribute.
Although he won a victory in 900 against the Emirate of Tarsus, in which the Arab army was destroyed and the Emir himself captured, in the west the Emirate of Sicily took Taormina, the last Byzantine outpost on the island of Sicily, in 902. Nevertheless, Leo continued to apply pressure on his eastern frontier through the creation of the new thema of Mesopotamia, a Byzantine invasion of Armenia in 902, and the sacking of Theodosiopolis, as well as successful raids in the Arab Thughur.
Then, in 904 the renegade Leo of Tripolis sacked Thessalonica with his pirates—an event described in The Capture of Thessalonica by John Kaminiates—while a large-scale expedition to recover Crete under Himerios in 911–912 failed disastrously. Nevertheless, the same period also saw the establishment of the important frontier provinces (kleisourai) of Lykandos and Leontokome on territory recently taken from the Arabs. In 907 Constantinople was attacked by the Kievan Rus' under Oleg of Novgorod, who was seeking favourable trading rights with the empire. Leo paid them off, but they attacked again in 911, and a trade treaty was finally signed.
Marriages
Leo VI caused a major scandal with his numerous marriages which failed to produce a legitimate heir to the throne. His first wife Theophano, whom Basil had forced him to marry on account of her family connections to the Martinakioi, and whom Leo hated, died in 897, and Leo married Zoe Zaoutzaina, the daughter of his adviser Stylianos Zaoutzes, though she died as well in 899. Upon this marriage Leo created the title of basileopatōr ("father of the emperor") for his father-in-law.
After Zoe's death a third marriage was technically illegal, but he married again, only to have his third wife Eudokia Baïana die in 901. Instead of marrying a fourth time, which would have been an even greater sin than a third marriage (according to the Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos) Leo took as mistress Zoe Karbonopsina. He married her only after she had given birth to a son in 905, but incurred the opposition of the patriarch. Replacing Nicholas Mystikos with Euthymios, Leo got his marriage recognized by the church (albeit with a long penance attached, and with an assurance that Leo would outlaw all future fourth marriages).
Succession
The future Constantine VII was the illegitimate son born before Leo's uncanonical fourth marriage to Zoe Karbonopsina. To strengthen his son's position as heir, Leo had Constantine crowned as co-emperor on 15 May 908, when he was only two years old. Leo VI died on 11 May 912. He was succeeded by his younger brother Alexander, who had reigned as emperor alongside his father and brother since 879.
Works
Leo VI was a prolific writer, and he produced works on many different topics and in many styles, including political orations, liturgical poems, and theological treatises. On many occasions he would personally deliver highly wrought and convoluted sermons in the churches of Constantinople.
In the subject matter of legal works and treatises, he established a legal commission that carried out his father's original intent of codifying all of existing Byzantine law. The end result was a six-volume work consisting of 60 books, entitled the Basilika. Written in Greek, the Basilika translated and systematically arranged practically all of the laws preserved in the Corpus Juris Civilis, thereby providing a foundation upon which all later Byzantine laws could be built. Leo then began integrating new laws issued during his reign into the Basilika. Called "Novels", or "New Laws", these were codes that dealt with current problems and issues, such as the prohibition on fourth marriages. Both the Basilika and the Novels were concerned with ecclesiastical law (canon law) as well as secular law. Most importantly, from a historical perspective, they finally did away with much of the remaining legal and constitutional architecture that the Byzantine Empire had inherited from the Roman Empire, and even from the days of the Roman Republic. Obsolete institutions such as the Curiae, the Roman Senate, even the Consulate, were finally removed from a legal perspective, even though these still continued in a lesser, decorative form.
The supposed Book of the Eparch and the Kletorologion of Philotheos were also issued under Leo's name and testify to his government's interest in organization and the maintenance of public order. The Book of the Eparch described the rules and regulations for trade and trade organizations in Constantinople, while the Kletorologion was an attempt to standardize officials and ranks at the Byzantine court. Leo is also the author, or at least sponsor, of the Tactica, a notable treatise on military operations.
Succeeding generations saw Leo as a prophet and a magician, and soon a collection of oracular poems and some short divinatory texts, the so-called Oracles of Leo the Wise, at least in part based on earlier Greek sources, were attached to the Emperor's name in later centuries and were believed to foretell the future of the world.
Finally, Leo is credited with translating the relics of St. Lazarus to Constantinople in the year 890. There are several stichera (hymns) attributed to him that are chanted on Lazarus Saturday in the Eastern Orthodox Church. He also composed hymns that are sung on the Great Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross.
Family
By his first wife, Theophano Martinakia, Leo VI had one daughter:
Eudokia, who died in 892.
By his second wife, Zoe Zaoutzaina, Leo had one daughter:
Anna, betrothed and married to the Holy Roman Emperor Louis the Blind, though Dr. Shaun Tougher, Reader in Ancient History at Cardiff University, doubts they were married.
By his third wife, Eudokia Baïana, Leo had one son:
Basil, who survived for only a few days.
By his fourth wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, Leo had two children:
Anna
Constantine VII.
See also
List of Byzantine emperors
References
Sources
Finlay, George History of the Byzantine Empire from 716 – 1057, Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1853
Gregory, Timothy, E., A History of Byzantium, Blackwell Publishing, 2005
Treadgold, Warren A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997
External links
French translations of a Turkish-language compendium of divinatory works, including some ascribed to Leo the Sage available at .
Greek text with Migne's Latin translation of Leo's works at
The Mosaic of Leo VI in the Narthex of Hagia Sophia
Digitalized manuscripts of Leo VI the Wise at the Princeton University Library
9th-century Byzantine emperors
10th-century Byzantine emperors
Macedonian dynasty
Byzantine hymnographers
Byzantine composers
Medieval Greek military writers
866 births
912 deaths
Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles
Byzantine prisoners and detainees
880s in the Byzantine Empire
890s in the Byzantine Empire
900s in the Byzantine Empire
910s in the Byzantine Empire
9th-century Byzantine writers
10th-century Byzantine writers
9th-century composers
10th-century composers
Sons of Byzantine emperors
9th-century Greek musicians
10th-century Greek musicians | [
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253445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20%28Byzantine%20emperor%29 | Alexander (Byzantine emperor) | Alexander Porphyrogenitus (, Alexandros, 23 November 8706 June 913) was briefly Byzantine emperor from 912 to 913.
Life
Alexander was the third son of Emperor Basil I and Eudokia Ingerina. Unlike his older brother Leo VI the Wise, his paternity was not disputed between Basil I and Michael III because he was born years after the death of Michael. As a child, Alexander was crowned as co-emperor by his father around 879.
Upon the death of his brother Leo on 11 May 912, Alexander succeeded as senior emperor alongside Leo's young son Constantine VII. He was the first Byzantine emperor to use the term "autocrator" () on coinage to celebrate the ending of his thirty-three years as co-emperor. Alexander promptly dismissed most of Leo's advisers and appointees, including the admiral Himerios, the patriarch Euthymios, and the Empress Zoe Karbonopsina, the mother of Constantine VII whom he locked up in a nunnery. The patriarchate was again conferred on Nicholas Mystikos, who had been removed from this position because he had opposed Leo's fourth marriage. During his short reign, Alexander found himself attacked by the forces of Al-Muqtadir of the Abbasid Caliphate in the East, and provoked a war with Simeon I of Bulgaria by refusing to send the traditional tribute on his accession. Alexander died soon after, allegedly because of a stomach disease caused by a night of excessive eating and alcohol.
The sources are uniformly hostile towards Alexander, who is depicted as lazy, lecherous, drunk, and malignant, including the rumor that he planned to castrate the young Constantine VII in order to exclude him from the succession. At least that charge did not come to pass, but Alexander left his successor a hostile regent (Nicholas Mystikos) and the beginning of a long war against Bulgaria. The sources also accused the Emperor of idolatry, including making pagan sacrifices to the golden statue of a boar in the Hippodrome in hope of curing his impotence.
See also
List of Byzantine emperors
Notes
References
Sources
10th-century Byzantine emperors
Macedonian dynasty
870 births
913 deaths
Porphyrogennetoi
9th-century Byzantine people
910s in the Byzantine Empire
Sons of Byzantine emperors | [
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253447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost | Almost | In set theory, when dealing with sets of infinite size, the term almost or nearly is used to refer to all but a negligible amount of elements in the set. The notion of "negligible" depends on the context, and may mean "of measure zero" (in a measure space), "finite" (when infinite sets are involved), or "countable" (when uncountably infinite sets are involved).
For example:
The set is almost for any in , because only finitely many natural numbers are less than .
The set of prime numbers is not almost , because there are infinitely many natural numbers that are not prime numbers.
The set of transcendental numbers are almost , because the algebraic real numbers form a countable subset of the set of real numbers (which is uncountable).
The Cantor set is uncountably infinite, but has Lebesgue measure zero. So almost all real numbers in (0, 1) are members of the complement of the Cantor set.
See also
Almost all
Almost surely
Approximation
List of mathematical jargon
References
Mathematical terminology
Set theory
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253448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomobile%20Company%20of%20America | Locomobile Company of America | The Locomobile Company of America was a pioneering American automobile manufacturer founded in 1899, and known for its dedication to precision before the assembly-line era. It was one of the earliest car manufacturers in the advent of the automobile age. For the first two years after its founding, the company was located in Watertown, Massachusetts. Production was transferred to Bridgeport, Connecticut, in 1900, where it remained until the company's demise in 1929. The company manufactured affordable, small steam cars until 1903, when production switched entirely to internal combustion-powered luxury automobiles. Locomobile was taken over in 1922 by Durant Motors and eventually went out of business in 1929. All cars ever produced by the original company were always sold under the brand name Locomobile.
History
The Locomobile Company of America was founded in 1899, the name coined from "locomotive" and "automobile". John B. Walker, editor and publisher of Cosmopolitan, bought the plans for an early steam-powered vehicle produced by Francis and Freelan Stanley for a price they could not resist, US$250,000 (). At the time, one car had been built, and 199 more had been ordered. Walker promptly sold half of his interest to paving contractor Amzi L. Barber for the same price as he had purchased the entire company. Walker and Barber's partnership lasted two weeks. Walker went on to found Mobile Company of America at the Stanley works in Tarrytown, New York, while Barber moved house to Bridgeport, Connecticut, as Locomobile, where the Stanley twins were named general managers. The Stanley twins founded the Stanley Motor Carriage Company in 1902, becoming the sharpest rival to Locomobile.
Locomobile began by producing steam cars. The steam Locomobiles were unreliable, finicky to operate, prone to kerosene fires, had small water tanks (getting only per tank), and took time to raise steam; author Rudyard Kipling described one example as a "nickel-plated fraud". Initially, they were offered with a single body style only, an inexpensive runabout at $600 (). Nevertheless, they were a curiosity and middle-class Americans clamoured for the latest technology. Salesmen, doctors, and people needing quick mobility found them useful. More than 4,000 were built between 1899 and 1902.
In 1901, Locomobile offered seven body styles at prices between $600 () and $1,400 (). Most Locomobiles had simple twin-cylinder engines (3x4 in, 76.2x102 mm; 57 in3, 927 cm3) and a wire-wrapped 300-psi boiler, and burned the liquid fuel naphtha to create steam. Typical of the product was the 1904 Runabout, which seated two passengers and sold for $750 (). The two-cylinder steam engine was situated amidships of the wood-framed car. By now, the car had improved boilers and a new water pump, manufactured by the Overman Wheel Company in Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts. This company itself built the Victor Steamer.
During the Boer War, Locomobile did establish a new mark of sorts, becoming the first automobile to be used in war; it was a generator and searchlight tractor used to dismantle the Klein Nek minefield. It also served as a catering vehicle, with the useful ability (in British eyes, at least) of being able to brew a cup of tea by tapping the boiler.
This was, unfortunately, not a sure way to guarantee commercial success, even in Britain, and Locomobile started experimenting with gasoline internal combustion engines in 1902, starting with a four-cylinder, steel-chassis model designed by Andrew L. Riker. This encouraged the firm to drop steam vehicles the following year, selling the Stanley brothers back their rights for $20,000. In 1903, Barber relinquished his position to his son-in-law Samuel Todd Davis, Jr., who became President of the Locomobile Company.
Switch to internal combustion engines
The 1904 internal combustion Locomobile Touring car had a tonneau and space for five passengers, and sold for $4500, quite a change from the low-priced steam buggies. The front-mounted, vertical, water-cooled straight-four engine produced . A three-speed sliding transmission was used, as on the Système Panhard cars with which it competed. The angle steel-framed car weighed . The 1908 Locomobile 40 Runabout was a two-seater and sold for $4,750 (). On the strength of recent competition successes, Locomobile soon became known for well-built and speedy luxury cars.
In competition
Like other early marques, Locomobile entered motor racing, contesting the 1905 Gordon Bennett Cup with a racer; after suffering a transmission gear failure, and with no spare available, driver Joe Tracy only managed two circuits of Auvergne before the transmission packed up entirely. Tracy did better for the company at the Vanderbilt Cup, placing third. A , F-head was damaged by tire trouble, so Tracy failed again in the 1906 Vanderbilt, but in 1908, George Robertson (wearing number 16) took the win in this car, ahead of fellow Locomobile pilot Joe Florida in third, becoming the first United States-built car to win in international competition. This was the high-water mark for Locomobile racing, and they soon faded from the scene, though Orin Davis did score a win in the Los Angeles–Phoenix rally in 1913. In 1925, the Locomobile team entered a front-wheel-drive Miller car called the "Junior Eight Special" after their recently introduced smaller car at the Indianapolis 500, but there was nothing Locomobile about it aside from the name.
Model 48 and the Durant years
The most important model for the marque became the impressive Model 48. Introduced in 1911 as the "type M," it had a very conservative, perhaps dated, concept. It had a conventional but huge chassis with a wheelbase of . Its engine was a straight six with side valves; cylinders were still cast in pairs and it featured a nonremovable cylinder head. Displacement was , from a bore and stroke, giving it a 48.6-hp tax rating by the North American Chamber of Commerce. While called the "M" internally, this car is usually referred to by its tax hp rating. The brake horsepower rating was somewhere north of 90 for the original model, higher in the later versions. Quality of materials and workmanship were impeccable and among the best in the world. Such was also its pricing: A typical open-body cost about $10,000 when the average Model T Ford Phaeton cost about $300. Locomobile also offered custom designs for the lamps and metal work, carried out by Tiffany Studios. Until 1915, left- or right-hand drive could be specified, afterwards left-hand drive became standard. Right-hand drive cars were meant for export and sat on a chassis four inches shorter. Around 1919, the engine was updated with a longer stroke, for displacement while retaining the same tax hp rating.
A smaller "38 hp" model, very similar to the Model 48, was added in 1913. The model 38 has a , version of the T-head six and sits on a somewhat shorter wheelbase. By 1914, Locomobile had stopped selling all four-cylinder models to concentrate exclusively on sixes.
In July 1922, Locomobile was acquired by Durant Motors, which not only continued using the Locomobile brand name for their top-of-the-line autos until 1929, but also still produced the Model 48 until its demise in 1929. Until the mid-1920s, this car was Locomobile's only offering. In 1925, the marque brought out their first new model, the 8-66 Junior Eight, with a more contemporary straight-eight engine, and more importantly, a lower price of $1,785.
Introduction of the even smaller Junior Six was in 1926, but this car stayed only for one model year. The larger Model 90 that appeared in the same year was produced until 1929.
With the 8-70 of 1927, Locomobile added one more eight-cylinder car. Using an off the shelf Lycoming engine, this was not accepted as a true Locomobile in the marketplace and served to damage the company's reputation. In the following year, the Junior Eight 8-66 was phased out.
For 1929, a new 8-86 and 8-88 came out, but it was too late to save the company. Locomobile production ended in 1929.
Locomobile model specifications
Locomobile Model 48 Sportif
Locomobiles in fiction
A Locomobile is the setting for one of the final scenes of F. Scott Fitzgerald's first novel, This Side of Paradise, in which the protagonist, Amory Blaine, argues for socialism to the father of a college friend, who staunchly defends the capitalist ideal.
In the spring and summer of 1946, a seven-passenger 1911 Locomobile touring car was driven from Boston to Los Angeles and back as a promotional tour for the Columbia Pictures film Gallant Journey. While not appearing in the movie, the Locomobile attracted much attention for the picture on the tour.
In Thomas Savage's 1967 novel The Power of the Dog, set in the 1920s, the Locomobile is esteemed by protagonist Peter Johnson as a peer to the Pierce-Arrow: "... Those were the vehicles of the high and mighty, and he knew that only the Locomobile (fancied by old General Pershing, among others) rivaled the Pierce."
Clive Cussler's 2007 novel, The Chase, as well as his 2010 novel The Spy, featured a 1906 Locomobile.
In Dashiell Hammett's 1925 mystery story "Scorched Face", the rich girls for whom the Continental Op is looking, were driving a Locomobile "with a special cabriolet body" when they disappeared.
Papa LaBas from Ishmael Reed's 1972 novel Mumbo Jumbo drives a Locomobile.
The Locomobile is central to the 2015 historical novel by Lisa Begin-Kruysman titled Around the World in 1909: Harriet White Fisher and Her Locomobile. The novel is based on Harriet White Fisher's circumnavigation of the globe; the Locomobile is driven, hauled, pushed, and floated in places where no man, let alone woman, had yet explored, certainly not on wheels.
See also
List of defunct United States automobile manufacturers
References
Further reading
Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly (January 1904)
Ball, Donald L. The Genealogy of the Locomobile Steam Carriage, 1899–1904, 1994
External links
Old 16 Locomobile (VanderbiltCupRaces.com)
1906 Locomobile The story of the 1908 Vanderbilt Cup win
Locomobile Catalog on DurantCars site 1920s Locomobiles
Locomobile items on Henry Ford Museum site
Locomobile Society Home Page
Locomobile Advertising View the old locomobile ads
1923 Locomobile Model 48 Sportif in the 'Hemmings' magazine
Brass Era vehicles
Vintage vehicles
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers
Steam cars
Durant Motors
Companies based in Bridgeport, Connecticut
1899 establishments in Massachusetts
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1899
American companies established in 1899 | [
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253456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-defined%20expression | Well-defined expression | In mathematics, a well-defined expression or unambiguous expression is an expression whose definition assigns it a unique interpretation or value. Otherwise, the expression is said to be not well defined, ill defined or ambiguous. A function is well defined if it gives the same result when the representation of the input is changed without changing the value of the input. For instance, if f takes real numbers as input, and if f(0.5) does not equal f(1/2) then f is not well defined (and thus not a function). The term well defined can also be used to indicate that a logical expression is unambiguous or uncontradictory.
A function that is not well defined is not the same as a function that is undefined. For example, if f(x) = 1/x, then the fact that f(0) is undefined does not mean that the f is not well defined – but that 0 is simply not in the domain of f.
Example
Let be sets, let and "define" as if and if .
Then is well defined if . For example, if and , then would be well defined and equal to .
However, if , then would not be well defined because is "ambiguous" for . For example, if and , then would have to be both 0 and 1, which makes it ambiguous. As a result, the latter is not well defined and thus not a function.
"Definition" as anticipation of definition
In order to avoid the quotation marks around "define" in the previous simple example, the "definition" of could be broken down into two simple logical steps:
While the definition in step 1 is formulated with the freedom of any definition and is certainly effective (without the need to classify it as "well defined"), the assertion in step 2 has to be proved. That is, is a function if and only if , in which case – as a function – is well defined.
On the other hand, if , then for an , we would have that and , which makes the binary relation not functional (as defined in Binary relation#Special types of binary relations) and thus not well defined as a function. Colloquially, the "function" is also called ambiguous at point (although there is per definitionem never an "ambiguous function"), and the original "definition" is pointless.
Despite these subtle logical problems, it is quite common to anticipatorily use the term definition (without apostrophes) for "definitions" of this kind – for three reasons:
It provides a handy shorthand of the two-step approach.
The relevant mathematical reasoning (i.e., step 2) is the same in both cases.
In mathematical texts, the assertion is "up to 100%" true.
Independence of representative
The question of well definedness of a function classically arises when the defining equation of a function does not (only) refer to the arguments themselves, but (also) to elements of the arguments, serving as representatives. This is sometimes unavoidable when the arguments are cosets and the equation refers to coset representatives. The result of a function application must then not depend on the choice of representative.
Functions with one argument
For example, consider the following function
where and are the integers modulo m and denotes the congruence class of n mod m.
N.B.: is a reference to the element , and is the argument of .
The function is well defined, because
As a counter example, the converse definition
does not lead to a well defined function, since e.g. equals in , but the first would be mapped by to , while the second would be mapped to , and and are unequal in .
Operations
In particular, the term well defined is used with respect to (binary) operations on cosets. In this case one can view the operation as a function of two variables and the property of being well defined is the same as that for a function. For example, addition on the integers modulo some n can be defined naturally in terms of integer addition.
The fact that this is well defined follows from the fact that we can write any representative of as , where is an integer. Therefore,
and similarly for any representative of , thereby making the same irrespective of the choice of representative.
Well-defined notation
For real numbers, the product is unambiguous because (and hence the notation is said to be well defined). This property, also known as associativity of multiplication, guarantees that the result does not depend on the sequence of multiplications, so that a specification of the sequence can be omitted.
The subtraction operation, on the other hand, is not associative. However, there is a convention that is shorthand for , thus it is "well defined".
Division is also non-associative. However, in the case of , parenthesization conventions are not so well established, so this expression is often considered ill defined.
Unlike with functions, the notational ambiguities can be overcome more or less easily by means of additional definitions (e.g., rules of precedence, associativity of the operator). For example, in the programming language C the operator - for subtraction is left-to-right-associative, which means that a-b-c is defined as (a-b)-c, and the operator = for assignment is right-to-left-associative, which means that a=b=c is defined as a=(b=c). In the programming language APL there is only one rule: from right to left – but parentheses first.
Other uses of the term
A solution to a partial differential equation is said to be well defined if it is determined by the boundary conditions in a continuous way as the boundary conditions are changed.
See also
Definitionism
Existence
Uniqueness
Uniqueness quantification
Undefined
References
Notes
Sources
Contemporary Abstract Algebra, Joseph A. Gallian, 6th Edition, Houghlin Mifflin, 2006, .
Algebra: Chapter 0, Paolo Aluffi, . Page 16.
Abstract Algebra, Dummit and Foote, 3rd edition, . Page 1.
Definition
Mathematical terminology | [
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253459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesley%20Choyce | Lesley Choyce | Lesley Choyce (born 21 March 1951) (m. Linda Choyce) is a Canadian author of novels, non-fiction, children's books, young adult novels, and poetry.
He is the author of more than 100 books for adults, teens and children, and teaches in the English department and transition year program at Dalhousie University. He is a year-round surfer and founding member of the 1990s spoken word rock band The SurfPoets. Choyce also runs Pottersfield Press, a small literary publishing house. He hosted the national TV show Off The Page for many years. His books have been translated into Spanish, French, German and Danish, and he has been awarded the Dartmouth Book Award and the Ann Connor Brimer Award.
He lives at Lawrencetown Beach, Nova Scotia.
References
Canadian Who's Who. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, etc..
Contemporary Authors, Volume 130. Chicago: Gale Research, 1989.
Contemporary Authors, Volume 211. Chicago: Thompson Gale, 2004. (feature biography).
Dictionary of International Biography. Cambridge: International Bibliographic Centre, 1999.
International Authors and Writers Who's Who. Cambridge: Int. Bibliographic Centre, 1996.
International Who's Who. London: Routledge, 2009.
Something About Authors. Chicago: Gale Research, 1997.
Who's Who in America. Chicago: Marquis Publishing, 1985.
Who's Who of North American Poets. Cornwall, Ont.: Vesta Publishing, 1987.
Who's Who in Canadian Literature. Toronto: Reference Press, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, etc.
Who's Who in the World. Eight Ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Marquis, 1993.
Who's Who in Entertainment. New Providence, NJ: Marquis, 1997.
External links
Lesley Choyce
1951 births
Living people
American emigrants to Canada
Canadian male novelists
20th-century Canadian poets
21st-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
Canadian children's writers
Graduate Center, CUNY alumni
Montclair State University alumni
Writers from Halifax, Nova Scotia
People from Riverside Township, New Jersey
Rutgers University alumni
Canadian male poets
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian male writers | [
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253465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerable | Vulnerable | Vulnerable may refer to:
General
Vulnerability
Vulnerability (computing)
Vulnerable adult
Vulnerable species
Music
Albums
Vulnerable (Marvin Gaye album), 1997
Vulnerable (Tricky album), 2003
Vulnerable (The Used album), 2012
Songs
"Vulnerable" (Roxette song), 1994
"Vulnerable" (Selena Gomez song), 2020
"Vulnerable", a song by Secondhand Serenade from Awake, 2007
"Vulnerable", a song by Pet Shop Boys from Yes, 2009
"Vulnerable", a song by Tinashe from Black Water, 2013
"Vulnerability", a song by Operation Ivy from Energy, 1989
Other uses
Climate change vulnerability, vulnerability to anthropogenic climate change used in discussion of society's response to climate change
Vulnerable, a scoring feature of the game of contract bridge where larger bonuses and penalties apply; see Glossary of contract bridge terms#Vulnerable
See also | [
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253478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin%20Clarke%20%28novelist%29 | Austin Clarke (novelist) | Austin Ardinel Chesterfield "Tom" Clarke, (July 26, 1934 – June 26, 2016), was a Barbadian novelist, essayist, and short story writer who was based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Among his notable books are novels such as The Polished Hoe (2002), memoirs including Membering (2015), and two collections of poetry, Where the Sun Shines Best (2013) and In Your Crib (2015).
Early life and education
Austin Clarke was born in 1934 in St. James, Barbados, where he received his early education in Anglican schools. He taught at a rural school for three years. In 1955 he moved to Canada and attended the University of Toronto's Trinity College for two years.
Career
Clarke was a reporter at the Timmins Daily Press and the Globe and Mail before joining the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as a freelance journalist. He subsequently taught at several American universities, including Yale University (Hoyt fellow, 1968–70), Duke University (1971–72), and the University of Texas (visiting professor, 1973) and helped establish black studies programs at several universities.
In 1973 he was designated cultural attaché at the Barbadian embassy in Washington, DC. He was later General Manager of the Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation in Barbados (1975–77). He was writer in residence at Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec (1977), and at the University of Western Ontario (1978). He became a Canadian citizen in 1981. From 1988 to 1993 he served on the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada.
He was not the first Canadian writer of African origin, that distinction belonging to 19th-Century author Amelia E. Johnson. However, George Elliott Clarke says that Austin Clarke was "the author of African descent in English, in Canada, that anyone who was interested in being a writer would have to be aware of, to challenge as well." In September 2012, at the International Festival of Authors, Clarke was announced as the winner of the $10,000 Harbourfront Festival Prize "on the merits of his published work and efforts in fostering literary talent in new and aspiring writers". Previous recipients of the award (established in 1984) include: Dionne Brand, Wayson Choy, Christopher Dewdney, Helen Humphreys, Paul Quarrington, Peter Robinson, Seth, Jane Urquhart, and Guy Vanderhaeghe. Clarke was reported as saying: "I rejoiced when I saw that Authors at Harbourfront Centre had named me this year's winner of the Harbourfront Festival Prize. I did not come to this city on September 29, 1959, as a writer. I came as a student. However, my career as a writer buried any contention of being a scholar and I thank Authors at Harbourfront Centre for saving me from the more painful life of the 'gradual student.' It is an honour to be part of such a prestigious list of authors."
An outspoken intellectual, he avoided talking about multiculturalism, hoping his own term omniculturalism could be accepted by people from both the political left and right. He ran as a Progressive Conservative candidate in the 1977 Ontario general election.
Clarke died on June 26, 2016, at the age of 81 in Toronto.
Selected awards and honours
1980, Casa de las Américas Prize, Cuba
1992, Toronto Arts Award for Lifetime Achievement in Literature
1997, Lifetime Achievement Award from Frontier College in Toronto
1998, Member of the Order of Canada.
1999, Martin Luther King Jr. Achievement Award for Excellence in Writing.
1999, W. O. Mitchell Literary Prize
2002, Giller Prize, for The Polished Hoe
2003, Commonwealth Writers' Prize
2009, Toronto Book Award, for More.
2012, Harbourfront Festival Prize
Bibliography
Novels
The Survivors of the Crossing (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1964)
Amongst Thistles and Thorns (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1965)
The Meeting Point (Toronto: Macmillan, 1967; Boston: Little, Brown, 1972)
Storm of Fortune (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973)
The Bigger Light (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975)
The Prime Minister (Don Mills, Ont.: General Publishing, 1977)
Proud Empires (London: Gollancz, 1986; Penguin-Viking, 1988, )
The Origin of Waves (McClelland & Stewart, 1997; winner of the Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize)
The Question (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1999; nominated for a Governor General's Award)
The Polished Hoe (Toronto: Thomas Allen, 2002; winner of the Giller Prize and the Commonwealth Writers' Prize)
More (2008, winner of the City of Toronto Book Award)
Short story collections
When He Was Free and Young and He Used to Wear Silks (Toronto: Anansi, 1971; revised edition Little, Brown, 1973)
When Women Rule (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1985)
Nine Men Who Laughed (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1986)
In This City (Toronto: Exile Editions, 1992)
There Are No Elders (Toronto: Exile Editions, 1993)
The Austin Clarke Reader, ed. Barry Callaghan (Toronto: Exile Editions, 1996)
Choosing His Coffin: The Best Stories of Austin Clarke (Toronto: Thomas Allen, 2003)
They Never Told Me: and Other Stories (Holstein, ON: Exile Editions, 2013)
Canadian Experience (Toronto: Exile Editions, 1994)
Poetry
Where the Sun Shines Best (Toronto: Guernica Editions, 2013)
In Your Crib (Toronto: Guernica Editions, 2015)
Memoirs
Growing Up Stupid Under the Union Jack: a Memoir (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1980; Thomas Allen, 2005, )
"A Stranger In A Strange Land", The Globe and Mail, Toronto, 15 August 1990, p. 30.
Public Enemies: Police Violence and Black Youth (Toronto: HarperCollins, 1992)
A Passage Back Home: A Personal Reminiscence of Samuel Selvon (Toronto: Exile Editions, 1994)
Pigtails 'n Breadfruit: A Culinary Memoir (New Press, 1999); as Pigtails 'n' Breadfruit: The Rituals of Slave Food, A Barbadian Memoir (Toronto: Random House, 1999; University of Toronto Press, 2001); Pig Tails 'n' Breadfruit - Anniversary Edition (Ian Randle Publishers, 2014, )
Love and Sweet Food: A Culinary Memoir (Toronto: Thomas Allen, 2004; )
′Membering (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2015)
References
External links
Austin Clarke interview by Linda Richards, January magazine, November 2002.
Famous Canadian Immigrant Authors
Austin Clarke's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia
"Austin Clarke", English-Canadian Writers, Athabasca University.
Carol Brennan, "Austin C. Clarke", Gale Contemporary Black Biography.
1934 births
2016 deaths
Barbadian emigrants to Canada
Black Canadian writers
Canadian male novelists
Canadian male short story writers
Members of the Order of Canada
Members of the Order of Ontario
Naturalized citizens of Canada
Writers from Toronto
University of Toronto alumni
Barbadian novelists
Barbadian male writers
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian short story writers
21st-century Canadian short story writers
Concordia University faculty
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian male writers
Barbadian poets
Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario candidates in Ontario provincial elections | [
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253479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Rogallo | Francis Rogallo | Francis Melvin Rogallo (January 27, 1912 – September 1, 2009) was an American aeronautical engineer inventor born in Sanger, California, U.S. Together with his wife, he is credited with the invention of the Rogallo wing, or "flexible wing", a precursor to the modern hang glider and paraglider. His patents were ranged over mechanical utility patents and ornamental design patents for wing controls, airfoils, target kite, flexible wing, and advanced configurations for flexible wing vehicles.
Career
Francis Rogallo earned an aeronautical engineering degree at Stanford University in 1935. Since 1936, Rogallo worked for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) as an aeronautics project engineer at the wind tunnels. During 1948, he and his wife, Gertrude Rogallo, invented and patented a self-inflating flexible kite. They called this kite the "flexible wing". Rogallo had originally invented the wing with the idea to create an aircraft which would be simple enough and inexpensive enough that anyone could have one. The wing was flown by Rogallo as a model glider with small payloads hung beneath the wing (thus model hang glider) and as a kite.
The Rogallo wing is one of the simplest airfoils ever created. A wing using the airfoil could be used to carry payloads, undercarriage devices, pilot-control assemblies, etc. For the next six years, the Rogallos tried ceaselessly to attract both government and industry interest in their flexible wing, and they licensed a manufacturer in Connecticut to sell a kite based on it. When the DuPont company announced the development of Mylar in 1952, Rogallo immediately saw how superior it would be for his kite, and the five-dollar toy "Flexikite" became one of the first products to use the plastic material. The Rogallos found themselves traveling to kiting events around the Northeast to fly and promote the toy, with moderate success.
On October 4, 1957, the Russian Sputnik began beeping its message from orbit, and everything changed. The space race caught the imagination of the newly formed NASA and Rogallo was in position to seize the opportunity. The Rogallos released their patent to the government, and with Rogallo's help at the wind tunnels, NASA began a series of experiments testing the Parawing (NASA renamed the Rogallo wing the Parawing, and modern hang glider pilots often refer to it as the flexible Rogallo wing) at altitudes up to 200,000 feet and as fast as Mach 3 in order to evaluate them as alternative recovery system for the Gemini space capsules and used rocket stages. By 1960, NASA had made test flights of a framed Parawing powered aircraft, called the "flying Jeep" or Fleep, and of a weight shift Parawing glider, called Paresev, in a series of several shapes and sizes, manned and unmanned. A key wing configuration applying Francis Rogallo's leadership that gave base to kited gliders with hung pilots using weight-shift control was designed by Charles Richards and constructed by the Richards team in 1961-2; such wing became a template for recreational use or Rogallo's inventions, ending up mechanically and ornamentally in Skiplane, ski-kites, and hang gliders of the 1960-1975.
In 1967, projects focused on the Parasev were stopped by NASA in favor of round parachutes. NASA was not in the business of applying Rogallo's family of airfoils to personal aircraft such as kites, hang gliders, and powered light aircraft; however what was already in the Paresev series of aircraft provided all the fundamental mechanics that could be simplified to lighter personal aircraft. That task of lightening and tweaking what the Paresev team had done with the Rogallo wing was taken up by independent designers around the world: Barry Palmer in 1961, Richard Miller, Thomas Purcell, and Australian Mike Burns were among the first to tap the technology for manned personal-craft glider/kite use.
As of 2003, Rogallo had new designs for kites.
Tens of thousands of people have taken hang gliding lessons in Rogallo wing type hang gliders at Jockey's Ridge State Park, an enormous sand dune which is located five miles from the site of the first powered aircraft flight. Mr. Rogallo was frequently seen at the park flying his own hang glider in the 1970s and 1980s.
Francis Rogallo died at home on September 1, 2009, in Southern Shores, North Carolina, near Kitty Hawk, the birthplace of aviation. Gertrude died on January 28, 2008.
The Rogallo name lives on as members of the United States Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association are called "Rogallo" members.
Patents
Lateral Control of Aircraft US Pat. 2322745, filed: Dec 13, 1940.
Flexible Kite US Pat. 2546078, filed Nov. 23, 1948. Co-inventor: Gertrude Sudgen Rogallo.
Flexible Kite US Pat. 2751172, filed Nov 17, 1953. Co-inventor: Gertrude Sudgen Rogallo.
Jet Aircraft Configuration US Pat. 2991961, filed May 6, 1959. Co-inventors: John M. Riebe and John G. Lowry.
Target Kite US Pat. 3296617, filed Jan 23, 1963.
Flexible Wing Vehicle Configurations US Pat. RE26380, filed April 29, 1963. And same date: US Pat. 3197158. And another of same date of filing: US Pat. 3185412
Control for Flexible Parawing US Pat. 3310261, filed Jan. 17, 1964.
Aeroflexible Structures US Pat. 3443779, filed Nov 16, 1967.
References
Gliding in the United States
American aerospace engineers
1912 births
2009 deaths
People from Sanger, California
Engineers from California
20th-century American engineers | [
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253480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine%20VII | Constantine VII | Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, and the nephew of his predecessor Emperor Alexander.
Most of his reign was dominated by co-regents: from 913 until 919 he was under the regency of his mother, while from 920 until 945 he shared the throne with Romanos Lekapenos, whose daughter Helena he married, and his sons. Constantine VII is best known for the Geoponika (τά γεοπονικά), an important agronomic treatise compiled during his reign, and his four books, De Administrando Imperio (bearing in Greek the heading Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον υἱὸν Ῥωμανόν), De Ceremoniis (Περὶ τῆς Βασιλείου Τάξεως), De Thematibus (Περὶ θεμάτων Άνατολῆς καὶ Δύσεως), and Vita Basilii (Βίος Βασιλείου).
The epithet porphyrogenitus alludes to the Purple chamber of the imperial palace, decorated with porphyry, where legitimate children of reigning emperors were normally born. Constantine was also born in this room, although his mother Zoe had not been married to Leo at that time. Nevertheless, the epithet allowed him to underline his position as the legitimate son, as opposed to all others, who claimed the throne during his lifetime. Sons born to a reigning Emperor held precedence in the Eastern Roman line of succession over elder sons not born "in the purple".
Life
Regency
Constantine was born in Constantinople on 17/18 May 905, an illegitimate son of Leo VI before an uncanonical fourth marriage. To help legitimize him, his mother gave birth to him in the Purple Room of the imperial palace, hence his nickname Porphyrogennetos. He was elevated to the throne as a two-year-old child by his father and uncle on 15 May 908 (Whitsunday).
In early 913, as his uncle Alexander lay dying, he appointed a seven-man regency council for Constantine. It was headed by the Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos, the two magistroi John Eladas and Stephen, the rhaiktor John Lazanes, the otherwise obscure Euthymius and Alexander's henchmen Basilitzes and Gabrielopoulos. Following Alexander's death (6 June), the new and shaky regime survived the attempted usurpation of Constantine Doukas, and Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos quickly assumed a dominant position among the regents.
Patriarch Nicholas was presently forced to make peace with Tsar Simeon of Bulgaria, whom he reluctantly recognized as Bulgarian emperor. Because of this unpopular concession, Patriarch Nicholas was driven out of the regency by Constantine's mother Zoe. She was no more successful with the Bulgarians, who defeated her main supporter, the general Leo Phokas, in 917. In March 919, she was replaced as regent by the admiral Romanos Lekapenos, who married his daughter Helena Lekapene to Constantine. Romanos used his position to advance to the ranks of basileopatōr in April 919, to kaisar (Caesar) on 24 September 920, and finally to co-emperor on 17 December 920. Thus, just short of reaching nominal majority, Constantine was eclipsed by a senior emperor.
Constantine's youth had been a sad one due to his unpleasant appearance, his taciturn nature, and his relegation to the third level of succession, behind Christopher Lekapenos, the eldest son of Romanos I Lekapenos. Nevertheless, he was a very intelligent young man with a large range of interests, and he dedicated those years to studying the court's ceremony.
Senior emperor
Romanos kept and maintained power until 16/20 December 944, when he was deposed by his sons, the co-emperors Stephen and Constantine. Romanos spent the last years of his life in exile on the Island of Prote as a monk and died on 15 June 948. With the help of his wife, Constantine VII succeeded in removing his brothers-in-law, and on 27 January 945, Constantine VII became sole emperor at the age of 39, after a life spent in the shadow. Several months later, on 6 April (Easter), Constantine VII crowned his own son Romanos II co-emperor. Having never exercised executive authority, Constantine remained primarily devoted to his scholarly pursuits and delegated his authority to bureaucrats and generals, as well as to his energetic wife Helena Lekapene.
In 947, Constantine VII ordered the immediate restitution of all peasant lands, without compensation; by the end of his reign, the condition of the landed peasantry, which formed the foundation of the whole economic and military strength of the Empire, was better off than it had been for a century.
In 949, Constantine launched a new fleet of 100 ships (20 dromons, 64 chelandia, and 10 galleys) against the Arab corsairs hiding in Crete, but like his father's attempt to retake the island in 911, this attempt also failed. On the Eastern frontier things went better, even if with alternate success. In the same year, the Byzantines conquered Germanicea, repeatedly defeated the enemy armies, and in 952 they crossed the upper Euphrates. But in 953, the Hamdanid amir Sayf al-Daula retook Germanicea and entered the imperial territory. The land in the east was eventually recovered by Nikephoros Phokas, who conquered Hadath, in northern Syria, in 958, and by the general John Tzimiskes, who one year later captured Samosata, in northern Mesopotamia. An Arab fleet was also destroyed by Greek fire in 957. Constantine's efforts to retake themes lost to the Arabs were the first such efforts to have any real success.
Constantine had active diplomatic relationships with foreign courts, including those of the caliph of Cordoba Abd ar-Rahman III and of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor. In the autumn of 957 Constantine was visited by Olga of Kiev, regent of the Kievan Rus'. The reasons for this voyage have never been clarified; but she was baptised a Christian with the name Helena, and sought Christian missionaries to encourage her people to adopt Christianity. According to legends, Constantine VII fell in love with Olga, but she found a way to refuse him by tricking him into becoming her godfather. When she was baptized, she said it was inappropriate for a godfather to marry his goddaughter.
Constantine VII died at Constantinople on 9 November 959 and was succeeded by his son Romanos II. It was rumored that he had been poisoned by his son or his daughter-in-law Theophano.
Literary activity
Constantine VII was recognized as a writer and scholar. He gathered a circle educated people and they are written several unfinished books with the completed book Life of Basil, grandfather of Constantine VII. He wrote, or had commissioned, the works Geoponika ("On Agriculture", in Greek Τὰ γεοπονικά), a compilation of agronomic works from earlier Greek and Punic texts that are otherwise lost; De Ceremoniis ("On Ceremonies", in Greek, Περὶ τῆς βασιλείου τάξεως), describing the kinds of court ceremonies (also described later in a more negative light by Liutprand of Cremona); De Administrando Imperio ("On the Administration of the Empire", bearing in Greek the heading Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον ὑιὸν Ρωμανόν), giving advice on running the Empire internally and on fighting external enemies; a history of the Empire covering events following the death of the chronographer Theophanes the Confessor in 817; and Excerpta Historica ("Excerpts from the Histories"), a collection of excerpts from ancient historians (many of whose works are now lost) in four volumes (1. De legationibus. 2. De virtutibus et vitiis. 3. De insidiis. 4. De sententiis). In The Manuscript Tradition of Polybius, John Michael Moore (CUP, 1965) provides a useful summary of the commission by Porphyrogenitus of the Constantine Excerpts:
He felt that the historical studies were being seriously neglected, mainly because of the bulk of the histories. He therefore decided that a selection under fifty-three titles should be made from all the important historians extant in Constantinople; thus he hoped to assemble in a more manageable compass the most valuable parts of each author. ... Of the fifty-three titles into which the excerpts were divided, only six have survived: de Virtutibus et Vitiis; de Sententiis; de Insidiis; de Strategematis; de Legationibus Gentium ad Romanos; de Legationibus Romanorum ad Gentes. The titles of only about half the remaining forty-seven sections are known.
Also amongst his historical works is a history eulogizing the reign and achievements of his grandfather, Basil I (Vita Basilii, Βίος Βασιλείου). These books are insightful and of interest to the historian, sociologist, and anthropologist as a source of information about nations neighbouring the Empire. They also offer a fine insight into the Emperor himself.
In his book, A Short History of Byzantium, John Julius Norwich refers to Constantine VII as "The Scholar Emperor". Norwich describes Constantine:
He was, we are told, a passionate collector—not only of books and manuscripts but works of art of every kind; more remarkable still for a man of his class, he seems to have been an excellent painter. He was the most generous of patrons—to writers and scholars, artists and craftsmen. Finally, he was an excellent Emperor: a competent, conscientious and hard-working administrator and an inspired picker of men, whose appointments to military, naval, ecclesiastical, civil and academic posts were both imaginative and successful. He did much to develop higher education and took a special interest in the administration of justice.
Family
By his wife Helena Lekapene, the daughter of Emperor Romanos I, Constantine VII had several children, including:
Leo, who died young.
Romanos II.
Zoe, sent to a convent.
Theodora, who married Emperor John I Tzimiskes.
Agatha, sent to a convent.
Theophano, sent to a convent.
Anna, sent to a convent.
See also
List of Byzantine emperors
References
Sources
Constantine VII, De ceremoniis, ed. J. Reiske (2 vols., 1829, 1830). English translation 'The Book of Ceremonies' accompanying the Greek text in 2 volumes by Ann Moffatt and Maxeme Tall, Canberra 2012 (Byzantina Australiensia 18).
Constantine VII, 'Story of the Image of Edessa', tr. B. Slater, J. Jackson, in I. Wilson, The Turin Shroud (1978), p. 235-51
Constantine VII, Three treatises on Imperial military expeditions, ed. tr. J.F. Haldon (1990).
275
External links
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes
De administrando Imperio chapters 29–36 at the Internet Archive
905 births
959 deaths
10th-century Byzantine emperors
10th-century Byzantine writers
Macedonian dynasty
Byzantine hymnographers
Patrons of literature
Medieval child rulers
Porphyrogennetoi
910s in the Byzantine Empire
920s in the Byzantine Empire
930s in the Byzantine Empire
940s in the Byzantine Empire
950s in the Byzantine Empire
960s in the Byzantine Empire
970s in the Byzantine Empire
Sons of Byzantine emperors | [
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253485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%201989 | Eurovision Young Dancers 1989 | The Eurovision Young Dancers 1989 was the third edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers held at the Palais des Congrès in Paris, France on 28 June 1989. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster France Régions 3 (FR3), dancers from ten countries participated in the televised final. A total of seventeen countries took part in the competition. and made their debut at the contest.
The participant countries could send one or two dancers, male or female, that could not be older than 19. Each dancer was free to participate in any of these 2 categories: classical dancing or contemporary, modern or jazz dancing. The pas de deux performances could not be longer than ten minutes, while the variations could not be longer than five minutes. There were 4 awards that year: contemporary dancing prize, classical dancing prize and 2 jury's special prizes (for contemporary and classical dance).
The non-qualified countries were , , , , , and . Agnès Letestu of France won the contemporary dance prize, with Tetsuya Kumakawa of United Kingdom winning the classical ballet prize.
Location
The Palais des congrès de Paris, a concert venue, convention centre and shopping mall in the 17th arrondissement of Paris, France, was the host venue for the 1989 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers.
The venue was built by French architect Guillaume Gillet, and was inaugurated in 1974. The venue hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 1978. Nearby the venue are Bois de Boulogne and the affluent neighbourhood of Neuilly-sur-Seine. The closest métro and RER stations are Porte Maillot and Neuilly – Porte Maillot, accessible via the lower levels of the building.
Format
The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All the dancers then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'.
Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members.
Results
Due to time restrictions, a semi-final was held to select the ten performers for the final.
Preliminary round
A total of sixteen countries took part in the preliminary semi-final round of the 1989 contest, of which ten qualified to the televised grand final. The following countries failed to qualify.
Final
Jury members
The jury members consisted of the following:
– Roland Petit (Head of jury)
– Frank Andersen
– Paolo Bortoluzzi
– Oscar Araiz
– Igor Eisner
– John Neumeier
– Ekaterina Maximova
– Heinz Spoerli
– Vladimir Vasiliev
Broadcasting
The 1989 Young Dancers competition was broadcast in 20 countries including Jordan and Bulgaria.
See also
Eurovision Song Contest 1989
References
External links
Eurovision Young Dancers by year
1989 in France
June 1989 events in Europe
Events in Paris | [
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253491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV%20and%20FM%20DX | TV and FM DX | TV DX and FM DX is the active search for distant radio or television stations received during unusual atmospheric conditions. The term DX is an old telegraphic term meaning "long distance."
VHF/UHF television and radio signals are normally limited to a maximum "deep fringe" reception service area of approximately in areas where the broadcast spectrum is congested, and about 50 percent farther in the absence of interference. However, providing favourable atmospheric conditions are present, television and radio signals sometimes can be received hundreds or even thousands of miles outside their intended coverage area. These signals are often received using a large outdoor antenna system connected to a sensitive TV or FM receiver, although this may not always be the case. Many times smaller antennas and receivers such as those in vehicles will receive stations farther than normal depending on how favourable conditions are.
While only a limited number of local stations can normally be received at satisfactory signal strengths in any given area, tuning into other channels may reveal weaker signals from adjacent areas. More consistently strong signals, especially those accentuated by unusual atmospheric conditions, can be achieved by improving the antenna system. The development of interest in TV-FM DX as a hobby can arise after more distant signals are either intentionally or accidentally discovered, leading to a serious interest in improving the listener's antenna and receiving installation for the purpose of actively seeking long-range television and radio reception. The TV-FM DX hobby is somewhat similar to other radio/electronic related hobbies such as amateur radio, Medium Wave DX, or short-wave radio, and organisations such as the Worldwide TV-FM DX Association have developed to coordinate and foster the further study and enjoyment of VHF/UHF television and FM broadcast DX.
History
After the Alexandra Palace, London 405-line BBC channel B1 TV service was introduced in 1936, it soon became apparent that television could be received well outside the original intended service area.
For example, in February 1938, engineers at the RCA Research Station, Riverhead, Long Island, accidentally received a 3,000-mile (4,800 km) transatlantic F2 broadcast of the London 45.0 MHz, 405-line BBC Television service.
The flickering black-and-white footage (characteristic of F2 propagation) included Jasmine Bligh, one of the original BBC announcers, and a brief shot of Elizabeth Cowell, who also shared announcing duties with Jasmine, an excerpt from an unknown period costume drama and the BBC's station identification logo transmitted at the beginning and end of the day's programmes.
This reception was recorded on 16 mm movie film, and is now considered to be the only surviving example of pre-war, live British television.
The BBC temporarily ceased transmissions on September 1, 1939 as World War II began. After the BBC Television Service recommenced in 1946, distant reception reports were received from various parts of the world, including Italy, South Africa, India, the Middle East, North America and the Caribbean.
In May 1940, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), a U.S. government agency, formally allocated the 42 – 50 MHz band for FM radio broadcasting. It was soon apparent that distant FM signals from up to distance would often interfere with local stations during the summer months.
Because the 42 – 50 MHz FM signals were originally intended to only cover a relatively confined service area, the sporadic long-distance signal propagation was seen as a nuisance, especially by station management.
In February 1942, the first known published long-distance FM broadcast station reception report was reported by FM magazine. The report provided details of 45.1 MHz W51C Chicago, Illinois, received in Monterrey, Mexico: "Zenith Radio Corporation, operating W51C, has received a letter from a listener in Monterrey, Mexico, telling of daily reception of this station between 3:00 P.M. and 6:00 P.M. This is the greatest distance, 1,100 miles, from which consistent reception of the 50 [kW] transmitter has been reported."
In June 1945, the FCC decided that FM would have to move from the established 42 – 50 MHz pre-war band to a new band at 88 – 108 MHz. According to 1945 and 1946 FCC documents, the three major factors which the commission considered in its decision to place FM in the 88 – 108 MHz band were sporadic E co-channel interference, F2 layer interference, and extent of coverage.
During the 1950s to early 1960s, long-distance television reports started to circulate via popular U.S. electronics hobbyist periodicals such as DXing Horizons, Popular Electronics, Television Horizons, Radio Horizons, and Radio-Electronics. In January 1960, the TV DX interest was further promoted via Robert B. Cooper's regular DXing Horizons column.
In 1957, the world record for TV DX was extended to with the reception of Britain's channel BBC TV in various parts of Australia. Most notably, George Palmer in Melbourne, Victoria, received viewable pictures and audio of a news program from the BBC TV London station. This BBC F2 reception was recorded on movie film.
During the early 1960s, the U.K. magazine Practical Television first published a regular TV DX column edited by Charles Rafarel. By 1970, Rafarel's column had attracted considerable interest from TV DXers worldwide. After Rafarel's death in 1971, UK TV DXer Roger Bunney continued the monthly column, which continued to be published by Television Magazine. With the demise of Television Magazine in June 2008, Bunney's column finished after 36 years of publication. In addition to the monthly TV DX column, Bunney has also published several TV DX books, including Long Distance Television Reception (TV-DX) for the Enthusiast 1981 , and A TV DXer's Handbook 1986 .
Tropospheric propagation
Tropospheric propagation refers to the way radio signals travel through the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, the troposphere, at altitudes up to about to 17 km (11 miles). Weather conditions in the lower atmosphere can produce radio propagation over greater ranges than normal. If a temperature inversion occurs, with upper air warmer than lower air, VHF and UHF radio waves can be refracted over the Earth's surface instead of following a straight-line path into space or into the ground. Such "tropospheric ducting" can carry signals for 800 km (500 miles) or more, far beyond usual range.
F2 propagation (F2-skip)
The F2 layer is found about 200 miles (320 km) above the Earth's surface and can reflect radio waves back toward the Earth. When the layer is particularly strong during periods of high sunspot activity, FM and TV reception can take place over 2000 miles (3000 km) or more, as the signal effectively "bounces" off the high atmospheric layer.
Sporadic E propagation (E-skip)
Sporadic E, also called E-skip, is the phenomenon of irregularly scattered patches of relatively dense ionization that develop seasonally within the E region of the ionosphere and reflect TV and FM frequencies, generally up to about 150 MHz. When frequencies reflect off multiple patches, it is referred to as multi-hop skip. E-skip allows radio waves to travel a thousand miles or even more beyond their intended area of reception. E-skip is unrelated to tropospheric ducting.
Television and FM signals received via Sporadic E can be extremely strong and range in strength over a short period from just detectable to overloading. Although polarisation shift can occur, single-hop Sporadic E signals tend to remain in the original transmitted polarisation. Long single-hop () Sporadic E television signals tend to be more stable and relatively free of multipath images. Shorter-skip () signals tend to be reflected from more than one part of the Sporadic E layer, resulting in multiple images and ghosting, with phase reversal at times. Picture degradation and signal-strength attenuation increases with each subsequent Sporadic E hop.
Sporadic E usually affects the lower VHF band I (TV channels 2 – 6) and band II (88 – 108 MHz FM broadcast band). The typical expected distances are about . However, under exceptional circumstances, a highly ionized Es cloud can propagate band I VHF signals down to approximately . When short-skip Es reception occurs, i.e., under in band I, there is a greater possibility that the ionized Es cloud will be capable of reflecting a signal at a much higher frequency – i.e., a VHF band 3 channel – since a sharp reflection angle (short skip) favours low frequencies, a shallower reflection angle from the same ionized cloud will favour a higher frequency.
At polar latitudes, Sporadic E can accompany auroras and associated disturbed magnetic conditions and is called Auroral-E.
No conclusive theory has yet been formulated as to the origin of Sporadic E. Attempts to connect the incidence of Sporadic E with the eleven-year Sunspot cycle have provided tentative correlations. There seems to be a positive correlation between sunspot maximum and Es activity in Europe. Conversely, there seems to be a negative correlation between maximum sunspot activity and Es activity in Australasia.
Transequatorial propagation (TEP)
Discovered in 1947, transequatorial spread-F (TE) propagation makes it possible for reception of television and radio stations between across the equator on frequencies as high as 432 MHz. Reception of lower frequencies in the 30 – 70 MHz range are most common. If sunspot activity is sufficiently high, signals up to 108 MHz are also possible. Reception of TEP signals above 220 MHz is extremely rare. Transmitting and receiving stations should be nearly equidistant from the geomagnetic equator.
The first large-scale VHF TEP communications occurred around 1957 – 58 during the peak of solar cycle 19. Around 1970, the peak of cycle 20, many TEP contacts were made between Australian and Japanese radio amateurs. With the rise of cycle 21 starting around 1977, amateur contacts were made between Greece/Italy and Southern Africa (both South Africa and Rhodesia/Zimbabwe), and between Central and South America by TEP.
"Afternoon" and "evening" are two distinctly different types of trans-equatorial propagation.
Afternoon TEP
Afternoon TEP peaks during the mid-afternoon and early evening hours and is generally limited to distances of . Signals propagated by this mode are limited to approximately 60 MHz. Afternoon TEP signals tend to have high signal strength and suffer moderate distortion due to multipath reflections.
Evening TEP
The second type of TEP peaks in the evening around 1900 to 2300 hours local time. Signals are possible up to 220 MHz, and even very rarely on 432 MHz. Evening TEP is quenched by moderate to severe geomagnetic disturbances. The occurrence of evening TEP is more heavily dependent on high solar activity than is the afternoon type.
During late September 2001, from 2000 to 2400 local time, VHF television and radio signals from Japan and Korea up to 220 MHz were received via evening transequatorial propagation near Darwin, Northern Territory.
Earth – Moon – Earth (EME) propagation (Moonbounce)
Since 1953, radio amateurs have been experimenting with lunar communications by reflecting VHF and UHF signals off the Moon. Moonbounce allows communication on Earth between any two points that can observe the Moon at a common time.
Since the Moon's mean distance from Earth is , path losses are very high. It follows that a typical 240 dB total path loss places great demand on high-gain receiving antennas, high-power transmissions, and sensitive receiving systems. Even when all these factors are observed, the resulting signal level is often just above the noise.
Because of the low signal-to-noise ratio, as with amateur-radio practice, EME signals can generally only be detected using narrow-band receiving systems. This means that the only aspect of the TV signal that could be detected is the field scan modulation (AM vision carrier). FM broadcast signals also feature wide frequency modulation, hence EME reception is generally not possible. There are no published records of VHF/UHF EME amateur radio contacts using FM.
Notable Earth-Moon-Earth (EME) DX receptions
During the mid-1970s, John Yurek, K3PGP, using a home-constructed, 24-foot (7.3 m), 0.6-focal-diameter parabolic dish and UHF TV dipole feed-point tuned to channel 68, received KVST-68 Los Angeles (1200 kW ERP) and WBTB-68 Newark, New Jersey via moonbounce. At the time of the experiment there were only two known transmitters operating in the United States on UHF television channel 68, the main reason why this channel was selected for EME experiments.
For three nights in December 1978, astronomer Dr. Woodruff T. Sullivan III used the 305-metre Arecibo radio telescope to observe the Moon at a variety of frequencies. This experiment demonstrated that the lunar surface is capable of reflecting terrestrial band III (175 – 230 MHz) television signals back to Earth. While not yet confirmed, FM broadcast EME reception may also be possible using the Arecibo dish antenna.
In 2002, physicist Dr. Tony Mann demonstrated that a single high-gain UHF yagi antenna, low noise masthead preamplifier, VHF/UHF synthesised communications receiver, and personal computer with FFT spectrum analyser software could be used to successfully detect extremely weak UHF television carriers via EME.
Auroral propagation
An aurora is most likely to occur during periods of high solar activity when there is a high probability of a large solar flare. When such an eruption occurs, charged particles from the flare may spiral towards earth arriving about a day later. This may or may not cause an aurora: if the interstellar magnetic field has same polarity, the particles do not get coupled to the geomagnetic field efficiently. Besides sunspot-related active solar surface areas, other solar phenomena that produce particles causing auroras, such as re-occurring coronal holes spraying out intense solar wind. These charged particles are affected and captured by the geomagnetic field and the various radiation belts surrounding earth. The aurora-producing relativistic electrons eventually precipitate towards earth's magnetic poles, resulting in an aurora which disrupts short-wave communications (SID) due to ionospheric/magnetic storms in the D, E, and F layers. Various visual effects are also seen in the sky towards the north – aptly called the Northern Lights. The same effect occurs in the Southern Hemisphere, but the visual effects are towards the south. The auroral event starts by onset of geomagnetic storm, followed by number of sub-storms over the next day or so.
The aurora produces a reflecting sheet (or metric sized columns) which tends to lie in a vertical plane. The result of this vertical ionospheric "curtain" is reflection of signals well into the upper VHF band. The reflection is very aspect sensitive. Since the reflecting sheet lies towards the poles, it follows that reflected signals will arrive from that general direction. An active region or coronal hole may persist for some 27 days resulting in a second aurora when the Sun has rotated. There is a tendency for auroras to occur around the March/April, September/October equinox periods, when the geomagnetic field is at right angle to Sun for efficient charged particle coupling. Signals propagated by aurora have a characteristic hum effect, which makes video and audio reception difficult. Video carriers, as heard on a communications receiver, no longer can be heard as a pure tone.
A typical radio aurora occurs in the afternoon, which produces strong and distorted signals for few hours. The local midnight sub-storming usually produces weaker signals, but with less distortion by Doppler from gyrating electrons.
Frequencies up to 200 MHz can be affected by auroral propagation.
Meteor scatter propagation
Meteor scatter occurs when a signal bounces off a meteor's ionized trail.
When a meteor strikes earth's atmosphere, a cylindrical region of free electrons is formed at the height of the E layer. This slender, ionized column is relatively long, and when first formed is sufficiently dense to reflect and scatter television and radio signals, generally observable from 25 MHz upwards through UHF TV, back to earth. Consequently, an incident television or radio signal is capable of being reflected up to distances approaching that of conventional Sporadic E propagation, typically about 1500 km. A signal reflected by such meteor ionisation can vary in duration from fractions of a second up to several minutes for intensely ionized trails. The events are classified as overdense and underdense, depending on the electron line-density (related to used frequency) of the trail plasma. The signal from overdense trail has a longer signal decay associated with fading and is physically a reflection from the ionized cylinder surface, while an underdense trail gives a signal of short duration, which rises fast and decays exponentially and is scattered from individual electrons inside the trail.
Frequencies in the range of 50 to 80 MHz have been found to be optimum for meteor scatter propagation. The 88 – 108 MHz FM broadcast band is also highly suited for meteor scatter experiments. During the major meteor showers, with extremely intense trails, band III 175 – 220 MHz signal reception can occur.
Ionized trails generally reflect lower frequencies for longer periods (and produce stronger signals) compared to higher frequencies. For example, an 8-second burst on 45.25 MHz may only cause a 4-second burst at 90.5 MHz.
The effect of a typical visually seen single meteor (of size 0.5 mm) shows up as a sudden "burst" of signal of short duration at a point not normally reached by the transmitter. The combined effect of several meteors impinging on earth's atmosphere, while perhaps too weak to provide long-term ionisation, is thought to contribute to the existence of the night-time E layer.
The optimum time for receiving RF reflections off sporadic meteors is the early morning period, when the velocity of earth relative to the velocity of the particles is greatest which also increases the number of meteors occurring on the morning-side of the earth, but some sporadic meteor reflections can be received at any time of the day, least in the early evening.
The annual major meteor showers are detailed below:
January 3 – 4: Quadrantids
April 22 – 23: Lyrids
May 5 – 6: Eta Aquariids
June 9 – 10: Arietids & zeta-Perseids
August 12 – 13: Perseids
October 21 – 22: Orionids
November 3 – 5: Taurids
November 16 – 18: Leonids (Note: activity varies, outburst only at about 33 year interval)
December 13 – 14: Geminids
December 22 – 23: Ursids
For observing meteor shower-related radio signals, the shower's radiant must be above the (propagation mid path) horizon. Otherwise no meteor of the shower can hit the atmosphere along the propagation path and no reflections from the shower's meteor trails can be observed.
Satellite UHF TVRO DX
Although not by strict definition terrestrial TV DX, satellite UHF TVRO reception is related in certain aspects. For example, reception of satellite signals requires sensitive receiving systems and large outdoor antenna systems. However, unlike terrestrial TV DX, satellite UHF TV reception is far easier to predict. The geosynchronous satellite at height is a line of sight reception source. If the satellite is above the horizon, it can be generally received, if it is below the horizon, reception is not possible.
Notable Satellite UHF TVRO DX receptions
In December 1975, Stephen Birkill, Sheffield, England, was the first DXer to receive viewable pictures from the 860 MHz Indian ATS-6 satellite, which was in synchronous orbit over Central Africa, for the purpose of providing educational television programs to the Indian subcontinent.
In 1978, Ian Roberts, South Africa, received 714 MHz television pictures from the Soviet UHF Ekran-class Statsionar-T satellite.
Digital modes
Digital radio and digital television can also be received; however, there is much greater difficulty with reception of weak signals due to the cliff effect, particularly with the ATSC TV standard mandated in the U.S. However, when the signal is strong enough to be decoded identification is much easier than with analog TV as the picture is guaranteed to be noise-free when present. For DVB-T, hierarchical modulation may allow a lower-definition signal to be received even if the details of the full signal cannot be decoded. In reality, though, it's actually much more difficult to get DVB-T E-skip reception as the lowest channel DVB-T transmissions operate on is channel E5 which is 178 MHz. A unique issue observed on analog TV at the end of the DTV transition in the United States was that very distant analog stations were viewable in the hours after the permanent shutdown of local analog transmitters in June 2009. This was particularly pronounced because June is one of the strongest months for DX reception on VHF, and most digital stations were assigned to UHF.
See also
Federal Standard 1037C
MW DX
Skywave
Radio propagation
Thermal fade
Clear-channel station
In Channel Select (ICS)
DYNAS
References
External links
european DXTV reception in the 60's
TV/FM Antenna Locator
Worldwide TV/FM DX Association
Worldwide TV/FM DX Association Forums
Girard Westerberg's page, including a live DX webcam
Mike's TV and FM DX
Todd Emslie's TV FM DX Page
Jeff Kadet's TV DX Page
Matt Sittel's DX Page
Siciliamedia Home of FM & TV DX in Sicily
FMLIST is a non-commercial worldwide database of FM stations, including a bandscan and logbook tool (FMINFO/myFM)
Mixture.fr AM/FM/DAB database for France
MeteorComm Meteor Burst Technology used for Data Communication
FMSCAN reception prediction of FM, TV, MW, SW stations (also use the expert options for better results)
Herman Wijnants' FMDX pages
TV/FM Skip Log
qth.net Mailing Lists for Radio, Television, Amateur and other related information for Enthusiasts.
VHF DXing – From Fort Walton Beach, Florida
Radio-info.com DX and Reception
FM DX RDS LogBook Software
VHF-DX network in South America and The Caribbean
The International Project for Radio Meteor Observation researching meteor showers with Radio Meteor Observation
Radio frequency propagation
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253492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor%20analysis | Factor analysis | Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. For example, it is possible that variations in six observed variables mainly reflect the variations in two unobserved (underlying) variables. Factor analysis searches for such joint variations in response to unobserved latent variables. The observed variables are modelled as linear combinations of the potential factors plus "error" terms, hence factor analysis can be thought of as a special case of errors-in-variables models.
Simply put, the factor loading of a variable quantifies the extent to which the variable is related to a given factor.
A common rationale behind factor analytic methods is that the information gained about the interdependencies between observed variables can be used later to reduce the set of variables in a dataset. Factor analysis is commonly used in psychometrics, personality psychology, biology, marketing, product management, operations research, finance, and machine learning. It may help to deal with data sets where there are large numbers of observed variables that are thought to reflect a smaller number of underlying/latent variables. It is one of the most commonly used inter-dependency techniques and is used when the relevant set of variables shows a systematic inter-dependence and the objective is to find out the latent factors that create a commonality.
Statistical model
Definition
The model attempts to explain a set of observations in each of individuals with a set of common factors () where there are fewer factors per unit than observations per unit (). Each individual has of their own common factors, and these are related to the observations via factor loading matrix (), for a single observation, according to
whereby
is the value of the th observation of the th individual,
is the observation mean for the th observation,
is the loading for the th observation of the th factor,
is the value of the th factor of the th individual, and
is the th unobserved stochastic error term with mean zero and finite variance.
In matrix notation
where observation matrix , loading matrix , factor matrix , error term matrix and mean matrix whereby the th element is simply .
Also we will impose the following assumptions on :
and are independent.
; where is Expectation
where is the covariance matrix, to make sure that the factors are uncorrelated, and is the identity matrix.
Suppose . Then
and therefore, from the conditions imposed on above,
or, setting ,
Note that for any orthogonal matrix , if we set and , the criteria for being factors and factor loadings still hold. Hence a set of factors and factor loadings is unique only up to an orthogonal transformation.
Example
Suppose a psychologist has the hypothesis that there are two kinds of intelligence, "verbal intelligence" and "mathematical intelligence", neither of which is directly observed. Evidence for the hypothesis is sought in the examination scores from each of 10 different academic fields of 1000 students. If each student is chosen randomly from a large population, then each student's 10 scores are random variables. The psychologist's hypothesis may say that for each of the 10 academic fields, the score averaged over the group of all students who share some common pair of values for verbal and mathematical "intelligences" is some constant times their level of verbal intelligence plus another constant times their level of mathematical intelligence, i.e., it is a linear combination of those two "factors". The numbers for a particular subject, by which the two kinds of intelligence are multiplied to obtain the expected score, are posited by the hypothesis to be the same for all intelligence level pairs, and are called "factor loading" for this subject. For example, the hypothesis may hold that the predicted average student's aptitude in the field of astronomy is
{10 × the student's verbal intelligence} + {6 × the student's mathematical intelligence}.
The numbers 10 and 6 are the factor loadings associated with astronomy. Other academic subjects may have different factor loadings.
Two students assumed to have identical degrees of verbal and mathematical intelligence may have different measured aptitudes in astronomy because individual aptitudes differ from average aptitudes (predicted above) and because of measurement error itself. Such differences make up what is collectively called the "error" — a statistical term that means the amount by which an individual, as measured, differs from what is average for or predicted by his or her levels of intelligence (see errors and residuals in statistics).
The observable data that go into factor analysis would be 10 scores of each of the 1000 students, a total of 10,000 numbers. The factor loadings and levels of the two kinds of intelligence of each student must be inferred from the data.
Mathematical model of the same example
In the following, matrices will be indicated by indexed variables. "Subject" indices will be indicated using letters , and , with values running from to which is equal to in the above example. "Factor" indices will be indicated using letters , and , with values running from to which is equal to in the above example. "Instance" or "sample" indices will be indicated using letters , and , with values running from to . In the example above, if a sample of students participated in the exams, the th student's score for the th exam is given by . The purpose of factor analysis is to characterize the correlations between the variables of which the are a particular instance, or set of observations. In order for the variables to be on equal footing, they are normalized into standard scores :
where the sample mean is:
and the sample variance is given by:
The factor analysis model for this particular sample is then:
or, more succinctly:
where
is the th student's "verbal intelligence",
is the th student's "mathematical intelligence",
are the factor loadings for the th subject, for .
In matrix notation, we have
Observe that by doubling the scale on which "verbal intelligence"—the first component in each column of —is measured, and simultaneously halving the factor loadings for verbal intelligence makes no difference to the model. Thus, no generality is lost by assuming that the standard deviation of the factors for verbal intelligence is . Likewise for mathematical intelligence. Moreover, for similar reasons, no generality is lost by assuming the two factors are uncorrelated with each other. In other words:
where is the Kronecker delta ( when and when ).The errors are assumed to be independent of the factors:
Note that, since any rotation of a solution is also a solution, this makes interpreting the factors difficult. See disadvantages below. In this particular example, if we do not know beforehand that the two types of intelligence are uncorrelated, then we cannot interpret the two factors as the two different types of intelligence. Even if they are uncorrelated, we cannot tell which factor corresponds to verbal intelligence and which corresponds to mathematical intelligence without an outside argument.
The values of the loadings , the averages , and the variances of the "errors" must be estimated given the observed data and (the assumption about the levels of the factors is fixed for a given ).
The "fundamental theorem" may be derived from the above conditions:
The term on the left is the -term of the correlation matrix (a matrix derived as the product of the matrix of standardized observations with its transpose) of the observed data, and its diagonal elements will be s. The second term on the right will be a diagonal matrix with terms less than unity. The first term on the right is the "reduced correlation matrix" and will be equal to the correlation matrix except for its diagonal values which will be less than unity. These diagonal elements of the reduced correlation matrix are called "communalities" (which represent the fraction of the variance in the observed variable that is accounted for by the factors):
The sample data will not exactly obey the fundamental equation given above due to sampling errors, inadequacy of the model, etc. The goal of any analysis of the above model is to find the factors and loadings which give a "best fit" to the data. In factor analysis, the best fit is defined as the minimum of the mean square error in the off-diagonal residuals of the correlation matrix:
This is equivalent to minimizing the off-diagonal components of the error covariance which, in the model equations have expected values of zero. This is to be contrasted with principal component analysis which seeks to minimize the mean square error of all residuals. Before the advent of high-speed computers, considerable effort was devoted to finding approximate solutions to the problem, particularly in estimating the communalities by other means, which then simplifies the problem considerably by yielding a known reduced correlation matrix. This was then used to estimate the factors and the loadings. With the advent of high-speed computers, the minimization problem can be solved iteratively with adequate speed, and the communalities are calculated in the process, rather than being needed beforehand. The MinRes algorithm is particularly suited to this problem, but is hardly the only iterative means of finding a solution.
If the solution factors are allowed to be correlated (as in 'oblimin' rotation, for example), then the corresponding mathematical model uses skew coordinates rather than orthogonal coordinates.
Geometric interpretation
The parameters and variables of factor analysis can be given a geometrical interpretation. The data (), the factors () and the errors () can be viewed as vectors in an -dimensional Euclidean space (sample space), represented as , and respectively. Since the data are standardized, the data vectors are of unit length (). The factor vectors define an -dimensional linear subspace (i.e. a hyperplane) in this space, upon which the data vectors are projected orthogonally. This follows from the model equation
and the independence of the factors and the errors: . In the above example, the hyperplane is just a 2-dimensional plane defined by the two factor vectors. The projection of the data vectors onto the hyperplane is given by
and the errors are vectors from that projected point to the data point and are perpendicular to the hyperplane. The goal of factor analysis is to find a hyperplane which is a "best fit" to the data in some sense, so it doesn't matter how the factor vectors which define this hyperplane are chosen, as long as they are independent and lie in the hyperplane. We are free to specify them as both orthogonal and normal () with no loss of generality. After a suitable set of factors are found, they may also be arbitrarily rotated within the hyperplane, so that any rotation of the factor vectors will define the same hyperplane, and also be a solution. As a result, in the above example, in which the fitting hyperplane is two dimensional, if we do not know beforehand that the two types of intelligence are uncorrelated, then we cannot interpret the two factors as the two different types of intelligence. Even if they are uncorrelated, we cannot tell which factor corresponds to verbal intelligence and which corresponds to mathematical intelligence, or whether the factors are linear combinations of both, without an outside argument.
The data vectors have unit length. The entries of the correlation matrix for the data are given by . The correlation matrix can be geometrically interpreted as the cosine of the angle between the two data vectors and . The diagonal elements will clearly be s and the off diagonal elements will have absolute values less than or equal to unity. The "reduced correlation matrix" is defined as
.
The goal of factor analysis is to choose the fitting hyperplane such that the reduced correlation matrix reproduces the correlation matrix as nearly as possible, except for the diagonal elements of the correlation matrix which are known to have unit value. In other words, the goal is to reproduce as accurately as possible the cross-correlations in the data. Specifically, for the fitting hyperplane, the mean square error in the off-diagonal components
is to be minimized, and this is accomplished by minimizing it with respect to a set of orthonormal factor vectors. It can be seen that
The term on the right is just the covariance of the errors. In the model, the error covariance is stated to be a diagonal matrix and so the above minimization problem will in fact yield a "best fit" to the model: It will yield a sample estimate of the error covariance which has its off-diagonal components minimized in the mean square sense. It can be seen that since the are orthogonal projections of the data vectors, their length will be less than or equal to the length of the projected data vector, which is unity. The square of these lengths are just the diagonal elements of the reduced correlation matrix. These diagonal elements of the reduced correlation matrix are known as "communalities":
Large values of the communalities will indicate that the fitting hyperplane is rather accurately reproducing the correlation matrix. The mean values of the factors must also be constrained to be zero, from which it follows that the mean values of the errors will also be zero.
Practical implementation
Types of factor analysis
Exploratory factor analysis
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is used to identify complex interrelationships among items and group items that are part of unified concepts. The researcher makes no a priori assumptions about relationships among factors.
Confirmatory factor analysis
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a more complex approach that tests the hypothesis that the items are associated with specific factors. CFA uses structural equation modeling to test a measurement model whereby loading on the factors allows for evaluation of relationships between observed variables and unobserved variables. Structural equation modeling approaches can accommodate measurement error and are less restrictive than least-squares estimation. Hypothesized models are tested against actual data, and the analysis would demonstrate loadings of observed variables on the latent variables (factors), as well as the correlation between the latent variables.
Types of factor extraction
Principal component analysis (PCA) is a widely used method for factor extraction, which is the first phase of EFA. Factor weights are computed to extract the maximum possible variance, with successive factoring continuing until there is no further meaningful variance left. The factor model must then be rotated for analysis.
Canonical factor analysis, also called Rao's canonical factoring, is a different method of computing the same model as PCA, which uses the principal axis method. Canonical factor analysis seeks factors that have the highest canonical correlation with the observed variables. Canonical factor analysis is unaffected by arbitrary rescaling of the data.
Common factor analysis, also called principal factor analysis (PFA) or principal axis factoring (PAF), seeks the fewest factors which can account for the common variance (correlation) of a set of variables.
Image factoring is based on the correlation matrix of predicted variables rather than actual variables, where each variable is predicted from the others using multiple regression.
Alpha factoring is based on maximizing the reliability of factors, assuming variables are randomly sampled from a universe of variables. All other methods assume cases to be sampled and variables fixed.
Factor regression model is a combinatorial model of factor model and regression model; or alternatively, it can be viewed as the hybrid factor model, whose factors are partially known.
Terminology
Criteria for determining the number of factors
Researchers wish to avoid such subjective or arbitrary criteria for factor retention as "it made sense to me". A number of objective methods have been developed to solve this problem, allowing users to determine an appropriate range of solutions to investigate. However these different methods often disagree with one another as to the number of factors that ought to be retained. For instance, the parallel analysis may suggest 5 factors while Velicer's MAP suggests 6, so the researcher may request both 5 and 6-factor solutions and discuss each in terms of their relation to external data and theory.
Modern criteria
Horn's parallel analysis (PA): A Monte-Carlo based simulation method that compares the observed eigenvalues with those obtained from uncorrelated normal variables. A factor or component is retained if the associated eigenvalue is bigger than the 95th percentile of the distribution of eigenvalues derived from the random data. PA is among the more commonly recommended rules for determining the number of components to retain, but many programs fail to include this option (a notable exception being R). However, Formann provided both theoretical and empirical evidence that its application might not be appropriate in many cases since its performance is considerably influenced by sample size, item discrimination, and type of correlation coefficient.
Velicer's (1976) MAP test as described by Courtney (2013) “involves a complete principal components analysis followed by the examination of a series of matrices of partial correlations” (p. 397 (though note that this quote does not occur in Velicer (1976) and the cited page number is outside the pages of the citation). The squared correlation for Step “0” (see Figure 4) is the average squared off-diagonal correlation for the unpartialed correlation matrix. On Step 1, the first principal component and its associated items are partialed out. Thereafter, the average squared off-diagonal correlation for the subsequent correlation matrix is then computed for Step 1. On Step 2, the first two principal components are partialed out and the resultant average squared off-diagonal correlation is again computed. The computations are carried out for k minus one step (k representing the total number of variables in the matrix). Thereafter, all of the average squared correlations for each step are lined up and the step number in the analyses that resulted in the lowest average squared partial correlation determines the number of components or factors to retain. By this method, components are maintained as long as the variance in the correlation matrix represents systematic variance, as opposed to residual or error variance. Although methodologically akin to principal components analysis, the MAP technique has been shown to perform quite well in determining the number of factors to retain in multiple simulation studies. This procedure is made available through SPSS's user interface, as well as the psych package for the R programming language.
Older methods
Kaiser criterion: The Kaiser rule is to drop all components with eigenvalues under 1.0 – this being the eigenvalue equal to the information accounted for by an average single item. The Kaiser criterion is the default in SPSS and most statistical software but is not recommended when used as the sole cut-off criterion for estimating the number of factors as it tends to over-extract factors. A variation of this method has been created where a researcher calculates confidence intervals for each eigenvalue and retains only factors which have the entire confidence interval greater than 1.0.
Scree plot:
The Cattell scree test plots the components as the X-axis and the corresponding eigenvalues as the Y-axis. As one moves to the right, toward later components, the eigenvalues drop. When the drop ceases and the curve makes an elbow toward less steep decline, Cattell's scree test says to drop all further components after the one starting at the elbow. This rule is sometimes criticised for being amenable to researcher-controlled "fudging". That is, as picking the "elbow" can be subjective because the curve has multiple elbows or is a smooth curve, the researcher may be tempted to set the cut-off at the number of factors desired by their research agenda.
Variance explained criteria: Some researchers simply use the rule of keeping enough factors to account for 90% (sometimes 80%) of the variation. Where the researcher's goal emphasizes parsimony (explaining variance with as few factors as possible), the criterion could be as low as 50%.
Bayesian method
A Bayesian approach based on the Indian buffet process returns a probability distribution over the plausible number of latent factors.
Rotation methods
The unrotated output maximizes variance accounted for by the first and subsequent factors, and forces the factors to be orthogonal. This data compression comes at the cost of having most items load on the early factors, and usually, of having many items load substantially on more than one factor. Rotation serves to make the output more understandable, by seeking so-called "Simple Structure": A pattern of loadings where each item loads strongly on only one of the factors, and much more weakly on the other factors. Rotations can be orthogonal or oblique (allowing the factors to correlate).
Varimax rotation is an orthogonal rotation of the factor axes to maximize the variance of the squared loadings of a factor (column) on all the variables (rows) in a factor matrix, which has the effect of differentiating the original variables by extracted factor. Each factor will tend to have either large or small loadings of any particular variable. A varimax solution yields results which make it as easy as possible to identify each variable with a single factor. This is the most common rotation option. However, the orthogonality (i.e., independence) of factors is often an unrealistic assumption. Oblique rotations are inclusive of orthogonal rotation, and for that reason, oblique rotations are a preferred method. Allowing for factors that are correlated with one another is especially applicable in psychometric research, since attitudes, opinions, and intellectual abilities tend to be correlated, and since it would be unrealistic in many situations to assume otherwise.
Quartimax rotation is an orthogonal alternative that minimizes the number of factors needed to explain each variable. This type of rotation often generates a general factor on which most variables are loaded to a high or medium degree. Such a factor structure is usually not helpful to the research purpose.
Equimax rotation is a compromise between varimax and quartimax criteria.
Direct oblimin rotation is the standard method when one wishes a non-orthogonal (oblique) solution – that is, one in which the factors are allowed to be correlated. This will result in higher eigenvalues but diminished interpretability of the factors. See below.
Promax rotation is an alternative non-orthogonal (oblique) rotation method that is computationally faster than the direct oblimin method and therefore is sometimes used for very large datasets.
Higher order factor analysis
Higher-order factor analysis is a statistical method consisting of repeating steps factor analysis – oblique rotation – factor analysis of rotated factors. Its merit is to enable the researcher to see the hierarchical structure of studied phenomena. To interpret the results, one proceeds either by post-multiplying the primary factor pattern matrix by the higher-order factor pattern matrices (Gorsuch, 1983) and perhaps applying a Varimax rotation to the result (Thompson, 1990) or by using a Schmid-Leiman solution (SLS, Schmid & Leiman, 1957, also known as Schmid-Leiman transformation) which attributes the variation from the primary factors to the second-order factors.
In psychometrics
History
Charles Spearman was the first psychologist to discuss common factor analysis and did so in his 1904 paper. It provided few details about his methods and was concerned with single-factor models. He discovered that school children's scores on a wide variety of seemingly unrelated subjects were positively correlated, which led him to postulate that a single general mental ability, or g, underlies and shapes human cognitive performance.
The initial development of common factor analysis with multiple factors was given by Louis Thurstone in two papers in the early 1930s, summarized in his 1935 book, The Vector of Mind. Thurstone introduced several important factor analysis concepts, including communality, uniqueness, and rotation. He advocated for "simple structure", and developed methods of rotation that could be used as a way to achieve such structure.
In Q methodology, Stephenson, a student of Spearman, distinguish between R factor analysis, oriented toward the study of inter-individual differences, and Q factor analysis oriented toward subjective intra-individual differences.
Raymond Cattell was a strong advocate of factor analysis and psychometrics and used Thurstone's multi-factor theory to explain intelligence. Cattell also developed the "scree" test and similarity coefficients.
Applications in psychology
Factor analysis is used to identify "factors" that explain a variety of results on different tests. For example, intelligence research found that people who get a high score on a test of verbal ability are also good on other tests that require verbal abilities. Researchers explained this by using factor analysis to isolate one factor, often called verbal intelligence, which represents the degree to which someone is able to solve problems involving verbal skills.
Factor analysis in psychology is most often associated with intelligence research. However, it also has been used to find factors in a broad range of domains such as personality, attitudes, beliefs, etc. It is linked to psychometrics, as it can assess the validity of an instrument by finding if the instrument indeed measures the postulated factors.
Factor analysis is a frequently used technique in cross-cultural research. It serves the purpose of extracting cultural dimensions. The best known cultural dimensions models are those elaborated by Geert Hofstede, Ronald Inglehart, Christian Welzel, Shalom Schwartz and Michael Minkov.
Advantages
Reduction of number of variables, by combining two or more variables into a single factor. For example, performance at running, ball throwing, batting, jumping and weight lifting could be combined into a single factor such as general athletic ability. Usually, in an item by people matrix, factors are selected by grouping related items. In the Q factor analysis technique, the matrix is transposed and factors are created by grouping related people. For example, liberals, libertarians, conservatives, and socialists might form into separate groups.
Identification of groups of inter-related variables, to see how they are related to each other. For example, Carroll used factor analysis to build his Three Stratum Theory. He found that a factor called "broad visual perception" relates to how good an individual is at visual tasks. He also found a "broad auditory perception" factor, relating to auditory task capability. Furthermore, he found a global factor, called "g" or general intelligence, that relates to both "broad visual perception" and "broad auditory perception". This means someone with a high "g" is likely to have both a high "visual perception" capability and a high "auditory perception" capability, and that "g" therefore explains a good part of why someone is good or bad in both of those domains.
Disadvantages
"...each orientation is equally acceptable mathematically. But different factorial theories proved to differ as much in terms of the orientations of factorial axes for a given solution as in terms of anything else, so that model fitting did not prove to be useful in distinguishing among theories." (Sternberg, 1977). This means all rotations represent different underlying processes, but all rotations are equally valid outcomes of standard factor analysis optimization. Therefore, it is impossible to pick the proper rotation using factor analysis alone.
Factor analysis can be only as good as the data allows. In psychology, where researchers often have to rely on less valid and reliable measures such as self-reports, this can be problematic.
Interpreting factor analysis is based on using a "heuristic", which is a solution that is "convenient even if not absolutely true". More than one interpretation can be made of the same data factored the same way, and factor analysis cannot identify causality.
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) versus principal components analysis (PCA)
Factor analysis is related to principal component analysis (PCA), but the two are not identical. There has been significant controversy in the field over differences between the two techniques. PCA can be considered as a more basic version of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) that was developed in the early days prior to the advent of high-speed computers. Both PCA and factor analysis aim to reduce the dimensionality of a set of data, but the approaches taken to do so are different for the two techniques. Factor analysis is clearly designed with the objective to identify certain unobservable factors from the observed variables, whereas PCA does not directly address this objective; at best, PCA provides an approximation to the required factors. From the point of view of exploratory analysis, the eigenvalues of PCA are inflated component loadings, i.e., contaminated with error variance.
Whilst EFA and PCA are treated as synonymous techniques in some fields of statistics, this has been criticised. Factor analysis "deals with the assumption of an underlying causal structure: [it] assumes that the covariation in the observed variables is due to the presence of one or more latent variables (factors) that exert causal influence on these observed variables". In contrast, PCA neither assumes nor depends on such an underlying causal relationship. Researchers have argued that the distinctions between the two techniques may mean that there are objective benefits for preferring one over the other based on the analytic goal. If the factor model is incorrectly formulated or the assumptions are not met, then factor analysis will give erroneous results. Factor analysis has been used successfully where adequate understanding of the system permits good initial model formulations. PCA employs a mathematical transformation to the original data with no assumptions about the form of the covariance matrix. The objective of PCA is to determine linear combinations of the original variables and select a few that can be used to summarize the data set without losing much information.
Arguments contrasting PCA and EFA
Fabrigar et al. (1999) address a number of reasons used to suggest that PCA is not equivalent to factor analysis:
It is sometimes suggested that PCA is computationally quicker and requires fewer resources than factor analysis. Fabrigar et al. suggest that readily available computer resources have rendered this practical concern irrelevant.
PCA and factor analysis can produce similar results. This point is also addressed by Fabrigar et al.; in certain cases, whereby the communalities are low (e.g. 0.4), the two techniques produce divergent results. In fact, Fabrigar et al. argue that in cases where the data correspond to assumptions of the common factor model, the results of PCA are inaccurate results.
There are certain cases where factor analysis leads to 'Heywood cases'. These encompass situations whereby 100% or more of the variance in a measured variable is estimated to be accounted for by the model. Fabrigar et al. suggest that these cases are actually informative to the researcher, indicating an incorrectly specified model or a violation of the common factor model. The lack of Heywood cases in the PCA approach may mean that such issues pass unnoticed.
Researchers gain extra information from a PCA approach, such as an individual's score on a certain component; such information is not yielded from factor analysis. However, as Fabrigar et al. contend, the typical aim of factor analysis – i.e. to determine the factors accounting for the structure of the correlations between measured variables – does not require knowledge of factor scores and thus this advantage is negated. It is also possible to compute factor scores from a factor analysis.
Variance versus covariance
Factor analysis takes into account the random error that is inherent in measurement, whereas PCA fails to do so. This point is exemplified by Brown (2009), who indicated that, in respect to the correlation matrices involved in the calculations:
For this reason, Brown (2009) recommends using factor analysis when theoretical ideas about relationships between variables exist, whereas PCA should be used if the goal of the researcher is to explore patterns in their data.
Differences in procedure and results
The differences between PCA and factor analysis (FA) are further illustrated by Suhr (2009):
PCA results in principal components that account for a maximal amount of variance for observed variables; FA accounts for common variance in the data.
PCA inserts ones on the diagonals of the correlation matrix; FA adjusts the diagonals of the correlation matrix with the unique factors.
PCA minimizes the sum of squared perpendicular distance to the component axis; FA estimates factors that influence responses on observed variables.
The component scores in PCA represent a linear combination of the observed variables weighted by eigenvectors; the observed variables in FA are linear combinations of the underlying and unique factors.
In PCA, the components yielded are uninterpretable, i.e. they do not represent underlying ‘constructs’; in FA, the underlying constructs can be labelled and readily interpreted, given an accurate model specification.
In marketing
The basic steps are:
Identify the salient attributes consumers use to evaluate products in this category.
Use quantitative marketing research techniques (such as surveys) to collect data from a sample of potential customers concerning their ratings of all the product attributes.
Input the data into a statistical program and run the factor analysis procedure. The computer will yield a set of underlying attributes (or factors).
Use these factors to construct perceptual maps and other product positioning devices.
Information collection
The data collection stage is usually done by marketing research professionals. Survey questions ask the respondent to rate a product sample or descriptions of product concepts on a range of attributes. Anywhere from five to twenty attributes are chosen. They could include things like: ease of use, weight, accuracy, durability, colourfulness, price, or size. The attributes chosen will vary depending on the product being studied. The same question is asked about all the products in the study. The data for multiple products is coded and input into a statistical program such as R, SPSS, SAS, Stata, STATISTICA, JMP, and SYSTAT.
Analysis
The analysis will isolate the underlying factors that explain the data using a matrix of associations. Factor analysis is an interdependence technique. The complete set of interdependent relationships is examined. There is no specification of dependent variables, independent variables, or causality. Factor analysis assumes that all the rating data on different attributes can be reduced down to a few important dimensions. This reduction is possible because some attributes may be related to each other. The rating given to any one attribute is partially the result of the influence of other attributes. The statistical algorithm deconstructs the rating (called a raw score) into its various components and reconstructs the partial scores into underlying factor scores. The degree of correlation between the initial raw score and the final factor score is called a factor loading.
Advantages
Both objective and subjective attributes can be used provided the subjective attributes can be converted into scores.
Factor analysis can identify latent dimensions or constructs that direct analysis may not.
It is easy and inexpensive.
Disadvantages
Usefulness depends on the researchers' ability to collect a sufficient set of product attributes. If important attributes are excluded or neglected, the value of the procedure is reduced.
If sets of observed variables are highly similar to each other and distinct from other items, factor analysis will assign a single factor to them. This may obscure factors that represent more interesting relationships.
Naming factors may require knowledge of theory because seemingly dissimilar attributes can correlate strongly for unknown reasons.
In physical and biological sciences
Factor analysis has also been widely used in physical sciences such as geochemistry, hydrochemistry, astrophysics and cosmology, as well as biological sciences, such as ecology, molecular biology, neuroscience and biochemistry.
In groundwater quality management, it is important to relate the spatial distribution of different chemical
parameters to different possible sources, which have different chemical signatures. For example, a sulfide mine is likely to be associated with high levels of acidity, dissolved sulfates and transition metals. These signatures can be identified as factors through R-mode factor analysis, and the location of possible sources can be suggested by contouring the factor scores.
In geochemistry, different factors can correspond to different mineral associations, and thus to mineralisation.
In microarray analysis
Factor analysis can be used for summarizing high-density oligonucleotide DNA microarrays data at probe level for Affymetrix GeneChips. In this case, the latent variable corresponds to the RNA concentration in a sample.
Implementation
Factor analysis has been implemented in several statistical analysis programs since the 1980s:
BMDP
JMP (statistical software)
Mplus (statistical software)]
Python: module Scikit-learn
R (with the base function factanal or fa function in package psych). Rotations are implemented in the GPArotation R package.
SAS (using PROC FACTOR or PROC CALIS)
SPSS
Stata
See also
Design of experiments
Formal concept analysis
Higher-order factor analysis
Independent component analysis
Non-negative matrix factorization
Q methodology
Recommendation system
Root cause analysis
Facet theory
References
Further reading
.
B.T. Gray (1997) Higher-Order Factor Analysis (Conference paper)
Jennrich, Robert I., "Rotation to Simple Loadings Using Component Loss Function: The Oblique Case," Psychometrika, Vol. 71, No. 1, pp. 173–191, March 2006.
Katz, Jeffrey Owen, and Rohlf, F. James. Primary product functionplane: An oblique rotation to simple structure. Multivariate Behavioral Research, April 1975, Vol. 10, pp. 219–232.
Katz, Jeffrey Owen, and Rohlf, F. James. Functionplane: A new approach to simple structure rotation. Psychometrika, March 1974, Vol. 39, No. 1, pp. 37–51.
Katz, Jeffrey Owen, and Rohlf, F. James. Function-point cluster analysis. Systematic Zoology, September 1973, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 295–301.
.
J.Schmid and J. M. Leiman (1957). The development of hierarchical factor solutions. Psychometrika, 22(1), 53–61.
.
Hans-Georg Wolff, Katja Preising (2005)Exploring item and higher order factor structure with the schmid-leiman solution : Syntax codes for SPSS and SASBehavior research methods, instruments & computers, 37 (1), 48-58
External links
A Beginner's Guide to Factor Analysis
Exploratory Factor Analysis. A Book Manuscript by Tucker, L. & MacCallum R. (1993). Retrieved June 8, 2006, from:
Garson, G. David, "Factor Analysis," from Statnotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis. Retrieved on April 13, 2009 from StatNotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis, from G. David Garson at North Carolina State University, Public Administration Program
Factor Analysis at 100 — conference material
FARMS — Factor Analysis for Robust Microarray Summarization, an R package
Latent variable models
Quantitative marketing research
Product management
Market research
Market segmentation | [
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253510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camarilla%20%28disambiguation%29 | Camarilla (disambiguation) | A camarilla is a group of courtiers or favourites who surround a king or ruler.
Camarilla may also refer to:
Camarilla, a fictional sect from the Vampire: The Masquerade books and role-playing games
Camarilla, a 2003 play by Van Badham
See also
Camarillo (disambiguation)
Camarillas, a municipality in Teruel, Aragon, Spain
Camarillas Formation, a geological formation in Teruel and La Rioja
Camarillasaurus, a dinosaur
Camarilla obliqua, or Allium obliquum, a Eurasian species of wild onion | [
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253511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabiria | Cabiria | Cabiria is a 1914 Italian epic silent film, directed by Giovanni Pastrone and shot in Turin. The film is set in ancient Sicily, Carthage, and Cirta during the period of the Second Punic War (218–202 BC). It follows a melodramatic main plot about an abducted little girl, Cabiria, and features an eruption of Mount Etna, heinous religious rituals in Carthage, the alpine trek of Hannibal, Archimedes' defeat of the Roman fleet at the Siege of Syracuse and Scipio maneuvering in North Africa. Apart from being a classic on its own terms, the film is also notable for being the first film in which the long-running film character Maciste makes his debut. According to Martin Scorsese, in this work Pastrone invented the epic movie and deserves credit for many of the innovations often attributed to D.W. Griffith and Cecil B. DeMille. Among those was the extensive use of a moving camera, thus freeing the feature-length narrative film from "static gaze".
The historical background and characters in the story are taken from Livy's Ab Urbe Condita (written ca. 27–25 BC). In addition, the script of Cabiria was partially based on Gustave Flaubert's 1862 novel Salammbo and Emilio Salgari's 1908 novel Cartagine in fiamme (Carthage in Flames). It was the first film shown at the White House, having been viewed on the South Lawn, by the President, First Lady, Vice President, his wife, members of the Cabinet and their wives, due to the summer heat in June 1914.
Plot summary
First episode
Batto and his young daughter, Cabiria, live in a lavish estate in the shadow of Mount Etna, at Catana, on the island of Sicily. Cabiria plays with dolls with her nurse, Croessa. When the volcanic Etna erupts violently, Batto prays to the god Pluto for deliverance but receives only a brief respite before his home and gardens are destroyed. While attempting to escape, servants discover a secret stairway leading underground. Taking advantage of the chaos and plundering Batto's hidden underground treasure, the servants, along with Croessa and Cabiria, flee to the countryside. Batto and his wife mourn the loss of Cabiria, as they believe her to be buried beneath the rubble.
Second episode
The fugitive servants divide up the treasure (Croessa gets a ring) and make for the sea but soon run afoul of Phoenician pirates who take Croessa and Cabiria to Carthage, where the little girl is sold to Karthalo, the High Priest. He intends to sacrifice her to the great god Moloch. Also in Carthage are two Roman spies: Fulvius Axilla, a Roman patrician, and Maciste, his huge, muscular slave. The innkeeper, Bodastoret, welcomes Fulvius and Maciste to his Inn of the Striped Monkey. Croessa tries to prevent the sacrifice of Cabiria by pretending that the child is ill, but Croessa is whipped for her deception. Later, she chances upon Fulvius and Maciste. Recognizing them as fellow countrymen, she implores them to assist her.
The entrance to the huge Temple of Moloch is a gigantic three-eyed head, with the mouth as portal. One hundred young children are to perish as offerings. Inside the temple are frenzied devotees, and the colossal seated statue of the winged god Moloch is a hollow bronze furnace. The great chest opens for each victim, and when a youngster is slid into the inferno, the door closes and the open mouth belches flame. Croessa, Fulvius, and Maciste sneak into the temple, and the slave boldly snatches Cabiria away from the priest. Pursued by a frenzied mob, they make their way up to the roof, down the gargantuan façade, and back to the inn. However, Croessa pays a fatal price for the rescue.
Third episode
Meanwhile, Hannibal and his troops make their way across the snow-laden Alps towards Rome. Soldiers, elephants and other animals pick their way through the passes. Learning of the military events, Fulvius resolves to flee back to Rome after further intimidating the innkeeper to ensure silence. Numidian King Massinissa is visiting Carthage, and Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, promises him his beautiful daughter, Sophonisba, in marriage. In a great audience hall with two huge elephantine columns, Massinissa dispatches gifts and a message to meet secretly to Sophonisba, who, on receiving them, is giddy with anticipation.
Bodastoret, the innkeeper, sneaks into the Temple of Moloch and for a reward betrays the Romans' whereabouts and intentions. Fulvius, Maciste, and Cabiria are ambushed by the Priest's henchmen as they attempt to flee the city the next morning, but Fulvius escapes by leaping spectacularly from a high precipice and swimming away. Maciste and Cabiria flee with henchmen hard on their heels to the cedar garden of Hasdrubal and encounter Massinissa and Sophonisba just as their secret tryst is commencing. Maciste implores the aristocratic couple, who have both concealed their true identities, to rescue Cabiria. Amid the chaos, Sophonisba, Cabiria, and a servant run away while Massinissa falsely denies to the Priest's men that he has seen any little girl. Maciste, however, is captured, tortured and chained to a great millstone, which he must turn, but he can still manage to intimidate everyone around him.
Fourth episode
The Roman navy has besieged Syracuse, a Greek ally of Carthage, and Fulvius is now participating in the fighting. The Romans, however, are frustrated by a giant array of mirrors, producing a heat ray, which is deployed by the great inventor Archimedes to set fire to the ships' sails. The Roman fleet is spectacularly destroyed.
Fulvius, still bearing the ring Croessa had given him, is cast adrift and soon rescued. Although his rescuers rob the unconscious Fulvius, one of them recognizes the ring on his finger, and he is carried to Batto's house, which has been rebuilt. The parents are overjoyed to learn that Cabiria is still alive, at least when he last saw her. As he takes his leave, Fulvius vows to seek Cabiria if he should ever return to Carthage.
Fifth episode
An intertitle relates that Syphax, King of Cirta, a rival desert kingdom, has deposed Massinissa and caused him to disappear into the desert. Hasdrubal now gives Sophonisba to the victor instead to strengthen his new alliance against Rome. Sophonisba is distinctly unhappy, and when she appears in her finery at the betrothal ceremony, she swoons and breaks the ceremonial vessel.
Already in possession of much of North Africa, the Roman general and consul Scipio strategizes with his new ally, Massinissa. They dispatch the resourceful Fulvius again as a spy in Carthage to observe its defenses. Stealthily deploying an impressive human pyramid of Roman soldiers, Fulvius successfully breaches the city walls.
In the elephantine hall, Hasdrubal dispatches the High Priest Karthalo on a mission to persuade Syphax to attack the Romans directly. Karthalo's camel caravan traverses the vast dunescape. Meanwhile, Fulvius finds time to look for Maciste and Cabiria, now prisoners for 10 years. With a combination of intimidation and bribery, he extracts information from Bodastoret. With Fulvius disguised as a freedman, they secretly observe Maciste still in chains and harnessed to his millstone. That night, Fulvius returns to wake the sleeping strongman who is overwhelmed with happiness at again seeing his beloved master. Back at their hideout at the inn, Bodastoret is overcome with shock at seeing Maciste and dies. Fulvius and Maciste escape down the city walls.
In Cirta, before a palace with two huge feline columns, Syphax is given a formal sendoff by Sophonisba and Karthalo, the latter of whom has an eye for the former's lovely slave, "Elissa". While the military maneuvers continue, Fulvius and Maciste have fallen into dire straits, exhausted and thirsty in the desert wilderness. Maciste catches sight of a fire in the distance, as Syphax's encampment has been torched by his enemies. The two Romans are soon captured by the mounted Cirtans.
While outside the city, King Syphax has been captured, Maciste and Fulvius are swept up with other prisoners within Cirta's city walls. "Elissa", who is really Cabiria, takes pity on the imprisoned pair and passes water to them without recognizing who they are. Cirta is under siege by Massinissa's forces. Soldiers scale ladders outside the walls while boulders, spears, arrows, and boiling oil rain down on them.
Sophonisba dreams of triple-eyed Moloch. Unnerved, she interprets her dream as an omen that Cabiria/Elissa will somehow spell the doom of the city and confesses to Karthalo what happened in the cedar garden so many years ago.
Maciste, who has forced open the iron bars of his prison cell with his enormous strength, determines to exact revenge upon Karthalo. He intrudes through a window just in time to save Elissa, whom he now recognizes as Cabiria, from being raped by the priest. Fulvius soon joins the fray, but in the chaos of flight, they lose control of Cabiria and are forced to barricade themselves in a store room. Fulvius is appalled to learn that the girl is none other than Cabiria.
Just outside the city walls is another appalling sight: King Syphax is in chains taunted by the victorious King Massinissa, who is now dressed in Roman military regalia. The Cirtans have had enough and surrender. In the hall of the gigantic feline columns, Sophonisba grandiloquently surrenders and abases herself before her former fiancé and present husband's captor, Massinissa. He, in turn, demurs and, just as elaborately, pledges himself to her. In a ceremonial hall with indigenous deities, the pair further ritualize their solidarity. Sophonisba marries Massinissa, and it is resolved that she will not be subjected to being paraded in a Roman triumph.
Fulvius and Maciste enjoy the ample provisions of the store room until the besieging guards attempt to smoke them out. Massinissa learns of the circumstances of the two "heroes" and, apparently ambivalent about such former Roman comrades, determines to spare them. Fulvius takes the opportunity to implore Sophonisba on Cabiria's behalf, but in a fit of pique, she tells the distraught Roman that Cabiria is dead.
Scipio and his lieutenant, Lelius, camp near Cirta. Lelius, whose forces have preceded Scipio's, tells his commander of the royals' treachery. At first, Massinissa arrogantly defies Scipio, dashing the Roman general's message tablet to pieces but later wilts in the face of Rome's majesty. He implores Scipio, however, to spare Sophonisba the humiliation of being paraded in Rome. Scipio will not relent.
In desperation, Massinissa persuades Fulvius, in reciprocation for having spared him earlier and in anticipation of an unspoken future favor, to lend him his slave Maciste. The slave receives a bracelet, inscribed with a message, and takes it to Queen Sophonisba. Receiving it, the Queen reads the message and understands that she is to poison herself with the powder in the hollow gift. Drinking the dissolved poison, Sophonisba divests herself of her jewelry with great flourishes. Fulvius arrives and, too late, they realize the purpose of Massinissa's request. Sophonisba, writhing in agony, reveals that Cabiria still lives and, as repayment for the gift of death, she will be spared a second time from the fate of living sacrifice. Cabiria is retrieved from her prison cell and arrives in time to see the moribund Queen expire.
Fulvius and Cabiria cross the sea on the way to Rome. As Maciste plays the panpipes in the bowsprit, Fulvius pledges his love to Cabiria and festive sea sprites encircle the boat in a giant, diaphanous garland.
Cast and characters
Historical figures denoted by an asterisk (*).
Carolina Catena ... Cabiria, as a Child
Émile Vardannes ... Batto, father of Cabiria
Gina Marangoni ... Croessa, nurse of Cabiria
Lidia Quaranta ... Cabiria, as an adult
Dante Testa ... Karthalo, the High Priest of Carthage
Umberto Mozzato ... Fulvio (Fulvius) Axilla, Roman patrician and spy
Bartolomeo Pagano ... Maciste, slave of Axilla
Raffaele di Napoli ... Bodastoret, an Innkeeper
Émile Vardannes ... Hannibal*, Carthaginian general
Edoardo Davesnes ... Hasdrubal*, Carthaginian general; brother of Hannibal
Italia Almirante-Manzini ... Sofonisba* (Sophonisba), daughter of Hasdrubal
Alessandro Bernard ... Siface* (Syphax), King of Cirta
Luigi Chellini ... Scipione* (Scipio), Roman consul and general
?????????? ... Lelius* (Gaius Laelius), friend and sub-commander of Scipio
Vitale Di Stefano ... Massinissa* (Masinissa), King of Numidia
Enrico Gemelli ... Archimede* (Archimedes), Greek engineer and philosopher
Ignazio Lupi ... Arbace
Production
Italian author Gabriele d'Annunzio contributed to the screenplay, writing all of the intertitles, naming the characters and the movie itself. The film was noted as being the first popular film to use the tracking shot – the camera is mounted on a dolly allowing it to both follow action and move within a film set or location. The tracking shot in itself was nothing new. "Panorama" effects (lateral and vertical) had been used frequently in film since 1896, but Cabiria, with the new freedom provided by the dolly, is innovative in introducing "zoom" movement, towards and away from the scene, which for years afterwards was referred to by both cameramen and directors as a "Cabiria" shot. This movement was such an innovation at the time that other film makers quickly incorporated it. The film was a major influence on D.W. Griffith's Intolerance (1916) but he never uses 'Cabiria' shots; the famous crane shot moving down and into the festival in Babylon is a "panorama" effect.
The elephants used in several scenes in the film are Indian elephants, rather than the much smaller and less intimidating North African elephant (which, though used in Hannibal's invasion, was long extinct at time of filming) or the African elephant (which is undomesticable).
Film critic Roger Ebert has said that Griffith "moves the camera with greater freedom and has a headlong narrative and an exciting use of cross-cutting that Pastrone does not approach". but never seeks to exploit possibilities of the genuinely mobile camera created by the 'Cabiria' shot, although such camera movement can very occasionally be seen used to dramatic effect in other US films at this time, notably Allan Dwan's David Harum (1915). The film also marked the debut of the Maciste character, who went on to have a long career in Italian sword and sandal films.
Music
The pastiche film score was composed largely by Manlio Mazza, who reworked the music of several composers including Mozart, Mendelssohn, Spontini, Donizetti and Gluck. But the film also contained an original composition by Mazza's former teacher Ildebrando Pizzetti, which was composed on D'Annunzio's recommendation: the ten-minute Sinfonia del fuoco. The piece was written to accompany the Invocation to Moloch, in the pivotal Second Episode of the film, when one hundred naked children are sacrificed to the god of Carthage. Scored for a large orchestra, including six first and six second violas, baritone, and a mixed chorus of more than five parts, the Sinfonia del fuoco was performed once only, on the evening of the film's première, conducted by Mazza, at the Teatro Vittorio Emanuele in Turin, on 18 April 1914. Contemporary reviews indicate that on this occasion the work was performed as an Overture at the start of the film.
The size of the forces involved, coupled with Pizzetti's refusal to allow others to conduct the work, and the fact that he himself never included it in his own concerts, meant that no further performances took place until 1988, when the 1914 version of the film was presented, with live orchestral accompaniment of the complete score, at the Orto Botanico, Rome. The Sinfonia del fuoco has since been recorded by Naxos Records in 1997.
Distribution, remake and restorations
Cabiria was released in Italy on April 18, 1914.
In June 1914, Cabiria became the first motion picture to be screened at the White House, when a screening on the lawn was viewed by President Wilson and his family from the porch and lawn chairs. (The Birth of a Nation was the first movie shown in the White House, in the East Room.)
A restored version of Cabiria was screened on 27 May 2006 at the Cannes Film Festival, featuring a filmed introduction by director Martin Scorsese.
See also
1914 in film
List of historical drama films
List of films based on military books (pre-1775)
List of films with a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, a film review aggregator website
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
Roger Ebert review
Original Handbill for Cabiria (1914) available at the Internet Archive
1914 films
Italian war drama films
Italian black-and-white films
Italian films
Italian historical films
Films based on works by Emilio Salgari
Films directed by Giovanni Pastrone
Films scored by Ildebrando Pizzetti
Films set in Carthage
Films set in Sicily
Italian epic films
Italian silent feature films
1910s historical films
Maciste films
Second Punic War films
Peplum films
Cultural depictions of Hannibal
Cultural depictions of Archimedes
Cultural depictions of Scipio Africanus
Films based on Italian novels
Films based on French novels
Works by Gabriele D'Annunzio
Articles containing video clips
Sword and sorcery films
Sword and sandal films
Sword and sandal
Cultural depictions of Sophonisba
Films based on works by Gustave Flaubert
Works based on Salammbô | [
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253522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masquerade | Masquerade | Masquerade or Masquerader may refer to:
Events
Masquerade ball, a costumed dance event
Masquerade ceremony, a rite or cultural event in many parts of the world, especially the Caribbean and Africa
Masqueraders, the performers in the West Country Carnival
Books
The Masquerader (novel), a 1904 novel by Katherine Cecil Thurston
The Masqueraders, a 1928 novel by Georgette Heyer
Masquerade (book), a 1979 children's book by Kit Williams that sparked a worldwide treasure hunt
Masquerades (novel), a 1995 Forgotten Realms novel by Kate Novak and Jeff Grubb
Maskerade, a 1995 Discworld novel by Terry Pratchett
Masquerade, a 2007 Blue Bloods novel by Melissa de la Cruz
Theatre
The Masquerade (play), a 1719 play by Charles Johnson
Mascarade, a 1724 comedy play by Ludvig Holberg
Masquerade (play), an 1835 Russian play by Mikhail Lermontov
The Masqueraders, an 1894 English play by Henry Arthur Jones
The Masquerader (play), a 1917 play by John Hunter Booth, based on the novel by Katherine Cecil Thurston
Masquerade (theatre group), an English theatre group in Chennai, India, since 1994
Film and TV
Film
The Masquerade, a 1913 animated film by Émile Cohl
The Masquerader (1914 film), an American silent film by Charlie Chaplin
The Masqueraders (film), a 1915 American silent film adaptation of the play by Henry Arthur Jones
The Masquerader (1922 film), an American silent film adaptation of the play by John Hunter Booth
Masquerade (1929 film), an American drama film
Masquerade, a 1931 film starring Vivienne Osborne
The Masquerader (1933 film), an American film adaptation of the play by John Hunter Booth
Masquerade (1941 film), a Soviet film
Masquerade (1965 film), a British spy spoof starring Cliff Robertson and Jack Hawkins
Masquerade (1988 film), an American thriller starring Rob Lowe and Meg Tilly
The Masquerade, a 2007 American thriller starring Brianne Davis and Christopher Masterson
Masquerades (film), a 2008 film
Masquerade (2012 film), or Gwanghae, South Korean film
Masquerade (2021 film), an American thriller
Television
Masquerade (TV series), a 1983 American espionage series
Masquerade (Bakugan Battle Brawlers), a masked character in the anime Bakugan Battle Brawlers
Masquerade, the international title for Kasou Taishou, a Japanese semi-annual amateur skit show
Episodes
"Masquerade" (Alias)
"Masquerade" (Baywatch)
"Masquerade" (Benson)
"Masquerade" (The Bill)
"Masquerade" (Dallas)
"Masquerade" (Dynasty)
"Masquerade" (ER)
"Masquerade" (The Flash)
"Masquerade" (The Fugitive)
"Masquerade" (Iron Man: Armored Adventures)
"Masquerade" (Law & Order: Criminal Intent)
"Masquerade" (Law & Order: UK)
"Masquerade" (NCIS)
"Masquerade" (The Real Ghostbusters)
"Masquerade" (Six Degrees)
"Masquerade" (The Transformers)
"Masquerade" (Trauma)
"Masquerade" (Person of Interest)
"Masquerade" (The Vampire Diaries)
Music
The Masquerade (Atlanta), a concert venue in Atlanta, Georgia
Classical music
Mascherata (English: Masquerade), an Italian dance from the sixteenth century
Masquerade, lute piece by Robert de Visée (c. 1655 – 1732/1733)
Maskarade, a 1906 opera by Carl Nielsen, based on the play by Ludvig Holberg
Masquerade (Khachaturian), incidental music by Aram Khachaturian
Masquerade (Clyne), a 2013 orchestral composition by Anna Clyne
Bands
Masquerade (Finnish band), a Finnish post-punk band
Masquerade (German band), a band with Drafi Deutscher that had a hit in 1984 with the song "Guardian Angel"
Masquerade (Swedish band), a Swedish rock band
Albums
Masquerade (Eric Saade album), or the title song, 2010
Masquerade (Golden Dawn album), 2003
Masquerade (The Legendary Tigerman album), or the title song, 2006
Masquerade (Running Wild album), 1995
Masquerade (Wyclef Jean album), 2002
Masquerade, an album by Dreams of Sanity, 1999
The Masquerade (album), by mxmtoon, 2019
The Masquerade, by Mêlée, 2010
Songs
"Masquerade" (2PM song), 2012
"Masquerade" (Kaya song), 2006
"Masquerade", by Ashley Tisdale from Guilty Pleasure, 2009
"Masquerade", by Beach House from Once Twice Melody, 2022
"Masquerade", by Berlin from Pleasure Victim, 1982
"Masquerade", by Nicki Minaj from Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded, 2012
"Masquerade", by Northlane from Singularity, 2013
"Masquerade", from the musical The Phantom of the Opera, 1986
Technology
IP masquerading, a form of network address translation
Masquerade, a type of computer threat
Masquerade or mimesis, a mechanism of animal or military camouflage
Biology
Masquerade (biology), a form of camouflage relying on mimicry of inanimate objects such as twigs
Labrisomus conditus, the Masquerader hairy blenny, a fish
Other uses
Masquerade society, a fictional society in Vampire: The Masquerade
Masquerade (trope), a fantasy and speculative fiction trope involving a hidden society within the real world
See also
Mask-A-Raid, a 1931 animated short film starring Betty Boop
Masque, a form of festive courtly entertainment in 16th and early 17th century Europe
Mascarade, a card game | [
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253536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy%20Adamson | Joy Adamson | Friederike Victoria "Joy" Adamson Gessner, (20 January 1910 Troppau, Austrian Silesia – 3 January 1980 Kenya) was a naturalist, artist and author. Her book, Born Free, describes her experiences raising a lion cub named Elsa. Born Free was printed in several languages, and made into an Academy Award-winning movie of the same name. In 1977, she was awarded the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art.
Biography
Adamson was born to Victor and Traute Gessner in Troppau, Silesia, Austria-Hungary (now Opava, Czech Republic), the second of three daughters. Her parents divorced when she was 10, and she went to live with her grandmother. In her autobiography The Searching Spirit, Adamson wrote about her grandmother, saying, "It is to her I owe anything that may be good in me". She grew up on an estate near Vienna, was educated in Vienna earning a music degree before studying sculpting and medicine. As a young adult, Adamson considered careers as a concert pianist, and in medicine.
Joy Adamson married three times in the span of ten years. Her first marriage in 1935 was to Viktor von Klarwill (aka Ziebel; 1902–1985).
She went to Kenya in 1937 where she met and married in 1938 the botanist Peter Bally, who gave her the nickname "Joy". Peter did botanical paintings, and it was he who encouraged her to continue sketching and painting the flora and fauna in her surroundings. She met her third husband, senior wildlife warden George Adamson, while on safari in the early 1940s and married him in 1944. They made their home together in Kenya.
Joy Adamson is best known for her conservation efforts associated with Elsa the Lioness. In 1956, George Adamson, in the course of his job as game warden of the Northern Frontier District in Kenya, shot and killed a lioness as she charged him and another warden. George later realized the lioness was just protecting her cubs, which were found nearby in a rocky crevice. Taking them home, Joy and George found it difficult to care for all the cubs' needs. The two largest cubs, named "Big One" and "Lustica", were passed on to be cared for by a zoo in Rotterdam, and the smallest, "Elsa", was raised by the couple.
After some time living together, the Adamsons decided to set Elsa free rather than send her to a zoo, and spent many months training her to hunt and survive on her own. They were in the end successful, and Elsa became the first lioness successfully released back into the wild, the first to have contact after release, and the first known released lion to have a litter of cubs. The Adamsons kept their distance from the cubs, getting close enough only to photograph them.
In January 1961, Elsa died from babesiosis, a disease resulting from a tick bite. Her three young cubs became a nuisance, killing the livestock of local farmers. The Adamsons, who feared the farmers might kill the cubs, were able to eventually capture them and transport them to neighboring Tanganyika Territory, where they were promised a home at Serengeti National Park. In the concluding part of Forever Free the Adamsons lost track of the cubs in their new home. After describing a fruitless search, Joy Adamson contemplated a pair of lions: "My heart was with them wherever they were. But it was also with these two lions here in front of us; and as I watched this beautiful pair, I realized how all the characteristics of our cubs were inherent in them. Indeed, in every lion I saw during our searches I recognized the intrinsic nature of Elsa, Jespah, Gopa and Little Elsa, the spirit of all the magnificent lions in Africa".
During Elsa's lifetime, Joy and George Adamson needed each other to educate her, but after she died and her cubs were taken in by the park, their interests went in separate directions, as did their lives. While neither wanted a divorce nor a legal separation, their conflicting interests (George wanted to continue to work with lions and she with cheetahs) made it necessary for them to live apart (though they sometimes discussed living together again, they never did). They spent each Christmas together and they remained on good terms.
Using her own notes and George's journals, Joy wrote Born Free to tell the lion's tale. She submitted it to a number of publishers before it was bought by Harvill Press, part of HarperCollins. Published in 1960, it became a bestseller, spending 13 weeks at the top of The New York Times Best Seller list and nearly a year on the chart overall. The success of the book was due to both the story of Elsa and the dozens of photographs of her. Readers had pictures of many of the events of Elsa's life leading up to her release. Subsequent books were also heavily illustrated. Born Free received largely favorable reviews from critics. Adamson worked closely with publishers to promote the book, which contributed to the Adamsons' new-found international celebrity.
She spent the rest of her life raising money for wildlife, thanks to the popularity of Born Free. The book was followed by Living Free, which is about Elsa as a mother to her cubs, and Forever Free, which tells of the release of the cubs Jespah, Gopa and Little Elsa. Adamson shared book proceeds with various conservation projects.
While television specials kept the Adamsons' cause in the spotlight, Adamson spent her last 10 years travelling the world, giving speeches about the perils faced by wildlife in Africa. A book of her paintings, Joy Adamson's Africa, was published in 1972. She rehabilitated a cheetah and an African leopard. Pippa the cheetah was raised as a pet and given to Adamson at the age of seven months in hopes that she could also be released. Pippa had four litters before her death. Adamson wrote The Spotted Sphinx and Pippa's Challenge about Pippa and her cheetah family. Later, Adamson reached her goal of many years, when she obtained an African leopard cub. Penny was eight weeks old when a ranger acquaintance of George Adamson found her in 1976. Penny had a litter of two cubs before the publication of Queen of Shaba, Joy Adamson's posthumous and final book.
During her lifetime, she created more than 500 paintings and line drawings. Her work included portraits of the indigenous populations commissioned by the government of Kenya, as well as botanical illustrations for at least seven books on East African flora. She also did animal paintings, among them studies of Elsa and Pippa.
Murder and legacy
On 3 January 1980, in Shaba National Reserve in Kenya, Joy Adamson's body was discovered by her assistant, Pieter Mawson. He mistakenly assumed she had been killed by a lion, and this was what was initially reported by the media. She was a few weeks short of her 70th birthday.
The police investigation found Adamson's wounds were too sharp and bloodless to have been caused by an animal, and concluded she had been murdered. Paul Nakware Ekai, a discharged labourer formerly employed by Adamson, was found guilty of murder and sentenced to indefinite imprisonment. He escaped capital punishment because the judge ruled he might have been a minor when the crime was committed.
Joy Adamson was cremated and her ashes were buried in Elsa the Lioness's grave in Meru National Park in Meru, Kenya.
George Adamson was murdered nine years later in 1989, near his camp in Kora National Park, while rushing to the aid of a tourist who was being attacked by poachers. He is credited with saving the tourist's life.
In addition to Joy Adamson's books about big cats, a book of her artwork was published as an autobiography entitled The Searching Spirit. George Adamson's second autobiography, My Pride and Joy, was published in 1986.
Bibliography
Books by Joy Adamson
Born Free (1960)
Elsa: The Story of a Lioness (1961)
Living Free: The story of Elsa and her cubs (1961)
Forever Free: Elsa's Pride (1962)
The Spotted Sphinx (1969)
Pippa: The Cheetah and her Cubs (1970)
Joy Adamson's Africa (1972)
Pippa's Challenge (1972)
Peoples of Kenya (1975)
; also, (1978)
Queen of Shaba: The Story of an African Leopard (1980)
Friends from the Forest (1980)
As illustrator only
Gardening in East Africa, II edition
At least six other books depicting the flowers, trees, and shrubs of East Africa
Books by George Adamson
A Lifetime With Lions. (Autobiography). Doubleday,1968. ASIN: B0006BQAZW
Bwana Game: The Life Story of George Adamson, Collins & Harvill (April 1969),
; also, The Harvill Press (22 September 1986),
Books by others
Wild Heart: The Story of Joy Adamson, Author of Born Free by Anne E. Neimark.
Sleeping With Lions by Netta Pfeifer
Joy Adamson : Behind the Mask by Caroline Cass.
The Great Safari: The Lives of George and Joy Adamson by Adrian House
Films
Born Free
Living Free
Elsa & Her Cubs – 25 minutes; Benchmark Films Copyright MCMLXXI by Elsa Wild Animal Appeal and Benchmark Films, Inc.
Joy Adamson – About the Adamsons – Producer-Benchmark Films, Inc.
Joy Adamson's Africa (1977) – 86 minutes
The Joy Adamson Story (1980) – Programme featuring interviews with Joy Adamson about her life and work in Austria and in Africa, and her famous lioness Elsa. Director: Dick Thomsett Production Company: BBC
References
External links
Letters written by Joy Adamson.
Web page about Elsa
Bibliography of films by and about Joy and George Adamson.
1910 births
1980 deaths
1980 murders in Africa
20th-century Austrian people
Settlers of Kenya
Austrian emigrants to Kenya
People murdered in Kenya
People from Opava
Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art
White Kenyan people | [
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253538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necklace | Necklace | A necklace is an article of jewellery that is worn around the neck. Necklaces may have been one of the earliest types of adornment worn by humans. They often serve ceremonial, religious, magical, or funerary purposes and are also used as symbols of wealth and status, given that they are commonly made of precious metals and stones.
The main component of a necklace is the band, chain, or cord that wraps around the neck. These are most often rendered in precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum. Necklaces often have additional attachments suspended or inset into the necklace itself. These attachments typically include pendants, lockets, amulets, crosses, and precious and semi-precious materials such as diamond, pearls, rubies, emeralds, garnets, and sapphires. They are made with many different type of materials and are used for many things and sometimes classed as clothing.
Historical Necklaces
Prehistoric neckware
Prehistoric peoples often used natural materials such as feathers, bone, shells, and plant materials to create necklaces. Evidence of early Upper Paleolithic necklace making in southern Africa and east Africa dates back to 50,000 BP. By the Bronze Age metallic jewellery had replaced pre-metallic adornments. Necklaces were first depicted in statuary and art of the Ancient Near East, and early necklaces made of precious metals with inset stones were created in Europe.
Ancient civilizations
In Ancient Mesopotamia, cylinder seals were often strung and worn as jewellery. In Ancient Babylon, necklaces were made of carnelian, lapis lazuli, agate, and gold, which was also made into gold chains. Ancient Sumerians created necklaces and beads from gold, silver, lapis lazuli and carnelian. In Ancient Egypt, a number of difference necklace types were worn. Upper-class Ancient Egyptians wore collars of organic or semi-precious and precious materials for religious, celebratory, and funerary purposes. These collars were often ornamented with semi-precious, glass, pottery, and hollow beads. Beads made from a variety of precious and semi-precious materials were also commonly strung together to create necklaces. Gold that was fashioned into stylised plant, animal, and insect shapes were common as well. Amulets were also turned into necklaces. In Ancient Crete necklaces were worn by all classes; peasants wore stones on flax thread while the wealthy wore beads of agate, pearl, carnelian, amethyst, and rock crystal. Pendants shaped into birds, animals, and humans were also worn, in addition to paste beads. In Ancient Greece, delicately made gold necklaces created with repoussé and plaited gold wires were worn. Most often these necklaces were ornamented with blue or green enameled rosettes, animal shapes, or vase-shaped pendants that were often detailed with fringes. It was also common to wear long gold chains with suspended cameos and small containers of perfume. New elements were introduced in the Hellenistic period; colored stones allowed for poly-chromatic pieces, and animal-head finials and spear-like or bud shaped pendants were hung from chains. Ancient Etruscans used granulation to create granulated gold beads which were strung with glass and faience beads to create colorful necklaces. In Ancient Rome necklaces were among the many types of jewellery worn by the Roman elite. Gold and silver necklaces were often ornamented with foreign and semi-precious objects such as amber, pearl, amethyst, sapphire, and diamond. In addition, ropes of pearls, gold plates inset with enamel, and lustrous stones set in gold filigree were often worn. Many large necklaces and the materials that adorned the necklaces were imported from the Near East . Later in the empire, following barbarian invasions, colorful and gaudy jewellery became popular. In the Byzantine era, ropes of pearls and embossed gold chains were most often worn, but new techniques such as the use of niello allowed for necklaces with brighter, more predominant gemstones . The Early Byzantine Era also saw a shift to distinctly Christian jewellery which displayed the new Christian iconography.
Timeline of non-classical European necklaces
2000 BC – AD 400: Bronze amulets embossed with coral were common. In Celtic and Gallic Europe, the most popular necklace was the heavy metal torc, made most often out of bronze, but sometimes out of silver, gold, or glass or amber beads.
AD 400 - 1300: Early European barbarian groups favored wide, intricate gold collars not unlike the torc. Germanic tribes often wore gold and silver pieces with complex detailing and inlaid with colored glass and semi-precious stones, especially garnet. Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian groups worked mainly in silver, due to a deficit of gold, and wrought patterns and animal forms into neck-rings. In the Gothic period necklaces were uncommon, though there are a few records of diamond, ruby, and pearl necklaces. It was not until the adoption of lower necklines later in the Middle Ages that necklaces became common.
1400 – 1500: During the Renaissance it was fashionable for men to wear a number of chains, plaques, and pendants around their necks, and by the end of the 15th century the wealthiest men would wear great, shoulder covering collars inlaid with gems. Women typically wore simpler pieces, such as gold chains, or strung beads or pearls. By the end of the period, larger, more heavily adorned pieces were common among the wealthy, particularly in Italy.
1500–1600: Long pearl ropes and chains with precious stones were commonly worn. In the latter half of the century, natural adornments, such as coral and pearl, were joined with enamel and metals to create intricate pendants. Heavily jeweled, delicately framed cameo pendants were popular as well. Chokers, last worn commonly in antiquity, also made a resurgence at this time.
1600–1700: Few men in the Baroque period wore jewellery, and for women necklaces were unsophisticated, often a simple strand of pearls or delicately linked and embellished strands of metal with small stones. Later in the century, after the invention of new diamond cutting techniques, priority was for the first time given to the jewels themselves, not their settings; it was common for jewels to be pinned to black velvet ribbons. Miniatures also grew in popularity, and were often made into portrait pendants or lockets.
1700–1800: Portrait pendants were still worn, and in extravagantly jeweled settings. The newly wealthy bourgeoisie delighted in jewellery, and the new imitation stones and imitation gold allowed them more access to the necklaces of the time. In the early part of the century, the dominant styles were a velvet ribbon with suspended pendants and the rivière necklace, a single row of large precious stones surrounded by other precious stones. By mid-century colorful, whimsical necklaces made of real and imitation gems were popular, and the end of the century saw a neo-Classical resurgence. In the Age of Enlightenment gowns often featured a neck ruffle which women accented with neck ribbons rather than traditional necklaces, but some women did wear chokers inlaid with rubies and diamonds. Seed pearls were introduced to the United States during the Federalist Era, leading to an increase in lacy pearl necklaces.
1800–1870: The low necklines of the court gowns fashionable at this time led to the use of large necklaces set with precious jewels. In Napoleon's court that ancient Greek style was fashionable, and women wore strands of pearls or gold chains with cameos and jewels. In the Romantic period necklaces were extravagant: it was fashionable to wear a tight, gem-encrusted collar with matching jewel pendants attached and rosettes of gems with pearl borders. It was also common to wear jeweled brooches attached to neck ribbons. Some necklaces were opulent in that they were made to be dismantled and reconfigured into a shorter necklace, brooches, and a bracelet. Highly embellished Gothic style necklaces from England reflected the crenelations, vertical lines and high relief of the cathedrals. Empress Eugénie popularised bare décolletage with multiple necklaces on the throat, shoulders, and bosom. There was also an interest in antiquity; mosaic jewellery and Roman and Greek necklaces were reproduced. Machine-made jewellery and electroplating allowed for an influx of inexpensive imitation necklaces.
1870–1910: The Edwardian era saw a resurgence of pearl necklaces, in addition to a dog-collar style of necklace made of gold or platinum with inset diamonds, emeralds, or rubies. The Art Nouveau movement inspired symbolic, abstract designs with natural and animal motifs. The materials used - glass, porcelain, bronze, ivory, mother of pearl, horn, and enamel - were not used for their value, but for their appearance.
1910–1970: Chanel popularised costume jewellery, and ropes of glass beads were common. The Art Deco movement created chunky, geometric jewellery that combined multiple types of gems and steel. By the 1960s costume jewellery was widely worn, which resulted in seasonal, ever-changing styles of necklaces and other jewellery. Real jewellery that was common in this period included wholly geometric or organically shaped silver necklaces, and precious gems set in platinum or gold necklaces inspired by the time of the French Empire. Love beads (a single strand of stone or glass beads) and pendant necklaces (most often made of leather cords or metal chains with metal pendants) became popular and were worn mostly by men.
Shell necklaces
Aboriginal Tasmanian women have been making shell necklaces from maireener (Phasianotrochus irisodontes)shells for at least 2,600 years, with some major collections in museums. The continuation of the practice is being threatened by reducing supply, and sixth-generation Palawa woman Lola Greeno is concerned that the practice will die out.
Court Necklace
In Qing dynasty China, court necklace, also called chao zhu (朝珠), was worn by the Qing dynasty emperors and other members of the imperial family. The court necklace originated from a Buddhist rosary sent in 1643 by the Dalai Lama to the first emperor of Qing. The necklace is composed of 108 small beads, with 4 large beads of contrasting stones to symbolize the 4 seasons and was placed between groups of 27 beads. The necklace was also practical as it could be used for mathematical calculations in the absence of an abacus.
Necklace lengths
Necklaces are typically classified by length:
Collar
A collar is about 30 centimetres (12 inch) to 33 centimetres (13inch) long and sits high on the neck.
Choker
A choker is a close-fitting, short necklace, 35 centimetres (14 in) to 41 centimetres (16 in) long.
Princess necklace
A princess necklace is 45 centimetres (18 in) to 50 centimetres (20 in) long.
Matinee necklace
A matinee length necklace is 56 centimetres (22 in) to 58 centimetres (23 in) long.
Opera necklace
An opera necklace is 75 centimetres (30 in) to 90 centimetres (35 in) long and sits at the breastbone.
Rope necklace
A rope necklace is any necklace longer than opera length.
Lariat necklace
A lariat is a very long variation on the rope, without a clasp, often worn draped multiple times around the neck.
Gallery
Other neck uses
Non-jewellery items are also used similar to a necklace to be worn on a neck, for example lanyards holding badges and cards.
See also
Cross necklace
Choker
Collar
Figaro chain
Jewellery chain
Livery collar
Locket
Love beads
Pendant
Torc
Usekh collar
Further reading
Jewelry 7,000 Years ed. Hugh Tait. .
Jewelry Through the Ages by Guido Gregorietti. .
20,000 Years of Fashion: The History of Costume and Personal Adornment by Francois Boucher. .
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253539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REO%20Speed%20Wagon | REO Speed Wagon | The REO Speed Wagon (alternatively Reo Speedwagon) was a light motor truck model manufactured by REO Motor Car Company. It is an ancestor of the pickup truck.
First introduced in 1915, production continued through at least 1953, and made REO (the initials of its founder, Ransom Eli Olds) one of the better-known manufacturers of commercial vehicles in America prior to World War II. Although the basic design and styling of the chassis remained consistent, the Speed Wagon was manufactured in a variety of configurations (pickup and panel truck, passenger bus) to serve as delivery, tow, dump, and fire trucks, as well as hearses and ambulances. Other manufacturers provided refits for adapting the Speed Wagon for specialized purposes. The Speed Wagon used REO's "Gold Crown" series of engines, and was well regarded for power, durability, and quality.
While REO produced some wagons based on its automobile chassis (the Model H) starting in 1908 and had organized a division to produce trucks in 1910 with success, the Speed Wagon's introduction in 1915 was a significant step and a sales success. The company was soon offering a variety of Speed Wagon models with many options, and by 1925 had produced 125,000.
After years of roughly equal car and truck emphasis, REO shifted its focus completely to trucks, ending automobile production in 1936. Production for the civilian market was suspended during World War II, resuming in 1946. In 1967, Diamond T and Reo Trucks were combined to form the Diamond Reo Trucks Division of the White Motor Corporation.
The rock and roll quintet REO Speedwagon took its name from this vehicle, which in turn, later adapted into a main character in JoJo's Bizarre Adventure.
Models
1915 model featured 1-ton weight, four-cylinder engine, three speed transmission and aimed to be faster than the average speed of contemporary trucks.
1917 model featured 3.25-ton weight and canvas top and sides and cost $1125.
1925 model featured six-cylinder engine
1929 model featured REO's "Gold Crown" , , six-cylinder engine.
1933 Model BN featured REO's six-cylinder "Gold Crown" engine and combination of parts from the company's Flying Cloud and Royale luxury cars. It is a rare, relatively fast panel delivery truck with wooden body.
References
External links
Reo Speed Wagon Camper on display at Woodland Auto Display, Paso Robles, CA
montage of light delivery trucks including early model Reo Speed Wagon
1924 Speed Wagon print advertisement
1925 Speed Wagon print advertisement
1928 Reo Speed Wagon print advertisement from Finland emphasizing the advantages of truck engines used in the Speed Wagon over engines from passenger cars.
1936 REO Speedwagon print advertisement
Iowa 80 Trucking Museum
Pickup trucks
Vehicles built in Lansing, Michigan | [
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253541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracelet | Bracelet | A bracelet is an article of jewellery that is worn around the wrist. Bracelets may serve different uses, such as being worn as an ornament. When worn as ornaments, bracelets may have a supportive function to hold other items of decoration, such as charms. Medical and identity information are marked on some bracelets, such as allergy bracelets, hospital patient-identification tags, and bracelet tags for newborn babies. Bracelets may be worn to signify a certain phenomenon, such as breast cancer awareness, or for religious/cultural purposes.
If a bracelet is a single, inflexible loop, it is often called a bangle. When it is worn around the ankle it is called an ankle bracelet or anklet. A boot bracelet is used to decorate boots. Bracelets can be manufactured from metal, leather, cloth, plastic, bead or other materials, and jewelry bracelets sometimes contain jewels, rocks, wood, shells, crystals, metal, or plastic hoops, pearls and many more materials.
Origin
Although the term armlet may be technically similar, it is taken to mean an item that sits on the upper shoulder: an arm ring. The origin of the term 'bracelet' is from the Greek meaning 'of the arm', via the Old French . A bracelet is also a small brace or bracer (an arm-guard used by archers).
Cultural and religious significance
The history of Egyptian bracelets is as old as 5000 BCE. Starting with materials like bones, stones and woods to serve religious and spiritual interests. From the National Geographic Society, the Scarab Bracelet is one of the most recognized symbols of ancient Egypt. The scarab represented rebirth and regeneration. Carved scarabs were worn as jewelry and wrapped into the linen bandages of mummies. Myth told of the scarab god, Khepri, pushing the sun across the sky.
In 2008, Russian archaeologists from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of Novosibirsk, working at the site of Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia, uncovered a small bone fragment from the fifth finger of a juvenile hominin, dubbed the "X woman" (referring to the maternal descent of mitochondrial DNA), or the Denisova hominin. Artifacts, including a bracelet, excavated in the cave at the same level were carbon dated to around 40,000 BP.
In Bulgaria, there is a tradition called martenitsa, which sometimes involves tying a red and white string around the wrist to please Baba Marta in order for spring to come sooner.
In Greece, a similar tradition, weaving a bracelet from a red and white string on the first day of March and wearing it till the end of summer, is called "Martis" and is considered to help protect the wearer's skin from the strong Greek sun.
In some parts of India, the number and type of bangles worn by a woman denotes her marital status
In Sikhism, an iron bracelet is one of the mandatory articles known as the Five Ks.
In Latin America, Azabache Bracelets are worn to protect against the Mal de ojo, or evil eye. The evil eye is believed to result of excessive admiration or envious looks by others. Having newborn babies wear an azabache (a gold bracelet or necklace with a black or red coral charm in the form of a fist), is believed to protect them from the evil eye.
Types
Alternative health
Alternative health bracelets, such as ionized bracelets, karma bracelets, magnetic bracelets, Power Balance hologram bracelets, etc., are not distinguished by their design but rather the beneficial function claimed for them by their manufacturers and distributors. Karma bracelets are made from wood beads and may contain various charms, and are associated with bringing good luck and good karma to those who choose to wear it. No claims of effectiveness made by manufacturers have ever been substantiated by independent sources.
Bangles
Rigid bracelets, usually from metal, wood, or plastic, are referred to as bangles or bangle bracelets. They can be smooth, textured or set with stones. In India, glass bangles are common. Made from ordinary glass that is about in width, they are worn in groups so that arm movement causes them to make a gracious sound rather like the clinking of wind chimes. In India, it is also common that young children will wear thin gold bangles on their hands and ankles.
Beaded
Usually made from loose beads with a center hole and connected by a piece of string or elastic band through the holes. Most often made with wooden beads, plastic, glass or even crystal beads.
Charm
A charm bracelet carries personal charms: decorative pendants or trinkets which are signifiers of important things, interests/hobbies, and memories in the wearer's life. The decorative charms usually carry personal or sentimental attachment by the owner. Are popular with all age ranges, but especially for children.
In recent history, Italian charm bracelets have become trendy. While traditional charms dangle, Italian charms feature individual pieces soldered flat onto the surface of the link.
Link
Bracelets made from connecting or linking various or similar components or jewelry findings. Link bracelets can be made of a variety of materials including metals and gemstones.
Penannular
Penannular, meaning an incomplete circle, has been a very common form for bracelets, especially ones made in a single piece of a slightly flexible material such as metal or plastic. It is particularly popular in gold.
Slap
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, "slap bracelets"—flat, felt-covered metal strips that curved around one's wrist when gently hit against it—were a popular fad. Often adorned with neon colors and vivid graphics, these bracelets could be found at inexpensive retailers. A false rumor emerged that "slap bracelets" caused bleeding and puncture wounds and thus they fell out of style.
Sports
The use of colored silicone rubber as a material for producing sports bracelets was popularized by Nike and Lance Armstrong through the Yellow Livestrong wristband starting in May 2003. Their success has led to the silicone bracelet becoming a low cost tool for various awareness, information, and charity campaigns. This can be likened to the use of awareness ribbons for similar purposes. These bracelets are also known as "baller id bands", "baller bands" or "wristbands". They can also be referred to as rubber wristbands, silicone wristbands or gel wristbands. For sport climbing, bracelets are designed with climbing cords (dynamic rope) to serve as a mountain climbing gear.
Tennis
While playing a match at the 1978 U.S. Open, tennis player Chris Evert was wearing a diamond line bracelet, which fell from her wrist to the surface of the court. She said about this, "I dropped my tennis bracelet", and since then diamond line bracelets have also been called "tennis bracelets". The term tennis bracelet appears in print before this incident, but not necessarily referring to diamond line bracelets. An advertisement for a "sterling tennis bracelet" in The New Yorker in 1975, for example, shows a solid silver bangle featuring a tennis racket design, made by the Gorham Manufacturing Company.
Tennis bracelets are made up of many identical settings, each of which incorporates a hinge. The links are usually riveted or soldered from the sides of the bracelet allowing it to flex freely around the wrist with minimal movement left-to-right. A typical tennis bracelet will feature round diamonds set in four claw settings. Tennis bracelets can be adjusted to fit the wearer by removing links, this must be done by a jeweller.
See also
Anklet
Armband
Brace (armor)
Friendship bracelet
Manillas
Necklace
POW bracelet
Red string (Kabbalah)
Torc
Slave bracelet
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience (bracelets with health/healing/performance benefits)
Notes
References
External links
Metropolitan jewelry, a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on bracelets
Bracelets at the University of Michigan Museum of Art
Bracelets at the British Museum
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253553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich%20Ludendorff | Erich Ludendorff | Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (9 April 1865 – 20 December 1937) was a German general, politician and military theorist. He achieved fame during World War I for his central role in the German victories at Liège and Tannenberg in 1914. Following his appointment as First Quartermaster-general () of the Imperial Army's Great General Staff in 1916, he became the chief policymaker in a de facto military dictatorship that dominated Germany for the rest of the war. After Germany's defeat, he contributed significantly to the Nazis' rise to power.
Erich Ludendorff came from a family of the minor nobility in Ludendorff, located in the Prussian province of Posen. After completing his education as a cadet, he received his commission as a junior officer in 1885. Later in 1893, Ludendorff was admitted to the prestigious German War Academy and was recommended by its commandant to the General Staff Corps only a year later. By 1904, he had rapidly risen in rank to become a member of the Army's Great General Staff, where he oversaw the development of the Schlieffen Plan.
Despite being temporarily removed from the Great General Staff for meddling in German politics, Ludendorff restored his standing in the army through his success as a commander in World War I. On 16 August 1914, he led the successful German assault on Liège, a feat for which he earned the Pour le Mérite. Upon being transferred to the Eastern Front under the command of General Paul von Hindenburg, Ludendorff proved instrumental in inflicting a series of crushing defeats against the Russians, including at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. By 29 August 1916, he had successfully lobbied for Hindenburg's appointment as Supreme Commander of the German Army as well as his own promotion to Quartermaster General of the army high command. Once he and Hindenburg had established a military dictatorship in all but name, Ludendorff directed Germany's entire military strategy and war effort until the end of the conflict. In this capacity, he secured Russia's defeat in the east and launched a new wave of offensives on the Western Front resulting in advances not seen since the war's outbreak. However, by the end of 1918, all improvements in Germany's fortunes were reversed after its forces' decisive defeat in the Second Battle of the Marne and the Allies' Hundred Days Offensive. Faced with the war effort's collapse and a growing popular revolution, the German Emperor, Wilhelm II, forced Ludendorff to resign.
After the war, Ludendorff became a prominent nationalist leader, and a promoter of the stab-in-the-back myth, which posited that Germany's defeat and the emasculating settlement reached at Versailles were the result of a treasonous conspiracy by Marxists, Freemasons and Jews. He also took part in the failed 1920 Kapp Putsch and 1923 Beer Hall Putsch before unsuccessfully running for President against Field Marshal Hindenburg, his wartime superior. Thereafter, he retired from politics and devoted his final years to the study of military theory. His most famous work in this field was (The Total War), where he argued that a nation's entire physical and moral resources should remain forever poised for mobilization because peace was merely an interval in a never-ending chain of wars. Ludendorff died of liver cancer in Munich in 1937.
Early life
Ludendorff was born on 9 April 1865 in Ludendorff near , in the Province of Posen and Kingdom of Prussia (now Kruszewnia, County, Poland), the third of six children of August Wilhelm Ludendorff (1833–1905). His father was descended from Pomeranian merchants who had been raised to the status of a Junker.
Erich's mother, Klara Jeanette Henriette von Tempelhoff (1840–1914), was the daughter of the noble but impoverished Friedrich August Napoleon von Tempelhoff (1804–1868) and his wife Jeannette Wilhelmine von Dziembowska (1816–1854), who came from a Germanized Polish landed family on the side of her father Stephan von Dziembowski (1779–1859). Through Dziembowski's wife Johanna Wilhelmine von Unruh (1793–1862), Erich was a remote descendant of the Counts of , the Dukes of Liegnitz and Brieg and the Marquesses and Electors of Brandenburg.
Ludendorff had a stable and comfortable childhood, growing up on a small family farm. He received his early schooling from a maternal aunt and had a gift for mathematics, as did his younger brother Hans, who became a distinguished astronomer. Upon passing the entrance exam for the Cadet School at with distinction, he was put in a class two years ahead of his age group, and thereafter he was consistently first in his class. The famous World War II General Heinz Guderian attended the same Cadet School, which produced many well-trained German officers. Ludendorff's education continued at the at near Berlin through to 1882.
Pre-war military career
In 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then at Wesel. Over the next eight years, he was promoted to lieutenant and saw further service in the 2nd Marine Battalion, based at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, and in the 8th Grenadier Guards at Frankfurt on the Oder. His service reports reveal the highest praise, with frequent commendations. In 1893, he entered the War Academy, where the commandant, General Meckel, recommended him to the General Staff, to which he was appointed in 1894. He rose rapidly and was a senior staff officer at the headquarters of V Corps from 1902 to 1904.
Next he joined the Great General Staff in Berlin, which was commanded by Alfred von Schlieffen, Ludendorff directed the Second or Mobilization Section from 1904 to 1913. Soon he was joined by Max Bauer, a brilliant artillery officer, who became a close friend.
In 1910 at age 45 "the 'old sinner', as he liked to hear himself called" married the daughter of a wealthy factory owner, Margarethe Schmidt (1875–1936). They met in a rainstorm when he offered his umbrella. She divorced to marry him, bringing three stepsons and a stepdaughter. Their marriage pleased both families and he was devoted to his stepchildren.
By 1911, Ludendorff was a full colonel. His section was responsible for writing the mass of detailed orders needed to bring the mobilized troops into position to implement the Plan. For this they covertly surveyed frontier fortifications in Russia, France and Belgium. For instance, in 1911 Ludendorff visited the key Belgian fortress city of Liège.
Deputies of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which became the largest party in the after the German federal elections of 1912, seldom gave priority to army expenditures, whether to build up its reserves or to fund advanced weaponry such as Krupp's siege cannons. Instead, they preferred to concentrate military spending on the Imperial German Navy. Ludendorff's calculations showed that to properly implement the Schlieffen Plan the Army lacked six corps.
Members of the General Staff were instructed to keep out of politics and the public eye, but Ludendorff shrugged off such restrictions. With a retired general, August Keim, and the head of the Pan-German League, Heinrich Class, he vigorously lobbied the for the additional men. In 1913 funding was approved for four additional corps but Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Düsseldorf. "I attributed the change partly for my having pressed for those three additional army corps."
Barbara Tuchman characterizes Ludendorff in her book The Guns of August as Schlieffen's devoted disciple who was a glutton for work and a man of granite character but who was deliberately friendless and forbidding and therefore remained little known or liked. It is true that as his wife testified, "Anyone who knows Ludendorff knows that he has not a spark of humor...". He was voluble nonetheless, although he shunned small talk. John Lee, states that while Ludendorff was with his Fusiliers, "he became the perfect regimental commander ... the younger officers came to adore him." His adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend.
Liège
At the outbreak of war in the summer of 1914 Ludendorff was appointed Deputy Chief of Staff to the German Second Army under General Karl von Bülow. His assignment was largely due to his previous work investigating defenses of Liège, Belgium. At the beginning of the Battle of Liège, Ludendorff was an observer with the 14th Brigade, which was to infiltrate the city at night and secure the bridges before they could be destroyed. The brigade commander was killed on 5 August, so Ludendorff led the successful assault to occupy the city and its citadel. In the following days, two of the forts guarding the city were taken by desperate frontal infantry attacks, while the remaining forts were smashed by huge Krupp 42-cm and Austro-Hungarian Škoda 30.5-cm howitzers. By 16 August, all the forts around Liège had fallen, allowing the German First Army to advance. As the victor of Liège, Ludendorff was awarded Germany's highest military decoration for gallantry, the Pour le Mérite, presented by Kaiser Wilhelm II himself on 22 August.
Command in the East
German mobilization earmarked a single army, the Eighth, to defend their eastern frontier. When two Russian armies invaded East Prussia earlier than expected the command of the Eighth Army, Maximilian von Prittwitz with Georg von Waldersee as Chief of Staff, performed subpar and reportedly panicked. They accordingly were dismissed from command by the (OHL), the German Supreme Army Command. The War Cabinet chose a retired general, Paul von Hindenburg, as commander, while the OHL assigned Ludendorff as his new chief of staff. Hindenburg and Ludendorff first met on their private train heading east. They agreed that they must annihilate the nearest Russian army before they tackled the second. On arrival, they discovered that Max Hoffmann had already shifted much of the 8th Army by rail to the south to do just that, in an amazing feat of logistical planning. Nine days later the Eighth Army surrounded most of a Russian army at Tannenberg, taking 92,000 prisoners in one of the great victories in German history. Twice during the battle Ludendorff wanted to break off, fearing that the second Russian army was about to strike their rear, but Hindenburg held firm.
The Germans turned on the second invading army in the Battle of the Masurian Lakes; it fled with heavy losses to escape encirclement. During the rest of 1914, commanding an Army Group, Hindenburg and Ludendorff staved off the projected invasion of German Silesia by dexterously moving their outnumbered forces into Russian Poland, fighting the battle of the Vistula River, which ended with a brilliantly executed withdrawal during which they destroyed the Polish railway lines and bridges needed for an invasion. When the Russians had repaired most of the damage the Germans struck their flank in the battle of Łódź, where they almost surrounded another Russian army. Masters of surprise and deft maneuver, the pair argued that if properly reinforced they could trap the entire Russian army in Poland. During the winter of 1914–15 they lobbied passionately for this strategy, but were rebuffed by the OHL.
Early in 1915 Hindenburg and Ludendorff surprised the Russian army that still held a toehold in East Prussia by attacking in a snowstorm and surrounding it in the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes. The OHL then transferred Ludendorff, but Hindenburg's personal plea to the Kaiser reunited them. Erich von Falkenhayn, supreme commander at the OHL, came east to attack the flank of the Russian army that was pushing through the Carpathian passes towards Hungary. Employing overwhelming artillery, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians broke through the line between and and kept pushing until the Russians were driven out of most of Galicia, in Austro-Hungarian Poland. During this advance Falkenhayn rejected schemes to try to cut off the Russians in Poland, preferring direct frontal attacks. Outgunned, during the summer of 1915 the Russian commander Grand Duke Nicholas shortened his lines by withdrawing from most of Poland, destroying railroads, bridges, and many buildings while driving 743,000 Poles,
350,000 Jews, 300,000 Lithuanians and 250,000 Latvians into Russia.
During the winter of 1915–16 Ludendorff's headquarters was in Kaunas. The Germans occupied present-day Lithuania, western Latvia, and north eastern Poland, an area almost the size of France. Ludendorff demanded Germanization of the conquered territories and far-ranging annexations, offering land to German settlers; see . Far-reaching plans envisioned Courland and Lithuania turned into border states ruled by German military governors answerable only to the Kaiser. He proposed massive annexations and colonization in Eastern Europe in the event of the victory of the German Reich, and was one of the main supporters of the Polish Border Strip. Ludendorff planned to combine German settlement and Germanisation in conquered areas with expulsions of native populations; and envisioned an eastern German empire whose resources would be used in future war with Great Britain and the United States Ludendorff's plans went as far as making Crimea a German colony. As to the various nations and ethnic groups in conquered territories, Ludendorff believed they were "incapable of producing real culture"
On 16 March 1916, the Russians, now with adequate supplies of cannons and shells, attacked parts of the new German defenses, intending to penetrate at two points and then to pocket the defenders. They attacked almost daily until the end of the month, but the Lake Naroch Offensive failed, "choked in swamp and blood".
The Russians did better attacking the Austro-Hungarians in the south; the Brusilov Offensive cracked their lines with a well-prepared surprise wide-front attack led by well-schooled assault troops. The breakthrough was finally stemmed by Austro-Hungarian troops recalled from Italy stiffened with German advisers and reserves. In July, Russian attacks on the Germans in the north were beaten back. On 27 July 1916, Hindenburg was given command of all troops on the Eastern Front from the Baltic to Brody in the Ukraine. Ludendorff and Hindenburg visited their new command on a special train, and then set up headquarters in Brest-Litovsk. By August 1916 their front was holding everywhere.
Promotion to First Quartermaster-General
In the West in 1916 the Germans attacked unsuccessfully at Verdun and soon were reeling under British and French blows along the Somme. Ludendorff's friends at the OHL, led by Max Bauer, lobbied for him relentlessly. The balance was tipped when Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente, thrusting into Hungary. Falkenhayn was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Ludendorff was again his chief of staff as first Quartermaster general, with the stipulation that he would have joint responsibility. He was promoted to General of the Infantry. Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg warned the War Cabinet: "You don't know Ludendorff, who is only great at a time of success. If things go badly he loses his nerve."
Their first concern was the sizable Romanian Army, so troops sent from the Western Front checked Romanian and Russian incursions into Hungary. Then Romania was invaded from the south by German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman troops commanded by August von Mackensen and from the north by a German and Austro-Hungarian army commanded by Falkenhayn. Bucharest fell in December 1916. According to Mackensen, Ludendorff's distant management consisted of "floods of telegrams, as superfluous as they were offensive."
When sure that the Romanians would be defeated the OHL moved west, retaining the previous staff except for the operations officer, blamed for Verdun. They toured the Western Front meeting – and evaluating – commanders, learning about their problems and soliciting their opinions. At each meeting Ludendorff did most of talking for Hindenburg. There would be no further attacks at Verdun and the Somme would be defended by revised tactics that exposed fewer men to British shells. A new backup defensive line would be built, like the one they had constructed in the east. The Allies would call the new fortifications the Hindenburg Line. The German goal was victory, which they defined as a Germany with extended borders that could be more easily defended in the next war.
Hindenburg was given titular command over all of the forces of the Central Powers. Ludendorff's hand was everywhere. Every day he was on the telephone with the staffs of their armies and the Army was deluged with "Ludendorff's paper barrage" of orders, instructions and demands for information. His finger extended into every aspect of the German war effort. He issued the two daily communiques, and often met with the newspaper and newsreel reporters. Before long the public idolized him as the German Army's brain.
The Home Front
Ludendorff had a goal: "One thing was certain – the power must be in my hands." As stipulated by the Constitution of the German Empire the government was run by civil servants appointed by the Kaiser. Confident that army officers were superior to civilians, the OHL volunteered to oversee the economy: procurement, raw materials, labor, and food. Bauer, with his industrialist friends, began by setting overambitious targets for military production in what they called the Hindenburg Program. Ludendorff enthusiastically participated in meetings on economic policy – loudly, sometimes pummeling the table with his fists. Implementation of the Program was assigned to General Groener, a staff officer who had directed the Field Railway Service effectively. His office was in the (civilian) War Ministry, not in the OHL as Ludendorff had wanted. Therefore, he assigned staff officers to most government ministries, so he knew what was going on and could press his demands.
War industry's major problem was the scarcity of skilled workers, therefore 125,000 men were released from the armed forces and trained workers were no longer conscripted. The OHL wanted to enroll most German men and women into national service, but the Reichstag legislated that only males 17–60 were subject to "patriotic service" and refused to bind war workers to their jobs. Groener realized that they needed the support of the workers, so he insisted that union representatives be included on industrial dispute boards. He also advocated an excess profits tax. The industrialists were incensed. On 16 August 1917, Ludendorff telegraphed an order reassigning Groener to command the 33rd Infantry Division. Overall, "unable to control labour and unwilling to control industry, the army failed miserably". To the public it seemed that Ludendorff was running the nation as well as the war. According to Ludendorff, "the authorities ... represented me as a dictator". He would not become Chancellor because the demands for running the war were too great. The historian Frank Tipton argues that while not technically a dictator, Ludendorff was "unquestionably the most powerful man in Germany" in 1917–18.
The OHL did nothing to mitigate the crisis of growing food shortages in Germany. Despite the Allied blockade, everyone could have been fed adequately, but supplies were not managed effectively or fairly. In spring 1918, half of all the meat, eggs, and fruit consumed in Berlin were sold on the black market.
In government
The Navy advocated unrestricted submarine warfare, which would surely bring the United States into the war. At the Kaiser's request, his commanders met with his friend, the eminent chemist Walther Nernst, who knew America well, and who warned against the idea. Ludendorff promptly ended the meeting; it was "incompetent nonsense with which a civilian was wasting his time." Unrestricted submarine warfare began in February 1917, with the OHL’s strong support. This fatal mistake reflected poor military judgment in uncritically accepting the Navy’s contention that there were no effective potential countermeasures, like convoying, and confidence that the American armed forces were too feeble to fight effectively. By the end of the war, Germany would be at war with 27 nations.
In the spring of 1917 the Reichstag passed a resolution for peace without annexations or indemnities. They would be content with the successful defensive war undertaken in 1914. The OHL was unable to defeat the resolution or to have it substantially watered down. The commanders despised Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg as weak, so they forced his resignation by repeatedly threatening to resign themselves, despite the Kaiser's admonition that this was not their business. Bethmann-Hollweg was replaced by a minor functionary, Georg Michaelis, the food minister, who announced that he would deal with the resolution as "in his own fashion". Despite this put-down, the Reichstag voted the financial credits needed for continuing the war.
Ludendorff insisted on the huge territorial losses forced on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, even though this required that a million German soldiers remain in the east. During the peace negotiations with Russia, his representative kept demanding the economic concessions coveted by German industrialists. The commanders kept blocking attempts to frame a plausible peace offer to the western powers by insisting on borders expanded for future defense. Ludendorff regarded the Germans as the "master race" and after victory planned to settle ex-soldiers in the Baltic states and in Alsace-Lorraine, where they would take over property seized from Balts and the French. One after another the OHL toppled government ministers they regarded as weak.
"Peace Offensive" in the West
In contrast to the OHL's questionable interventions in politics and diplomacy, their armies continued to excel. The commanders would agree on what was to be done and then Ludendorff and the OHL staff produced the mass of orders specifying exactly what was to be accomplished. On the western front they stopped packing defenders in the front line, which reduced losses to enemy artillery. They issued a directive on elastic defense, in which attackers who penetrated a lightly held front line entered a battle zone in which they were punished by artillery and counterattacks. It remained German Army doctrine through World War II; schools taught the new tactics to all ranks. Its effectiveness is illustrated by comparing the first half of 1916 in which 77 German soldiers died or went missing for every 100 British to the second half when 55 Germans were lost for every 100 British.
Ludendorff, with the Kaiser's blessing, helped Lenin and other 30 or so revolutionaries in exile return to Russia. Ludendorff agreed to send the Bolsheviks in Switzerland by train through Germany from where they would then travel to Russia via Sweden. Lenin, however, still took some convincing, insisting that he be sent on a sealed train. Lenin ultimately agreed on 31 March, and would depart Switzerland on 8 April.
By February 1917 the OHL was sure that the new French commander, General Robert Nivelle, would attack, and correctly foresaw that he would try to pinch off the German salient between Arras and Noyon. So the OHL withdrew German forces to the segment of the Hindenburg line across the base of the salient in , leaving the ground they gave up as a depopulated waste land. The Nivelle Offensive in April 1917 was blunted by mobile defense in depth. Many French units mutinied, though the OHL never grasped the extent of the disarray.
The British supported their allies with a successful attack near Arras and had another success in June 1917 at Messines Ridge in Flanders. Then at the end of July 1917, the British attacked Passchendaele Ridge. At first the defense was directed by General von Lossberg, a pioneer in defense in depth, but when the British adjusted their tactics, Ludendorff took over day-to-day control. The British eventually took Passchendaele Ridge at great cost.
Ludendorff worried about declining morale, so in July 1917 OHL established a propaganda unit. In October 1917 they began mandatory patriotic lectures to the troops, who were assured that if the war was lost they would "become slaves of international capital". The lecturers were to "ensure that a fight is kept up against all agitators, croakers, and weaklings".
Following the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the new Russian government launched the Kerensky Offensive in July 1917, attacking the Austro-Hungarian lines in Galicia. After minor successes the Russians were driven back and many of their soldiers refused to fight. The counterattack was halted only after the line was pushed eastwards. The Germans capped the year in the East by capturing the strong Russian fortress of Riga in September 1917, starting with a brief, overwhelming artillery barrage using many gas shells then followed by infiltrating infantry. The Bolsheviks seized power and soon were at the peace table.
To bolster the wobbling Austro-Hungarian government, the Germans provided some troops and led a joint attack in Italy in October. They sliced through the Italian lines in the mountains at Caporetto. Two hundred and fifty thousand Italians were captured and the rest of Italian Army was forced to retreat to the Grappa-Piave defensive line.
On 20 November 1917, the British achieved a total surprise by attacking at Cambrai. A short, intense bombardment preceded an attack by tanks, which led the infantry through the German wire. It was Ludendorff's 52nd birthday, but he was too upset to attend the celebratory dinner. The British were not organized to exploit their breakthrough, and German reserves counterattacked, in some places driving the British back beyond their starting lines.
At the beginning of 1918 almost a million munition workers struck; one demand was peace without annexations. OHL ordered that all strikers fit to bear arms' be sent to the front, thereby degrading military service."
With Russia out of the war, the Germans outnumbered the Allies on the Western Front. After extensive consultations, OHL planned a series of attacks to drive the British out of the war. During the winter all ranks were schooled in the innovative tactics proven at Caporetto and Riga. The first attack, Operation Michael, was on 21 March 1918 near Cambrai. After an effective hurricane bombardment coordinated by Colonel Bruchmüller, they slashed through the British lines, surmounting the obstacles that had thwarted their enemies for three years. On the first day they occupied as large an area as the Allies had won on the Somme after 140 days. The Allies were aghast, but it was not the triumph OHL had hoped for: they had planned another Tannenberg by surrounding tens of thousands of British troops in the Cambrai salient, but had been thwarted by stout defense and fighting withdrawal. They lost as many men as the defenders – the first day was the bloodiest of the war. Among the dead was Ludendorff’s oldest stepson; a younger had been killed earlier. The Germans were unable to cut any vital railway. When Ludendorff motored near the front he was displeased by seeing how: "The numerous slightly wounded made things difficult by the stupid and displeasing way in which they hurried to the rear." The Americans doubled the number of troops being sent to France.
Their next attack was in Flanders. Again they broke through, advancing , and forcing the British to give back all of the ground that they had won the preceding year after weeks of battle. But the Germans were stopped short of the rail junction that was their goal. Next, to draw French reserves south, they struck along the . In their most successful attack yet they advanced on the first day, crossing the Marne but stopping from Paris. However each German triumph weakened their army and its morale. From 20 March 1918 to 25 June the German front lengthened from to .
Then the Germans struck near Reims, to seize additional railway lines for use in the salient, but were foiled by brilliant French elastic tactics. Undeterred, on 18 July 1918 Ludendorff, still "aggressive and confident", traveled to Flanders to confer about the next attack there. A telephone call reported that the French and Americans, led by a mass of tanks, had smashed through the right flank of their salient pointing toward Paris, on the opening day of the Battle of Soissons. Everyone present realized that surely they had lost the war. Ludendorff was shattered.
OHL began to withdraw step by step to new defensive lines, first evacuating all of their wounded and supplies. Ludendorff's communiques, which hitherto had been largely factual, now distorted the news, for instance claiming that American troops had to be herded onto troop ships by special police.
On 8 August 1918, the Germans were completely surprised at Amiens when British tanks broke through the defenses and intact German formations surrendered. To Ludendorff it was the "black day in the history of the German Army". The German retreats continued, pressed by Allied attacks. OHL still vigorously opposed offering to give up the territory they desired in France and Belgium, so the German government was unable to make a plausible peace proposal.
Ludendorff became increasingly cantankerous, railing at his staff without cause, publicly accusing Hindenburg of talking nonsense, and sometimes bursting into tears. Bauer wanted him replaced, but instead a doctor, Hochheimer, was brought to OHL. He had worked closely with Ludendorff in Poland during the winter of 1915–16 on plans to bring in German colonists. Before the war he had a practice in nervous diseases. Hochheimer "spoke as a friend and he listened as a friend", convincing Ludendorff that he could not work effectively with one hour of sleep a night and that he must relearn how to relax. After a month away from headquarters Ludendorff had recovered from the severest symptoms of battle fatigue.
Downfall
On 29 September 1918, Ludendorff and Hindenburg suddenly told an incredulous Kaiser that they could not guarantee the integrity of the Western front "for two hours" and they must have an immediate armistice. A new Chancellor, Prince Maximilian of Baden, approached President Woodrow Wilson but Wilson's terms were unacceptable to the German leadership and the Army fought on. The chancellor told the Kaiser that he and his cabinet would resign unless Ludendorff was removed, but that Hindenburg must remain to hold the army together. The Kaiser called his commanders in, curtly accepting Ludendorff's resignation and then rejecting Hindenburg's. Fuming, Ludendorff would not accompany the field marshal back to headquarters; "I refused to ride with you because you have treated me so shabbily".
Ludendorff had assiduously sought all of the credit; now he was rewarded with all of the blame. Widely despised, and with revolution breaking out, he was hidden by his brother and a network of friends until he slipped out of Germany disguised in blue spectacles and a false beard and fake Finnish passport settling in a Swedish admirer's country home, until the Swedish government asked him to leave in February 1919. In seven months he wrote two volumes of detailed memoirs. Friends, led by Breucker, provided him with documents and negotiated with publishers. Groener (who is not mentioned in the book) characterized it as a showcase of his "caesar-mania". He was a brilliant general, according to John Wheeler-Bennett he was "certainly one of the greatest routine military organizers that the world has ever seen", but he was a ruinous political meddler. The influential military analyst Hans Delbrück concluded that "The Empire was built by Moltke and Bismarck, destroyed by Tirpitz and Ludendorff."
After the Great War
In exile, Ludendorff wrote numerous books and articles about the German military's conduct of the war while forming the foundation for the , the "stab-in-the-back theory," for which he is considered largely responsible, insisting that a domestic crisis had sparked Germany's surrender while the military situation held firm, ignoring that he himself had pressed the politicians for an armistice on military grounds. Ludendorff was convinced that Germany had fought a defensive war and, in his opinion, that Kaiser Wilhelm II had failed to organize a proper counter-propaganda campaign or provide efficient leadership.
Ludendorff was extremely suspicious of the Social Democrats and leftists, whom he blamed for the humiliation of Germany through the Versailles Treaty. Ludendorff claimed that he paid close attention to the business element (especially the Jews), and saw them turn their backs on the war effort by—as he saw it—letting profit, rather than patriotism, dictate production and financing.
Again focusing on the left, Ludendorff was appalled by the strikes that took place towards the end of the war and the way that the home front collapsed before the military front did, with the former poisoning the morale of soldiers on temporary leave. Most importantly, Ludendorff felt that the German people as a whole had underestimated what was at stake in the war; he was convinced that the Entente had started the war and was determined to dismantle Germany completely.
Ludendorff wrote:
Political career in the Republic
Ludendorff returned to Berlin in February 1919. Staying at the Adlon Hotel, he talked with another resident, Sir Neill Malcolm, the head of the British Military Mission. After Ludendorff presented his excuses for the German defeat Malcolm said, "You mean that you were stabbed in the back?" ironically coining a key catchphrase for the German right wing.
On 12 March 1920, 5,000 troops under the command of Walther von Lüttwitz marched on the Chancellery, forcing the government led by Friedrich Ebert and Gustav Bauer to flee the city. The putschists proclaimed a new government with a right-wing politician, Wolfgang Kapp as new "chancellor". Ludendorff and Max Bauer were part of the putsch. The Kapp Putsch was soon defeated by a general strike that brought Berlin to a standstill. The leaders fled, Ludendorff to Bavaria, where a right-wing coup had succeeded. He published two volumes of annotated and in a few instances pruned documents and commentaries documenting his war service. He reconciled with Hindenburg, who began to visit every year.
In May 1923 Ludendorff had an agreeable first meeting with Adolf Hitler, and soon he had regular contacts with Nazis. On 8 November 1923, the Bavarian Gustav von Kahr was addressing a jammed meeting in a large beer hall, the Bürgerbräukeller. Hitler, waving a pistol, jumped onto the stage, announcing that the national revolution was underway. The hall was occupied by armed men who covered the audience with a machine gun, the first move in the Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler announced that he would lead the Reich Government and Ludendorff would command the army. He addressed the now enthusiastically supportive audience and then spent the night in the War Ministry, unsuccessfully trying to obtain the army's backing.
The next morning 3,000 armed Nazis formed outside of the Bürgerbräukeller and marched into central Munich, the leaders just behind the flag bearers. They were blocked by a cordon of police, and firing broke out for less than a minute. Several of the Nazis in front were hit or dropped to the ground. Ludendorff and his adjutant Major Streck marched to the police line where they pushed aside the rifle barrels. He was respectfully arrested. He was indignant when he was sent home while the other leaders remained in custody. Four police officers and 16 Nazis had been killed, including Ludendorff's servant.
They were tried in early 1924. Ludendorff was acquitted, but Heinz Pernet, Ludendorff's stepson, was convicted of "aiding and abetting treason," given a fifteen-month sentence. Hitler went to prison but was released after nine months. Ludendorff's 60th birthday was celebrated by massed bands and a large torchlight parade. In 1924, he was elected to the Reichstag as a representative of the NSFB (a coalition of the German Freedom Party (DVFP) and members of the Nazi Party), serving until 1928. In 1925, he founded the Tannenbergbund, a German nationalist organization which was both anti-Semitic and anti-Catholic, and published literature espousing conspiracy theories involving Jews, Catholics — especially Jesuits — and Freemasons.
As his views became more extreme under the influence of his wife, Mathilde von Kemnitz, Ludendorff gradually began to part company with Hitler, who was surreptitiously working to undermine the reputation of his one serious rival for the leadership of the extreme right in Germany. Nonetheless, Ludendorff was persuaded to run for President of the Republic in the March 1925 election as the Nazi Party candidate, receiving only 1.1 per cent of the vote; there is some evidence that Hitler himself persuaded Ludendorff to run, knowing that the results would be humiliating.
No one had a majority in the initial round of the election, so a second round was needed; Hindenburg entered the race and was narrowly elected. Ludendorff was so humiliated by what he saw as a betrayal by his old friend that he broke off relations with Hindenburg, and in 1927 refused to even stand beside the field marshal at the dedication of the Tannenberg memorial. He attacked Hindenburg abusively for not having acted in a "nationalistic soldier-like fashion". The Berlin-based liberal newspaper states in its article "Ludendorff's hate tirades against Hindenburg—Poisonous gas from Hitler's camp" that Ludendorff was, as of 29 March 1930, deeply grounded in Nazi ideology.
Tipton notes that Ludendorff was a social Darwinist who believed that war was the "foundation of human society", and that military dictatorship was the normal form of government in a society in which every resource must be mobilized. The historian Margaret L. Anderson notes that after the war, Ludendorff wanted Germany to go to war against all of Europe, and that he became a pagan worshipper of the Nordic god Wotan (Odin); he detested not only Judaism, but also Christianity, which he regarded as a weakening force.
Retirement and death
Ludendorff divorced and married his second wife Mathilde von Kemnitz (1877–1966) in 1926. They published books and essays to prove that the world's problems were the result of Christianity, especially the Jesuits and Catholics, but also conspiracies by Jews and the Freemasons. They founded the (Society for the Knowledge of God), a small and rather obscure esoterical society of Theists that survives to this day. He launched several abusive attacks on his former superior Hindenburg for not having acted in a "nationalistic soldier-like fashion".
By the time Hitler came to power, Ludendorff was no longer sympathetic to him. The Nazis distanced themselves from Ludendorff because of his eccentric conspiracy theories.
On 30 January 1933, the occasion of Hitler's appointment as Chancellor by President Hindenburg, Ludendorff allegedly sent the following telegram to Hindenburg:
Some historians consider this text to be a forgery. In an attempt to regain Ludendorff's favor, Hitler arrived unannounced at Ludendorff's home on his 70th birthday in 1935 to promote him to field marshal. Infuriated, Ludendorff allegedly rebuffed Hitler by telling him: "An officer is named General Field-Marshal on the battlefield! Not at a birthday tea-party in the midst of peace." He wrote two further books on military themes.
Ludendorff died of liver cancer in the private clinic in Munich, on 20 December 1937 at the age of 72. He was given—against his explicit wishes—a state funeral organized and attended by Hitler, who declined to speak at his eulogy. He was buried in the in Tutzing in Bavaria.
In popular culture
The Ludendorff Bridge, also known as the Bridge at Remagen, was named after him.
The 1974 British television drama Fall of Eagles features actor Michael Bates as Ludendorff.
The 2003 Canadian TV miniseries Hitler: The Rise of Evil depicts the early relation between Hitler and Ludendorff, who is portrayed by Austrian actor Friedrich von Thun.
A highly fictionalized version of Ludendorff, which bears little resemblance in terms of appearance or biography, is portrayed by Danny Huston in the 2017 Warner Bros./DCEU film Wonder Woman.
In a second-season episode of the television series Babylon Berlin, members of the Black Reichswehr hatch a plan to overthrow the Weimar Republic and restore the German Empire with Ludendorff as Chancellor.
Decorations and awards
He received the following honours:
Knight of the Military Order of Max Joseph (Bavaria)
Grand Commander's Star of the House Order of Hohenzollern (Prussia)
(military), 8 August 1914; with Oak Leaves, 23 February 1915 (Prussia)
Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, 24 March 1918 (Prussia)
Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class
Commander 2nd Class of the Order of the Zähringer Lion (Baden)
Knight of the Military Order of St. Henry (Saxony)
Knight of the Military Merit Order ()
Knight Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis with Swords and Laurels
Military Merit Cross, 2nd class ()
Military Merit Cross, 1st Class with War Decoration (Austria-Hungary)
Commander with Star of the Order of Franz Joseph (Austria-Hungary)
Gold Military Merit Medal (, Austria-Hungary)
Cross for Merit in War (Saxe-)
Writings
Books (selection)
1919: Meine Kriegserinnerungen 1914–1918. Berlin: Mittler & Sohn (republished 1936)
1933: Mein militärischer Werdegang. Blätter der Erinnerung an unser stolzes Heer. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
1937: with Mitarbeitern: Mathilde Ludendorff – ihr Werk und Wirken. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
1937: Auf dem Weg zur Feldherrnhalle. Lebenserinnerungen an die Zeit des 9. November 1923. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
1939: with Mathilde Ludendorff: Die Judenmacht, ihr Wesen und Ende. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
Smaller publications
1926: Die Revolution von oben. Das Kriegsende und die Vorgänge beim Waffenstillstand. Zwei Vorträge. Lorch: Karl Rohm
1932: Schändliche Geheimnisse der Hochgrade. Ludendorffs Verlag, Munchen
1934: Wie der Weltkrieg 1914 „gemacht“ wurde. Munich: Völkischer Verlag
1934: Das Marne-Drama. Der Fall Moltke-Hentsch. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
1934: "Tannenberg". Zum 20. Jahrestag der Schlacht. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
1934: Die politischen Hintergründe des 9. November 1923. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
1935: Über Unbotmäßigkeit im Kriege. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
1935: Französische Fälschung meiner Denkschrift von 1912 über den drohenden Krieg. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
1938-40: Feldherrnworte. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
1939: Tannenberg. Geschichtliche Wahrheit über die Schlacht. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
As publisher
1929–1933 (banned): Ludendorffs Volkswarte ("Ludendorff's Peoples' Viewpoint"; weekly) Munich
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Astore, William J. "The Tragic Pursuit of Total Victory." MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History (Autumn 2007) 20#1) pp 64–73.</ref.
Brownell, William and Denise Drace-Brownell. The First Nazi: Erich Ludendorff, The Man Who Made Hitler Possible (Berkeley: Counterpoint, 2016). 356pp highly negative online review
Jones, LTC William A. Ludendorff: Strategist (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2015) online.
Showalter, Dennis, and William J. Astore. Hindenburg: Icon of German Militarism (2005) excerpt
Primary sources
Ludendorff, Erich. The Coming War. Faber and Faber, 1931. ()
Ludendorff, Erich. The Nation at War. Hutchinson, London, 1936. ()
German studies
Amm, Bettina: Ludendorff-Bewegung. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Judenfeindlichkeit in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Band 5: Organisationen, Institutionen, Bewegungen. De Gruyter, Berlin 2012. page 393 ff. .
Gruchmann, Lothar: Ludendorffs „prophetischer“ Brief an Hindenburg vom Januar/Februar 1933. Eine Legende. In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte. Band 47, 1999. pages 559–562.
Nebelin, Manfred: Ludendorff. Diktator im Ersten Weltkrieg. Siedler, München 2011. .
Pöhlmann, Markus: Der moderne Alexander im Maschinenkrieg. In: Stig Förster (Hrsg.): Kriegsherren der Weltgeschichte. 22 historische Porträts. Beck, München 2006. pages 268–286.
Puschner, Uwe; Vollnhals, Clemens (Hrgb.); Die völkisch-religiöse Bewegung im Nationalsozialismus; Göttingen 2012 .
Schwab, Andreas: Vom totalen Krieg zur deutschen Gotterkenntnis. Die Weltanschauung Erich Ludendorffs. In: Schriftenreihe der Eidgenössischen Militärbibliothek und des Historischen Dienstes. Nr. 17, Bern 2005.
Wegehaupt, Phillip: "Ludendorff, Erich". In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Bd. 2: Personen. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, , page 494 ff. (retrieved über Verlag Walter de Gruyter Online).
External links
Ludendorff by H. L. Mencken published in the June 1917 edition of the Atlantic Monthly
Biography of Erich Ludendorff from Spartacus Educational
My War Memories by Erich Ludendorff at archive.org
1865 births
1937 deaths
Anti-Masonry
Candidates for President of Germany
Critics of Christianity
Critics of the Catholic Church
Deaths from cancer in Germany
Deaths from liver cancer
Esotericism
Generals of Infantry (Prussia)
German anti-communists
German Army generals of World War I
German conspiracy theorists
German fascists
German nationalists
German Modern Pagans
German people of Polish descent
German Völkisch Freedom Party politicians
Kapp Putsch participants
Ludendorff family
Members of the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic
National Socialist Freedom Movement politicians
Nazi Party officials
Nazi Party politicians
Nazis who participated in the Beer Hall Putsch
Nazism and occultism
Nobility in the Nazi Party
People acquitted of treason
People from Swarzędz
People from the Province of Posen
Quartermasters
Converts to pagan religions from Protestantism
Adherents of Germanic neopaganism
Recipients of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)
Knights of the Military Order of Max Joseph
Officers Crosses of the Military Merit Order (Bavaria)
Commanders of the Order of Franz Joseph
Converts to pagan religions from Christianity | [
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253555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Kenny | Tom Kenny | Thomas James Kenny (born July 13, 1962) is an American actor and comedian. He is known for voicing the eponymous character in SpongeBob SquarePants and associated media. Kenny has voiced many other characters including Heffer Wolfe in Rocko's Modern Life; the Ice King in Adventure Time; the Narrator and Mayor in The Powerpuff Girls; Carl Chryniszzswics in Johnny Bravo; Dog in CatDog; Hank and Jeremy in Talking Tom and Friends; and Spyro from the Spyro the Dragon video game series. His live-action work includes the comedy variety shows The Edge and Mr. Show. Kenny has won two Daytime Emmy Awards and two Annie Awards for his voice work as SpongeBob SquarePants and the Ice King. He often collaborates with his wife and fellow voice artist Jill Talley, who plays Karen on SpongeBob SquarePants.
Biography
Early life and stand-up comedy
Kenny was born and raised in Syracuse, New York, to Theresa Bridget (Donigan) and Paul Austin Kenny. As a young child, he loved drawing and collecting record albums in the late 1960s and 1970s. He met Bobcat Goldthwait in first grade and they became lifelong friends. In their mid-teens, they saw an ad for an open-mic night at Skaneateles that featured comedian Barry Crimmins with the moniker "Bear Cat". He and Goldthwait went to the event, and performed under the monikers Tomcat and Bobcat, respectively, as a tribute to Crimmins, after which Goldthwait used Bobcat as his stage name. Describing Kenny's stand-up routines, Goldthwait said, "Tom would get up there and talk about his therapist and he didn't even have a therapist, he just loved Woody Allen."
Kenny went to Bishop Grimes Junior/Senior High School, a Catholic high school. After college, Kenny performed stand-up comedy around the country for about eight years before he moved on to other venues.
Television and film career
Kenny has acted in many films and TV shows, debuting in How I Got into College (1989) and later appeared in films such as Shakes the Clown (1991) and Comic Book: The Movie (2004). On television, he would host the "Music News" segments of Friday Night Videos in the early 1990s. He appeared in sketch comedy shows The Edge which aired on Fox from 1992 to 1993, and Mr. Show which aired on HBO from 1995 to 1998, both roles in the show were as a regular cast member. He appears in the live-action segments of SpongeBob SquarePants as Patchy the Pirate, appeared on R.L. Stine's The Haunting Hour on the season four episode, "Uncle Howee" as Uncle Howee, a high-energy kids' show host with strange powers.
Voice acting
Kenny said that he voices "a lot of sweet yellow characters for some reason." He described SpongeBob's voice as in between that of a child and an adult, stating "Think a Stan Laurel, Jerry Lewis kind of child-man. Kind of like a Munchkin but not quite, kind of like a kid, but not in a Charlie Brown child's voice on the TV shows."
Joe Murray auditioned Kenny for voice acting roles for Rocko's Modern Life in a casting call in Los Angeles, California. On one occasion, the producers required Kenny to fill the role of Charlie Adler, who was absent. He voices Cupid for the Nickelodeon show The Fairly OddParents.
Joe Murray chose Kenny for several roles on another of his projects, Camp Lazlo as Scoutmaster Lumpus and Slinkman, because Murray, after seeing Kenny's previous work for Rocko's Modern Life, felt that Kenny "adds writing to his roles" and "brings so much".
He voiced Dog in CatDog, as well as the voice of Cliff. He voices many characters in The Powerpuff Girls, including the Mayor, the Narrator, Mitch Mitchelson, Snake and Little Arturo from the Gangreen Gang, Rainbow the Clown, etc. He voiced Eduardo and various other characters in Foster's Home For Imaginary Friends, Dr. Two-Brains in the PBS Kids show, WordGirl, and the villains Knightbrace, the Common Cold and Mr. Wink in Codename Kids Next Door.
Kenny is the Penguin in the 2004 TV series The Batman.
He voiced the character Squanchy on Rick and Morty.
He plays a number of roles in the Transformers Animated TV show. A few of the characters he voices in this series are Starscream and his clones, Isaac Sumdac and Waspinator. Kenny also voiced several characters on the animated show Xiaolin Showdown, as well as the Autobots Skids and Wheelie in the live-action Transformers film series. On Dilbert, Kenny voiced Ratbert, Asok, Dilbert's shower, and some minor characters. He played Mr. Hal Gibson in the animated kids show Super Robot Monkey Team Hyper Force GO!.
In 2009, Kenny became a regular cast voice in the Fox comedy series Sit Down, Shut Up. He voices Muhammad Sabeeh "Happy" Fa-ach Nuabar, the secretive custodian who is plotting a terrorist attack, as well as Happy's interpreter. The series premiered on April 19, 2009. Kenan Thompson, Kristin Chenoweth, Jason Bateman, Nick Kroll, Cheri Oteri, Henry Winkler, Will Arnett, and Will Forte are the other main cast members.
He plays the Ice King and Magic Man on Adventure Time. In 2011, Kenny took over the role of Rabbit from Ken Sansom in Winnie the Pooh. From 2012 to 2014, Kenny voiced Woody Johnson on Comedy Central's Brickleberry. He voiced various characters in the Cartoon Network programme Mixels, Sumo in the Cartoon Network programme Clarence, Daddo in Henry Hugglemonster, Dr. Otto Octavius on The Ultimate Spider-Man, and Leo Callisto in Miles from Tomorrowland.
He has also provided voices in television advertisements for Best Buy (as an elf for a Christmas spot), Experian (as a talking modem alongside DC Douglas), and Talking Hank in the YouTube web series Talking Tom and Friends.
In video games, Kenny is best known as the voice of Spyro the Dragon, having replaced previous voice actor Carlos Alazraqui. He first voiced Spyro in Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, and continued to voice the character up until Spyro: A Hero's Tail, where he was replaced by Jess Harnell. He also voiced another character in the series, Sgt. James Byrd, in Spyro: Year of the Dragon. He reprised both roles in Spyro Reignited Trilogy, a collection of modern remakes of the original Spyro trilogy.
Kenny was a guest star on HarmonQuest as both himself and his "in-game character" Legnahcra the maître d' of Virtuous Harmony.
He also voiced Fethry Duck in the 2017 version of DuckTales.
SpongeBob SquarePants
While working on the animated series Rocko's Modern Life, Kenny met marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg. After the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life in 1996, Hillenburg began developing his own concept for an ocean-themed series, building off of his background in marine science. Hillenburg said that he wanted to base the show on his favorite animal, the sea sponge, "because it's a funny animal, a strange one." To voice this character, Hillenburg approached Kenny in 1997.
The series, titled SpongeBob SquarePants, premiered on Nickelodeon on May 1, 1999. It soon became a commercial success. Kenny plays various other characters on the show, including the live-action character Patchy the Pirate and the voices of Gary the Snail, the French Narrator (a parody of Jacques Cousteau), and SpongeBob's father (Harold SquarePants). In 2010, Kenny received the Annie Award for "Voice Acting in a Television Production" for his role as SpongeBob in SpongeBob's Truth or Square (season 6, episode 23–24). He also voiced SpongeBob in the sequel film released on February 6, 2015. In 2018 and 2020, he received the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program.
Personal life
Kenny first met his wife Jill Talley in 1992 while working on The Edge. The two have collaborated on many productions together, including SpongeBob SquarePants (in which Talley voices Karen Plankton). They also both appeared in the music video for "Tonight, Tonight" by The Smashing Pumpkins. They have two children, Mack (born 1997) and Nora (born 2003). The Kennys live in Studio City, California.
Awards and nominations
Filmography
References
External links
Interview with Tom Kenny on Fresh Air
Tom Kenny on Behind The Voice Actors
1962 births
Living people
American male comedians
American male film actors
American stand-up comedians
American male television actors
American male video game actors
American male voice actors
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Annie Award winners
Daytime Emmy Award winners
Male actors from Syracuse, New York
Comedians from New York (state)
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
SpongeBob SquarePants
Cartoon Network people | [
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253556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon%20effect | Horizon effect | The horizon effect, also known as the horizon problem, is caused by the depth limitation of the search algorithm, and became manifest when some negative event is inevitable but postponable. Because only a partial game tree has been analyzed, it will appear to the system that the event can be avoided when in fact this is not the case. Besides obligatory quiescence search, extensions, especially check extensions are designed to reduce horizon effects.
When evaluating a large game tree using techniques such as minimax with alpha-beta pruning, search depth is limited for feasibility reasons. However, evaluating a partial tree may give a misleading result. When a significant change exists just over the horizon of the search depth, the computational device falls victim to the horizon effect.
In 1973 Hans Berliner named this phenomenon, which he and other researchers had observed, the "Horizon Effect." He split the effect into two: the Negative Horizon Effect "results in creating diversions which ineffectively delay an unavoidable consequence or make an unachievable one appear achievable." For the "largely overlooked" Positive Horizon Effect, "the program grabs much too soon at a consequence that can be imposed on an opponent at leisure, frequently in a more effective form."
Greedy algorithms tend to suffer from the horizon effect.
The horizon effect can be mitigated by extending the search algorithm with a quiescence search. This gives the search algorithm ability to look beyond its horizon for a certain class of moves of major importance to the game state, such as captures in chess.
Rewriting the evaluation function for leaf nodes and/or analyzing more nodes will solve many horizon effect problems.
Example
For example, in chess, assume a situation where the computer only searches the game tree to six plies and from the current position determines that the queen is lost in the sixth ply; and suppose there is a move in the search depth where it may sacrifice a rook, and the loss of the queen is pushed to the eighth ply. This is, of course, a worse move than sacrificing the queen because it leads to losing both a queen and a rook. However, because the loss of the queen was pushed over the horizon of search, it is not discovered and evaluated by the search. Losing the rook seems to be better than losing the queen, so the sacrifice is returned as the best option whereas delaying the sacrifice of the queen has in fact additionally weakened the computer's position.
See also
Fog of war
Anti-computer tactics
Monte Carlo tree search
References
External links
Horizon Effect at Chess Programming WIKI (CPW)
Game artificial intelligence
Computer chess | [
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253558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear%20and%20Trembling | Fear and Trembling | Fear and Trembling (original Danish title: Frygt og Bæven) is a philosophical work by Søren Kierkegaard, published in 1843 under the pseudonym Johannes de silentio (Latin for John of the Silence). The title is a reference to a line from Philippians 2:12, "...continue to work out your salvation with fear and trembling." — itself a probable reference to Psalms 55:5, "Fear and trembling came upon me..."
Kierkegaard wanted to understand the anxiety that must have been present in Abraham when "God tested [him] and said to him, take Isaac, your only son, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah and offer him as a burnt offering on the mountain that I shall show you."
Abraham had a choice to complete the task or to refuse to comply with God's orders. He resigned himself to the three-and-a-half-day journey and to the loss of his son. "He said nothing to Sarah, nothing to Eliezer. Who, after all, could understand him, for did not the nature of temptation extract from him a pledge of silence? He split the firewood, he bound Isaac, he lit the fire, he drew the knife." Because he kept everything to himself and chose not to reveal his feelings he "isolated himself as higher than the universal." Kierkegaard envisions two types of people in Fear and Trembling and Repetition. One lives in hope, Abraham, the other lives in memory, The Young Man and Constantin Constantius. He discussed them beforehand in Lectures delivered before the Symparanekromenoi and The Unhappiest Man. One hopes for happiness from something "out there" while the other finds happiness from something in themself. This he brought out in his upbuilding discourse, published on the same date.
Kierkegaard says, "Infinite resignation is the last stage before faith, so anyone who has not made this movement does not have faith, for only in infinite resignation does an individual become conscious of his eternal validity, and only then can one speak of grasping existence by virtue of faith." He spoke about this kind of consciousness in an earlier book. "There comes a moment in a person's life when immediacy is ripe, so to speak, and when the spirit requires a higher form, when it wants to lay hold of itself as spirit. As immediate spirit, a person is bound up with all the earthly life, and now spirit wants to gather itself together out of this dispersion, so to speak, and to transfigure itself in itself; the personality wants to become conscious in its eternal validity. If this does not happen, if the movement is halted, if it is repressed, then depression sets in." Once Abraham became conscious of his eternal validity he arrived at the door of faith and acted according to his faith. In this action he became a knight of faith. In other words, one must give up all his or her earthly possessions in infinite resignation and must also be willing to give up whatever it is that he or she loves more than God.
Kierkegaard used the ethical system of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and the aesthetic stories of Agnes and the merman, Iphigenia at Aulis and others to help the reader understand the difference between the inner world of the spirit and the outer world of ethics and aesthetics.
Several authorities consider the work autobiographical. It can be explained as Kierkegaard's way of working himself through the loss of his fiancée, Regine Olsen. Abraham becomes Kierkegaard and Isaac becomes Regine in this interpretation.
Structure
Kierkegaard's pseudonymous works begin with a preface by Johannes de silentio. His Upbuilding Discourses begin with a dedication to the single individual, who has become Abraham in this work.
Next is his Exordium. It begins like this, "Once upon a time there was a man who as a child had heard that beautiful story of how God tempted Abraham and of how Abraham withstood the temptation, kept the faith, and, contrary to expectation, got a son a second time." And ends like this, "That man was not an exegetical scholar. He did not know Hebrew; if he had known Hebrew, he perhaps would have easily understood the story of Abraham."
The Exordium is followed by the Eulogy on Abraham. How did Abraham become the father of faith? Kierkegaard says, "No one who was great in the world will be forgotten, but everyone was great in his own way, and everyone in proportion to the greatness of that which he loved. He who loved himself became great by virtue of himself, and he who loved other men became great by his devotedness, but he who loved God became greatest of all. Everyone shall be remembered, but everyone became great in proportion to his expectancy. "One became great by expecting the possible, another by expecting the eternal; but he who expected the impossible became greatest of all. Everyone shall be remembered, but everyone was great wholly in proportion to the magnitude of that with which he struggled. For he who struggled with the world became great by conquering the world, and he who struggled with himself became great by conquering himself, but he who struggled with God became greatest of all."
Now he presents his Problemata (problems): "Abraham has gained a prescriptive right to be a great man, so that what he does is great and when another does the same thing it is a sin. (...) The ethical expression of what Abraham did is that he meant to murder Isaac, the religious expression is that he meant to sacrifice Isaac – but precisely in this contradiction is the anxiety that can make a person sleepless, and yet, without this anxiety Abraham is not who he is." He asked how a murderer can be revered as the father of faith.
Problema 1: Is there a Teleological Suspension of the Ethical?
Problema 2: Is there an Absolute Duty to God?
Problema 3: Was it Ethically Defensible for Abraham to Conceal His Undertaking from Sarah, From Eliezer, and from Isaac?
Kierkegaard's method
Kierkegaard says that everyone has a choice in life. Freedom consists in using that choice. We each have the right to speak or not to speak and the right to act or not to act. Kierkegaard's Either/Or is God or the world. He says,
Teleological Suspension of the Ethical
What is the ethical? Kierkegaard steers the reader to Hegel's book Elements of the Philosophy of Right especially the chapter on "The Good and Conscience" where he writes, "It is the right of the subjective will that it should regard as good what it recognizes as authoritative. It is the individual's right, too, that an act, as outer realization of an end, should be counted right or wrong, good or evil, lawful or unlawful, according to his knowledge of the worth it has when objectively realized. (...) Right of insight into the good is different from right of insight with regard to action as such. The right of objectivity means that the act must be a change in the actual world, be recognized there, and in general be adequate to what has validity there. Whoso will act in this actual world has thereby submitted to its laws, and recognized the right of objectivity. Similarly in the state, which is the objectivity of the conception of reason, legal responsibility does not adapt itself to what any one person holds to be reasonable or unreasonable. It does not adhere to subjective insight into right or wrong, good or evil, or to the claims which an individual makes for the satisfaction of his conviction. In this objective field the right of insight is reckoned as insight into what is legal or illegal, or the actual law. It limits itself to its simplest meaning, namely, knowledge of or acquaintance with what is lawful and binding. Through the publicity of the laws and through general customs the state removes from the right of insight that which is for the subject its formal side. It removes also the element of chance, which at our present standpoint still clings to it."
Abraham didn't follow this theory. Kierkegaard says Hegel was wrong because he didn't protest against Abraham as the father of faith and call him a murderer. He had suspended the ethical and failed to follow the universal.<ref>"Universal, Universality: Hegel's use incorporates the familiar sense of universal as non-particular, without specific location in time and space; but he differs from platonists in denying that universals are timeless self-subsistents, and from nominalists in denying that universals are mere abstractions. The stages (moments) of the Concept in Hegel's triad are the universal, the particular, and the individual: universality develops, first into particularity, and then into individuality. The universal constitutes the essence of a thing; when a thing is fully developed (actual), the universal is concrete. Hegel denies that thought can refer to unique individuals: it is exclusively concerned with universals." [Hegel: Glossary ]</ compare to Fear and Trembling p. 82</ref>
Kierkegaard has a different theory about the difference between right and wrong and he stated it in the little discourse at the end of Either/Or. He wrote, "If a person is sometimes in the right, sometimes in the wrong, to some degree in the right, to some degree in the wrong, who, then, is the one who makes that decision except the person himself, but in the decision may he not again be to some degree in the right and to some degree in the wrong? Or is he a different person when he judges his act than when he acts? Is doubt to rule, then, continually to discover new difficulties, and is care to accompany the anguished soul and drum past experiences into it? Or would we prefer continually to be in the right in the way irrational creatures are? Then we have only the choice between being nothing in relation to God or having to begin all over again every moment in eternal torment, yet without being able to begin, for if we are able to decide definitely with regard to the previous moment, and so further and further back. Doubt is again set in motion, care again aroused; let us try to calm it by deliberating on: The Upbuilding That Lies In The Thought That In Relation To God We Are Always In The Wrong."
Kierkegaard says, "Hegelian philosophy culminates in the thesis that the outer is the inner and the inner is the outer." Hegel wrote, "the two elemental considerations: first, the idea of freedom as the absolute and final aim; secondly the means for realizing it, i.e., the subjective side of knowledge and will, with its life movement, and activity. We then recognized the state as the moral whole and the reality of freedom, and consequently as the objective unity of these two elements." Abraham had to choose between the ethical requirements of his surroundings and what he regarded as his absolute duty to God.
Hegel says, "When I am conscious of my freedom as inner substantive reality, I do not act; yet if I do act and seek principles, I must try to obtain definite characters for my act. The demand is then made that this definite context shall be deduced from the conception of free will. Hence, if it is right to absorb right and duty into subjectivity, it is on the other hand wrong if this abstract basis of action is not again evolved. Only in times when reality is a hollow, unspiritual, and shadowy existence, can a retreat be permitted out of the actual into an inner life."
Absolute Duty to God
Johannes de Silentio speaks of the difference between the method Descartes found for himself and the system that Hegel wants to build. He says, "I throw myself down in the deepest submission before every systematic ransacker: This [book] is not the system; it has not the least thing to do with the system. I invoke everything good for the system and for the Danish shareholders in this omnibus, for it will hardly become a tower. I wish them all, each and every one, success and good fortune." Respectfully, Johannes De Silentio Kierkegaard chooses to "work out his own salvation in fear and trembling". Johannes Climacus, another pseudonymous author, wrote in 1846 that Kierkegaard isn't interested in creating yet another system. He says, "The present author is by no means a philosopher. He is in a poetic and refined way a supplementary clerk who neither writes the system nor gives promises of the system, who neither exhausts himself on the system nor binds himself to the system. He writes because to him it is a luxury that is all the more pleasant and apparent the fewer there are who buy and read what he writes."
Kierkegaard introduces the idea of the paradox and the leap in Fear and Trembling. He says, "The act of resignation does not require faith, for what I gain is my eternal consciousness. This is a purely philosophical movement that I venture to make when it is demanded and can discipline myself to make, because every time some finitude will take power over me, I starve myself into submission until I make the movement, for my eternal consciousness is my love for God, and for me that is the highest of all. The act of resignation does not require faith, but to get the least little bit more than my eternal consciousness requires faith, for this is the paradox." He explains himself in Concluding Unscientific Postscript, where he writes, "In that book [Fear and Trembling] I had perceived how the leap, according to the author, as the decision par excellence becomes specifically decisive for what is Christian and for every dogmatic category. This can be achieved neither through Schelling's intellectual intuition nor through what Hegel, flouting Schelling's idea, wants to put in its place, the inverse operation of the method. All Christianity is rooted in paradox, according to Fear and Trembling-yes, it is rooted in fear and trembling (which are specifically the desperate categories of Christianity and the leap)-whether one accepts it (that is, is a believer) or rejects it (for the very reason that it is the paradox)."
Concealing His Undertaking from Sarah, From Eliezer, and from Isaac
The world of Ethics demands disclosure and punishes hiddenness but aesthetics rewards hiddenness according to Kierkegaard. Kierkegaard says, "Greek tragedy is blind. A son murders his father, but not until later does he learn that it was his father. A sister is going to sacrifice her brother but realizes it at the crucial moment."
Abraham hid everything he did. He kept everything from Sarah, Eliezer, and Isaac. But Abraham's 'inability to become open is terror" to him. He keeps absolute silence about the whole affair. A single individual like Abraham might be "able to transpose the whole content of faith into conceptual form, but, it does not follow that he has comprehended faith, comprehended how he entered into it or how it entered into him." Abraham was experiencing what Kierkegaard called "reflective grief" but not just grief but joy also because he was beginning a new association with an unknown power. Grief and joy can both keep an individual quiet in inward reflection, perhaps it is a mixture of both that Abraham felt.
Kierkegaard says, "If Agamemnon himself, not Calchas, should have drawn the knife to kill Iphigenia, he would only have demeaned himself if in the very last moment he had said a few words, for the meaning of his deed was, after all, obvious to everybody, the process of reverence, sympathy, emotion, and tears was completed, and then, too, his life had no relation to spirit-that is, he was not a teacher or a witness of the spirit."
He says of Abraham, "If the task had been different, if the Lord had commanded Abraham to bring Isaac up to Mount Moriah so that he could have his lightning strike Isaac and take him as a sacrifice in that way, then Abraham plainly would have been justified in speaking as enigmatically as he did, for then he himself could not have known what was going to happen. But given the task as assigned to Abraham, he himself has to act; consequently, he has to know in the crucial moment what he himself will do, and consequently, he has to know that Isaac is going to be sacrificed." Kierkegaard puts it this way in another book, "We shall not say with the Preacher (Ecclesiastes 4:10), 'Woe to him who is alone; if he falls, there is no one else to raise him up,' for God is indeed still the one who both raises up and casts down, for the one who lives in association with people and the solitary one; we shall not cry, 'Woe to him,' but surely an 'Ah, that he might not go astray,' because he is indeed alone in testing himself to see whether it is God's call he is following or a voice of temptation, whether defiance and anger are not mixed embitteringly in his endeavor."
The task God gave to Abraham was so horrifying that he could tell no one about it because no one would understand him. Ethics forbade it as well as aesthetics. Abraham became a knight of faith because he was willing to do what God asked of him. "He didn't trouble anyone with his suffering." Abraham was wrong as far as ethics is concerned but right as far the Absolute is concerned. Kierkegaard says, "wishing to be in the wrong is an expression of an infinite relationship, and wanting to be in the right, or finding it painful to be in the wrong, is an expression of a finite relationship! Hence, it is upbuilding always to be in the wrong-because only the infinite builds up; the finite does not!" What was the most Abraham could do in his relationship with God? Remain faithful to his commitment to God. He accomplished that by actually lifting the knife with the intention of carrying out his mission. In short, he acted. Here the intention was more important than the result. He had faith and had to go no further to please God.
Regine
Kierkegaard says, "By my own strength I cannot get the least little thing that belongs to finitude, for I continually use my strength to resign everything. By my own strength I can give up the princess, and I will not sulk about it but find joy and peace and rest in my pain, but by my own strength I cannot get her back again, for I use all my strength in resigning. On the other hand, by faith, says that marvelous knight, by faith you will get her by virtue of the absurd. But this movement I cannot make. As soon as I want to begin, everything reverses itself, and I take refuge in the pain of resignation. I am able to swim in life, but I am too heavy for this mystical hovering."
The story of the princess and of Agnes and the merman can be interpreted autobiographically. Here Kierkegaard is using the story of Abraham to help himself understand his relationship with Regine Olsen. She was his only love as far as "finitude" is concerned and he gave her up. Kierkegaard says the young man who was in love with the princess learned 'the deep secret that even in loving another person one ought to be sufficient to oneself. He is no longer finitely concerned about what the princess does, and precisely this proves that he has made the movement [of faith] infinitely."
Kierkegaard also mentioned Agnes and the Merman in his Journals: "I have thought of adapting [the legend of] Agnes and the Merman from an angle that has not occurred to any poet. The Merman is a seducer, but when he has won Agnes' love he is so moved by it that he wants to belong to her entirely. — But this, you see, he cannot do, since he must initiate her into his whole tragic existence, that he is a monster at certain times, etc., that the Church cannot give its blessing to them. He despairs and in his despair plunges to the bottom of the sea and remains there, but Agnes imagines that he only wanted to deceive her. But this is poetry, not that wretched, miserable trash in which everything revolves around ridiculousness and nonsense. Such a complication can be resolved only by the religious (which has its name because it resolves all witchcraft); if the Merman could believe, his faith perhaps could transform him into a human being."
Kierkegaard tasted his first love in Regine and he said it was "beautiful and healthy, but not perfect." Regine, his first love was his second love; it was an infinite love. But he resigned it in order to serve God. He couldn't explain to Regine how it happened that he changed anymore than Cordelia could explain what happened between her and the seducer in The Seducer's Diary. "She could not confide in anyone, for she had nothing definite to confide. When one has a dream he can tell it, it was real, and yet when she wished to speak of it and relieve her troubled mind, there was nothing to tell. She felt it very keenly. No one could know about it except herself, and yet it rested upon her with an alarming weight." Abraham couldn't confide in Sarah or Eliezer either.
Criticism
Some have praised the book as one of the lynchpins of the existentialist movement. It was reviewed in Kierkegaard's own time and his response to the review is in Kierkegaard's Journals.
Hans Martensen, a contemporary of Kierkegaard's, had this to say about his ideas,
An article from the Encyclopedia of religion and ethics has the following quote, "in writing B's Papers [Kierkegaard] had personally attained to a deeper grasp of Christianity, and had come to feel that there was a stage of life higher than the ethico-religious standpoint of B. It was now, probably, that he became more fully cognizant of his plan, and of what was necessary to its development. The higher and more distinctively Christian form of religion is set forth in 'Fear and Trembling, the message of which is illustrated by the fact that Abraham was commanded to do what was ethically wrong, i.e., to kill Isaac, and obeyed in virtue or a personal relation to God; he had faith—he staked the earthly, and yet believed that he should possess it still. Such faith is no common or easy thing, but is a relation to the Absolute which Defies reason, and can be won and held only in an infinite passion."
In 1921 David F. Swenson wrote, "Fear and Trembling uses the story of Abraham's sacrifice of his son. Abraham is not a tragic hero, for he cannot claim, like Jephtah or the Roman consul, a higher ethical justification for his deed. His intention to sacrifice his son has a purely personal motivation, and one which no social ethic can acknowledge; for the highest ethical obligation that his life or the situation reveals is the father's duty of loving his son. Abraham is therefore either a murderer, or a hero of Faith. The detailed exposition elucidates Abraham's situation dialectically and lyrically, bringing out as problemata the teleological suspension of the ethical, the assumption of an absolute duty toward God, and the purely private character of Abraham's procedure; thus showing the paradoxical and transcendent character of a relation in which the individual, contrary to all rule, is precisely as an individual, higher than the community." Scandinavian Studies and Notes Volume VI, No. 7 August 1921 David F. Swenson: Søren Kierkegaard p. 21
In 1923 Lee Hollander wrote the following in his introduction to Fear and Trembling:
Jean-Paul Sartre took up Kierkegaard's ideas in his 1948 book, Existentialism and Humanism like this:
In 1949 Helmut Kuhn wrote of the dread of the choice to follow God. "The decisive act through which everything is won or lost is called choice a conception formulated by Kierkegaard and faithfully upheld by the majority of Existentialists. Choice, as the term is generally understood, is the act of giving preference to one among several possibilities or of deciding in favor of one or two alternatives. And since every choice has, at least potentially, a moral significance, the primary alternative, which underlies all other alternatives, will be that of good and evil. Choice, according to this common-sense view, lies between good and evil. Kierkegaard and his modern followers entertain an altogether different idea of choice. In the first place, the act under consideration, they insist, is not to be confused with those insignificant decisions with which in every minute of our waking existence we carry on our lives. Each one of these "little choices will reveal itself under analysis as the choice of a means towards a predetermined end. They give effect to a prior determination which underlies and guides them. Not with that merely executive activity are we chiefly concerned as moralists and philosophers. We must rather focus on those cardinal acts on which our whole existence hinges the moments which place us at the parting of roads, and as we then choose, our choice, the dread Either /Or, will either save or ruin us. It is this Great Choice which, as the organizing principle, animates the little choices of our daily lives."
Bernard Martin asked, "Was the revelation to the biblical Abraham of the divine command to sacrifice his son, we may ask (following Kierkegaard), demonic possession or ecstasy? And even if it be allowed that "the ethical and logical norms of ordinary reason" constitute clear-cut and easily applicable criteria, how does ecstatic reason in revelation basically differ from ordinary reason, aside from an emotional "shaking," seeing that it merely affirms and elevates the principles of ordinary reason? However, for Kierkegaard the "emotional shaking" is an external event, which could signify nothing or everything.
Josiah Thompson wrote a biography of Kierkegaard's life, and in it he said,
Mark C. Taylor, of Fordham University writes, "The Abrahamic God is the all-powerful Lord and Master who demands nothing less than the total obedience of his faithful servants. The transcendent otherness of God creates a possibility of a collision between religious commitment and the individual's personal desire and moral duty. Should such a conflict develop, the faithful self must follow Abraham in forgoing desire and suspending duty-even if this means sacrificing one's own son or forsaking one's beloved. (...) The Absolute Paradox occasions an absolute decision by posing the absolute either-or. Either believe or be offended. From the Christian perspective, this crucial decision is of eternal significance.
Another scholar writes, "By writing about Abraham, Kierkegaard can perform a pantomime of walking along the patriarch's path, but he will remain incapable of the leap of faith that was necessary to accomplish the sacrifice. The poet can attain to the movement of infinite resignation, performed by tragic heroes such as Agamemnon who sacrificed his daughter to placate the gods, but this gesture will forever remain only a surrogate of Abraham's absolute faith. Abraham believed by virtue of the absurd, whereby the impossible will happen and all human calculation is abandoned. The commentator strains to approximate the knight's gesture of the absurd, yet lacking faith, he is forbidden to effectuate the transcendent leap. In his necessary reliance on the mediation of concepts to tell the story, the exegete cannot aspire to the uniqueness of Abraham's condition. Versions two and four of Kierkegaard's account state explicitly that, in contradistinction to the biblical model, the imagined Abraham returns home. The patriarch from the Book of Genesis does not even glimpse back towards home but moves on to live in a foreign land. When he settles in Beersheba and buys a burial plot there, he avows: "I am a stranger and a sojourner with you". (Genesis 23.4) He renounces all of his possessions, his family and neighbours, and, sustained by faith, he never mourns his loss. As Kierkegaard remarks, were he merely human, he would weep and long for what he had left behind."
One critic says, "the relationship to Regine is played through with full orchestra by Johannes de Silentio, in the little book Fear and Trembling, which came out October 16, 1843, the same year as Either/Or. It begins with a paraphrase repeated four times, on the story of Abraham's journey to Mount Moriah to offer Isaac. This is continued by the eulogy on Abraham as "the father of faith" who believed by virtue of the absurd. The double meaning is clear, Abraham is both the father who brings his son as an offering, and Kierkegaard who offers Regine." .
Julie Watkin explained more about Kierkegaard's relation to Regine Olsen in her book, Historical Dictionary of Kierkegaard's Philosophy. She says, Kierkegaard wrote Either/Or, Fear and Trembling, and Repetition as a way to get over Regine.
John Stewart's review of the book removes Hegel from the whole structure of the book, He wrote, in 2007, "...nothing stands in the way of a commentator who wants to find a substantive philosophical discussion in these allusions to Hegel, and certainly there is no reason to think that Hegel's and Kierkegaard's views on philosophy of religion or political theory are the same or are consistent with each other. But this abstract comparison of their views does not explain what is at issue in the text. The main point of the references to Hegel here is to criticize Heiberg and Martensen and not any particular doctrine in Hegel's philosophy." He says this becomes more clear when Fear and Trembling is compared to The Concept of Irony.
In 1838 Kierkegaard wrote,
A famous dispute arose in France when Emmanuel Levinas criticized Kierkegaard and Jacques Derrida defended him. The argument centered upon the text of Fear and Trembling, and whether or not a practitioner of faith could be considered ethical.
Walter Kaufmann addressed faith and ethics: If it really were axiomatic that God could never contravene our conscience and our reason - if we could be sure that he must share our moral judgments - would not God become superfluous as far as ethics is concerned? A mere redundancy? If God is really to make a moral difference in our lives, Kierkegaard insists, we must admit that he might go against our reason and our conscience, and that he should still be obeyed. Walter Kaufmann 1962, Introduction to The Present Age by Soren Kierkegaard 1846
References
Sources
Primary sources
Fear and Trembling; Copyright 1843 Søren Kierkegaard – Kierkegaard's Writings; 6 – copyright 1983 – Howard V. Hong
Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments Volume I, by Johannes Climacus, edited by Søren Kierkegaard, Copyright 1846 – Edited and Translated by Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong 1992 Princeton University Press
Either/Or Volume I Edited by Victor Eremita, February 20, 1843, translated by David F. Swenson and Lillian Marvin Swenson Princeton University Press 1971
Either/Or Volume 2, Edited by Victor Eremita, February 20, 1843, Hong 1987
Secondary sources
Christian Ethics: (General part) Martensen, H. (Hans), 1808–1884; Spence, C., tr
Søren Kierkegaard, A Biography, by Johannes Hohlenberg, Translated by T.H. Croxall, Pantheon Books, 1954
Kierkegaard, by Josiah Thompson, Alfred A. Knopf, 1973
Journeys to selfhood: Hegel & Kierkegaard, by Mark C. Taylor Fordham University Press, 2000
Historical Dictionary of Kierkegaard's Philosophy, By Julie Watkin, Scarecrow Press, 2001
Kierkegaard's Relations to Hegel Reconsidered, Cambridge University Press Jon Stewart 2007
External links
The Autobiography of Goethe Truth and Fiction Relating To My Life Goethe's story of Abraham
Fear and Trembling online from Religion-Online.
Furcht und Zittern: dialektische Lyrik (Fear and Trembling) German translation 1882
Fear and Trembling, Excerpts, translated by L.M. Hollander
SparkNotes Editors. "SparkNote on Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), Fear and Trembling" SparkNotes LLC. 2005. (accessed February 19, 2011)
Dorota Glowacka Sacrificing The Text: The Philosopher/Poet At Mount Moriah
The Suspension of the Ethical, by Lev Shestov accessdate 2011-02-19
Encounter With Nothingness, An Essay on Existentialism, by Helmut Kuhn Professor of Philosophy at Emory University, Henry Regnery Company, Hinsdale, Illinois, 1949
Dr. Anthony Storm's Commentary on Fear and Trembling
Podcast of Clare Carlisle interviewed about Fear and Trembling on Philosophy Bites
Katz, Claire Elise, 2001
Robert Coles, 2001 p. 11-23
McGee, Kyle, May 19, 2006
Dr Joel Rasmussen Kierkegaard: alienated man and the ethics of subjectivity
NEH's EDSITEment student guide to reading Fear and Trembling
1843 non-fiction books
Books by Søren Kierkegaard
Ethics books
Books about sacrifice
Works published under a pseudonym | [
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253559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive%20chess | Progressive chess | Progressive chess is a chess variant in which players, rather than just making one move per turn, play progressively longer series of moves. The game starts with White making one move, then Black makes two consecutive moves, White replies with three, Black makes four and so on. Progressive chess can be combined with other variants; for example, when Circe chess is played as a game, it is usually progressively. Progressive chess is considered particularly apt for playing correspondence chess using mail or some other slow medium, because of the relatively small number of moves in a typical game.
Rules
There are two main varieties of progressive chess: Italian progressive chess and Scottish progressive chess (otherwise known as Scotch chess). The two have the following rules in common:
A check must be escaped from on the first move of a series—if this cannot be done, it is checkmate and the game is lost.
En passant captures of pawns are allowed if the pawn in question moved two squares in one move, but no further, at some point during the last turn, but the capture must be made on the first move of a series.
If ten consecutive turns are played with no captures and no pawn moves, then the game is declared a draw unless one of the players can force a checkmate (this is the progressive chess equivalent of the fifty-move rule in orthodox chess).
If at any stage a player has no legal moves but is not in check, the game is a draw by progressive stalemate.
Italian and Scottish progressive chess are distinguished by rules on when a player is allowed to give check:
Scottish progressive chess: check may be given on any move of a series, but a check ends the series—all further moves that would otherwise be allowed are forfeited. This has no effect on the other player's next series—he will receive as many moves as he would have had the other player played his full series.
Italian progressive chess: a check may only be given on the last move of a full series (for example, on move six, a check can only be given on the sixth move)—giving a check at any other point in a series is illegal. In particular, if the only way to escape a check is to give check on the first move of the series, then the game is lost by the player in check by "progressive checkmate".
In practice, the difference between the Scottish and Italian rules is not often relevant. John Beasley examined 416 mating positions that either occurred or could have occurred in games played by the Italian rules; of them 158 were such "progressive checkmates" (Beasley calls them "Italian mates"). In all but two cases (Cassano–Dipilato 1986 and Boniface–Archer 1993), there would have been a mate next turn under the Scottish rules as well; and in Boniface–Archer 1993, White could have given a Scottish mate on his last turn rather than an Italian mate, leaving only one case where the difference in rules would actually have affected the result.
Progressive chess, like orthodox chess, is notated with algebraic notation. However, the numbering of moves is handled slightly differently. Rather than one White and one Black move being given under each move number (leading to notation in orthodox chess like 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6), each turn by each player is given its own move number (leading to notation in progressive chess like 1.e4 2.e5 Nf6 3.Bc4 Qh5 Qxf7#). In this way, the move number is equal to the number of moves in a series available to a player on that turn.
Other variations
There is another form of progressive chess, English progressive chess, which makes quite a significant change to the rules: within each turn, no piece may be moved twice until every other piece which has a legal move has moved once; no piece may move three times until every other piece which can has moved twice; and so on. These restrictions do not carry over from one turn to the next—so the opening 1.e4 2.e6 f6 3.e5 Nf3 Bc4 is legal (White's e-pawn may move again because its moves are on different turns), but the sequence 1.e4 2.e6 f6 3.e5 Ba6 Bxb7 is not (the bishop has made two moves, but there are many other white pieces which have not moved on that turn). There is no en passant capture under English rules, and rules on checks follow the Scottish rules.
Progressive Take-All uses the same rules as Progressive chess, but involves capturing all pieces of your opponent's instead of checkmate. Pawns can also be promoted to Kings.
In Logical progressive chess (by Paul Byway, Variant Chess 18, automne 1995) there's no castling or pawn two advance (hence no en-passant capture) since these rules were added to speed up the game, which is not relevant in progressive form.
See also
Marseillais chess—a chess variant in which each player moves twice per turn.
References
External links
Progressive Chess by Timo Honkela
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253561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writers%20Guild%20of%20America | Writers Guild of America | The Writers Guild of America is the joint efforts of two different US labor unions representing TV and film writers:
The Writers Guild of America, East (WGAE), headquartered in New York City and affiliated with the AFL–CIO
The Writers Guild of America West (WGAW), headquartered in Los Angeles.
Common activities
The WGAE and WGAW negotiate contracts in unison as well as launch strike actions simultaneously.
1960 Writers Guild of America strike
1981 Writers Guild of America strike
1985 Writers Guild of America strike
1988 Writers Guild of America strike
2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike
Effect of the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike on television, a list of television shows affected by the strike
Although each Guild runs independently, they perform some activities in parallel:
Writers Guild of America Awards, an annual awards show with simultaneous presentations on each coast
WGA screenwriting credit system, determines how writers' names are listed during the credits
WGA script registration service, online services to prove when scripts were written and by whom
International Affiliation of Writers Guilds (IAWG), both Guilds belong to this international labor federation
See also
National Writers Union | [
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253563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady%20Macbeth%20%28disambiguation%29 | Lady Macbeth (disambiguation) | Lady Macbeth is a character from William Shakespeare's play Macbeth.
Lady Macbeth may also refer to:
Lady Macbeth (historical) or Queen Gruoch of Scotland
Lady Macbeth (album), a 2005 album by Lana Lane
Lady Macbeth (sculpture), a sculpture by Elisabet Ney
Lady MacBeth (spaceship), a fictional spaceship in Peter F. Hamilton's Night's Dawn trilogy
Lady Macbeth, a 2008 novel by Susan King
See also
Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (novel), a novel by Nikolai Leskov
Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera), an opera by Dmitri Shostakovich
Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (film), a 1989 film by Roman Balayan
Siberian Lady Macbeth, a 1961 film by Andrzej Wajda
Lady Macbeth (film), a 2016 British drama | [
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253564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Lumphanan | Battle of Lumphanan | The Battle of Lumphanan was fought on 15 August 1057, between Macbeth, King of Scots, and Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, the future King Malcolm III. Macbeth was killed, having drawn his retreating forces north to make a last stand. According to tradition, the battle took place near the Peel of Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire. Macbeth's Stone, some south-west of the peel, is said to be the stone upon which Macbeth was beheaded.
Background
Since the death of his father, King Duncan, in battle with Macbeth, Malcolm had been sheltered by Earl Siward of Northumbria. It was with Siward's backing that Malcolm first attacked Macbeth at Dunsinnan in 1054, failing to win the crown, but having his own lands restored to him.
The battle
After retreating North, Macbeth would again face Malcolm in battle at Lumphanan. The battle itself appears to have been a comparatively minor affair, except for the death of Macbeth.
Aftermath
Following the death of Macbeth, his stepson Lulach was initially crowned king. 18 weeks later, in 1058 Malcolm killed him by 'treachery' at Essie, near Aberdeen. Upon assuming the throne, Malcolm began the long task of removing Gaelic culture from mainstream Scotland.
References
11th century in Scotland
Lumphanan 1057
Lumphanan
Lumphanan
1057 in Scotland
History of Aberdeenshire | [
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253568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implied%20volatility | Implied volatility | In financial mathematics, the implied volatility (IV) of an option contract is that value of the volatility of the underlying instrument which, when input in an option pricing model (such as Black–Scholes), will return a theoretical value equal to the current market price of said option. A non-option financial instrument that has embedded optionality, such as an interest rate cap, can also have an implied volatility. Implied volatility, a forward-looking and subjective measure, differs from historical volatility because the latter is calculated from known past returns of a security. To understand where implied volatility stands in terms of the underlying, implied volatility rank is used to understand its implied volatility from a one-year high and low IV.
Motivation
An option pricing model, such as Black–Scholes, uses a variety of inputs to derive a theoretical value for an option. Inputs to pricing models vary depending on the type of option being priced and the pricing model used. However, in general, the value of an option depends on an estimate of the future realized price volatility, σ, of the underlying. Or, mathematically:
where C is the theoretical value of an option, and f is a pricing model that depends on σ, along with other inputs.
The function f is monotonically increasing in σ, meaning that a higher value for volatility results in a higher theoretical value of the option. Conversely, by the inverse function theorem, there can be at most one value for σ that, when applied as an input to , will result in a particular value for C.
Put in other terms, assume that there is some inverse function g = f−1, such that
where is the market price for an option. The value is the volatility implied by the market price , or the implied volatility.
In general, it is not possible to give a closed form formula for implied volatility in terms of call price. However, in some cases (large strike, low strike, short expiry, large expiry) it is possible to give an asymptotic expansion of implied volatility in terms of call price.
Example
A European call option, , on one share of non-dividend-paying XYZ Corp with a strike price of $50 expires in 32 days. The risk-free interest rate is 5%. XYZ stock is currently trading at $51.25 and the current market price of is $2.00. Using a standard Black–Scholes pricing model, the volatility implied by the market price is 18.7%, or:
To verify, we apply implied volatility to the pricing model, f , and generate a theoretical value of $2.0004:
which confirms our computation of the market implied volatility.
Solving the inverse pricing model function
In general, a pricing model function, f, does not have a closed-form solution for its inverse, g. Instead, a root finding technique is often used to solve the equation:
While there are many techniques for finding roots, two of the most commonly used are Newton's method and Brent's method. Because options prices can move very quickly, it is often important to use the most efficient method when calculating implied volatilities.
Newton's method provides rapid convergence; however, it requires the first partial derivative of the option's theoretical value with respect to volatility; i.e., , which is also known as vega (see The Greeks). If the pricing model function yields a closed-form solution for vega, which is the case for Black–Scholes model, then Newton's method can be more efficient. However, for most practical pricing models, such as a binomial model, this is not the case and vega must be derived numerically. When forced to solve for vega numerically, one can use the Christopher and Salkin method or, for more accurate calculation of out-of-the-money implied volatilities, one can use the Corrado-Miller model.
Specifically in the case of the Black[-Scholes-Merton] model, Jaeckel's "Let's Be Rational" method computes the implied volatility to full attainable (standard 64 bit floating point) machine precision for all possible input values in sub-microsecond time. The algorithm comprises an initial guess based on matched asymptotic expansions, plus (always exactly) two Householder improvement steps (of convergence order 4), making this a three-step (i.e., non-iterative) procedure. A reference implementation in C++ is freely available.
Besides the above mentioned root finding techniques, there are also methods that approximate the multivariate inverse function directly. Often they are based on polynomials or rational functions.
For the Bachelier ("normal", as opposed to "lognormal") model, Jaeckel published a fully analytic and comparatively simple two-stage formula that gives full attainable (standard 64 bit floating point) machine precision for all possible input values.
Implied volatility parametrisation
With the arrival of Big Data and Data Science parametrising the implied volatility has taken central importance for the sake of coherent interpolation and extrapolation purposes. The classic models are the SABR and SVI model with their IVP extension.
Implied volatility as measure of relative value
As stated by Brian Byrne, the implied volatility of an option is a more useful measure of the option's relative value than its price. The reason is that the price of an option depends most directly on the price of its underlying asset. If an option is held as part of a delta neutral portfolio (that is, a portfolio that is hedged against small moves in the underlying's price), then the next most important factor in determining the value of the option will be its implied volatility.
Implied volatility is so important that options are often quoted in terms of volatility rather than price, particularly among professional traders.
Example
A call option is trading at $1.50 with the underlying trading at $42.05. The implied volatility of the option is determined to be 18.0%. A short time later, the option is trading at $2.10 with the underlying at $43.34, yielding an implied volatility of 17.2%. Even though the option's price is higher at the second measurement, it is still considered cheaper based on volatility.
The reason is that the underlying needed to hedge the call option can be sold for a higher price.
As a price
Another way to look at implied volatility is to think of it as a price, not as a measure of future stock moves.
In this view, it simply is a more convenient way to communicate option prices than currency. Prices are different in nature from statistical quantities: one can estimate volatility of future underlying returns using any of a large number of estimation methods; however, the number one gets is not a price. A price requires two counterparties, a buyer, and a seller. Prices are determined by supply and demand. Statistical estimates depend on the time-series and the mathematical structure of the model used.
It is a mistake to confuse a price, which implies a transaction, with the result of a statistical estimation, which is merely what comes out of a calculation. Implied volatilities are prices: they have been derived from actual transactions. Seen in this light, it should not be surprising that implied volatilities might not conform to what a particular statistical model would predict.
However, the above view ignores the fact that the values of implied volatilities depend on the model used to calculate them: different models applied to the same market option prices will produce different implied volatilities. Thus, if one adopts this view of implied volatility as a price, then one also has to concede that there is no unique implied-volatility-price and that a buyer and a seller in the same transaction might be trading at different "prices".
Non-constant implied volatility
In general, options based on the same underlying but with different strike values and expiration times will yield different implied volatilities. This can be viewed as evidence that an underlying's volatility is not constant but instead depends on factors such as price level or time, or it can be viewed as evidence that the underlying's price changes do not follow the distribution that is assumed in the model under consideration (such as Black-Scholes). There exist few known parametrisation of the volatility surface (Schonbusher, SVI, and gSVI) as well as their de-arbitraging methodologies. See stochastic volatility and volatility smile for more information.
Volatility instruments
Volatility instruments are financial instruments that track the value of implied volatility of other derivative securities. For instance, the CBOE Volatility Index (VIX) is calculated from a weighted average of implied volatilities of various options on the S&P 500 Index. There are also other commonly referenced volatility indices such as the VXN index (Nasdaq 100 index futures volatility measure), the QQV (QQQ volatility measure), IVX - Implied Volatility Index (an expected stock volatility over a future period for any of US securities and exchange-traded instruments), as well as options and futures derivatives based directly on these volatility indices themselves.
See also
Forward volatility
References
Further references
External links
Implied volatility calculation by Serdar SEN
Test online implied volatility calculation by Christophe Rougeaux, ESILV
Visual implied volatility calculator
Calculate Beta in Excel
Derivatives (finance)
Mathematical finance | [
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253570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dino%20Dini | Dino Dini | Dino Dini (born 5 June 1965) is an Italo-British video game developer and creator of the Kick Off series of football games. He was a lecturer at the NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences in the Netherlands, teaching game programming.
Career
In 1988, Dini was hired to code a top down football game from a Steve Screech idea. In 1989 Kick Off was then published by Anil Gupta's publishing house Anco for the Atari ST and Commodore Amiga. The original version was designed and programmed by Dino Dini with graphics, playtesting and tuning by Steve Screech, it was critically acclaimed and sold very well. Dini followed it with Player Manager and Kick Off 2. Goal! (also known as Dino Dini's Soccer) was then released after Dini left Anco and moved to Virgin Games in 1993. Goal! was critically acclaimed worldwide. Goal! introduced more user friendly controls compared to Kick Off 2 and entertained a wider audience than its predecessor. It was also called the real Kick Off 3 by the Kick Off fans. In 1996, Dini moved to the United States to work as Project Director for the Z-Axis football game Three Lions. It was released in 1998.
In 2001, Dini moved back to Great Britain and started to work with his new development company, Abundant Software. In 2004, Dini signed with DC Studios to develop a new soccer game which was code-named Soccer 3 and later Total Control Football. The game was cancelled during the summer of 2005.
After 2005, Dini worked as a contractor on a government-funded project. In 2009, he became a lecturer for the International Game Architecture and Design programme at NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences in the Netherlands, teaching game programming. At the 2009 Game Developers Conference Europe (GDCE) in Cologne, (Germany), Dini was guest speaker on the subject of video game design.
In 2010, Dino ran unsuccessfully for a position on the International Game Developers Association board of directors. In August of that year, he announced via his blog that he was working on a sequel to his game Player Manager as an independent project. In 2011 he contributed articles and the beta version of his browser-based game Letteroids 3D to DevilsMMO, a website for MMO and MMORPG games.
On 14 October 2015, Dino Dini announced a new game entitled Dino Dini's Kick Off Revival. It was released on the PlayStation 4 on 24 June 2016, with poor reviews from game journalists, and from players. Metacritic judged Dino Dini Kick Off Revival the 2nd worst game of 2016,. Vice elected Revival as the worst football game ever made. A PlayStation Vita version was delayed and released nine months later in March 2017 with bad reviews.
The PC version was released in Steam in September 2017 and it was an exact port of the PlayStation 4 version. Whilst maintaining an overall "mixed" summary status, it has similarly received bad reviews for being a very basic game missing many features of the original Kick Off games.
Games
Games developed by Dini include:
Kick Off (published by Anco, 1989) Amiga, Atari ST
Player Manager (Anco, 1990) Amiga, Atari ST
Kick Off 2 (Anco, 1990) Amiga, Atari ST
GOAL! (Virgin Games, 1993) Amiga, Atari ST, PC
Dino Dini's Soccer (Virgin Games, 1994) Mega Drive, Super NES
References
External links
Dino Dini's blog
Dino Dini's YouTube Channel
Interview with Dino Dini at Eurogamer
Living people
1965 births
Scientists from Bristol
British video game designers
English people of Italian descent | [
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253571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gylfi | Gylfi | In Norse mythology, Gylfi (Old Norse: ), Gylfe, Gylvi, or Gylve was the earliest recorded king in Scandinavia. He often uses the name Gangleri when appearing in disguise. The traditions on Gylfi deal with how he was tricked by the gods and his relations with the goddess Gefjon.
The creation of Zealand
The Ynglinga saga section of Snorri's Heimskringla and the Eddic poem Ragnarsdrápa tell a legend of how Gylfi was seduced by the goddess Gefjon to give her as much land as she could plow in one night. Gefjon transformed her four sons into oxen and took enough land to create the Danish island of Zealand, leaving the Swedish lake Vänern.
Meeting the Æsir
Gylfaginning in the Prose Edda and the Ynglinga saga tell how the supposedly historic (non-deified version) Odin and his people the Æsir and Vanir, who later became the Swedes, obtained new land where they built the settlement of Old Sigtuna. In Snorri's account Gylfi is supposedly deluded by the Æsir into accepting their religion; hence the name "Gylfaginning," most often interpreted as the "deluding of Gylfi", although '-ginning' is regarded the same as what we recognise in "beginning", thus "the origin of Gylfi" is also possible. Gylfi and the remaining older bronze-age inhabitants of the land then supposedly adopted the religion of the Æsir and began to live under their rule. Snorri presents an outline of Norse mythology through a dialogue between Gylfi and three rulers of the Æsir.
It is possible that Snorri's account is based on an old tradition tracing particular beliefs or foundations of particular Norse cults to this legendary Gylfi. However, it is much more likely that the historic King Gylfi was simply already a follower of the ancient Norse religion and, as such, could easily have passed on these beliefs or stories.
Other appearances
In one version of Hervarar saga, king Gylfi married his daughter Heiðr to Sigrlami, the king of Garðaríki (Russia). Heiðr and Sigrlami had the son Svafrlami, who forced the two dwarves Dvalin and Durin to forge the magic sword Tyrfing.
Notes
Mythological kings of Sweden | [
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253575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majdanek%20concentration%20camp | Majdanek concentration camp | Majdanek (or Lublin) was a Nazi concentration and extermination camp built and operated by the SS on the outskirts of the city of Lublin during the German occupation of Poland in World War II. It had seven gas chambers, two wooden gallows, and some 227 structures in all, placing it among the largest of Nazi concentration camps. Although initially intended for forced labor rather than extermination, the camp was used to murder people on an industrial scale during Operation Reinhard, the German plan to murder all Polish Jews within their own occupied homeland. The camp, which operated from 1 October 1941 to 22 July 1944, was captured nearly intact. The rapid advance of the Soviet Red Army during Operation Bagration prevented the SS from destroying most of the camp's infrastructure, and Deputy Camp Commandant Anton Thernes failed to remove most incriminating evidence of war crimes.
The camp was nicknamed Majdanek ("little Majdan") in 1941 by local residents, as it was adjacent to the Lublin ghetto of Majdan Tatarski. Nazi documents initially described the site as a POW camp of the Waffen-SS, based on how it was funded and operated. It was renamed by the Reich Security Main Office as Konzentrationslager Lublin on April 9, 1943, but the local Polish name remained more popular.
After the camp's liberation in July 1944, the site was formally protected by the Soviet Union. By autumn, with the war still raging, it had been preserved as a museum. The crematorium and gas chambers were largely intact, serving as some of the best examples of the genocidal policy of Nazi Germany. The site was given national designation in 1965. Today, the Majdanek State Museum is a Holocaust memorial museum and education centre devoted entirely to the memory of atrocities committed in the network of concentration, slave-labor, and extermination camps and sub-camps of KL Lublin. It houses a permanent collection of rare artifacts, archival photographs, and testimony.
Construction
Konzentrationslager Lublin was established in October 1941 on the orders of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, forwarded to Odilo Globocnik soon after Himmler's visit to Lublin on 17–20 July 1941 in the course of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The original plan drafted by Himmler was for the camp to hold at least 25,000 POWs.
After large numbers of Soviet prisoners-of-war were captured during the Battle of Kiev, the projected camp capacity was subsequently increased to 50,000. Construction for that many began on October 1, 1941 (as it did also in Auschwitz-Birkenau, which had received the same order). In early November, the plans were extended to allow for 125,000 inmates and in December to 150,000. It was further increased in March 1942 to allow for 250,000 Soviet prisoners of war.
Construction began with 150 Jewish forced laborers from one of Globocnik's Lublin camps, to which the prisoners returned each night. Later the workforce included 2,000 Red Army POWs, who had to survive extreme conditions, including sleeping out in the open. By mid-November, only 500 of them were still alive, of whom at least 30% were incapable of further labor. In mid-December, barracks for 20,000 were ready when a typhus epidemic broke out, and by January 1942 all the slave laborers – POWs as well as Polish Jews – were dead. All work ceased until March 1942, when new prisoners arrived. Although the camp did eventually have the capacity to hold approximately 50,000 prisoners, it did not grow significantly beyond that size.
In operation
In July 1942, Himmler visited Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka, the three secret extermination camps built specifically for the Nazi German Operation Reinhard planned to eliminate Polish Jewry. These camps had begun operations in March, May, and July 1942, respectively. Subsequently, Himmler issued an order that the deportations of Jews to the camps from the five districts of occupied Poland, which constituted the Nazi Generalgouvernement, be completed by the end of 1942.
Majdanek was made into a secondary sorting and storage depot at the onset of Operation Reinhard, for property and valuables taken from the victims at the killing centers in Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka. However, due to large Jewish populations in south-eastern Poland, including the ghettos at Kraków, Lwów, Zamość and Warsaw, which were not yet "processed", Majdanek was refurbished as a killing center around March 1942. The gassing was performed in plain view of other inmates, without as much as a fence around the buildings. Another frequent murder method was shootings by the squads of Trawnikis. According to the Majdanek Museum, the gas chambers began operation in September 1942.
There are two identical buildings at Majdanek, where Zyklon B was used. Executions were carried out in barrack 41 with the use of crystalline hydrogen cyanide released by the Zyklon B. The same poison gas pellets were used to disinfect prisoner clothing in barrack 42.
Due to the pressing need for foreign manpower in the war industry, the Jewish laborers from Poland were originally spared. For a time they were either kept in the ghettos, such as the one in Warsaw (which became a concentration camp after the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising), or sent to labor camps such as Majdanek, where they worked primarily at the Steyr-Daimler-Puch weapons/munitions factory.
By mid-October 1942, the camp held 9,519 registered prisoners, of which 7,468 (or 78.45%) were Jews, and another 1,884 (19.79%) were non-Jewish Poles. By August 1943, there were 16,206 prisoners in the main camp, of which 9,105 (56.18%) were Jews and 3,893 (24.02%) were non-Jewish Poles. Minority contingents included Belarusians, Ukrainians, Russians, Germans, Austrians, Slovenes, Italians, and French and Dutch nationals. According to the data from the official Majdanek State Museum, 300,000 persons were inmates of the camp at one time or another. The prisoner population at any given time was much lower.
From October 1942 onwards, Majdanek also had female overseers. These SS guards, who had been trained at the Ravensbrück concentration camp, included Elsa Ehrich, Hermine Boettcher-Brueckner, Hermine Braunsteiner, Hildegard Lächert, Rosy Suess (Süss) Elisabeth Knoblich-Ernst, Charlotte Karla Mayer-Woellert, and Gertrud Heise (1942–1944), who were later convicted as war criminals.
Majdanek did not initially have subcamps. These were incorporated in early autumn 1943 when the remaining forced labor camps around Lublin, including Budzyn, Trawniki, Poniatowa, Krasnik, Pulawy, as well as the "Airstrip" ("Airfield"), and "Lipowa 7") concentration camps became sub-camps of Majdanek.
From 1 September 1941 to 28 May 1942, Alfons Bentele headed the Administration in the camp. Alois Kurz, SS Untersturmführer, was a German staff member at Majdanek, Auschwitz-Birkenau, and at Mittelbau-Dora. He was not charged. On 18 June 1943, Fritz Ritterbusch moved to KL Lublin to become aide-de-camp to the Commandant.
Due to the camp's proximity to Lublin, prisoners were able to communicate with the outside world through letters smuggled out by civilian workers who entered the camp. Many of these surviving letters have been donated by their recipients to the camp museum. In 2008 the museum held a special exhibition displaying a selection of those letters.
From February 1943 onwards, the Germans allowed the Polish Red Cross and Central Welfare Council to bring in food items to the camp. Prisoners could receive food packages addressed to them by name via the Polish Red Cross. The Majdanek Museum archives document 10,300 such itemized deliveries.
Aktion Erntefest
Operation Reinhard continued until early November 1943, when the last Jewish prisoners of the Majdanek system of subcamps from the District Lublin in the General Government were massacred by the firing squads of Trawniki men during Operation "Harvest Festival". With respect to the main camp at Majdanek, the most notorious executions occurred on November 3, 1943, when 18,400 Jews were murdered in a single day. The next morning, 25 Jews who had succeeded in hiding were found and shot. Meanwhile, 611 other prisoners, 311 women and 300 men, were commanded to sort through the clothes of the dead and cover the burial trenches. The men were later assigned to Sonderkommando 1005, where they had to exhume the same bodies for cremation. These men were then executed. The 311 women were subsequently sent to Auschwitz, where they were murdered by gas. By the end of Operation "Harvest Festival", Majdanek had only 71 Jews left out of the total number of 6,562 prisoners still alive.
Executions of the remaining prisoners continued at Majdanek in the following months. Between December 1943 and March 1944, Majdanek received approximately 18,000 so-called "invalids", many of whom were subsequently murdered with Zyklon B. Executions by firing squad continued as well, with 600 shot on January 21, 1944; 180 shot on January 23, 1944; and 200 shot on March 24, 1944.
Adjutant Karl Höcker's postwar trial documented his culpability in mass murders committed at this camp: On 3 May 1989 a district court in the German city of Bielefeld sentenced Höcker to four years imprisonment for his involvement in gassing to death prisoners, primarily Polish Jews, in the concentration camp Majdanek in Poland. Camp records showed that between May 1943 and May 1944 Höcker had acquired at least of Zyklon B poisonous gas for use in Majdanek from the Hamburg firm of Tesch & Stabenow. In addition, Commandant Rudolf Höss of Auschwitz wrote in his memoirs, while awaiting trial in Poland, that one method of murder used at Majdanek (KZ Lublin) was Zyklon B.
Evacuation
In late July 1944, with Soviet forces rapidly approaching Lublin, the Germans hastily evacuated the camp. However, the staff had only succeeded in partially destroying the crematoria before Soviet Red Army troops arrived on July 24, 1944, making Majdanek the best-preserved camp of the Holocaust, due to the incompetence of its deputy commander, Anton Thernes. It was the first major concentration camp liberated by Allied forces, and the horrors found there were widely publicised.
Although 1,000 inmates had previously been forcibly marched to Auschwitz (of whom only half arrived alive), the Red Army still found thousands of inmates, mainly POWs, still in the camp, and ample evidence of the mass murder that had occurred there.
Victims
The official estimate of 78,000 victims, of those 59,000 Jews, was determined in 2005 by Tomasz Kranz, director of the Research Department of the State Museum at Majdanek, calculated following the discovery of the Höfle Telegram in 2000. That number is close to the one currently indicated on the museum's website. The total number of victims has been a controversial topic of study, beginning with the research of Judge Zdzisław Łukaszkiewicz in 1948, who approximated a figure of 360,000 victims. It was followed by an estimation of around 235,000 victims by Czesław Rajca (1992) of the Majdanek Museum, which was cited by the museum for years. The current figure is considered "incredibly low" by Rajca, nevertheless it has been accepted by the Museum Board of Directors "with a certain caution", pending further research into the number of prisoners who were not entered into the Holocaust train records by German camp administration. For now, the Museum informs that based on new research, some 150,000 prisoners arrived at Majdanek during the 34 months of its existence. Of the more than 2,000,000 Jewish people murdered in the course of Operation Reinhard, some 60,000 Jews (56,000 known by name) were most certainly exterminated at Majdanek, amongst its almost 80,000 victims accounted for, altogether.
The Soviets initially grossly overestimated the number of murders, claiming at the Nuremberg Trials in July 1944 that there were no fewer than 400,000 Jewish victims, and the official Soviet count was of 1.5 million victims of different nationalities, Independent Canadian journalist Raymond Arthur Davies, who was based in Moscow and on the payroll of the Canadian Jewish Congress, visited Majdanek on August 28, 1944. The following day he sent a telegram to Saul Hayes, the executive director of the Canadian Jewish Congress. It states: "I do wish [to] stress that Majdanek where one million Jews and half a million others [were] killed" and "You can tell America that at least three million [Polish] Jews [were] killed of whom at least a third were killed in Majdanek", and though widely reported in this way, the estimate was never taken seriously by scholars.
In 1961, Raul Hilberg estimated that 50,000 Jewish victims were murdered in the camp. In 1992, Czesław Rajca gave his own estimate of 235,000; it was displayed at the camp museum. The 2005 research by the Head of Scientific Department at Majdanek Museum, historian Tomasz Kranz indicated that there were 79,000 victims, 59,000 of whom were Jews.
The differences in estimates stem from different methods used for estimating and the amounts of evidence available to the researchers. The Soviet figures relied on the most crude methodology, also used to make Auschwitz estimates—it was assumed that the number of victims more or less corresponded to the crematoria capacities. Later researchers tried to take much more evidence into account, using records of deportations, contemporaneous population censuses, and recovered Nazi records. Hilberg's 1961 estimate, using these records, aligns closely with Kranz's report.
The well-preserved original ovens in the second Crematorium at Majdanek were built in 1943 by Heinrich Kori. They replaced the ovens brought to Majdanek from Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1942.
Aftermath
After the camp takeover, in August 1944 the Soviets protected the camp area and convened a special Polish-Soviet commission, to investigate and document the crimes against humanity committed at Majdanek. This effort constitutes one of the first attempts to document the Nazi war crimes in Eastern Europe. In the fall of 1944 the Majdanek State Museum was founded on the grounds of the Majdanek concentration camp. In 1947 the actual camp became the monument of martyrology by the decree of Polish Parliament. In the same year, some 1,300 m3 of surface soil mixed with human ashes and fragments of bones was collected and turned into a large mound. Majdanek received the status of the national museum in 1965.
Some Nazi personnel of the camp were prosecuted immediately after the war, and some in the decades afterward. In November and December 1944, four SS Men and two kapos were placed on trial; one committed suicide and the rest were hanged on December 3, 1944. The last major, widely publicized prosecution of 16 SS members from Majdanek (Majdanek-Prozess in German) took place from 1975 to 1981 in West Germany. However, of the 1,037 SS members who worked at Majdanek and are known by name, only 170 were prosecuted. This was due to a rule applied by the West German justice system that only those directly involved in the murder process could be charged.
Soviet NKVD use of the Majdanek camp
After the capture of the camp by the Soviet Army, the NKVD retained the ready-made facility as a prison for soldiers of the Armia Krajowa (AK, the Home Army resistance) loyal to the Polish Government-in-Exile and the Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (National Armed Forces) opposed to both German and Soviet occupation. The NKVD like the SS before them used the same facilities to imprison and torture Polish patriots.
On August 19, 1944, in a report to the Polish government-in-exile, the Lublin District of the Home Army (AK) wrote: "Mass arrests of the AK soldiers are being carried out by the NKVD all over the region. These arrests are tolerated by the Polish Committee of National Liberation, and AK soldiers are incarcerated in the Majdanek Camp. Losses of our nation and the Home Army are equal to the losses which we suffered during the German occupation. We are paying with our blood."
Among the prisoners at the Majdanek NKVD Camp were Volhynian members of the AK, and soldiers of the AK units which had been moving toward Warsaw to join in the Warsaw Uprising. On August 23, 1944, some 250 inmates from Majdanek were transported to the rail station Lublin Tatary. There, all victims were placed in cattle cars and taken to camps in Siberia and other parts of the Soviet Union.
Commemoration
In July 1969, on the 25th anniversary of its liberation, a large monument designed by Wiktor Tołkin (a.k.a. Victor Tolkin) was constructed at the site. It consists of two parts: a large gate monument at the camp's entrance and a large mausoleum holding ashes of the victims at its opposite end.
In October 2005, in cooperation with the Majdanek museum, four Majdanek survivors returned to the site and enabled archaeologists to find some 50 objects which had been buried by inmates, including watches, earrings, and wedding rings. According to the documentary film Buried Prayers, this was the largest reported recovery of valuables in a death camp to date. Interviews between government historians and Jewish survivors were not frequent before 2005.
The camp today occupies about half of its original , and—but for the former buildings—is mostly bare. A fire in August 2010 destroyed one of the wooden buildings that was being used as a museum to house seven thousand pairs of prisoners' shoes. The city of Lublin has tripled in size since the end of World War II, and even the main camp is today within the boundaries of the city of Lublin. It is clearly visible to many inhabitants of the city's high-rises, a fact that many visitors remark upon. The gardens of houses and flats border on and overlook the camp.
In 2016, Majdanek State Museum and its branches, Sobibór and Bełżec, had about 210,000 visitors. This was an increase of 10,000 visitors from the previous year. Visitors include Jews, Poles, and others that wish to learn more about the harsh crimes against humanity.
Notable inmates
Halina Birenbaum – writer, poet and translator
Maria Albin Boniecki – artist
Marian Filar – pianist
Otto Freundlich – one of the artists included in the Nazis' 1937 "Degenerate Art" exhibition
Mietek Grocher – Survived nine different camps. Author of Jag överlevde (eng. I Survived).
Israel Gutman – historian
Roman Kantor (1912-1943) – épée fencer, Nordic champion and Soviet champion; murdered by the Nazis
Dmitry Karbyshev – Soviet general, Hero of the Soviet Union
Omelyan Kovch – Ukrainian priest
Dionys Lenard – escaped in 1942 warning the Slovak Jewish community
Igor Newerly – writer
Karl Plättner – revolutionary and author
Rudolf Vrba – transferred to Auschwitz, from which he escaped, and about which he co-authored the Vrba-Wetzler report, one of the first inside reports of the camp, and published during wartime
Henio Zytomirski – child icon of the Holocaust in Poland
Sonia Mosse – actress and model for Man Ray, subject of the famous photograph Nusch and Sonia
Irena Iłłakowicz – Second Lieutenant of the NSZ (National Armed Forces) Polish resistance movement and an intelligence agent, escaped from the camp in 1943
See also
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics
List of books about Nazi Germany
List of Nazi concentration camps
Research Materials: Max Planck Society Archive
References
External links
Private Tolkatchev at the Gates of Hell - Majdanek and Auschwitz Liberated: Testimony of An Artist an online exhibition by Yad Vashem
Catalog of Pins and Medals Commemorating the Majdanek Concentration Camp
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Holocaust Encyclopedia
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum's Oral Histories Historical Film of Camp Conditions
1941 establishments in Germany
1941 establishments in Poland
1942 in Poland
1943 in Poland
1944 in Poland
Monuments and memorials in Poland
Museums in Lublin Voivodeship
Registered museums in Poland
World War II museums in Poland
World War II sites in Poland
World War II sites of Nazi Germany
German extermination camps in Poland | [
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253578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyness | Moneyness | In finance, moneyness is the relative position of the current price (or future price) of an underlying asset (e.g., a stock) with respect to the strike price of a derivative, most commonly a call option or a put option. Moneyness is firstly a three-fold classification: if the derivative would have positive intrinsic value if it were to expire today, it is said to be in the money; if it would be worthless if expiring with the underlying at its current price it is said to be out of the money, and if the current underlying price and strike price are equal, it is said to be at the money. There are two slightly different definitions, according to whether one uses the current price (spot) or future price (forward), specified as "at the money spot" or "at the money forward", etc.
This rough classification can be quantified by various definitions to express the moneyness as a number, measuring how far the asset is in the money or out of the money with respect to the strike – or conversely how far a strike is in or out of the money with respect to the spot (or forward) price of the asset. This quantified notion of moneyness is most importantly used in defining the relative volatility surface: the implied volatility in terms of moneyness, rather than absolute price. The most basic of these measures is simple moneyness, which is the ratio of spot (or forward) to strike, or the reciprocal, depending on convention. A particularly important measure of moneyness is the likelihood that the derivative will expire in the money, in the risk-neutral measure. It can be measured in percentage probability of expiring in the money, which is the forward value of a binary call option with the given strike,
and is equal to the auxiliary N(d2) term in the Black–Scholes formula. This can also be measured in standard deviations, measuring how far above or below the strike price the current price is, in terms of volatility; this quantity is given by d2. (Standard deviations refer to the price fluctuations of the underlying instrument, not of the option itself.) Another measure closely related to moneyness is the Delta of a call or put option. There are other proxies for moneyness, with convention depending on market.
Example
Suppose the current stock price of IBM is $100. A call or put option with a strike of $100 is at-the-money. A call with a strike of $80 is in-the-money (100 − 80 = 20 > 0). A put option with a strike at $80 is out-of-the-money (80 − 100 = −20 < 0). Conversely, a call option with a $120 strike is out-of-the-money and a put option with a $120 strike is in-the-money.
The above is a traditional way of defining ITM, OTM and ATM, but some new authors find the comparison of strike price with current market price meaningless and recommend the use of Forward Reference Rate instead of Current Market Price. For example, a put option will be in the money if the strike price of the option is greater than the Forward Reference Rate.
Intrinsic value and time value
The intrinsic value (or "monetary value") of an option is its value assuming it were exercised immediately. Thus if the current (spot) price of the underlying security (or commodity etc.) is above the agreed (strike) price, a call has positive intrinsic value (and is called "in the money"), while a put has zero intrinsic value (and is "out of the money").
The time value of an option is the total value of the option, less the intrinsic value. It partly arises from the uncertainty of future price movements of the underlying. A component of the time value also arises from the unwinding of the discount rate between now and the expiry date. In the case of a European option, the option cannot be exercised before the expiry date, so it is possible for the time value to be negative; for an American option if the time value is ever negative, you exercise it (ignoring special circumstances such as the security going ex dividend): this yields a boundary condition.
Moneyness terms
At the money
An option is at the money (ATM) if the strike price is the same as the current spot price of the underlying security. An at-the-money option has no intrinsic value, only time value.
For example, with an "at the money" call stock option, the current share price and strike price are the same. Exercising the option will not earn the seller a profit, but any move upward in stock price will give the option value.
Since an option will rarely be exactly at the money, except for when it is written (when one may buy or sell an ATM option), one may speak informally of an option being near the money or close to the money. Similarly, given standardized options (at a fixed set of strikes, say every $1), one can speak of which one is nearest the money; "near the money" may narrowly refer specifically to the nearest the money strike. Conversely, one may speak informally of an option being far from the money.
In the money
An in the money (ITM) option has positive intrinsic value as well as time value. A call option is in the money when the strike price is below the spot price. A put option is in the money when the strike price is above the spot price.
With an "in the money" call stock option, the current share price is greater than the strike price so exercising the option will give the owner of that option a profit. That will be equal to the market price of the share, minus the option strike price, times the number of shares granted by the option (minus any commission).
Out of the money
An out of the money (OTM) option has no intrinsic value. A call option is out of the money when the strike price is above the spot price of the underlying security. A put option is out of the money when the strike price is below the spot price.
With an "out of the money" call stock option, the current share price is less than the strike price so there is no reason to exercise the option. The owner can sell the option, or wait and hope the price changes.
Spot versus forward
Assets can have a forward price (a price for delivery in future) as well as a spot price. One can also talk about moneyness with respect to the forward price: thus one talks about ATMF, "ATM Forward", and so forth. For instance, if the spot price for USD/JPY is 120, and the forward price one year hence is 110, then a call struck at 110 is ATMF but not ATM.
Use
Buying an ITM option is effectively lending money in the amount of the intrinsic value. Further, an ITM call can be replicated by entering a forward and buying an OTM put (and conversely). Consequently, ATM and OTM options are the main traded ones.
Definition
Moneyness function
Intuitively speaking, moneyness and time to expiry form a two-dimensional coordinate system for valuing options (either in currency (dollar) value or in implied volatility), and changing from spot (or forward, or strike) to moneyness is a change of variables. Thus a moneyness function is a function M with input the spot price (or forward, or strike) and output a real number, which is called the moneyness. The condition of being a change of variables is that this function is monotone (either increasing for all inputs, or decreasing for all inputs), and the function can depend on the other parameters of the Black–Scholes model, notably time to expiry, interest rates, and implied volatility (concretely the ATM implied volatility), yielding a function:
where S is the spot price of the underlying, K is the strike price, τ is the time to expiry, r is the risk-free rate, and σ is the implied volatility. The forward price F can be computed from the spot price S and the risk-free rate r. All of these are observables except for the implied volatility, which can computed from the observable price using the Black–Scholes formula.
In order for this function to reflect moneyness – i.e., for moneyness to increase as spot and strike move relative to each other – it must be monotone in both spot S and in strike K (equivalently forward F, which is monotone in S), with at least one of these strictly monotone, and have opposite direction: either increasing in S and decreasing in K (call moneyness) or decreasing in S and increasing in K (put moneyness). Somewhat different formalizations are possible. Further axioms may also be added to define a "valid" moneyness.
This definition is abstract and notationally heavy; in practice relatively simple and concrete moneyness functions are used, and arguments to the function are suppressed for clarity.
Conventions
When quantifying moneyness, it is computed as a single number with respect to spot (or forward) and strike, without specifying a reference option. There are thus two conventions, depending on direction: call moneyness, where moneyness increases if spot increases relative to strike, and put moneyness, where moneyness increases if spot decreases relative to strike. These can be switched by changing sign, possibly with a shift or scale factor (e.g., the probability that a put with strike K expires ITM is one minus the probability that a call with strike K expires ITM, as these are complementary events). Switching spot and strike also switches these conventions, and spot and strike are often complementary in formulas for moneyness, but need not be. Which convention is used depends on the purpose. The sequel uses call moneyness – as spot increases, moneyness increases – and is the same direction as using call Delta as moneyness.
While moneyness is a function of both spot and strike, usually one of these is fixed, and the other varies. Given a specific option, the strike is fixed, and different spots yield the moneyness of that option at different market prices; this is useful in option pricing and understanding the Black–Scholes formula. Conversely, given market data at a given point in time, the spot is fixed at the current market price, while different options have different strikes, and hence different moneyness; this is useful in constructing an implied volatility surface, or more simply plotting a volatility smile.
Simple examples
This section outlines moneyness measures from simple but less useful to more complex but more useful. Simpler measures of moneyness can be computed immediately from observable market data without any theoretical assumptions, while more complex measures use the implied volatility, and thus the Black–Scholes model.
The simplest (put) moneyness is fixed-strike moneyness, where M=K, and the simplest call moneyness is fixed-spot moneyness, where M=S. These are also known as absolute moneyness, and correspond to not changing coordinates, instead using the raw prices as measures of moneyness; the corresponding volatility surface, with coordinates K and T (tenor) is the absolute volatility surface. The simplest non-trivial moneyness is the ratio of these, either S/K or its reciprocal K/S, which is known as the (spot) simple moneyness, with analogous forward simple moneyness. Conventionally the fixed quantity is in the denominator, while the variable quantity is in the numerator, so S/K for a single option and varying spots, and K/S for different options at a given spot, such as when constructing a volatility surface. A volatility surface using coordinates a non-trivial moneyness M and time to expiry τ is called the relative volatility surface (with respect to the moneyness M).
While the spot is often used by traders, the forward is preferred in theory, as it has better properties, thus F/K will be used in the sequel. In practice, for low interest rates and short tenors, spot versus forward makes little difference.
In (call) simple moneyness, ATM corresponds to moneyness of 1, while ITM corresponds to greater than 1, and OTM corresponds to less than 1, with equivalent levels of ITM/OTM corresponding to reciprocals. This is linearized by taking the log, yielding the log simple moneyness In the log simple moneyness, ATM corresponds to 0, while ITM is positive and OTM is negative, and corresponding levels of ITM/OTM corresponding to switching sign. Note that once logs are taken, moneyness in terms of forward or spot differ by an additive factor (log of discount factor), as
The above measures are independent of time, but for a given simple moneyness, options near expiry and far from expiry behave differently, as options far from expiry have more time for the underlying to change. Accordingly, one may incorporate time to maturity τ into moneyness. Since dispersion of Brownian motion is proportional to the square root of time, one may divide the log simple moneyness by this factor, yielding: This effectively normalizes for time to expiry – with this measure of moneyness, volatility smiles are largely independent of time to expiry.
This measure does not account for the volatility σ of the underlying asset. Unlike previous inputs, volatility is not directly observable from market data, but must instead be computed in some model, primarily using ATM implied volatility in the Black–Scholes model. Dispersion is proportional to volatility, so standardizing by volatility yields:
This is known as the standardized moneyness (forward), and measures moneyness in standard deviation units.
In words, the standardized moneyness is the number of standard deviations the current forward price is above the strike price. Thus the moneyness is zero when the forward price of the underlying equals the strike price, when the option is at-the-money-forward. Standardized moneyness is measured in standard deviations from this point, with a positive value meaning an in-the-money call option and a negative value meaning an out-of-the-money call option (with signs reversed for a put option).
Black–Scholes formula auxiliary variables
The standardized moneyness is closely related to the auxiliary variables in the Black–Scholes formula, namely the terms d+ = d1 and d− = d2, which are defined as:
The standardized moneyness is the average of these:
and they are ordered as:
differing only by a step of in each case. This is often small, so the quantities are often confused or conflated, though they have distinct interpretations.
As these are all in units of standard deviations, it makes sense to convert these to percentages, by evaluating the standard normal cumulative distribution function N for these values. The interpretation of these quantities is somewhat subtle, and consists of changing to a risk-neutral measure with specific choice of numéraire. In brief, these are interpreted (for a call option) as:
N(d−) is the (Future Value) price of a binary call option, or the risk-neutral likelihood that the option will expire ITM, with numéraire cash (the risk-free asset);
N(m) is the percentage corresponding to standardized moneyness;
N(d+) is the Delta, or the risk-neutral likelihood that the option will expire ITM, with numéraire asset.
These have the same ordering, as N is monotonic (since it is a CDF):
Of these, N(d−) is the (risk-neutral) "likelihood of expiring in the money", and thus the theoretically correct percent moneyness, with d− the correct moneyness. The percent moneyness is the implied probability that the derivative will expire in the money, in the risk-neutral measure. Thus a moneyness of 0 yields a 50% probability of expiring ITM, while a moneyness of 1 yields an approximately 84% probability of expiring ITM.
This corresponds to the asset following geometric Brownian motion with drift r, the risk-free rate, and diffusion σ, the implied volatility. Drift is the mean, with the corresponding median (50th percentile) being r−σ2/2, which is the reason for the correction factor. Note that this is the implied probability, not the real-world probability.
The other quantities – (percent) standardized moneyness and Delta – are not identical to the actual percent moneyness, but in many practical cases these are quite close (unless volatility is high or time to expiry is long), and Delta is commonly used by traders as a measure of (percent) moneyness. Delta is more than moneyness, with the (percent) standardized moneyness in between. Thus a 25 Delta call option has less than 25% moneyness, usually slightly less, and a 50 Delta "ATM" call option has less than 50% moneyness; these discrepancies can be observed in prices of binary options and vertical spreads. Note that for puts, Delta is negative, and thus negative Delta is used – more uniformly, absolute value of Delta is used for call/put moneyness.
The meaning of the factor of (σ2/2)τ is relatively subtle. For d− and m this corresponds to the difference between the median and mean (respectively) of geometric Brownian motion (the log-normal distribution), and is the same correction factor in Itō's lemma for geometric Brownian motion. The interpretation of d+, as used in Delta, is subtler, and can be interpreted most elegantly as change of numéraire. In more elementary terms, the probability that the option expires in the money and the value of the underlying at exercise are not independent – the higher the price of the underlying, the more likely it is to expire in the money and the higher the value at exercise, hence why Delta is higher than moneyness.
References
Options (finance)
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253580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Chase%20Smith | Margaret Chase Smith | Margaret Madeline Chase Smith (December 14, 1897 – May 29, 1995) was an American politician. A member of the Republican Party, she served as a U.S. representative (1940–1949) and a U.S. senator (1949–1973) from Maine. She was the first woman to serve in both houses of the United States Congress, and the first woman to represent Maine in either. A moderate Republican, she was among the first to criticize the tactics of Joseph McCarthy in her 1950 speech, "Declaration of Conscience".
Smith was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 1964 election; she was the first woman to be placed in nomination for the presidency at a major party's convention. Upon leaving office, she was the longest-serving female senator in history, a distinction that was not surpassed until January 5, 2011, when Senator Barbara Mikulski from Maryland was sworn in for a fifth term. Smith was ranked as the longest-serving Republican woman in the Senate, a distinction that was not surpassed until January 3, 2021, when Susan Collins, who holds the same Senate seat she previously held, was sworn in for a fifth term.
Early life and education
Margaret Chase was born in Skowhegan in central Maine, to George Emery and Carrie Matilda (née Murray) Chase. She was the oldest of six children, two of whom did not survive to adulthood. Her father was of English ancestry, a descendant of immigrants to the original Thirteen Colonies in the 17th century; her great-great grandfather commanded an artillery company during the War of 1812, and her grandfather served in the Union Army during the Civil War. Her mother's family was French Canadian, having immigrated from Quebec in the middle of the 19th century; her grandfather Lambert Morin changed his name to John Murray to avoid anti-French Canadian and anti-Catholic prejudice. Her father was the town barber, and her mother worked as a waitress, store clerk, and shoe factory worker.
She received her early education at Lincoln and Garfield Elementary Schools. At age 12, she went to work at a local five-and-dime store and even bought herself a life insurance policy. She also shaved her father's customers when he was busy or away from the shop. She attended Skowhegan High School, graduating in 1916. During high school, she played on the girls' basketball team, of which she was captain in her senior year. She also worked as a substitute operator with a telephone company during this time. In that position she met Clyde Smith, a prominent local politician, who arranged a job for her as a part-time assistant to the tax assessor.
Early career
Following her high school graduation, Chase briefly taught at the Pitts School, a one-room school near Skowhegan. She also coached the girls' basketball team at Skowhegan High (1917–18). She was a business executive for the Maine Telephone and Telegraph Company (1918–1919) before joining the staff of the Independent Reporter, a Skowhegan weekly newspaper (owned by Clyde Smith) for whom she was circulation manager from 1919 to 1928. She became involved with local women's organizations. She co-founded the Skowhegan chapter of the Business and Professional Women's Club in 1922, and served as editor of the club's magazine, The Pine Cone. From 1926 to 1928, she was president of the statewide organization, the Maine Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs. She became treasurer of the New England Waste Process Company in 1928 and was also employed as an office worker with the Daniel E. Cummings Woolen Company, a local textile mill.
On May 14, 1930, Chase married Clyde Smith, who was 21 years her senior. She soon became active in politics and was elected to the Maine Republican State Committee, on which she served from 1930 to 1936. After Clyde was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Maine's 2nd congressional district in 1936, Smith accompanied her husband to Washington, D.C. to serve as his secretary. In this position, she managed his office, handled his correspondence, conducted research, and helped write his speeches. She also served as treasurer of the Congressional Club, a group composed of the wives of congressmen and Cabinet members.
U.S. House of Representatives
In the spring of 1940, Clyde Smith fell seriously ill after suffering a heart attack, and asked his wife to run for his House seat in the general election the following September. He prepared a press release in which he stated, "I know of no one else who has the full knowledge of my ideas and plans or is as well qualified as she is, to carry on these ideas and my unfinished work for my district." He died on April 8 of that year, and a special election was scheduled on the following June 3 to complete his unexpired term. Facing no Democratic challenger, Smith won the special election and became the first woman elected to Congress from Maine. Three months after the special election, she was elected to a full two-year term in the House in her own right. Smith defeated Edward J. Beauchamp, the Democratic mayor of Lewiston, by a margin of 65%–35%. She was re-elected to three more terms over the course of the next eight years, never receiving less than 60% of the vote.
During her tenure in the House, Smith developed a strong interest in issues concerning the military and national security. After being appointed to the House Naval Affairs Committee in 1943, she was assigned to the investigation of destroyer production, and made a 25,000-mile tour of bases in the South Pacific during the winter of 1944. She also became the first and only civilian woman to sail on a U.S. Navy ship during World War II. She became known as "Mother of the WAVES" after introducing legislation to create that organization. Although Congresswoman Smith was a strong supporter of women in the armed services, she did not write the legislation that created the special female military units during World War II. She did, however, champion the legislation that gave women permanent status in the military following the war.
A supporter of President Harry S. Truman's foreign policies, she was mentioned as a possible candidate for Under Secretary of the Navy in 1945 and for Assistant Secretary of State in 1947. Smith became a member of the House Armed Services Committee in 1946, also serving as chair of its Subcommittee on Hospitalization and Medicine. In this position, she sponsored and ensured the passage of the Women's Armed Services Integration Act, a bill to regularize the status of women in the armed forces that was signed into law by President Truman in June 1948.
Smith also earned a reputation as a moderate Republican who often broke ranks with her party. She supported much of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal legislation, as had her husband while he was in office. She voted in favor of the Selective Service Act in 1940 and voted against the Smith–Connally Act in 1943. In 1945, she voted against making the House Un-American Activities Committee a permanent body.
As a member of the House, Smith began wearing a single red rose that became a daily fixture of her attire throughout her career in public office. She waged a long campaign to have the rose declared the official flower of the United States, which Congress eventually approved in 1987.
U.S. Senate
1948 election
In August 1947, after three-term incumbent Wallace H. White Jr. decided to retire, Smith announced her candidacy for his seat in the U.S. Senate. In the Republican primary, she faced incumbent Governor Horace A. Hildreth, former Governor Sumner Sewall, and Reverend Albion Beverage. She ran a grassroots campaign with little money, using the slogan, "Don't change a record for a promise." When the wife of one of her opponents questioned whether a woman would be a good Senator, Smith replied, "Women administer the home. They set the rules, enforce them, mete out justice for violations. Thus, like Congress, they legislate; like the Executive, they administer; like the courts, they interpret the rules. It is an ideal experience for politics." On June 21, 1948, she won the primary election and received more votes than her three opponents combined. In the general election on September 13, she defeated Democrat Adrian H. Scolten by a margin of 71%–29%. She became the first woman to represent Maine in the Senate, and the first woman to serve in both houses of Congress.
Early tenure
Smith was sworn into the Senate on January 3, 1949. After a year in office, she gained national attention when she became the first member of Congress to condemn the anti-Communist witch hunt led by her fellow Republican Senator, Joseph McCarthy from Wisconsin. Smith was initially impressed by McCarthy's accusations of Communists working in the State Department, but became disillusioned after McCarthy failed to provide any evidence to validate his charges.
Declaration of Conscience
On June 1, 1950, Smith delivered a fifteen-minute speech on the Senate floor, known as the "Declaration of Conscience," in which she refused to name McCarthy directly but denounced "the reckless abandon in which unproved charges have been hurled from this side of the aisle." She said McCarthyism had "debased" the Senate to "the level of a forum of hate and character assassination." She defended every American's "right to criticize ... right to hold unpopular beliefs ... right to protest; the right of independent thought." While acknowledging her desire for Republicans' political success, she said, "I don't want to see the Republican Party ride to political victory on the four horsemen of calumny—fear, ignorance, bigotry, and smear." Six other moderate Republican Senators signed on to her Declaration: Wayne Morse from Oregon, George Aiken from Vermont, Edward Thye from Minnesota, Irving Ives from New York, Charles Tobey from New Hampshire, and Robert C. Hendrickson from New Jersey.
In response to her speech, McCarthy referred to Smith and the six other Senators as "Snow White and the Six Dwarfs." He removed her as a member of the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, giving her seat to Senator Richard Nixon from California. He also helped finance an unsuccessful primary challenger during Smith's re-election campaign in 1954. Smith later observed, "If I am to be remembered in history, it will not be because of legislative accomplishments, but for an act I took as a legislator in the U.S. Senate when on June 1, 1950, I spoke ... in condemnation of McCarthyism, when the junior Senator from Wisconsin had the Senate paralyzed with fear that he would purge any Senator who disagreed with him." She voted for McCarthy's censure in 1954.
On July 17, 1950, Smith was commissioned as a lieutenant colonel in the Air Force Reserve, and she served until 1958.
In the 1952 election, Smith was widely mentioned as a vice-presidential candidate under General Dwight D. Eisenhower. When asked by a reporter what she would do if she woke up one morning and found herself in the White House, she replied: "I'd go straight to Mrs. Truman and apologize. Then I'd go home." Exhibiting the same independent nature in the Senate as she had in the House, Smith opposed President Eisenhower's nomination of Lewis Strauss as Secretary of Commerce in 1959.
1960 re-election
In her successful re-election campaign in 1960, she ran against Democrat Lucia Cormier, the minority leader of the Maine House of Representatives; it was the first time in American history that two women ran against each other for a Senate seat.
1964 presidential election
On January 27, 1964, Smith announced her candidacy for President of the United States. She declared, "I have few illusions and no money, but I'm staying for the finish. When people keep telling you you can't do a thing, you kind of like to try." Gladys Shelley wrote her a presidential nomination campaign song, “Leave It to the Girls,” which was sung by Hildegarde. Smith lost every single primary election, but did manage to win 25% of the vote in Illinois. At the 1964 Republican National Convention in San Francisco, she became the first woman to have her name be placed in nomination for the presidency at a major political party's convention. She placed fifth in the initial balloting, and denied unanimous consent for Senator Barry Goldwater from Arizona after refusing to withdraw her name from the final ballot. She nevertheless campaigned for Goldwater in the general election, appearing in a television ad in which she defended his position on Social Security.
Later tenure
During the administration of President John F. Kennedy, Smith argued that the United States should use nuclear weapons against the Soviet Union. This led Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to call Smith "the devil in disguise of a woman" whose position exceeded "all records of savagery." Smith later replied, "Mr. Khrushchev isn't really mad at me. I am not that important. He is angry because American officials have grown more firm since my speech." The morning after Kennedy's assassination in November 1963, she went into the Senate chamber before it convened and laid a rose on the desk Kennedy had occupied as a Senator. A member of the Senate Armed Services Committee, she supported the Vietnam War but opposed the deployment of the Sentinel anti-ballistic missile.
Smith was the first (and as yet only) woman to serve as chair of the Senate Republican Conference, serving from 1967 to 1972. She voted against President Nixon's unsuccessful nominees to the Supreme Court, Clement Haynsworth in 1969 and G. Harrold Carswell in 1970. She was a strong supporter of the space program and served as a charter member of the Senate Aeronautical and Space Committee. NASA administrator James E. Webb once commented that the United States never would have placed a man on the Moon if it were not for Smith. She supported increased educational funding, civil rights, and Medicare. Smith voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, and 1968, as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the confirmation of Thurgood Marshall to the U.S. Supreme Court. She held an all-time voting record in the Senate until 1981 with 2,941 consecutive roll call votes.
1972 election
She was defeated for re-election in 1972 by Democrat Bill Hathaway, the only election she ever lost in the state of Maine. In her last election, Smith had been plagued by rumors of poor health (she had been using a motor scooter around the Senate). A Republican primary challenger taunted her for being out of touch; she did not have a state office operating in Maine. Smith lost the election by 27,230 votes, a margin of 53%–47%.
Awards and honors
She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1952. In 1973, Smith was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. In 1995 Smith was awarded the Naval Heritage Award by the US Navy Memorial Foundation for her support of the US Navy, US Naval Reserves WAVES, and the military during her congressional career.
Later life and death
Following her departure from the Senate in January 1973, Smith taught at several colleges and universities as a visiting professor for the Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation (1973–1976). She resumed her residence in Skowhegan, where she oversaw the construction of a library to hold her papers. She was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George H. W. Bush on July 6, 1989.
At age 97, Smith died in her native Skowhegan in 1995, after suffering a stroke eight days earlier that had left her in a coma. She was cremated, and her ashes were placed in the residential wing of the Margaret Chase Smith Library in Skowhegan. She was the last living U.S. Senator who had been born in the 19th century.
Legacy
She is the namesake for the Maine State Ferry Service's Islesboro Ferry.
On February 2, 1952, Smith was the guest on the CBS variety show Faye Emerson's Wonderful Town, in which hostess Faye Emerson visited
Washington, D.C., to accent the kinds of music popular in the nation's capital.
On June 14, 1953, she was the "mystery celebrity" guest on "What's My Line?".
In 1958, Folkways Records released the album An Interview with Margaret Chase Smith, in which she spoke of women in local and national politics, and addressed the youth of the nation.
In 1961, Smith published her favorite family recipe, Maine Clam Chowder, in support of the Gold Star Wives of America military family support organization.
Patricia Neal dramatized Senator Smith's Declaration of Conscience speech in the 1978 television movie Tail Gunner Joe.
In 1965, she was awarded the Honorary Doctor of Laws (L.L. D.) from Whittier College.
In 1970, the twin Margaret Chase Smith bridges opened in Smith's hometown of Skowhegan, Maine, connecting Skowhegan Island to either side of the Kennebec River.
In 1979, the Supersisters trading card set was produced and distributed; one of the cards featured Smith's name and picture.
Janis Benson portrayed Senator Smith in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon.
On June 13, 2007, the United States Postal Service issued a 58¢ postage stamp in its Distinguished Americans series to honor her.
In 2010, the United States political action committee Maggie's List was founded, named after Smith; it works to "raise awareness and funds to increase the number of conservative women elected to federal public office."
A large framed painting of Smith hangs in the Maine State House in Augusta, Maine.
See also
Chase family
Women in the United States House of Representatives
Women in the United States Senate
References
Further reading
Gallant, Gregory P. Hope and Fear in Margaret Chase Smith's America: A Continuous Tangle (Lexington, 2014)
Sherman, Janann. No place for a woman: A life of Senator Margaret Chase Smith (Rutgers University Press, 2000)
Sherman, Janann. "'They Either Need These Women or They Do Not': Margaret Chase Smith and the Fight for Regular Status for Women in the Military." Journal of Military History 54#1 (1990): 47–78. in JSTOR
External links
Brief biography at the US Senate
Margaret Chase Smith Library
"Declaration of Conscience" ~ Audio clip ~ (PDF)
An Interview with Margaret Chase Smith at Smithsonian Folkways
Sherman, Janann. No Place for a Woman: A Life of Senator Margaret Chase Smith (2000)
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1897 births
1995 deaths
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American women politicians
American people of English descent
American people of French-Canadian descent
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Female members of the United States House of Representatives
Female candidates for President of the United States
Female United States senators
Maine Republicans
Members of the Junior League
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Maine
Military personnel from Maine
People from Skowhegan, Maine
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Republican Party United States senators
United States Air Force reservists
United States Air Force officers
Candidates in the 1964 United States presidential election
United States senators from Maine
Women in Maine politics
Women in the United States Air Force
Daughters of the American Revolution people
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253584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USENIX | USENIX | USENIX is an American 501(c)(3) nonprofit membership organization based in Berkeley, California and founded in 1975 that supports advanced computing systems and operating system (OS) research. Its stated mission is to foster technical excellence and innovation, support and disseminate research with a practical bias, provide a neutral forum for discussion of technical issues, and encourage computing outreach into the community at large.
History
USENIX was established in 1975 under the name "Unix Users Group," focusing primarily on the study and development of the Unix OS family and similar systems. In June 1977, a lawyer from AT&T Corporation informed the group that they could not use the word "Unix" in their name as it was a trademark of Western Electric (the manufacturing arm of AT&T until 1995), which led to the change of name to USENIX. It has since grown into a respected organization among practitioners, developers, and researchers of computer operating systems more generally. Since its founding, it has published a technical journal entitled ;login:.
USENIX was started as a technical organization. As commercial interest grew, a number of separate groups started in parallel, most notably the Software Tools Users Group (STUG), a technical adjunct for Unix-like tools and interface on non-Unix operating systems, and /usr/group, a commercially oriented user group.
USENIX's founding President was Lou Katz.
Conferences
USENIX hosts numerous conferences and symposia each year, including:
USENIX Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDI) (was bi-annual till 2020)
USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security)
USENIX Conference on File and Storage Technologies (FAST)
USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI)
USENIX Annual Technical Conference (USENIX ATC)
SREcon, a conference for engineers focused on site reliability, systems engineering, and working with complex distributed systems at scale
LISA, the Large Installation System Administration Conference
Enigma, a conference focused on practical privacy and security expertise and knowledge sharing in a welcoming and inclusive environment
Publications
USENIX publishes a magazine called ;login: that appears four times a year. From 2021, it has become an all-digital magazine and openly accessible. ;login: content informs the community about practically relevant research, useful tools, and relevant events.
From 1988-1996, USENIX published the quarterly journal Computing Systems, about the theory and implementation of advanced computing systems in the UNIX tradition. It was published first by the University of California Press, then by the MIT Press. The issues have been scanned and are online.
Open access
USENIX became the first computing association to provide open access to their conference and workshop papers in 2008. Since 2011, they have provided audio and video recordings of paper presentations and conference talks in their open-access materials, free of charge.
USENIX Lifetime Achievement Award
This award, also called the "Flame" award, has been presented since 1993.
2020 Chet Ramey
2019 Margo Seltzer
2018 Eddie Kohler
2014 Thomas E. Anderson
2012 John Mashey
2011 Dan Geer
2010 Ward Cunningham
2009 Gerald J. Popek
2008 Andrew S. Tanenbaum
2007 Peter Honeyman
2006 Radia Perlman
2005 Michael Stonebraker
2004 M. Douglas McIlroy
2003 Rick Adams
2002 James Gosling
2001 The GNU Project and all its contributors
2000 W. Richard Stevens
1999 "The X Window System Community at Large"
1998 Tim Berners-Lee
1997 Brian W. Kernighan
1996 The Software Tools Users Group (Dennis E. Hall, Deborah Scherrer, Joe Sventek)
1995 The Creation of USENET by Jim Ellis, Steven M. Bellovin, and Tom Truscott
1994 Networking Technologies
1993 Berkeley UNIX
See also
AUUG
LISA (conference)
Marshall Kirk McKusick
LISA SIG: Formerly SAGE (organization)
Unix
References
External links
USENIX: The Advanced Computing Systems Association
Official USENIX YouTube Channel
Unix
System administration
Lifetime achievement awards | [
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253585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20M.%20Jackson | Henry M. Jackson | Henry Martin "Scoop" Jackson (May 31, 1912 – September 1, 1983) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a U.S. representative (1941–1953) and U.S. senator (1953–1983) from the state of Washington. A Cold War liberal and anti-Communist Democrat, Jackson supported higher military spending and a hard line against the Soviet Union, while also supporting social welfare programs, civil rights, and labor unions.
Born in Everett, Washington, to Norwegian immigrants, Jackson practiced law in Everett, after graduating from the University of Washington School of Law. He won election to Congress in 1940, and joined the Senate in 1953 after defeating incumbent Republican senator Harry P. Cain. Jackson supported the major civil rights of the 1960s, and authored the National Environmental Policy Act, which helped establish the principle of publicly analyzing environmental impacts. He co-sponsored the Jackson–Vanik amendment, which denied normal trade relations to countries with restrictive emigration policies.
Jackson served as Chairman of the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources from 1963 to 1981. He was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination, in 1972 and 1976. While still serving in the Senate, Jackson died in 1983.
His political beliefs were characterized by support of civil rights, human rights, and safeguarding the environment, but with an equally strong commitment to oppose totalitarianism in general, and communism in particular. The political philosophies and positions of Scoop Jackson have been cited as an influence on a number of key figures associated with neoconservatism, including Paul Wolfowitz and Richard Perle, both of whom previously served as aides to the Senator. The Seattle-based Henry M. Jackson Foundation was created in 1983 by his former colleagues and staff, as well as his widow and other family members, to further his work. In 1987, the Department of Defense gave to the Jackson Foundation a one-time, $10 million appropriation for its endowment, in honor of the Senator. To date, the Foundation has awarded over $26 million in grants to educational and non-profit institutions. Jackson also sponsored legislation to form the Foundation to Advance Military Medicine, which was later re-named in his honor at the time of his death, to the Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine.
Early life
Jackson was born in the home of his parents, Marine (Anderson) and Peter Jackson, in Everett, Washington, on May 31, 1912. His mother and father were both immigrants from Norway. Peter Jackson was born Peter Gresseth, and changed his name when he immigrated. He met Marine at the Lutheran church in Everett, where they were married in 1897. Henry was the fifth, and youngest, of the Jackson children; he was nicknamed "Scoop" by his sister in his childhood, after a comic strip character that he was said to have resembled.
He went on to graduate with a B.A. degree from Stanford University, and a J.D. degree from the University of Washington School of Law, where he joined the Delta Chi fraternity.
Early career
In 1935, the year of his law school graduation, he was admitted to the bar, and began to practice law in Everett. He found immediate success, and was elected to become the prosecuting attorney for Snohomish County from 1938 to 1940, where he made a name for himself prosecuting bootleggers and gamblers.
In 1961, Jackson, called by Time the Senate's "most eligible bachelor", married Helen Hardin, a 28-year-old Senate receptionist, but Jackson did not move out of his childhood home, where he lived with his unmarried sisters for several years. The Jacksons had two children: Anna Marie Laurence and Peter Jackson. Peter went on to serve as a speechwriter for Governor Christine Gregoire.
In Congress
Jackson successfully ran for Congress as a Democrat in 1940 and took his seat in the House of Representatives with the 77th Congress on January 3, 1941. From then on, Jackson did not lose any congressional elections.
Jackson joined the Army when the United States entered World War II but left when Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered all representatives to return home or resign their seats. He visited the Buchenwald concentration camp a few days after its liberation in 1945. He attended the International Maritime Conference in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1945 with the American delegation, and he was elected president of the same conference in 1946, when it was held in Seattle. From 1945 to 1947, Jackson was also the chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs.
In the 1952 election, Jackson relinquished his seat in the House for a run for one of Washington's Senate seats. Jackson soundly defeated Republican senator Harry P. Cain and remained a senator for over thirty years. He was Washington's first U.S. senator to be born in the state. Jackson died in office in 1983 after winning re-election for the fifth time in 1982.
Though Jackson opposed the excesses of Joe McCarthy, who had traveled to Washington state to campaign against him, he also criticized Dwight Eisenhower for not spending enough on national defense. Jackson called for more inter-continental ballistic missiles in the national arsenal, and his support for nuclear weapons resulted in a primary challenge from the left in 1958, when he handily defeated Seattle peace activist Alice Franklin Bryant before winning re-election with 67 percent of the vote, which he topped the next four times he ran for re-election.
During the 1960 Democratic presidential primary, Jackson was the first choice of fellow senator John F. Kennedy for a running mate, though JFK became convinced that a Southerner would better balance the ticket. Lyndon B. Johnson was later selected.
Jackson boasted one of the strongest records on civil rights during the civil rights movement. He supported the 1957 and the 1964 Civil Rights Acts.
On July 22, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Water Resources Planning Act into law, noting Jackson as one of the Congress members to "have made a very invaluable and very farsighted contribution to America's future."
In April 1968, responding to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., Jackson gave a speech about the legacy and injustice of inequality.
In 1963, Jackson was made chairman of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, which became the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources in 1977, a position he held until 1981. In the 1970s, Jackson joined with fellow senators Ernest Hollings and Edward Kennedy in a press conference to oppose President Gerald Ford's request for Congress to end Richard Nixon's price controls on domestic oil, which had provoked oil companies into withholding gasoline during the 1973 Oil Crisis.
Kaufman writes that after 1968, Jackson "emerged as an intellectual and political leader in the perennial struggle of U.S. foreign policy to reconcile ideals with self-interest."
Jackson authored the National Environmental Policy Act, which has been called one of the most influential environmental laws in history. It helped to stimulate similar laws and the principle of publicly analyzed environmental impact in other states and in much of the world. Jackson was also a leader of the fight for statehood for Alaska and Hawaii. In 1974, Jackson sponsored the Jackson-Vanik amendment in the Senate (with Charles Vanik sponsoring it in the House), which denied normal trade relations to certain countries with non-market economies that restricted the freedom of emigration. The amendment was intended to help refugees, particularly minorities, specifically Jews, to emigrate from the Soviet Bloc. Jackson and his assistant, Richard Perle, also lobbied personally for some people who were affected by this law such as Anatoly (now Natan) Sharansky.
In March 1975, Jackson released a statement in which he expressed the view that it was paramount the Franklin Peroff case be found out to be either "an aberration or was symptomatic of much greater problem" within the Drug Enforcement Administration.
In June 1975, Jackson stated that if accounts about the conduct of former director of the Drug Enforcement Agency John R. Bartels Jr. were correct then his actions amounted to obstruction of justice and that evidence disclosed "in the last two days would indicate that there was a conscious, premeditated plan involving misconduct at the highest levels of the D.E.A."
In July 1977, the Senate approved a funding for the experimental nuclear reactor compromise proposal by Jackson and Idaho senator Frank Church. While the initial version by President Carter sought a decrease in funding from 150 million to 33 million, the Jackson and Church measure halved the funding to 75 million.
In October 1979, the Senate voted in favor of President Carter's energy mobilization board plan, Jackson labeling the plan the "centerpiece" of Carter's program that was essential to guaranteeing the effectiveness of the rest of the legislation and was noted for successfully persuading colleagues to reject amendments to the plan. Later that month, after the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee voted in favor of the Alaska public lands legislation, President Jimmy Carter issued a statement thanking Jackson and other members for supporting the legislation.
Jackson also led the opposition within the Democratic Party against the SALT II treaty and was one of the leading proponents of increased foreign aid to Israel.
For decades, Democrats who support a strong international presence for the United States have been called "Scoop Jackson Democrats," and the term is still used to describe contemporary Democrats such as Joe Lieberman and R. James Woolsey, Jr.
Jackson served for all but the last three years of his Senate tenure with Democratic colleague and friend Warren G. Magnuson. As a result, he spent 28 years as the state's junior senator, even though he had more seniority than all but a few of his colleagues. "Scoop" and "Maggie," as they affectionately called each other, gave Washington clout in national politics well beyond its population. They were one of the most effective delegations in the history of the Senate in terms of "bringing home the bacon" for their home state. Washington received nearly a sixth of public works appropriations but ranked only 23rd in population.
Criticism
Jackson was known as a hawkish Democrat. He was often criticized for his support for the Vietnam War and his close ties to the defense industries of his state. His proposal of Fort Lawton as a site for an anti-ballistic missile system was strongly opposed by local residents, and Jackson was forced to modify his position on the location of the site several times, but continued to support ABM development. American Indian rights activists who protested Jackson's plan to give Fort Lawton to Seattle, instead of returning it to local tribes, staged a sit-in. In the eventual compromise, most of Fort Lawton became Discovery Park, with leased to United Indians of All Tribes, who opened the Daybreak Star Cultural Center there in 1977.
Opponents derided him as "the senator from Boeing" and a "whore for Boeing" because of his consistent support for additional military spending on weapons systems and accusations of wrongful contributions from the company; in 1965, 80% of Boeing's contracts were military. Jackson and Magnuson's campaigning for an expensive government supersonic transport plane project eventually failed. In addition, belying claims he was an environmentalist, Jackson was almost as much a "whore for logging companies" as for Boeing, as documented in the book "Olympic Battleground."
After his death, critics pointed to Jackson's support for Japanese American internment camps during World War II as a reason to protest the placement of his bust at the University of Washington.
Jackson was both an enthusiastic defender of the evacuation and a staunch proponent of the campaign to keep the Japanese-Americans from returning to the Pacific Coast after the war.
Presidential campaigns
Jackson not only was successful as a politician in Washington state, but also found recognition on the national level, rising to the position of chairman of the Democratic National Committee in 1960, after he was considered for the vice presidential ticket spot that eventually went to fellow senator Lyndon Johnson.
Jackson ran for president twice, and both campaigns were noted for the hostile reception they received from the left wing of the Democratic Party. Jackson's one-on-one campaigning skills, which were so successful in Washington state, did not translate as well to the national stage. Even his supporters admitted that he suffered from a certain lack of charisma.
1972 presidential campaign
Jackson was little known nationally when he first ran in 1972. George McGovern, who eventually won the nomination, even accused Jackson of racism for his opposition to busing despite Jackson's longstanding record on civil rights issues. Jackson's high point in the campaign was a distant third in the early Florida primary, but he failed to stand out of the pack of better-known rivals, and he made real news only later in the campaign, as part of the "Stop McGovern" coalition, which raised what would be known as the "Acid, Amnesty and Abortion" questions about McGovern. Jackson suspended active campaigning in May after a weak showing in the Ohio primary and finishing well behind McGovern, Ed Muskie, George Wallace, and Hubert Humphrey in early primaries.
Jackson re-emerged at the August Democratic convention after the runner-up, Humphrey, dropped out of the race. Jackson's name was placed in nomination by Georgia governor Jimmy Carter, and he finished second in the delegate roll call, well behind nominee McGovern.
1976 presidential campaign
Jackson raised his national profile by speaking out on Soviet-U.S. relations and Middle East policy regularly, and he was considered a front-runner for the nomination when he announced the start of his campaign in February 1975. Jackson received substantial financial support from Jewish-Americans who admired his pro-Israel views, but his support of the Vietnam War resulted in hostility from the left wing of the Democratic Party.
Jackson chose to run on social issues, emphasizing law and order and his opposition to busing. He was hoping for support from labor, but the possibility that Hubert Humphrey might enter the race caused unions to offer only lukewarm support.
Jackson made the fateful decision not to compete in the early Iowa caucus and New Hampshire primary, which Jimmy Carter won after liberals split their votes among four other candidates. Though Jackson won the Massachusetts and New York primaries, he dropped out on May 1 after losing the critical Pennsylvania primary to Carter by 12% and running out of money.
Death
On September 1, 1983, Jackson died suddenly in Everett of an aortic aneurysm at the age of 71, shortly after giving a news conference condemning the Soviet attack on Korean Air Lines Flight 007. News reports showed video footage in which he was seen reflexively massaging the left side of his chest while talking, and speculated that it was his reaction to an early symptom of the fatal attack.
Jackson's death was greatly mourned. New York Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan stated "Henry Jackson is proof of the old belief in the Judaic tradition that at any moment in history goodness in the world is preserved by the deeds of 36 just men who do not know that this is the role the Lord has given them. Henry Jackson was one of those men." Jackson is buried in Evergreen Cemetery in Everett.
Legacy
Jackson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1984. Ronald Reagan called him "one of the greatest lawmakers of our century," and stated:
In 1983, Jackson was awarded Delta Chi of the Year.
One of Jackson's last acts as Senator was to sponsor legislation creating what became the Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, which was named after him after his death.
Jackson's extended community of staff, colleagues and family members created the Henry M. Jackson Foundation from public monies and private donations to give grants to nonprofits and educational institutions. Its board members have included Richard Perle, Tom Foley, and Jeane Kirkpatrick.
On March 28, 1981, Jackson gave the principal address at the christening of the USS Bremerton (SSN 698). The Bremerton was the second ship to have the name, preceded by the USS Bremerton (CA 130). It was christened by Mrs. Henry M. Jackson on July 22, 1978. The USS Bremerton (SSN 698) was mentioned in the classic Tom Clancy novel, The Hunt for Red October.
The University of Washington has named the Jackson School of International Studies in his honor. However, students objecting to Jackson's hawkish views on the Cold War in the mid-1980s caused the university to move a bust of the senator to the end of an abandoned corridor until it was restored to a more prominent place outside the Jackson School in 2006.
The U.S. Navy ballistic missile submarine was also named after him, in recognition of his longtime support of the nation's military. It is the only Ohio-class submarine not named after a U.S. state.
In 1983, the Snohomish County Public Utility District began operation of the Henry M. Jackson Hydroelectric Project outside Sultan, Washington.
In 1994, the Everett School District completed construction of Henry M. Jackson High School in Mill Creek, Washington.
The Henry M. Jackson Wilderness Area was created in his honor by the 1984 Washington Wilderness Act.
The Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs, with the cooperation of the Jackson family, awards a Henry M. "Scoop" Jackson Distinguished Service Award to individuals for their career dedication to U.S. national security. Jackson won the first award in 1982, and it was named after him after his death. Winners include Max Cleland, Joe Lieberman, Dick Cheney, Jane Harman, and Paul Wolfowitz.
Influence on neoconservatism
Jackson believed that evil should be confronted with power. His support for civil rights and equality at home, married to his opposition to détente, his support for human rights and democratic allies, and his firm belief that the United States could be a force for good in the world inspired a legion of loyal aides who went on to propound Jackson's philosophy as part of neoconservatism. In addition to Richard Perle, neoconservatives Paul Wolfowitz, Bill Kristol, Charles Horner, and Douglas Feith were former Democratic aides to Jackson who, disillusioned with the Carter administration, supported Ronald Reagan and joined his administration in 1981, later becoming prominent foreign policy makers in the 21st-century Bush administration. Neoconservative Ben Wattenberg was a prominent political aide to Jackson's 1972 and 1976 presidential campaigns. Wolfowitz has called himself a "Scoop Jackson Republican" on multiple occasions. Many journalists and scholars across the political spectrum have noted links between Senator Jackson and modern neoconservatism.
Jackson's influence on foreign policy has been cited as foundational to the George W. Bush administration's foreign policy, and the Iraq War. Jackson biographer Robert Kaufman says "There is no question in my mind that the people who supported Iraq are supporting Henry Jackson's instincts."
Peter Beinart, author of The Good Fight: Why Liberals—and Only Liberals—Can Win the War on Terror and Make America Great Again, argues that the Democratic Party should return to Jackson's values in its foreign policy, criticizing current-day neoconservatives for failing to adopt Jackson's domestic policy views along with his foreign policy views.
The Henry Jackson Society
In 2005, the Henry Jackson Society was formed at the University of Cambridge, England. The non-partisan British group is dedicated to "pursuit of a robust foreign policy ... based on clear universal principles such as the global promotion of the rule of law, liberal democracy, civil rights, environmental responsibility and the market economy" as part of "Henry Jackson's legacy." The organisation is now based in London and hosts high-profile speaker events in the House of Commons.
Jackson Papers controversy
Senator Jackson's documents were donated to the University of Washington shortly after his death in 1983, and have been archived there ever since. When the materials were donated in 1983, university staff removed all information considered classified at the time. Additional materials were added to the collection until 1995.
At some point, library staff discovered a classified document in the collection and sent it to the government for declassification.
In response, in the summer of 2004, a man who identified himself as an employee of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) called the University of Washington asking to inspect Senator Jackson's archived documents housed there. He found a document labelled as classified and showed this to a librarian.
In February 2005, 22 years after Jackson's death, a five-person team including staff of the CIA, Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, and the Information Security Oversight Office came to library to review all of Jackson's papers to remove anything still considered classified, or reclassified since then. The Department of Energy found nothing of concern, but the CIA blanked lines in about 20 papers and pulled 8 documents out of collection. , some files in the collection are available only to those regarded by the library as "serious researchers", who must first sign a release not to divulge some of the information contained in the files.
Electoral history
See also
Henry M. Jackson High School
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1950–1999)
United States congressional delegations from Washington
References
External links
Henry M. Jackson Collection – University of Washington Digital Collection
1972 presidential campaign brochure, at 4president.org
Henry M Jackson Papers, at the University of Washington
Bust of Henry Jackson, at the U.S. Senate
Henry M Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine
Henry M Jackson Foundation
The Henry Jackson Society, at the University of Cambridge
Henry M. Jackson—A Life in Politics, biography
Henry M. Jackson, late a senator
Archives
Guide to the Henry M. Jackson Papers. 1912–1987. Approximately 1,240 Cubic Ft. At the University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
Richard J. Brooks Papers. 1956–2000. 7.62 cubic feet. 8 boxes, one vertical file, one oversize folder, one mapcase folder. At the University of Washington Libraries Special Collections. Contains correspondence from Senator Henry M. Jackson.
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1912 births
1983 deaths
20th-century American politicians
American people of Norwegian descent
American Presbyterians
Deaths from aortic aneurysm
Democratic National Committee chairs
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Democratic Party United States senators
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Washington (state)
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Sierra Club awardees
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Candidates in the 1972 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1976 United States presidential election
United States senators from Washington (state)
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Washington (state) Democrats | [
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253590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobos | Lobos | Lobos is the headquarters city of the Lobos Partido in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. It was founded on 2 June 1802 by José Salgado.
Background
Located 100 km from Buenos Aires, Lobos is currently a fertile agricultural area known mainly because of the dairy activity and dairy-related products. Lobos Administrative Area is bordered by Navarro to the northwest; General Las Heras to the north; Cañuelas to the northeast; San Miguel del Monte to the east; Roque Pérez to the south and 25 de Mayo to the west.
The administrative area is as web divided into seven quarters: Arévalo, Carboni, Elvira, Empalme Lobos, Las Chacras, Salvador María and Zapiola.
Lobos Administrative Area and its divisions
Besides the rural importance, Lobos is considered an important tourist center within the Province of Buenos Aires, Lobos Lagoon being the most important feature. The lagoon is located some 15 km. from the city (some 115 km. From Buenos Aires). Other areas of special interest are the local aerodrome, several ranches, a museum of sciences of the nature and history, and Perón’s museum.
As far as its history is concerned, Lobos is overly known for being the place of birth of three times President Juan Domingo Perón born on 8 October 1895, and it is also the place where the gaucho legend Juan Moreira was killed in 1874 after struggling with the law.
Perón’s original house was restored and turned into a museum where photographs and personal items can be viewed, amid other ancient artifacts of Lobos history.
History
The history of Lobos began in 1740 when a Jesuit mission led by Reverend Father Falkner, who surveyed the centre and South of the Province of Buenos Aires and thus picked up some geographic information of the area.
In 1772 thanks to Falkner's notes a map of the region was printed in London. The map contained the inscription Laguna de Lobos (Lagoon of Wolves, in Spanish) below the drawing of the lagoon.
It's said that the name Lobos stems from the amount of otters that at that time populated the lagoon and were known as "lobos de agua" ("water wolves") or "lobos de río" ("river wolves"), however, there are historians who believe Lobos had been given this name due to the wild dogs staying around and because they bore a resemblance to wolves.
By 1779 several guards settled down there and several forts, fortresses and military positions were built to form a defence wall against the natives. These positions were set up by order of viceroy Juan José de Vértiz y Salcedo and named them Chascomús, Ranchos, Monte, Lobos, Navarro, Areco and Rojas.
On 21 August 1779 Gunnery Sergeant Pedro Rodríguez concluded the construction of the main parts of the fort San Pedro de Los Lobos, over the eastern bank of the Lagoon about 300 meters from its shoreline and nearly 1,500 meters east of the mouth of Las Garzas stream, finishing the work Lieutenant Bernardo Serrano.
By the end of 18th century José Salgado and his wife Pascuala Rivas de Salgado were granted an area to colonize as a donation made by viceroy Vértiz, founding Pago de Los Lobos on 2 June 1802.
Back in that time, their Christian faith brought them to build a straw-and-mud oratory, under advocation of Nuestra Señora del Carmen, forming the Chapel in June 1803 being the first priest doctor José García Miranda. The chapel became the urban core of Lobos.
Surveyor Federico C. De Meyrelles conducted important mesures, and planning in 1868, from which the city was constituted. The regime of city management started when Fructuoso Velásquez was named by the Cabildo of Buenos Aires as Mayor of the Brethrem in 1805; after the regime was modified, the first city councillor was Silvestre Cabral in 1822. after the first corporative city hall was established, with limited authority the first councillor and president of the city hall was Juan Antonio Cascallares in 1856. Finally, the first mayor of the autonomous community was Manuel Antonio Caminos Arévalo in 1877.
After the school councils were set up in 1875. the first president of the división for Lobos was presbyterian Felipe Olivera, who became parish in 1876.
The first councillor with exclusive functions was Felipe Aráoz between 1877-1878.
References to education in Lobos date back to the establishment of an elementary school by 1832, however, it is possible that there had already been school teachers settled in Lobos since 1826.
Jesuit missions
In 1872 a Catholic Misión arrived to Lobos and left wooden cruxes each with a brick basis as clue of its presence, located at the northern part of the city near Salgado Channel’s bank and there is another crux at the southern part of the city.
Nuestra Señora Del Carmen Church
The current church was opened in 1906 by Monsignor Terreno, bishop of La Plata and it was completed in 1912.
In the church lies the rests of the founder José Salgado, Colonel Domingo S. Arévalo, soldier of the Independence and parishes Enrique Ferroni, José Albertini and Emilio Larumbe.
The church is 49 meters long and 19 meters wide with a capacity for 2,000 people. The tower lifts 37 meters. The main altar is made up of Carrara marble and it boasts a peculiar beauty.
Politics
Tourism
Lobos is mainly known by its lagoon, the aerodrome, a museum of sciences, Juan Perón's house, which has been turned into a museum, and several ranches.
Lobos Lagoon
The Lobos Lagoon (or Laguna de Lobos), at 15 km from Lobos and 115 km from the City of Buenos Aires is the main tourism lure of the area.
It has an area of 8 km² making it an excellent place for fishing activities. Due to its surrounding which is rich in vegetation it is possible to appreciate a wealth of birds. However, the fishing fauna allows amateur fishers to enjoy an unforgettable stay.
Since December 1988, the Sport Fishing Festival is held here annually at the Lobos Fishing Club, which was founded in 1945.. Various competences were declared by City Tourism Interest, the Province and the Nation. In this contest different activities are carried out, and on conclusion, the Queen of Fishing is selected. A music show is regularly held on a stage erected over the water.
The Lagoon sports its own boats and a 150-meter long wharf, restaurants, grills, public telephones, etc.
The "Loguercio Village" is located over the northwestern margin of the lagoon and is inhabited by 400 people, but nearly 2,000 people only come to enjoy the weekend.
Geography
Lobos has a surface of 1,725 km² and is bordered to the south by the Río Salado, which usually becomes the source of recurrent flooding. Lobos city is also limited by Salgado Channel, which comes from Río Salado. The southeastern area of the city is bordered by Muñiz Channel.
Salgado Channel splits the city from the countryside areas. Lobos also boasts 6 lagoons: Salada; Laguna Salada Chica; Laguna Culú Culú; Laguna de Colis; Laguna Seca, and the most important of all: Lobos Lagoon (Laguna de Lobos for Spanish).
In the 1980s geologist Víctor Mansione discovered a plaster deposit beneath the lagoon. The existence of this deposit prevents the lagoon to drain. Currently the lagoon has become an issue of political concern due to its polluted water that worsened during the past years on account of the lack of sound policies to prevent this situation.
External links
Lobos City Hall (In Spanish)
Museo Pago de los Lobos
INFOLOBOS (In Spanish), the first digital newspaper in Lobos giving information about tourism, culture, social news, police news, sports, etc.
Newspaper LA PALABRA
Newspaper LOBOSDIARIO
Newspaper LOBOSNEWS
Populated places in Buenos Aires Province
Populated places established in 1802
Cities in Argentina | [
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253592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Lobos | History of Lobos | This article is about the history of Lobos, a city in the .
In 1740 a Jesuit mission led by Reverend Father Kalkner surveyed the centre and south of the province of Buenos Aires and thus picked up some geographic information on the area. In 1772, thanks to Falkner's notes a map of the region was printed in London. The map contained the inscription Laguna de Lobos ("Lagoon of Wolves" in Spanish) below the drawing of the lagoon.
It is said that the name Lobos stems from the number of otters that at that time populated the lagoon and were known as lobos de agua ("water wolves") or lobos de río ("river wolves"); however, there are historians who believe Lobos had been given this name due to the wild dogs staying around and because they bore a resemblance to wolves.
By 1779 several guards settled down in the area and several forts, fortresses and military positions were built to form a defensive wall against the natives. These positions were set up by the order of Viceroy Juan José de Vértiz y Salcedo and were named Chascomús, Ranchos, Monte, Lobos, Navarro, Areco and Rojas.
On August 21, 1779 Gunnery Sergeant Pedro Rodríguez concluded the construction of the main parts of the fort San Pedro de Los Lobos, over the eastern bank of the Lagoon about 300 meters from its shoreline and nearly 1,500 meters east of the mouth of Las Garzas stream, finishing the work Lieutenant Bernardo Serrano had begun.
By late 1800 José Salgado and his wife Pascuala Rivas de Salgado were granted an area to colonize as a donation made by Viceroy Vértiz. They founded Pago de Los Lobos on June 2, 1802.
Their Christian faith inspired them to build a straw-and-mud oratory, with the prompting of Nuestra Señora del Carmen; the Chapel was finished in June 1803. José García Miranda was the first priest doctor. The chapel became the urban core of Lobos.
The current church was opened in 1906 by Monsignor Terreno, bishop of La Plata and was completed in 1912. In the church lies the remains of the founder José Salgado, Colonel Domingo S. Arévalo, soldier of the Independence and parish priests Enrique Ferroni, José Albertini and Emilio Larumbe.
The church measures 49 × 19 m and has a capacity of 2,000 people. The tower is 37 meters tall. The main altar is made up of Carrara marble.
External links
Lobos City Hall (in Spanish)
INFOLOBOS (in Spanish) - The first digital newspaper in Lobos, with information on tourism, culture, social news, police news, sports, etc.
Lobos
Lobos
es:Historia de Lobos | [
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253593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham%20International%20railway%20station | Birmingham International railway station | Birmingham International is a railway station located in Solihull in the West Midlands, to the east of the city of Birmingham, England.
The station is on the Rugby–Birmingham–Stafford Line 14 km (8½ miles) east of Birmingham New Street and serves Birmingham Airport, National Exhibition Centre (incorporating the Resorts World Arena) and Resorts World Birmingham.
History
The station was designed by the architect Ray Moorcroft and opened on 26 January 1976, and has regular train services to many parts of the country. It was named Birmingham International after the adjacent airport which was at the time named Birmingham International Airport, but has since been rebranded as Birmingham Airport. The large space under the overbridge to the left of the southbound platforms suggests space was allowed for future expansion of the station.
In 2016 it was proposed to rename it to Birmingham Airport & NEC, due to the airport's name change and the near presence of the National Exhibition Centre.
Services
The station is managed by Avanti West Coast and is also served by CrossCountry, Transport for Wales and West Midlands Trains. It has five platforms, consisting of two islands and one side platform numbered 1-5 from south to north.
The basic off-peak service is as follows:
Avanti West Coast
2 trains per hour to
2 trains per hour to , of which
1 train per hour continues to Blackpool North/ (alternating each hour) via and
2 trains per day continue to via and
During rush hour certain Avanti West Coast services to/from start and terminate here.
CrossCountry
1 train per hour to via
1 train per hour to via
Transport for Wales
1 train per hour to , of which:
1 train per two hours continues to and after dividing at
1 train per two hours continues to via and
West Midlands Trains
4 trains per hour to , of which:
2 trains call at only, under the London Northwestern Railway brand
1 train starts here and calls at , , and and continues to , under the West Midlands Railway brand
1 train starts here and calls at , and , under the West Midlands Railway brand
2 trains per hour to via calling at , , , and principle stations to , under the London Northwestern Railway brand
Connection to Birmingham Airport
A maglev service ran from the airport terminal to the station from 1984 until 1995. The train "flew" at an altitude of 15 mm over a track 620 m in length. It operated for nearly 11 years, but was scrapped because spare parts for the system were no longer available. It was temporarily replaced by a bus.
The chosen replacement system, the Doppelmayr Cable Car Cable Liner Shuttle, was announced in late 2000 and construction started in 2001. The Interchange was opened in March 2003. The system was originally known as SkyRail but in 2004 it was renamed AirRail Link.
The airport can also be reached via a dedicated fast bus service from Coleshill Parkway station, on the Birmingham to Peterborough Line.
Connection to the National Exhibition Centre
Under cover walkways, escalators and Travelators connect the NEC buildings to the station and to the Air-Rail Link, which in turn connects to Birmingham Airport.
Birmingham interchange
A new Birmingham Interchange railway station is to be built on the other side of the M42 motorway from the National Exhibition Centre, Birmingham Airport and this station. The new interchange would be connected by a "rapid transit people mover" to the other sites; the AirRail Link people mover already operates between Birmingham International station and the airport.
References
External links
Rail Around Birmingham and the West Midlands: Birmingham International station
Railway stations in Solihull
Airport railway stations in the United Kingdom
Railway stations opened by British Rail
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1976
Railway stations served by CrossCountry
Railway stations served by Transport for Wales Rail
Railway stations served by Avanti West Coast
Railway stations served by West Midlands Trains | [
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