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253603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine%20IX%20Monomachos | Constantine IX Monomachos | Constantine IX Monomachos (; c. 1004 – 11 January 1055), reigned as Byzantine emperor from June 1042 to January 1055. He had been chosen by Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita as a husband and co-emperor in 1042, although she had been exiled for conspiring against her previous husband, Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian. They ruled together until Zoë died in 1050, and then ruled with Theodora Porphyrogenita until 1055.
During Constantine's reign, he led the Byzantine Empire in wars against groups which included the Kievan Rus', the Pechenegs and in the East against the rising Seljuq Turks. Constantine met these incursions with varying success, nonetheless, the empires borders remained largely intact since the conquests of Basil II, and Constantine would ultimately expand them eastwards, annexing the wealthy Armenian kingdom of Ani. As such he may be considered the last effective ruler of Byzantium’s apogee.
In the year before his death, in 1054, the Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches took place, culminating in Pope Leo IX excommunicating the Patriarch Michael Keroularios. Constantine was aware of the political and religious consequences of such a disunion, but his attempts to prevent it had been futile.
Early life
Constantine Monomachos was the son of Theodosios Monomachos, an important bureaucrat under Basil II and Constantine VIII, of the famous and noble Monomachos family. His mother is unknown but may have been a certain Irene of the Armenian Taronites/ Tornikios family. Constantine was born around 1000-1004 in Antioch, and he likely spoke Syriac or Arabic as well as Greek and was described by contemporaries as “a marvel of a beauty”. At some point Constantine’s father, Theodosios had been suspected of conspiracy and his son's career suffered accordingly. His position improved after he married his second wife, a niece of Emperor Romanos III Argyros. Catching the eye of Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita, he was exiled to Mytilene on the island of Lesbos by her second husband, Emperor Michael IV.
The death of Michael IV and the overthrow of Michael V in 1042 led to Constantine being recalled from his place of exile and appointed as a judge in Greece. However, prior to commencing his appointment, Constantine was summoned to Constantinople, where the fragile working relationship between Michael V's successors, Empresses Zoë and Theodora, was breaking down. After two months of increasing acrimony between the two, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby hoping to prevent her sister from increasing her popularity and authority.
After her first preference displayed contempt for the empress and her second died under mysterious circumstances, Zoë remembered the handsome and urbane Constantine. The pair were married on 11 June, without the participation of Patriarch Alexius of Constantinople, who refused to officiate over a third marriage (for both spouses). Constantine was crowned on the following day.
Reign
Constantine continued the purge instituted by Zoë and Theodora, removing the relatives of Michael V from the court. The new emperor was pleasure-loving and prone to violent outbursts on suspicion of conspiracy. He was heavily influenced by his controversial wife or mistress, Maria Skleraina, a relative of his second wife, and Maria's family. Constantine had another mistress, an "Alan princess", Gurandukht, likely the daughter of George I.
In August 1042, the emperor relieved General George Maniakes from his command in Italy, and Maniakes rebelled, declaring himself emperor in September. He transferred his troops into the Balkans and was about to defeat Constantine's army in battle, when he was wounded and died on the field, ending the crisis in 1043.
Immediately after the victory, Constantine was attacked by a fleet from Kievan Rus'; it is "incontrovertible that a Rus' detachment took part in the Maniakes rebellion". They too were defeated, with the help of Greek fire. Constantine married his daughter, Anastasia to the future Prince Vsevolod I of Kiev, the son of his opponent Yaroslav I the Wise. Constantine's family name Monomachos ("one who fights alone") was inherited by Vsevolod and Anastasia's son, Vladimir II Monomakh.
Constantine IX's preferential treatment of Maria Skleraina in the early part of his reign led to rumors that she was planning to murder Zoë and Theodora. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople. The mob was only quieted by the appearance at a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the people that they were not in any danger of assassination.
In 1045 Constantine annexed the Armenian kingdom of Ani, but this expansion merely exposed the empire to new enemies. In 1046 the Byzantines came into contact for the first time with the Seljuk Turks. They met in battle in Armenia in 1048 and settled a truce the following year. Even if the Seljuk rulers were willing to abide by the treaty, their unruly Turcoman allies showed much less restraint. The Byzantine forces would suffer a cataclysmic defeat at the battle of Manzikert in 1071. Constantine began persecuting the Armenian Church, trying to force it into union with the Orthodox Church. In 1046, he refounded the University of Constantinople by creating the Departments of Law and Philosophy.
In 1047 Constantine was faced by the rebellion of his nephew Leo Tornikios, who gathered supporters in Adrianople and was proclaimed emperor by the army. Tornikios was forced to retreat, failed in another siege, and was captured during his flight. The revolt had weakened Byzantine defenses in the Balkans, and in 1048 the area was raided by the Pechenegs, who continued to plunder it for the next five years. The emperor's efforts to contain the enemy through diplomacy merely exacerbated the situation, as rival Pecheneg leaders clashed on Byzantine ground, and Pecheneg settlers were allowed to live in compact settlement in the Balkans, making it difficult to suppress their rebellion.
Constantine seems to have taken recourse to the pronoia system, a sort of Byzantine feudal contract in which tracts of land (or the tax revenue from it) were granted to particular individuals in exchange for contributing to and maintaining military forces. Constantine could be wasteful with the imperial treasury. On one occasion he is said to have sent an Arab leader 500,000 gold coins, over two tons of gold.
In 1054 the centuries-old differences between the Eastern and Western churches led to their final separation. Legates from Pope Leo IX excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Keroularios when Keroularios would not agree to adopt western church practices, and in return Keroularios excommunicated the legates. This sabotaged Constantine's attempts to ally with the Pope against the Normans, who had taken advantage of the disappearance of Maniakes to take over Southern Italy.
Constantine tried to intervene, but he fell ill and died on 11 January of the following year. He was persuaded by his councillors, chiefly the logothetes tou dromou John, to ignore the rights of the elderly Theodora, daughter of Constantine VIII, and to pass the throne to the doux of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon. However, Theodora was recalled from her retirement and named empress.
Architecture and art
The literary circle at the court of Constantine IX included the philosopher and historian Michael Psellos, whose Chronographia records the history of Constantine's reign. Psellos left a physical description of Constantine in his Chronographia: he was "ruddy as the sun, but all his breast, and down to his feet... [were] colored the purest white all over, with exquisite accuracy. When he was in his prime, before his limbs lost their virility, anyone who cared to look at him closely would surely have likened his head to the sun in its glory, so radiant was it, and his hair to the rays of the sun, while in the rest of his body he would have seen the purest and most translucent crystal."
Immediately upon ascending to the throne in 1042, Constantine IX set about restoring the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which had been substantially destroyed in 1009 by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Permitted by a treaty between al-Hakim's son al-Zahir and Byzantine Emperor Romanos III, it was Constantine IX who finally funded the reconstruction of the Church and other Christian establishments in the Holy Land.
See also
List of Byzantine emperors
References
Sources
Primary sources
Michael Psellus, Fourteen Byzantine Rulers, trans. E.R.A. Sewter (Penguin, 1966).
Secondary sources
Angold, Michael. The Byzantine empire 1025–1204 (Longman, 2nd edition, 1997).
Harris, Jonathan. Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon/Continuum, 2007).
Finlay, George. History of the Byzantine Empire from 716 – 1057, William Blackwood & Sons, 1853.
Garland, Lynda. Conformity and Non-conformity in Byzantium, Verlag Adolf M. Hakkert, 1997.
Macedonian dynasty
11th-century Byzantine emperors
1000s births
1055 deaths
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Monomachos family
1040s in the Byzantine Empire
1050s in the Byzantine Empire | [
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253604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalmers%20Automobile | Chalmers Automobile | Chalmers Motor Company was an American car company headquartered in Detroit, Michigan. The company started in 1908 and continued producing high-end vehicles until 1923, when it merged with Chrysler.
History
Origin
Hugh Chalmers started working at National Cash Register Company in Dayton, Ohio at age 14 and eventually became vice president. In 1907, car-maker Roy Chapin at Thomas-Detroit began to make offers to Hugh Chalmers to take over the company. Roy Chapin was concerned about the Thomas-Detroit's reliance on the company's sales network. Chapin persuaded Chalmers to become president of Thomas-Detroit and build a solid independent sales force. Hugh Chalmers purchased ER Thomas's interests in the Thomas-Detroit company.
Fields moved to Detroit and began to set up dealerships across the U.S. In 1907 or 1909, Chalmers built a factory on Jefferson Avenue in Detroit which would survive until 1991 under Chrysler while the headquarters was in Highland Park, Michigan.
The stockholders voted to rename Chalmers-Detroit Motor Company on June 15, 1908, and Chalmers Motor Company on January 26, 1910.
The first car that came out was the Chalmers 30 in 1908. Sales of 3,047 automobiles resulted in revenues of $4,754,929 and profits of $1,015,823 for the year ending June 30, 1909, although the paid-in capital stock was just $300,000.
Hudson Motor Car Company
Roscoe Jackson and Howard Dunham, two of Howard Coffin's employees at Oldsmobile, built a new lightweight car, the Model 20, intended to sell for under $1,000. Still, Chapin and Coffin could not persuade Hugh Chalmers to join the project.
On October 28, 1908, Chapin, Coffin, and others formed the Hudson Motor Car Company to pursue their desires to build a smaller car. Roscoe Jackson, who was married to the niece of Detroit department store mogul Joseph L. Hudson and invested $90,000 in the endeavor and gave the company his name, was a crucial role.
The largest investor was a department store owner, Joseph Hudson. Hugh Chalmers was also a prominent investor in Hudson.
In 1909–10, Hugh Chalmers and his partners sold their shares in Hudson to Chapin, and Chapin sold his stake in Chalmers Motors to Hugh Chalmers. Hudson built a factory across the street from the Chalmers plant to be close to suppliers and the railroad.
In December 1909, the Chalmers and Hudson companies parted ways. Chapin's concerns about the Chalmers firm's future were well-founded; over the next decade, the Hudson company prospered while the Chalmers company faltered.
Peak sales
Chalmers's best year was 1911 when it became the number eight auto producer in the U.S. In 1916, Chalmers set up a Canadian factory in Walkerville (Windsor), Ontario.
Chalmers Motors' early success was due primarily to the engineers, Roy Chapin as Treasurer & general manager, and Howard Coffin as Chief Engineer.
Chapin and Coffin left Chalmers-Detroit to start the Hudson Motor Car Company in 1909. Hugh Chalmers then went on to build larger, more luxurious cars.
At first, engines were manufactured by three outside suppliers, but Chalmers brought later engine manufacturing in-house. An advantage of the new Chalmers plant was its self-sufficiency.
The plant had a foundry to make engines, transmissions, axles, nuts, and bolts
Chalmers wanted to make as many parts in-house and only bought specialized parts like sparkplugs & tires from outside suppliers.
The high point in sales was in 1911 when Chalmers sold 6,250 cars. Chalmers shareholders also did well. Preferred stock dividends paid out 7% per year and the common stock paid 2.5% annually.
Beginning in 1912, sales of Chalmers fell. Hugh Chalmers created Saxon Motors in 1913. From 1908 until 1913, the Chalmers Model 30's design remained unchanged, even as its price climbed past $2,000 per unit. Despite this, Chalmers was the ninth-largest vehicle manufacturer in the United States in 1910, with 6,350 cars sold.
By 1915 the auto-business was changing and became more competitive. The Chalmers survival was always at risk with over 250 automakers in the U.S.
Before World War I, the automobile economy was booming, but sales of Chalmers' cars were declining.
In 1915, the Chalmers Motor Company produced 9,833 automobiles before being renamed the Chalmers Motor Car Corporation. Hugh Chalmers was a superb salesman, but once Roy Chapin and his partners defected to Hudson, he could not attract and retain skilled, active engineers and manufacturing employees.
In November 1915, Chalmers presented his 1916 models to his dealers and sold 13,000 automobiles worth $22 million in less than an hour.
By the end of 1915, the company had over $8 million in real estate and machinery and employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people. According to one publication, Chalmers earned more than $1 million in 1915.
Because it was a low-volume, high-cost manufacturer, the Chalmers Motor Company struggled to stay afloat. In 1910–14, the company produced about 6,200 vehicles per year, then boosted production to 9,833 units in 1915 and 21,408 cars in 1916.
Hugh Chalmers proposed in May 1916 that the corporation boost production to 60,000 automobiles per year while lowering prices or raising prices while lowering output. The actual results attained in 1916 demonstrate the company's issues. In the first half of the year, the Chalmers factory increased production, and the sales department supplied automobiles to dealers regardless of demand. As a result, a year's worth of cars was on hand at Chalmers distributors in Dallas and Omaha. Nevertheless, Hugh Chalmers was obliged to reduce production from 15,659 automobiles in the first half of 1916 to only 5,749 in the second. As a result, Chalmers remained a struggling automotive manufacturer with extra plant capacity from 1910 to 1917.
The company's finances improved in mid-1916 with better engine performance and improved body design, and the company moved from 14th to 12th place, but by late 1916 the company was close to bankruptcy.
Maxwell Motors
Benjamin & Frank Briscoe and Jonathan Maxwell started Maxwell Motor Company in 1904.
Beginning September 1, 1917, the Maxwell Motor Company bailed Chalmers by leasing its plants for five years. Maxwell received $3 million in operating capital from the Chalmers Motor Company, issuing $3.15 million in mortgage bonds.
Maxwell decided to keep the Chalmers car in production to preserve its good name and reputation. Maxwell also committed to pay the interest on the mortgage bonds and to contribute half of the net profits made on all autos produced in the Chalmers factories to the Chalmers firm. Hugh Chalmers moved up and out to become chairman of the board, and Walter E. Flanders, already president of the Maxwell Motor Company, became president of Chalmers. From 1917 until 1922, the Maxwell and Chalmers corporations shared the same managers, but the companies did not fully merge until 1922. Maxwell built the Chalmers line of automobiles until 1923.
Hugh Chalmer left for Washington, D.C. to work with the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce (NACC) as one of the "dollar a-year-men."
During 1917, following the April United States Declaration of War against Germany, Maxwell Motor Co took over Chalmers' operations to make cars and trucks for the U.S. Government. Chalmers merged with the Maxwell automobile Company in 1922. With a 115 in (2921 mm) wheelbase on 34 in (86 cm) wheels,
When the U.S. entered World War, demand weakened for the Chalmers while the Maxwell cars were outselling them. In 1917, Chalmers agreed to make Maxwell cars in the Chalmers' Jefferson Avenue plant while Maxwell would sell Chalmers cars through their dealer network. This worked well for a while.
Demise
Between 1919 and 1923, Chalmers merged with the Maxwell Motor Company. In late November 1921, Chalmers reduced prices for all models, and production was down to about 20 cars a day while Maxwell was selling more than 100 vehicles a day. Walter P. Chrysler reorganized the company and finally merged them into Chrysler in 1923.
When Hugh Chalmers returned to Detroit in 1919, both companies now had financial problems, and in mid-1920, the bank creditors formed a reorganization committee.
Chase National Bank at that time had recruited the help of Walter P. Chrysler to rescue Willys Overland Company and Chalmers.
Chalmers and Maxwell sued each other for millions of dollars. The Chalmers-Maxwell reorganization committee found that the lease agreement was too loose and poorly constructed.
Chrysler's financial and management overhaul of Maxwell in 1920–22 was hindered by delays in Maxwell's takeover of Chalmers, which began in 1917. The convoluted strands of the Maxwell-Chalmers relationship are difficult to summarize. The original lease became increasingly unfavorable for Maxwell's shareholders as Chalmers' fortunes dropped after 1917 and Maxwell's performance improved. Maxwell was losing money on the Chalmers brand while splitting revenues from the more profitable Maxwell automobile with Chalmers investors. Both company' investors agreed to alter the original lease and merge the two companies. Still, the merger was delayed due to opposition by some Chalmers stockholders and threats of lawsuits.
Maxwell and Chalmers were hurt by a lack of material and rising costs after the war.
Walter Chrysler had the difficult task of reviving both Maxwell and Chalmers. In 1920, Chalmers' sales (almost 10,000 automobiles) were about a third of Maxwell's (34,000 cars), but by 1921, when Maxwell's sales had dropped to 16,000, Chalmers had only sold about 3,000 vehicles. As a result, Chalmers produced only 3,978 automobiles in 1922, a dismal performance compared to Maxwell's robust sales of 48,883 cars.
In 1921, Maxwell stopped producing cars in the Chalmers plant.
For the calendar year 1922, Maxwell had a profit of $2,018,266; however, Chalmers' losses for the year ($1,325,524) decreased Maxwell's net profit to barely $700,000. A U.S. District Court judgment issued November 3, 1922, settled a lawsuit launched by the Fisk Rubber Company against Chalmers, ending the long-running feud between the Chalmers and Maxwell investors.
The court declared the Chalmers company bankrupt and ordered its assets to be auctioned off. On December 7, 1922, the Maxwell Motor Corporation purchased the Chalmers property for $1,987,600, completing a takeover that began in 1917. In 1923, while preparing to debut the first Chrysler models, the Maxwell Motor Corporation constructed its final Chalmers automobiles.
The last Chalmers branded Chalmers-built car was probably produced in January 1924.
The old Chalmers plant started to produce Chryslers in 1924, but Chrysler had Maxwell cars until 1925.
The company sold Thirty-two thousand Chryslers in 1924, a record for a first year.
Models
"Forty"
The 1908 Model C "Forty" was similar to the Thomas-Detroit C "Forty" from the previous year, which was very similar to the vehicle designed by Howard Coffin, the 1906 Olds Model "A."
The engines were manufactured by other companies such as Westinghouse Machine Company, American, British Manufacturing Company, and Continental. In 1911 Chalmers started building most of its engines. The "Forty" engine's small radiator led to overheating.
The 40 Touring or Roadster sold for US$2750 while the 40 Torpedo sold for US$3000. This was less than American's lowest-price Model, which sold for US$4250.
"30" and "36"
The "30" remained more or less the same, but the "36" (introduced in 1912) had a longer stroke and higher horsepower four-cylinder engine.
Nickel plate replaced the brass in cars as it was easier to maintain, and Gray & Davis electric headlights replaced the gas headlights.
Chalmers produced only one truck type in its history and called it the Model 14 Delivery.
The Model "36" has a 4-speed transmission. The foot brake is combined with the clutch pedal, so it releases the clutch when pushed halfway.
The 30 Touring and the 30 Roadster sold for US$1500, when the Oldsmobile Runabout was priced at US$650, the Cole 30 sold for US$1500, and the Oakland 40 went for US$1600. The 30 Coupe at US$2400 was nearer the Enger 40 car at US$2400,
"Six", "Light-6" and "Master Six"
The first 6-cylinder was introduced in 1912 and called the Model 12 "Six." The company added a "Master Six" in September 1913 and "Light Six" at a New York show in January 1914. George Dunham developed the six cylinders. The "Light Six" and "Master Six" have a redesigned engine, clutch, and dashboard.
The "Six" Model Series Models 12 and 18 had overhead intake valves and a Rayfield carburetor. As a high-end car, the Six came with an engine-driven tire pump and a compressed air starting system.
Master Six Model 24
Important improvements made their appearance in the Model 24. The Model 24, 7 passenger car, weighed 5475 pounds.
Engine
Model 24 was the first Chalmer's engine to use a long-stroke T-head, and the company claimed that it could not be stalled as it used a chain that ran with the engine that would restart the machine when it was about to stall. The exhausts were on the right, the intakes on the left, and the enclosed valve functioning elements contributed to the motor's silent operation.
The motor was brand new, and it came with T-head cylinders, an electric starter, a new forced-feed oiling system, and enclosed valve parts. The engine and the gearset were still one unit. One set of disks in the multiple-disk clutch featured cork inserts. The torsion rods were redesigned, and the rear springs were lowered. For the first time in a Chalmers model, the steering wheel was shifted to the left side, with the levers in the center. Also for the first time, the gasoline tank was carried in the back and fed by a pressure feed. The spare rims or wheels are kept in the back of the vehicle.
It had a slightly smaller motor, a 2 inch larger wheelbase, and was $225 less in roadster and four and five-passenger models; $325 less in six-passenger models; $100 less as a limousine; and $50 more as a coupe when compared to the 1913 six. In addition, on the 1913 model, the new Chalmers-Entz combined electric starting and lighting system replaced the air starting method, and a single bosch ignition replaced the prior dual types ignition.
The cylinders in groups of three were castings with water-jacket spaces around the cylinders and around the valve seats and partly surrounding the valve stem guides. The jacket heads were built into the water heater or return pipe to the radiator as one piece and in the head of the combustion chamber was a 2 3/8-inch threaded plug which when removed gave access to the entire combustion chamber for carbon removal without removing the cylinder castings. The water entered each cylinder group's rear face, which was the hottest section. The cylinder had a bore of 4 inches and stroke of 5. 5 inches which gave an S.A.E. rating of 38.4 horsepower, a piston displacement of 414.7 cubic inches, and a stroke-bore ratio of 1.333 to 1.
The 24 was part of a trend toward long-stroke engines with smaller piston displacements, which provided more economy and more horsepower per unit of piston displacement. In addition, the connecting rods, which were produced of nickel steel instead of open hearth in 1913, were 40 percent lighter and had a narrower section.
Even though the pistons were longer than the previous year's model, which was necessary by the longer strokes employed, they were lighter. In addition, they were higher-quality castings with four-section rings. Each slot had a complete outside ring, but inside it was a sequence of arc-shaped segments creating an inner ring. Each segment was forced externally by a small leaf spring, which was employed to keep the outer ring from pressing against the cylinder wall unevenly. The constant pressure obtained by this construction of piston ring results in good compression being maintained for a longer period than was possible with the older type. The 40 percent carbon crankshaft had curved cheeks that helped to move the weight into the middle of the shaft axis and provide optimum rotational balance. Three bronze plain bearings supported the shaft with a babbitt alloy liner.
Intake and exhaust valves were made of tungsten steel, which was also used in racing automobiles, helped prevent pitting. Both valve sets have a 7/16-inch lift and 85-pound pressure springs and are 2 1/8 inches in diameter. A new oiling system used a gear pump in the crankcase sump that fed oil to a large-diameter pipe that went from end to end and within the crankcase. Three branches led to the crankshaft bearings from this conduit.
Instead of flowing into the sump, the overflow oil from these bearings was sent out the opposite end of the bearing, where it entered through a short pipe and dropped into little trays integral with the sides of the crankcase base, where it flowed into the oil troughs beneath the connecting rods. The scoops on the connecting rods dipped into these troughs. The final overflow from the troughs was recirculated in the sump. On the left side of the crankcase, in the web between the front and rear legs, an upgraded form of accessible oil strainer was installed. Timing gears were oiled directly from the front bearing's overflow via a short pipe that poured the oil onto the crankshaft's pinion.
Clutch Oiled from Motor
The multiple-disk clutch was improved by inserting cork inserts in one set of disks and operating the entire clutch in oil. A torque rod upgrade supported the clutch at the forward end by a curved leaf vanadium steel spring, saving 25 pounds in weight over the previous model.
Chassis
The model 24 chassis came with a single wheelbase length and seven interchangeable body designs, all of which were held in place by eight small stamped brackets on the outside of the frame side members, four on each side. This mounting was created to decrease body squeaks and to make demounting easier.
The steering components on the front axle had a twofold tilt. The knuckle pins pointed slightly outward and there was a backward inclination of 1. 5 to 2 degrees. The frame was 1/16 inch thicker and heavier than before. The side members were lowered in front of the back axle but not inswept at the dash. The front springs were 39 inches long with 2-inch leaves. The three-quarter rears were put beneath the axle not because it provided lower body suspension, but because it provided approximately double the spring movement radius. The top leaf was 52 inches long with 2 /14-inch leaves and was made of vanadium steel.
Chalmers-Entz Starting System
The Chalmers-Entz combination electric motor and generator was introduced in the Model 24 to crank the gasoline engine while also charging the storage battery. Instead of being mounted alongside the motor, the motor-generator was housed under the right front seat and was powered by a short propeller shaft that extended forward to the near rim of the flywheel and carried a small sprocket that was driven by a silent chain from a large sprocket on the flywheel. The generator was made in the Chalmers factory and was an 18-volt system. The complete unit was about 230 pounds in weight, 100 pounds for the motor-generator, 1OO pounds for the battery, and 30 for the driving parts and attaching brackets.
Body
As it converged into the cowl, the hood was expanded and heightened. The hood transition into the body was made easier by turning off the dash lights and replacing them with a combination headlight that featured two bulbs, one for headlights and the other for dash lights, located above the lens exits.
Price and options
The roadster, four and five-passenger bodies were priced at $2,175, the six-passenger at $2,275, the coupe at $2,850, and the limousine at $3,680. In addition, $8o was fitted with McCue wire wheels. A $75 package that featured a Kellog tire pump, an extra rim casing, tube, and tire cover was also available. Mohair top, rain vision windshield, demountable rims, speedometer, rear tire carrier with spare rim, electric horn, electric starter, and electric lighting were all on the normal list. Brewster green, grey, and meteor blue were the standard colors for open cars. Closed automobiles were only available in the color valentine coach blue.
Model 26
The Model 26-A came with a smaller engine and better performance being a lighter car.
Model 32 "Six-40"
The Model 32-A "Six-40" was the company’s first overhead camshaft engine. The engine looks like the Weidely Motor Company overhead camshaft design and might not have been designed by Chalmers.
"Six-30"/ "Y"
The "Six-30" consisted of Models 35-A ("5-15" for 5 passenger and 115-inch wheelbase), 35-B (or "7-22" for 7-passenger body and 122-inch wheelbase), 35-C, and 35-D.
The car's balanced crankshaft and a new Morse silent timing chain gave it a reputation for a quiet and smooth ride. Later designs introduced a lower silhouette, one-piece windshield, and even disc wheels.
To overcome the poor fuel available at the time, the "Hot Spot" and "Ram's Horn" were introduced in 1918 to improve engine performance. The "Six-30" came in a wide variety of body styles and wheelbases to seat between 2 and 7 passengers.
"Hot Spot" and "Ram's Horn" innovation
Chalmers introduced two mechanical devices in 1917 to overcome lower gasoline volatility. The "Hot Spot" and "Ram's Horn" warmed up the air-fuel mixture.
Four wheel brakes
In late 1923 customers could purchase the Model Y with an optional hydraulic four-wheel brake system for $75 based on hydraulics that had been initially developed for Lockheed.
Racing
Chalmers marketed the company's visibility by hiring professional drivers and entering races. In the first two years, they won 89 first place wins, 32-second-place trophies, 21 third-place victories in road races, and hill-climbing events, and reliability contests. The best known as the Vanderbilt Cup in 1909 and the Glidden Trophy in 1910.
The Chalmers "30" won more motoring contests in proportion to the number entered than any other car regardless of price. It was never defeated in any race by any car in the same power and price class.
The Chalmers won 89 firsts, 32 seconds, and 21 thirds in two years of races.
A Chalmers won the 1909 and 1910 Glidden Tour. Other wins included the Vanderbilt Cup Races (1909), Crown Point Races, Candler Trophy Races, and Pikes Peak hill climb.
Chalmers racing records
1909 Indiana Trophy Race
Chalmers "30" was first, winning the Indiana Trophy
on the Crown Point-Lowell circuit-232.74 miles at an average time of 51.5 miles per hour.
Santa Monica, California
Chalmers "30" won first in 200-mile race, averaging 55.5 miles per hour.
National Light Stock Car Event
Chalmers "30" won first place and the Merrimac Valley trophy in Lowell, Massachusetts-127.2 miles at an average time of 52 miles per hour.
Atlanta Georgia Speedway
In November 1909, two Chalmers "30s" won every event in their class. Both cars averaged a mile for every minute they were on track during the week of racing. They won first and second place and the Candler trophy in a 100-mile race. For the week. the Chalmers' tally was five firsts, 11 seconds, and eight-thirds-the best average showing made.
1909 Vanderbilt Race
Chalmers "30" won first in the race for Massapequa trophy-126 miles in 129 minutes without a single stop. This is the world's speed record for cars of this type and has not been beaten since.
Denver-Mexico City
In May 1909, a Chalmers "30" made the trip a pathfinder for the "Flag to Flag" tour. This was the first car to make the trip on its power from the Rio Grande to Mexico City, running 2400 miles in 24 running days.
At the Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, a Chalmers "Forty" defeated one 90 horsepower, four 70 horsepower, and seven 60 horsepower cars. It was bested by only one car, a 90 horsepower of more than twice the price, and only four minutes. The "Forty" was awarded the Consistency Prize because it did not stop a single time during the 200-mile race.
A Chalmers won the Portland Rose Festival Race Wemme trophy and first place by a Chalmers "Forty" running 103 miles in 104 minutes.
A Chalmers won the Minneapolis Tribune Trophy in 1908, 1909 and 1910.
Chalmers produced six 1917 cars for racing. The engine had 55 horsepower, revved to 2600 rpm.
Chalmers Award (1911–1914)
Before the 1910 season, Hugh Chalmers announced he would present a Chalmers Model 30 automobile to the player with the highest batting average in Major League Baseball at the end of the season.
The 1910 race for best average in the American League was between the Detroit Tigers' Ty Cobb and Nap Lajoie of the Cleveland Indians. Cobb had a .004 lead on Nap Lajoie for the American League batting title. Cobb won the title and the car. American League President Ban Johnson said a recalculation showed that Cobb had won the race but Chalmers ended up awarding cars to both players.
In 1911, Chalmers created the Chalmers Award. A committee of baseball writers was to convene after the season to determine the "most important and useful player to the club and the league." Since the award was not as effective at advertising as Chalmers had hoped, it was discontinued after 1914.
External sources
1915 Chalmers Model 32B video
1914 Chalmers video
1910 Chalmers in Fairbank museum video
References
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Cars introduced in 1908
Chrysler
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1908
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1923
1908 establishments in Michigan
1923 disestablishments in Michigan
History of Detroit
1900s cars
1910s cars
1920s cars
Brass Era vehicles
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Detroit | [
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253605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage%20College | Carthage College | Carthage College is a private college affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and located in Kenosha, Wisconsin. It enrolls 2,600 full-time and 200 part-time students.
Carthage awards bachelor's degrees with majors in more than 40 subject areas and master's degrees in three areas. Carthage has 150 faculty. It is an affiliate of the Wisconsin Space Grant Consortium.
History
Carthage College was founded in Hillsboro, Illinois, by Lutheran pioneers in education, and chartered by the Illinois General Assembly on January 22, 1847. Originally known as The Literary and Theological Institute of the Lutheran Church in the Far West, its name was soon shortened to Lutheran College and known locally as Hillsboro College. With a two-person faculty and 79 students, Hillsboro promised "a course of study designed to be thorough and practical, and to embrace all the branches of learning, usually pursued in the best academies and colleges".
In 1852, the college moved to Springfield, Illinois, and was re-named Illinois State University. During this period, Abraham Lincoln served briefly on the Board of Trustees from 1860 to 1861, while his son Robert Todd Lincoln was a student in Illinois State University's preparatory academy from 1853 to 1859. Illinois State University's enrollment dwindled during the Civil War and closed in 1868. In 1870, several faculty reestablished the college in the rural west-central city of Carthage, Illinois, where the college acquired its current name.
The Great Depression and World War II lowered enrollment to 131 students in 1943, but enrollment increased again after the war as a result of the G.I. Bill.
After years of financial challenges, shifts in Lutheran synodical support, and searches for a suitable location, Carthage's board of trustees voted unanimously in 1957 to open a campus in Kenosha, Wisconsin. The lakeshore campus was dedicated on October 14, 1962.
By 1962, the college launched an era of growth. The next decade brought a period of continuous expansion. Enrollment increased fivefold, endowment tripled, and physical assets increased 600 percent. In Fall 1995, Carthage enrolled 1,527 full-time students, setting a new record. Intensive national searches have built a teaching-oriented faculty holding Ph.D.s from major graduate programs across the country. Since 2001, the college has invested more than $130 million in new construction, major renovations and technological acquisition.
Expansion
In 2001, the Hedberg Library opened its doors, adjoining the H. F. Johnson Center for the Fine Arts. The library won Wisconsin Library of the Year in 2004. The library also won the Highsmith Award in 2007 for Family Fun Night, a program for community members that encourages learning for children from 2 to 13. The former Ruthrauff Library was renovated into the A. W. Clausen Center for World Business, opening in 2004.
The Tarble Athletic and Recreation Center opened in 2001, and the former Physical Education Center was rebuilt and renamed the Tarble Arena, opening in 2009.
In Fall 2011, a new student union opened on the site of the former W. F. Seidemann Natatorium. It houses a new press box, new bleachers, a new and larger bookstore, new dining options, a campus "living room", a new dining room, a 200-seat theatre, an art gallery, and a gaming area. In April 2012 the student center was formally dedicated and named the Campbell Student Union in honor of retiring President F. Gregory Campbell and his wife, Barbara, for their 25 years of service to Carthage. President Campbell retired in August 2012.
The Oaks, a new student residence village overlooking Lake Michigan, opened in 2012, containing six villas with semi-private suites and a media lounge on each floor.
In Fall 2015, a new science center opened in the newly renovated David A. Straz Jr. Center for the Natural and Social Sciences. Originally built in 1962, the former Science Hall was renovated and renamed in honor of David A. Straz, Jr., in 1995. The latest $45 million expansion added a new planetarium, twelve new science labs, new classrooms, faculty offices, and student gathering and exhibition spaces.
In Fall 2018, the newest residence hall, The Tower, was opened. The Tower provides students with apartment-style suites with personal bathrooms, as well as media lounges on each floor and communal kitchens on every other floor. The new building also presented students with the Terrace, a new studying space with televisions, laptop bars, and a functioning fireplace.
Presidents
Carthage has had 23 presidents since its founding:
Francis Springer — 1847-1855
Simeon W. Harkey — 1855–1857 (1)
William M. Reynolds — 1858–1862
Simeon W. Harkey — 1862-1866 (2)
David Loy Tressler — 1873–1880
J. A. Kunkelman — 1881–1883
J. S. Detweiler — 1883–1884
E.F. Bartholomew — 1884–1888
Holmes Dysinger — 1888–1895
John M. Ruthrauff — 1895–1900
Frederick L. Sigmund — 1900–1909
Harvey D. Hoover — 1909–1926
N. J. Gould Wickey — 1926–1929
Jacob Diehl — 1929–1933
Rudolph G. Schulz — 1935–1943
Erland Nelson — 1943–1949
Morris Wee — 1950–1951
Harold H. Lentz — 1952–1976
Erno J. Dahl — 1977–1986
Alan R. Anderson — 1986–87
F. Gregory Campbell — 1987–2012
Gregory S. Woodward — 2012–2017
John R. Swallow — 2017–present
Academics
Carthage offers a Bachelor of Arts in more than 40 areas of study and the Bachelor of Science in Nursing. Carthage also partners with master's level institutions to offer dual-degree programs in engineering, occupational therapy, chiropractic, and pharmacy.
The academic calendar spans two 14-week semesters, separated by a month-long January term. The college has been accredited by the Higher Learning Commission since 1916. Carthage also offers three master's degree programs in education, business design and innovation, and music theatre vocal pedagogy.
Tuition reset
Undergraduate tuition for the 2019–2020 academic year was $45,100 (excluding books, personal expenditures, and health insurance). On Sept. 17, 2019, the college announced that it was resetting the sticker price of tuition for the 2020–21 academic year by 30% to $31,500. The college made this decision in an effort to make its pricing more transparent and to attract students that may have been deterred by the high listed tuition.
Admissions
In fall 2016, Carthage had enrollment of 2,818 undergraduate students and 112 graduate students. The student body is 55 percent female and 45 percent male. 70% of applicants are accepted for admission.
Western Heritage
All Carthage students were required to take Western Heritage, a year-long course sequence in which they read, discussed, and wrote about major Western texts. The reading list included works by Plato, Homer, Shakespeare, Thomas Jefferson, and W. E. B. DuBois, in addition to the Bible. In the 2020–2021 school year, this was replaced with Intellectual Foundations, which has the same purpose but includes more texts written by non-white authors.
Senior thesis
All students must complete a senior thesis. This capstone project can take the form of a research project, music recital, art exhibit, or some other original demonstration of scholarship or creativity.
January term
During January Term, known on campus as "J-Term", participating students select one class and attend it daily. In addition to on-campus courses, many students travel with faculty on study tours in either January or the summer months. Destinations in 2016 included Cuba, Nicaragua, and World War II battle sites in Europe. All students must complete two J-Term courses, including one during their freshman year.
Rankings
The Institute for International Education placed Carthage no. 4 among baccalaureate institutions for student participation in short-term study abroad in 2013–2014.
In The Princeton Review'''s 2016 rankings, Carthage was among 159 schools listed as a Best Midwestern College.
From 2008 through 2016, 17 students from the college won Fulbright fellowships. In 2016, the college was named a top Fulbright producer.
Faculty
The college has a student-to-faculty ratio of 13 to 1. In fall 2016, the college employed 160 full-time professors and 162 part-time faculty members. In the summer of 2020, the college announced a plan to reduce "total full-time faculty by 10 to 20 percent. That reduction would include a mix of tenured and contract faculty." It is to be effected via a "reorganization" affecting ten departments, including Biology, Classics, English, Modern Languages, Music, Philosophy and Great Ideas, Physics and Astronomy, Political Science, Religion, and Sociology and Criminal Justice.
Carthage in Chicago
In 2014, the college launched the Carthage in Chicago program. Participating students spend a semester in Chicago, securing an internship or pursuing a major academic project while living and taking classes in the city. Housing and classroom space are located at HI-Chicago.
Traditions
The Old Main Bell
For decades, the Old Main Bell sat in the tower at the top of Old Main, the first building on the campus in Carthage, Illinois. After athletic victories, students would race down Evergreen Walk to ring the bell. When Carthage moved from Illinois to Wisconsin in the 1960s, the Tau Sigma Chi fraternity helped move the victory bell to Kenosha. In 2004, the victory bell found a new home in the scoreboard on Art Keller Field.<ref>"Bart Starr Kicks off Keller Field Campaign". The Carthaginian,'. Autumn 2005, 7.</ref>
Kissing Rock
Kissing Rock has been a part of Carthage since 1913. Dennis Swaney and other members of the Class of 1913 found the 2 ½-ton chunk of granite in a farmer's field and moved the stone to the campus.
Stationed prominently at the entrance to Evergreen Walk, the rock quickly became part of Carthage life. One tradition recounts that any woman sitting on the rock was obligated to kiss the man who found her there and countless marriage proposals have been made and accepted near it. Members of the Beta Phi Epsilon fraternity moved Kissing Rock to the Kenosha campus in the mid-1960s. It now sits facing Lake Michigan between Lentz and Tarble Halls.
Today, Kissing Rock is a multifaceted symbol of the Carthage spirit. Students paint the Rock to promote their organizations and causes, publicize upcoming events, and celebrate. Kissing Rock has served as a memorial to beloved alumni, an expression of protest against injustice, a tribute after 9/11, and more.
Christmas Festival
The Christmas Festival has been a part of Carthage's holiday season since 1974. Every year at the start of December, Carthage hosts a musical celebration of the birth of Christ for the community. The event highlights student vocal and instrumental ensembles, as well as performances by students in Carthage's Theatre Department.
Athletics
Carthage offers 27 NCAA Division III sports. In the spring of 2021, Carthage announced the creation of an e-sports team as a varsity sport.
Men's
Baseball
Basketball
Cross Country
Football
Golf
Lacrosse
Soccer
Swimming
Tennis
Track and Field (Indoor and outdoor)
Volleyball
Wrestling
Women's
Basketball
Bowling
Cross Country
Golf
Lacrosse
Soccer
Softball
Swimming
Tennis
Track and Field (Indoor and outdoor)
Volleyball
Water Polo
Wrestling
About a third of Carthage students are involved in varsity intercollegiate athletics, and another third participate in the many intramural and club sports offered. Club sports include men's bowling, and co-ed curling and ice hockey.
Volleyball
The men's volleyball team went undefeated in the 2021 spring season and went on to win the school's first Division III National Championship. They have been invited on several occasions, finishing 2nd in their very first year.
Baseball
The men's baseball team has averaged over 35 wins per season from 1990 to 2010, with an overall record of 702–237. They have been invited to the NCAA Division III World Series several times, finishing third in 2009.
Since 1990, Carthage has claimed eight outright CCIW divisional titles, one divisional-title tie, nine conference crowns, 16 NCAA regional berths, including nine-straight from 1992 to 2000, six regional titles, third-place finishes in both the 1993 and 1994 NCAA Division III baseball championships and fourth place in both 1995 and 1997. For his efforts, Coach Augie Schmidt has been named American Baseball Coaches Association/Diamond Sports NCAA Division III Central Regional "Coach Of The Year" nine times (1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2007 and 2009), won the ABCA/Louisville Slugger Conference Award seven times from 1993 to 1999, and has been named CCIW "Baseball Coach of the Year" on 10 occasions (1989, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2007 and 2009).
Football
See List of Carthage Firebirds head football coaches
In 2004, Carthage's football team set a school record for most wins in a season, going 11–2. That season was also the first time the Red Men made the NCAA Division III playoffs since the school joined the NCAA in 1976. The team was coached by Tim Rucks. Carthage went on to win their first two games of the playoffs defeating Alma College and Wooster College. The Red Men then lost to Mount Union College. The Red Men finished the 2004 season ranked 5th in the nation.
Mike Yeager served as the head coach beginning with the 2012 season and concluding in 2017. Dustin Hass has taken over the role since 2018.
Nickname
In 2005, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) ruled that Carthage, along with several other colleges, would be ineligible to host NCAA-sanctioned playoffs and tournaments because their nickname, "Redmen", was perceived as an offensive reference to Native Americans. A decision was made to rename the Carthage men's teams the "Red Men". This is in accordance with the circa 1920 origin of the name—the team's red uniform jersey—while removing any possible controversial connotations. In conjunction with the rearticulation of the name, a new logo for the team replaced the traditional feathered Carthage C. It includes a torch, a shield, and a C.
In 2020, the Carthage Board of Trustees and Athletics voted unanimously to retire the Red Men/Lady Reds nickname and mascot "Torchie" from athletics. The teams will compete as Carthage Athletics for the 2020–2021 academic year with a new name and mascot approved and announced prior to the 2021–2022 academic year. On February 19, 2021, the Carthage Board of Trustees, along with President Swallow, voted to change the nickname to the Firebirds, and the new nickname was immediately adopted for all sports.
Conference affiliation
Carthage College was a member of the Illinois Intercollegiate Athletic Conference from 1912 to 1941. After competing as an independent for five years, the school became a founding member of the College Conference of Illinois, now known as the College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin (CCIW), in 1946, a membership it has maintained to this time.
In men's volleyball, Carthage became a founding member of the single-sport Continental Volleyball Conference (CVC) in 2011. In 2014, the CVC amicably split along regional lines, with Carthage and the CVC's other Midwestern members forming the Midwest Collegiate Volleyball League. The team then moved into the CCIW once the conference began sponsoring men's volleyball in 2020.
In women's water polo, Carthage is a member of the single-sport Collegiate Water Polo Association Division III Conference since the team's inception in 2010.
Notable alumni
George A. Anderson – U.S. Representative from Illinois
J. Arthur Baird – Athlete and coach
Alden W. Clausen – former President of the World Bank
Caroline Bartlett Crane - American Unitarian minister, suffragist, civic reformer, educator and journalist
Tony D'Souza - novelist
Scott C. Fergus - Wisconsin State Representative
Daniel L. Gard - U.S. Navy admiral
Steve Hanson - NFL player for the Louisville Colonels and Kansas City Blues/Cowboys
John Hay - Journalist, White House senior aide, and U.S. Secretary of State
David Holliday - Broadway, film, and television actor
Alie "Muffy" Israel - track and field sprinter
James L. Jelinek, 8th Episcopal Bishop of Minnesota.
Jim Jodat - NFL player for the Los Angeles Rams, Seattle Seahawks, and San Diego Chargers
Susan Lee Johnson - historian and professor
William George Juergens - former United States federal judge
Laura Kaeppeler - 2012 Miss America Winner
Rick Kehr - NFL player for the Washington Redskins
Jon Kukla - author and historian
Scott M. Ladd - Iowa Supreme Court justice
David J. Lepak - Wisconsin State Representative
Paul Miller - MLB player
Fernando Sanford - founding faculty member and physics professor at Stanford University
Marie Sarantakis - author
Ross H. Trower - Chief of Chaplains of the U.S. Navy
Adam Walker - NFL player for the Minnesota Vikings
A. Gilbert Wright - Zoologist
Notable faculty
Thomas Carr, paleontologist
Alice L. Kibbe, biologist
Perry Kivolowitz, computer science
Augie Schmidt, baseball head coach
References
External links
Official website
Hillsboro Academy, Historical Society of Montgomery County Illinois
Private universities and colleges in Wisconsin
Education in Kenosha, Wisconsin
Educational institutions established in 1847
Education in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
Buildings and structures in Kenosha, Wisconsin
1847 establishments in Wisconsin Territory | [
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253609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards | 1995 Governor General's Awards | The 1995 Governor General's Literary Awards were presented by Roméo LeBlanc, Governor General of Canada on November 14 at the Winter Garden Theatre in Toronto. Each winner received a cheque for $10,000 and a copy of their books specially bound by master bookbinder Pierre Ouvard.
English
French
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards | [
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253610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronikos%20IV%20Palaiologos | Andronikos IV Palaiologos | Andronikos IV Palaiologos or Andronicus IV Palaeologus (; 11 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385) was the eldest son of Emperor John V Palaiologos. Appointed co-emperor since 1352, he had a troubled relationship with his father: he launched a failed rebellion in 1373, usurped the throne in 1376–1379, and remained engaged in a bitter struggle with John V until his death in 1385. This civil war depleted Byzantium's scarce resources and greatly facilitated the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, most notably through the cession of Gallipoli by Andronikos.
Life
Born on 11 April 1348, Andronikos IV Palaiologos was the eldest son of Emperor John V Palaiologos by his wife Helena Kantakouzene. In 1352 he was already associated as co-emperor with his father, and when John V left for Italy in 1369 to affirm his submission to the Pope, John left Andronikos behind in Constantinople as regent, while his younger son Manuel II Palaiologos was sent to govern Thessalonica.
During his stay in Italy, John attempted to settle his accounts with the Republic of Venice; this included not only John's own loans, but also the loan of 30,000 ducats (and the associated interest) that his mother, Anne of Savoy, had taken during the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, with the Byzantine crown jewels as collateral. John went in person to Venice, but he lacked the funds to pay off the loans, or even to secure a ship for his voyage home. As a result, he proposed to cede to the Venetians the island of Tenedos, strategically located at the entrance of the Dardanelles, in exchange for further funds and six warships. The Venetians accepted, but when news reached Constantinople, Andronikos IV, likely urged by the Genoese, Venice's commercial rivals, refused to honour his father's agreement. This left John stranded in Venice, effectively as a captive debtor of the Republic; when he suggested that funds be raised to secure his release by selling precious objects from the churches, Andronikos again refused, claiming that this was impious. In the end, it was only the intervention of Manuel, who went from Thessalonica to Venice in person, that secured John's release. It was not until October 1371 that the emperor returned to Constantinople.
Andronikos IV rebelled when the Ottoman sultan Murad I forced John V into vassalage in 1373. Andronikos IV had allied with Murad's son Savcı Bey, who was rebelling against his own father, but both rebellions failed. Andronikos was imprisoned and subjected to blinding–the traditional Byzantine punishment for rebellion—but apparently only in one eye. His brother Manuel replaced him as heir.
Reign
In July 1376, the Genoese helped Andronikos to escape from prison, whence he went straight to sultan Murad I, and agreed to return Gallipoli in return for his support. Gallipoli had been retaken by the Byzantines ten years before, with the assistance of Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy. The sultan duly provided a mixed force of cavalry and infantry and with these, Andronikos was able to take control of Constantinople. Here he was able to capture and imprison both John V and his son Manuel.
However, he made the mistake of favouring the Genoese too highly by awarding them Tenedos. The governor there refused to hand it over, and passed it on to Venice. In the same year, 1377, he crowned his young son John VII as co-emperor. However, in 1379 John and Manuel escaped to sultan Murad, and with the assistance of the Venetians, overthrew Andronikos later in the year. The Venetians restored John V to the throne, and Manuel II. Andronikos fled to Galata, staying there until 1381, when he was once again made co-emperor and heir to the throne despite his earlier treachery. Andronikos IV was also given the approaches to Constantinople with the city of Selymbria (Silivri) as his personal domain.
In 1385, he rebelled again, but died soon after, on 25 or 28 June, at Selymbria. He was buried in the Pantokrator Monastery in Constantinople.
Family
In 1356, Andronikos IV married Keratsa of Bulgaria, a daughter of Emperor Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria. The couple had one son, John VII Palaiologos.
Ancestry
References
Sources
Harris, Jonathan, The End of Byzantium. Yale University Press, 2010.
1348 births
1385 deaths
14th-century Byzantine emperors
Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars
Byzantine usurpers
Andronikos 04
Andronikos 04
Byzantine prisoners and detainees
Prisoners and detainees of the Byzantine Empire
Sons of Byzantine emperors | [
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253613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paige%20automobile | Paige automobile | Paige was a Detroit, United States-based automobile company, selling luxury cars between 1908 and 1927.
History
Paige first began producing automobiles in 1908. The company's first car was a two-seat model powered by a 2.2-liter three-cylinder, two-stroke engine. This model continued until 1910, when a four-stroke, four-cylinder engine design took over. In 1911, the company's namesake was shortened to Paige. A six-cylinder model was added to the range in 1914. Four-cylinder models were dropped in 1916, leaving a choice of 3.7- or 4.9-liter sixes. Another name change occurred in 1919, when models fitted with a Duesenberg engine were known as Paige-Linwood, and models fitted with a Continental engine were listed as Paige-Larchmont. A straight-eight engine was added to the sixes in 1927.
On January 21, 1921, a Paige 6-66 broke an American stock car speed record by covering a mile in 35.01 seconds at a speed of 102.8 miles per hour.
The most notable Paige produced was the 1922-1926 Daytona, a 3-seat sports roadster with a 6-cylinder engine. The vehicle was a traditional coupe, with the novel third seat extending from the side of the car over the near side running board. Paige advertised the Daytona as being "The most beautiful car in America."
Paige also produced less-expensive range of cars between 1923-1926. These were sold as Jewetts and were named for the Paige company president H. M. Jewett. For 1927, the Jewett name changed to Junior Paige.
Graham ownership
The Graham Brothers bought the company on June 10, 1927. Joseph Graham became the new president, his brothers Robert and Ray serving as vice-president and secretary-treasurer, respectively. The three, together with their father, also became directors of the company. The corporate name soon changed to Graham-Paige Motors Corporation. The market agreed, and automobile production rose from 21,881 in 1927 to 73,195 for the following year, when the cars became known as Graham-Paiges.
When the second series of 1930 cars was released (bringing out two series for a model year was widely practiced at the time), the name for the product (but not for the corporate name) changed to just Graham.
See also
List of defunct United States automobile manufacturers
References
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1908
1908 establishments in Michigan
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Detroit | [
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253616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jizi | Jizi | Jizi or Qizi or Kizi (; Gija or Kija in Korean) was a semi-legendary Chinese sage who is said to have ruled Gija Joseon in the 11th century BCE. Early Chinese documents like the Book of Documents and the Bamboo Annals described him as a virtuous relative of the last king of the Shang dynasty who was punished for remonstrating with the king. After Shang was overthrown by Zhou in the 1040s BCE, he allegedly gave political advice to King Wu, the first Zhou king. Chinese texts from the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) onwards claimed that King Wu enfeoffed Jizi as ruler of Chaoxian (朝鮮, pronounced "Joseon" in Korean). According to the Book of Han (1st century CE), Jizi brought agriculture, sericulture, and many other facets of Chinese civilization to Joseon.
Gija (the Korean pronunciation of "Jizi") may have been the object of a state cult in sixth-century Goguryeo, and a mausoleum to him was established in Goryeo in 1102, but the first extant Korean text to mention Gija was the Samguk Sagi (1145). Starting in the late thirteenth century, Gija was fully integrated into Korean history, being described as a successor to the descendants of Dangun in the state of Old Joseon. Following the spread of Neo-Confucianism in Korea in the fourteenth century, scholars of the Joseon Dynasty (est. 1392) promoted Gija as a culture hero who had raised Korean civilization to the same level as China, and Gija became an integral part of Korean cultural identity.
Following the rise of Korean nationalism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, however, Korean intellectuals lost their pride in association with Gija and started to doubt the traditional account of his enfeoffment as ruler of Gojoseon. Shin Chaeho (1880–1936) questioned the extent of Gija's cultural contributions, in part because Gija, a Chinese, did not fit into Shin's view of Korean history as the history of the Korean minjok, or "race-nation." Postwar Korean scholars in both North and South Korea have also strongly criticized the story of Gija's migration to Korea in the eleventh century BCE.
His family name was Zi/Ja (子) and given name was Xuyu/Suyu (胥餘/서여 xūyú/seoyeo, or 須臾/수유 xūyú/suyu).
In ancient Chinese texts
Pre-Qin sources
The earliest known mention of Jizi is in the "Mingyi" 明夷 hexagram of the Book of Change. According to other ancient Chinese texts like the Book of Documents, the Analects, and the Bamboo Annals, Jizi was a relative of King Zhou, the last ruler of the Shang Dynasty, and one of the three wise men of Shang, along with Weizi (微子) and Bi Gan. Many identify him as Grand Tutor of the king. Jizi was either imprisoned or enslaved for remonstrating against King Zhou's misrule. (One later version states that he pretended to be mad after Bigan had been killed by King Zhou.) After Shang was overthrown by the Zhou dynasty in the mid eleventh century BC, Jizi was released by King Wu, to whom he gave advice on how to rule the new polity.
These texts mention neither Joseon nor Jizi's descendants; they simply describe Jizi as a virtuous man who was trusted by King Wu of Zhou after having been mistreated by the last Shang king.
Han and later texts
The first texts that make an explicit connection between Jizi and Joseon date from the second century BC, under the Han dynasty. The earliest known source stating that Jizi went to Joseon is the Shangshu dazhuan (尚書大傳), a commentary on the Book of Documents attributed to Fu Sheng of the second century BC. In that account, King Wu enfeoffed Jizi as the ruler of Joseon and Jizi became the subject of King Wu. In a similar story recorded in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (or Shiji, compiled between 109 and 91 BC), Jizi was enfeoffed by King Wu but did not become his subject. Sima Qian did not mention Jizi in his section on contemporary Joseon (i.e. northwestern Korea), where Wei Man's kingdom had flourished since about 194 BC until it was conquered by the Han Dynasty in 108 BC. Thus the location of Joseon as in these earlier sources is not clear. Among other Han dynasty sources, the Han shi waizhuan mentions to Jizi but not his migration to Joseon.
The "Monograph on Geography" (Dili zhi 地理志) of the Book of Han (1st century AD) claims that Jizi had taught the people of Joseon agriculture, sericulture, and weaving, as well as proper ceremony. Jae-hoon Shim interprets the following sentence in that section of the Hanshu as claiming that Jizi also introduced the law of "Eight Prohibitions" (犯禁八條) in Joseon. The Records of Three Kingdoms (first published in the early fifth century) claims that the descendants of Jizi reigned as kings of Joseon for forty generations until they were overthrown by Wei Man, a man from the state of Yan, in 194 BC.
According to his commentary to the Shiji, Du Yu (first half of the 3rd century) states that the tomb of Jizi was located in Meng Prefecture of the State of Liang (modern-day Henan). This suggests that the story of Jizi's association with Joseon was not necessarily prevailing although the narrative seen in the Hanshu later became common.
As historian Jae-hoon Shim concludes, only during the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) did Jizi begin to be associated with Joseon, and only after the Han were his descendants identified as the Joseon royal family.
Interpretations of Gija in Korea
Traditional historiography
The first extant Korean text to mention Gija (the Korean pronunciation of Jizi) was Kim Busik's Samguk Sagi (completed in 1145), which claimed that Gija had been enfeoffed in Haedong (海東: Korea) by the Zhou court, but commented that this account was uncertain because of the brevity of the sources. Only in the thirteenth century did Korean texts start to integrate Gija more fully into Korean history. The Samguk Yusa (1281) explained that after being enfeoffed by King Wu of Zhou, Gija replaced Dangun's descendants as the ruler of Joseon, whereas Jewang Ungi (1287) identified Dangun and Gija as the first rulers of former and latter Joseon respectively. Most premodern Korean historians after that accepted that Gija had replaced another indigenous power (represented by Dangun) in Old Joseon.
In 1102, during the Goryeo Dynasty, King Sukjong built a mausoleum to Gija in a place near Pyongyang that had been identified as Gija's tomb.Sadang for gija called gijasa(箕子祠) was also built in Pyongyang. The mausoleum was rebuilt in 1324 and was repaired in 1355, but the cult of Gija spread most widely after the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty in 1392. Because Joseon's state ideology was Neo-Confucianism borrowed from China, Joseon intellectuals promoted Gija as a culture hero who had raised Korean civilization to the same level as China.
From the second half of the sixteenth century to the eighteenth century, Joseon scholars published a number of books on Gija. In 1580, Yun Dusu (尹斗壽) collated all available material on him and published his research as the Gijaji (箕子志; "Record of Gija"). On the same year, eminent scholar Yi I used Yun's book to compile the Gija Silgi (箕子實記), or True Account of Gija. Yi praised Gija for introducing agriculture, sericulture, decorum, the well-field system, and the Eight Prohibitions. Though he emphasized Gija's independence from King Wu of Zhou, Yi believed that Gija's teachings helped Korea to reach the same level of civilization as China. The cult of Gija also continued as temples which worshiped gija portraits called gijayeongjeon(箕子影殿), were built in the 18th century in South Pyongan Province.
Although Korean scholars became more critical of Gija's role in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, this account of Gija as the "bearer of civilization from China" became widely accepted, so much that by the late Joseon, the worship of Gija "had become an integral part of Korean cultural identity." Some Korean clans proudly claimed descent from Gija.
Twentieth century
Following the decline of China's prestige and the rise of Korean nationalism in the early twentieth century, Korean intellectuals no longer took pride in their association with the Chinese Gija, and thus started to doubt the authenticity of his traditional story. Shin Chaeho (1880–1936) was the first to question the extent of Gija's contributions. In an essay titled Doksa Sillon ("New Reading of History"; 1908), he argued that Korean history was the history of the Korean minjok, a race-nation descended from Dangun, the mythical founder of the state of Gojoseon. Gija, a foreigner, did not belong in Shin's racially defined view of Korean history. Shin argued instead that Gija had become a vassal of the Kings of Buyeo and was only given control of a small territory.
Going further than Shin, Choe Nam-seon (1890–1957) and Lee Byeong-do (1896–1989) started to notice discrepancies between pre-Qin Chinese records of Jizi/Gija, and later accounts (both Chinese and Korean) of his role in Joseon. In 1973, archeologist Kim Cheong-bae (金貞培) denied Chinese influence on Korea because no ancient Chinese bronzes had been found on the peninsula.
After the end of Japanese colonial rule in 1945, nationalist historians in both North and South Korea targeted Gija. Ri Chirin, a leading North Korean historian of ancient Korea, argued that the Gija legend had been forged in Han times when the Chinese started to occupy part of Joseon. Most North Korean scholars have followed Ri in doubting the authenticity of Gija's migration to Joseon.
In South Korea, whether Gija and his state actually existed is a matter of controversy. Korean scholars deny its existence for various reasons. These scholars point to the Bamboo Annals and the Confucian Analects, which were among the first works to mention Gija, but do not mention his migration to Gojoseon. Detractors of the Gija Joseon theory also point out that the cultural artifacts found in the region do not appear to have Chinese origins. An example of such an artifact is found in a Gojoseon mandolin-shaped bronze dagger. Its shape and bronze composition are different from similar artifacts found in China.
The national-history textbook of high school education drove Gija's description out of the main text and he was marginally mentioned in a note. The textbook of the latest 7th Curriculum completely eliminates Gija.
On the contrary, some South Korean historians believe that Gija Joseon coexisted with Dangun, and Gija Joseon was established at the west end of Gojoseon.
See also
Cheongju Han clan
Haengju Ki clan
Taiyuan Sunwoo clan
Icheon Seo clan
Notes
References
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Imanishi Ryū 今西龍 (1970), Kishi Chōsen densetsu kō 箕子朝鮮伝説考 [On the legend of Gija Joseon (Jizi Chaoxian)], in Chōsen koshi no kenkyū 朝鮮古史の研究 [Research in ancient Korean history], pp. 131–173.
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Kuwano Eiji 桑野栄治 (1959), "Richō shoki no shiten wo tōshite mita Dankun saishi" 李朝初期の祀典を通してみた檀君祭祀 [The worship of Dangun as seen through the state sacrifices of the early Joseon period], Chōsen Gakuhō 朝鮮学報 [Journal of the Academic Association of Koreanology in Japan], Vol. 14, pp. 57–101.
Sassa Mitsuaki 佐々充昭 (2000), "Dankun nashonarizumu no keisei" 檀君ナショナリズムの形成 [The Formation of Dangun nationalism]. Chōsen Gakuhō 朝鮮学報 [Journal of the Academic Association of Koreanology in Japan], Vol. 174: 61–107.
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Sima Zhen 司馬貞. Shiji suoyin 史記索隱: 中山國 鮮虞, 鮮于氏 姬姓 : Zhongshan Seon Woo clan are Kei Ji (surname) like Zhou Dynasty royal.
11th-century BC Chinese people
Shang dynasty people
Deified Chinese people
Korean people of Chinese descent
Early Korean history
Gija Joseon rulers
Legendary rulers
Investiture of the Gods characters
Founding monarchs | [
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253620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williamina%20Fleming | Williamina Fleming | (15 May 1857 – 21 May 1911) was a Scottish astronomer active in the United States. During her career, she helped develop a common designation system for stars and cataloged thousands of stars and other astronomical phenomena. Among several career achievements that advanced astronomy, Fleming is noted for her discovery of the Horsehead Nebula in 1888.
Early life
Williamina Paton Stevens was born in Dundee, Scotland on 15 May 1857, to Mary Walker and Robert Stevens, a carver and gilder. There, in 1877, she married James Orr Fleming, an accountant and widower, also of Dundee. She worked as a teacher a short time before the couple emigrated to Boston, Massachusetts, US, when she was 21. The couple had one son, Edward P. Fleming.
Career at Harvard College Observatory
After she and her young son were abandoned by her husband, Williamina Fleming worked as a maid in the home of Professor Edward Charles Pickering, who was director of the Harvard College Observatory.
Pickering's wife Elizabeth recommended Williamina as having talents beyond custodial and maternal arts, and in 1879 Pickering hired Fleming to conduct part-time administrative work at the observatory. In 1881, Pickering invited Fleming to formally join the HCO and taught her how to analyze stellar spectra. She became one of the founding members of the Harvard Computers, an all-women cadre of human computers hired by Pickering to compute mathematical classifications and edit the observatory's publications.
Henry Draper Catalog
In 1886, Mary Anna Draper, the wealthy widow of astronomer Henry Draper, started the Henry Draper Memorial to fund the HCO's research. In response, the HCO began work on the first Henry Draper Catalog, a long-term project to obtain the optical spectra of as many stars as possible and to index and classify stars by spectra.
Fleming was placed in charge of the Draper Catalog project. A disagreement soon developed as to how to best classify the stars. The analysis had been started by Nettie Farrar, but she left a few months later to be married. Antonia Maury advocated for a complex classification scheme. Fleming, however, wanted a much more simple, straightforward approach.
The latest Harvard College Observatory images contained photographed spectra of stars that extended into the ultraviolet range, which allowed much more accurate classifications than recording spectra by hand through an instrument at night. Fleming devised a system for classifying stars according to the relative amount of hydrogen observed in their spectra, known as the Pickering-Fleming system. Stars showing hydrogen as the most abundant element were classified A; those of hydrogen as the second-most abundant element, B; and so on.
Later, her colleague Annie Jump Cannon reordered the classification system based upon the surface temperature of stars, resulting in the Harvard system for classifying stars that is still in use today.
As a result of years of work by their female computer team, the HCO published the first Henry Draper Catalog in 1890, a catalog with more than 10,000 stars classified according to their spectrum. The majority of these classifications were done by Fleming. Fleming also made it possible to go back and compare recorded plates, by organizing thousands of photographs by telescope along with other identifying factors. In 1898, she was appointed Curator of Astronomical Photographs at Harvard, the first woman to hold the position.
Notable discoveries
During her career, Fleming discovered a total of 59 gaseous nebulae, over 310 variable stars, and 10 novae.
Most notably, in 1888, Fleming discovered the Horsehead Nebula on a telescope-photogrammetry plate made by astronomer W. H. Pickering, brother of E.C. Pickering. She described the bright nebula (later known as IC 434) as having "a semicircular indentation 5 minutes in diameter 30 minutes south of Zeta Orionis". Subsequent professional publications neglected to give credit to Fleming for the discovery. The first Dreyer Index Catalogue omitted Fleming's name from the list of contributors having then discovered sky objects at Harvard, attributing the entire work merely to "Pickering". However, by the time the second Dreyer Index Catalogue was published in 1908, Fleming and her female colleagues at the HCO were sufficiently well-known and received proper credit for their discoveries.
Fleming is also credited with the discovery of the first white dwarf:
Fleming published her discovery of white dwarf stars in 1910. Her other notable publications include A Photographic Study of Variable Stars (1907), a list of 222 variable stars she had discovered; and Spectra and Photographic Magnitudes of Stars in Standard Regions (1911).
She died of pneumonia in Boston on 21 May 1911.
Recognition
Fleming openly advocated for other women in the sciences in her talk "A Field for Woman's Work in Astronomy" at the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, where she openly promoted the hiring of female assistants in astronomy. Her speech suggested she agreed with the prevailing idea that women were inferior, but felt that, if given greater opportunities, they would be able to become equals; in other words, the sex differences in this regard were more culturally constructed than biologically grounded.
In 1906, she was made an honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society of London, the first Scottish woman to be so honored. Soon after she was appointed honorary fellow in astronomy of Wellesley College. Shortly before her death the
awarded her the Guadalupe Almendaro medal for her discovery of new stars.
Legacy
The women of the Harvard Computers were famous during their lifetimes, but were largely forgotten in the following century. In 2015, Lindsay Smith Zrull, curator of Harvard's Plate Stacks collection, was working to catalog and digitize the astronomical plates for DASCH and discovered about 118 boxes, each containing 20 to 30 notebooks, from women computers and early Harvard astronomers. She realized that the 2,500+ volumes were outside the scope of her work with DASCH, but wanted to see the material preserved and made accessible. Smith Zrull reached out to librarians at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
In response, the Wolbach Library launched Project PHaEDRA (Preserving Harvard's Early Data and Research in Astronomy). Daina Bouquin, Wolbach's Head Librarian, explained that the objective is to enable full-text search of the research: "If you search for Williamina Fleming, you're not going to just find a mention of her in a publication where she wasn't the author of her work. You're going to find her work."
In July 2017, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics's Wolbach Library unveiled a display showcasing Fleming's work, including the log book containing the Horsehead Nebula discovery. The library has dozens of volumes of Fleming's work in its PHaEDRA collection.
, about 200 of over 2,500 volumes had been transcribed. The task is expected to take years to fully complete. Some of the notebooks are listed via the Smithsonian Digital Volunteers Web site, which encourages volunteers to transcribe them.
Honors
Member of the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America and the Astronomical Society of France
Made an honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society of London in 1906, the first American woman to be elected
Awarded the Guadalupe Almendaro Medal by the Astronomical Society of Mexico for her discovery of new stars
Appointed an honorary fellow in astronomy of Wellesley College
The Fleming lunar crater was jointly named after her and (not closely related) Alexander Fleming
The asteroid 5747 Williamina is named after her.
References
Further reading
External links
Waldee, S. R.; Hazen, M. L. (November 1990). The discovery of early photographs of the Horsehead nebula. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 102: 1337
The Horsehead Nebula in the 19th Century, by Waldee (archived)
Cannon, Annie J. (November 1911). Williamina Paton Fleming. The Astrophysical Journal. 34: 314.
Bibliography from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
Project Continua: Biography of Williamina Paton Fleming Project Continua is a web-based multimedia resource dedicated to the creation and preservation of women's intellectual history from the earliest surviving evidence into the 21st Century.
Birth and Marriage details from ScotlandsPeople : Statutory Birth Record 282/02/0700; Statutory Marriage Record 282/03/0098
Obituaries
1857 births
1911 deaths
American women astronomers
American women scientists
Harvard Computers
Harvard University staff
Horsehead Nebula
Scientists from Dundee
Scottish astronomers
Scottish emigrants to the United States
Scottish women scientists | [
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253627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory%20or%20death | Victory or death | "Victory or death" and its equivalents, is used as a motto or battle cry.
Military
A boxer Agathos Daimon died in ancient Olympia aged 35, having promised Zeus ("victory or death").
The Bedford Flag, possibly the oldest extant battle flag of the American Revolution, bears the motto ("To conquer or die")
Before Washington's crossing of the Delaware River at the Battle of Trenton in 1776, "Victory" was the password and "Or Death" was the response.
The Maniots used "Victory or Death" as their motto when they joined the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire in 1821.
The letter written by commander William Barret Travis "To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World" during the Battle of the Alamo (1836), ends with "Victory or Death!".
Adolf Hitler gave the order "Victory or Death" twice:
to Erwin Rommel at the Second Battle of El Alamein (1942);
to Friedrich Paulus at the Battle of Stalingrad (1942–3).
The 32nd Armor Regiment of the United States Army has the motto "Victory or Death" .
The 1960 film G.I. Blues features the regimental emblem as Elvis Presley had served with them in 1958–60.
The 1986 film Ferris Bueller's Day Off features a black beret bearing the regiment's emblem.
Axl Rose of Guns N' Roses has the regiment's emblem and motto tattooed on his left arm.
The 442 Field Artillery Battalion of the US Army have the motto Victoria laeta aut mors ("Glorious victory or death")
The Chilean Navy has the motto Vencer o Morir ("Conquer or Die").
It was used as a battle cry in medieval Muslim battles and conquests.
It is the name of a gun battery on the main gun deck of the U.S.S. Constitution.
Heraldic motto
It is given as the translation of the heraldic motto of several Irish clans and Scottish clans :
Clan Gallagher - Buaidh nó Bás ("Victory or death")
Clan MacDougall – Buaidh no bas ("Victory or death")
Clan MacNeil – Buaidh no bas ("Victory or death")
Clan Macdowall – ("To conquer or die")
Clan Maclaine of Lochbuie – ("To conquer or die")
Clan McCabe – ("To conquer or die")
Irish clan Murphy of Wexford and Cork uses ("To conquer or die")
In fiction
In Mass Effect the Krogan word "korbal" is roughly translated to "Victory or Death".
In the 1984 film The Last Starfighter, the phrase is chanted by the starfighters.
In the Warcraft universe, "Lok'tar ogar!" (Victory or Death!) is the battlecry of the Horde.
In Hearthstone, it is said by Garrosh in the beginning of games.
In Guild Wars, "Victory or Death" was the name of a skill in Guild versus Guild battles. In Guild Wars 2, it is the title of the final story quest.
In Warhammer 40,000, "Victorus aut Mortis" is the war cry of the Raven Guard chapter of Space Marines.
In the 2001 film Enemy at the Gates and 2003 video game Call of Duty, "Victory or Death" is a common slogan for Red Army Political Commissars.
A commercial for the last episode of the final season of the animated series Samurai Jack mentions this phrase.
In Voltron: Legendary Defender, "Victory of Death" is one of the two war cries of the Galra.
The final episode of Star Wars: The Clone Wars is named after this expression.
See also
Victory
Death
Death or Glory (disambiguation)
References
Mottos
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253628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Costanza | George Costanza | George Louis Costanza is a fictional character in the American television sitcom Seinfeld (1989–1998), played by Jason Alexander. He is a short, stocky, bald man who struggles with numerous insecurities, often dooming his romantic relationships through his own fear of being dumped. He is also remarkably lazy, during periods of unemployment he actively avoids getting a job, and while employed he often finds ingenious ways to conceal idleness from his bosses. He is friends with Jerry Seinfeld, Cosmo Kramer and Elaine Benes. George and Jerry were junior high school friends (although in "The Betrayal", Season 9, Episode 8, George says the two have been friends since fourth grade) and remained friends afterward. George appears in every episode except "The Pen" (third season).
The character was based on Seinfeld co-creator Larry David but is surnamed after Jerry Seinfeld's real-life New York friend, Michael Costanza. Alexander reprised his role in an episode of Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee, reuniting with Jerry Seinfeld and Wayne Knight (also reprising their roles as Jerry and Newman, respectively).
Early life and family
George is the son of Frank, an Italian-American, and Estelle Costanza. George twice mentions that he has a brother. Lloyd Braun is a childhood nemesis who George feels was the son his parents always wanted. George's best friend Jerry Seinfeld described Frank and Estelle as "psychopaths", and said in "The Chinese Woman" that, if they had divorced when George was young, he "could have been normal".
In "The Junior Mint", George states he grew up in Brooklyn, New York, where he went to a public school. In a previous episode he mentions he went to high school on Long Island. He met Jerry during his youth, and they remained friends from that point on. George and Jerry both attended John F. Kennedy High School, class of 1971. During their high school years, George and Jerry frequently hung out at a pizzeria called Mario's Pizzas, where the former, having the highest score "GLC", would play Frogger (although Frogger debuted in 1981, well after the pair's high school graduation in 1971). George was picked on by his gym teacher Mr. Heyman, who deliberately mispronounced his name as "Can't stand ya" and gave him wedgies.
Two of George's cousins appear on the show: Shelly, who briefly appears in "The Contest", and Rhisa, whom George plans to date in order to shock his parents in "The Junk Mail". George talks to his parents about his family in "The Money", during which it is revealed that he had an "Uncle Moe", who "died a young man" and an "Aunt Baby", who died at the age seven of internal problems. It is also revealed that his mother has a "Cousin Henny". In "The Doll", it is revealed that Frank Costanza was born in Italy and has a cousin, Carlo, who still lives there. As of "The Robbery", George had living grandparents whom he had recently visited, although it is never made clear whether these were his mom's or dad's parents.
Personality
George is neurotic, self-loathing and dominated by his parents, yet also prone to occasional periods of overconfidence that invariably arise at the worst possible time. Throughout Seinfelds first season, despite doing poorly on his SATs and despite being afraid of embarrassing himself on an IQ test on "The Cafe", George is depicted as moderately intelligent – at one point, he mentions an intellectual interest in the Civil War and, in some early episodes, appears almost as a mentor to Jerry – but becomes less sophisticated, to the point of being too lazy even to read a ninety-page book (Breakfast at Tiffany's), preferring to watch the movie adaptation at a stranger's house instead. In "The Abstinence", it is discovered that George actually has what would appear to be genius-level intelligence but can never access it because his mind is always so completely focused on sex. One Chicago Tribune reviewer noted that, despite all his shortcomings, George is "pretty content with himself".
George exhibits a number of negative character traits, among them dishonesty, insecurity and anxiety, many of which seem to stem from a dysfunctional childhood with his eccentric parents Frank and Estelle, and often form the basis of his involvement in various plots, schemes, and embarrassing social encounters. Episode plots frequently feature George manufacturing elaborate deceptions at work or in his relationships in order to gain or maintain some small or imagined advantage or (pretend) image of success. He is shown to be having an intense fear of commitment as he dreads He had success in "The Opposite", where he starts (with Jerry's encouragement) to do the complete opposite of what his instincts tell him to do, which results in him getting a girlfriend and a job with the New York Yankees. His anxiety is also evident in "The Note", where he begins doubting his sexuality after receiving a massage from a male masseur.
George refers to himself in the third person when under extreme stress (for example, "George is getting upset!”), after befriending a person with a similar trait in "The Jimmy".
George flees a burning kitchen during his girlfriend's son's birthday party, knocking over several children and an old woman so he can escape first in "The Fire". There are moments where George exhibits remarkable courage, but usually accidentally and often in support of inane lies he would rather not confess to. For instance, in "The Marine Biologist", he goes into the sea alone to save a beached whale because his date, a woman on whom he had a crush in college, thinks he is a marine biologist and even tells her the truth about his occupation after he saves the day.
George often goes to impressive measures to build and maintain his relationships with women. In "The Conversion", he goes through the process of converting to the Latvian Orthodox religion as his girlfriend's parents would not let her date somebody outside their religion. He is shown to have an intense fear of commitment however, as the one relationship he holds long-term, with his fiancée Susan, is the one about which he is seemingly least enthusiastic. After regretting to get engaged, He frequently attempts to first postpone, and later cancel, their wedding and has an infamously nonchalant, almost relieved reaction at no longer having to get married, when she dies in "The Invitations". In "The Bizarro Jerry", he tries to date extremely beautiful women, whom he dubs as "members of a secret tribe living in a forbidden city", and gains access to them using his fiancee's death story and uses a photo of Elaine's attractive friend, pretending it to be a photo of Susan. In The Muffin Tops, George pretends to be from Arkansas visiting New York to date a visitor's center employee, Mary Anne after she mistakes him for a tourist. He goes as far as pretending he has "moved" to New York City and has gotten a job with the Yankees to be with her. Eventually this backfires as he is traded from the Yankees to Tyler's Chicken, the company he pretended to be an employee of in Arkansas.
He has an interest in nice restrooms and his personal bathroom habits border on obsession. In "The Revenge", he quits his real estate job solely because he is forbidden to use his boss' private bathroom. In "The Voice", he admits that one of the reasons he is staying at a job his boss has asked that he resign from (for feigning a disability) is that it gives him "private access to one of the great handicapped toilets in the city". In "The Busboy", he claims to have an encyclopedic knowledge of the locations of the best public bathrooms in the city. He proves this in "The Bizarro Jerry", when he directs Kramer to "the best bathroom in midtown" at the offices of Brandt-Leland, even describing the layout, marble, high ceiling, and toilets that flush "like a jet engine". In "The Gymnast", he told Jerry that he always removes his shirt when using the bathroom because "it frees me up... no encumbrances". When working for the Yankees, he suggested having the bathroom stall doors stretched all the way to the ground (letting people's legs not be seen while in the stalls). The obsession even comes up in the Seinfeld reunion staged on Curb Your Enthusiasm: years after the series, George is said to have made a fortune on a smartphone app that directs its user to the nearest "acceptable" public toilet anywhere in the world (though he loses most, if not all, of his fortune to Bernie Madoff).
George and Jerry have been best friends since meeting in high school gym class. The extreme closeness of their friendship is occasionally mistaken for gayness. "The Outing" deals with a reporter from a New York University college paper mistaking George and Jerry for a gay couple, and, in "The Cartoon", George dates somebody who Kramer insists is merely a "female Jerry".
Development
Seinfeld co-creator Larry David based George largely on himself. Seinfeld and David created the character as a counterpoint to Seinfeld's character. In the first draft of the show's pilot script, called "Stand-Up" at the time, George's name was "Bennett" and he, like Jerry, was a comedian. In that same draft, the scene in the pilot in which George and Jerry discuss a woman Jerry met earlier saw George and Jerry instead discussing their stand-up act. His name was changed to George, and he became a real estate broker instead. George's last name comes from Michael Costanza, a college classmate of Seinfeld. "Louis", George's middle name is a homage to Lou Costello, whose 1950s television series The Abbott and Costello Show, inspired Seinfelds writing style. Although he is often asked whether he wanted to play the character, Larry David has said that he was only interested in writing the show, and he highly doubted that NBC would have approved of his being cast.
Casting director Marc Herschfield stated that, during casting for the character, "we saw every actor we could possibly see in Los Angeles", but they could not find the right actor for the part. Among the auditionees were Nathan Lane, David Alan Grier, Brad Hall and Larry Miller. A 2011 article by Bradford Evans in Splitsider claims those considered for Costanza include Danny DeVito and Nathan Lane, while Jason Alexander himself has noted that Chris Rock was also considered for the role.
On April 3, 1989, Herschfield sent a partial script to Jason Alexander, who was in New York City at the time. Herschfield had met Alexander when he was working on the CBS sitcom E/R. Alexander enjoyed the script and felt it read like a Woody Allen film; therefore, he did a Woody Allen impression on his audition tape and bought a pair of glasses to better resemble the actor. Though Alexander thought his audition was "a complete waste of time", both David and Seinfeld were impressed; Seinfeld stated "the second we saw him, like two lines out of his mouth, we went 'That's the guy.'" On April 10, 1989, at 9:00 A.M. Alexander did his first official audition and met David and Seinfeld. While in the waiting room for his final audition, Alexander saw that Larry Miller was also auditioning. Alexander was aware that Miller and Seinfeld were very good friends, and so figured that he would not get the part. After his final audition, he returned to New York City, and when he landed he received a phone call informing him that he was hired.
Many of George's predicaments were based on David's past real-life experiences. In "The Revenge", for example, when George quits his job in a fury only to realize he has made a mistake, he goes back the next day as if nothing happened; this mirrors David's actions while working as a writer for Saturday Night Live, when he quit and then returned to his job in the same manner. As the show progressed, Alexander discovered that the character was based on David. As Alexander explains in an interview for the Seinfeld DVD, during an early conversation with David, Alexander questioned a script, saying, "This could never happen to anyone, and even if it did, no human being would react like this." David replied, "What do you mean? This happened to me once, and this is exactly how I reacted." After that, Alexander changed his performance from an imitation of Woody Allen to what he has called a "shameless imitation of Larry David."
In 1998, Michael Costanza sued the show for US$100,000,000, claiming that he never gave permission for his name to be used and that, because of the character's appearance and behavior, he was not treated with respect. Costanza lost the suit, as the New York Supreme Court decided that Seinfeld and David "did not violate Michael Costanza's privacy rights when they created the character".
Family and background
Susan
George becomes engaged to Susan Ross, an executive at NBC who approved his and Jerry's show-within-a-show sitcom pilot. George and Susan date, during which time commitment-phobic George is constantly trying to find ways to end their relationship without actually having to initiate the breakup with her. In "The Engagement", he proposes to her after he and Jerry make a pact to move forward with their lives, despite his not having dated her for years. When Jerry breaks up with his girlfriend almost immediately thereafter for eating "her peas one at a time" and declares the deal over, George tries repeatedly to weasel out of his engagement. In "The Invitations", she dies from licking the toxic glue in their wedding invitations. When notified of her death at the hospital, George displays a combination of shock, apathy, and relief. A few moments after being notified of Susan's death, he says to Jerry, Kramer, and Elaine, "Well, let's go get some coffee." Susan's parents appoint him to the board of directors of the Susan Ross Foundation.
George is very bad at meeting women and even worse at maintaining his romantic relationships and, as a result, his relationships usually end badly.
Professional life
George's professional life is unstable. He is unable to remain in any job for any great length of time before making an embarrassing blunder and getting fired, and he is unemployed for a large amount of time throughout the series. Very often, the blunder is lying and trying to cover it up, only to have it all fall apart. Most of the many short-lived jobs George holds throughout the series are in sales.
Over the course of the series, he works for a real estate transaction services firm (Rick Bahr Properties), a rest stop supply company (Sanalac), a publishing company Elaine also works at (Pendant Publishing), the New York Yankees (his longest running job), a playground-equipment company (Play Now) and an industrial smoothing company (Kruger Industrial Smoothing). He is fired from his job at Pendant Publishing for having sex with the cleaning woman on his desk in "The Red Dot" (he professes he has always been attracted to cleaning women).
George works briefly for his father selling computers.
His original job when the series starts is as a real estate agent; he ends up quitting and getting re-hired, but fired immediately afterward for drugging his boss. He always wanted to be an architect or least "pretend to be an architect". He first mentions this desire in "The Stake Out", and claims in "The Race" that he had designed "the new addition to the Guggenheim".
During Season 4, George gains experience as a sitcom writer as he helps Jerry to write the pilot for the fictitious show Jerry. While pitching the concept of a "show about nothing" to NBC executives, George begins dating NBC executive Susan Ross until "The Virgin", when she is fired. The Jerry pilot is never picked up.
Fashion and hairstyle
George has balding hair, which is less noticeable in "The Seinfeld Chronicles" or a flashback in "The Slicer", but gets thinner as the series progresses. In "The Beard", he starts to wear a wig, until Elaine throws it out the window in disgust. He also tries to restore his hair in "The Tape", when he starts using a Chinese cream that is said to be such a great cure for baldness that it will make him "look like Stalin". His hair is rarely seen styled. His clothing is usually very plain. He frequently wears jeans and Nike Cortez sneakers. George has, however, mentioned that his clothes are color-coded based on his mood. Several times throughout the show, George mentions a desire to "drape" himself in velvet (if only it were socially acceptable), which he does in "The Doodle". In "The Bizarro Jerry", George can be seen styling his hair based on an Andy Sipowicz poster.
Art Vandelay
Art Vandelay is an alias used by George in "The Stake Out". To explain their presence in the lobby of an office building, Jerry and George come up with a cover story based around a man they plan to meet named Art Vandelay, an importer-exporter who works in the building. George frequently reuses the invented name as a running joke. In "The Boyfriend", George tells the unemployment office he is close to getting a job at "Vandelay Industries". He later tells Susan that Art is Elaine's boyfriend as part of a cover story to prevent Susan from learning that he is dating Marisa Tomei ("The Cadillac"). He again uses the name when asked which authors he reads during an interview with Elaine's publishing house in "The Red Dot". In "The Bizarro Jerry", George asks the receptionist at Brandt/Leland for Mr. Art Vandelay. In "The Serenity Now", George invents fake customers, one of whom is "Mr. Vandelay", to hide his lack of sales success. In "The Puerto Rican Day", George pretends to be Vandelay (Jerry pretends to be "Kel Varnsen", and Kramer is "H.E. Pennypacker") to take advantage of an open house to watch a Mets game on television. In "The Finale", the name of the presiding judge is Arthur Vandelay, much to George's amazement.
Reception
In a list of the "50 Greatest Sidekicks" compiled by Entertainment Weekly, George was placed third behind Robin from the Batman franchise and Ed McMahon, who co-hosted The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from 1962 to 1992. On a The Times-Union list of the 50 greatest sitcom characters of all time, George was ranked third, behind Lucy Ricardo from I Love Lucy and Barney Fife from The Andy Griffith Show. In 1999, TV Guide published a list of the 50 best characters in television history, on which George was ranked 10th. The People called George the greatest television character on a list of the 100 best television characters. British comedian Ricky Gervais and Guardian columnist Marina Hyde have both called George "arguably the greatest sitcom character of all time".
For his performance as George, Alexander was nominated for various awards. In 1992, he received his first Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series; however, he lost the award to Michael Jeter for Evening Shade. He received nominations in the same category the following six years, but failed to win each year. In addition, Alexander was nominated for four Golden Globe Awards—in 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1998—in the Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries, or Motion Picture Made for Television category, but never won the award. In 1995, Alexander received the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series, he also shared the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series with Seinfeld, Louis-Dreyfus, and Richards. From 1996 through 1998, Alexander was nominated in the same two categories, co-winning the ensemble award in 1997 and 1998. In 1999, he was nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series for the last time, but lost to Michael J. Fox for his portrayal of Michael Flaherty on Spin City. In 1992 and 1993, Alexander won the American Comedy Award for Funniest Supporting Male Performer in a TV Series. He was also nominated for the award in 1996 (with Richards) and 1999, but did not win again.
References
Explanatory notes
From "The Puffy Shirt" to "The Opposite", George lives with his parents at 1344 Queens Boulevard (his parents' address is revealed in "The Cigar Store Indian").
Citations
External links
Seinfeld characters
Television characters introduced in 1989
Fictional characters based on real people
Fictional American Jews
Fictional Italian American people
American male characters in television | [
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253630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Starr%20King | Thomas Starr King | Thomas Starr King (December 17, 1824 – March 4, 1864), often known as Starr King, was an American Universalist and Unitarian minister, influential in California politics during the American Civil War, and Freemason. Starr King spoke zealously in favor of the Union and was credited by Abraham Lincoln with preventing California from becoming a separate republic. He is sometimes referred to as "the orator who saved the nation".
Early life
He was born on December 17, 1824, in New York City to Rev. Thomas Farrington King, a Universalist minister, and Susan Starr King. The sole support of his family at 15, he was forced to leave school. Inspired by men like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry Ward Beecher, King embarked on a program of self-study for the ministry. At the age of 20 he took over his father's former pulpit at the Charlestown Universalist Church in Charlestown, Massachusetts.
Career
In 1849, he was appointed pastor of the Hollis Street Church in Boston, where he became one of the most famous preachers in New England and a noted speaker on the lyceum circuit through New England and as far as Chicago. He was ranked as one of the four greatest lyceum speakers, along with Wendell Phillips, Edwin Hubbell Chapin, and Henry Ward Beecher; for some reason, a celebrated fifth speaker, Ralph Waldo Emerson, was not included in this tally. His lyceum lectures for general audiences included "Substance and Show", "Sights and Insights", "The Ideal and the Real", "Existence and Life", and a number of talks on Plato and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. As Edward Everett Hale recounts:
King said that a popular lyceum lecture was made of five parts of sense and five of nonsense. "There are only five men in America," said he, "who know how to mix them—and I think I am one of the five." Other people thought so too, and did not detect the nonsense. His carefully wrought lectures are worth anybody's study today. He is the author of another lyceum chestnut. Some one asked him what his honorarium was for each lecture. "F.A.M.E.," said he—"Fifty And My Expenses."
During those years, Starr King vacationed in the White Mountains of New Hampshire and in 1859 published a book about the area entitled The White Hills; their Legends, Landscapes, & Poetry. In 1860 he accepted a call from the First Unitarian Church of San Francisco, California. In July of that year, he visited Yosemite and was moved spiritually by its splendor. Upon returning to San Francisco, he began preaching a series of sermons on Yosemite, published letters about it in the Boston Evening Transcript, and aligned himself with fellow abolitionist and landscape architect, Frederick Law Olmsted, to have Yosemite set aside as a reserve. Yosemite would become a California State Park and eventually a national park. Starr King joined the Freemasons and was raised to the sublime degree of Master Mason in Oriental Lodge No. 144 in San Francisco, now Phoenix Lodge No. 144, and served as grand orator of the Grand Lodge of California in 1863.
During the Civil War, Starr King spoke zealously in favor of the Union and was credited by Abraham Lincoln with preventing California from becoming a separate republic. At the urging of Jessie Benton Frémont, Starr King teamed up with writer Bret Harte, and Starr King read Harte's patriotic poems at pro-Union speeches. Starr King also read original verses by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and James Russell Lowell which captured the imagination of the Californians. In a letter by Starr King wrote to James T. Fields, the editor of the Atlantic Monthly, "The state must be Northernized thoroughly, by schools, Atlantic Monthlies, lectures, N.E. preachers." On George Washington's birthday in 1861, King spoke for two hours to over a thousand people about how they should remember Washington by preserving the Union:
"I pitched into Secession, Concession and (John C.) Calhoun (former U.S. vice president), right and left, and made the Southerners applaud. I pledged California to a Northern Republic and to a flag that should have no treacherous threads of cotton in its warp, and the audience came down in thunder. At the close it was announced that I would repeat it the next night, and they gave me three rounds of cheers." ... King covered his pulpit with an American flag and ended all his sermons with "God bless the president of the United States and all who serve with him the cause of a common country."
Starr King's younger brother, Edward Starr King, served as captain of the clipper ship Syren. Capt. Starr King arrived in San Francisco aboard Syren just two days after his elder brother's stirring 1861 speech about Washington and the Union, remarking, "Starr has the brains of the family, and I the brawn."
In addition, Starr King organized the Pacific Branch of the United States Sanitary Commission, which raised money and medical materials for wounded soldiers and was the predecessor to the American Red Cross. A fiery orator, he raised more than $1.5 million for the Sanitary Commission headquarters in New York City, one-fifth of the total contributions from all the states in the Union.
Death
The relentless lecture circuit exhausted him, and he died in San Francisco on March 4, 1864, of diphtheria and pneumonia. His dying words were said to be "Beautiful boy", referring to his young son. Over twenty thousand people attended his funeral and several of his friends including Charles Stoddard, Bret Harte and Ina Coolbrith published tributes. King is interred at First Unitarian Church of San Francisco between Starr King and Geary Streets in San Francisco. In the 1940s, most of San Francisco's dead were disinterred and moved to new resting places outside city limits; the grave of Starr King was one of the very few allowed to remain undisturbed.
Honors
Landmarks
Mountain peaks in the White Mountains (Mount Starr King, elevation 1,191 m (3,907 ft)) and in Yosemite National Park (Mount Starr King) are named in his honor.
A giant sequoia in the Calaveras Grove.
Schools
In 1941, the Pacific Unitarian School for the Ministry (Unitarian Universalist), in Berkeley, California, was renamed the Starr King School for the Ministry in his honor
Starr King K–8 School in Carmichael, California
Starr King Elementary School in Long Beach, California
Thomas Starr King Middle School in the Silver Lake neighborhood of Los Angeles
Starr King Elementary School in San Francisco
The Starr King Parent-Child Workshop, founded in 1949 in Santa Barbara, California, is an active cooperative nursery school and parent-education resource
Churches
Starr King Unitarian Universalist Church] in Hayward, California
Starr King Unitarian Universalist Fellowship (SKUUF)] in New Hampshire
Streets
Starr King Way in San Francisco
Starr King Circle in Palo Alto, California
Starr King Court Charlestown Massachusetts
Parks
Starr King Openspace, a park in Potrero Hill, San Francisco
Buildings
Starr King Lodge A.F. & A.M., a Masonic lodge founded in 1864 in Salem, Massachusetts
Statuary and monuments
Thomas Starr King Statue in Golden Gate Park, facing JFK Drive, close to the De Young Museum.
King's church, the First Unitarian Church and his sarcophagus in San Francisco are designated historical monuments.
Statue in California State Capitol
As part of honors originally paid to Rev. King, he was judged worthy of representing California in the National Statuary Hall Collection displayed in the United States Capitol. In 1913, King was voted one of California's two greatest heroes and funds were appropriated for a statue. In 1931, California officially donated a bronze statue of King to be mounted in Statuary Hall.
On August 31, 2006, however, the California Legislature approved a joint resolution to replace Thomas Starr King's statue in Statuary Hall with a statue of Ronald Reagan. The resolution was authored by Republican State Senator Dennis Hollingsworth, who stated the reason for the resolution as, "To be honest with you, I wasn't sure who Thomas Starr King was, and I think there's probably a lot of Californians like me." He also went on to observe that King was not a native of the state though, of course, neither is Reagan (nor was Junípero Serra, the other statue representing California in Statuary Hall).
As a result of this resolution, King's statue was removed from Statuary Hall, and the statue of Ronald Reagan was placed in Statuary Hall on June 10, 2009. In November 2009, Starr King's statue was reinstalled within the Civil War Memorial Grove in Capitol Park, which surrounds the California State Capitol in Sacramento. It was formally dedicated in a ceremony held on December 8, 2009.
Works
A Vacation Among the Sierras: Yosemite in 1860.
The White Hills; their Legends, Landscapes, & Poetry. (1864).
Patriotism and Other Papers. Boston: Tompkins, 1864.
Christianity and Humanity. Boston: Osgood, 1877.
Substance and Show, and Other Lectures. Boston: Houghton & Osgood, 1877.
Footnotes
Further reading
C. D. Bradlee, The Life, Writings, and Character of Rev. Thomas Starr King: A Lecture. Boston: Press of John Wilson and Son, 1870.
Richard Frothingham, A Tribute to Thomas Starr King. Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1865.
Tyler Green, "Carleton Watkins: Making the West American". Oakland: University of California Press, 2018.
Glenna Matthews, The Golden State in the Civil War: Thomas Starr King, the Republican Party, and the Birth of Modern California. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
William Day Simonds, Starr King in California. San Francisco: Paul Elder and Co., 1917.
Arliss Ungar, "Nature Writings: Words of the Rev. Thomas Starr King". Paper presented at the UUA 2004 General Assembly, Long Beach, CA.
Charles William Wendte, Thomas Starr King, Patriot and Preacher. Boston: Beacon Press, 1921.
External links
Thomas Starr King, article from the Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography
Thomas Starr King statue in the National Statuary Hall, U.S. Capitol, Washington, D.C.
United States Sanitary Commission (historical website)
"First Unitarian Universalist Society of San Francisco: Our History"
SF Landmark: Sarcophagus of Thomas Starr King at Franklin Street and Starr King Way
1824 births
1864 deaths
19th-century Unitarian clergy
American abolitionists
American Unitarian clergy
California politicians
California Republicans
United States Sanitary Commission people
19th-century American clergy
Deaths from diphtheria
Deaths from pneumonia in California | [
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253636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COBUILD | COBUILD | COBUILD, an acronym for Collins Birmingham University International Language Database, is a British research facility set up at the University of Birmingham in 1980 and funded by Collins publishers.
The facility was initially led by Professor John Sinclair. The most important achievements of the COBUILD project have been the creation and analysis of an electronic corpus of contemporary text, the Collins Corpus, later leading to the development of the Bank of English, and the production of the monolingual learner's dictionary Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, again based on the study of the COBUILD corpus and first published in 1987.
A number of other dictionaries and grammars have also been published, all based exclusively on evidence from the Bank of English.
References
Further reading
External links
COBUILD Reference
Online English dictionaries
Linguistic research institutes
Applied linguistics | [
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253639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump | Trump | Trump most commonly refers to:
Trump (card games), any playing card given a high ad-hoc rank
Donald Trump (born 1946), 45th president of the United States (2017–2021)
Trump may also refer to:
Businesses and organizations
Donald J. Trump Foundation, a New York-based private foundation
The Trump Organization, a business conglomerate owned by Donald Trump
Film
Trump: The Kremlin Candidate?, a 2017 British television film
Trump: What's the Deal?, an American documentary film screened in 1991 and released in 2015
Games and cards
Court piece or trumps, a trick-taking card game related to whist
Top Trumps, a card game series
Trump: The Game, a board game
Major Arcana or trumps, special cards in the Tarot pack
Literature
Trump (magazine), a 1957 humor magazine
Trump: The Art of the Deal, a 1987 book by Donald Trump and Tony Schwartz
Trump: The Deals and the Downfall, a 1992 biography by Wayne Barrett
Trump: The Art of the Comeback, a 1997 book by Donald Trump and Kate Bohner
Trump: Surviving at the Top, a 1990 book by Donald Trump and Charles Leerhsen
Places
Trump Islands, Antarctica
Trump Islands (Newfoundland and Labrador), Canada
Trump Street, City of London, UK
Trump, Colorado, U.S.
Trump, Maryland, U.S.
Trump, Ohio, U.S.
Ships
HMS Trump (P333), a British submarine, 1944–1969
USCGC William Trump (WPC-1111), a US Coast Guard cutter
Other uses
Trump (surname), a family name (including a list of persons with the name)
Trump family, a family from 17th-century Germany
Family of Donald Trump, the immediate family of the 45th US president
Trump (video game player) or Jeffrey Shih (born 1987), Hearthstone streamer and competitor
The Trump (horse), an Australian racehorse
Trump (dog), a pug owned by English painter William Hogarth
Trumpet or trump
Trumping, an act of flatulence
See also
Donald Trump (disambiguation)
Jew's trump or Jew's harp, a small musical instrument played in the mouth
"The Last Trump", a fantasy story by Isaac Asimov
"The last trump", a trumpet call signaling the resurrection of the dead in 1 Corinthians 15
List of things named after Donald Trump
Thumptown, Pennsylvania, United States (also known as "Trumptown")
Tromp (disambiguation)
Trump card (disambiguation)
Trumped (disambiguation)
Trumpf, a machine tool company
Trumpy (disambiguation)
Van Trump (disambiguation)
Warden Trump, a character in Dragon Quest Monsters: Joker | [
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253644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20S.%20Hornby | A. S. Hornby | Albert Sidney (or Sydney) Hornby, usually just A. S. Hornby (1898–1978), was an English grammarian, lexicographer, and pioneer in the field of English language learning and teaching (ELT).
Hornby was born in Chester and educated at University College London. In April 1924 he went to Japan to teach English at Oita University (Oita Higher Commercial School at the time). He joined Harold E. Palmer in his programme of vocabulary research at the Institute for Research in English Teaching (IRET). Palmer invited him to Tokyo in April 1933 as an assistant; in 1936, Hornby became the technical adviser and editor of IRET's Bulletin.
He began to work the following year with E. V. Gatenby and H. Wakefield on a new type of dictionary that was aimed at foreign learners of English, the first monolingual learners' dictionary. It was completed in 1940 and published by Kaitakusha two years later in Tokyo as The Idiomatic and Syntactic English Dictionary. After leaving Japan in 1942, Hornby joined the British Council and later became the first editor of the journal English Language Teaching, launched in October 1946.
In 1948 his dictionary was reissued by Oxford University Press as A Learner's Dictionary of Current English. The subsequent editions of the dictionary were (1963 second, 1974 third) and continue to be a great commercial success in ELT publishing. It is now in its tenth edition and is known as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary.
The A.S. Hornby Educational Trust was established in 1961. The Trust supports ELT practitioners from developing countries and countries in transition.
References
External links
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
A. P. Cowie, ‘A. S. Hornby: a Centenary Tribute’, EURALEX'98 Proceedings, 1998
Tribute to AS Hornby by a Former Israeli ESL Student
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/58806
1898 births
1978 deaths
British lexicographers
Linguists of English
Alumni of University College London
20th-century lexicographers | [
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253645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varieties%20of%20Chinese | Varieties of Chinese | Chinese, also known as Sinitic, is a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family consisting of hundreds of local varieties, many of which are not mutually intelligible. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast of mainland China. The varieties are typically classified into several groups: Mandarin, Wu, Min, Xiang, Gan, Hakka and Yue, though some varieties remain unclassified. These groups are neither clades nor individual languages defined by mutual intelligibility, but reflect common phonological developments from Middle Chinese.
Chinese varieties differ most in their phonology, and to a lesser extent in vocabulary and syntax. Southern varieties tend to have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. All have phonemic tones, with northern varieties tending to have fewer distinctions than southern ones. Many have tone sandhi, with the most complex patterns in the coastal area from Zhejiang to eastern Guangdong.
Standard Chinese, a form of Mandarin, takes its phonology from the Beijing dialect, with vocabulary from the Mandarin group and grammar based on literature in the modern written vernacular. It is one of the official languages of China.
Taiwanese Mandarin is one of the official languages of Taiwan. Standard Singaporean Mandarin is one of the four official languages of Singapore. Chinese (specifically, Mandarin Chinese) is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.
History
At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, a form of Chinese was spoken in a compact area around the lower Wei River and middle Yellow River. From there it expanded eastwards across the North China Plain to Shandong and then south into the valley of the Yangtze River and beyond to the hills of south China. As the language spread, it replaced formerly dominant languages in those areas, and regional differences grew. Simultaneously, especially in periods of political unity, there was a tendency to promote a central standard to facilitate communication between people from different regions.
The first evidence of dialectal variation is found in texts from the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BC). At that time, the Zhou royal domain, though no longer politically powerful, still defined standard speech. The Fangyan (early 1st century AD) is devoted to differences in vocabulary between regions. Commentaries from the Eastern Han period (first two centuries AD) contain much evidence of local differences in pronunciation. The Qieyun rhyme book (601 AD) noted wide variation in pronunciation between regions, and set out to define a standard pronunciation for reading the classics. This standard, known as Middle Chinese, is believed to be a diasystem based on the reading traditions of northern and southern capitals.
The North China Plain provided few barriers to migration, leading to relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area in northern China. In contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have spawned the other six major groups of Chinese languages, with great internal diversity, particularly in Fujian.
Standard Chinese
Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people spoke only their local language. As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as Guānhuà (官話/官话, literally 'speech of officials'). Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined.
In the early years of the Republic of China, Literary Chinese was replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects. In the 1930s a standard national language was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect, but with vocabulary also drawn from other Mandarin varieties. It is the official spoken language of the People's Republic of China and of the Republic of China (Taiwan), and one of the official languages of Singapore.
Standard Mandarin Chinese now dominates public life in mainland China, and is much more widely studied than any other variety of Chinese. Outside China and Taiwan, the only varieties of Chinese commonly taught in university courses are Standard Mandarin and Cantonese.
Comparison with Europe
Chinese has been likened to the Romance languages of Europe, the modern descendants of Latin. In both cases, the ancestral language was spread by imperial expansion over substrate languages 2000 years ago, by the Qin–Han empire in China and the Roman Empire in Europe. In Western Europe, Medieval Latin remained the standard for scholarly and administrative writing for centuries, and influenced local varieties, as did Literary Chinese in China. In both Europe and China, local forms of speech diverged from the written standard and from each other, producing extensive dialect continua, with widely separated varieties being mutually unintelligible.
On the other hand, there are major differences. In China, political unity was restored in the late 6th century (by the Sui dynasty) and has persisted (with relatively brief interludes of division) until the present day. Meanwhile, Europe remained fragmented and developed numerous independent states. Vernacular writing, facilitated by the alphabet, supplanted Latin, and these states developed their own standard languages. In China, however, Literary Chinese maintained its monopoly on formal writing until the start of the 20th century. The morphosyllabic writing, read with varying local pronunciations, continued to serve as a source of vocabulary and idioms for the local varieties. The new national standard, Vernacular Chinese, the written counterpart of spoken Standard Chinese, is also used as a literary form by literate speakers of all varieties.
Classification
Dialectologist Jerry Norman estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a dialect continuum, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, although there are also some sharp boundaries.
However, the rate of change in mutual intelligibility varies immensely depending on region. For example, the varieties of Mandarin spoken in all three northeastern Chinese provinces are mutually intelligible, but in the province of Fujian, where Min varieties predominate, the speech of neighbouring counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible.
Dialect groups
Classifications of Chinese varieties in the late 19th century and early 20th century were based on impressionistic criteria. They often followed river systems, which were historically the main routes of migration and communication in southern China. The first scientific classifications, based primarily on the evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials, were produced by Wang Li in 1936 and Li Fang-Kuei in 1937, with minor modifications by other linguists since. The conventionally accepted set of seven dialect groups first appeared in the second edition of Yuan Jiahua's dialectology handbook (1961):
Mandarin
This is the group spoken in northern and southwestern China and has by far the most speakers. This group includes the Beijing dialect, which forms the basis for Standard Chinese, called Putonghua or Guoyu in Chinese, and often also translated as "Mandarin" or simply "Chinese". In addition, the Dungan language of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan is a Mandarin variety written in the Cyrillic script.
Wu
These varieties are spoken in Shanghai, most of Zhejiang and the southern parts of Jiangsu and Anhui. The group comprises hundreds of distinct spoken forms, many of which are not mutually intelligible. The Suzhou dialect is usually taken as representative, because Shanghainese features several atypical innovations. Wu varieties are distinguished by their retention of voiced or murmured obstruent initials (stops, affricates and fricatives).
Gan
These varieties are spoken in Jiangxi and neighbouring areas. The Nanchang dialect is taken as representative. In the past, Gan was viewed as closely related to Hakka because of the way Middle Chinese voiced initials became voiceless aspirated initials as in Hakka, and were hence called by the umbrella term "Hakka–Gan dialects".
Xiang
The Xiang varieties are spoken in Hunan and southern Hubei. The New Xiang varieties, represented by the Changsha dialect, have been significantly influenced by Southwest Mandarin, whereas Old Xiang varieties, represented by the Shuangfeng dialect, retain features such as voiced initials.
Min
These varieties originated in the mountainous terrain of Fujian and eastern Guangdong, and form the only branch of Chinese that cannot be directly derived from Middle Chinese. It is also the most diverse, with many of the varieties used in neighbouring counties—and, in the mountains of western Fujian, even in adjacent villages—being mutually unintelligible. Early classifications divided Min into Northern and Southern subgroups, but a survey in the early 1960s found that the primary split was between inland and coastal groups. Varieties from the coastal region around Xiamen have spread to Southeast Asia, where they are known as Hokkien (named from a dialectical pronunciation of "Fujian"), and Taiwan, where they are known as Taiwanese. Other offshoots of Min are found in Hainan and the Leizhou Peninsula, with smaller communities throughout southern China.
Hakka
The Hakka (literally "guest families") are a group of Han Chinese living in the hills of northeastern Guangdong, southwestern Fujian and many other parts of southern China, as well as Taiwan and parts of Southeast Asia such as Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Meixian dialect is the prestige form. Most Hakka varieties retain the full complement of nasal endings, -m -n -ŋ and stop endings -p -t -k, though there is a tendency for Middle Chinese velar codas -ŋ and -k to yield dental codas -n and -t after front vowels.
Yue
These varieties are spoken in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong and Macau, and have been carried by immigrants to Southeast Asia and many other parts of the world. The prestige variety and by far most commonly spoken variety is Cantonese, from the city of Guangzhou (historically called "Canton"), which is also the native language of the majority in Hong Kong and Macau. Taishanese, from the coastal area of Jiangmen southwest of Guangzhou, was historically the most common Yue variety among overseas communities in the West until the late 20th century. Not all Yue varieties are mutually intelligible. Most Yue varieties retain the full complement of Middle Chinese word-final consonants () and have rich inventories of tones.
The Language Atlas of China (1987) follows a classification of Li Rong, distinguishing three further groups:
Jin
These varieties, spoken in Shanxi and adjacent areas, were formerly included in Mandarin. They are distinguished by their retention of the Middle Chinese entering tone category.
Huizhou
The Hui dialects, spoken in southern Anhui, share different features with Wu, Gan and Mandarin, making them difficult to classify. Earlier scholars had assigned to them one or other of these groups, or to a group of their own.
Pinghua
These varieties are descended from the speech of the earliest Chinese migrants to Guangxi, predating the later influx of Yue and Southwest Mandarin speakers. Some linguists treat them as a mixture of Yue and Xiang.
Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect of northwestern Hainan, Waxiang, spoken in a small strip of land in western Hunan, and Shaozhou Tuhua, spoken in the border regions of Guangdong, Hunan, and Guangxi. This region is an area of great linguistic diversity but has not yet been conclusively described.
Most of the vocabulary of the Bai language of Yunnan appears to be related to Chinese words, though many are clearly loans from the last few centuries. Some scholars have suggested that it represents a very early branching from Chinese, while others argue that it is a more distantly related Sino-Tibetan language overlaid with two millennia of loans.
Relationships between groups
Jerry Norman classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three larger groups: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang) and Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min).
He argued that the Southern Group is derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central group was transitional between the Northern and Southern groups. Some dialect boundaries, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined.
Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of wave models. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the Huai River to the Lower Yangtze Mandarin area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the Yangtze River valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.
Quantitative similarity
A 2007 study compared fifteen major urban dialects on the objective criteria of lexical similarity and regularity of sound correspondences, and subjective criteria of intelligibility and similarity. Most of these criteria show a top-level split with Northern, New Xiang, and Gan in one group and Min (samples at Fuzhou, Xiamen, Chaozhou), Hakka, and Yue in the other group. The exception was phonological regularity, where the one Gan dialect (Nanchang Gan) was in the Southern group and very close to Meixian Hakka, and the deepest phonological difference was between Wenzhounese (the southernmost Wu dialect) and all other dialects.
The study did not find clear splits within the Northern and Central areas:
Changsha (New Xiang) was always within the Mandarin group. No Old Xiang dialect was in the sample.
Taiyuan (Jin or Shanxi) and Hankou (Wuhan, Hubei) were subjectively perceived as relatively different from other Northern dialects but were very close in mutual intelligibility. Objectively, Taiyuan had substantial phonological divergence but little lexical divergence.
Chengdu (Sichuan) was somewhat divergent lexically but very little on the other measures.
The two Wu dialects (Wenzhou and Suzhou) occupied an intermediate position, closer to the Northern/New Xiang/Gan group in lexical similarity and strongly closer in subjective intelligibility but closer to Min/Hakka/Yue in phonological regularity and subjective similarity, except that Wenzhou was farthest from all other dialects in phonological regularity. The two Wu dialects were close to each other in lexical similarity and subjective similarity but not in mutual intelligibility, where Suzhou was actually closer to Northern/Xiang/Gan than to Wenzhou.
In the Southern subgroup, Hakka and Yue grouped closely together on the three lexical and subjective measures but not in phonological regularity. The Min dialects showed high divergence, with Min Fuzhou (Eastern Min) grouped only weakly with the Southern Min dialects of Xiamen and Chaozhou on the two objective criteria and was actually slightly closer to Hakka and Yue on the subjective criteria.
Terminology
Local varieties from different areas of China are often mutually unintelligible, differing at least as much as different Romance languages and perhaps even as much as Indo-European languages as a whole. These varieties form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family (with Bai sometimes being included in this grouping). Because speakers share a standard written form, and have a common cultural heritage with long periods of political unity, the varieties are popularly perceived among native speakers as variants of a single Chinese language, and this is also the official position. Conventional English-language usage in Chinese linguistics is to use dialect for the speech of a particular place (regardless of status) while regional groupings like Mandarin and Wu are called dialect groups. ISO 639-3 follows the Ethnologue in assigning language codes to eight of the top-level groups listed above (all but Min and Pinghua) and five subgroups of Min. Other linguists choose to refer to the major groupings as languages. Sinologist David Moser stated that the Chinese authorities refer to them as "dialects" as a way to reinforce China as being a single nation.
In Chinese, the term fāngyán is used for any regional subdivision of Chinese, from the speech of a village to major branches such as Mandarin and Wu. Linguists writing in Chinese often qualify the term to distinguish different levels of classification. All these terms have customarily been translated into English as dialect, a practice that has been criticized as confusing. The neologisms regionalect and topolect have been proposed as alternative renderings of fāngyán.
The only varieties usually recognized as languages in their own right are Dungan and Taz. This is mostly due to political reasons as they are spoken in the former Soviet Union and are usually not written in Han characters but in Cyrillic. Dungan is in fact a variety of Mandarin, with high although asymmetric mutual intelligibility with Standard Mandarin. Various mixed languages, particularly those spoken by ethnic minorities, are also referred to as languages such as Tangwang, Wutun, and E. The Taiwanese Ministry of Education uses the terms "Minnan language" and "Taiwan Minnan language".
Phonology
The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, traditionally analysed as consisting of an initial consonant, a final and a tone. In general, southern varieties have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. Some varieties, such as Cantonese and the Shanghai dialect, include syllabic nasals as independent syllables.
Initials
In the 42 varieties surveyed in the Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects, the number of initials (including a zero initial) ranges from 15 in some southern dialects to a high of 35 in the dialect of Chongming Island, Shanghai.
The initial system of the Fuzhou dialect of northern Fujian is a minimal example. With the exception of , which is often merged with the zero initial, the initials of this dialect are present in all Chinese varieties, although several varieties do not distinguish from . However, most varieties have additional initials, due to a combination of innovations and retention of distinctions from Middle Chinese:
Most non-Min varieties have a labiodental fricative , which developed from Middle Chinese bilabial stops in certain environments.
The voiced initials of Middle Chinese are retained in Wu dialects such as Suzhou and Shanghai, as well as Old Xiang dialects and a few Gan dialects, but have merged with voiceless initials elsewhere.
The Middle Chinese retroflex initials are retained in many Mandarin dialects, including Beijing but not southwestern and southeastern Mandarin varieties.
In many northern and central varieties there is palatalization of dental affricates, velars (as in Suzhou), or both. In some places, including Beijing, palatalized dental affricates and palatalized velars have merged to form a new palatal series.
Finals
Chinese finals may be analysed as an optional medial glide, a main vowel and an optional coda.
Conservative vowel systems, such as those of Gan dialects, have high vowels , and , which also function as medials, mid vowels and , and a low -like vowel. In other dialects, including Mandarin dialects, has merged with , leaving a single mid vowel with a wide range of allophones. Many dialects, particularly in northern and central China, have apical or retroflex vowels, which are syllabic fricatives derived from high vowels following sibilant initials. In many Wu dialects, vowels and final glides have monophthongized, producing a rich inventory of vowels in open syllables. Reduction of medials is common in Yue dialects.
The Middle Chinese codas, consisting of glides and , nasals , and , and stops , and , are best preserved in southern dialects, particularly Yue dialects such as Cantonese. In Jin, Lower Yangtze Mandarin and Wu dialects, the stops have merged as a final glottal stop, while in most northern varieties they have disappeared. In Mandarin dialects final has merged with , while some central dialects have a single nasal coda, in some cases realized as a nasalization of the vowel.
Tones
All varieties of Chinese, like neighbouring languages in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, have phonemic tones. Each syllable may be pronounced with between three and seven distinct pitch contours, denoting different morphemes. For example, the Beijing dialect distinguishes ( "mother"), ( "hemp"), ( "horse") and ( "to scold"). The number of tonal contrasts varies between dialects, with Northern dialects tending to have fewer distinctions than Southern ones. Many dialects have tone sandhi, in which the pitch contour of a syllable is affected by the tones of adjacent syllables in a compound word or phrase. This process is so extensive in Shanghainese that the tone system is reduced to a pitch accent system much like modern Japanese.
The tonal categories of modern varieties can be related by considering their derivation from the four tones of Middle Chinese, though cognate tonal categories in different dialects are often realized as quite different pitch contours. Middle Chinese had a three-way tonal contrast in syllables with vocalic or nasal endings. The traditional names of the tonal categories are "level"/"even" ( ), "rising" ( ) and "departing"/"going" ( ). Syllables ending in a stop consonant , or (checked syllables) had no tonal contrasts but were traditionally treated as a fourth tone category, "entering" ( ), corresponding to syllables ending in nasals , , or .
The tones of Middle Chinese, as well as similar systems in neighbouring languages, experienced a tone split conditioned by syllabic onsets. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late Tang Dynasty, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as "upper" (/ yīn) and "lower" (/ yáng). When voicing was lost in all dialects except the Wu and Old Xiang groups, this distinction became phonemic, yielding eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables. Cantonese maintains these eight tonal categories and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables. (The latter distinction has disappeared again in many varieties.)
However, most Chinese varieties have reduced the number of tonal distinctions. For example, in Mandarin, the tones resulting from the split of Middle Chinese rising and departing tones merged, leaving four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such syllables were distributed amongst the four remaining tones, seemingly at random.
In Wu, voiced obstruents were retained, and the tone split never became phonemic: the higher-pitched allophones occur with initial voiceless consonants, and the lower-pitched allophones occur with initial voiced consonants. (Traditional Chinese classification nonetheless counts these as different tones.) Most Wu dialects retain the tone categories of Middle Chinese, but in Shanghainese several of these have merged.
Many Chinese varieties exhibit tone sandhi, in which the realization of a tone varies depending on the context of the syllable. For example, in Standard Chinese a third tone changes to a second tone when followed by another third tone. Particularly complex sandhi patterns are found in Wu dialects and coastal Min dialects. In Shanghainese, the tone of all syllables in a word is determined by the tone of the first, so that Shanghainese has word rather than syllable tone.
Vocabulary
Most morphemes in Chinese varieties are monosyllables descended from Old Chinese words, and have cognates in all varieties:
Old Chinese had two families of negatives starting with *p- and *m-, respectively. Northern and Central varieties tend to use a word from the first family, cognate with Beijing pu5 , as the ordinary negator. A word from the second family is used as an existential negator 'have not', as in Beijing mei2 and Shanghai m2. In Mandarin varieties this word is also used for 'not yet', whereas in Wu and other groups a different form is typically used. In Southern varieties, negators tend to come from the second family. The ordinary negators in these varieties are all derived from a syllabic nasal *m̩, though it has a level tone in Hakka and Yue and a rising tone in Min. Existential negators derive from a proto-form *mau, though again the tonal category varies between groups.
First- and second-person pronouns are cognate across all varieties. For third-person pronouns, Jin, Mandarin, and Xiang varieties have cognate forms, but other varieties generally use forms that originally had a velar or glottal initial:
Southern varieties also include distinctive substrata of vocabulary of non-Chinese origin. Some of these words may have come from Tai–Kadai and Austroasiatic languages.
Examples of variations
The Min languages are often regarded as furthest removed linguistically from Standard Chinese in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary. Historically, the Min languages were the first to diverge from the rest of the Chinese languages (see the discussion of historical Chinese phonology for more details). The Min languages are also the group with the greatest amount of internal diversity and are often regarded as consisting of at least five separate languages, e.g. Northern Min, Southern Min, Central Min, Eastern Min, and Puxian Min.
To illustrate, in Taiwanese (a variety of Hokkien, a Min language) to express the idea that one is feeling a little ill ("I am not feeling well."), one might say,
Whereas when spoken colloquially in Mandarin, one would say,
Sociolinguistics
Bilingualism with the standard language
In southern China (not including Hong Kong and Macau), where the difference between Standard Chinese and local dialects is particularly pronounced, well-educated Chinese are generally fluent in Standard Chinese, and most people have at least a good passive knowledge of it, in addition to being native speakers of the local dialect. The choice of dialect varies based on the social situation. Standard Chinese is usually considered more formal and is required when speaking to a person who does not understand the local dialect. The local dialect (be it non-Standard Chinese or non-Mandarin altogether) is generally considered more intimate and is used among close family members and friends and in everyday conversation within the local area. Chinese speakers will frequently code switch between Standard Chinese and the local dialect. Parents will generally speak to their children in the local variety, and the relationship between dialect and Mandarin appears to be mostly stable, even a diglossia. Local dialects are valued as symbols of regional cultures.
People generally are tied to the hometown and therefore the hometown dialect, instead of a broad linguistic classification. For example, a person from Wuxi may claim that he speaks Wuxi dialect, even though it is similar to Shanghainese (another Wu dialect). Likewise, a person from Xiaogan may claim that he speaks Xiaogan dialect. Linguistically, Xiaogan dialect is a dialect of Mandarin, but the pronunciation and diction are quite different from spoken Standard Chinese.
Knowing the local dialect is of considerable social benefit, and most Chinese who permanently move to a new area will attempt to pick up the local dialect. Learning a new dialect is usually done informally through a process of immersion and recognizing sound shifts. Generally the differences are more pronounced lexically than grammatically. Typically, a speaker of one dialect of Chinese will need about a year of immersion to understand the local dialect and about three to five years to become fluent in speaking it. Because of the variety of dialects spoken, there are usually few formal methods for learning a local dialect.
Due to the variety in Chinese speech, Mandarin speakers from each area of China are very often prone to fuse or "translate" words from their local language into their Mandarin conversations. In addition, each area of China has its recognizable accents while speaking Mandarin. Generally, the nationalized standard form of Mandarin pronunciation is only heard on news and radio broadcasts. Even in the streets of Beijing, the flavor of Mandarin varies in pronunciation from the Mandarin heard on the media.
Language policy
Chinese Mainland
Within mainland China, there has been a persistent drive towards promoting the standard language (); for instance, the education system is entirely Mandarin-medium from the second year onward. However, usage of local dialect is tolerated and socially preferred in many informal situations. In Hong Kong, colloquial Cantonese characters are never used in formal documents other than quoting witnesses' spoken statements during legal trials, and within the PRC a character set closer to Mandarin tends to be used. At the national level, differences in dialect generally do not correspond to political divisions or categories, and this has for the most part prevented dialect from becoming the basis of identity politics.
Historically, many of the people who promoted Chinese nationalism were from southern China and did not natively speak Mandarin, and even leaders from northern China rarely spoke with the standard accent. Chiang Kai-shek and Sun Yat-sen were also from southern China, and this is reflected in their conventional English names reflecting Cantonese pronunciations for their given names, and differing from their Mandarin pinyin spellings and . One consequence of this is that China does not have a well-developed tradition of spoken political rhetoric, and most Chinese political works are intended primarily as written works rather than spoken works. Another factor that limits the political implications of dialect is that it is very common within an extended family for different people to know and use different dialects.
Taiwan
Before 1945, other than a small Japanese-speaking population, most of the population of Taiwan were Han Chinese, who spoke Taiwanese Hokkien or Hakka, with a minority of Taiwanese aborigines, who spoke Formosan languages. When the Kuomintang retreated to the island after losing the Chinese Civil War in 1949, they brought a substantial influx of speakers of Northern Chinese (and other dialects from across China), and viewed the use of Mandarin as part of their claim to be a legitimate government of the whole of China. Education policy promoted the use of Mandarin over the local languages, and was implemented especially rigidly in elementary schools, with punishments and public humiliation for children using other languages at school.
From the 1970s, the government promoted adult education in Mandarin, required Mandarin for official purposes, and encouraged its increased use in broadcasting. Over a 40-year period, these policies succeeded in spreading the use and prestige of Mandarin through society at the expense of the other languages. They also aggravated social divisions, as Mandarin speakers found it difficult to find jobs in private companies but were favored for government positions. From the 1990s, were offered in elementary and middle schools, first in Yilan county, then in other areas governed by elected Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) politicians, and finally throughout the island.
Singapore
In 1966, the Singaporean government implemented a policy of bilingual education, where Singaporean students learn both English and their designated native language, which was Mandarin for Chinese Singaporeans (even though Singaporean Hokkien had previously been their lingua franca). The Goh Report, an evaluation of Singapore's education system by Goh Keng Swee, showed that less than 40% of the student population managed to attain minimum levels of competency in two languages. It was later determined that the learning of Mandarin among Singaporean Chinese was hindered by home use of other Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese and Hakka. Hence, the government decided to rectify problems facing implementation of the bilingual education policy, by launching a campaign to promote Mandarin as a common language among the Chinese population, and to discourage use of other Chinese varieties.
Launched in 1979 by then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew, the campaign aimed to simplify the language environment for Chinese Singaporeans, improve communication between them, and create a Mandarin-speaking environment conducive to the successful implementation of the bilingual education program. The initial goal of the campaign was for all young Chinese to stop speaking dialects in five years, and to establish Mandarin as the language of choice in public places within 10 years. According to the government, for the bilingual policy to be effective, Mandarin should be spoken at home and should serve as the lingua franca among Chinese Singaporeans. They also argued that Mandarin was more economically valuable, and speaking Mandarin would help Chinese Singaporeans retain their heritage, as Mandarin contains a cultural repository of values and traditions that are identifiable to all Chinese, regardless of dialect group.
See also
Languages of China
List of varieties of Chinese
Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects
Protection of the Varieties of Chinese
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
Further reading
Hatano Tarō (波多野太郎) (1963–1972). Chūgoku hōshi shoroku hōgen kaihen(中国方志所錄方言滙編) Yokohama Shiritsu Daigaku Kiyō(横濱市立大學紀要) Series A-33 no.147, A-34 no.150, A-36 no.154, A-37 no.161, A-40 no.172, A-42 no.182, A-45 no.189, Humanities science no .1, Humanities science no .3. Yokohama : Yokohama City University.
陈晓锦 & 甘于恩 (2010). 东南亚华人社区汉语方言概要(全三册). Guangzhou: 世界图书出版公司. .
External links
, compiled by William Wang and Chin-Chuan Cheng (archived from the originals at City University of Hong Kong)
compiled by Dylan W.H. Sung
Chinese Dialects: search interface to the DOC database, at StarLing
CLDF dataset (Version v4.0). Zenodo.
Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects, by Dylan W.H. Sung (Phonology and Official Romanization Schemes)
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253648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millie%20Corretjer | Millie Corretjer | Milagros Ninette Corretjer Maldonado, known as Millie Corretjer
(born April 18, 1974), is a Puerto Rican singer and actress. She is married to former professional boxer Oscar De La Hoya. She is the granddaughter of influential poet and one-time Secretary General of the pro-independence Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, Juan Antonio Corretjer.
Early life
Corretjer was born on April 18, 1974, in San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Jesús Francisco Corretjer and Milagros Maldonado. Her paternal grandfather was poet and activist Juan Antonio Corretjer Montes, with her paternal great-great grandfather Antoni Corretjer Caire originally from Pineda de Mar, Province of Barcelona, Spain
At the age of 15, Corretjer hosted the Puerto Rican television show La Ola Nueva ("The New Wave").
Musical career
In 1995, she released the album Sola ("Alone"), which sent three of her songs to the Billboard lists. The album featured Spanish versions of Selena songs, "Where Did the Feeling Go?", which was called "Donde te has ido amor", and "Only Love", called "Solo tu", and received a nomination for a Lo Nuestro Award for Best New Artist.
In 1997, Corretjer released her second album, Emociones ("Emotions").
Her third album, 1999's Amar es un Juego, earned her a gold album in Puerto Rico; her song "De Hoy en Adelante" ("From Today On") ranked number one on the Billboard charts for more than six weeks.
Corretjer and her music became well known in Puerto Rico, Mexico, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil (where she lived for six months) and other Latin American countries, as well as in the United States.
Corretjer re-took her singing career in 2020, recording a video of one of her new songs, called "Si yo Fuera Tu" ("If I Were You") by herself and by using an iPhone.
Marriage & children
In 2000, Oscar De La Hoya recorded his first music album. In the studio, while trying to record songs for his album, he was finding it difficult to sing with more passion. To demonstrate passionate singing, his producer Rudy Perez showed him "Una Voz en el Alma", one of Corretjer's music videos from the previous album, which he had produced. De La Hoya asked for the name of the singer in the video, and the producer replied that she was a singer and actress named Millie Corretjer, who had previously worked with him.
De La Hoya asked that Corretjer be the model in his next music video. After meeting each other on an EMI convention in Texas, the two fell in love and began dating. They were married on October 5, 2001, in a secret ceremony in San Juan. They split in 2016.
Corretjer made an appearance in De La Hoya's video "Para Que", and years later he did the same for Corretjer's video "En Cuerpo y Alma".
Corretjer has three children, a son, Oscar Gabriel De La Hoya (born December 29, 2005) and two daughters, Nina Lauren Nenitte De La Hoya (born December 29, 2007) and Victoria Lauren Rose De La Hoya (born January 14, 2014). She also has three former stepchildren through De La Hoya, all from his previous relationships: two ex-stepsons, Jacob De La Hoya (born February 18, 1998) and Devon De La Hoya (born November 30, 1998), and an ex- stepdaughter, Atiana Cecilia De La Hoya (born March 29, 1999).
References
External links
MillieCorretjer.net
1974 births
Living people
People from San Juan, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican television actresses
20th-century Puerto Rican women singers
Puerto Rican people of Catalan descent
Puerto Rican pop singers
Latin pop singers
21st-century Puerto Rican women singers
Women in Latin music | [
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253651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayberry | Mayberry | Mayberry, North Carolina is a fictional community that was the setting for two popular American television sitcoms, The Andy Griffith Show (1960–1968) and Mayberry R.F.D. (1968–1971); Mayberry was also the setting for a 1986 reunion television film titled Return to Mayberry. Mayberry is said to be based on Andy Griffith's hometown of Mount Airy, North Carolina. Mount Airy is also known as Mayberry and called by both names by its residents.
The name "Mayberry"
According to show episodes, the community of Mayberry was named for fictional founder John Mayberry. Purportedly, Andy Griffith himself chose the name of the fictional community. Griffith, however, told Larry King in 2003 that Artie Stander is the person who thought of the name Mayberry; Stander was one of the show's creators and writers.
"Mayberry" is mentioned many times in television shows such as Cheers, House, M.D., Criminal Minds, Supernatural, How I Met Your Mother, Buffy, and Scrubs. According to the episode "The Battle of Mayberry", the town was almost named Taylortown in honor of Colonel Carleton Taylor, who was one of the first settlers in the town.
Specific features
Mayberry had one traffic light and little in the way of indigenous crime with the exception perhaps of moonshining and bootlegging. Speeding was also mentioned in the area, like that on Highway 6 in the fourth season episode "Barney's Sidecar". Out-of-town bank robbers, scam artists, escaped convicts, and vagrants occasionally found their way to Mayberry. The county and the town share the same name and jurisdiction. In episode 44 "Sheriff Barney", the mayor of nearby Greendale relates that Mayberry County has had the lowest crime rate in the state for two years in a row under Sheriff Taylor. The town only had one long-distance telephone line, as referenced in the episode "Man in a Hurry", that two old ladies shared each Sunday preventing others from using the telephone.
In the opening scene of season 8, episode 30 (the last episode), a sign at the railroad station lists the population and elevation of Mayberry:
Population: 5,360
Elevation: 671
However, this conflicts with the comment made by choir director John Masters to Andy Taylor, that "there's got to be a decent tenor in a town of two-thousand people" in the episode The Song Festers - season 4, episode 20. And, in season 7, episode 23 ("The Statue"), Howard Sprague refers to a population of 1,800.
Mayberrites
Nettie Albright (Alberta Nelson), classmate who had a crush on Barney
Amanda (Janet Waldo), local prospect Barney selected to be Andy's future wife
Big Jack Anderson (Nestor Paiva), area moonshiner who ran a still in the Rimshaw House
Teena Andrews (Diahn Williams), local citizen named Irene Phlogg who went on to become a famous movie star
Ramona Ankrum (Jackie Joseph), quiet young woman from the family that owns the Ancrum Charcoal Company and love interest of Ernest T. Bass
Arnold Bailey (Sheldon Collins), friend of Opie
Dr. Lou Bailey (James McCallion), father of Arnold Bailey
Barbara Sue (Gail Lucas), local citizen who wants to win "The Beauty Contest"
Ralph Barton (Charles Lampkin), friend of Sam Jones (RFD)
Ernest T. Bass (Howard Morris), bothersome troublemaker who is fond of throwing rocks through windows
Charlie Beasley (Ray Lanier), local citizen with attractive muscles
Juanita Beasley, never seen waitress at the Bluebird Diner who flirts with Barney over the phone (originally the character named Juanita was portrayed as the Mayor's daughter in season one)
Sam Becker (William Schallert), farmer and Korea War veteran who Barney suspects of growing marijuana
Tom Bedlow (Sam Edwards), local citizen who tried out for the barbershop quartet
Mrs. Beggs (Virginia Sale), local citizen
Dr. Bennett (George Selk), physician
Henry Bennett (John Qualen), local citizen accused by Barney of being a jinx
Billy (Tim Stevenson, John Reilly) friend of Opie
Erma Bishop (Lillian Bronson) crowned Miss Mayberry in beauty contest for her kind and helpful nature
Leonard Blush (Howard Morris), never seen local celebrity and former pupil of voice teacher Eleanora Poultice; "The Voice of Mount Pilot" on Mount Pilot radio station WMPD
Fred Boone (Jesse White), local citizen who loves bickering with his wife
Jennie Boone (Claudia Bryar), wife of Fred Boone
Trey Bowden (David Alan Bailey), friend of Opie
Nate Bracey (Frank Behrens), former classmate of Andy and Barney who attended the "Class Reunion"
Emma Brand-Watson (Cheerio Meredith), serial jaywalker and hypochondriac
Asa Breeney (Charles P. Thompson), security guard
George Bricker (Doodles Weaver), postman
Ellen Brown (Barbara Eden), manicurist who came to Mayberry in search of a friendly town
Karen Burgess (Ronda Jeter), Opie's classmate and girlfriend
Otis Campbell (Hal Smith), town drunk and descendant of a Revolutionary War hero
Rita Campbell (Dorothy Neumann), wife of Otis Campbell
Ella Carson (Ruth Thom), local citizen seen in three episodes
Mary Alice Carter (Morgan Brittany), Opie's first love
Emmett Clark (Paul Hartman), fix-it shop owner
Martha Clark (Mary Lansing), wife of Emmett Clark
Miss Clark (Luana Anders), local citizen seen in two episodes
Flip Conroy (Rockne Tarkington), football coach at Opie's school
The Country Boys (Billy Ray Latham on banjo, Leroy Mack and Clarence White on guitar, Eric White on bass, and Roland White on mandolin), five member bluegrass band (The Country Boys are a real-life band who appear in two episodes)
Mr. Crawford (Robert F. Simon), pharmacist
Billy Crenshaw (Johnny Bangert), Opie's rival for a delivery boy job
Glen Cripe (Delos Jewkes), bass singer in the Mayberry town choir
Lydia Crosswaith (Josie Lloyd), romantic interest of Goober Pyle
Art Crowley (Frank Warren), grocer
Old Man Crowley (Burt Mustin), local citizen
Helen Crump (Aneta Corsaut), Kansas transplant, Opie's teacher, and Andy's girlfriend (later appearing as his wife in Mayberry R.F.D.)
The Darlings (Denver Pyle as Briscoe Darling Jr., Maggie Peterson as Charlene Darling, and The Dillards as the Darling Boys), hillbilly family that plays bluegrass music with Andy in several episodes
Sharon DeSpain (Peggy McCay), Andy's high school flame who returned to Mayberry for the "Class Reunion"
Fletch Dilbeck (Jon Lormer), local farmer who sells crops from the bed of his Chevrolet truck
Mr. Doakes (Norris Goff), grocer
Clara Edwards (Hope Summers), Aunt Bee's best friend (also called Clara Johnson or Bertha Edwards in early episodes)
Ella (Ann Morgan Guilbert), resident who writes a society column for The Mayberry Gazette
Elmo (Vince Barnett), local citizen
Warren Ferguson (Jack Burns), Boston transplant and replacement deputy even more inept than Fife
Barney Fife (Don Knotts), Andy's lifelong friend (originally portrayed as his cousin in the pilot episode and through the first season) and deputy sheriff; later a detective with the Raleigh, North Carolina Police Department
Judd Fletcher (Burt Mustin), elderly local citizen
Charles 'Charley' Foley (Stanley Farrar, Frank Ferguson), proprietor of Foley's Grocery
Jubal Foster (Everett Sloane), local farmer and moonshiner
Mrs. Foster (Irene Tedrow), neighbor of the Taylor family whose chicken a-la-king tasted like "wallpaper paste"
Mr. Frisby (Charles Lane), local farmer and egg man
The Fun Girls (Joyce Jameson as Skippy and Jean Carson as Daphne), Andy and Barney's dates
Fred Goss (Fred Sherman), runs Mayberry's dry cleaning establishment
Billy Gray (Kim Tyler), friend of Opie
Sue Grigsby (Vici Raaf), wife of Harold Grigsby
Mr. Hampton (Leon Ames), principal at Mayberry Union High School
Ralph Hanes (Don Haggerty), former classmate of Barney and Andy's who attended the "Class Reunion"
Harold Grigsby (Kelly Thordsen), saw mill owner
Harvey (Anthony Jochim), local citizen seen in two episodes
Evan Hendricks (Bobby Diamond), wild-driving son of Orville, known to break an egg or two
Orville Hendricks (Woodrow Chambliss), butter and egg man from Mount Pilot
Hilda Mae (Florence MacMichael), Barney's girlfriend in season one (replaced by Thelma Lou)
George Hollander (Sandy Kenyon), high school history teacher
Martha Hollister (Kay Stewart), wife of Rafe Hollister
Rafe Hollister (Jack Prince), local farmer and moonshiner
Cy Hudgins (Forrest Lewis), local farmer who owns a goat named Jimmy that eats almost anything
Millie Hutchins (Arlene Golonka), girlfriend of Sam Jones
Jason (Phil Chambers), clerk at the Mayberry Hotel
Johnny Paul Jason (Richard Keith), best friend of Opie; nephew of Charley Foley
Joe (Rob Reiner), printer's apprentice
Mike Jones (Buddy Foster), son of Sam Jones (RFD)
Sam Jones (Ken Berry), farmer, single parent, and widower (like Andy); head of the Mayberry town council in Mayberry R.F.D.
Tillie Kincaid (Maxine Semon), friend of Clara Edwards and Aunt Bee
Edna Larch (Maudie Prickett), local citizen seen in four episodes
Floyd Lawson (Howard McNear), barber at Floyd's Barber Shop; father of Norman and Randall Lawson
Leon (Clint Howard), toddler in a cowboy outfit who wanders the streets of Mayberry
Clara Lindsey (Mary Treen), wife of Sam Lindsey
Jim Lindsey (James Best), talented guitarist who joins Bobby Fleet and His Band with a Beat
Sam Lindsey (Frank Ferguson), husband of Clara Lindsey
Flora Malherbe (Alberta Nelson), waitress at the Mayberry Diner; becomes Goober's girlfriend
John Masters (Olan Soule), hotel clerk and director of the town's singing choir
Mr. McBeevee (Karl Swenson), lineman, who according to Opie, walks in the trees, wears a silver hat, jingles when he walks, and has twelve extra hands
Peggy McMillan (Joanna Moore), nurse and Andy's girlfriend
Mr. Meldrim (Warren Parker), president of Mayberry Security Bank
Mrs. Mendelbright (Enid Markey), Barney's landlady
Merle (Sherwood Keith), town councilman
Malcolm Merriweather (Bernard Fox), English valet
Bert Miller (Sterling Holloway), peddler
Orville Monroe (Jonathan Hole), undertaker and TV repairman
Jimmy Morgan (Pat Colby), mechanic at Wally's accused of being a thief
Morrison Sisters (Gladys Hurlbut as Clarabelle Morrison and Charity Grace as Jennifer Morrison), moonshiners who runs the local flower shop
Sam Muggins (Sam Edwards), moonshiner accused of stealing business from the department store, incarcerated at the Mayberry Jail on Christmas Eve with his family (Margaret Kerry as wife, Bess; Joy Ellison as daughter, Effie; and Kelly Flynn as Billy Muggins)
Frank Myers (Andy Clyde), elderly resident evicted for not paying taxes
Mavis Neff (Elaine Joyce), employee at Walker's Drugstore who went on a date with Andy
Charlie O'Malley (Willis Bouchey), wealthy resident who also owns a cabin outside of town
Mrs. Pendleton (Ruth McDevitt), head of the Mayberry school board and good friend of Martha Clark and Aunt Bee
Pete (George Dunn), local citizen frequently seen in Floyd's Barbershop
Burly Peters (Thom Carney), local citizen who plays the drums in the Mayberry Band
Dr. Thomas Peterson (William Christopher), physician who replaced the retiring Dr. Bennett
Whitey Porter (Joey Scott), friend of Opie
Josephine Pike (Josie Lloyd), daughter of Mayor Pike
Mayor Pike (Dick Elliott) mayor in the first two seasons (1960–61)
Whitey Porter (Joey Scott), friend of Opie
Howie Pruitt (Dennis Rush), good friend of Opie
Jeff Pruitt (Alan Hale) farmer who came to Mayberry to find a wife
Gomer Pyle (Jim Nabors), service station attendant at Wally's Filling Station for three seasons (1962–64) (left Mayberry to join the Marine Corps in Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.)
Goober Pyle (George Lindsey), auto mechanic at Wally's Garage and Filling Station (later service station owner)
Dr. Roberts (Charles P. Thompson), local physician
Mrs. Rodenbach (Mary Lansing), local citizen seen in three episodes
Rose (Mary Treen), Andy's housekeeper who got married and moved away, replaced by Aunt Bee
Rosemary (Rachel Ames), local prospect Barney selected to be Andy's future wife
Sam (Sherwood Keith), local citizen often seen in Floyd's Barber Shop
Sandy (Sherman Sanders), square dance caller
Sarah, often spoken to, but never seen, telephone operator
Ed Sawyer (William Lanteau), mysterious stranger who moves to Mayberry and disrupts the lives of the townspeople because he appears to know startling facts about them
Mr. Schwamp, (portrayed by unknown) local citizen seen in at least 26 episodes of The Andy Griffith Show; also appeared in Gomer Pyle U.S.M.C. and Mayberry R.F.D.
Ben Sewell (Jack Prince), moonshiner who was ratted out by the Morrison sisters
Sharon (Barbara Griffith), part of the Mayberry choir (portrayed by Andy Griffith's real life wife, Barbara Edwards)
Sheldon (Terry Dickinson), local bully who extorts Opie for his milk money
Annabelle Silby (Lurene Tuttle), local do-gooder and wife of Tom Silby
Tom Silby (Stuart Erwin), local citizen who returns to town after being declared dead
Mr. Simmons (Richard Collier), proprietor of company called Simmons Seeds
Minnie 'Mary' Simpson (Julie Adams, Sue Ane Langdon), county nurse
Rube Sloane (Thom Carney), moonshiner who was ratted out by the Morrison sisters
Howard Sprague (Jack Dodson), county clerk
Mrs. Sprague (Mabel Albertson), overbearing mother of Howard Sprague
Fred Stevens (Pat Coghlan), owner of Sterling Jewelry Store
Roy Stoner (Parley Baer), mayor of Mayberry for three seasons (1962–64), replacing Mayor Pike
Henrietta Swanson (Elvia Allman), local citizen whose daughter, Darlene, wants to enter "The Beauty Contest"
Millie Swanson (Arlene Golonka), bakery clerk and girlfriend of Sam Jones (RFD)
Billy Ray Talbot (Dub Taylor), postmaster
Cyrus Tankersley (George Cisar), local citizen
Andy Taylor (Andy Griffith), sheriff and widowed father
Beatrice Taylor (Frances Bavier), Andy's aunt and housekeeper, known as Aunt Bee
Opie Taylor (Ronny Howard), son of Andy
Thelma Lou (Betty Lynn), Barney's sweetheart
Farley Thurston (Lyle Latell), butter and egg man
Tommy (Dennis Holmes), friend of Opie
Rev. Hobart M. Tucker (William Keene), Pastor of the All Souls Church
Myra Tucker (Amzie Strickland), local citizen seen in two episodes
Farley Upchurch (Frank Cady, Clinton Sundberg), local citizen seen in two episodes
Ellie Walker (Elinor Donahue), pharmacist and one-time love interest of Andy
Fred Walker (Harry Antrim), proprietor of Walker's Drug Store; uncle of Ellis Walker
Gilly Walker (Larry Hovis), high-strung friend of Goober Pyle
Wally (Norman Leavitt, Trevor Bardette, Cliff Norton, Blackie Hunt), proprietor and principal mechanic of Wally's Filling Station (no last name is ever given for Wally)
Dudley A. 'Dud' Wash (Hoke Howell, Bob Denver), fiancée and eventual husband of Charlene Darling; father of Andelina Wash.
Joe Waters (Bob McQuain), local citizen seen in five episodes
Ben Weaver (Will Wright, Tol Avery, Jason Johnson), flint-hearted proprietor of Weaver's Department Store and local landlord
Mary Wiggins (Joy Ellison), classmate of Opie
Mrs. Wiley (Doris Packer), genealogy researcher who called Ernest T. Bass "a creature"
Ramona Wiley-Becktoris (Virginia Eiler), one-time resident who dated Barney Fife and returned to Mayberry for the "Class Reunion"
Arnold Winkler (Ronnie Dapo), friend of Opie
Archetypal small town
Real-life models
Many assume Mayberry was loosely based on Andy Griffith's hometown of Mount Airy, North Carolina, but actually, Griffith has indicated that nearby Pilot Mountain, also in Surry County, North Carolina, inspired him in creating the town. Pilot Mountain likely was the inspiration for the fictional town of "Mount Pilot", a nearby larger town in relation to Mayberry, often referred to and occasionally visited by the characters in The Andy Griffith Show. The county seat of Surry County is in Dobson; thus, this is the location of the nearest courthouse to Mount Airy. One episode has a fictional nearby location - "Pierce County". Another episode has Barney Fife referring to Sheriff Taylor and himself as "the law west of Mount Pilot".
Other place names used in the show refer to actual places in North Carolina, such as Raleigh—which was also often called "Capital City" – Siler City, Greensboro, Winston-Salem, Chapel Hill, Stokes County, Elm City and Charlotte. One of the stars of the show, Frances Bavier (who played Aunt Bee) retired to Siler City in real life. (Betty Lynn who played Thelma Lou retired to Mount Airy.)
In episode 248 "A Girl For Goober", the towns of Manteo and Toast are mentioned. Andy Griffith owned a home in Manteo (on North Carolina's Atlantic coast), and Toast is about two miles outside of Mt. Airy in Surry County. Stokes County, which borders Surry County to the east, is mentioned as the location of Myers Lake in episode 140 "Andy And Helen Have Their Day".
In episode 62 "Cousin Virgil", the bus picks up Barney's cousin in Currituck. A Currituck County is located in eastern North Carolina.
In episode 17 "Alcohol And Old Lace" while looking for moonshine stills, Barney suggests looking into Fancy Gap, Virginia, a town just across the state line from Mt. Airy.
In episode 60 "Bookie Barber", Aunt Bee states that Floyd's Barber Shop has received phone calls from as far away as Morehead City.
In episode 136 "Opie's Fortune", a man from Bannertown lost $50. Bannertown is a few miles from Mt. Airy in Surry County.
In episode 68 "Barney Mends a Broken Heart", the towns of Harnett and Yancey are mentioned. Both a Harnett County and a Yancey County are in North Carolina. In episode 3 "The Guitar Player" played by James Best, who later played Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane on The Dukes of Hazzard, Best's character Jim Lindsey buys his guitar picks in Winston-Salem, which is actually the nearest big city to Mount Airy (37 miles).
In Season 4, Episode 3 of Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C., (“Corporal Carol”) Gomer tells the corporal (played by Carol Burnett) that he is from Mayberry, North Carolina, “just a little bitty town about 30 miles outside of Raleigh“.
Origins and expansion
Mayberry originated in an episode of The Danny Thomas Show and was the setting for The Andy Griffith Show, Mayberry RFD, and the 1986 reunion film Return to Mayberry.
Eponymous real life community
Mayberry is the name of a real community in Patrick County, Virginia; located 22 miles northeast of Andy Griffith's hometown of Mount Airy, North Carolina. The Mayberry Trading Post, home of the Mayberry, Virginia post office until it closed in 1922, told local TV station WGHP-TV that Griffith and his father made many trips to the Mayberry Trading Post.
Town landmarks
Public Buildings
The Mayberry Courthouse – Was where Sheriff Andy Taylor and Deputy Barney Fife maintained law and order. It also contained the county jail—two cells, a back room, and the mayor's office upstairs. No inside stairs are seen, although there is an outside fire escape. Aside from Andy Taylor's home, this was the main setting for The Andy Griffith Show.
Mayberry Security Bank – The town's only bank, was often subject to robberies. It contains a large vault, and its only security guard is a senile man named Asa, who is constantly sleeping and whose fall-apart dilapidated gun is filled with moldy bullets. An interesting plot hole about the vault: in one episode, the vault combination was lost so an extra door was put in the vault. But in another episode, Barney Fife gets himself locked in the safe and only escapes by breaking the wall between the vault and the next-door beauty parlor.
Mayberry Union High School – The high school from which Andy and Barney graduated in 1948. In the episode "The Return of Barney Fife", which originally aired 01/10/1966, Barney and Andy attend their high school reunion. Behind the small orchestra playing during the dance hangs a banner that reads "Welcome Class of '48". However, in the episode "Class Reunion", which originally aired 02/04/1963 Andy and Barney organize a class reunion in which the banner reads "Class of '45".
U.S. Post Office – The town's only post office.
Houses
Taylor House – Humble, yet handsome, two-story frame house at 332 Maple Road (though once noted by Barney to be on Elm St.), a short walk from the courthouse. Notable features include a front porch perfect for conversation and guitar playing, a back porch with an extra freezer, and a living room with a high ceiling and rough-hewn (rusticated ashlar) stone fireplace.
Mrs. Mendalbright's Rooming House – Barney Fife boards upstairs and his landlady is Mrs. Mendalbright.
Thelma Lou's House – The home of Thelma Lou, Barney's girlfriend.
Helen Crump's House – The home of Helen Crump, Andy's girlfriend and Opie's teacher.
Mrs. Wiley's House – The home of Mrs. Wiley, which is frequently subject to parties, two of which were crashed by Ernest T. Bass.
The Rimshaw House – The "haunted" house of the deceased Old Man Rimshaw where Otis Campbell and Big Jack Anderson were running a still.
Entertainment/Religious Venues
All Souls Church – also known as Community Church – Was the non-denominational Protestant church the Taylor's and other townspeople attended in Mayberry. It could seat around 40 people and a choir. The church hosted an annual picnic and an annual bazaar.
The Grand Theatre – The movie theater where Andy and Barney often took their girlfriends (Helen Crump and Thelma Lou, respectively) on dates.
Commercial Establishments
Emmett's Fix-it Shop – Handyman Emmett Clark's business replaced Floyd's when Howard McNear left the show.
Fleur De Lis Beauty Salon – Located just down Main Street from the Mayberry Courthouse and Walker's Drugstore.
Floyd's Barber Shop – Run by the scatterbrained Floyd Lawson, it was the main center of action in Mayberry. On any given day, it was not unusual to see many of the town's important figures, including the mayor and the sheriff, gathered here.
Monroe's Funeral Parlor – Owned by city councilman Orville Monroe who also repairs TV's at Monroe's TV Repair when the funeral business is slow.
Simmons Seeds – Run by Mr. Simmons.
F. Wakefield Beauty Salon – Located on Main Street across Luken's, where Aunt Bee and Clara Johnson get their hair done.
Walker's Drug Store – This was the town drug store and soda shop owned by Fred Walker. His niece Ellie (Elinor Donahue), also a pharmacist, worked there for a while and was Andy's first girlfriend on the show. In the early episodes, characters often talked about "going to Walker's for an ice cream soda."
Wally's Filling Station – The town's only known gas station, it employed cousins Gomer and Goober Pyle. It also served as the town's auto repair garage.
Places to Shop
Foley's Grocery – also known as Crowley's Market – The main grocery store in Mayberry frequented by many of the ladies in town. It was located across from the Mayberry Hotel. Mr. Foley is the owner of the store, but apparently tasks Art Crowley with running day-to-day operations.
Luken's Style Shop – Small boutique located on Main Street operated by Mrs. Lukens.
Morrison Sisters Flower Shop – Owned by sisters Clarabelle and Jennifer Morrison who also run a moonshine still.
Mort's Clothing Store – Located next to the Fleur De Lis Beauty Salon.
Nelson's Hardware Store – Barney took Thelma Lou there to see a new window-display of bicycle accessories.
Sterling Jewelry Store – Fred Sterling, the owner, sells jewelry and silver, and does re-sizings and watch repairs.
Weaver's Department Store – Run by the miserly Ben Weaver.
Willick's Shoe Store – Shoe Store in Mayberry owned by Harvey Willick.
Places to Eat
Bluebird Diner – This was the restaurant where Barney was often seen calling to talk to his secret love, the enigmatic waitress "Juanita". A man named Frank owns the diner. It is located on the outskirts of Mayberry, near Myer's Lake. Mount Airy has a family-owned restaurant called the Bluebird Diner.
Mayberry Diner – The main restaurant in Mayberry that Barney and Andy frequent for its inexpensive daily specials.
Morelli's – A more upscale restaurant outside of town. Known for its special dinner, the pounded steak supper, "pounded on the premises."
Snappy Lunch – Diner named after a real eatery that still serves lunch in Mount Airy, North Carolina.
Lodging
Mayberry Hotel – Where out-of-towners often stayed, the Mayberry Hotel was also where choir director John Masters was employed.
Physical Landmarks
Myer's Lake – As seen in the opening credits of The Andy Griffith Show, it was the place Andy and Opie Taylor went fishing, and where Barney often drove with Thelma Lou for their "romantic getaways". The fictional lake was mentioned on the show as being located in Stokes County, North Carolina. Stokes County is a real county next to Surry County where Andy Griffith was born and raised. Franklin Canyon Park was used for filming.
In popular culture
Due to the success and fame of the television show, "Mayberry" has been used as a term for both idyllic small-town life and for rural simplicity (for both good and ill).
In a song by Rascal Flatts titled "Mayberry", the town is mentioned: "Well I miss Mayberry sitting on the porch drinking ice cold Cherry Coke where everything is black and white."
In the Lynyrd Skynyrd song “Simple Life” (from the album “God & Guns”), there’s a line in the lyrics: “…put my feet up, watch a rerun on TV,
Laughing with Ole Barney, Andy and Aunt Bee…”.
In the song called "Grandpa's Interview" on the Neil Young album Greendale: "Shows with love and affection, Like mama used to say, A little Mayberry livin', Can go a long way."
Home, the second episode of the fourth season of the television show The X-Files, makes frequent references to Mayberry because of the size of the town in which the investigation takes place.
In the song "High-Tech Redneck" on the George Jones album of the same name, the town is mentioned: "He's a high-tech redneck, Mayberry meets Startrek."
In the fifth episode of the seventh season of Desperate Housewives, Doug refers to Wisteria Lane as ‘Mayberry’ due to the apparent idyllic suburbs where the show is set.
References
External links
Behind the Scenes of the Real Mayberry A behind the scenes look at The Andy Griffith Show and the real Mayberry, includes filming locations, the stars made on the show, and Mayberry trivia.
Fictional populated places in North Carolina
Mount Airy, North Carolina
Fictional elements introduced in 1960
The Andy Griffith Show | [
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253655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sword-and-sandal | Sword-and-sandal | Sword-and-sandal, also known as peplum (pepla plural), is a subgenre of largely Italian-made historical, mythological, or Biblical epics mostly set in the Greco-Roman or medieval period. These films attempted to emulate the big-budget Hollywood historical epics of the time, such as Ben-Hur, Cleopatra, Quo Vadis, The Robe, Spartacus, Samson and Delilah and The Ten Commandments. These films dominated the Italian film industry from 1958 to 1965, eventually being replaced in 1965 by spaghetti Western and Eurospy films.
The term "peplum" (a Latin word referring to the Ancient Greek garment peplos), was introduced by French film critics in the 1960s. The terms "peplum" and "sword-and-sandal" were used in a condescending way by film critics. Later, the terms were embraced by fans of the films, similar to the terms "spaghetti Western" or "shoot-'em-ups". In their English versions, peplum films can be immediately differentiated from their Hollywood counterparts by their use of "clumsy and inadequate" English language dubbing. A 100-minute documentary on the history of Italy's peplum genre was produced and directed by Antonio Avati in 1977 entitled Kolossal: i magnifici Maciste (aka Kino Kolossal).
Italian epic films set in antiquity that were produced before the 1958 peplum wave proper, such as Fabiola (1949) and Ulysses (1954), have been called proto-peplum, and recent films set in such Greco-Roman times (made after the peplum wave ended in 1965) have been called neo-peplum.
Genre characteristics
Sword-and-sandal films are a specific class of Italian adventure films that have subjects set in Biblical or classical antiquity, often with plots based more or less loosely on Greco-Roman history or the other contemporary cultures of the time, such as the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Etruscans, as well as medieval times. Not all of the films were fantasy-based by any means. Many of the plots featured actual historical personalities such as Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, and Hannibal, although great liberties were taken with the storylines. Gladiators and slaves rebelling against tyrannical rulers, pirates and swashbucklers were also popular subjects.
As Robert Rushing defines it, peplum, "in its most stereotypical form, [...] depicts muscle-bound heroes (professional bodybuilders, athletes, wrestlers, or brawny actors) in mythological antiquity, fighting fantastic monsters and saving scantily clad beauties. Rather than lavish epics set in the classical world, they are low-budget films that focus on the hero's extraordinary body." Thus, most sword-and-sandal films featured a superhumanly strong man as the protagonist, such as Hercules, Samson, Goliath, Ursus or Italy's own popular folk hero Maciste. In addition, the plots typically involved two women vying for the affection of the bodybuilder hero: the good love interest (a damsel in distress needing rescue), and an evil femme fatale queen who sought to dominate the hero.
Also, the films typically featured an ambitious ruler who would ascend the throne by murdering those who stood in his path, and often it was only the muscular hero who could depose him. Thus, Maria Elena D'Amelio points out the hero's often political goal: "to restore a legitimate sovereign against an evil dictator."
Many of the peplum films involved a clash between two populations, one civilized and the other barbaric, which typically included a scene of a village or city being burned to the ground by invaders. For their musical content, most films contained a colorful dancing girls sequence, meant to underline pagan decadence.
Precursors of the sword-and-sandal wave (pre-1958)
Italian films of the silent era
Italian filmmakers paved the way for the peplum genre with some of the earliest silent films dealing with the subject, including the following:
The Sack of Rome (1905)
Agrippina (1911)
The Fall of Troy (1911)
The Queen of Nineveh (1911, directed by Luigi Maggi)
Brutus (1911)
Quo Vadis (1913, directed by Enrico Guazzoni)
Antony and Cleopatra (1913)
Cabiria (1914, directed by Giovanni Pastrone)
Julius Caesar (1914)
Saffo (Sappho, 1918, directed by Antonio Molinari)
The Crusaders (1918)
Fabiola (1918) directed by Enrico Guazzoni
Attila (1919, directed by F. Mari)
Venere (Venus, 1919, directed by Antonio Molinari)
Il mistero di Osiris (The Mystery of Osiris, 1919) directed by Antonio Molinari
Giuliano l'Apostata (1919, directed by Ugo Falena)
Giuditta e Oloferne (Judith and Holofernes, 1920) directed by Antonio Molinari
The Sack of Rome, (1920) directed by Enrico Guazzoni
Messalina, (1924) directed by Enrico Guazzoni
Gli ultimi giorni di Pompei (The Last Days of Pompeii (1926) directed by Carmine Gallone and Amleto Palermi)
The silent Maciste films (1914–1927)
The 1914 Italian silent film Cabiria was one of the first films set in antiquity to make use of a massively muscled character, Maciste (played by actor Bartolomeo Pagano), who served in this premiere film as the hero's slavishly loyal sidekick. Maciste became the public's favorite character in the film however, and Pagano was called back many times to reprise the role. The Maciste character appeared in at least two dozen Italian silent films from 1914 through 1926, all of which featured a protagonist named Maciste although the films were set in many different time periods and geographical locations.
Here is a complete list of the silent Maciste films in chronological order:
Cabiria (1914) introduced the Maciste character
Maciste (1915) "The Marvelous Maciste"
Maciste bersagliere ("Maciste the Ranger", 1916)
Maciste alpino ("Maciste The Warrior", 1916)
Maciste atleta ("Maciste the Athlete", 1917)
Maciste medium ("Maciste the Clairvoyant", 1917)
Maciste poliziotto ("Maciste the Detective", 1917)
Maciste turista ("Maciste the Tourist", 1917)
Maciste sonnambulo ("Maciste the Sleepwalker", 1918)
La Rivincita di Maciste ("The Revenge of Maciste", 1919)
Il Testamento di Maciste ("Maciste's Will", 1919)
Il Viaggio di Maciste ("Maciste's Journey", 1919)
Maciste I ("Maciste the First", 1919)
Maciste contro la morte ("Maciste vs Death", 1919)
Maciste innamorato ("Maciste in Love", 1919)
Maciste in vacanza ("Maciste on Vacation", 1920)
Maciste salvato dalle acque ("Maciste Rescued from the Waters", 1920)
Maciste e la figlia del re della plata ("Maciste and the Silver King's Daughter", 1922)
Maciste und die Japanerin ("Maciste and the Japanese", 1922)
Maciste contro Maciste ("Maciste vs. Maciste", 1923)
Maciste und die chinesische truhe ("Maciste and the Chinese Trunk", 1923)
Maciste e il nipote di America ("Maciste's American Nephew", 1924)
Maciste imperatore ("Emperor Maciste", 1924)
Maciste contro lo sceicco ("Maciste vs. the Sheik", 1925)
Maciste all'inferno ("Maciste in Hell", 1925)
Maciste nella gabbia dei leoni ("Maciste in the Lions' Den", 1926)
il Gigante delle Dolemite ("The Giant From the Dolomite", released in 1927)
Italian fascist and post-war historical epics (1937-1956)
The Italian film industry released several historical films in the early sound era, such as the big-budget Scipione l'Africano (Scipio Africanus: The Defeat of Hannibal) in 1937. In 1949, the postwar Italian film industry remade Fabiola (which had been previously filmed twice in the silent era). The film was released in the United Kingdom and in the United States in 1951 in an edited, English-dubbed version. Fabiola was an Italian-French co-production like the following films The Last Days of Pompeii (1950) and Messalina (1951).
During the 1950s, a number of American historical epics shot in Italy were released. In 1951, MGM producer Sam Zimbalist cleverly used the lower production costs, use of frozen funds and the expertise of the Italian film industry to shoot the large-scale Technicolor epic Quo Vadis in Rome. In addition to its fictional account linking the Great Fire of Rome, the Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire and Emperor Nero, the film - following the novel "Quo vadis" by the Polish writer Henryk Sienkiewicz - featured also a mighty protagonist named Ursus (Italian filmmakers later made several pepla in the 1960s exploiting the Ursus character). MGM also planned Ben Hur to be filmed in Italy as early as 1952.
Riccardo Freda's Sins of Rome was filmed in 1953 and released by RKO in an edited, English-dubbed version the following year. Unlike Quo Vadis, there were no American actors or production crew. The Anthony Quinn film Attila (directed by Pietro Francisci in 1954), the Kirk Douglas epic Ulysses (co-directed by an uncredited Mario Bava in 1954) and Helen of Troy (directed by Robert Wise with Sergio Leone as an uncredited second unit director in 1955) were the first of the big peplum films of the 1950s. Riccardo Freda directed another peplum, Theodora, Slave Empress in 1954, starring his wife Gianna Maria Canale. Howard Hawks directed his Land of the Pharaohs (starring Joan Collins) in Italy and Egypt in 1955. Robert Rossen made his film Alexander the Great in Egypt in 1956, with a music score by famed Italian composer Mario Nascimbene.
The main sword-and-sandal period (1958-1965)
To cash in on the success of the Kirk Douglas film Ulysses, Pietro Francisci planned to make a film about Hercules, but searched unsuccessfully for years for a physically convincing yet experienced actor. His daughter spotted American bodybuilder Steve Reeves in the American film Athena and he was hired to play Hercules in 1957 when the film was made. (Reeves was paid $10,000 to star in the film).
The genre's instantaneous growth began with the U.S. theatrical release of Hercules in 1959. American producer Joseph E. Levine acquired the U.S. distribution rights for $120,000, spent $1 million promoting the film and made more than $5 million profit. This spawned the 1959 Steve Reeves sequel Hercules Unchained, the 1959 re-release of Cecil B. DeMille's Samson and Delilah (1949), and dozens of imitations that followed in their wake. Italian filmmakers resurrected their 1920s Maciste character in a brand new 1960s sound film series (1960–1964), followed rapidly by Ursus, Samson, Goliath and various other mighty-muscled heroes.
Almost all peplum films of this period featured bodybuilder stars, the most popular being Steve Reeves, Reg Park and Gordon Scott. Some of these stars, such as Mickey Hargitay, Reg Lewis, Mark Forest, Gordon Mitchell and Dan Vadis, had starred in Mae West's touring stage review in the United States in the 1950s. Bodybuilders of Italian origin, on the other hand, would adopt English pseudonyms for the screen; thus, stuntman Sergio Ciani became Alan Steel, and ex-gondolier Adriano Bellini was called Kirk Morris.
To be sure, many of the films enjoyed widespread popularity among general audiences, and had production values that were typical for popular films of their day. Some films included frequent re-use of the impressive film sets that had been created for Ben-Hur and Cleopatra.
Although many of the bigger budget pepla were released theatrically in the US, fourteen of them were released directly to Embassy Pictures television in a syndicated TV package called The Sons of Hercules. Since few American viewers had a familiarity with Italian film heroes such as Maciste or Ursus, the characters were renamed and the films molded into a series of sorts by splicing on the same opening and closing theme song and newly designed voice-over narration that attempted to link the protagonist of each film to the Hercules mythos. These films ran on Saturday afternoons in the 1960s.
Peplum films were, and still are, often ridiculed for their low budgets and bad English dubbing. The contrived plots, poorly overdubbed dialogue, novice acting skills of the bodybuilder leads, and primitive special effects that were often inadequate to depict the mythological creatures on screen all conspire to give these films a certain camp appeal now. In the 1990s, several of them have been subjects of riffing and satire in the United States comedy series Mystery Science Theater 3000.
However, in the early 1960s, a group of French critics, mostly writing for the Cahiers du cinéma, such as Luc Moullet, started to celebrate the genre and some of its directors, including Vittorio Cottafavi, Riccardo Freda, Mario Bava, Pietro Francisci, Duccio Tessari, and Sergio Leone. Not only directors, but also some of the screenwriters, often put together in teams, worked past the typically formulaic plot structure to include a mixture of "bits of philosophical readings and scraps of psychoanalysis, reflections on the biggest political systems, the fate of the world and humanity, fatalistic notions of accepting the will of destiny and the gods, anthropocentric belief in the powers of the human physique, and brilliant syntheses of military treatises".
With reference to the genre's free use of ancient mythology and other influences, Italian director Vittorio Cottafavi, who directed a number of peplum films, used the term "neo-mythologism".
Hercules series (1958–1965)
A series of 19 Hercules movies were made in Italy in the late '50s and early '60s. The films were all sequels to the successful Steve Reeves peplum Hercules (1958), but with the exception of Hercules Unchained, each film was a stand-alone story not connected to the others. The actors who played Hercules in these films were Steve Reeves followed by Gordon Scott, Kirk Morris, Mickey Hargitay, Mark Forest, Alan Steel, Dan Vadis, Brad Harris, Reg Park, Peter Lupus (billed as Rock Stevens) and Mike Lane. In a 1997 interview, Reeves said he felt his two Hercules films could not be topped by another sequel, so he declined to do any more Hercules films.
The films are listed below by their American release titles, and the titles in parentheses are their original Italian titles with an approximate English translation. Dates shown are the original Italian theatrical release dates, not the U.S. release dates (which were years later in some cases).
Hercules (Le fatiche di Ercole / The Labors of Hercules, 1958) starring Steve Reeves
Hercules Unchained (Ercole e la regina di Lidia / Hercules and the Queen of Lydia, 1959) starring Steve Reeves
Goliath and the Dragon (La vendetta di Ercole / The Revenge of Hercules, 1960) starring Mark Forest as Hercules (Hercules' name was changed to Goliath when this film was dubbed in English and distributed in the U.S.)
Hercules Vs The Hydra (Gli amori di Ercole / The Loves of Hercules, 1960) co-starring Mickey Hargitay (as Hercules) and Jayne Mansfield
Hercules and the Captive Women (Ercole alla conquista di Atlantide / Hercules at the Conquest of Atlantis, 1961) starring Reg Park as Hercules (alternate U.S. title: Hercules and the Haunted Women)
Hercules in the Haunted World (Ercole al centro della terra / Hercules at the Center of the Earth, 1961) directed by Mario Bava, starring Reg Park as Hercules
Hercules in the Vale of Woe (Maciste contro Ercole nella valle dei guai / Maciste vs Hercules in the Vale of Woe) comedy starring Frank Gordon as Hercules, 1961
Ulysses Against the Son of Hercules (Ulisse contro Ercole / Ulysses vs. Hercules) starring Mike Lane as Hercules, 1962
The Fury of Hercules (La furia di Ercole / The Fury of Hercules) starring Brad Harris as Hercules, 1962 (alternate U.S. title: The Fury of Samson)
Hercules, Samson and Ulysses (Ercole sfida Sansone / Hercules Challenges Samson) starring Kirk Morris as Hercules, 1963
Hercules Against Moloch (Ercole contro Molock / Hercules vs. Molock) starring Gordon Scott as Hercules, 1963 ( The Conquest of Mycenae)
Son of Hercules in the Land of Darkness (Ercole l'invincibile / Hercules the Invincible) starring Dan Vadis as Hercules, 1964. (this was originally a Hercules film that was re-titled for inclusion in the U.S. syndicated TV package The Sons of Hercules).
Hercules vs The Giant Warriors (il trionfo di Ercole / The Triumph of Hercules) starring Dan Vadis as Hercules, 1964 (alternate U.S. title: Hercules and the Ten Avengers)
Hercules Against Rome (Ercole contro Roma / Hercules vs. Rome) starring Alan Steel as Hercules, 1964
Hercules Against the Sons of the Sun (Ercole contro i figli del sole / Hercules vs. the Sons of the Sun) starring Mark Forest as Hercules, 1964
Samson and His Mighty Challenge (Ercole, Sansone, Maciste e Ursus: gli invincibili / Hercules, Samson, Maciste and Ursus: The Invincibles) starring Alan Steel as Hercules, 1964 ( Combate dei Gigantes or Le Grand Defi)
Hercules and the Tyrants of Babylon (Ercole contro i tiranni di Babilonia / Hercules vs. the Tyrants of Babylon) starring Rock Stevens as Hercules, 1964
Hercules and the Princess of Troy (no Italian title) starring Gordon Scott as Hercules, 1965 ( Hercules vs. the Sea Monster; this U.S./ Italian co-production was made as a pilot for a Charles Band-produced TV series that never materialized and it was later distributed as a feature film)
Hercules the Avenger (Sfida dei giganti / Challenge of the Giants) starring Reg Park as Hercules, 1965 (this film was composed mostly of re-edited footage from the two 1961 Reg Park Hercules films)
A number of English-dubbed Italian films that featured the word "Hercules" in the title were not made as Hercules movies originally, such as:
Hercules Against the Moon Men, Hercules Against the Barbarians, Hercules Against the Mongols and Hercules of the Desert were all originally Maciste films. (See "Maciste" section below)
Hercules and the Black Pirate and Hercules and the Treasure of the Incas were both re-titled Samson movies. (See "Samson" section below)
Hercules, Prisoner of Evil was actually a re-titled Ursus film. (See "Ursus" section below)
Hercules and the Masked Rider was actually a re-titled Goliath movie. (See "Goliath" section below)
None of these films in their original Italian versions involved the Hercules character in any way. Likewise, most of the Sons of Hercules movies shown on American TV in the 1960s had nothing to do with Hercules in their original Italian versions.
(see also The Three Stooges Meet Hercules (1962), an American-made genre parody starring peplum star Samson Burke as Hercules)
Goliath series (1959–1964)
The Italians used Goliath as the superhero protagonist in a series of adventure films (pepla) in the early 1960s. He was a man possessed of amazing strength, although he seemed to be a different person in each film. After the classic Hercules (1958) became a blockbuster sensation in the film industry, a 1959 Steve Reeves film Il terrore dei barbari (Terror of the Barbarians) was re-titled Goliath and the Barbarians in the U.S. The film was so successful at the box office, it inspired Italian filmmakers to do a series of four more films featuring a generic beefcake hero named Goliath, although the films were not related to each other in any way (the 1960 Italian peplum David and Goliath starring Orson Welles was not part of this series, since that movie was just a historical retelling of the Biblical story).
The titles in the Italian Goliath adventure series were as follows: (the first title listed for each film is the film's original Italian title along with its English translation, while the U.S. release title follows in bold type in parentheses)
Il terrore dei barbari / Terror of the Barbarians (1959) (Goliath and the Barbarians in the U.S.), starring Steve Reeves as Goliath (although he is referred to as "Emiliano" in the original Italian-language version)
Goliath contro i giganti / Goliath Against the Giants (Goliath Against the Giants) (1960) starring Brad Harris
Goliath e la schiava ribelle / Goliath and the Rebel Slave (Tyrant of Lydia Against The Son of Hercules) (1963) starring Gordon Scott
Golia e il cavaliere mascherato / Goliath and the Masked Rider (Hercules and the Masked Rider) (1964) starring Alan Steel (note: Goliath is referred to as "Hercules" in English-dubbed prints)
Golia alla conquista di Bagdad / Goliath at the Conquest of Baghdad (Goliath at the Conquest of Damascus, 1964) starring Rock Stevens (aka Peter Lupus)
The name Goliath was also inserted into the English titles of three other Italian pepla that were re-titled for U.S. distribution in an attempt to cash in on the Goliath craze, but these films were not originally made as "Goliath movies" in Italy.
Both Goliath and the Vampires (1961) and Goliath and the Sins of Babylon (1963) actually featured the famed Italian folk hero Maciste in the original Italian versions, but American distributors did not feel the name "Maciste" meant anything to American audiences.
Goliath and the Dragon (1960) was originally an Italian Hercules movie called The Revenge of Hercules, but it was re-titled Goliath and the Dragon in the U.S. since at the time Goliath and the Barbarians was breaking box-office records, and the distributors may have thought the name "Hercules" was trademarked by distributor Joseph E. Levine.
Maciste series (1960–1965)
There were a total of 25 Maciste films from the 1960s peplum craze (not counting the two dozen silent Maciste films made in Italy pre-1930). By 1960, seeing how well the two Steve Reeves Hercules films were doing at the box office, Italian producers decided to revive the 1920s silent film character Maciste in a new series of color/sound films. Unlike the other Italian peplum protagonists, Maciste found himself in a variety of time periods ranging from the Ice Age to 16th century Scotland. Maciste was never given an origin, and the source of his mighty powers was never revealed. However, in the first film of the 1960s series, he mentions to another character that the name "Maciste" means "born of the rock" (almost as if he was a god who would just appear out of the earth itself in times of need). One of the 1920s silent Maciste films was actually entitled "The Giant from the Dolomite", hinting that Maciste may be more god than man, which would explain his great strength.
The first title listed for each film is the film's original Italian title along with its English translation, while the U.S. release title follows in bold type in parentheses (note how many times Maciste's name in the Italian title is altered to an entirely different name in the American title):
Maciste nella valle dei re / Maciste in the Valley of the Kings (Son of Samson, 1960) Maciste the Mighty, Maciste the Giant, starring Mark Forest
Maciste nella terra dei ciclopi / Maciste in the Land of the Cyclops (Atlas in the Land of the Cyclops, 1961) starring Gordon Mitchell
Maciste contro il vampiro / Maciste Vs. the Vampire (Goliath and the Vampires, 1961) starring Gordon Scott
Il trionfo di Maciste / The Triumph of Maciste (Triumph of the Son of Hercules, 1961) starring Kirk Morris
Maciste alla corte del gran khan / Maciste at the Court of the Great Khan (Samson and the Seven Miracles of the World, 1961) starring Gordon Scott
Maciste, l'uomo più forte del mondo / Maciste, the Strongest Man in the World (Mole Men vs the Son of Hercules, 1961) starring Mark Forest
Maciste contro Ercole nella valle dei guai / Maciste Against Hercules in the Vale of Woe (Hercules in the Vale of Woe, 1961) starring Kirk Morris as Maciste; this was a satire/spoof featuring the comedy team of Franco and Ciccio
Totò contro Maciste / Totò vs. Maciste (no American title, 1962) starring Samson Burke; this was a comedy satirizing the peplum genre (part of the Italian "Toto" film series) and was never distributed in the U.S.; it is apparently not even available in English
Maciste all'inferno / Maciste in Hell (The Witch's Curse, 1962) starring Kirk Morris
Maciste contro lo sceicco / Maciste Against the Sheik (Samson Against the Sheik, 1962) starring Ed Fury
Maciste, il gladiatore piu forte del mondo / Maciste, the World's Strongest Gladiator (Colossus of the Arena, 1962) starring Mark Forest
Maciste contro i mostri / Maciste Against the Monsters (Fire Monsters Against the Son of Hercules, 1962) starring Reg Lewis
Maciste contro i cacciatori di teste / Maciste Against the Headhunters (Colossus and the Headhunters, 1962) starring Kirk Morris; Fury of the Headhunters
Maciste, l'eroe piu grande del mondo / Maciste, the World's Greatest Hero (Goliath and the Sins of Babylon, 1963) starring Mark Forest
Zorro contro Maciste / Zorro Against Maciste (Samson and the Slave Queen, 1963) starring Alan Steel
Maciste contro i mongoli / Maciste Against the Mongols (Hercules Against the Mongols, 1963) starring Mark Forest
Maciste nell'inferno di Gengis Khan / Maciste in Genghis Khan's Hell (Hercules Against the Barbarians, 1963) starring Mark Forest
Maciste alla corte dello zar / Maciste at the Court of the Czar (Atlas Against The Czar, 1964) starring Kirk Morris ( Samson vs. the Giant King)
Maciste, gladiatore di Sparta / Maciste, Gladiator of Sparta (Terror of Rome Against the Son of Hercules, 1964) starring Mark Forest
Maciste nelle miniere de re salomone / Maciste in King Solomon's Mines (Samson in King Solomon's Mines, 1964) starring Reg Park
Maciste e la regina de Samar / Maciste and the Queen of Samar (Hercules Against the Moon Men, 1964) starring Alan Steel
La valle dell'eco tonante / Valley of the Thundering Echo (Hercules of the Desert, 1964) starring Kirk Morris, Desert Raiders, in France as Maciste and the Women of the Valley
Ercole, Sansone, Maciste e Ursus: gli invincibili / Hercules, Samson, Maciste and Ursus: The Invincibles (Samson and His Mighty Challenge, 1964) starring Renato Rossini as Maciste ( Combate dei Gigantes or Le Grand Defi)
Gli invicibili fratelli Maciste / The Invincible Maciste Brothers (The Invincible Brothers Maciste, 1964) The Invincible Gladiators, starring Richard Lloyd as Maciste
Maciste il Vendicatore dei Mayas / Maciste, Avenger of the Mayans (has no American title, 1965) (Note:* this Maciste film was made up almost entirely of re-edited stock footage from two older Maciste films, Maciste contro i mostri and Maciste contro i cacciatori di teste, so Maciste switches from Kirk Morris to Reg Lewis in various scenes; this movie is very scarce since it was never distributed in the U.S. and is apparently not even available in English)
In 1973, the Spanish cult film director Jesus Franco directed two low-budget "Maciste films" for French producers: Maciste contre la Reine des Amazones (Maciste vs the Queen of the Amazons) and Les exploits érotiques de Maciste dans l'Atlantide (The Erotic Exploits of Maciste in Atlantis). The films had almost identical casts, both starring Val Davis as Maciste, and appear to have been shot back-to-back. The former was distributed in Italy as a "Karzan" movie (a cheap Tarzan imitation), while the latter film was released only in France with hardcore inserts as Les Gloutonnes ("The Gobblers"). These two films were totally unrelated to the 1960s Italian Maciste series.
Ursus series (1960–1964)
Following Buddy Baer's portrayal of Ursus in the classic 1951 film Quo Vadis, Ursus was used as a superhuman Roman-era character who became the protagonist in a series of Italian adventure films made in the early 1960s.
When the "Hercules" film craze hit in 1959, Italian filmmakers were looking for other muscleman characters similar to Hercules whom they could exploit, resulting in the nine-film Ursus series listed below. Ursus was referred to as a "Son of Hercules" in two of the films when they were dubbed in English (in an attempt to cash in on the then-popular "Hercules" craze), although in the original Italian films, Ursus had no connection to Hercules whatsoever. In the English-dubbed version of one Ursus film (retitled Hercules, Prisoner of Evil), Ursus was actually referred to throughout the entire film as "Hercules".
There were a total of nine Italian films that featured Ursus as the main character, listed below as follows: Italian title / English translation of the Italian title (American release title);
Ursus / Ursus (Ursus, Son of Hercules, 1960) Mighty Ursus (United Kingdom), starring Ed Fury
La Vendetta di Ursus / The Revenge of Ursus (The Vengeance of Ursus, 1961) starring Samson Burke
Ursus e la Ragazza Tartara / Ursus and the Tartar Girl (Ursus and the Tartar Princess, 1961) The Tartar Invasion, The Tartar Girl; starring Joe Robinson, Akim Tamiroff, Yoko Tani; directed by Remigio Del Grosso
Ursus Nella Valle dei Leoni / Ursus in the Valley of the Lions (Valley of the Lions, 1962) starring Ed Fury; this film revealed the origin story of Ursus
Ursus il gladiatore ribelle / Ursus the Rebel Gladiator (The Rebel Gladiators, 1962) starring Dan Vadis
Ursus Nella Terra di Fuoco / Ursus in the Land of Fire (Son of Hercules in the Land of Fire, 1963) Son of Atlas in the Land of Fire; starring Ed Fury
Ursus il terrore dei Kirghisi / Ursus, the Terror of the Kirghiz (Hercules, Prisoner of Evil, 1964) starring Reg Park
Ercole, Sansone, Maciste e Ursus: gli invincibili / Hercules, Samson, Maciste and Ursus: The Invincibles (Samson and His Mighty Challenge, 1964) starring Yan Larvor as Ursus ( Combate dei Gigantes or Le Grand Defi)
Gli Invincibili Tre / The Invincible Three (Three Avengers, 1964) starring Alan Steel as Ursus
Samson series (1961–1964)
A character named Samson was featured in a series of five Italian peplum films in the 1960s, no doubt inspired by the 1959 re-release of the epic Victor Mature film Samson and Delilah. The character was similar to the Biblical Samson in the third and fifth films only; in the other three, he just appears to be a very strong man (not related at all to the Biblical figure).
The titles are listed as follows: Italian title / its English translation (U.S. release title in parentheses);
Sansone / Samson (Samson) 1961, starring Brad Harris, in France as Samson Against Hercules
Sansone contro i pirati / Samson Against the Pirates (Samson and the Sea Beast) 1963, starring Kirk Morris
Ercole sfida Sansone / Hercules challenges Samson (Hercules, Samson and Ulysses) 1963, starring Richard Lloyd
Sansone contro il corsaro nero / Samson Against the Black Pirate (Hercules and the Black Pirate) 1963, starring Alan Steel
Ercole, Sansone, Maciste e Ursus: gli invincibili / Hercules, Samson, Maciste and Ursus: The Invincibles (Samson and the Mighty Challenge) 1964, starring Nadir Baltimore as Samson ( Samson and His Mighty Challenge, Combate dei Gigantes or Le Grand Défi)
The name Samson was also inserted into the U.S. titles of six other Italian movies when they were dubbed in English for U.S. distribution, although these films actually featured the adventures of the famed Italian folk hero Maciste.
Samson Against the Sheik (1962), Son of Samson (1960), Samson and the Slave Queen (1963), Samson and the Seven Miracles of the World (1961), Samson vs. the Giant King (1964), and Samson in King Solomon's Mines (1964) were all re-titled Maciste movies, because the American distributors did not feel the name Maciste was marketable to U.S. filmgoers.
Samson and the Treasure of the Incas ( Hercules and the Treasure of the Incas) (1965) sounds like a peplum title, but was actually a spaghetti Western.
The Sons of Hercules (TV syndication package)
The Sons of Hercules was a syndicated television show that aired in the United States in the 1960s. The series repackaged 14 randomly chosen Italian peplum films by unifying them with memorable title and end title theme songs and a standard voice-over intro relating the main hero in each film to Hercules any way they could. In some areas, each film was split into two one-hour episodes, so the 14 films were shown as 28 weekly episodes. None of the films were ever theatrically released in the U.S.
The films are not listed in chronological order, since they were not really related to each other in any way. The first title listed below for each film was its American broadcast television title, followed in parentheses by the English translation of its original Italian theatrical title:
Ursus, Son of Hercules (Ursus) 1961, starring Ed Fury, Mighty Ursus in England
Mole Men vs the Son of Hercules (Maciste, the Strongest Man in the World) 1961, starring Mark Forest
Triumph of the Son of Hercules (The Triumph of Maciste) 1961, starring Kirk Morris
Fire Monsters Against the Son of Hercules (Maciste vs. the Monsters) 1962, starring Reg Lewis
Venus Against the Son of Hercules (Mars, God Of War) 1962, starring Roger Browne
Ulysses Against the Son of Hercules (Ulysses against Hercules) 1962, starring Mike Lane
Medusa Against the Son of Hercules (Perseus The Invincible) 1962, starring Richard Harrison
Son of Hercules in the Land of Fire (Ursus In The Land Of Fire) 1963, starring Ed Fury
Tyrant of Lydia Against The Son of Hercules (Goliath and the Rebel Slave) 1963, starring Gordon Scott
Messalina Against the Son of Hercules (The Last Gladiator) 1963, starring Richard Harrison
The Beast of Babylon Against the Son of Hercules (Hero of Babylon) 1963, starring Gordon Scott, Goliath, King of the Slaves
Terror of Rome Against the Son of Hercules (Maciste, Gladiator of Sparta) 1964, starring Mark Forest
Son of Hercules in the Land of Darkness (Hercules the Invincible) 1964, starring Dan Vadis
Devil of the Desert Against the Son of Hercules (Anthar the Invincible) 1964, starring Kirk Morris, directed by Antonio Margheriti, The Slave Merchants, Soraya, Queen of the Desert
Steve Reeves pepla (in chronological order of production)
Steve Reeves appeared in 14 pepla made in Italy from 1958 to 1964, and most of his films are highly regarded examples of the genre. His pepla are listed below in order of production, not in order of release. The U.S. release titles are shown below, followed by the original Italian title and its translation (in parentheses)
Hercules (1958) (Le fatiche di Ercole / The Labors of Hercules) actually filmed in 1957, released in Italy in 1958, released in the U.S. in 1959
Hercules Unchained (1959) (Ercole e la regina di Lidia / Hercules and the Queen of Lydia) released in the U.S. in 1960
Goliath and the Barbarians (1959) (Il terrore dei barbari / Terror of the Barbarians)
The Giant of Marathon (1959) (La battaglia di Maratona / The Battle of Marathon)
The Last Days of Pompeii (1959) (Gli ultimi giorni di Pompei / The Last Days of Pompeii)
The White Warrior (1959) (Hadji Murad il Diavolo Bianco / Hadji Murad, The White Devil) directed by Riccardo Freda
Morgan, the Pirate (1960) (Morgan, il pirata/ Morgan, the Pirate)
The Thief of Baghdad (1960) (Il Ladro di Bagdad / The Thief of Baghdad)
The Trojan Horse (1961) (La guerra di Troia/ The Trojan War)
Duel of the Titans (1961) (Romolo e Remo / Romulus And Remus)
The Slave (1962) (Il Figlio di Spartaco / Son of Spartacus)
The Avenger (1962) (La leggenda di Enea / The Legend Of Aeneas) The Last Glory of Troy; (this was a sequel to The Trojan Horse)
Sandokan the Great (1963) (Sandokan, la tigre di Mompracem/ Sandokan, the Tiger of Mompracem) directed by Umberto Lenzi
Pirates of Malaysia (1964) Sandokan, the Pirate of Malaysia, Pirates of the Seven Seas; this was a sequel to Sandokan the Great, directed by Umberto Lenzi
Other (non-series) Italian pepla
There were many 1950s and 1960s Italian pepla that did not feature a major superhero (such as Hercules, Maciste or Samson), and as such they fall into a sort of miscellaneous category. Many were of the Cappa e spada (swashbuckler) variety, though they often feature well-known characters such as Ali Baba, Julius Caesar, Ulysses, Cleopatra, the Three Musketeers, Zorro, Theseus, Perseus, Achilles, Robin Hood, and Sandokan. The first really successful Italian films of this kind were Black Eagle (1946) and Fabiola (1949).
Adventurer of Tortuga, The (1964), starring Guy Madison
Adventures of Mandrin, The (1952) Captain Adventure Don Juan's Night of Love, starring Raf Vallone and Silvana Pampanini
Adventures of Scaramouche, The (1963) The Mask of Scaramouche, starring Gérard Barray and Gianna Maria Canale
Alexander The Great (1956), starring Richard Burton (U.S. film with music score by Mario Nascimbene)
Ali Baba and the Sacred Crown (1962) The Seven Tasks of Ali Baba, starring Richard Lloyd
Ali Baba and the Seven Saracens (1964) Sinbad Against the Seven Saracens, starring Gordon Mitchell
Alone Against Rome (1962) Vengeance of the Gladiators, starring Lang Jeffries and Rossana Podestà
Anthar the Invincible (1964) Devil of the Desert Against the Son of Hercules, starring Kirk Morris, directed by Antonio Margheriti
Antigone (1961) Rites for the Dead, starring Irene Papas, a Greek production
Arena, The (1974) Naked Warriors, directed by Steve Carver and Joe D'Amato, starring Pam Grier and Margaret Markov (a late entry in the genre)
Arms of the Avenger (1963) The Devils of Spartivento, starring John Drew Barrymore
Atlas (1961) Atlas, the Winner of Athena, directed in Greece by Roger Corman, starring Michael Forest
Attack of the Moors (1959) The Kings of France
Attack of the Normans (1962) The Normans, starring Cameron Mitchell
Attila (1954), directed by Pietro Francisci, starring Anthony Quinn and Sophia Loren
Avenger of the Seven Seas (1961) Executioner of the Seas, starring Richard Harrison and Michèle Mercier
Avenger of Venice, The (1963), starring Brett Halsey and Gianna Maria Canale
Bacchantes, The (1961), starring Pierre Brice and Akim Tamiroff
Balboa (Spanish, 1963) Conquistadors of the Pacific
Barabbas (1961) produced by Dino de Laurentiis, starring Anthony Quinn, filmed in Italy
Battle of the Amazons (1973) Amazons: Women of Love and War, Beauty of the Barbarian (directed by Alfonso Brescia)
Beatrice Cenci (1956) directed by Riccardo Freda
Beatrice Cenci (1969) directed by Lucio Fulci
Behind the Mask of Zorro (1966) The Oath of Zorro, Tony Russel
Bible, The (1966) ( La Bibbia), Dino de Laurentiis, Ennio Morricone music, filmed in Italy
Black Archer, The (1959)
Black Devil, The (1957) starred Gerard Landry
Black Duke, The (1963), starring Cameron Mitchell
Black Eagle, The (1946) Return of the Black Eagle, directed by Riccardo Freda
Black Lancers, The (1962) Charge of the Black Lancers, Mel Ferrer
Brennus, Enemy of Rome (1964) Battle of the Valiant, Gordon Mitchell
Burning of Rome, The (1963) The Magnificent Adventurer, Brett Halsey
Caesar Against the Pirates (1962) Gordon Mitchell
Caesar the Conqueror (1962), starring Cameron Mitchell
Captain Falcon (1958) Lex Barker
Captain from Toledo, The (1966)
Captain of Iron, The (1961) Revenge of the Mercenaries, Barbara Steele
Captain Phantom (1953)
Captains of Adventure (1961) starring Paul Muller, Gerard Landry
Caribbean Hawk, The (1963) Yvonne Monlaur
Carthage in Flames (1960)
Castillian, The (1963) Cesare Romero
Catherine of Russia (1963) directed by Umberto Lenzi
Cavalier in the Devil’s Castle (1959)
Centurion, The (1962) The Conqueror of Corinth
Challenge of the Gladiator (1965) Peter Lupus
Cleopatra's Daughter (1960) The Tomb of the Kings, Debra Paget
Colossus and the Amazon Queen (1960), Ed Fury and Rod Taylor
Colossus of Rhodes, The (1960) directed by Sergio Leone
Conqueror of Atlantis (1965) The Kingdom in the Sand, Kirk Morris (U.S. dubbed version calls the hero "Hercules")
Conqueror of Maracaibo, The (1961)
Conqueror of the Orient (1961) starring Rik Battaglia
Constantine and the Cross (1960) Constantine the Great, starring Cornel Wilde
Coriolanus: Hero without a Country (1963) Thunder of Battle, Gordon Scott
Cossacks, The (1959) Edmund Purdom
Count of Monte Cristo, The (1961) Louis Jourdan
Damon and Pythias (1962) The Tyrant of Syracuse, Guy Williams
David and Goliath (1960) Orson Welles
Defeat of Hannibal, The (1937) Scipione l'Africano
Defeat of the Barbarians (1962) King Manfred
Desert Desperadoes (1959) Akim Tamiroff
Desert Warrior (1957) The Desert Lovers, Ricardo Montalban
Devil Made a Woman, The (1959) A Girl Against Napoleon
Devil's Cavaliers, The (1959)
Diary of a Roman Virgin (1974) Livia, una vergine per l'impero romano, directed by Joe D'Amato (used stock footage from The Last Days of Pompeii (1959) and The Arena (1974))
Dragon's Blood, The (1957) Sigfrido, based on the legend of the Niebelungen, special effects by Carlo Rambaldi
Duel of Champions (1961) Horatio and Curiazi, Alan Ladd
Erik the Conqueror (1961) Gli Invasori/ The Invaders, directed by Mario Bava, starring Cameron Mitchell
Esther and the King (1961) Joan Collins, Richard Egan
Executioner of Venice, The (1963) Lex Barker, Guy Madison
Fabiola (1949) The Fighting Gladiator
Falcon of the Desert (1965) The Magnificent Challenge, starring Kirk Morris
Fall of Rome, The (1961) directed by Antonio Margheriti
Fall of the Roman Empire, The (1964) U.S. production filmed in Spain, Sophia Loren
Fighting Musketeers, The (1961)
Fire Over Rome (1963)
Fury of Achilles, The (1962) Gordon Mitchell
Fury of the Pagans (1960) Fury of the Barbarians
Giant of Metropolis, The (1961) Gordon Mitchell (this peplum had a science fiction theme instead of fantasy)
Giant of the Evil Island (1965) Mystery of the Cursed Island, Peter Lupus
Giants of Rome (1964) directed by Antonio Margheriti, starring Richard Harrison
Giants of Thessaly (1960) directed by Riccardo Freda
Gladiator of Rome (1962) Battle of the Gladiators, Gordon Scott
Gladiators Seven (1962) The Seven Gladiators, Richard Harrison
Golden Arrow, The (1962) directed by Antonio Margheriti
Gold for the Caesars (1963) Jeffrey Hunter
Golgotha (1935) Behold the Man (made in France)
Guns of the Black Witch (1961) Terror of the Sea, Don Megowan
Hannibal (1959) Victor Mature
Hawk of the Caribbean (1963) The Caribbean Hawk
Head of a Tyrant (1959) Judith and Holophernes
Helen of Troy (1956) starring Jacques Sernas
Hero of Babylon (1963) The Beast of Babylon vs. the Son of Hercules, Gordon Scott
Hero of Rome (1964) The Colossus of Rome, Gordon Scott
Herod the Great (1958)
Huns, The (1960) Queen of the Tartars
Invasion 1700 (1962) With Iron and Fire, With Fire and Sword, Daggers of Blood
Ivanhoe, the Norman Swordsman (1971) La spada normanna, directed by Roberto Mauri
Invincible Gladiator, The (1961) Richard Harrison
Invincible Swordsman, The (1963)
The Iron Swordsman (1949) Count Ugolino, directed by Riccardo Freda
Jacob, The Man Who Fought With God (1963)
Kampf um Rom (1968) The Last Roman, starring Laurence Harvey, Honor Blackman, Orson Welles
Kindar, the Invulnerable (1965) Mark Forest
King of the Vikings (1960) Prince in Chains, The
Knight of a Hundred Faces, The (1960) The Silver Knight, Knight of a Thousand Faces, The, starring Lex Barker
Knights of Terror (1963) Terror of the Red Capes, Tony Russel
Knight Without a Country (1959) The Faceless Rider
Knives of the Avenger (1967) Viking Massacre, directed by Mario Bava, starring Cameron Mitchell
Last Gladiator, The (1963) Messalina Against the Son of Hercules
Last of the Vikings (1961), starring Cameron Mitchell
Legions of the Nile (1959) The Legions of Cleopatra
Lion of St. Mark, The (1964) Gordon Scott
Lion of Thebes, The (1964) Helen of Troy, Mark Forest
Loves of Salammbo, The (1960) Salambo
Magnificent Gladiator, The (1964) Mark Forest
Marco Polo (1962) Rory Calhoun
Marco the Magnificent (1965) Anthony Quinn, Orson Welles
Mars, God of War (1962) Venus Against the Son of Hercules
Masked Conqueror, The (1962)
Masked Man Against the Pirates, The (1965)
Mask of the Musketeers (1963) Zorro and the Three Musketeers, starring Gordon Scott
Massacre in the Black Forest (1967), starring Cameron Mitchell
Messalina (1960) Belinda Lee
Michael Strogoff (1956) Revolt of the Tartars
Mighty Crusaders, The (1958) Jerusalem Set Free, Gianna Maria Canale
Minotaur, The (1960) Theseus Against the Minotaur, The Warlord of Crete
Miracle of the Wolves (1961) Blood on his Sword, starring Jean Marais
Missione sabbie roventi (Mission Burning Sands) (1966) starring Renato Rossini, directed by Alfonso Brescia
Mongols, The (1961) directed by Riccardo Freda, starring Jack Palance
Musketeers of the Sea (1962)
My Son, The Hero (1961) Arrivano i Titani, The Titans
Mysterious Rider, The (1948) directed by Riccardo Freda
Mysterious Swordsman, The (1956) starring Gerard Landry
Nero and the Burning of Rome (1953) Nero and Messalina
Night of the Great Attack (1961) Revenge of the Borgias
Night They Killed Rasputin, The (1960) The Last Czar
Nights of Lucretia Borgia, The (1959)
Odyssey, The (1968) L'Odissea, Cyclops segment directed by Mario Bava; Samson Burke played Polyphemus the Cyclops
Old Testament, The (1962) starred Brad Harris
Perseus the Invincible (1962) Medusa vs. the Son of Hercules
Pharaoh's Woman, The (1960)
Pia of Ptolomey (1962)
Pirate and the Slave Girl, The (1959) Scimitar of the Saracen, Lex Barker
Pirate of the Black Hawk, The (1958) Gérard Landry
Pirate of the Half Moon (1957)
Pirates of the Coast (1960) Lex Barker
Pontius Pilate (1962) Basil Rathbone
Prince with the Red Mask, The (1955) The Red Eagle, starring Frank Latimore
Prisoner of the Iron Mask, The (1962) The Revenge of the Iron Mask
Pugni, Pirati e Karatè (1973) Fists, Pirates and Karate, directed by Joe D'Amato, starring Richard Harrison (a 1970s Italian spoof of pirate movies)
Queen for Caesar, A (1962) Gordon Scott
Queen of Sheba (1952) directed by Pietro Francisci
Queen of the Amazons (1960) Colossus and the Amazon Queen
Queen of the Nile (1961) Nefertiti, Vincent Price
Queen of the Pirates (1960) The Venus of the Pirates, Gianna Maria Canale
Queen of the Seas (1961) directed by Umberto Lenzi
Quo Vadis (1951) filmed in Italy, Sergio Leone asst. dir.
Rage of the Buccaneers (1961) Gordon, The Black Pirate, starring Vincent Price
Rape of the Sabine Women, The (1961) Romulus and the Sabines, Roger Moore
Red Cloak, The (1955) Bruce Cabot
Red Sheik, The (1962)
Revak the Rebel (1960) The Barbarians, Jack Palance
Revenge of Black Eagle, The (1951) Gianna Maria Canale
Revenge of Ivanhoe, The (1965) Rik Battaglia
Revenge of Spartacus, The (1965) Revenge of the Gladiators, Roger Browne
Revenge of the Barbarians (1960)
Revenge of the Black Eagle (1951) directed by Riccardo Freda
Revenge of the Conquered (1961) Drakut the Avenger
Revenge of the Gladiators (1961) starring Mickey Hargitay
Revenge of the Musketeers (1964) Dartagnan vs. the Three Musketeers, starring Fernando Lamas
Revolt of the Barbarians (1964) directed by Guido Malatesta
Revolt of the Mercenaries (1961)
Revolt of the Praetorians (1964) The Invincible Warriors, starring Richard Harrison
Revolt of the Seven (1964) The Spartan Gladiator, starring Helga Line
Revolt of the Slaves, The (1960) Rhonda Fleming
Robin Hood and the Pirates (1960) Lex Barker
Roland the Mighty (1956) Orlando, directed by Pietro Francisci
Rome Against Rome (1964) War of the Zombies
Rome 1585 (1961) The Mercenaries, Debra Paget
Rover, The (1967) The Adventurer, starring Anthony Quinn
Sack of Rome, The (1953) The Barbarians, The Pagans
Samson and Gideon (1965) Fernando Rey, Biblical film
Sandokan Fights Back (1964) Sandokan to the Rescue, The Revenge of Sandokan
Sandokan vs. the Leopard of Sarawak (1964) Throne of Vengeance
Saracens, The (1965) The Devil's Pirate, The Flag of Death, starring Richard Harrison
Saul and David (1964)
Scheherazade (1963) starring Anna Karina
Sea Pirate, The (1966) Thunder Over the Indian Ocean, Surcouf, Hero of the Seven Seas
Secret Mark of D'Artagnan, The (1962)
Secret Seven, The (1965) The Invincible Seven
Seven from Thebes (1964)
Seven Rebel Gladiators (1965) Seven Against All, starring Roger Browne
Seven Revenges, The (1961) The Seven Challenges, Ivan the Conqueror, starring Ed Fury
Seven Seas to Calais (1962) Sir Francis Drake, King of the Seven Seas, Rod Taylor
Seven Slaves Against the World (1964) Seven Slaves Against Rome, starring Roger Browne and Gordon Mitchell
Seven Tasks of Ali Baba, The (1962) Ali Baba and the Sacred Crown
Seventh Sword, The (1962) Brett Halsey
79 A.D., the Destruction of Herculaneum (1962) Brad Harris
Shadow of Zorro, The (1962)
Sheba and the Gladiator (1959) The Sign of Rome, Sign of the Gladiator, Anita Ekberg
Siege of Syracuse (1960) Tina Louise
Simbad e il califfo di Bagdad (1973) directed by Pietro Francisci
Sins of Rome (1953) Spartacus, directed by Riccardo Freda
Slave Girls of Sheba (1963) starring Linda Cristal
Slave of Rome (1960) starring Guy Madison
Slave Queen of Babylon (1963) Yvonne Furneaux
Slaves of Carthage, The (1956) The Sword and the Cross, Gianna Maria Canale (not to be confused with Mary Magdalene; see below)
Sodom and Gomorrah (1962) Rosanna Podesta, U.S./Italian film shot in Italy, co-directed by Sergio Leone
Son of Black Eagle (1968)
Son of Captain Blood, The (1962)
Son of Cleopatra, The (1965) Mark Damon
Son of d'Artagnan (1950) directed by Riccardo Freda
Son of El Cid, The (1965) 100 Horsemen, Mark Damon
Son of the Red Corsair (1959) a.k.a. Son of the Red Pirate, Lex Barker
Son of the Sheik (1961) Kerim, Son of the Sheik, starring Gordon Scott
Spartacus and the Ten Gladiators (1964) Ten Invincible Gladiators, starring Dan Vadis
Spartan Gladiator, The (1965) Tony Russel
Story of Joseph and his Brethren, The (1961)
Suleiman the Conqueror (1961)
Sword and the Cross, The (1958) Mary Magdalene
Sword in the Shadow, A (1961) starring Livio Lorenzon
Sword of Damascus, The (1964) The Thief of Damascus
Sword of El Cid, The (1962) The Daughters of El Cid
Sword of Islam, The (1961)
Sword of the Conqueror (1961) Rosamund and Alboino, Jack Palance
Sword for the Empire, A (1965) Sword of the Empire
Sword of the Rebellion, The (1964) The Rebel of Castelmonte
Swordsman of Siena (1962) The Mercenary
Sword of Vengeance (1961) La spada della vendetta
Sword Without a Country (1961) Sword Without a Flag
Tartars, The (1961) starring Victor Mature
Taras Bulba, The Cossack (1963) Plains of Battle
Taur, the Mighty (1963) Tor the Warrior, Taur, the King of Brute Force, starring Joe Robinson
Temple of the White Elephant (1965) Sandok, the Giant of the Jungle, Sandok, the Maciste of the Jungle (not a Maciste film, however, in spite of the alternate title)
Ten Gladiators, The (1963) starring Dan Vadis
Terror of the Black Mask (1963) The Invincible Masked Rider
Terror of the Red Mask (1960) starring Lex Barker
Terror of the Steppes (1964) The Mighty Khan, Kirk Morris
Tharus, Son of Attila (1962) Colossus and the Huns, Ricardo Montalban
Theodora, Slave Empress (1954) directed by Riccardo Freda
Thor and the Amazon Women (1963) starring Joe Robinson
Three Hundred Spartans, The (1963) starring Richard Egan; U.S. film filmed in Greece using Italian screenwriters
Three Swords for Rome (1965) starring Roger Browne
Three Swords of Zorro, The (1963)
Tiger of the Seven Seas (1962)
Treasure of the Petrified Forest, The (1965) starring Gordon Mitchell
Triumph of Robin Hood (1962) starring Samson Burke
Triumph of the Ten Gladiators (1965) starring Dan Vadis
Two Gladiators, The (1964) Fight or Die, starring Richard Harrison
Tyrant of Castile, The (1964) starring Mark Damon
Ulysses (1954) produced by Dino De Laurentiis, starring Kirk Douglas and Anthony Quinn
Virgins of Rome, The (1961) Amazons of Rome
Vulcan, Son of Jupiter (1962) Vulcan, Son of Jove, Gordon Mitchell, Richard Lloyd, Roger Browne
War Goddess (1973) The Bare-Breasted Warriors, Le guerriere dal seno nudo, directed by Terence Young
War Gods of Babylon (1962) The Seventh Thunderbolt, The Seven Glories of Assur
Warrior and the Slave Girl, The (1958) The Revolt of the Gladiators, starring Gianna Maria Canale
Warrior Empress, The (1960) Sappho, Venus of Lesbos, Kerwin Matthews, Tina Louise
White Slave Ship (1961) directed by Silvio Amadio
Women of Devil's Island (1962) starring Guy Madison
Wonders of Aladdin, The (1961) starring Donald O'Connor
Zorikan the Barbarian (1964) starring Dan Vadis
Zorro (1975) Alain Delon
Zorro and the Three Musketeers (1963) Mask of the Musketeers, starring Gordon Scott
Zorro in the Court of England (1970) starring Spiros Focás
Zorro at the Court of Spain (1962) The Masked Conqueror, George Ardisson
Zorro of Monterrey (1971) El Zorro de Monterrey, Carlos Quiney
Zorro, Rider of Vengeance (1971) Carlos Quiney
Zorro's Last Adventure (1970) La última aventura del Zorro, Carlos Quiney
Zorro the Avenger (1962) The Revenge of Zorro, Frank Latimore
Zorro the Avenger (1969) El Zorro justiciero (1969) starring Fabio Testi
Zorro the Fox (1968) El Zorro, George Ardisson
Zorro, the Navarra Marquis (1969) Nino Vingelli
Zorro the Rebel (1966) Howard Ross
Zorro Against Maciste (1963) Samson and the Slave Queen (1963) starring Pierre Brice, Alan Steel
Gladiator films
Inspired by the success of Spartacus, there were a number of Italian peplums that heavily emphasized the gladiatorial arena in their plots, with it becoming almost a peplum subgenre in itself. One group of supermen known as "The Ten Gladiators" appeared in a trilogy, all three films starring Dan Vadis in the lead role.
Alone Against Rome (1962) Vengeance of the Gladiators
The Arena (1974) Naked Warriors, co-directed by Joe D'Amato, starring Pam Grier, Paul Muller and Rosalba Neri
Challenge of the Gladiator (1965) starring Peter Lupus ( Rock Stevens)
Fabiola (1949) The Fighting Gladiator
Gladiator of Rome (1962) Battle of the Gladiators, starring Gordon Scott
Gladiators Seven (1962) The Seven Gladiators, starring Richard Harrison
Invincible Gladiator, The (1961) Richard Harrison
Last Gladiator, The (1963) Messalina Against the Son of Hercules
Maciste, Gladiator of Sparta (1964) Terror of Rome Against the Son of Hercules
Revenge of Spartacus, The (1965) Revenge of the Gladiators, starring Roger Browne
Revenge of The Gladiators (1961) starring Mickey Hargitay
Revolt of the Seven (1964) The Spartan Gladiator, starring Tony Russel and Helga Line
Revolt of the Slaves (1961) Rhonda Fleming
Seven Rebel Gladiators (1965) Seven Against All, starring Roger Browne
Seven Slaves Against the World (1965) Seven Slaves Against Rome, The Strongest Slaves in the World, starring Roger Browne and Gordon Mitchell
Sheba and the Gladiator (1959) The Sign of Rome, Sign of the Gladiator, Anita Ekberg
Sins of Rome (1952) Spartacus, directed by Riccardo Freda
Slave, The (1962) Son of Spartacus, Steve Reeves
Spartacus and the Ten Gladiators (1964) Ten Invincible Gladiators, Dan Vadis
Spartan Gladiator, The (1965) Tony Russel
Ten Gladiators, The (1963) Dan Vadis
Triumph of the Ten Gladiators (1965) Dan Vadis
Two Gladiators, The (1964) Fight or Die, Richard Harrison
Ursus, the Rebel Gladiator (1963) Rebel Gladiators, Dan Vadis
Warrior and the Slave Girl, The (1958) The Revolt of the Gladiators, Gianna Maria Canale
Ancient Rome
Brennus, Enemy of Rome (1964) Battle of the Valiant, Gordon Mitchell
Caesar Against the Pirates (1962) Gordon Mitchell
Caesar the Conqueror (1962) Cameron Mitchell, Rik Battaglia
Carthage in Flames (1960) Cartagine in fiamme, directed by Carmine Gallone
Centurion The (1962) The Conqueror of Corinth
Colossus of Rhodes, The (1960) directed by Sergio Leone
Constantine and the Cross (1960) Constantine the Great
Coriolanus: Hero without a Country (1963) Thunder of Battle, Gordon Scott
Diary of a Roman Virgin (1974) Livia, una vergine per l'impero romano, directed by Joe D'Amato (used stock footage from The Last Days of Pompeii (1959) and The Arena (1974))
Duel of Champions (1961) Horatio and Curiazi, Alan Ladd
Duel of the Titans (1962) Romulus and Remus, Steve Reeves, Gordon Scott
Fall of Rome, The (1961) directed by Antonio Margheriti
Fire Over Rome (1963)
Giants of Rome (1963) directed by Antonio Margheriti, starring Richard Harrison
Gold for the Caesars (1963) Jeffrey Hunter
Hannibal (1959) Victor Mature
Hero of Rome (1964) The Colossus of Rome, Gordon Scott
Kampf um Rom (1968) The Last Roman, starring Laurence Harvey, Honor Blackman, Orson Welles
Last Days of Pompeii (1959) Steve Reeves
Massacre in the Black Forest (1967) Cameron Mitchell
Messalina (1960)
Nero and the Burning of Rome (1955) Nero and Messalina
Quo Vadis (1951) assistant director Sergio Leone
Rape of the Sabine Women, The (1961) Roger Moore
Revenge of Spartacus, The (1965) Roger Browne
Revenge of the Barbarians (1960)
Revolt of the Praetorians (1965) Richard Harrison
Rome Against Rome (1963) War of the Zombies
The Secret Seven (1965) The Invincible Seven
79 A.D., the Destruction of Herculaneum (1962) Brad Harris
Sheba and the Gladiator (1959) The Sign of Rome, Sign of the Gladiator, Anita Ekberg
Sins of Rome (1952) Spartaco, directed by Riccardo Freda
The Slave of Rome (1960) starring Guy Madison
Slaves of Carthage, The (1956) The Sword and the Cross, Gianna Maria Canale (not to be confused with Mary Magdalene)
Theodora, Slave Empress (1954) directed by Riccardo Freda
Three Swords for Rome (1965) Roger Browne
Virgins of Rome, The (1961) Amazons of Rome
Greek mythology
The Avenger (1962) Legend of Aeneas, Steve Reeves
Alexander The Great (1956) U.S. film with music score by Mario Nascimbene
Antigone (1961) Rites for the Dead, a Greek production
Bacchantes, The (1961)
Battle of the Amazons (1973) Amazons: Women of Love and War, Beauty of the Barbarian (directed by Alfonso Brescia)
The Colossus of Rhodes (1961) directed by Sergio Leone
Conqueror of Atlantis (1965) starring Kirk Morris
Damon and Pythias (1962) Guy Williams
Fury of Achilles (1962) Gordon Mitchell
Giant of Marathon (1959) (The Battle of Marathon) Steve Reeves
Giants of Thessaly (1960) directed by Riccardo Freda
Helen of Troy (1956) directed by Robert Wise
Hercules Challenges Samson (1963) Hercules, Samson and Ulysses
Lion of Thebes, The (1964) Helen of Troy, Mark Forest
Mars, God of War (1962) Venus Against the Son of Hercules
The Minotaur (1961) Theseus Against the Minotaur, The Warlord of Crete
My Son, the Hero (1961) Arrivano i Titani, The Titans
Odyssey, The (1968) Cyclops segment directed by Mario Bava; Samson Burke played Polyphemus the Cyclops
Perseus the Invincible (1962) Medusa vs. the Son of Hercules
Queen of the Amazons (1960) Colossus and the Amazon Queen
Seven from Thebes (1964) André Lawrence
Siege of Syracuse, The (1962) Tina Louise
Treasure of the Petrified Forest (1965) Gordon Mitchell (the plot involves Amazons)
Trojan Horse, The (1961) The Trojan War, Steve Reeves
Ulysses (1954) starring Kirk Douglas and Anthony Quinn
Vulcan, Son of Jupiter (1962) Vulcan, Son of Jove, Gordon Mitchell, Richard Lloyd, Roger Browne
Warrior Empress, The (1960) Sappho, Venus of Lesbos, Kerwin Matthews, Tina Louise
Barbarian and Viking films
Attack of the Normans (1962) The Normans, Cameron Mitchell
Attila (1954) directed by Pietro Francisci, Anthony Quinn, Sophia Loren
The Cossacks (1960)
Defeat of the Barbarians (1962) King Manfred
Dragon's Blood, The (1957) Sigfrido, based on the legend of the Niebelungen, special effects by Carlo Rambaldi
Erik the Conqueror (1961) The Invaders, directed by Mario Bava, starring Cameron Mitchell
Fury of the Pagans (1960) Fury of the Barbarians
Goliath and the Barbarians (1959) Terror of the Barbarians, Steve Reeves
The Huns (1960) Queen of the Tartars
Invasion 1700 (1962) With Iron and Fire, With Fire and Sword, Daggers of Blood
King of the Vikings (1960) The Prince in Chains
The Last of the Vikings (1961) starring Cameron Mitchell and Broderick Crawford
Marco Polo (1962) Rory Calhoun
Marco the Magnificent (1965) Anthony Quinn, Orson Welles
Michel Strogoff (1956) Revolt of the Tartars
The Mongols (1961) starring Jack Palance
Revak the Rebel (1960) The Barbarians, Jack Palance
Revolt of the Barbarians (1964) directed by Guido Malatesta
Roland the Mighty (1956) directed by Pietro Francisci
Saracens, The (1965) The Devil's Pirate, The Flag of Death
The Seven Revenges (1961) The Seven Challenges, Ivan the Conqueror, starring Ed Fury
Suleiman the Conqueror (1961)
Sword of the Conqueror (1961) Rosamund and Alboino, Jack Palance
Sword of the Empire (1964)
Taras Bulba, The Cossack (1963) Plains of Battle
The Tartars (1961) Victor Mature, Orson Welles
Terror of the Steppes (1963) The Mighty Khan, starring Kirk Morris
Tharus Son of Attila (1962) Colossus and the Huns, Ricardo Montalban
Zorikan the Barbarian (1964) Dan Vadis
Swashbucklers / pirates
Adventurer of Tortuga (1965) starring Guy Madison
Adventures of Mandrin, The (1960) Captain Adventure
Adventures of Scaramouche, The (1963) The Mask of Scaramouche, Gianna Maria Canale
Arms of the Avenger (1963) The Devils of Spartivento, starring John Drew Barrymore
At Sword's Edge (1952) dir. by Carlo Ludovico Bragaglia
Attack of the Moors (1959) The Kings of France
Avenger of the Seven Seas (1961) Executioner of the Seas, Richard Harrison
Avenger of Venice, The (1963) directed by Riccardo Freda, starring Brett Halsey
Balboa (Spanish, 1963) Conquistadors of the Pacific
Beatrice Cenci (1956) directed by Riccardo Freda
Beatrice Cenci (1969) directed by Lucio Fulci
Behind the Mask of Zorro (1966) The Oath of Zorro, Tony Russel
Black Archer, The (1959) Gerard Landry
Black Devil, The (1957) Gerard Landry
Black Duke, The (1963) Cameron Mitchell
Black Eagle, The (1946) Return of the Black Eagle, directed by Riccardo Freda
Black Lancers, The (1962) Charge of the Black Lancers, Mel Ferrer
Captain from Toledo, The (1966)
Captain of Iron, The (1962) Revenge of the Mercenaries, Barbara Steele
Captain Phantom (1953)
Captains of Adventure (1961) starring Paul Muller and Gerard Landry
Caribbean Hawk, The (1963) Yvonne Monlaur
Castillian, The (1963) Cesare Romero, U.S./Spanish co-production
Catherine of Russia (1962) directed by Umberto Lenzi
Cavalier in Devil’s Castle (1959) Cavalier of Devil's Island
Conqueror of Maracaibo, The (1961)
Count of Monte Cristo, The (1962) Louis Jourdan
Devil Made a Woman, The (1959) A Girl Against Napoleon
Devil's Cavaliers, The (1959) The Devil's Riders, Gianna Maria Canale
Dick Turpin (1974) a Spanish production
El Cid (1961) Sophia Loren, Charlton Heston, U.S./ Italian film shot in Italy
Executioner of Venice, The (1963) Lex Barker, Guy Madison
Fighting Musketeers, The (1961)
Giant of the Evil Island (1965) Mystery of the Cursed Island, Peter Lupus
Goliath and the Masked Rider (1964) Hercules and the Masked Rider, Alan Steel
Guns of the Black Witch (1961) Terror of the Sea, Don Megowan
Hawk of the Caribbean (1963)
Invincible Swordsman, The (1963)
The Iron Swordsman (1949) Count Ugolino, directed by Riccardo Freda
Ivanhoe, the Norman Swordsman (1971) La spada normanna, directed by Roberto Mauri
Knight of a Hundred Faces, The (1960) The Silver Knight, starring Lex Barker
Knights of Terror (1963) Terror of the Red Capes, Tony Russel
Knight Without a Country (1959) The Faceless Rider
Lawless Mountain, The (1953) La montaña sin ley (stars Zorro)
Lion of St. Mark, The (1964) Gordon Scott
Mark of Zorro (1975) made in France, Monica Swinn
Mark of Zorro (1976) George Hilton
Masked Conqueror, The (1962)
Mask of the Musketeers (1963) Zorro and the Three Musketeers, starring Gordon Scott
Michael Strogoff (1956) Revolt of the Tartars
Miracle of the Wolves (1961) Blood on his Sword, starring Jean Marais
Morgan, the Pirate (1960) Steve Reeves
Musketeers of the Sea (1960)
Mysterious Rider, The (1948) directed by Riccardo Freda
Mysterious Swordsman, The (1956) starred Gerard Landry
Nephews of Zorro, The (1968) Italian comedy with Franco and Ciccio
Night of the Great Attack (1961) Revenge of the Borgias
Night They Killed Rasputin, The (1960) The Last Czar
Nights of Lucretia Borgia, The (1959)
Pirate and the Slave Girl, The (1959) Lex Barker
Pirate of the Black Hawk, The (1958)
Pirate of the Half Moon (1957)
Pirates of the Coast (1960) Lex Barker
Prince with the Red Mask, The (1955) The Red Eagle
Prisoner of the Iron Mask, The (1961) The Revenge of the Iron Mask
Pugni, Pirati e Karatè (1973) Fists, Pirates and Karate, directed by Joe D'Amato, starring Richard Harrison (a 1970s Italian spoof of pirate movies)
Queen of the Pirates (1961) The Venus of the Pirates, Gianna Maria Canale
Queen of the Seas (1961) directed by Umberto Lenzi
Rage of the Buccaneers (1961) Gordon, The Black Pirate, starring Vincent Price
Red Cloak, The (1955) Bruce Cabot
Revenge of Ivanhoe, The (1965) Rik Battaglia
Revenge of the Black Eagle (1951) directed by Riccardo Freda
Revenge of the Musketeers (1963) Dartagnan vs. the Three Musketeers, Fernando Lamas
Revenge of Spartacus, The (1965) Roger Browne
Revolt of the Mercenaries (1961)
Robin Hood and the Pirates (1960) Lex Barker
Roland, the Mighty (1956) directed by Pietro Francisci
Rome 1585 (1961) The Mercenaries, Debra Paget, set in the 1500s
Rover, The (1967) The Adventurer, starring Anthony Quinn
The Sack of Rome (1953) The Barbarians, The Pagans (set in the 1500s)
Samson vs. the Black Pirate (1963) Hercules and the Black Pirate, Alan Steel
Samson vs. the Pirates (1963) Samson and the Sea Beast, Kirk Morris
Sandokan Fights Back (1964) Sandokan to the Rescue, The Revenge of Sandokan, Guy Madison
Sandokan the Great (1964) Sandokan, the Tiger of Mompracem, Steve Reeves
Sandokan, the Pirate of Malaysia (1964) Pirates of Malaysia, Pirates of the Seven Seas, Steve Reeves, directed by Umberto Lenzi
Sandokan vs. the Leopard of Sarawak (1964) Throne of Vengeance, Guy Madison
Saracens, The (1965) The Devil's Pirate, The Flag of Death, starring Richard Harrison
Sea Pirate, The (1966) Thunder Over the Indian Ocean, Surcouf, Hero of the Seven Seas
Secret Mark of D'artagnan, The (1962)
Seven Seas to Calais (1961) Sir Francis Drake, King of the Seven Seas, Rod Taylor
Seventh Sword, The (1960) Brett Halsey
Shadow of Zorro (1962) Frank Latimore
Sign of Zorro, The (1952)
(1963) Duel at the Rio Grande, Sean Flynn
Son of Black Eagle (1968)
Son of Captain Blood (1962)
Son of d'Artagnan (1950) directed by Riccardo Freda
Son of El Cid, The (1965) Mark Damon
Son of the Red Corsair (1959) Son of the Red Pirate, Lex Barker
Son of Zorro (1973) Alberto Dell'Acqua
Sword in the Shadow, A (1961) starring Livio Lorenzon
Sword of Rebellion, The (1964) The Rebel of Castelmonte
Sword of Vengeance (1961) La spada della vendetta
Swordsman of Siena, The (1961) The Mercenary
Sword Without a Country (1960) Sword Without a Flag
Taras Bulba, The Cossack (1963) Plains of Battle
Terror of the Black Mask (1963) The Invincible Masked Rider
Terror of the Red Mask (1960) Lex Barker
Three Swords of Zorro, The (1963) The Sword of Zorro, Guy Stockwell
Tiger of the Seven Seas (1963)
Triumph of Robin Hood (1962) starring Samson Burke
Tyrant of Castile, The (1964) Mark Damon
White Slave Ship (1961) directed by Silvio Amadio
The White Warrior (1959) Hadji Murad, the White Devil, Steve Reeves
Women of Devil's Island (1962) starring Guy Madison
Zorro (1968) El Zorro, Zorro the Fox, George Ardisson
Zorro (1975) Alain Delon
Zorro and the Three Musketeers (1963) Gordon Scott
Zorro at the Court of England (1969) Spiros Focás as Zorro
Zorro at the Court of Spain (1962) The Masked Conqueror, Georgio Ardisson
Zorro of Monterrey (1971) El Zorro de Monterrey, Carlos Quiney
Zorro, Rider of Vengeance (1971) Carlos Quiney
Zorro's Last Adventure (1970) La última aventura del Zorro, Carlos Quiney
Zorro the Avenger (1962) The Revenge of Zorro, Frank Latimore
Zorro the Avenger (1969) El Zorro justiciero (1969) Fabio Testi
Zorro, the Navarra Marquis (1969) Nadir Moretti as Zorro
Zorro the Rebel (1966) Howard Ross
Zorro Against Maciste (1963) Samson and the Slave Queen (1963) starring Pierre Brice, Alan Steel
Biblical
Barabbas (1961) Dino de Laurentiis, Anthony Quinn, filmed in Italy
Bible, The (1966) Dino de Laurentiis, John Huston, filmed in Italy
David and Goliath (1960) Orson Welles
Desert Desperadoes (1956) plot involves King Herod
Esther and the King (1961) Joan Collins, Richard Egan
Head of a Tyrant, The (1959)
Herod the Great (1958) Edmund Purdom
Jacob, the Man Who Fought with God (1964) Giorgio Cerioni
Mighty Crusaders, The (1957) Jerusalem Set Free, Gianna Maria Canale
Old Testament, The (1962) Brad Harris
Pontius Pilate (1962) Jean Marais
The Queen of Sheba (1952), directed by Pietro Francisci
Samson and Gideon (1965) Fernando Rey
Saul and David (1963) Gianni Garko
Sodom and Gomorrah (1962) Rosanna Podesta, U.S./Italian film shot in Italy
Story of Joseph and his Brethren, The (1960)
Sword and the Cross, The (1958) Mary Magdalene, Gianna Maria Canale
Ancient Egypt
Cleopatra's Daughter (1960) starring Debra Paget
Legions of the Nile (1959) starring Linda Cristal
Pharaoh's Woman, The (1960) with John Drew Barrymore
Queen for Caesar, A (1962) Gordon Scott
Queen of the Nile (1961) Nefertiti, Vincent Price
Son of Cleopatra (1964) Mark Damon
Babylon / the Middle East
Ali Baba and the Seven Saracens (1962) Sinbad Against the 7 Saracens, starring Gordon Mitchell
Anthar, The Invincible (1964) Devil of the Desert Against the Son of Hercules, starring Kirk Morris, directed by Antonio Margheriti
Desert Warrior (1957) The Desert Lovers, Ricardo Montalban
Falcon of the Desert (1965) The Magnificent Challenge, starring Kirk Morris
Golden Arrow, The (1962) directed by Antonio Margheriti
Goliath at the Conquest of Baghdad (1964) Goliath at the Conquest of Damascus, Peter Lupus
Goliath and the Rebel Slave (1963) The Tyrant of Lydia vs. The Son of Hercules, Gordon Scott
Goliath and the Sins of Babylon (1963) Maciste, the World's Greatest Hero, Mark Forest
Hercules and the Tyrants of Babylon (1964)
Hero of Babylon (1963) The Beast of Babylon vs. the Son of Hercules, Gordon Scott
Kindar, the Invulnerable (1965) Mark Forest, Rosalba Neri
Missione sabbie roventi (Mission Burning Sands) (1966) starring Renato Rossini, directed by Alfonso Brescia
Red Sheik, The (1962)
Scheherazade (1963) starring Anna Karina
Seven Tasks of Ali Baba, The (1962) Ali Baba and the Sacred Crown, starring Richard Lloyd
Slave Girls of Sheba (1963) starring Linda Cristal
Slave Queen of Babylon (1962) Yvonne Furneaux
Son of the Sheik (1961) Kerim, Son of the Sheik, starring Gordon Scott
Sword of Damascus, The (1964) The Thief of Damascus
Sword of Islam, The (1961) a.k.a. Love and Faith; an Italian/ Egyptian co-production
Thief of Baghdad, The (1961) Steve Reeves
War Gods of Babylon (1962) The Seventh Thunderbolt
Wonders of Aladdin, The (1961) Donald O'Connor
The second peplum wave: the 1980s
After the peplum gave way to the spaghetti Western and Eurospy films in 1965, the genre lay dormant for close to 20 years. Then in 1982, the box-office successes of Jean-Jacques Annaud's Quest for Fire (1981), Arnold Schwarzenegger's Conan the Barbarian (1982) and Clash of the Titans (1981 film) (1981) spurred a second renaissance of sword and sorcery Italian pepla in the five years immediately following. Most of these films had low budgets, focusing more on barbarians and pirates so as to avoid the need for expensive Greco-Roman sets. The filmmakers tried to compensate for their shortcomings with the addition of some graphic gore and nudity. Many of these 1980s entries were helmed by noted Italian horror film directors (Joe D'Amato, Lucio Fulci, Luigi Cozzi, etc.) and many featured actors Lou Ferrigno, Miles O'Keefe and Sabrina Siani. Here is a list of the 1980s pepla:
Adam and Eve (1983) Adamo ed Eva, la prima storia d'amore, contains stock footage from One Million Years B.C. (1966)
Ator, the Fighting Eagle (1983) Ator the Invincible, starring Miles O'Keefe and Sabrina Siani, directed by Joe D'Amato
Ator 2: The Blade Master (1985) Cave Dwellers, starring Miles O’Keefe, directed by Joe D’Amato
Ator 3: Iron Warrior (1986) Iron Warrior, starring Miles O'Keefe, directed by Alfonso Brescia (Joe D'Amato disowned this entry in the Ator saga, since it was done without his involvement)
Ator 4: Quest for the Mighty Sword (1989) Quest for the Mighty Sword, starring Eric Allan Kramer (as the son of Ator), Laura Gemser and Marisa Mell, directed by Joe D'Amato
Barbarian Master (1984) Sangraal, the Sword of Fire, Sword of the Barbarians, starring Sabrina Siani
The Barbarians (1987) The Barbarians and Company, semi-comedy starring Peter and David Paul, directed by Ruggero Deodato
The Cantabrians (1980) Los Cantabros, directed by Paul Naschy in Spain
Conqueror of the World (1983) I padroni del mondo / Fathers of the World, Master of the World (a barbarian movie set in prehistoric times) directed by Alberto Cavallone
Conquest (1983) Conquest of the Lost Land, starring Sabrina Siani, directed by Lucio Fulci
Hercules (1983) starring Lou Ferrigno and Sybil Danning, directed by Luigi Cozzi
Hercules 2 (1984) The Adventures of Hercules, starring Lou Ferrigno, directed by Luigi Cozzi
Hundra (1983) Italian/ Spanish Conan ripoff directed by Matt Cimber
The Invincible Barbarian (1982) Gunan, the Warrior, Gunan, King of the Barbarians, starring Sabrina Siani, directed by Franco Prosperi
Ironmaster (1983) The War of Iron, co-starring Luigi Montefiori, directed by Umberto Lenzi
The Seven Magnificent Gladiators (1983) starring Lou Ferrigno and Dan Vadis
She (1982) starring Sandahl Bergman and Gordon Mitchell
Sinbad of the Seven Seas (1988) starring Lou Ferrigno, directed by Luigi Cozzi
Thor, the Conqueror (1983) directed by Tonino Ricci
The Throne of Fire (1983) starring Sabrina Siani, directed by Franco Prosperi
Yor, the Hunter from the Future (1983) starring Reb Brown, directed by Antonio Margheriti (a barbarian film that has science fiction elements in the story)
A group of so-called "porno peplum" films were devoted to Roman emperors, especially - but not only - to Caligula and Claudius' spouse Messalina:
Caligula (1979) directed by Tinto Brass
A Filha de Calígula (1981) directed by Ody Fraga
Caligula and Messalina (1981) directed by Bruno Mattei
My Nights with Messalina (1982) directed by Jaime J. Puig
Nerone and Poppea (1982) directed by Bruno Mattei
Caligula... The Untold Story (1982) directed by Joe D'Amato
Orgies of Caligula (1984) Caligula's Slaves, Roma, l'antica chiave dei sensi
See also
The Bible in film
References
Further reading
Diak, Nicholas, editor. The New Peplum: Essays on Sword and Sandal Films and Television Programs Since the 1990s. McFarland and Company, Inc. 2018.
Richard Dyer: "The White Man's Muscles" in R. Dyer: White: London: Routledge: 1997:
David Chapman: Retro Studs: Muscle Movie Posters from Around the World: Portland: Collectors Press: 2002:
Hervé Dumont, L'Antiquité au cinéma. Vérités, légendes et manipulations (Nouveau-Monde, 2009; )
Florent Fourcart, Le Péplum italien (1946–1966) : Grandeur et décadence d'une antiquité populaire (2012, CinExploitation; )
Maggie Gunsberg: "Heroic Bodies: The Culture of Masculinity in Peplums" in M. Gunsberg: Italian Cinema: Gender and Genre: Houndsmill: Palgrave Macmillan: 2005:
Patrick Lucanio, With Fire and Sword: Italian Spectacles on American Screens, 1958–1968 (Scarecrow Press, 1994; )
Irmbert Schenk: "The Cinematic Support to Nationalist(ic) Mythology: The Italian Peplum 1910–1930" in Natascha Gentz and Stefan Kramer (eds.) Globalization, Cultural Identities and Media Representations Albany, NY: State University of New York Press: 2006:
Stephen Flacassier: "Muscles, Myths and Movies": Rabbit's Garage: 1994 :
External links
Films
The Avenger by Georgia Rivalta. Steve Reeves stars as Aeneas.
Hercules Unchained (Pietro Francisci, director.)
The Giant of Metropolis (starring Gordon Mitchell; Umberto Scarpelli, director)
Hercules and the Tyrants of Babylon (Domenico Paolella, dir.)
Images and discussion
The Many Faces of Hercules at Brian's Drive-In Theatre
PEPLVM - Images de l'Antiquité, par Michel Eloy (in French)
Cinéma & Histoire: L'Antiquité au Cinéma (in French), by Hervé Dumont.
Vincent Price, B Movies, Film Noir, Bela Lugosi, Boris Karloff, Peter Cushing,Christopher Lee,Barbara Steele,horror,sci-fi,B westerns,sword & sandal (source of peplum DVD's)
Something Weird Video (source of peplum DVD's)
Santo And Friends (filmography of Mexican muscleman films)
Film genres
Historical fiction
Italian films by genre
20th century in Italy
Fantasy genres
Classical antiquity in modern art and culture | [
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253657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witness%20Lee | Witness Lee | Witness Lee (; 1905 – June 9, 1997) was a Chinese Christian preacher and hymnist belonging to the Christian group known as the local churches (or Local Church) in Taiwan and the United States. He was also the founder of Living Stream Ministry. Lee was born in 1905 in the city of Yantai, Shandong, China, to a Southern Baptist family. He became a Christian in 1925 after hearing the preaching of an evangelist named Peace Wang and later joined the Christian work started by Watchman Nee. Like Nee, Lee emphasized what he considered the believers' subjective experience and enjoyment of Christ as life for the building up of the church, not as an organization, but as the Body of Christ.
Biography
Early years
Witness Lee was born in 1905 in Shandong Province in China. Lee's great-grandfather was a Southern Baptist who brought Lee's mother into Christianity. Lee's mother studied in an American Southern Baptist mission school and was baptized as a teenager at a Southern Baptist church. She sold her inheritance to provide her children with an education in Chinese and English. Lee's father was a farmer who died in 1923.
Lee was brought into contact with his mother's Baptist Church in Yantai where he studied at a Southern Baptist elementary school and later at a mission college operated by American Presbyterians. Although Lee attended Southern Baptist services and Sunday school in his youth, he was never converted nor baptized by them. After her conversion, Lee's second sister began to pray for him and introduced him to a Chinese pastor who encouraged him to attend his Sunday morning services. Inspired by the preaching of Peace Wang, Lee dedicated himself to serve God for the rest of his life in April 1925 at the age of 19.
Through Watchman Nee's teaching Lee began to believe that denominationalism was unscriptural. In 1927, when elected to the board of the Chinese Independent Church, he declined the position and left the denomination. Lee then began to meet with the Benjamin Newton branch of the Plymouth Brethren where he remained for seven and a half years and was baptized in the sea by a local Brethren leader, Mr. Burnett, in 1930.
Ministry with Watchman Nee
Soon after Lee's conversion to Christianity, he began to study various Christian teachers and discovered the writings of Watchman Nee in two periodicals, The Morning Star and The Christian. Lee began to correspond with Nee to seek his guidance for a better understanding of the Bible. In 1932 Nee visited Yantai, and the two met for the first time. During the visit, Lee felt that his relationship with God and his understanding of how to study the Bible were revolutionized.
During this time, Lee began to feel that God was calling him to quit his job and serve as a full-time minister, which he did in August 1933. Soon afterward, he received a letter from Watchman Nee that read, “Brother Witness, as for your future, I feel that you should serve the Lord with your full time. How do you feel? May the Lord lead you.” Lee felt this letter strongly confirmed his decision. From that point onward, Lee began to work closely with Nee.
In 1934, Lee moved his family to Shanghai as editor of Nee's magazine The Christian. The following year, he began to travel throughout China giving messages to Christians and helping to establish local churches; many churches were established in Zhejiang Province as well as in Beijing and Tianjin. He also traveled to the northwestern provinces of Suiyuan, Shanxi, and Shaanxi to preach the gospel and edify Christians there prior to the Japanese invasion in 1937.
With the war beginning, Lee returned to Yantai caring for churches in Yantai and Qingdao. At the end of 1942 a revival broke out in Yantai, and the church met continuously for one hundred days. Under suspicion of espionage due to his experimentation with evangelism by migration, Lee was arrested by the Imperial Japanese Army in May 1943 and underwent a month's interrogation through flogging and water torture. His health was greatly weakened by this imprisonment and he developed tuberculosis. In order to rest and recuperate, he moved to Qingdao in 1944 for two years. Following the end of the war, brought great uncertainty for Nee's ministry. In 1949, Nee and his co-workers sent Witness Lee to Taiwan in order to continue Nee's work free from the threat of government persecution under Chinese communism.
Watchman Nee and Witness Lee met for the last time in Hong Kong in 1950. For over a month they spoke together and helped bring about a revival in the church in Hong Kong. Nee charged Lee to instruct, teach, and lead the elders and to make arrangements concerning the church services, as well as the purchase of land for the building of a new meeting place. Nee then returned to mainland China where, in 1952, he was imprisoned for the remaining twenty years of his life by the CCP. The two were never able to communicate again.
Ministry in Taiwan
When Witness Lee moved to Taiwan in May 1949 he began his work with a few believers and churches already present there. Within five to six years, the number of Christians under his leadership increased from five hundred to over fifty thousand. Lee began to conduct conferences and trainings for the churches on a yearly basis and beginning in 1951 a formal training for his ministry co-workers. Lee also began to publish books through his publishing company, The Taiwan Gospel Book Room, as well as The Ministry of the Word magazine published from 1950 until 1986 in 415 issues.
Going west
Lee's work in the West was initiated with invitations to conduct conferences in London, England and Copenhagen, Denmark in 1958. Between 1958 and 1961, he also visited the United States three times. In 1962 he moved to Los Angeles and held his first conference there. Messages from that conference were later published as a book entitled The All-Inclusive Christ. In the ensuing years, Lee was invited to speak to Christian groups throughout the United States. His messages delivered during shorter conferences and longer trainings were printed in The Stream magazine, published by The Stream Publishers (later renamed Living Stream Ministry).
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s Lee traveled extensively throughout the United States, Canada, and the Far East, and elsewhere. In 1974 he moved to Anaheim, California where he began a book-by-book exposition of the Bible with the Life-study of Genesis. His entire Life-study of the Bible was completed in December 1994. Lee also wrote extensive outlines, footnotes, and cross references for the entire New Testament; these were eventually incorporated into a new translation of the New Testament, the Recovery Version, published in English in 1985. A translation into Chinese appeared in 1987, with various other languages following it since Lee's death.
"God-Ordained Way"
Beginning in the mid-1980s, Witness Lee felt that the rate of growth was too slow in the local churches. Eventually, he returned to Taiwan and determined that there was a need for a shift away from large meetings with one speaker to small group meetings in homes. In his ministry he began to refer to this emphasis as the "God-ordained way." Lee believed that by practicing the God-ordained way, churches could be saved from oldness and degradation and be brought back to a biblical pattern. The God-ordained way consists of four major steps:
Later ministry
In February 1994 Lee began to deliver messages on subjects he referred to as "the high peak of the divine revelation." The focus of his messages was "God’s economy to make the believers God in life and nature but not in the Godhead." He also spoke on topics like "the New Jerusalem, the complete salvation of God with its judicial and organic aspects, the full ministry of Christ in His three divine and mystical stages, and the incorporation of the believers with the consummated Triune God." He also began a series of Bible expositions known as "Crystallization-studies." He continued to encourage the practice of the "God-ordained way."
Witness Lee gave his last conference in February 1997. Three months later he was hospitalized with complications due to prostate cancer. He died on June 9, 1997.
Witness Lee's view of Christendom
Witness Lee was critical of Christendom as a system while stressing the need to accept all believers based on what he taught was the common faith (Tit. 1:4, Jude 3).
Witness Lee taught that certain practices in Christendom were unscriptural, such as the use of denominating names and the clergy-laity system. Nevertheless, he often emphasized the need for oneness among all Christians.
Publications
Many of Witness Lee's spoken messages have been published in over 400 books translated into more than fourteen different languages. His largest written work is The Life-study of the Bible, comprising over 25,000 pages of commentary on every book of the Bible from the perspective of the believers' enjoyment and experience of God's divine life in Christ through the Holy Spirit. A radio broadcast called Life-study of the Bible with Witness Lee was later produced from these spoken messages. Following the Life-study Lee began a focused Crystallization-study to look at high points, or "crystals," of each book of the Bible. However, he died before completing this work.
He was also the chief editor of a new translation of the New Testament into English and Chinese called the Recovery Version.
In addition, Witness Lee wrote, collected, and translated Christian hymns. In 1963 and 1964, he wrote the lyrics to approximately 200 new hymns that he compiled together with hymns from other authors. These were then categorized by topic for Hymns, with a total of 1,080 songs, published by Living Stream Ministry.
See also
Watchman Nee
The Local Churches
Local Church controversies
Living Stream Ministry
Recovery Version
References
External links
Life and Work of Witness Lee
Life and Work of Watchman Nee
Published Works of Watchman Nee and Witness Lee
Publications and Biographies of Watchman Nee and Witness Lee
Online Recovery Version Bible
Free Recovery Version Bible
An Oral History of Witness Lee in America – By James Barber (.mp3 Format, 89min, 10.2Meg)
My last conversation with Brother Witness Lee from Kerry S. Robichaux
"We Were Wrong" -- Christian Research Institute Journal on Witness Lee and the local churches
An Open Letter Concerning the Teachings of Witness Lee
1905 births
1997 deaths
Chinese Protestant missionaries
Chinese Protestant ministers and clergy
Local Church movement
Christian writers
Translators of the Bible into Chinese
Chinese evangelists
People from Penglai, Shandong
20th-century Chinese translators
Taiwanese people from Shandong
Writers from Yantai
Prisoners and detainees of Japan
Missionary linguists | [
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253661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edition%20%28printmaking%29 | Edition (printmaking) | In printmaking, an edition is a number of prints struck from one plate, usually at the same time. This may be a limited edition, with a fixed number of impressions produced on the understanding that no further impressions (copies) will be produced later, or an open edition limited only by the number that can be sold or produced before the plate wears. Most modern artists produce only limited editions, normally signed by the artist in pencil, and numbered as say 67/100 to show the unique number of that impression and the total edition size.
Original or reproduction?
An important and often confused distinction is that between editions of original prints, produced in the same medium as the artist worked (e.g., etching, or lithography), and reproduction prints (or paintings), which are photographic reproductions of the original work, essentially in the same category as a picture in a book or magazine, though better printed and on better paper. These may be marketed as "limited editions" with investment potential (which is rarely realized), and even signed and numbered by the artist. Some knowledge is often required to tell the difference.
Development of the concept
One of the main reasons for the development of printmaking was the desire of artists to make more money from their work by selling multiple copies; printmaking satisfies this motive. The production of multiple copies also tends to reduce production costs and market price when compared to a single or unique image. Until the 19th century, in the period of the Old master print the concept of an edition did not really apply to prints, unlike books. Prints were often run off as demand allowed, and often worn-out plates were reworked by the original artist or another, to produce a new state. The art market attempts to distinguish between "lifetime impressions" and "late impressions", which were produced after the death of the artist. This can be done to some extent by the study of the paper involved, and its watermark, and the condition of the plate as revealed by the printed image. But it remains a difficult area.
The aquatints of Goya, which are done in a technique that wears out quickly on the plate, were the first important prints to be published initially in limited editions, which however were not signed or numbered. In fact the plates survived, and since Goya's death several further editions have been published, showing a progressive and drastic decline in quality of the image, despite some rework. Because of this and other cases, "posthumous editions" produced after the death of an artist, and obviously not signed by him, are usually far less sought after. The plates of later prints are often "cancelled" by defacing the image, with a couple of impressions of the cancelled plate taken to document it. This is now expected by collectors and investors, who want the prints they buy to retain their value.
Modern practice
Prints by artists today may potentially retain their financial value as art (i.e., as an appreciating investment) because they are created by an artistic process rather than by a strictly mechanical one, and may become scarce because the number of multiples is limited. In Rembrandt's time, the limit on the size of an edition was practical: a plate degrades through use, putting an upper limit on the number of images to be struck. Plates can be reworked and restored to some degree, but it is generally not possible to create more than a thousand prints from any process except lithography or woodcut. A few hundred is a more practical upper limit, and even that allows for significant variation in the quality of the image. In drypoint, 10 or 20 may be the maximum number of top-quality impressions possible.
Today, artists will sometimes refer to a print as a "one-off," meaning that the artist has made a unique print and no reproductions of it from the original matrix, often not even a proof. In this category one sometimes finds monotypes, monoprints, collagraphs, altered prints with collage or chine colle additions, or even hand-colored prints. There remain artists who are strong advocates of "artist's prints" which are conceived, printed, signed, and given the edition number 1/1 by the artist.
Numbering
Because of the variation in quality, lower-numbered prints in an edition are sometimes favored as superior, especially with older works where the image was struck until the plate wore out. However the numbering of impressions in fact may well not equate at all to the sequence in which they were printed, and may often be the reverse of it.
In later times, printmakers recognized the value of limiting the size of an edition and including the volume of the edition in the print number (e.g., "15/30" for the 15th print in an edition of 30). Tight controls on the process to limit or eliminate variation in quality have become the norm. In monotyping, a technique where only two impressions at most can be taken, prints may be numbered 1/1, or marked "unique". Artists usually print an edition much smaller than the plate allows, both for marketing reasons and to keep the edition comfortably within the lifespan of the plate. Specific steps may also be taken to strengthen the plate, such as electroplating intaglio images, which uses an electric process to put a very thin coat of a stronger metal onto a plate of a weaker metal.
The conventions for numbering prints are well-established, a limited edition is normally hand signed and numbered by the artist, typically in pencil, in the form (e.g.): 14/100. The first number is the number of the print itself. The second number is the number of overall prints the artist will print of that image. The lower the second number is, the more valuable and collectible the limited editions are likely to be, within whatever their price range is. Other marks may indicate that a print has been made in addition to the numbered prints of an edition. Artist's proofs are marked "A. P." or "P/A", sometimes E. A. or E. d'A. (épreuve d'artiste); monoprints and uniquely hand-altered prints are marked "unique"; prints that are given to someone or are for some reason unsuitable for sale are marked "H. C." or "H/C", meaning "hors de commerce", not for sale. These are usually prints reserved for the publisher, like Artist's Proofs. The printer is also often allowed to retain some proof impressions; these are marked "P. P." Finally, a master image may be printed against which the members of the edition are compared for quality: these are marked as "bon à tirer" or "BAT" ("good to print" in French). In all, the number of the main edition can represent 50% or less of the total number of good impressions taken.
Professional artist printmakers will sometimes limit an edition to several artist's proof copies, including a "bon a tirer" print and then one unique copy designated as a "one-off" or "1/1" or "one/off".
Consumer protection laws
In the United States limited editions are regulated under state consumer protections laws. California became the first state to regulate the sale of limited edition art prints with the "California Print Law" of 1971. The state of Illinois later expanded on the California statute. However, it was not until 1986 that more comprehensive provisions, still in place today, were enacted with the passage of the "Georgia Print Law". That law became the template for statutes subsequently enacted by other states. The Georgia Print Law written by (former) State Representative Chesley V. Morton, became effective July 1, 1986. The law requires art dealers, artists, or auctioneers to supply information to perspective purchasers about the nature of the print, the number of prints and editions (including HC editions) produced, and the involvement (if any) of the artist in the creation of the print. The penalty for violation of the law ranges from simple reimbursement to treble damages, in the case of a willful violation. Those found to be in violation of the law are also liable for court costs, expenses, and attorney fees. The law applies to works of art valued at more than $100.00 (not including frame). Charitable organizations are specifically exempt from the provision of the law. The statute of limitations is one year after discovery, and, if discovery of the violation is not made within three years of the sale, then the purchaser’s remedies are extinguished.
See also
Historical editions (music)
Special edition
Artist's multiple
Textual scholarship
References
External links
What is a print? from the International Fine Art Printers Association
Printing
Printing terminology
Printmaking
Textual scholarship | [
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253662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy%20Rooney | Andy Rooney | Andrew Aitken Rooney (January 14, 1919 – November 4, 2011) was an American radio and television writer who was best known for his weekly broadcast "A Few Minutes with Andy Rooney", a part of the CBS News program 60 Minutes from 1978 to 2011. His final regular appearance on 60 Minutes aired on October 2, 2011; he died a month later at the age of 92.
Early life and education
Andrew Aitken Rooney was born in Albany, New York, the son of Walter Scott Rooney (1888–1959) and Ellinor (Reynolds) Rooney (1886–1980). He attended The Albany Academy, and later attended Colgate University in Hamilton in central New York, where he was initiated into the Sigma Chi fraternity, before he was drafted into the United States Army in August 1941.
World War II
Rooney began his career in newspapers in 1942 while in the Army where he began writing for Stars and Stripes in London. He was one of six correspondents who flew on the second American bombing raid over Germany in February 1943, flying with the Eighth Air Force. He was the first journalist to reach the Ludendorff Bridge after the 9th Armored Division captured it on March 7, 1945. He was to the west when he heard that the bridge had been captured. "It was a reporter's dream," he wrote. "One of the great stories of the war had fallen into my lap." The bridge capture was front-page news in America. Rooney rated the capture of the bridge as one of the top five events of the entire European war, alongside D-Day.
He was one of the first American journalists to visit the Nazi concentration camps near the end of World War II, and one of the first to write about them. During a segment on Tom Brokaw's The Greatest Generation, Rooney stated that he had been opposed to World War II because he was a pacifist. He recounted that what he saw in those concentration camps made him ashamed that he had opposed the war and permanently changed his opinions about whether "just wars" exist.
Rooney was decorated with the Bronze Star Medal and Air Medal for his service as a war correspondent in combat zones during the war. His 1995 memoir My War chronicles his war reporting and recounts several notable historical events and people from a first-hand view, including the entry into Paris and the Nazi concentration camps. He describes how it shaped his experience both as a writer and reporter.
Career
Rooney joined CBS in 1949 as a writer for Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts, when Godfrey was at his peak on CBS radio and TV. It opened the show up to a variety of viewers. The program was a hit, reaching number one in 1952 during Rooney's tenure. It was the beginning of a close lifelong friendship between Rooney and Godfrey. He wrote for Godfrey's daytime radio and TV show Arthur Godfrey Time. He later moved on to The Garry Moore Show which became a hit program. During the same period, he wrote public affairs programs for CBS News, such as The Twentieth Century.
Rooney wrote his first television essay in 1964 called "An Essay on Doors", "a longer-length precursor of the type" that he did on 60 Minutes, according to CBS News's biography of him. From 1962 to 1968, he collaborated with CBS News correspondent Harry Reasoner, Rooney writing and producing and Reasoner narrating. They wrote on CBS News specials such as "An Essay on Bridges" (1965), "An Essay on Hotels" (1966), "An Essay on Women" (1967), and "The Strange Case of the English Language" (1968). In 1968, he wrote two episodes of the CBS News documentary series Of Black America, and his script for "Black History: Lost, Stolen, or Strayed" won him his first Emmy.
CBS refused to broadcast his World War II memoir titled "An Essay on War" in 1970, so Rooney quit CBS and read the opinion himself on PBS, which was his first appearance on television. That show in 1971 won him his third Writers Guild Award. He rejoined CBS in 1973 to write and produce special programs. He also wrote the script for the 1975 documentary FDR: The Man Who Changed America.
After his return to the network, Rooney wrote and appeared in several primetime specials for CBS, including In Praise of New York City (1974), the Peabody Award-winning Mr. Rooney Goes to Washington (1975), Mr. Rooney Goes to Dinner (1978), and Mr. Rooney Goes to Work (1977). Transcripts of these specials are contained in the book A Few Minutes with Andy Rooney, as well as of some of the earlier collaborations with Reasoner.
"A Few Minutes with Andy Rooney"
Rooney's "end-of-show" segment on 60 Minutes, "A Few Minutes with Andy Rooney" (originally "Three Minutes or So With Andy Rooney"), began in 1978, as a summer replacement for the debate segment "Point/Counterpoint" featuring Shana Alexander and James Kilpatrick. The segment proved popular enough with viewers that beginning in the fall of 1978, it was seen in alternate weeks with the debate segment. At the end of the 1978–1979 season, "Point/Counterpoint" was dropped altogether.
In the segment, Rooney typically offered satire on a trivial everyday issue, such as the cost of groceries, annoying relatives, or faulty Christmas presents. Rooney's appearances on "A Few Minutes with Andy Rooney" often included whimsical lists, such as types of milk, bottled water brands, car brands, and sports mascots. In later years, his segments became more political as well. Despite being best known for his television presence on 60 Minutes, Rooney always considered himself a writer who incidentally appeared on television behind his famous walnut table, which he had made himself.
Controversies
Rooney made a number of comments which elicited strong reactions from fans and producers alike.
Comments on race
In February 1990, CBS's 60 Minutes suspended Rooney for three months after having suggested that black people were less intelligent because they "watered down their genes". After the program's ratings dropped significantly, Rooney was let back on in March.
Rooney wrote a column in 1992 that posited that it was "silly" for Native Americans to complain about team names like the Redskins, in which he wrote in part, "The real problem is, we took the country away from the Indians, they want it back and we're not going to give it to them. We feel guilty and we'll do what we can for them within reason, but they can't have their country back. Next question." After receiving many letters from Native Americans he wrote, "when so many people complain about one thing, you have to assume you may have been wrong".
In a 2007 column for Tribune media services, he wrote, "I know all about Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig, but today's baseball stars are all guys named Rodriguez to me." Rooney later commented, "Yeah, I probably shouldn't have said it, [but] it's a name that seems common in baseball now. I certainly didn't think of it in any derogatory sense."
In the 1940s, Rooney was arrested after sitting in the back of a segregated bus in protest. Also, in 2008, when Barack Obama was elected president of the United States, Rooney applauded the fact that "the citizens of this country, 80% of whom are white, freely chose to elect a black man as their leader simply because they thought he was the best choice." He said that makes him proud, and that it proves that the country has "come a long way—a good way."
Comments on same-sex unions
In 1990, Rooney was suspended without pay for three months by then-CBS News President David Burke, because of the negative publicity around his saying that "too much alcohol, too much food, drugs, homosexual unions, cigarettes [are] all known to lead to premature death." He wrote an explanatory letter to a gay organization after being ordered not to do so. After only four weeks without Rooney, 60 Minutes lost 20% of its audience. CBS management then decided that it was in the best interest of the network to have Rooney return immediately.
After Rooney's reinstatement, he made his remorse public:
Remarks on Kurt Cobain's suicide
In a 1994 segment, Rooney attracted controversy with his remarks on Kurt Cobain's suicide. He expressed his dismay that the death of Richard Nixon was overshadowed by Cobain's suicide, stating that he had never heard of Cobain or his band, Nirvana. He went on to say that Cobain's suicide made him angry. "A lot of people would like to have the years left that he threw away," Rooney said. "What's all this nonsense about how terrible life is?" he asked, adding rhetorically to a young woman who had wept at the suicide, "I'd love to relieve the pain you're going through by switching my age for yours." In addition, he asked "What would all these young people be doing if they had real problems like a Depression, World War II, or Vietnam?" and commented, "If [Cobain] applied the same brain to his music that he applied to his drug-infested life, it's reasonable to think that his music may not have made much sense, either."
On the following Sunday's show, he apologized on the air, saying he should have taken Cobain's depression into account. He also read only critical feedback from listeners without interjecting any commentary of his own.
Collections and retirement
Rooney's shorter television essays have been archived in numerous books, such as Common Nonsense, which came out in 2002, and Years of Minutes, probably his best-known work, released in 2003. He penned a regular syndicated column for Tribune Media Services that ran in many newspapers in the United States, and which has been collected in book form. He won three Emmy Awards for his essays, which numbered over 1,000. He was awarded a Lifetime Achievement Emmy in 2003. Rooney's renown made him a frequent target of parodies and impersonations by a diverse group of comic figures, including Frank Caliendo, Rich Little and Beavis.
In 1993, CBS released a two-volume VHS tape set of the best of Rooney's commentaries and field reports, called "The Andy Rooney Television Collection — His Best Minutes." In 2006, CBS released three DVDs of his more recent commentaries, Andy Rooney On Almost Everything, Things That Bother Andy Rooney, and Andy Rooney's Solutions.
Rooney's final regular appearance on 60 Minutes was on October 2, 2011, after 33 years on the show. It was his 1,097th commentary.
Views
He claimed on Larry King Live to have a liberal bias, stating, "There is just no question that I, among others, have a liberal bias. I mean, I'm consistently liberal in my opinions." In a controversial 1999 book, Rooney self-identified as agnostic, but by 2004 he was calling himself an atheist. He reaffirmed this in 2008. Over the years, many of his editorials poked fun at the concept of God and organized religion. Increased speculation on this was brought to a head by a series of comments he made regarding Mel Gibson's film The Passion of the Christ (2004).
Though Rooney has been called Irish-American, he once said "I'm proud of my Irish heritage, but I'm not Irish. I'm not even Irish-American. I am American, period."
In 2005, when four people were fired at CBS News perhaps because of the Killian documents controversy, Rooney said, "The people on the front lines got fired while the people most instrumental in getting the broadcast on escaped." Others at CBS had "kept mum" about the controversy.
Personal life
Rooney was married to Marguerite "Margie" Rooney (née Howard) for 62 years, until she died of heart failure in 2004. He later wrote, "her name does not appear as often as it originally did [in my essays] because it hurts too much to write it." They had four children: Ellen, Emily, Martha, and Brian. His daughter Emily Rooney is a TV talk show host and former ABC News producer who went on to host a nightly Boston-area public affairs program, Greater Boston, on WGBH. Emily's identical twin, Martha Fishel, became chief of the Public Services Division at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland; her son Justin works as a producer for ABC News. His first daughter, Ellen Rooney, is a former film editor at ABC News and is now a travel and garden photographer based in London. His son, Brian Rooney, has been a correspondent for ABC since the 1980s and lives in Los Angeles.
Rooney also had a sister, Nancy Reynolds Rooney (1915–2007).
Rooney lived in the Rowayton section of Norwalk, Connecticut, and in Rensselaerville, New York, and was a longtime season ticket holder for the New York Giants.
Death
Rooney was hospitalized on October 25, 2011, after developing postoperative complications from an undisclosed surgical procedure, and died on November 4, 2011, at the age of 92, less than five weeks after his last appearance on 60 Minutes.
Awards
2001 – Emperor Has No Clothes Award from the Freedom From Religion Foundation.
2003 – Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism.
Books
Books written by Rooney:
Conquerors' Peace; report to the American stockholders, by Oram C. Hutton and Andrew A. Rooney. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1947. ()
A Few Minutes With Andy Rooney, 1981 ()
And More by Andy Rooney, 1982 ()
Pieces of My Mind, 1984 ()
The Most of Andy Rooney, 1986 ()
Word for Word, 1988 ()
Not That You Asked ..., 1989 ()
Most of Andy Rooney, 1990 ()
Sweet and Sour, 1992 ()
My War, 1997 ()
Sincerely, Andy Rooney, 1999 ()
The Complete Andy Rooney, 2000 ()
Common Nonsense, 2002, ()
Years of Minutes, 2003 ()
Out of My Mind, 2006 ()
60 Years of Wisdom and Wit, 2009 ()
See also
Rooney (surname)
References
External links
1919 births
2011 deaths
American humorists
American broadcast news analysts
American television journalists
American war correspondents of World War II
American commentators
American male journalists
CBS News people
60 Minutes correspondents
American memoirists
Recipients of the Air Medal
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army soldiers
Writers from Norwalk, Connecticut
American atheists
Colgate University alumni
Writers from Albany, New York
People from Rensselaerville, New York
20th-century American journalists
21st-century American journalists
Journalists from New York (state)
The Albany Academy alumni | [
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253665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogy | Bogy | Bogy (; ) is a commune of the Ardèche department in southern France.
Geography
Bogy is located from Annonay, and from Valence.
Population
The inhabitants are called Boginois.
See also
Communes of the Ardèche department
References
External links
Gazetteer Entry
Communes of Ardèche
Ardèche communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia | [
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253672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%20Boy%20%28character%29 | Bat Boy (character) | Bat Boy is a fictional creature who made numerous appearances in the American supermarket tabloid Weekly World News. The Weekly World News published patently fabricated stories which were purported to be factual. Within the pages of the paper, Bat Boy is described as a creature who is 'half human and half bat'. His pursuers, according to Weekly World News, are scientists and United States government officials; he is frequently captured, then later makes a daring escape. The original scientist who found him was named Dr. Ron Dillon. Another WWN character, Matthew Daemon, S.O.S. (Seeker of Obscure Supernaturals), crossed paths with him in several stories.
Bat Boy was created by former Weekly World News editor Dick Kulpa. Writer Bob Lind was assigned the story six weeks later. He debuted as a cover story on June 23, 1992. The original front-page photo of Bat Boy, showing his grotesque screaming face, was the second-best selling issue in the tabloid's history, and he has since evolved into a pop-culture icon. He became the tabloid's de facto mascot of sorts. The story of Bat Boy was turned into an Off-Broadway musical, Bat Boy: The Musical.
Adventures of Batboy
Cartoonist Peter Bagge originally penned the "Adventures of Batboy" for the Weekly World News. According to the cartoon, Bat Boy is currently hitchhiking with a typical American family after resigning from being the President of the United States (and King), has placed Weekly World News columnist Ed Anger under arrest and saying goodbyes to Beyoncé, a half sasquatch (with whom he was romantically involved), and Dr. Ron. In the strip, Bat Boy joins a death metal/thrash metal band as their lead singer. Cartoonist Danielle Corsetto, creator of webcomic Girls with Slingshots, took over from Bagge in 2005 and drew the strip until the WWN ceased publication in 2007.
Bat Boy: The Musical
A musical based on the Bat Boy character premiered at Tim Robbins' Actors Gang Theatre on Halloween, 1997 and has since been produced Off Broadway, in London's West End, and in scores of productions throughout the world. Music and lyrics are by Laurence O'Keefe, with a book by Brian Flemming and Keythe Farley.
References
Sources
Bibliography
"Bat Boy Found in West Virginia Cave!" by Bill Creighton, Weekly World News, June 23, 1992, pp 46–47. Reprinted July 16, 1999, pp. 46–47. Reprinted June 20, 2005 pp. 58–59.
"Bat Boy Escapes!" by Dack Kennedy, October 6, 1992, p. 5.
"U.S. Govt. to Blame for Letting Bat Boy Escape!" by Ed Anger, October 6, 1992, p. 17.
"New Wave of Bat Boy Sightings" anonymous, December 8, 1992, pp. 4–5.
"Bat Boy Attacks Girl, 10!" by Joe Berger, March 9, 1993, pp. 4–5.
"Bat Boy on the Loose!" Weekly World News Special 76-Page Collector's Edition, May 1993 pp 38–39.
"'I've Captured Bat Boy'" by Jack Alexander, July 27, 1993, p. 29.
"FBI Captures Bat Boy!" by Conrad Morse, August 31, 1993, pp. 24–25.
"Bat Boy Saga Heats Up" Anonymous, January 4–11, 1994, p. 51.
"Bat Boy Dead, Claims U.S. Govt." by Nick Mann, January 31, 1995, p. 46.
"Escaped Bat Boy Sighted in Texas!" by Global News Service, April 11, 1995, p. 3.
"New Jersey Lovebirds Getting Married – Thanks to Elvis and Bat Boy" by Tanya Broder, February 20, 1996, p. 39.
"Bat Boy Captured!" by Joe Berger, September 16, 1997, pp. 8–9.
"Bat Boy Is Learning How to Talk!" by Mike Foster, March 24, 1998, p. 13.
"Second Bat Child Captured in West Virginia, Confirms Researcher," by Alex Morgan, September 15, 1998, p. 25.
"Half-Human Half-Bat Locked Up in Secret Medical Lab!" by Kevin Creed, August 31, 1999, p. 13.
"Bat Boy on the Loose!" by Wolf Landrum, September 7, 1999, pp. 36–37.
"Bat Child Attacks Girl" by Ernst Craven, September 19, 2000, pp 40–41.
"'I Will Hunt Down Bat Boy and Kill Him!'" by Rex Wolfe, October 9, 2001, p. 20.
"Stay Tuned—Something BIG Is Brewing for Bat Boy" by Ernst Craven, October 30, 2001, p. 8.
"Pentagon Mum on Bat Boy Whereabouts" by Mary Kingston, November 6, 2001, p. 7.
"It's a Bird... It's a Plane... No – It's Bat Boy... Training with the U.S. Army!" by Andi Cretel, November 20, 2001, p. 45.
"Bat Boy Meets with Bush at Camp David" by Tomaso Focata, November 27, 2001, p. 9.
"Bat Boy Storms Afghanistan with U.S. Marines" by Alicia Bousch, December 15, 2001, pp. 18–19.
"Bat Boy Bites Santa Claus!" by Brett Anniston, December 18, 2001, p. 10.
"'Bring Us the Head of Bat Boy!'" by Lois Castini, January 8, 2002, p. 8.
"Batty-Mitzvah" by Anonymous, January 15, 2002, p. 69.
Letters to the Editor by Hans Schrierst of William Morris Agency and Alfred E. Newman of Mad Magazine, January 9, 2002.
"Bat Boy Behind Bars!" by Miguel Figueroa, February 19, 2002, p. 42.
"Bat Boy Escapes Terrorists: Now He's on the Lam in South America!" by Joan Ryan, February 26, 2002, pp. 42–43.
"FBI Warns: Don't Be Fooled by This Bat Boy Impersonator!" by Vincenzo Sardi, March 5, 2002, pp. 2–3.
"Yes, Jacob, There Is a Bat Boy," Sound Off, July 23, 2002, p. 4.
"Bat Boy Saves Washington from 'Dirty Bomb' Disaster... & You Won't Believe How!" by Miguel Figueroa, April 30, 2002, pp. 12–13.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Joseph B., August 20, 2002, p. 4.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by "Draff" and "Unicorn," August 27, 2002, p. 4.
"Half Bat—Half Amazing" by Anonymous, September 10, 2002, p. 42.
"Mutant Fruit" by Rick Kirk, October 8, 2002, p. 16.
"Bat Boy Is Missing!" by Miguel Figueroa, October 15, 2002, p. 9.
"Bat Boy Sightings!" Anonymous, November 19, 2002, p. 6-7.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Blake S., December 3, 2002, p. 4.
"Police Seek Hero Mystery Boy in Capture of Child Molestor" by Mike Foster, December 17, 2002, p. 5.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor from Worried, December 24, 2002, p. 4.
"Bat Boy Steals Car—And Goes on Three State Joy Ride!" by Wayne Diaz, January 14, 2003, pp. 6–7.
"Bat Boy Still on the Lam!" by Brett Anniston, January 21, 2003, p. 37.
"Bat Boy Still on the Lam" by Mike Foster, January 28, 2003, p. 37.
"Bat Boy Abandons Stolen Car - & Vanishes" by Mike Foster, February 4, 2003, pp. 30–31.
Weirdo Letter of the Week by Amanda W., February 18, 2003, p. 4.
"Is J.Lo Seeing Bat Boy Behind Ben's Back?" by Martha S., February 25, 2003, p. 4.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Anonymous, March 4, 2003, p. 4.
Newsmakers letter from Anthony and Elizabeth M., April 1, 2003, p. 2.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Albert P., April 15, 2003, p. 4.
"Bat Boy Goes International!" by Dick Kulpo, April 15, 2003, p. 4.
"Bat Boy Goes to War!" by Larry Mulder, April 22, 2003, pp. 24–25.
"Thank God We Sent Bat Boy Into Iraq" by Martin T., May 6, 2003, p. 4.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Sandra M., June 3, 2003, p. 4.
Letter of the Week by Beth L., July 15, 2003, p. 4.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Dr. Natalie P., July 29, 2003, p. 4.
"Bat Boy to Fly Space Shuttle" by Deuce Collins, September 23, 2003, pp. 30–31.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor form Andy H., September 30, 2003, p. 4.
Bat Boy Mask, October 28, 2003, p. 72.
"Bat Boy Xmas Card!" December 2, 2003, p. 12.
"Freaks, Geeks & Weirdos" by Kay Callahan, December 2, 2003, p. 26.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Harvey P. of Cleveland, Ohio, December 23, 2003, p. 4.
"Bat Boy Led U.S. Troops to Saddam... Gotcha!" by Mike Foster, January 13, 2004, pp. 24–25.
"The Bat Got the Rat" by Steven H., February 3, 2004, p. 4.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Clark D., February 17, 2004, p. 4.
"New Adventures of Bat Boy!" by Peter Bagge, March 2, 2004, p. 9.(introduction to weekly Bat Boy comic strip)
"Bat Boy: He's 50% Bat—100% Amazing" by Kate McClare, March 8, 2004, p. 9.
"U.S. Plans to Clone Army of Bat Boys to Fight Terrorism!" by Ian Merkins, March 15, 2004, p. 9.
Sound Off! Letters to the Editor by Gary G. and Bernie Q., March 22, 2004, p. 4.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor from Anthony L., March 29, 2004, p. 4.
"Bat Boy to Be Knighted" by Michael Chiron, April 5, 2004, p. 8.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Ray L. Winder, May 3, 2004, p. 4.
"Dynamic Duo! Bat Boy Lobbying Hard for Kerry's No. 2 Spot." by Nick Mann, May 31, 2004, pp. 2–3.
"Bat Boy to Try Out for American Idol" by Paul Chiron, June 21, 2004, p. 8.
Sound Off! Letter to the Editor by Staci M., June 28, 2004, p. 4.
"Happy Birthday, America!" July 4, 2005, pp. 30–31.
"Britney Is My Bride!" by Will Shivers, July 12, 2004, p. 9.
"Fat Britney Fan Goes on Hunger Strike Over Reports She Married Bat Boy" by Brett Anniston, August 2, 2004, p. 37.
"'I Can Cure Bat Boy!'" by Michael Forsyth, September 20, 2004, pp. 8–9.
"Terrorists Kidnap Bat Boy!" by Nikki Long, October 11, 2004, p. 9.
"Bat Boy Musical Knocks 'Em Dead in London" by Norv Keener, November 8, 2004, p. 9.
"My Neighbor's Kid Looks Like Bat Boy—Can You Help Him?" by Mary Guevara, December 6, 2004, p. 4.; reprinted December 27, 2004.
"Dating Service for Freaks" by Darren Davenport, January 3, 2005, pp. 26–27.
"Are James Carville & Bat Boy Kin?" by Mike Foster, January 17, 2005, pp. 8–9.
"Kid Saving Up for Plastic Surgery—to Look Like Bat Boy!" Anonymous, April 25, 2005, p. 15.
"Bat Boy to Join the Cast of Deadwood!" by Mark Miller, July 18, 2005, pp. 4–5.
"Miss Adventure's Male Bag" by Drew Sullivan (letter attributed to Jeremy Lovett), December 5, 2005, p. 18.
"Daemon Rushes to Save Boy-Bat Trapped in Cave" by Dick Siegel, December 12, 2005, p. 40-41.
"Are Boy-Bat and Bat Boy Fraternal Twins Separated at Birth?" by Sammy Robin, January 2, 2006, p. 4.
"Bat Boy in the Belfry" by Robert Greenberger, April 10, 2006, pp 12–13.
"Protect Bat Boy at All Costs" by Robert Greenberger, April 17, 2006, pp. 12–13.
Sound Off! Letters to the Editor by Richard Graysonne and Charlie Kane, May 1, 2006, p. 47.; reprinted June 19, 2006, p. 47.
Sound Off! Letters to the Editor from K. Bates and Matt Tell, May 8, 2006, p. 47.
"Candidate Visits Bat Boy's Home! Romney Promises to Protect Spelunkers from Monsters" by D. Patrick, March 26, 2007, p. 7.
"Police Arrest 'Bat Boy': Elusive Creature Sighted in Upstate New York," by Dick Siegel, June 11, 2007, p. 4.
"Kids' Letters to Bat Boy" by Dick Siegel, August 6, 2007, p. 12.
Fictional characters introduced in 1992
Fictional characters from West Virginia
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253675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20of%20Chester | Earl of Chester | The Earldom of Chester (Welsh: Iarllaeth Caer) was one of the most powerful earldoms in medieval England, extending principally over the counties of Cheshire and Flintshire. Since 1301 the title has generally been granted to heirs apparent to the English throne, and from the late 14th century it has been given only in conjunction with that of Prince of Wales.
Honour of Chester and County Palatinate
The County of Cheshire was held by the powerful Earls (or "Counts" from the Norman-French) of Chester from the late eleventh century, and they held land all over England, comprising "the honour of Chester". By the late twelfth century (if not earlier) the earls had established a position of power as quasi-princely rulers of Cheshire that led to the later establishment of the County Palatine of Chester and Flint. Such was their power that Magna Carta set down by King John did not apply to Cheshire and the sixth earl was compelled to issue his own version.
County palatine
The earldom passed to the Crown by escheat in 1237 on the death of John the Scot, Earl of Huntingdon, seventh and last of the Earls. William III de Forz, 4th Earl of Albemarle, claimed the earldom as husband of Christina, the senior co-heir, but the king persuaded them to quitclaim their rights in 1241 in exchange for modest lands elsewhere. The other co-heiresses did likewise. It was annexed to the Crown in 1246. King Henry III then passed the Lordship of Chester, but not the title of Earl, to his son, the Lord Edward, in 1254; as King Edward I, this son in turn conferred the title and lands of the Earldom on his son, Edward, the first English Prince of Wales. By that time, the Earldom of Chester consisted of two counties: Cheshire and Flintshire.
The establishment of royal control of the Earldom of Chester made possible King Edward I's conquest of north Wales, and Chester played a vital part as a supply base during the Welsh Wars (1275–84), so the separate organisation of a county palatine was preserved. This continued until the time of King Henry VIII. Since 1301, the Earldom of Chester has always been conferred on the Princes of Wales.
Briefly promoted to a principality in 1398 by King Richard II, who titled himself "Prince of Chester",<ref>William Camden, Cheshire – Britannia : "Richard himself was styled Princeps Cestriæ, Prince of Chester. But this title was but of small duration: no longer, than till Henry the fourth repeal’d the Laws of the said Parliament; for then it became a County Palatine again, and retains that Prerogative to this day...".</ref> it was reduced to an earldom again in 1399 by King Henry IV. Whereas the Sovereign's eldest son is born Duke of Cornwall, he must be made or created Earl of Chester (and Prince of Wales; see the Prince Henry's Charter Case (1611) ). Prince Charles was created Earl of Chester on 26 July 1958, when he was also made Prince of Wales.
The independent palatinate jurisdiction of Chester survived until the time of King Henry VIII (1536), when the earldom was brought more directly under the control of the Crown. The palatinate courts of Great Sessions and Exchequer survived until the reforms of 1830.
The importance of the County Palatinate of Chester is shown by the survival of Chester Herald in the College of Arms for some six hundred years. The office has anciently been nominally under the jurisdiction of Norroy King of Arms.
Revenues
In the year 1377, the revenues of the Earldom were recorded as follows:
County of Chester
Fee-Farm of city of Chester – £22 2 4 1/2,
Escheated lands of said city – £0 7 0,
Rents of the Manor of Dracklow and Rudeheath – £26 2 6,
Farm of Medywick – £21 6 0,
Profits of Mara and Modren – £34 0 9,
Profits of Shotwick Manor and Park – £23 19 0,
Mills upon River Dee – £11 0 0,
Annual profits of Fordham Manor – £48 0 0,
Profits of Macklefield Hundred – £6 1 8,
Farm of Macklefield Borough – £16 1 3,
Profits of the forest of Macklefield £85 12 11 3/4,
Profits of escheater of Chester – £24 19 0,
Profits of the sheriff of said county – £43 12 3,
Profits of the Chamberlain of county – £55 14 0.
County of Flint
Yearly value of Ellow – £20 8 0,
Farm of the town of Flint – £33 19 4,
Farm of Cayrouse – £7 2 4,
Castle of Ruthlam – £5 12 10,
Rents and profits of Mosten – £7 0 0,
Rents and profits of Colshil – £54 16 0,
Rents of Ruthlam town – £44 17 6,
Lands of Englefield (yearly) – £23 10 0,
Profits of Vayvol – £5 9 0,
Profits of the office of escheator – £6 11 9,
Mines of Cole and Wood within Manor of Mosten – £0 10 0,
Office of the sheriff in rents and casualties – £120 0 0,
Mines and profits of the Fairs of Northope – £3 9 2,
Casualties was lastly – £37 0 8.
Total income was £418 1 2 3/4 from Cheshire and £181 6 0 from Flintshire.
List of the Earls of Chester
First Creation (1067–1070)
Gerbod the Fleming, 1st Earl of Chester
Second Creation (1071)
1071–1101 Hugh d'Avranches, 1st Earl of Chester (died 1101)
1101–1120 Richard d'Avranches, 2nd Earl of Chester (1094–1120)
1120–1129 Ranulf le Meschin, 3rd Earl of Chester (died c. 1129)
1129–1153 Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester (died c. 1153)
1153–1181 Hugh de Kevelioc, 5th Earl of Chester (1147–1181)
1181–1232 Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester (c. 1172–1232)
1232–1232 Matilda of Chester, Countess of Chester suo jure (1171–1233) (Inherited Oct 1232 inter vivos gift to son Nov 1232)
1232–1237 John of Scotland, 7th Earl of Chester (c. 1207–1237)
(dates above are approximate)
Third Creation (1254)
Edward, Lord of Chester, but without the title of earl (1239–1307) (became King Edward I in 1272)
Fourth Creation (1264)
Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, 1st Earl of Chester (1208–1265) (forfeit 1265)
(There is no evidence that Alphonso, elder son of Edward I, was created earl of Chester, although he was styled as such)
Fifth Creation (1301)
Edward of Caernarvon, Earl of Chester (1284–1327) (became King Edward II in 1307)
Sixth Creation (1312)
Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Chester (1312–1377) (became King Edward III in 1327)Thereafter, the Earldom of Chester was created in conjunction with the Principality of Wales. See Prince of Wales for further Earls of Chester.Other associations
Earl of Chester'' was one of the GWR 3031 Class locomotives that were built for and ran on the Great Western Railway between 1891 and 1915.
See also
History of Cheshire
Constable of Chester
References
Further reading
Norman conquest of England
Succession to the British crown
Earldoms in the Peerage of England
British and Irish peerages which merged in the Crown
Noble titles created in 1070
Noble titles created in 1071
Noble titles created in 1121
Noble titles created in 1232
Noble titles created in 1254
Noble titles created in 1264
Noble titles created in 1301
Noble titles created in 1333
Noble titles created in 1376
Noble titles created in 1399
Noble titles created in 1454
Noble titles created in 1471
Noble titles created in 1483
Noble titles created in 1489
Noble titles created in 1504
Noble titles created in 1610
Noble titles created in 1616
Noble titles created in 1714
Noble titles created in 1729
Noble titles created in 1751
Noble titles created in 1762
Noble titles created in 1841
Noble titles created in 1901
Noble titles created in 1910
Noble titles created in 1958
Charles, Prince of Wales | [
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253687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puffing%20Billy | Puffing Billy | Puffing Billy may refer to:
Puffing Billy Railway, a narrow-gauge heritage tourist railway near Melbourne, Australia
Puffing Billy (locomotive), an early steam locomotive
Puffing Billy Tournament, a board game convention focusing on train games
Puffin' Billy, a famous piece of light music by Edward White
Puffing Billy, military jargon for the M67 Immersion Heater
Puffing Billy a short lived comic strip in The Beano about a fat boy called Billy. | [
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253688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20San%20Francisco | Treaty of San Francisco | The , also called the , re-established peaceful relations between Japan and the Allied Powers on behalf of the United Nations by ending the legal state of war and providing for redress for hostile actions up to and including World War II. It was signed by 49 nations on 8 September 1951, in San Francisco, California, U.S. at the War Memorial Opera House. Italy and "China" were not invited, the latter due to disagreements on whether the Republic of China or the People's Republic of China represented the Chinese people. Korea was also not invited due to a similar disagreement on whether South Korea or North Korea represented the Korean people.
It came into force on 28 April 1952, and legally ended the American-led Allied occupation of Japan. In Article 11, Japan accepted the judgments of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and of other Allied War Crimes Courts imposed on Japan both within and outside Japan.
This treaty ended Japan's role as an imperial power, allocated compensation to Allied and other civilians and former prisoners of war who had suffered Japanese war crimes during World War II, ended the Allied post-war occupation of Japan, and returned full sovereignty to it. This treaty relied heavily on the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to enunciate the Allies' goals.
This treaty, along with the Security Treaty signed that same day, marks the beginning of the San Francisco System which defines Japan's relationship with the United States and its role in the international arena and characterizes Japan's post-war history.
Attendance
Present
Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Ceylon (currently Sri Lanka), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Poland, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, the Soviet Union, Syria, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Vietnam attended the Conference.
Absent
China was not invited due to disagreements on whether the established but defeated Republic of China (in Taiwan) or the newly formed People's Republic of China (in mainland China) represented the Chinese people. In fact an internal US political debate had seen the Republican Party and US military supporting the Kuomintang party and accusing President Truman of having abandoned the anti-communism cause. The absence of China at the table would have later turned out to play a role towards the South China Sea dispute. Burma, India, and Yugoslavia were invited, but did not participate; India considered certain provisions of the Treaty to constitute limitations on Japanese sovereignty and national independence. India signed a separate peace treaty, the Treaty of Peace Between Japan and India, for the purpose of giving Japan a proper position of honor and equality among the community of free nations, on June 9, 1952. Italy was not invited either, not withstanding the fact that its government had issued a formal declaration of war on Japan on July 14, 1945, just a few weeks before the end of the war. Although Pakistan had not existed as a state at the time of the war, it was invited because it was seen as a successor state to British India, a major combatant against Japan. Portugal was also not invited, even though, despite Portugal's status as neutral country during the war, its territory of East Timor had been invaded by Japan.
Stances
Soviet Union's opposition to the treaty
The Soviet Union took part in the San Francisco conference, and the Soviet delegation was led by the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko. From the start of the conference the Soviet Union expressed vigorous and vocal opposition to the draft treaty text prepared by the United States and the United Kingdom. The Soviet delegation made several unsuccessful procedural attempts to stall the proceedings. The Soviet Union's objections were detailed in a lengthy 8 September 1951, statement by Gromyko. The statement contained a number of the Soviet Union's claims and assertions: that the treaty did not provide any guarantees against the rise of Japanese militarism; that China was not invited to participate despite being one of the main victims of the Japanese aggression; that the Soviet Union was not properly consulted when the treaty was being prepared; that the treaty sets up Japan as an American military base and draws Japan into a military coalition directed against the Soviet Union; that the treaty was in effect a separate peace treaty; that the draft treaty violated the rights of China to Taiwan and several other islands; that the draft treaty, in violation of the Yalta agreement, did not recognize the Soviet Union's sovereignty over South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands; and other objections. It was not until 19 October 1956, that Japan and the Soviet Union signed a Joint Declaration ending the war and reestablishing diplomatic relations.
People's Republic of China's objections to the treaty
The ongoing Chinese Civil War and thus the question of which Chinese government was legitimate presented a dilemma to conference organizers. The United States wanted to invite the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan to represent China, while the United Kingdom wished to invite the People's Republic of China (PRC) on mainland China as China's representative. As a compromise, neither government was invited.
Sri Lanka's defence of Japan
A major player in providing support for a post-war free Japan was the delegation from Ceylon (now known as Sri Lanka). While many were reluctant to allow a free Japan capable of aggressive action and insisted that the terms of surrender should be rigidly enforced in an attempt to break the spirit of the Japanese nation, the Ceylonese Finance Minister J.R. Jayawardene spoke in defence of a free Japan and informed the conference of Ceylon's refusal to accept the payment of reparations that would harm Japan's economy. His reason was "We in Ceylon were fortunate that we were not invaded, but the damage caused by air raids, by the stationing of enormous armies under the South-East Asia Command, and by the slaughter-tapping of one of our main commodities, rubber, when we were the only producer of natural rubber for the Allies, entitles us to ask that the damage so caused should be repaired. We do not intend to do so for we believe in the words of the Great Teacher [Buddha] whose message has ennobled the lives of countless millions in Asia, that 'hatred ceases not by hatred but by love'." He ended the same speech by saying:This treaty is as magnanimous as it is just to a defeated foe. We extend to Japan the hand of friendship and trust that with the closing of this chapter in the history of man, the last page of which we write today, and with the beginning of the new one, the first page of which we dictate tomorrow, her people and ours may march together to enjoy the full dignity of human life in peace and prosperity.
Minister Jayewardene's speech was received with resounding applause. Afterwards, the New York Times stated, "The voice of free Asia, eloquent, melancholy and still strong with the lilt of an Oxford accent, dominated the Japanese peace treaty conference today."
Signatories and ratification
Of the 51 participating countries, 48 signed the treaty; Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Soviet Union refused.
The signatories to the treaty were: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Ceylon (currently Sri Lanka), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Syria, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, Venezuela, Vietnam and Japan.
The Philippines ratified the San Francisco Treaty on July 16, 1956, after the signing of a reparations agreement between both countries in May of that year. Indonesia did not ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty. Instead, it signed with Japan a bilateral reparations agreement and peace treaty on January 20, 1958. A separate treaty, the Treaty of Taipei, formally known as the Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty, was signed in Taipei on April 28, 1952, between Japan and the ROC, just hours before the Treaty of San Francisco also went into effect on April 28. The apparent illogical order of the two treaties is due to the difference between time zones.
Fate of Taiwan and other Japanese overseas territories
According to the treaty's travaux préparatoires, a consensus existed among the states present at the San Francisco Peace Conference that, while the legal status of the island of Taiwan is temporarily undetermined, it would be resolved at a later time in accordance with the principles of peaceful settlement of disputes and self-determination, ideas that had been enshrined in the UN Charter.
The document officially renounces Japan's treaty rights derived from the Boxer Protocol of 1901 and its rights to Korea, Formosa (Taiwan) and the Pescadores, Hong Kong (then a British colony), the Kuril Islands, the Spratly Islands, Antarctica and South Sakhalin.
Article 3 of the treaty left the Bonin Islands and the Ryukyu Islands, which included Okinawa and the Amami, Miyako and Yaeyama Islands groups, under a potential U.N. trusteeship. While the treaty suggested that these territories would become a United Nations trusteeship, at the end that option was not pursued. The Amami Islands were eventually restored to Japan on 25 December 1953, as well as the Bonin Islands on 5 April 1968. In 1969 U.S.-Japan negotiations authorized the transfer of authority over the Ryūkyūs to Japan to be implemented in 1972. In 1972, the United States' "reversion" of the Ryūkyūs occurred along with the ceding of control over the nearby Senkaku Islands. Both the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) argue that this agreement did not determine the ultimate sovereignty of the Senkaku Islands.
The Treaty of Taipei between Japan and the ROC stated that all residents of Taiwan and the Pescadores were deemed as nationals of the ROC. Additionally, in Article 2 it specified that --
It is recognised that under Article 2 of the Treaty of Peace which Japan signed at the city of San Francisco on 8 September 1951 (hereinafter referred to as the San Francisco Treaty), Japan has renounced all right, title, and claim to Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores) as well as the Spratley Islands and the Paracel Islands. However, this treaty does not include any wording saying that Japan recognizes that the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan was transferred to the Republic of China.
Some supporters of Taiwan independence refer to the San Francisco Peace Treaty to argue that Taiwan is not a part of the Republic of China, for it does not explicitly state the sovereignty status of Taiwan after Japan's renunciation. In 1955, U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, co-author of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, affirmed that the treaty ceded Taiwan to no one; that Japan "merely renounced sovereignty over Taiwan". Dulles said that America "cannot, therefore, admit that the disposition of Taiwan is merely an internal problem of China." However, the ROC Ministry of Foreign Affairs rejected this justification, arguing that the Instrument of Surrender of Japan accepts the Potsdam Declaration and the Cairo Declaration, which intends Taiwan and Penghu to be restored to the ROC. Supporters of Taiwan independence point out that the Potsdam Declaration and the Cairo Declaration were not treaties, but President Ma expressed that the Treaty of Taipei has voided the Treaty of Shimonoseki and recognizes that people of Taiwan and Penghu as Chinese nationality. In more recent years supporters of Taiwan independence have more often relied on arguments based on self-determination as implied in the San Francisco Peace Treaty and popular sovereignty, but the United Nations has consistently rejected such arguments.
By Article 11 Japan accepted the judgments of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and of other Allied War Crimes Courts both within and outside Japan and agreed to carry out the sentences imposed thereby upon Japanese nationals imprisoned in Japan.
The document further set guidelines for repatriation of Allied prisoners of war and renounces future military aggression under the guidelines set by the United Nations Charter. The document nullifies prior treaties and lays down the framework for Japan's current status of retaining a military that is purely defensive in nature.
There is also some ambiguity as to over which islands Japan has renounced sovereignty. This has led to both the Kuril Islands dispute and the Senkaku Islands dispute.
Compensation to Allied civilians and POWs
Transfer of Japanese overseas assets
In accordance with Article 14 of the Treaty, Allied forces confiscated all assets owned by the Japanese government, firms, organization and private citizens, in all colonized or occupied countries except China, which was dealt with under Article 21. China repossessed all Japanese assets in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, which included mineworks and railway infrastructure. Moreover, Article 4 of the treaty stated that "the disposition of property of Japan and of its nationals...and their claims...against the authorities presently administering such areas and the residents...shall be the subject of special arrangements between Japan and such authorities." Although Korea was not a signatory state of the treaty, it was also entitled to the benefits of Article 4 by the provisions of Article 21.
Total amount of Japanese overseas assets in China was US$18,758,600,000 in 1945 USD.
Compensation to Allied POWs
Article 16 of the San Francisco Treaty states:As an expression of its desire to indemnify those members of the armed forces of the Allied Powers who suffered undue hardships while prisoners of war of Japan, Japan will transfer its assets and those of its nationals in countries which were neutral during the war, or which were at war with any of the Allied Powers, or, at its option, the equivalent of such assets, to the International Committee of the Red Cross which shall liquidate such assets and distribute the resultant fund to appropriate national agencies, for the benefit of former prisoners of war and their families on such basis as it may determine to be equitable. The categories of assets described in Article 14(a)2(II)(ii) through (v) of the present Treaty shall be excepted from transfer, as well as assets of Japanese natural persons not residents of Japan on the first coming into force of the Treaty. It is equally understood that the transfer provision of this Article has no application to the 19,770 shares in the Bank for International Settlements presently owned by Japanese financial institutions.
Accordingly, Japan paid £4,500,000 to the Red Cross.
Article 16 has served as a bar against subsequent lawsuits filed by former Allied prisoners of war against Japan. In 1998, a Tokyo court ruled against a suit brought by former Allied POW's, citing the San Francisco Treaty.
Allied territories occupied by Japan
Article 14 of the treaty stated thatIt is recognized that Japan should pay reparations to the Allied Powers for the damage and suffering caused by it during the war. Nevertheless it is also recognized that the resources of Japan are not presently sufficient, if it is to maintain a viable economy, to make complete reparation for all such damage and suffering and at the same time meet its other obligations. Therefore,Japan will promptly enter into negotiations with Allied Powers so desiring, whose present territories were occupied by Japanese forces and damaged by Japan, with a view to assisting to compensate those countries for the cost of repairing the damage done, by making available the services of the Japanese people in production, salvaging and other work for the Allied Powers in question.
Accordingly, the Philippines and South Vietnam received compensation in 1956 and 1959, respectively. Burma and Indonesia were not original signatories, but they later signed bilateral treaties in accordance with Article 14 of the San Francisco Treaty.
Japanese military yen issued by force in Hong Kong, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Taiwan, and other places for the economic advantage of Japan were not honoured by them after the war. This caused much suffering, but the claims of the Hong Kong Reparation Association in 1993, in a Tokyo district court, failed in 1999. The court acknowledged the suffering of the Hong Kong people, but reasoned that the Government of Japan did not have specific laws concerning military yen compensation and that the United Kingdom was a signatory to the Treaty of San Francisco.
Regarding China, on September 29, 1972, the Government of the People's Republic of China declared "that in the interest of the friendship between the Chinese and the Japanese peoples, it renounces its demand for war reparation from Japan" in article 5 of the Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China.
The last payment was made to the Philippines on July 22, 1976.
Unresolved issues
Certain ambiguous wording in the treaty about the political status of Taiwan (i.e. whether the territory of Taiwan was legally retroceded to the Republic of China in 1945) after Japan renounced all right, title, and claim concerning the island of Taiwan, the Pescadores, the Spratly Islands, and the Paracel Islands in 1952 (with the ratification of this treaty in the ROC) has given rise to the Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan, which is one of the major theories within this debate. This particular theory is generally Taiwan independence-leaning since it offers evidence supporting the notion that Chinese sovereignty over Taiwan (whether ROC or PRC) is either illegitimate or temporary and must be resolved via the postcolonial principle of self-determination. Proponents of this theory generally do not claim that Japan still has or should have sovereignty over Taiwan, though there are exceptions.
Because Korea did not sign the treaty, it was not entitled to the benefits provided to by Article 14, so Koreans directly affected by Japanese atrocities were not compensated upon the ratification. When relations between the two countries were normalised in the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations, Japan agreed to pay settlements, including all claims under Article 4 of the Treaty of San Francisco, directly to the Korean government. The Korean government would then compensate individual victims on a case-by-case basis; however, the government at the time used the funds to develop Korea's economy, and passed few reparations to individuals. Amid recent rising tensions, many victims of Japanese crimes maintain that Japan has not been held sufficiently to account, and have demanded reparations for those who have not been compensated. South Korea claims that the 1965 treaty was not intended to settle individual claims for Japanese war crimes and crimes against humanity; Japan claims that under the 1965 treaty, it is no longer legally responsible for compensating all victims.
See also
1971 Okinawa Reversion Agreement
Cairo Declaration (1943)
General Order No. 1 (Aug. 1945)
Japanese holdout
Japanese Instrument of Surrender (Sep. 1945)
Political status of Taiwan
Potsdam Declaration (July 1945)
Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan (1952)
Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan (1960)
Treaty of Peace Between Japan and India (1952)
Treaty of Taipei (1952)
Germany:
General Treaty, 1952 treaty with the U.S., U.K., and France, ending West Germany's status as an occupied territory, effective in 1955
Paris Peace Treaties, 1947, similar treaties dealing with other countries in the European theatre
Potsdam Agreement, a 1945 communique by the Allies detailing post-war relations with Germany (not to be confused with the Potsdam Declaration)
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, a 1990 treaty with Germany that marked the final settlement between the Allied Powers and Germany, decades after the end of WWII
References
Further reading
Calder, Kent. "Securing security through prosperity: the San Francisco System in comparative perspective." The Pacific Review 17.1 (2004): 135–157. online
Hara, Kimie. "50 years from San Francisco: Re-examining the peace treaty and Japan's territorial problems." Pacific Affairs (2001): 361–382. online
Lee, Seokwoo. "The 1951 San Francisco peace treaty with Japan and the territorial disputes in East Asia." Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal 11 (2002): 63+ online.
Trefalt, Beatrice. "A peace worth having: delayed repatriations and domestic debate over the San Francisco Peace Treaty." Japanese Studies 27.2 (2007): 173–187.
Zhang, Shengfa. "The Soviet-Sino boycott of the American-led peace settlement with Japan in the early 1950s." Russian History 29.2/4 (2002): 401–414.
External links
Treaty of Peace with Japan Signed at San Francisco on 8 September 1951
Agreement for the Settlement of Disputes arising under Article 15(a) of the Treaty of Peace with Japan
Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida's Speech at the San Francisco Peace Conference
John Foster Dulles's Speech at the San Francisco Peace Conference
Understanding the San Francisco Peace Treaty's Disposition of Formosa and the Pescadores
Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China 1972
Chihiro Hosoya, "The Road to San Francisco: The Shaping of American Policy on the Japanese Peace Treaty" The Japanese Journal of American Studies 1(1981) pp. 87-117
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1951 in Japanese politics | [
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253689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parker%20Morris%20Committee | Parker Morris Committee | The Parker Morris Committee drew up an influential 1961 report on housing space standards in public housing in the United Kingdom titled Homes for Today and Tomorrow. The committee was led by Sir Parker Morris. Its report concluded that the quality of social housing needed to be improved to match the rise in living standards, and made a number of recommendations. The Committee took a functional approach to determining space standards in the home by considering what furniture was needed in rooms, the space needed to use the furniture and move around it, and the space needed for normal household activities.
Out of the report came the Parker Morris Standards. In 1963 these were set out in the Ministry of Housing's "Design Bulletin 6 – Space in the Home". The report provided typical dimensions for the typical items of furniture for which the dwelling designer should allow space, and provided anthropometric data about the space needed to use and move about furniture. The bulletin also laid out sample room plans for a terraced house.
In 1967 these space standards became mandatory for all housing built in new towns; this was extended to all council housing in 1969, although they had already been adopted by many local councils by then.
The mandatory nature of the standards was ended by the Local Government, Planning and Land Act 1980, when the incoming Conservative government sought to reduce the cost of housing and, generally, public spending.
Standards
Among the standards are that:
In one-, two- and three-bedroom dwellings, one flushing toilet is required, and it may be in the bathroom.
A semi-detached or end-of-terrace house for 4 people should have a net floor area of 72 square metres (775 sq ft).
A dwelling for three or more people should have enclosed storage space for the kitchen of 2.3 cubic metres (81 cu ft).
Dwellings should be fitted with heating systems that maintain the kitchen and circulation space at 13 degrees Celsius, and the living and dining spaces at 18 °C, when the external temperature is −1 °C.
Original 1961 Space Standards
Modified 1967 Space Standards
21st century
In the private sector the Parker Morris Standards influenced the 1967 and subsequent standards set by the National House Builders' Registration Council, now the National House Building Council, but were not adopted as written. However it is widely felt that most public and private sector housing being built in the 21st Century fails to meet the Parker Morris standards for floor and storage space, and this led to a decision in 2008 by the former government agency English Partnerships to re-introduce minimum standards that are 10% more generous than those of Parker Morris for developments on its own land.
Subsequently, The Office of the Mayor of London has also opted to move to adopt a Design Guide for Housing within the city, which will be 10% more generous than the Parker Morris Standards. This guide was published on 19 August 2010 and will be implemented from April 2011.
Mayor of London's Standards
For dwellings designed for more than 6 person, at least 10 m2 gross internal area should be added per person.
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Mayor of London – London Housing Design Guide
Reports of the United Kingdom government
Public housing in the United Kingdom
1961 in the United Kingdom | [
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253693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get%20Smart | Get Smart | Get Smart is an American comedy television series, parodying the secret agent genre that had become widely popular in the first half of the 1960s with the release of James Bond films. It was created by Mel Brooks and Buck Henry, and had its television premiere on NBC on September 18, 1965. It stars Don Adams (who was also a director on the series) as agent Maxwell Smart (Agent 86), Barbara Feldon as Agent 99, and Edward Platt as The Chief. Henry said that they created the show at the request of Daniel Melnick to capitalize on James Bond and Inspector Clouseau, "the two biggest things in the entertainment world today". Brooks described it as "an insane combination of James Bond and Mel Brooks comedy".
The show generated a number of popular catchphrases during its run, including "would you believe...", "missed it by that much", "sorry about that, Chief", "the old [such-and-such] trick", "...and loving it", "if you don't mind 99, I'd like to handle this [repeats what she just said]", "of course, the [such-and-such], just one question, what is the [such-and-such]" and "I asked you not to tell me that". The show was followed by the films The Nude Bomb (a 1980 theatrical film made without the involvement of Brooks and Henry) and Get Smart, Again! (a 1989 made-for-TV sequel to the series), as well as a 1995 revival series and a 2008 film remake. In 2010, TV Guide ranked Get Smarts opening title sequence at number two on its list of TV's top 10 credits sequences as selected by readers.
The show switched networks in 1969 to CBS. It ended its five-season run on May 15, 1970, with a total of 138 episodes. The Museum of Broadcast Communications finds the show notable for "broadening the parameters for the presentation of comedy on television".
Premise
The series centers on bumbling secret agent Maxwell Smart (Adams), AKA Agent 86, and his unnamed female partner, Agent 99 (Feldon). They work for CONTROL, a secret U.S. government counterintelligence agency based in Washington, DC, fighting against KAOS, "the international organization of evil". While Smart always succeeds in thwarting KAOS, his incompetent nature and insistence on doing things "by the book" invariably cause complications.
The enemies, world-takeover plots, and gadgets seen in Get Smart were a parody of the James Bond film franchise. "Do what they did except just stretch it half an inch," Mel Brooks said of the methods of this TV series.
Production
Talent Associates commissioned Mel Brooks and Buck Henry to write a script about a bungling James Bond-like hero. Brooks described the premise for the show that they created in an October 1965 Time magazine article:
I was sick of looking at all those nice, sensible situation comedies. They were such distortions of life. If a maid ever took over my house like Hazel, I'd set her hair on fire. I wanted to do a crazy, unreal, comic-strip kind of thing about something besides a family. No one had ever done a show about an idiot before. I decided to be the first.
Brooks and Henry proposed the show to ABC, where network executives called it "un-American" and demanded a "lovable dog to give the show more heart", as well as scenes showing Maxwell Smart's mother. Brooks strongly objected to the second suggestion:
They wanted to put a print housecoat on the show. Max was to come home to his mother and explain everything. I hate mothers on shows. Max has no mother. He never had one.
The cast and crew contributed joke and gadget ideas, especially Don Adams, but dialogue was rarely ad-libbed. An exception is the third-season episode "The Little Black Book". Don Rickles encouraged Adams to misbehave, and he ad-libbed. The result was so successful that the single episode was turned into two parts.
The first four seasons on NBC were filmed at Sunset Bronson Studios, while the final season, shown on CBS, was filmed at CBS Studio Center.
Production personnel
Brooks had little involvement with the series after the first season, but Henry served as story editor through 1967. The crew of the show included:
Leonard B. Stern – executive producer for the entire run of the series
Irving Szathmary – music and theme composer and conductor for the entire run
Don Adams – director of 13 episodes and writer of two episodes
David Davis – associate producer
Gary Nelson – director of the most episodes
Bruce Bilson – director of the second-most episodes
Gerald C. Gardner and Dee Caruso – head writers for the series
Reza Badiyi – occasional director
Allan Burns and Chris Hayward – frequent writers and producers
Stan Burns and Mike Marmer – frequent writers
Richard Donner – occasional director
James Komack – writer and director
Arne Sultan – frequent writer and producer
Lloyd Turner and Whitey Mitchell – frequent writers and producers of season five
Characters
Maxwell "Max" Smart, Agent 86, (portrayed by Don Adams) is the central character of the series. Despite being a top-secret government agent, he is absurdly clumsy. Smart, however, is resourceful, skilled in hand-to-hand combat, a proficient marksman, and incredibly lucky, causing him to be one of the top agents at CONTROL. In 1999, TV Guide ranked Maxwell Smart number 19 on its 50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time list. The character appears in every episode (though only briefly in "Ice Station Siegfried", as Don Adams was performing in Las Vegas for two weeks to settle gambling debts). He was played by Steve Carell in the 2008 film.
(Barbara Feldon) is the female agent who works alongside 86 and is another one of the top agents at CONTROL. Her actual name is never revealed. Although in the episode "99 Loses CONTROL" (S3 E19) she says it is Susan Hilton, she later (in the same episode) tells Max that is not her real name. She is far more competent than Smart, on whom she is, nonetheless, usually dependent. She was played by Anne Hathaway in the 2008 film.
(Edward Platt) is the head of CONTROL. His first name is revealed to be Thaddeus but his surname is never revealed. He is supportive of Agents 86 and 99 and considers them to be his two closest friends, but he is often frustrated with Smart. He was played by Alan Arkin in the 2008 film.
(portrayed by Robert Karvelas) is the Chief's assistant, even more slow-witted and incompetent than Max. He was played by David Koechner in the 2008 film.
Ludwig Von Siegfried (Bernie Kopell) is a recurring villain, and the vice president in charge of public relations and terror at KAOS, though his title does vary. He was played by Terence Stamp in the 2008 film.
(King Moody) is Siegfried's equally ruthless but often inept chief henchman. He was played by Ken Davitian in the 2008 film.
(Dick Gautier) is a humanoid robot built by KAOS, but in his first mission, Smart manages to turn him to the side of CONTROL. He was played by Patrick Warburton in the 2008 film. Hymie had a tendency to take instructions too literally.
(David Ketchum) is an agent who is usually stationed inside unlikely, sometimes impossibly small or unlucky places, such as cigarette machines, washing machines, lockers, trash cans, or fire hydrants. He tends to resent his assignments. He was played by Bill Murray in the 2008 film.
(Victor French) Six episodes (1965-66). French's first role was the insurance man in "Too Many Chiefs", and subsequent episodes as Agent 44.
Carlson (Stacy Keach Sr.) is a CONTROL scientist and inventor of such gadgets as an umbrella rifle (with a high-speed camera in the handle) and edible buttons.
Dr. Steele (Ellen Weston) is a beautiful and sexy but brilliant CONTROL scientist who develops formulas while undercover as dancers and strip-tease artists. She remains oblivious to Smart's clearly discomfited attraction to her.
Production notes
Gadgets
In Get Smart, telephones are concealed in over 50 objects, including a necktie, comb, watch, and a clock. A recurring gag is Max's shoe phone (an idea from Brooks). To use or answer it, he has to take off his shoe. Several variations on the shoe phone were used. In "I Shot 86 Today" (season four), his shoe phone is disguised as a golf shoe, complete with cleats, developed by the attractive armorer Dr. Simon. Smart's shoes sometimes contain other devices housed in the heels: an explosive pellet, a smoke bomb, compressed air capsules that propelled the wearer off the ground, and a suicide pill (which Max believes is for the enemy).
Agent 99 (Barbara Feldon) had her concealed telephones, as well. She had one in her makeup compact, and also one in her fingernail. To use this last device, she would pretend to bite her nail nervously, while actually talking on her "nail phone".
On February 17, 2002, the prop shoe phone was included in a display titled "Spies: Secrets from the CIA, KGB, and Hollywood", a collection of real and fictional spy gear that exhibited at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. Flinders University in South Australia has researched medical applications for shoe phone technology after being inspired by the show.
Gag phones also appear in other guises. In the episode "Too Many Chiefs" (season one), Max tells Tanya, the KAOS informer whom he is protecting, that if anyone breaks in, to pick up the house phone, dial 1-1-7, and press the trigger on the handset, which converts it to a gun. The phone-gun is only used that once, but Max once carried a gun-phone, a revolver with a rotary dial built into the cylinder. In the episode "Satan Place", Max simultaneously holds conversations on seven different phones: the shoe, his tie, his belt, his wallet, a garter, a handkerchief, and a pair of eyeglasses. Other unusual locations include a garden hose, a car cigarette lighter (with the lighter being hidden in the car phone), a bottle of perfume (Max complains of smelling like a woman), the steering wheel of his car, a painting of Agent 99, the headboard of his bed, a cheese sandwich, lab test tubes (Max grabs the wrong one and splashes himself), a Bunsen burner (Max puts out the flame anytime he pronounces a "p"), a plant in a planter beside the real working phone (operated by the dial of the working phone), and inside another full-sized working phone.
Other gadgets include a bullet-proof invisible wall in Max's apartment that lowers from the ceiling, into which Max and others often walk; a camera hidden in a bowl of soup (cream of Technicolor) that takes a picture (with a conspicuous flash) of the person eating the soup with each spoonful; a mini magnet on a belt, which turns out to be stronger than KAOS's maxi magnet; and a powerful miniature laser weapon in the button of a sports jacket (the "laser blazer").
Another of the show's recurring gags is the "Cone of Silence". Smart would pedantically insist on following CONTROL's security protocols; when in the chief's office, he would insist on speaking under the Cone of Silence—two transparent plastic hemispheres which are electrically lowered on top of Max and Chief—which invariably malfunction, requiring the characters to shout loudly to even have a chance of being understood by each other. Bystanders in the room could often hear them better, and sometimes relay messages back and forth. The Cone of Silence was the idea of Buck Henry, though it was preceded in an episode of the syndicated television show Science Fiction Theatre titled "Barrier of Silence", written by Lou Huston, that first aired on September 3, 1955, 10 years ahead of Get Smart.
Cars
The car that Smart is seen driving most frequently is a red 1965 Sunbeam Tiger two-seat roadster. This car had various custom features, such as a machine gun, smoke screen, radar tracking, and an ejection seat. The Sunbeam Alpine, upon which the Tiger was based, was used by customizer Gene Winfield because the Alpine's four-cylinder engine afforded more room under the hood than the V8 in the Tiger. AMT, Winfield's employer, made a model kit of the Tiger, complete with hidden weapons. It is the only kit of the Tiger, and has been reissued multiple times as a stock Tiger.
Don Adams received the Sunbeam and drove it for 10 years after the end of the show. It was wrecked and repaired several times, and its current whereabouts are unknown.
In the black-and-white pilot episode only, Smart drives a 1961 Ferrari 250 GT PF Spider Cabriolet.
In the opening credits, the Tiger was used for seasons one and two. In seasons three and four, Smart drives a light blue Volkswagen Karmann Ghia, because Volkswagen had become a sponsor of the show. The Volkswagen was never used in the body of the show. In season five (1969–1970), Buick became a show sponsor, so the Tiger was replaced with a gold 1969 Opel GT, which also appears in the body of the show.
In season four (1968–1969), Adams uses a yellow Citroën 2CV in the wedding episode "With Love and Twitches" , and a blue 1968 Ford Shelby Mustang GT500 convertible with a tan interior and four seats (as required by the plot) in the episodes "A Tale of Two Tails" and "The Laser Blazer".
In the short-lived 1995 TV series, Smart is trying to sell the Karmann Ghia through the classified ads.
In Get Smart, Again!, Smart is seen driving a red 1986 Alfa Romeo Spider Veloce.
The Sunbeam Tiger, the Karmann Ghia, and the Opel GT all make brief appearances in the 2008 film. The Sunbeam Tiger is seen in the CONTROL Museum, along with the original shoe phone, which Smart also briefly uses. The Opel GT is driven by Bernie Kopell and is rear-ended by a truck. Smart steals the Karmann Ghia to continue his escape.
Notable guest stars
Get Smart used several familiar character actors and celebrities, and some future stars, in guest roles, including:
Ian Abercrombie
Steve Allen
Merry Anders
Barbara Bain
Billy Barty
Jacques Bergerac
Lee Bergere
Shelley Berman
Milton Berle
Joseph Bernard
Lynn Borden
Ernest Borgnine
Tom Bosley
Geraldine Brooks
Kathie Browne
Victor Buono
Carol Burnett
John Byner
James Caan (uncredited)
Howard Caine
Johnny Carson
Jack Cassidy
Del Close
Ellen Corby
Wally Cox
Broderick Crawford
Robert Culp
John Dehner
Phyllis Diller
Jane Dulo (recurring; as 99's mother)
Michael Dunn
Robert Easton
Dana Elcar
Bill Erwin
Jamie Farr
John Fiedler
Joey Forman
Lisa Gaye
Alice Ghostley
Jack Gilford
Stu Gilliam
Arlene Golonka
Leo Gordon
Farley Granger
Buddy Hackett
Sid Haig
Jonathan Harris
Hugh Hefner
Marcel Hillaire
Bob Hope
John Hoyt
Conrad Janis
Gordon Jump
Kitty Kelly
Helen Kleeb
Ted Knight
James Komack
Nancy Kovack
Kurt Kreuger
Martin Landau
Charles Lane
Len Lesser
Laurie Main
Kenneth Mars
Judith McConnell
Pat McCormick
Robert Middleton
Al Molinaro
Howard Morton
Burt Mustin
Barry Newman
Julie Newmar
Leonard Nimoy
Simon Oakland
Alan Oppenheimer
Pat Paulsen
Angelique Pettyjohn
Regis Philbin
Tom Poston
Ann Prentiss
Vincent Price
Maudie Prickett (appeared in different episodes as different characters)
John S. Ragin
Don Rickles
Alex Rocco
Cesar Romero
Vito Scotti
Gale Sondergaard
Larry Storch
Vic Tayback
Torin Thatcher
Fred Willard
Jason Wingreen
Dana Wynter
Victor Sen Yung
Both Bill Dana and Jonathan Harris, with whom Adams appeared on The Bill Dana Show, also appeared, as did Adams' father, William Yarmy, brother, Dick Yarmy, and daughter, Caroline Adams.
The series featured several cameo appearances by famous actors and comedians, sometimes uncredited and often comedian friends of Adams. Johnny Carson appeared, credited as "special guest conductor", in "Aboard the Orient Express". Carson returned for an uncredited cameo as a royal footman in the third-season episode "The King Lives?" Other performers to make cameo appearances included Steve Allen, Milton Berle, Ernest Borgnine, Wally Cox, Robert Culp (as a waiter in an episode sending up Culp's I Spy), Phyllis Diller, Buddy Hackett, Bob Hope, and Martin Landau.
Actress Rose Michtom (the real-life aunt of the show's executive producer Leonard Stern) appeared in at least 44 episodes—usually as a background extra with no speaking role. In the season-one episode "Too Many Chiefs", when she is shown in a photograph, Max refers to her as "my Aunt Rose", but the Chief corrects Max by saying that she is actually KAOS agent Alexi Sebastian disguised as Max's Aunt Rose. Fans refer to her as "Aunt Rose" in all of her dozens of appearances, though her character is never actually named in most of them.
Broadcast
The series was broadcast on NBC-TV from September 18, 1965, to September 13, 1969, after which it moved to the CBS network for its final season, running from September 26, 1969, to September 11, 1970, with 138 total episodes produced. During its five-season run, Get Smart broke the Nielsen Top 30 twice. It ranked at number 12 during its first season, and at number 22 during its second season, before falling out of the top 30 for its last three seasons. The series won seven Emmy Awards, and it was nominated for another 14 Emmys and two Golden Globe Awards. In 1995, the series was briefly resurrected starring Adams and Feldon with Andy Dick as Max's and 99's son Zack Smart and Elaine Hendrix as 66.
Emmy awards
Adaptations
Films
Four feature-length films have been produced following the end of the NBC/CBS run of the TV series:
1980: The Nude Bomb (dir. Clive Donner)—also known as The Return of Maxwell Smart or Maxwell Smart and the Nude Bomb—was theatrically released. It was panned by critics and barely returned its budget at the box office.
1989: The made-for-TV Get Smart, Again! (dir. Gary Nelson) on ABC
2008: Get Smart (dir. Peter Segal) starring Steve Carell as Smart alongside Anne Hathaway as 99. Distributed by Warner Bros., the film includes a dedication to Adams and Platt, who had died in 2005 and 1974, respectively. It received mixed critical reviews but was a commercial success, earning over $230 million worldwide.
2008: Get Smart's Bruce and Lloyd: Out of Control (dir. Gil Junger), a made-for-DVD spin-off revolving around minor characters, Bruce and Lloyd (Masi Oka and Nate Torrence), the masterminds behind the high-tech gadgets that are often used by Smart.
In October 2008, it was reported that Warner Bros., Village Roadshow Pictures and Mosaic Media Group were producing a sequel. Carell and Hathaway were set to return, but the status of other cast members had not been announced. As of 2019, Get Smart 2 is no longer in development
Television
Get Smart, Again! eventually prompted the development of a short-lived 1995 weekly series on Fox also titled Get Smart, with Adams and Feldon reprising their characters with Maxwell Smart now being the Chief of Control as their bumbling son, Zach (Andy Dick), becomes Control's star agent (Zach's twin sister is never seen nor mentioned — though the new leader of KAOS, a hidden female figure, would have been revealed as the other twin if the show had continued.) And 99 is now a congresswoman. The beginning teaser shows Maxwell Smart and Zach driving to Control headquarters in a car wash separately; Smart, Zach and their secretary cram themselves into a secret elevator: a soda machine which "disappears". (A cleaning lady sits down in the open space when all of a sudden the machine pops up and knocks the woman into the ceiling!) A late episode of the 1995 series shows that just as Siegfried is leaving a room, Maxwell Smart accidentally activates an atomic bomb just before the end of the show. (The teaser for the episode shows an atomic bomb going off.) This ending is similar to a device used by the Get Smart-inspired series Sledge Hammer! at the end of its first season. Hopes for the series were not high, as Andy Dick had already moved on to NewsRadio, which premiered weeks later in 1995.
With the revival series on Fox, Get Smart became the first television franchise to air new episodes (or made-for-TV films) on each of the aforementioned current four major American television networks, although several TV shows in the 1940s and 1950s aired on NBC, CBS, ABC and DuMont. The different versions of Get Smart did not all feature the original lead cast.
Get Smart was parodied on a sketch in the Mexican comedy show De Nuez en Cuando called ["Super Agente 3.1486"], making fun of the Spanish title of the series (Super Agente 86) and the way the series is dubbed.
An early MadTV sketch titled "Get Smarty" placed the Maxwell Smart character in situations from the film Get Shorty.
An episode of F Troop called "Spy, Counterspy, Counter–counterspy" featured Pat Harrington Jr. imitating Don Adams as secret agent "B. Wise."
The Simpsons episode "Bart vs. Lisa vs. the Third Grade" parodies the opening of Get Smart in the couch gag. Homer goes through many futuristic doors and passageways until he reaches the phone booth, falls through the floor, and lands on the couch, with the rest of the family already seated.
Adams in similar roles
In the 1960s, Adams had a supporting role on the sitcom The Bill Dana Show (1963–1965) as the hopelessly inept hotel detective Byron Glick. His speech mannerisms, catchphrases ("Would you believe...?"), and other comedy bits were adapted for his "Maxwell Smart" role in Get Smart.
When WCGV-TV, a new independent station in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, signed on the air in 1980, Adams did in-house promos as Agent 86 to let viewers know when the reruns of Get Smart aired on the station by using his shoephone.
In one of Adams's five appearances as a guest passenger in the series The Love Boat, his character, even when he thought he had been shot, makes no attempt to visit the ship's doctor. The role of the doctor in The Love Boat was played by Bernie Kopell, who played Siegfried in Get Smart.
In 1982, Adams starred as Maxwell Smart in a series of local commercials for New York City electronics chain Savemart. The slogan was "Get Smart. Get SaveMart Smart." In addition, Adams starred in a series of commercials for White Castle in 1992, paying homage to his Get Smart character with his catchphrase "Would you believe...?"
In the 1980s, Adams provided the (similar) voice of a bungling cyborg secret agent in the animated series Inspector Gadget. This later became a feature film in 1999 starring Matthew Broderick in the title role of Inspector John Brown Gadget (in which Adams had a cameo), and its prequel series Gadget Boy and Heather. Neither was directly related to Get Smart.
In the mid-1980s, Adams reprised his role of Maxwell Smart for a series of telephone banking commercials for Empire of America Federal Savings Bank in Buffalo, New York. The telephone banking service was called SmartLine, and Sherwin Greenberg Productions (a video production company and bank subsidiary) produced radio and television ads, as well as a series of still photos for use in promotional flyers that featured Adams's Maxwell Smart character wearing the familiar trenchcoat and holding a shoe phone to his ear. The television commercials were videotaped in Sherwin Greenberg Productions' studio on a set that resembled an old alleyway which utilized fog-making machinery for special effect. The production company even secured a lookalike of the red Alpine that Adams used in the television series, making it a memorable promotion for those familiar with the series of nearly 20 years earlier.
In the late 1980s, Adams portrayed Smart in a series of TV commercials for Toyota New Zealand, for the 1990 model Toyota Starlet. While it is customary for the actor to go to the foreign location for shooting, Adams' apparent intense dislike of long-distance flying meant that the New Zealand specification car had to be shipped to the US for filming. He also appeared in another series of Canadian commercials in the late 1990s for a dial-around long-distance carrier. In the movie Back to the Beach (1987), Adams played the Harbor Master, who used several of Maxwell Smart's catchphrases (including an exchange in which Frankie Avalon's character did a vague impression of Siegfried).
Adams played Smart in a 1989 TV commercial for Kmart. He was seen talking on his trademark shoe phone, telling the Chief about the great selection of electronics available at Kmart. An exact replica of himself approaches him, and Smart says, "Don't tell me you're a double agent." (This was a reference to a running gag on the original series, in which Max detected some sort of setback or danger, and would say to 99, "Don't tell me..." and then 99 replied by stating a confirmation of whatever Max was afraid to hear, to which Max would always respond, "I asked you not to tell me that!")
Adams also appeared in a number of McDonald's Hamburger Restaurant television commercials, which also featured numerous stars of TV series viewed as classic or with nostalgia, such as Barbara Billingsley from Leave It to Beaver, Buddy Ebsen from The Beverly Hillbillies, Bob Denver from Gilligan's Island and Al Lewis from The Munsters.
Adams also starred in a Canadian sitcom titled Check It Out in which he played a supermarket manager. Adams's running jokes in Get Smart, such as "the old [something something] trick" and "I told you not to tell me that!" were used in the show but in a supermarket setting.
Books and comics
A series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the late 1960s. Dell Comics published a comic book for eight issues during 1966 and 1967, drawn in part by Steve Ditko.
Proposed movie
The 1966 Batman movie, made during that TV show's original run, prompted other television shows to propose similar films. The only one completed was Munster Go Home (1966), which was a box office flop, causing the cancellation of other projects, including the Get Smart movie. The script for that movie was turned into a three-part episode, "A Man Called Smart", which aired on April 8, 15 and 22, 1967.
Play
Christopher Sergel adapted a play in 1967, Get Smart, based on Brooks's and Henry's pilot episode.
Home media and rights
All five seasons are available as box sets in region 1 (USA, Canada, and others) and Region 4 (Australia, New Zealand, and others). The region 1 discs are published by HBO Home Video, and region 4 by Time Life Video. Each region 1 box contains 4 discs, while region 4 editions have a 5th disc with bonus material. Region 4 editions are also available as individual discs with four to five episodes per disc. The season 1 set was released in both regions in 2008. Seasons 2 and 3 box sets were released in region 4 on July 23, 2008. Seasons 4 and 5 were released in region 4 on November 5, 2008. Seasons 2, 3, 4 and 5 in region 1 were released throughout 2009.
Another box set of the complete series is available in both regions, first published in 2006 by Time Life Video. In 2009 the region 1 edition was replaced by an HBO edition, and became more widely available. All editions contain a 5th disc for each season, with bonus material. The set has 25 discs altogether.
The first four seasons were produced for NBC by Talent Associates. When it moved to CBS at the start of season five, it became an in-house production, with Talent Associates as a silent partner. The series was sold to NBC Films for syndication.
Over decades, US distribution has changed from National Telefilm Associates to Republic Pictures, to Worldvision Enterprises, to Paramount Domestic Television, to CBS Paramount Domestic Television, to CBS Television Distribution, to the current distributor, CBS Media Ventures. For decades, the syndication rights of all but a handful of the fifth-season episodes (that season being originally co-owned by Talent Associates and CBS) were encumbered with restrictions and reporting requirements; as a result, most of that season was rarely seen in syndication (though they were shown with more regularity on Nick at Nite and TV Land). The distribution changes (including the loosening of restrictions on the fifth season) were the result of corporate changes, especially the 2006 split of Viacom (owners of Paramount Pictures) into two companies.
HBO currently owns the copyrights to the series itself, due to Time-Life Films' 1977 acquisition of Talent Associates. Home videos are distributed by HBO Home Video. For a time the DVD release was only available through Time-Life (a former Time Warner division). Warner Bros. Television owns international distribution rights.
On August 10, 2015, the entire series was officially released on digital streaming platforms for the first time in preparation for its 50th anniversary.
References
External links
1965 American television series debuts
1970 American television series endings
1960s American satirical television series
1970s American satirical television series
1960s American sitcoms
1970s American sitcoms
American action television series
American adventure television series
1960s American mystery television series
1970s American mystery television series
CBS original programming
Dell Comics titles
English-language television shows
Espionage television series
Fictional American secret agents
Fictional intelligence agencies
Fox Broadcasting Company original programming
James Bond parodies
NBC original programming
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series winners
Television series by CBS Studios
Television series created by Buck Henry
Television series created by Mel Brooks
American television series revived after cancellation
Television shows set in Washington, D.C.
Television shows adapted into films
Television shows adapted into comics
Television shows adapted into novels
Television shows adapted into plays
Television series by Talent Associates
American spy comedy television series | [
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253700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20House%20Building%20Council | National House Building Council | The National House Building Council, usually known as the NHBC, states its primary purpose as raising the construction standards of new homes in the United Kingdom (UK), and providing consumer protection for homebuyers through its 10-year Buildmark warranty.
Established in 1936, NHBC is the UK's largest provider of new home warranties. According to NHBC's website, around 80% of new homes built in the UK each year have an NHBC 10-year warranty. NHBC is also the UK's largest single Approved Inspector for Building Regulations. Its other activities include the provision of services linked to house building and general construction; including energy ratings, health and safety, sustainability, and training. It also provides industry statistics and benchmarking services.
The NHBC is a non-profit distributing company, so reinvests 'profit' in its activities to improve the quality of new homes to protect the interests of homeowners.
NHBC is authorised and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) and the Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA).
New home warranty and build standards
NHBC offers warranties for newly built or converted private housing, affordable housing, self-build homes and commercial premises located on mixed use housing schemes. Mortgage lenders will usually require that a warranty is in place before lending on a newly built property, as detailed in the Council of Mortgage Lenders handbook.
Builders and developers who sell properties with NHBC warranties should adhere to NHBC's guidance documents on construction contained in the NHBC Technical Standards, in addition to complying with Building Regulations in the UK.
NHBC inspectors visit building sites at key stages to check compliance with its Technical Standards. The stages are usually (but can sometimes be more): foundations, drainage, superstructure (e.g. brickwork), pre-plaster, and pre-handover to the buyer. For flats, they also inspect roof construction. The inspection process is not designed to check every detail of the build, but if NHBC is satisfied with the overall build quality they will issue the warranty for the new home/premises. If reportable items are found during the build NHBC may still class as an acceptable risk and pass the build anyway.
'Buildmark', the NHBC warranty for private housing is split into two parts. In the first two years, the builder is responsible for fixing any defects caused by its failure to build to NHBC Technical Standards. If the builder fails to do this, or has gone out of business, NHBC may take responsibility to fix the defect. From the start of the third year, until the home is ten years old, NHBC is responsible for putting right defects to the structural and weather-proofing parts of the home caused by breaches of its Technical Standards but only if 'damage' has occurred.
Building Control
In 1985, under the Building Act 1984, the NHBC set up a subsidiary company; NHBC Building Control Services Ltd, and became the first private sector building control body licensed as an Approved Inspector, for the purpose of verifying that buildings are built in accordance with the building regulations across England and Wales. It is the largest single Approved Inspector in England and Wales; inspecting around 50% of all new-build properties in the UK, and assists builders to achieve compliance, and advises on Building Regulations for schemes ranging from residential developments to large commercial and mixed use sites.
Other services
NHBC offers a range of additional services to help builders comply with Building Regulations, health and safety legislation, and other construction rules. These include: energy rating services (SAP and SBEM), energy performance certificates, Code for Sustainable Homes, and BREEAM assessments, CDM co-ordination, health and safety audits, UKAS accredited testing for sound insulation and air tightness.
They also offer a wide range of training courses for building professionals, including construction related National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs).
NHBC compiles and distributes statistics and analysis about the UK housing market that are used by government and financial institutions, as well as homebuilders. Examples are the Housing Market Report, and the NHBC Quarterly Statistics. Purchasers of new homes are also surveyed, providing statistics about levels of customer satisfaction in their homes.
Industry awards schemes run by NHBC
NHBC runs two national awards programmes: Pride in the Job, and the NHBC Health and Safety Awards.
Consumer Code for Home Builders
NHBC was a founder member of The Consumer Code for Home Builders, which gives added protection and rights to the buyers of brand new homes. The aim of the Code is to ensure that new home buyers are given all the information they need about their new home before they sign contracts, and treated fairly afterwards.
History / milestones
NHBC was originally set up as the National House Builders Registration Council (NHBRC) in the United Kingdom in 1936, with the primary purpose to increase the care and professionalism shown by house builders.
As a Registered Housebuilder under the voluntary scheme, houses were inspected during building, buyers were covered by a two-year warranty against major defects, and against the insolvency of the builder. By 1963, 26% of all housing was built by Registered Housebuilders.
In 1964 and 1965, changes were introduced, including the extension of the warranty to ten years. 1967 saw the upgrading of the NHBRC's standards, particularly in the provision of power outlets, kitchen design, and space heating; drawing on the recommendations of the Parker Morris Committee. By the end of 1970, 92% of new homes were built by NHBRC members.
In 1973, the name changed to the National House Building Council (NHBC), and the organisation became completely independent from government and house builders. It was approved by the Department of Trade as an insurance company.
Criticism
The NHBC was criticised on a 2010 edition of the BBC consumer television programme Watchdog, for failing to repair homes due to incorrect surveying of problem properties by relevant professionals, and thus failing to either compensate owners financially or fix any problems promptly, for newly built properties under their warranty.
NHBC apologised to the families featured in the Watchdog programme for any mistakes that were made during the handling of their claims. NHBC argued that the cases showed how complex construction issues can be, and that expert opinions from construction professionals could differ.
They also stated that they resolve claims from around 15,000 homeowners each year on homes up to 10 years old, and also help to resolve around 5,000 disputes between homeowners and their builders each year.
In 2010/11, NHBC paid claims totalling £74.4 million.
Further criticism followed in 2017 with the BBC reporting "growing concerns that the quality of homes being built has drastically dropped" and one surveyor concluding that a client's new home was "unfit for habitation" and in places "unsafe." At the time the government was pressuring house developers to target the building 300,000 new homes a year.
Many reviews of NHBC can be found on the NHBC trustpilot page at https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/nhbc.co.uk
See also
Building regulations in the United Kingdom
Energy Performance Certificate
Code for Sustainable Homes
BREEAM
EcoHomes
Energy efficiency in British housing
UKAS
Construction Industry Council
Gas protection
References
External links
https://www.nhbc.co.uk
1936 establishments in the United Kingdom
Construction trade groups based in the United Kingdom
Housing in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in Milton Keynes
Organizations established in 1936
Science and technology in Buckinghamshire | [
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253714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Pearce%20%28transhumanist%29 | David Pearce (transhumanist) | David Pearce (born April 1959) is a British transhumanist. He is a prominent figure within the transhumanism movement and is one of the co-founders of the World Transhumanist Association, currently rebranded and incorporated as Humanity+. He approaches ethical issues from a lexical negative utilitarian perspective.
Based in Brighton, England, Pearce maintains a series of websites devoted to transhumanist topics and what he calls the "hedonistic imperative", a moral obligation to work towards the abolition of suffering in all sentient life. His self-published internet manifesto, The Hedonistic Imperative (1995), outlines how pharmacology, genetic engineering, nanotechnology and neurosurgery could converge to eliminate all forms of unpleasant experience from human and non-human life, replacing suffering with "information-sensitive gradients of bliss". Pearce calls this the "abolitionist project".
Hedonistic transhumanism
In 1995, Pearce set up BLTC Research, a network of websites publishing texts about transhumanism and related topics in pharmacology and biopsychiatry. He published The Hedonistic Imperative that year, arguing that "[o]ur post-human successors will rewrite the vertebrate genome, redesign the global ecosystem, and abolish suffering throughout the living world."
Pearce's ideas inspired an abolitionist school of transhumanism, or "hedonistic transhumanism", based on his idea of "paradise engineering" and his argument that the abolition of suffering—which he calls the "abolitionist project"—is a moral imperative. He defends a version of negative utilitarianism.
He outlines how drugs and technologies, including intracranial self-stimulation ("wireheading"), designer drugs and genetic engineering could end suffering for all sentient life. Mental suffering will be a relic of the past, just as physical suffering during surgery was eliminated by anaesthesia. The function of pain will be provided by some other signal, without the unpleasant experience.
A vegan, Pearce argues that humans have a responsibility not only to avoid cruelty to animals within human society but also to redesign the global ecosystem so that animals do not suffer in the wild. He has argued in favour of a "cross-species global analogue of the welfare state", suggesting that humanity might eventually "reprogram predators" to limit predation, reducing the suffering of animals who are predated. Fertility regulation could maintain herbivore populations at sustainable levels, "a more civilised and compassionate policy option than famine, predation, and disease". The increasing number of vegans and vegetarians in the transhumanism movement has been attributed in part to Pearce's influence.
Humanity+ and other roles
In 1998, Pearce co-founded the World Transhumanist Association, known from 2008 as Humanity+, with Nick Bostrom. Pearce is a member of the board of advisors.
Currently, Pearce is a fellow of the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, and sits on the futurist advisory board of the Lifeboat Foundation. He is also the director of bioethics of Invincible Wellbeing and is on the advisory boards of the Center on Long-Term Risk, the Organisation for the Prevention of Intense Suffering and since 2021 the Qualia Research Institute.
Until 2013, Pearce was on the editorial advisory board of the controversial and non-peer reviewed journal Medical Hypotheses. He has been interviewed by Vanity Fair (Germany) and on BBC Radio 4's The Moral Maze, among others.
Books
"The Biointelligence Explosion: How Recursively Self-Improving Organic Robots will Modify their Own Source Code and Bootstrap Our Way to Full-Spectrum Superintelligence" in
Can Biotechnology Abolish Suffering?. Vinding, M. (Ed.). 2017. ASIN B075MV9KS2
See also
List of animal rights advocates
References
External links
The Hedonistic Imperative
BLTC Research
1959 births
Living people
20th-century essayists
21st-century essayists
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford
Animal rights scholars
Animal welfare scholars
British animal rights activists
British essayists
British transhumanists
Consequentialists
Hedonism
People from Brighton
Utilitarians
Veganism activists | [
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253715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glipizide | Glipizide | Glipizide, sold under the brand name Glucotrol among others, is an anti-diabetic medication of the sulfonylurea class used to treat type 2 diabetes. It is used together with a diabetic diet and exercise. It is not indicated for use by itself in type 1 diabetes. It is taken by mouth. Effects generally begin within half an hour and can last for up to a day.
Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, low blood sugar, and headache. Other side effects include sleepiness, skin rash, and shakiness. The dose may need to be adjusted in those with liver or kidney disease. Use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is not recommended. It works by stimulating the pancreas to release insulin and increases tissue sensitivity to insulin.
Glipizide was approved for medical use in the United States in 1984. It is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 54th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 13million prescriptions.
Mechanism of action
Glipizide sensitizes the beta cells of pancreatic islets of Langerhans insulin response, meaning that more insulin is released in response to glucose than would be without glipizide ingestion. Glipizide acts by partially blocking potassium channels among beta cells of pancreatic islets of Langerhans. By blocking potassium channels, the cell depolarizes, which results in the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels. The resulting calcium influx encourages insulin release from beta cells.
History
It was patented in 1969 and approved for medical use in 1971. Glipizide was approved for medical use in the United States in 1984.
See also
Glyburide
Tolbutamide
References
External links
Potassium channel blockers
1-(Benzenesulfonyl)-3-cyclohexylureas
Pyrazines
Pfizer brands
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | [
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253717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glimepiride | Glimepiride | Glimepiride, is an anti-diabetic medication used to treat type 2 diabetes. It is less preferred than metformin. Use is recommended together with diet and exercise. It is taken by mouth. Glimepiride takes up to three hours for maximum effect and lasts for about a day.
Common side effects include headache, nausea, and dizziness. Serious side effects may include low blood sugar. Use during pregnancy and breastfeeding is not recommended. It works mainly by increasing the amount of insulin released from the pancreas. It is classified as a second-generation sulfonylurea.
Glimepiride was patented in 1979 and approved for medical use in 1995. It is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 62nd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 11million prescriptions.
Medical uses
Glimepiride is indicated to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus; its mode of action is to increase insulin secretion by the pancreas. However it requires adequate insulin synthesis as prerequisite to treat appropriately. It is not used for type 1 diabetes because in type 1 diabetes the pancreas is not able to produce insulin.
Contraindications
Its use is contraindicated in patients with hypersensitivity to glimepiride or other sulfonylureas.
Adverse effects
Side effects from taking glimepiride include gastrointestinal tract (GI) disturbances, occasional allergic reactions, and rarely blood production disorders including thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, and hemolytic anemia. In the initial weeks of treatment, the risk of hypoglycemia may be increased. Alcohol consumption and exposure to sunlight should be restricted because they can worsen side effects.
Interactions
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (such as salicylates), sulfonamides, chloramphenicol, coumadin and probenecid may potentiate the hypoglycemic action of glimepiride. Thiazides, other diuretics, phothiazides, thyroid products, oral contraceptives, and phenytoin tend to produce hyperglycemia.
Mechanism of action
Like all sulfonylureas, glimepiride acts as an insulin secretagogue. It lowers blood sugar by stimulating the release of insulin by pancreatic beta cells and by inducing increased activity of intracellular insulin receptors.
Not all secondary sulfonylureas have the same risk of hypoglycemia. Glibenclamide (glyburide) is associated with an incidence of hypoglycemia of up to 20–30%, compared to as low as 2% to 4% with glimepiride. Glibenclamide also interferes with the normal homeostatic suppression of insulin secretion in reaction to hypoglycemia, whereas glimepiride does not. Also, glibenclamide diminishes glucagon secretion in reaction to hypoglycemia, whereas glimepiride does not.
Pharmacokinetics
Gastrointestinal absorption is complete, with no interference from meals. Significant absorption can occur within one hour, and distribution is throughout the body, 99.5% bound to plasma protein. Metabolism is by oxidative biotransformation, it is hepatic and complete. First, the medication is metabolized to M1 metabolite by CYP2C9. M1 possesses about of pharmacological activity of glimepiride, yet it is unknown if this results in clinically meaningful effect on blood glucose. M1 is further metabolized to M2 metabolite by cytosolic enzymes. M2 is pharmacologically inactive. Excretion in the urine is about 65%, and the remainder is excreted in the feces.
References
External links
Potassium channel blockers
1-(Benzenesulfonyl)-3-cyclohexylureas
Gamma-lactams
Sanofi
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | [
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253720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metformin | Metformin | Metformin, sold under the brand name Glucophage among others, is the first-line medication for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, particularly in people who are overweight. It is also used in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome. It is not associated with weight gain and is taken by mouth. It is sometimes used as an off-label augment to attenuate the risk of weight gain in people who take antipsychotics as well as phenelzine.
Metformin is generally well tolerated. Common adverse effects include diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pain. It has a low risk of causing low blood sugar. High blood lactic acid level is a concern if the medication is used in overly large doses or prescribed in people with severe kidney problems. It is not recommended in those with significant liver disease. Metformin is a biguanide antihyperglycemic agent. It works by decreasing glucose production by the liver, by increasing the insulin sensitivity of body tissues, and by increasing GDF15 secretion, which reduces appetite and caloric intake.
Metformin was discovered in 1922. French physician Jean Sterne began the study in humans in the 1950s. It was introduced as a medication in France in 1957 and the United States in 1995. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Metformin is the most widely used medication for diabetes taken by mouth. It is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the fourth-most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 85 million prescriptions written for over 17 million patients.
Medical uses
Metformin is used to lower the blood sugar in those with type 2 diabetes. It is also used as a second-line agent for infertility in those with polycystic ovary syndrome.
Type 2 diabetes
The American Diabetes Association and the American College of Physicians both recommend metformin as a first-line agent to treat type 2 diabetes. It is as effective as repaglinide and more effective than all other oral diabetes mellitus type 2 drugs.
Efficacy
The United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study, a large clinical trial performed in 1980–90s, provided evidence that metformin reduced the rate of adverse cardiovascular outcomes in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes relative to other antihyperglycemic agents. Accumulated evidence from other and more recent trials, though, reduced confidence in the efficacy of metformin for cardiovascular disease prevention. Outcomes are improved even in those with some degree of kidney disease, heart failure, or chronic liver disease.
Treatment guidelines for major professional associations, including the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, the European Society for Cardiology, and the American Diabetes Association, now describe evidence for the cardiovascular benefits of metformin as equivocal.
In 2017, the American College of Physicians's guidelines were updated to recognize metformin as the first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes. These guidelines supersede earlier reviews. For example, a 2014 review found tentative evidence that people treated with sulfonylureas had a higher risk of severe low blood sugar events (RR 5.64), though their risk of nonfatal cardiovascular events was lower than the risk of those treated with metformin (RR 0.67). Not enough data were available at that time to determine the relative risk of death or of death from heart disease.
The use of metformin reduces body weight in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus in contrast to sulfonylureas, which are associated with weight gain. Some evidence shows that metformin is associated with weight loss in obesity in the absence of diabetes. Metformin has a lower risk of hypoglycemia than the sulfonylureas, although hypoglycemia has uncommonly occurred during intense exercise, calorie deficit, or when used with other agents to lower blood glucose. Metformin modestly reduces low density lipoprotein and triglyceride levels.
Polycystic ovarian syndrome
In those with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), tentative evidence shows that metformin use increases the rate of live births. This includes in those who have not been able to get pregnant with clomiphene. Metformin does not appear to change the risk of miscarriage. A number of other benefits have also been found both during pregnancy and in nonpregnant women with PCOS. In an updated Cochrane (2020) review on metformin versus placebo/no treatment before or during IVF/ICSI in women with PCOS no conclusive evidence of improved live birth rates was found. In long GnRH-agonist protocols there was uncertainty in the evidence of improved live birth rates but there could be increases in clinical pregnancy rate. In short GnRH-antagonist protocols metformin may reduce live birth rates with uncertainty on its effect on clinical pregnancy rate. Metformin may result in a reduction of OHSS but could come with a greater frequency of side effects. There was uncertainty as to metformin's impact on miscarriage. The evidence does not support general use during pregnancy for improving maternal and infant outcomes in obese women.
The United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommended in 2004 that women with PCOS and a body mass index above 25 be given metformin for anovulation and infertility when other therapies fail to produce results. UK and international clinical practice guidelines do not recommend metformin as a first-line treatment or do not recommend it at all, except for women with glucose intolerance. The guidelines suggest clomiphene as the first medication option and emphasize lifestyle modification independently from medical treatment. Metformin treatment decreases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus in women with PCOS who exhibited impaired glucose tolerance at baseline.
Diabetes mellitus and pregnancy
A total review of metformin use during pregnancy compared to insulin alone found good short-term safety for both the mother and baby, but unclear long-term safety. Several observational studies and randomized controlled trials found metformin to be as effective and safe as insulin for the management of gestational diabetes. Nonetheless, several concerns have been raised and evidence on the long-term safety of metformin for both mother and child is lacking. Compared with insulin, women with gestational diabetes treated with metformin gain less weight and are less likely to develop pre‐eclampsia during pregnancy. Babies born to women treated with metformin have less visceral fat, and this may make them less prone to insulin resistance in later life. The use of metformin for gestational diabetes resulted in smaller babies compared to treatment with insulin. However, despite initially lower birth weight, children exposed to metformin during pregnancy had accelerated growth after birth, and were heavier by mid-childhood than those exposed to insulin during pregnancy. This pattern of initial low birth weight followed by catch-up growth that surpasses comparative children has been associated with long-term cardiometabolic disease.
Weight change
Metformin use is typically associated with weight loss. It appears to be safe and effective in counteracting the weight gain caused by the antipsychotic medications olanzapine and clozapine. Although modest reversal of clozapine-associated weight gain is found with metformin, primary prevention of weight gain is more valuable.
Use with insulin
Metformin may reduce the insulin requirement in type 1 diabetes, albeit with an increased risk of hypoglycemia.
Contraindications
Metformin is contraindicated in people with:
Severe renal impairment (estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) below 30 ml/min/1.73 m2)
Known hypersensitivity to metformin
Acute or chronic metabolic acidosis, including diabetic ketoacidosis (from uncontrolled diabetes), with or without coma
Warnings are also given regarding the use of metformin in less severe renal impairment, people aged 65 years old or greater, hypoxic states (e.g., acute congestive heart failure), excessive alcohol intake, hepatic impairment, concomitant use of certain drugs (e.g. carbonic anhydrase inhibitors such as topiramate), surgery, and other procedures, or in people having a radiological study with administration of an iodinated contrast agent.
Metformin is recommended to be temporarily discontinued before any procedure involving use of iodinated contrast agents, (such as a contrast-enhanced CT scan or angiogram) due to the increased risk of lactic acidosis resulting from impaired kidney function; metformin can be resumed after two days after contrast administration, if renal function is adequate and stable.
Adverse effects
The most common adverse effect of metformin is gastrointestinal irritation, including diarrhea, cramps, nausea, vomiting, and increased flatulence; metformin is more commonly associated with gastrointestinal adverse effects than most other antidiabetic medications. The most serious potential adverse effect of metformin is lactic acidosis; this complication is rare, and the vast majority of these cases seem to be related to conditions such as impaired liver or kidney function, rather than to the metformin itself. Metformin is not approved for use in those with severe kidney disease, but may still be used at lower doses in those with kidney problems.
Gastrointestinal
Gastrointestinal upset can cause severe discomfort; it is most common when metformin is first administered, or when the dose is increased. The discomfort can often be avoided by beginning at a low dose (1.0 to 1.7 g/day) and increasing the dose gradually, but even with low doses, 5% of people may be unable to tolerate metformin. Use of slow or extended-release preparations may improve tolerability.
Long-term use of metformin has been associated with increased homocysteine levels and malabsorption of vitamin B12. Higher doses and prolonged use are associated with increased incidence of vitamin B12 deficiency, and some researchers recommend screening or prevention strategies.
Lactic acidosis
Lactic acidosis almost never occurs with metformin exposure during routine medical care. Rates of metformin-associated lactic acidosis are about nine per 100,000 persons/year, which is similar to the background rate of lactic acidosis in the general population. A systematic review concluded no data exists to definitively link metformin to lactic acidosis.
Metformin is generally safe in people with mild to moderate chronic kidney disease, with proportional reduction of metformin dose according to severity of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and with periodic assessment of kidney function, (e.g., periodic plasma creatinine measurement). The FDA recommends avoiding the use of metformin in more severe chronic kidney disease, below the eGFR cutoff of 30 ml/minute/1.73 m2. Lactate uptake by the liver is diminished with metformin use because lactate is a substrate for hepatic gluconeogenesis, a process that metformin inhibits. In healthy individuals, this slight excess is cleared by other mechanisms (including uptake by unimpaired kidneys), and no significant elevation in blood levels of lactate occurs. Given severely impaired kidney function, clearance of metformin and lactate is reduced, increasing levels of both, and possibly causing lactic acid buildup. Because metformin decreases liver uptake of lactate, any condition that may precipitate lactic acidosis is a contraindication. Common causes include alcoholism (due to depletion of NAD+ stores), heart failure, and respiratory disease (due to inadequate tissue oxygenation); the most common cause is kidney disease.
Metformin-associated lactate production may also take place in the large intestine, which could potentially contribute to lactic acidosis in those with risk factors. The clinical significance of this is unknown, though, and the risk of metformin-associated lactic acidosis is most commonly attributed to decreased hepatic uptake rather than increased intestinal production.
The risk of metformin-associated lactic acidosis is also increased by a massive overdose of metformin, although even quite large doses are often not fatal.
Overdose
The most common symptoms following an overdose include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, tachycardia, drowsiness, and rarely, hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia. Treatment of metformin overdose is generally supportive, as no specific antidote is known. Extracorporeal treatments are recommended in severe overdoses. Due to metformin's low molecular weight and lack of plasma protein binding, these techniques have the benefit of removing metformin from the blood plasma, preventing further lactate overproduction.
Metformin may be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to monitor therapy, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or to assist in a forensic death investigation. Blood or plasma metformin concentrations are usually in a range of 1–4 mg/l in persons receiving therapeutic doses, 40–120 mg/l in victims of acute overdosage, and 80–200 mg/l in fatalities. Chromatographic techniques are commonly employed.
Interactions
The H2-receptor antagonist cimetidine causes an increase in the plasma concentration of metformin by reducing clearance of metformin by the kidneys; both metformin and cimetidine are cleared from the body by tubular secretion, and both, particularly the cationic (positively charged) form of cimetidine, may compete for the same transport mechanism. A small double-blind, randomized study found the antibiotic cephalexin to also increase metformin concentrations by a similar mechanism; theoretically, other cationic medications may produce the same effect.
Metformin also interacts with anticholinergic medications, due to their effect on gastric motility. Anticholinergic drugs reduce gastric motility, prolonging the time drugs spend in the gastrointestinal tract. This impairment may lead to more metformin being absorbed than without the presence of an anticholinergic drug, thereby increasing the concentration of metformin in the plasma and increasing the risk for adverse effects.
Pharmacology
Mechanism of action
The molecular mechanism of metformin is not completely understood. Multiple potential mechanisms of action have been proposed: inhibition of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (complex I), activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), inhibition of glucagon-induced elevation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) with reduced activation of protein kinase A (PKA), inhibition of mitochondrial glycerophosphate dehydrogenase, and an effect on gut microbiota. Metformin also exerts an anorexiant effect in most people, decreasing caloric intake. Metformin decreases gluconeogenesis (glucose production) in the liver. Metformin inhibits basal secretion from the pituitary gland of growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, and expression of proopiomelanocortin, which in part accounts for its insulin-sensitizing effect with multiple actions on tissues including the liver, skeletal muscle, endothelium, adipose tissue, and the ovaries. The average patient with type 2 diabetes has three times the normal rate of gluconeogenesis; metformin treatment reduces this by over one-third.
Activation of AMPK was required for metformin's inhibitory effect on liver glucose production. AMPK is an enzyme that plays an important role in insulin signalling, whole-body energy balance, and the metabolism of glucose and fats. AMPK activation was required for an increase in the expression of small heterodimer partner, which in turn inhibited the expression of the hepatic gluconeogenic genes phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glucose 6-phosphatase. Metformin is frequently used in research along with AICA ribonucleotide as an AMPK agonist. The mechanism by which biguanides increase the activity of AMPK remains uncertain; however, metformin increases the concentration of cytosolic adenosine monophosphate (AMP) (as opposed to a change in total AMP or total AMP/adenosine triphosphate). Metformin inhibits cyclic AMP production, blocking the action of glucagon, and thereby reducing fasting glucose levels. Metformin also induces a profound shift in the faecal microbial community profile in diabetic mice, and this may contribute to its mode of action possibly through an effect on glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion.
In addition to suppressing hepatic glucose production, metformin increases insulin sensitivity, enhances peripheral glucose uptake (by inducing the phosphorylation of GLUT4 enhancer factor), decreases insulin-induced suppression of fatty acid oxidation, and decreases the absorption of glucose from the gastrointestinal tract. Increased peripheral use of glucose may be due to improved insulin binding to insulin receptors. The increase in insulin binding after metformin treatment has also been demonstrated in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2.
AMPK probably also plays a role in increased peripheral insulin sensitivity, as metformin administration increases AMPK activity in skeletal muscle. AMPK is known to cause GLUT4 deployment to the plasma membrane, resulting in insulin-independent glucose uptake. Some metabolic actions of metformin do appear to occur by AMPK-independent mechanisms.
Metformin has indirect antiandrogenic effects in women with insulin resistance, such as those with PCOS, due to its beneficial effects on insulin sensitivity. It may reduce testosterone levels in such women by as much as 50%. A Cochrane review, though, found that metformin was only slightly effective for decreasing androgen levels in women with PCOS.
Metformin also has significant effects on the gut microbiome, such as its effect on increasing agmatine production by gut bacteria, but the relative importance of this mechanism compared to other mechanisms is uncertain.
Pharmacokinetics
Metformin has an oral bioavailability of 50–60% under fasting conditions, and is absorbed slowly. Peak plasma concentrations (Cmax) are reached within 1–3 hours of taking immediate-release metformin and 4–8 hours with extended-release formulations. The plasma protein binding of metformin is negligible, as reflected by its very high apparent volume of distribution (300–1000 l after a single dose). Steady state is usually reached in 1–2 days.
Metformin has acid dissociation constant values (pKa) of 2.8 and 11.5, so it exists very largely as the hydrophilic cationic species at physiological pH values. The metformin pKa values make it a stronger base than most other basic medications with less than 0.01% nonionized in blood. Furthermore, the lipid solubility of the nonionized species is slight as shown by its low logP value (log(10) of the distribution coefficient of the nonionized form between octanol and water) of −1.43. These chemical parameters indicate low lipophilicity and, consequently, rapid passive diffusion of metformin through cell membranes is unlikely. As a result of its low lipid solubility it requires the transporter SLC22A1 in order for it to enter cells. The logP of metformin is less than that of phenformin (−0.84) because two methyl substituents on metformin impart lesser lipophilicity than the larger phenylethyl side chain in phenformin. More lipophilic derivatives of metformin are presently under investigation with the aim of producing prodrugs with superior oral absorption than metformin.
Metformin is not metabolized. It is cleared from the body by tubular secretion and excreted unchanged in the urine; it is undetectable in blood plasma within 24 hours of a single oral dose. The average elimination half-life in plasma is 6.2 hours. Metformin is distributed to (and appears to accumulate in) red blood cells, with a much longer elimination half-life: 17.6 hours (reported as ranging from 18.5 to 31.5 hours in a single-dose study of nondiabetics).
Some evidence indicates that liver concentrations of metformin in humans may be two to three times higher than plasma concentrations, due to portal vein absorption and first-pass uptake by the liver in oral administration.
Chemistry
Metformin hydrochloride (1,1-dimethylbiguanide hydrochloride) is freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol, but almost insoluble in acetone, ether, or chloroform. The pKa of metformin is 12.4. The usual synthesis of metformin, originally described in 1922, involves the one-pot reaction of dimethylamine hydrochloride and 2-cyanoguanidine over heat.
According to the procedure described in the 1975 Aron patent, and the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia, equimolar amounts of dimethylamine and 2-cyanoguanidine are dissolved in toluene with cooling to make a concentrated solution, and an equimolar amount of hydrogen chloride is slowly added. The mixture begins to boil on its own, and after cooling, metformin hydrochloride precipitates with a 96% yield.
Derivatives
A new derivative HL156A, also known as IM156, is potential new drug for medical use.
History
The biguanide class of antidiabetic medications, which also includes the withdrawn agents phenformin and buformin, originates from the French lilac or goat's rue (Galega officinalis), a plant used in folk medicine for several centuries. G. officinalis itself does not contain any of these medications, but isoamylene guanidine; phenformin, buformin, and metformin are chemically synthesized compounds composed of two guanidine molecules, and are more lipophilic than the plant-derived parent compound.
Metformin was first described in the scientific literature in 1922, by Emil Werner and James Bell, as a product in the synthesis of N,N-dimethylguanidine. In 1929, Slotta and Tschesche discovered its sugar-lowering action in rabbits, finding it the most potent biguanide analog they studied. This result was completely forgotten, as other guanidine analogs such as the synthalins, took over and were themselves soon overshadowed by insulin.
Interest in metformin resumed at the end of the 1940s. In 1950, metformin, unlike some other similar compounds, was found not to decrease blood pressure and heart rate in animals. That year, Filipino physician Eusebio Y. Garcia used metformin (he named it Fluamine) to treat influenza; he noted the medication "lowered the blood sugar to minimum physiological limit" and was not toxic. Garcia believed metformin to have bacteriostatic, antiviral, antimalarial, antipyretic, and analgesic actions. In a series of articles in 1954, Polish pharmacologist Janusz Supniewski was unable to confirm most of these effects, including lowered blood sugar. Instead he observed antiviral effects in humans.
French diabetologist Jean Sterne studied the antihyperglycemic properties of galegine, an alkaloid isolated from G. officinalis, which is related in structure to metformin, and had seen brief use as an antidiabetic before the synthalins were developed. Later, working at Laboratoires Aron in Paris, he was prompted by Garcia's report to reinvestigate the blood sugar-lowering activity of metformin and several biguanide analogs. Sterne was the first to try metformin on humans for the treatment of diabetes; he coined the name "Glucophage" (glucose eater) for the medication and published his results in 1957.
Metformin became available in the British National Formulary in 1958. It was sold in the UK by a small Aron subsidiary called Rona.
Broad interest in metformin was not rekindled until the withdrawal of the other biguanides in the 1970s. Metformin was approved in Canada in 1972, but did not receive approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for type 2 diabetes until 1994. Produced under license by Bristol-Myers Squibb, Glucophage was the first branded formulation of metformin to be marketed in the U.S., beginning on 3 March 1995. Generic formulations are now available in several countries, and metformin is believed to have become the world's most widely prescribed antidiabetic medication.
Society and culture
Environmental
Metformin and its major transformation product guanylurea are present in wastewater treatment plant effluents and regularly detected in surface waters. Guanylurea concentrations above 200 μg/l have been measured in a German river, which are amongst the highest reported for pharmaceutical transformation products in aquatic environments.
Formulations
The name "Metformin" is the BAN, USAN, and INN for this medication, and is sold under several trade names. Common brand names include Glucophage, Riomet, Fortamet, and Glumetza in the US. In other areas of the world, there is also Obimet, Gluformin, Dianben, Diabex, Diaformin, Metsol, Siofor, Metfogamma and Glifor. There are several formulations of Metformin available to the market, and all but the liquid form have generic equivalents. Metformin IR (immediate release) is available in 500-, 850-, and 1000-mg tablets, while Metformin XR (extended release) is available in 500-, 750-, and 1000-mg strengths (also sold as Fortamet, Glumetza, and Glucophage XR in the US). The use of an extended release formulation is to counteract common gastrointestinal adverse effects, as well as to increase compliance by reducing pill burden and therefore can improve adherence, at the expense of the pill's larger size. Also available is liquid metformin (sold only as Riomet in the US), where 5 mL of solution contains the same amount of drug as a 500-mg tablet. The use of a liquid form can be beneficial in helping those with physical or psychological swallowing problems take the medication, or to potentially reduce the number of steps needed to take the medication.
Combination with other medications
When used for type 2 diabetes, metformin is often prescribed in combination with other medications.
Several are available as fixed-dose combinations, with the potential to reduce pill burden, decrease cost, and simplify administration.
Thiazolidinediones (glitazones)
Rosiglitazone
A combination of metformin and rosiglitazone was released in 2002, and sold as Avandamet by GlaxoSmithKline, or as a generic medication. Formulations are 500/1, 500/2, 500/4, 1000/2, and 1000 mg/4 mg of metformin/rosiglitazone.
By 2009, it had become the most popular metformin combination.
In 2005, the stock of Avandamet was removed from the market, after inspections showed the factory where it was produced was violating good manufacturing practices. The medication pair continued to be prescribed separately, and Avandamet was again available by the end of that year. A generic formulation of metformin/rosiglitazone from Teva received tentative approval from the FDA and reached the market in early 2012.
However, following a meta-analysis in 2007 that linked the medication's use to an increased risk of heart attack, concerns were raised over the safety of medicines containing rosiglitazone. In September 2010, the European Medicines Agency recommended that the medication be suspended from the European market because the benefits of rosiglitazone no longer outweighed the risks.
It was withdrawn from the market in the UK and India in 2010, and in New Zealand and South Africa in 2011. From November 2011 until November 2013 the FDA did not allow rosiglitazone or metformin/rosiglitazone to be sold without a prescription; moreover, makers were required to notify patients of the risks associated with its use, and the drug had to be purchased by mail order through specified pharmacies.
In November 2013, the FDA lifted its earlier restrictions on rosiglitazone after reviewing the results of the 2009 RECORD clinical trial (a six-year, open-label randomized control trial), which failed to show elevated risk of heart attack or death associated with the medication.
Pioglitazone
The combination of metformin and pioglitazone (Actoplus Met, Piomet, Politor, Glubrava) is available in the US and the European Union.
DPP-4 inhibitors
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors inhibit dipeptidyl peptidase-4 and thus reduce glucagon and blood glucose levels.
DPP-4 inhibitors combined with metformin include a sitagliptin/metformin combination (Janumet), a saxagliptin/metformin combination (Kombiglyze XR, Komboglyze), and an alogliptin/metformin combination (Kazano, Vipdomet).
Linagliptin combined with metformin hydrochloride is sold under the brand name Jentadueto. As of August 2021, linagliptin/metformin is available as a generic medicine in the US.
Sulfonylureas
Sulfonylureas act by increasing insulin release from the beta cells in the pancreas. They often can be used as secondary therapy if metformin alone is not sufficiently effective at reaching normal blood glucose levels.
Metformin is available combined with the sulfonylureas glipizide (Metaglip) and glibenclamide (US: glyburide) (Glucovance). Generic formulations of metformin/glipizide and metformin/glibenclamide are available (the latter is more popular).
Meglitinide
Meglitinides are similar to sulfonylureas, as they bind to beta cells in the pancreas, but differ by the site of binding to the intended receptor and the drugs' affinities to the receptor. As a result, they have a shorter duration of action compared to sulfonylureas, and require higher blood glucose levels to begin to secrete insulin. Both meglitinides, known as nateglinide and repanglinide, is sold in formulations combined with metformin. A repaglinide/metformin combination is sold as Prandimet, or as its generic equivalent.
Triple combination
The combination of metformin with dapagliflozen and saxagliptin is available in the United States as Qternmet XR.
The combination of metformin with pioglitazone and glibenclamide is available in India as Accuglim-MP, Adglim MP, and Alnamet-GP, along with the Philippines as Tri-Senza.
The combination of metformin with pioglitazone and lipoic acid is available in Turkey as Pional.
Impurities
In December 2019, the U.S. FDA announced that it learned that some metformin medicines manufactured outside the United States might contain a nitrosamine impurity called N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), classified as a probable human carcinogen, at low levels. Health Canada announced that it was assessing NDMA levels in metformin.
In February 2020, the FDA found NDMA levels in some tested metformin samples that did not exceed the acceptable daily intake.
In February 2020, Health Canada announced a recall of Apotex immediate-release metformin, followed in March by recalls of Ranbaxy metformin and in March by Jamp metformin.
On 29 May 2020, the FDA asked five companies to voluntarily recall their sustained-release metformin products. The five companies were not named, but they were revealed to be Amneal Pharmaceuticals, Actavis Pharma, Apotex Corp, Lupin Pharma, and Marksans Pharma Limited in a letter sent to Valisure, the pharmacy that had first alerted the FDA to this contaminant in metformin via a Citizen Petition.
In June 2020, the FDA posted its laboratory results showing NDMA amounts in metformin products it tested. It found NDMA in certain lots of ER metformin, and is recommending companies recall lots with levels of NDMA above the acceptable intake limit of 96 nanograms per day. The FDA is also collaborating with international regulators to share testing results for metformin.
In July 2020, Lupin Pharmaceuticals pulled all lots (batches) of metformin after discovering unacceptably high levels of NDMA in tested samples.
In August 2020, Bayshore Pharmaceuticals recalled two lots of tablets.
Research
Metformin has been studied for its effects on multiple other conditions, including:
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
Premature puberty
Cancer
Cardiovascular disease in people with diabetes
Aging
While metformin may reduce body weight in persons with fragile X syndrome, whether it improves neurological or psychiatric symptoms is uncertain. Metformin has been studied in vivo (C. elegans and crickets) for effects on aging. A 2017 review found that people with diabetes who were taking metformin had lower all-cause mortality. They also had reduced cancer and cardiovascular disease compared with those on other therapies.
References
Further reading
External links
Biguanides
Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action
Guanidines
Merck brands
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
World Health Organization essential medicines | [
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253721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes%20medication | Diabetes medication | Drugs used in diabetes treat diabetes mellitus by altering the glucose level in the blood. With the exceptions of insulin, most GLP receptor agonists (liraglutide, exenatide, and others), and pramlintide, all are administered orally and are thus also called oral hypoglycemic agents or oral antihyperglycemic agents. There are different classes of anti-diabetic drugs, and their selection depends on the nature of the diabetes, age and situation of the person, as well as other factors.
Diabetes mellitus type 1 is a disease caused by the lack of insulin. Insulin must be used in type 1, which must be injected.
Diabetes mellitus type 2 is a disease of insulin resistance by cells. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is the most common type of diabetes. Treatments include agents that (1) increase the amount of insulin secreted by the pancreas, (2) increase the sensitivity of target organs to insulin, (3) decrease the rate at which glucose is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, and (4) increase loss of glucose through urination.
Several groups of drugs, mostly given by mouth, are effective in type 2, often in combination. The therapeutic combination in type 2 may include insulin, not necessarily because oral agents have failed completely, but in search of a desired combination of effects. The great advantage of injected insulin in type 2 is that a well-educated patient can adjust the dose, or even take additional doses, when blood glucose levels measured by the patient, usually with a simple meter, as needed by the measured amount of sugar in the blood.
Insulin
Insulin is usually given subcutaneously, either by injections or by an insulin pump. In acute care settings, insulin may also be given intravenously. Insulins are typically characterized by the rate at which they are metabolized by the body, yielding different peak times and durations of action. Faster-acting insulins peak quickly and are subsequently metabolized, while longer-acting insulins tend to have extended peak times and remain active in the body for more significant periods.
Examples of rapid-acting insulins (peak at ~1 hour) are:
Insulin lispro (Humalog)
Insulin aspart (Novolog)
Insulin glulisine (Apidra)
Examples of short-acting insulins (peak 2–4 hours) are:
Regular insulin (Humulin R, Novolin R)
Prompt insulin zinc (Semilente)
Examples of intermediate-acting insulins (peak 4–10 hours) are:
Isophane insulin, neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) (Humulin N, Novolin N)
Insulin zinc (Lente)
Examples of long-acting insulins (duration 24 hours, often without peak) are:
Extended insulin zinc insulin (Ultralente)
Insulin glargine (Lantus)
Insulin detemir (Levemir)
Insulin degludec (Tresiba)
Insulin degludec is sometimes classed separately as an "ultra-long" acting insulin due to its duration of action of about 42 hours, compared with 24 hours for most other long acting insulin preparations.
As systematic review of studies comparing insulin detemir, insulin glargine, insulin degludec and NPH insulin did not show any clear benefits or serious adverse effects for any particular form of insulin for nocturnal hypoglycemia, severe hypoglycemia, glycated hemoglobin A1c, non-fatal myocardial infarction/stroke, health-related quality of life or all-cause mortality. The same review did not find any differences in effects of using these insulin analogues between adults and children.
Most oral anti-diabetic agents are contraindicated in pregnancy, in which insulin is preferred.
Insulin is not administered by other routes, although this has been studied. An inhaled form was briefly licensed but was subsequently withdrawn.
Sensitizers
Insulin sensitizers address the core problem in type 2 diabetes – insulin resistance.
Biguanides
Biguanides reduce hepatic glucose output and increase uptake of glucose by the periphery, including skeletal muscle. Although it must be used with caution in patients with impaired liver or kidney function, metformin, a biguanide, has become the most commonly used agent for type 2 diabetes in children and teenagers. Among common diabetic drugs, metformin is the only widely used oral drug that does not cause weight gain.
Typical reduction in glycated hemoglobin (A1C) values for metformin is 1.5–2.0%
Metformin (Glucophage) may be the best choice for patients who also have heart failure, but it should be temporarily discontinued before any radiographic procedure involving intravenous iodinated contrast, as patients are at an increased risk of lactic acidosis.
Phenformin (DBI) was used from 1960s through 1980s, but was withdrawn due to lactic acidosis risk.
Buformin also was withdrawn due to lactic acidosis risk.
Metformin is usually the first-line medication used for treatment of type 2 diabetes. In general, it is prescribed at initial diagnosis in conjunction with exercise and weight loss, as opposed to in the past, where it was prescribed after diet and exercise had failed. There is an immediate release as well as an extended-release formulation, typically reserved for patients experiencing gastrointestinal side-effects. It is also available in combination with other oral diabetic medications.
Thiazolidinediones
Thiazolidinediones (TZDs), also known as "glitazones," bind to PPARγ, peroxysome proliferator activated receptor γ, a type of nuclear regulatory protein involved in transcription of genes regulating glucose and fat metabolism. These PPARs act on peroxysome proliferator responsive elements (PPRE). The PPREs influence insulin-sensitive genes, which enhance production of mRNAs of insulin-dependent enzymes. The final result is better use of glucose by the cells. These drugs also enhance PPAR-α activity and hence lead to a rise in HDL and some larger components of LDL.
Typical reductions in glycated hemoglobin (A1C) values are 1.5–2.0%. Some examples are:
Rosiglitazone (Avandia): the European Medicines Agency recommended in September 2010 that it be suspended from the EU market due to elevated cardiovascular risks.
Pioglitazone (Actos): remains on the market but has also been associated with increased cardiovascular risks.
Troglitazone (Rezulin): used in 1990s, withdrawn due to hepatitis and liver damage risk.
Multiple retrospective studies have resulted in a concern about rosiglitazone's safety, although it is established that the group, as a whole, has beneficial effects on diabetes. The greatest concern is an increase in the number of severe cardiac events in patients taking it. The ADOPT study showed that initial therapy with drugs of this type may prevent the progression of disease, as did the DREAM trial. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE), which provides clinical practice guidelines for management of diabetes, retains thiazolidinediones as recommended first, second, or third line agents for type 2 diabetes mellitus, as of their 2019 executive summary, over sulfonylureas and α-glucosidase inhibitors. However, they are less preferred than GLP-1 agonists or SGLT2 inhibitors, especially in patients with cardiovascular disease (which liraglutide, empagliflozin, and canagliflozin are all FDA approved to treat).
Concerns about the safety of rosiglitazone arose when a retrospective meta-analysis was published in the New England Journal of Medicine. There have been a significant number of publications since then, and a Food and Drug Administration panel voted, with some controversy, 20:3 that available studies "supported a signal of harm", but voted 22:1 to keep the drug on the market. The meta-analysis was not supported by an interim analysis of the trial designed to evaluate the issue, and several other reports have failed to conclude the controversy. This weak evidence for adverse effects has reduced the use of rosiglitazone, despite its important and sustained effects on glycemic control. Safety studies are continuing.
In contrast, at least one large prospective study, PROactive 05, has shown that pioglitazone may decrease the overall incidence of cardiac events in people with type 2 diabetes who have already had a heart attack.
Lyn kinase activators
The LYN kinase activator tolimidone has been reported to potentiate insulin signaling in a manner that is distinct from the glitazones. The compound has demonstrated positive results in a Phase 2a clinical study involving 130 diabetic subjects.
Secretagogues
Secretagogues are drugs that increase output from a gland, in the case of insulin from the pancreas.
Sulfonylureas
Sulfonylureas were the first widely used oral anti-hyperglycemic medications. They are insulin secretagogues, triggering insulin release by inhibiting the KATP channel of the pancreatic beta cells. Eight types of these pills have been marketed in North America, but not all remain available. The "second-generation" drugs are now more commonly used. They are more effective than first-generation drugs and have fewer side-effects. All may cause weight gain.
Current clinical practice guidelines from the AACE rate sulfonylureas (as well as glinides) below all other classes of antidiabetic drugs in terms of suggested use as first, second, or third line agents - this includes bromocriptine, the bile acid sequestrant colesevelam, α-glucosidase inhibitors, TZDs (glitazones), and DPP-4 inhibitors (gliptins). The low cost of most sulfonylureas, however, especially when considering their significant efficacy in blood glucose reduction, tends to keep them as a more feasible option in many patients - neither SGLT2 inhibitors nor GLP-1 agonists, the classes most favored by the AACE guidelines after metformin, are currently available as generics.
Sulfonylureas bind strongly to plasma proteins. Sulfonylureas are useful only in type 2 diabetes, as they work by stimulating endogenous release of insulin. They work best with patients over 40 years old who have had diabetes mellitus for under ten years. They cannot be used with type 1 diabetes, or diabetes of pregnancy. They can be safely used with metformin or glitazones. The primary side-effect is hypoglycemia.
Typical reductions in glycated hemoglobin (A1C) values for second-generation sulfonylureas are 1.0–2.0%.
First-generation agents
tolbutamide
acetohexamide
tolazamide
chlorpropamide
Second-generation agents
glipizide
glyburide or glibenclamide
glimepiride
gliclazide
glyclopyramide
gliquidone
Nonsulfonylurea secretagogues
Meglitinides
Meglitinides help the pancreas produce insulin and are often called "short-acting secretagogues." They act on the same potassium channels as sulfonylureas, but at a different binding site. By closing the potassium channels of the pancreatic beta cells, they open the calcium channels, thereby enhancing insulin secretion.
They are taken with or shortly before meals to boost the insulin response to each meal. If a meal is skipped, the medication is also skipped.
Typical reductions in glycated hemoglobin (A1C) values are 0.5–1.0%.
repaglinide
nateglinide
Adverse reactions include weight gain and hypoglycemia.
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are "diabetes pills" but not technically hypoglycemic agents because they do not have a direct effect on insulin secretion or sensitivity. These agents slow the digestion of starch in the small intestine, so that glucose from the starch of a meal enters the bloodstream more slowly, and can be matched more effectively by an impaired insulin response or sensitivity. These agents are effective by themselves only in the earliest stages of impaired glucose tolerance, but can be helpful in combination with other agents in type 2 diabetes.
Typical reductions in glycated hemoglobin (A1C) values are 0.5–1.0%.
miglitol
acarbose
voglibose
These medications are rarely used in the United States because of the severity of their side-effects (flatulence and bloating). They are more commonly prescribed in Europe. They do have the potential to cause weight loss by lowering the amount of sugar metabolized.
Peptide analogs
Injectable incretin mimetics
Incretins are insulin secretagogues. The two main candidate molecules that fulfill criteria for being an incretin are glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and gastric inhibitory peptide (glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide, GIP). Both GLP-1 and GIP are rapidly inactivated by the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4).
Injectable glucagon-like peptide analogs and agonists
Glucagon-like peptide (GLP) agonists bind to a membrane GLP receptor. As a consequence, insulin release from the pancreatic beta cells is increased. Endogenous GLP has a half-life of only a few minutes, thus an analogue of GLP would not be practical. As of 2019, the AACE lists GLP-1 agonists, along with SGLT2 inhibitors, as the most preferred anti-diabetic agents after metformin. Liraglutide in particular may be considered first-line in diabetic patients with cardiovascular disease, as it has received FDA approval for reduction of risk of major adverse cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes.
Exenatide (also Exendin-4, marketed as Byetta) is the first GLP-1 agonist approved for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Exenatide is not an analogue of GLP but rather a GLP agonist. Exenatide has only 53% homology with GLP, which increases its resistance to degradation by DPP-4 and extends its half-life. Typical reductions in A1C values are 0.5–1.0%.
Liraglutide, a once-daily human analogue (97% homology), has been developed by Novo Nordisk under the brand name Victoza. The product was approved by the European Medicines Agency (EMEA) on July 3, 2009, and by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on January 25, 2010.
Taspoglutide is presently in Phase III clinical trials with Hoffman-La Roche.
Lixisenatide (Lyxumia) Sanofi Aventis
Semaglutide (Ozempic) (oral version is Rybelsus)
Dulaglutide (Trulicity) - once weekly
Albiglutide (Tanzeum) - once weekly
These agents may also cause a decrease in gastric motility, responsible for the common side-effect of nausea, and is probably the mechanism by which weight loss occurs.
Gastric inhibitory peptide analogs
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors
GLP-1 analogs resulted in weight loss and had more gastrointestinal side-effects, while in general dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors were weight-neutral and increased risk for infection and headache, but both classes appear to present an alternative to other antidiabetic drugs. However, weight gain and/or hypoglycemia have been observed when dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors were used with sulfonylureas; effects on long-term health and morbidity rates are still unknown.
DPP-4 inhibitors increase blood concentration of the incretin GLP-1 by inhibiting its degradation by DPP-4.
Examples are:
vildagliptin (Galvus) EU Approved 2008
sitagliptin (Januvia) FDA approved Oct 2006
saxagliptin (Onglyza) FDA Approved July 2009
linagliptin (Tradjenta) FDA Approved May 2, 2011
alogliptin
septagliptin
teneligliptin
gemigliptin (Zemiglo)
DPP-4 inhibitors lowered hemoglobin A1C values by 0.74%, comparable to other antidiabetic drugs.
A result in one RCT comprising 206 patients aged 65 or older (mean baseline HgbA1c of 7.8%) receiving either 50 or 100 mg/d of sitagliptin was shown to reduce HbA1c by 0.7% (combined result of both doses). A combined result of 5 RCTs enlisting a total of 279 patients aged 65 or older (mean baseline HbA1c of 8%) receiving 5 mg/d of saxagliptin was shown to reduce HbA1c by 0.73%. A combined result of 5 RCTs enlisting a total of 238 patients aged 65 or older (mean baseline HbA1c of 8.6%) receiving 100 mg/d of vildagliptin was shown to reduce HbA1c by 1.2%. Another set of 6 combined RCTs involving alogliptin (approved by FDA in 2013) was shown to reduce HbA1c by 0.73% in 455 patients aged 65 or older who received 12.5 or 25 mg/d of the medication.
Injectable amylin analogues
Amylin agonist analogues slow gastric emptying and suppress glucagon. They have all the incretins actions except stimulation of insulin secretion. , pramlintide is the only clinically available amylin analogue. Like insulin, it is administered by subcutaneous injection. The most frequent and severe adverse effect of pramlintide is nausea, which occurs mostly at the beginning of treatment and gradually reduces. Typical reductions in A1C values are 0.5–1.0%.
Glycosurics
SGLT-2 inhibitors block the re-uptake of glucose in the renal tubules, promoting loss of glucose in the urine. This causes both mild weight loss, and a mild reduction in blood sugar levels with little risk of hypoglycemia. Oral preparations may be available alone or in combination with other agents. Along with GLP-1 agonists, they are considered preferred second or third agents for type 2 diabetics sub-optimally controlled with metformin alone, according to most recent clinical practice guidelines. Because they are taken by mouth, rather than injected (like GLP-1 agonists), patients who are injection-averse may prefer these agents over the former. They may be considered first line in diabetic patients with cardiovascular disease, especially heart failure, as these medications have been shown to reduce the risk of hospitalization in patients with such comorbidities. Because they are not available as generic medications, however, cost may limit their feasibility for many patients. Furthermore, there has been growing evidence that the effectiveness and safety of this drug class could depend on genetic variability of the patients.
Examples include:
Dapagliflozin
Canagliflozin
Empagliflozin
Remogliflozin
The side effects of SGLT-2 inhibitors are derived directly from their mechanism of action; these include an increased risk of: ketoacidosis, urinary tract infections, candidal vulvovaginitis, and hypoglycemia.
Comparison
The following table compares some common anti-diabetic agents, generalizing classes, although there may be substantial variation in individual drugs of each class. When the table makes a comparison such as "lower risk" or "more convenient" the comparison is with the other drugs on the table.
Generic
Many anti-diabetes drugs are available as generics. These include:
Sulfonylureas – glimepiride, glipizide, glyburide
Biguanides – metformin
Thiazolidinediones (Tzd) – pioglitazone, Actos generic
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors – Acarbose
Meglitinides – nateglinide
Combination of sulfonylureas plus metformin – known by generic names of the two drugs
No generics are available for dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (Januvia, Onglyza), the glifozins, the incretins and various combinations.
Alternative Medicine
The effect of Ayurvedic treatments has been researched, however due to methodological flaws of studies it has not been possible to draw conclusion regarding efficacy of these treatments and there is insufficient evidence to recommend them.
References
Further reading
Anti-diabetic drugs | [
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253726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle%20Luke | Uncle Luke | Luther Roderick Campbell (born December 22, 1960), also known as Luke Skyywalker, Uncle Luke and simply Luke, is an American rapper, promoter, record executive, and actor. He was the leader of rap group 2 Live Crew, and starred in a short-lived show on VH1, Luke's Parental Advisory.
One of his songs, which used a parody of Roy Orbison's "Oh, Pretty Woman", was the subject of Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., which was argued in front of the U.S. Supreme Court. As a result, the Miami New Times described Campbell as "the man whose booty-shaking madness once made the U.S. Supreme Court stand up for free speech".
Early life
Luther Campbell was born on December 22, 1960, in Miami, Florida. His mother was a beautician with Bahamian ancestry, his father a custodian with Jamaican ancestry. He was the youngest of five sons and was named after Martin Luther King Jr.
After graduating high school in 1979, he was asked by his mother to leave the house every weekday from 8:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., regardless of employment.
Career
Early 1980s: Early career and discovering The 2 Live Crew
While working as a cook at Mt. Sinai Hospital in Miami Beach, Campbell was a concert promoter in Miami, bringing all the hot rap groups of the early 1980s to the city. In 1983, he enrolled in an eight-week study course at public radio station WDNA, learning basic audio editing and production techniques.
In 1984, he took notice of a single coming from California named "Revelation" by 2 Live Crew, which consisted of two rappers (Fresh Kid Ice and Amazing V) and a DJ (Mr. Mixx). The single was a smash hit on the South Florida club circuit, so he brought them from California to Miami for a performance. He took a special interest in the group and began managing them.
1986: Starting a music label, joining The 2 Live Crew, and group's breakthrough
The group eventually fully relocated to Florida without Amazing Vee and in 1986, 2 Live Crew recorded "Throw the D" with "Ghetto Bass" on the B-side, they went into a joint venture with Campbell to start Luke Skyyywalker Records, which was also his first MC name.
In April of that year Brother Marquis joined the group in Miami. Campbell gave The 2 Live Crew a record deal and officially joined the group. They exploded on the local scene with their gold-selling debut album, The 2 Live Crew Is What We Are (1986). This made Luke Skyyywalker and his bandmates rap superstars in south Florida.
1988–1991: Best selling albums and controversy
In 1988, the group released their second album, Move Somethin. It was certified Gold and featured the singles "Move Somethin'" and "Do Wah Diddy Diddy". The album improved on the charts from the previous album, making it to #68 on the Billboard 200 and #20 on the Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums chart.
Campbell decided to sell a separate clean version in addition to the explicit version of the album. A record store clerk in Alexander City, Alabama, was cited for selling a copy to an undercover police officer in 1988. It was the first time in the United States that a store owner was held liable for obscenity over music. The charges were dropped after a jury found the owner not guilty.
Their third album As Nasty As They Wanna Be (1989) became the group's largest seller, being certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. In 1990, the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida ruled that the album was legally obscene; this ruling was later overturned by the Eleventh Circuit. It is the first album in history to be deemed legally obscene. An obscenity trial followed, in which Henry Louis Gates, Jr., addressed the court on behalf of the defendants, all of whom were eventually acquitted.
Campbell was also infamous in the late 1980s and early 1990s for his association with the University of Miami Hurricanes football team. Campbell was alleged to have been behind what was referred to as a "pay-for-play" system, which involved cash rewards for acts such as scoring touchdowns and big hits, although Campbell has never actually donated to the University of Miami or its athletics department. In 1993, he also threatened to go public with various violations by the university's athletic department, specifically their football program, if Ryan Collins, a black player, wasn't named their starting quarterback for that season.
1990 saw the release of Banned in the U.S.A., originally credited as Campbell's solo album featuring 2 Live Crew and in later editions credited as a 2 Live Crew album. The album included the hits "Do the Bart" and the title track. It was also the very first release to bear the RIAA-standard Parental Advisory warning sticker. It peaked at number 20 on the Hot 100.
The eponymous title single is a reference to the decision in a court case that the group's album As Nasty As They Wanna Be was obscene. Bruce Springsteen granted the group permission to interpolate his song "Born in the U.S.A." for it.
Displeased over the decision of Florida Governor Bob Martinez who, on being asked to examine the album, decided it was obscene and recommended local law enforcement take action against it and over the subsequent action of Broward County, Florida, sheriff Nick Navarro, who arrested local record-store owners on obscenity charges for selling the group's albums and the subsequent arrest of members of the group on obscenity charges, the group included the song "Fuck Martinez", which also includes multiple repetitions of the phrase "fuck Navarro". The group found two other men with the same names, and had them sign releases, as they thought that this action would make it impossible for Martinez or Navarro to sue them.
That same year they released Live in Concert, the group's first and only live album, and their fifth record overall. It was released under the Effect subsidiary label of Luke Records, a move that was deemed necessary for the company to be able to release additional 2 Live Crew material outside of their distribution deal with Atlantic Records. The album peaked at number 46 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.
Sports Weekend: As Nasty as They Wanna Be, Pt. 2 (1991) is the sixth album overall and fifth studio album by the 2 Live Crew. A clean version was released later that same year titled Sports Weekend: As Clean As They Wanna Be Part II and was the sequel of As Clean As They Wanna Be. This would be the last studio album by all original members of the 2 Live Crew.
1992–2006: Subsequent success and solo projects
In 1992, I Got Shit on My Mind was released. It was his first official solo album without The 2 Live Crew. It peaked at #52 on the Billboard 200 chart and #20 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. It was the album that spawned the hit single "I Wanna Rock" (better known more prominently as "Doo-Doo Brown"), which became Campbell's signature song. Upon its initial release in 1992, the song did not garner much attention until the following year, when it became a runaway hit, and charted at 73 on the Hot 100.
June 8, 1993 saw the release of his third solo album In the Nude. It was another success, reaching #54 on the Billboard 200 and #8 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.
In 1994, he reunited with Fresh Kid Ice, and a local rapper named Verb made an album under the banner The New 2 Live Crew. It is the last 2 Live Crew related project to feature him. The album became a moderate hit, peaking at #52 on the Billboard 200 and #9 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, as well as producing two charting singles, "Hell, Yeah" and "You Go Girl" who were both made into music videos.
Freak for Life is Campbell's fourth album. It was released on July 12, 1994, through Luke Records. Freak for Life peaked at #174 on the Billboard 200 and #24 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, making it his lowest charting album at the time. One single found mild success, "It's Your Birthday" peaked at #33 on the Hot Rap Singles and #91 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks.
Also in 1994, Campbell co-founded Liberty City Optimists, an inner city youth sports program. One of his notable apprentices is Devonta Freeman, who went on to play college football for Florida State Seminoles, rival of the Hurricanes.
Campbell and his label, Luke Records, Inc. went bankrupt in 1995 and sold their catalogs to Joseph Weinberger and Lil' Joe Records, Inc. in 1996.
Uncle Luke was released on May 14, 1996, on Luther Campbell Music and was mainly produced by Darren "DJ Spin" Rudnick, and Rod XL, with additional production by Frankie Cutlass, Ice Cube and Doug E. Fresh. Uncle Luke was a success, peaking at #51 on the Billboard 200 and #8 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and spawned a single, "Scarred", which made it to #64 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #7 on the Hot Rap Singles, the song was also turned into a Video.
Changin' the Game is the sixth album released by Campbell. It was released on November 11, 1997, on the Island Black Music label in collaboration with Luke Records and featured production from Campbell, Rod XL, Lil' Jon and Louis "Ugly" Howard. Though the album was met with some positive reviews, the album was a flop and remains Campbell's lowest charting album, only making it to #49 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. However, the single "Raise the Roof" found great success peaking at #26 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #1 on the Hot Rap Singles. The song helped to popularize the arm gesture by the same name which involved repeatedly extending ones arms upwards with the palms of the hands also facing upwards. The song is also featured in the compilation album Jock Jams Volume 4.
In 1998 he played a supporting role in the movie Ride a comedy film written and directed by Millicent Shelton. It stars Malik Yoba, Fredro Starr, and Melissa De Sousa. Also that year he played a supporting role in Ice Cube' The Players Club. The comedy/drama film stars Bernie Mac, Monica Calhoun, Jamie Foxx, John Amos, A. J. Johnson, Alex Thomas, Charlie Murphy, Terrence Howard, Faizon Love and LisaRaye.
Somethin' Nasty is the seventh album released by Campbell. It was released on March 13, 2001, on Luke Records through Koch Records' short-lived independent label distribution unit, KELA (Koch Entertainment Label Alliance) and featured production by Campbell's former 2 Live Crew bandmate, Mr. Mixx, Daz Dillinger, Gorilla Tek, and Campbell himself. The album found minor success, peaking at #149 on the Billboard 200, #36 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and #6 on the Top Independent Albums.
Campbell's last release, My Life & Freaky Times, was released in March 2006, and peaked at 32 at the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. The first singles serviced to radio were "Holla at Cha Homeboy", featuring Pitbull & Petey Pablo, and the reggaeton-leaning "Pop That" by Plan B and Rey Chester Secretweapon.
That same year, Campbell appeared in Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories as DJ Luke for the hip-hop station Fresh 105 FM. Campbell hosts a sports talk show on Miami's 790 The Ticket with former football player Terry Kirby on Saturdays.
2007–present: Later work
Campbell has previously entered the adult film industry and cites on his MySpace page the need to clean up the "sometimes amateurish new courtship of Hip-Hop and Adult Entertainment". He produced the adult entertainment movie Luke's Bachelor Party in 2007.
In December 2007, Campbell launched The Luke Entertainment Group and took the company public trading under the symbol LKEN on Pink Sheets.
In 2008, he starred in his own short-lived show on VH1, Luke's Parental Advisory.
Campbell was interviewed about his involvement with the Miami Hurricanes for the documentary The U, which premiered December 12, 2009 as part of ESPN's 30 for 30 series.
In 2010, he briefly reunited with Fresh Kid Ice, Brother Marquis, and Mr. Mixx as the 2 Live Crew were honorees winners at the 2010 VH1 Hip-Hop Honors: The Dirty South Edition.
On February 2, 2011, Campbell announced his intention to run for mayor of Miami-Dade County on a platform that includes making housing projects safer, transparency in local government, and taxing strippers. He came in fourth in a field of 11 candidates, winning 11% of the vote.
By Thanksgiving 2014, Campbell reunited with 2 Live Crew (Fresh Kid Ice and Brother Marquis) for a series of shows until 2015.
Personal life
On February 18, 2009, Campbell was arrested for falling behind on child support payments. He became a columnist for the Miami New Times in February 2010. His column, Luke's Gospel, provides "a forum for his crazy-ass views on current events," which include politics, sports and entertainment. He is quoted on the web site as saying: "It's the perfect place for me. I am a free-speech guy. It's just a match made in Heaven. Can you believe it? Me turned loose on the world in New Times. Wow."
Discography
Studio albums
Compilation albums
1996: Greatest Hits
2000: Luke's Freak Fest 2000
2002: Scandalous: The All Star Compilation
Singles
References
External links
Uncle Luke's Gospel – His Personal Blog
Luther Campbell Interview
Luke Entertainment Group
1960 births
American people of Bahamian descent
American rappers of Jamaican descent
Florida Democrats
Hip hop record producers
Living people
Miami Hurricanes football
People from Pembroke Pines, Florida
Rappers from Miami
Southern hip hop musicians
21st-century American rappers | [
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253739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming%20Transformations%20for%20XML | Streaming Transformations for XML | Streaming Transformations for XML (STX) is an XML transformation language intended as a high-speed, low memory consumption alternative to XSLT version 1.0 and 2.0. Current work on XSLT 3.0 includes Streaming capabilities.
Overview
STX is an XML standard for efficient processing of stream-based XML. Basic XSLT is not well suited to stream based processing, and STX fills this niche.
Conventional XML processing involves loading the entire XML document into memory for use. In contrast, SAX streams XML events such as "open element," "close element," and "text node" so that other software can begin interpreting information immediately, before the end of the file is reached. Unfortunately some software can't effectively use XML fragments this way and must build up the whole document to begin processing. So is the case with XSLT. Because XSLT's XPath can select any node throughout the document it must have the entire document available in memory.
STX only allows queries immediately surrounding the current node so it can quickly start transforming and outputting SAX event nodes as they arrive. As it can discard nodes immediately after processing, memory use is significantly lower than that of XSLT. Having a limited query scope is a defining characteristic of STX.
This architectural decision intentionally marginalises STX as a niche language. Indeed, it would be wrong to say that STX is a general purpose transformation language; however, if your transformation needs can be met by STX then it's an efficient and smart choice.
Specifications
STX's query language is called STXPath and is based on XPath 2.0.
Implementations of STX are available in Java and Perl.
Similar projects
Unlike STX which is declared using an XML syntax, these two projects associate SAX events with callback functions:
Xineo OAX
SAX Adapter
External links
STX home page
An Introduction to Streaming Transformations for XML
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253741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTX | FTX | FTX has several uses including:
An XML transformation language
Fault-Tolerant UNIX, a Stratus Technologies operating system
Field Training eXercise, a military term
Ftx gene, a long non-coding RNA gene
FTX (company), a cryptocurrency exchange founded by Sam Bankman-Fried | [
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253743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HaXml | HaXml | HaXml is a collection of utilities for parsing, filtering, transforming, and generating XML documents using Haskell. Its basic facilities include:
a parser for XML,
a separate error-correcting parser for HTML,
an XML validator,
pretty-printers for XML and HTML.
External links
HaXml home page
Free software programmed in Haskell
XML parsers | [
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253746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Jack%20%28manga%29 | Black Jack (manga) | is an episodic Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Osamu Tezuka in the 1970s, dealing with the medical adventures of the title character, doctor Black Jack.
Black Jack consists of hundreds of short, self-contained stories that are typically about 20 pages long. Black Jack has also been animated into an OVA, two television series (directed by Satoshi Kuwahara and Tezuka's son Makoto Tezuka) and two films. Black Jack is Tezuka's second most famous manga, after Astro Boy. In 1977, it won the 1st Kodansha Manga Award for shōnen. About.com's Deb Aoki lists Black Jack as the best "re-issue of previously released material" of 2008. Osamu Dezaki's anime film adaptation, Black Jack: The Movie, won Best Animation Film at the 1996 Mainichi Film Awards. It has since then became Tezuka's second best selling manga with 45.64 million copies in circulation only in Japan.
Plot
Most of the stories involve Black Jack doing some good deed, for which he rarely gets recognition—often curing the poor and destitute for free, or teaching the arrogant a lesson in humility. They sometimes end with a good, humane person enduring hardship, often unavoidable death, to save others.
Characters
Main characters
Black Jack aka Kurō Hazama
First Appearance: Volume 1 Chapter 1: "Is there a Doctor?"
Voiced by: Yūko Mizutani
First Appearance: Volume 1 Chapter 3: "Teratogenous Cystoma"
Pinoko is Black Jack's loyal assistant/adopted daughter, who was actually a Teratogenous Cystoma (a growth more commonly known as a teratoma). As seen in Volume 1 Chapter 3: "Teratogenous Cystoma", she was a rare type of parasitic twin, living as part of a patients' body for eighteen years. When the presence of the twin was evidenced from a grotesque distortion in the host's body, Black Jack was contracted to extract and dispose of the growth. In the end, he found the cystoma, although a collection of uncontained organs and muscles, was complete in design if not form. Using life support to maintain them, Black Jack encased the assembly in an artificially constructed exoskeleton sized and shaped in the form of a female human child (around 7 or 8 years). Miraculously, the homunculus survived with all sensory reception intact. Her body is fully capable of walking, running, breathing and consuming/digesting food. Her face and body, though artificial, are remarkably human in design. Developing into a sentient though permanently child-sized life form, she was adopted by Black Jack as his informal ward. Pinoko always helps the doctor by doing household chores and by being his assistant in some of his operations. She often acts as comic relief in Black Jack, claiming to be a girl of eighteen years of age and married to Black Jack, despite her childlike appearance and personality. Her main value is companionship and source of affection for the ordinarily cold-natured doctor. When she started living with Black Jack, she couldn't cook, clean, or take care of the house; she couldn't even walk, let alone move. Eventually, she learned through hard effort. Being still a child, she occasionally makes accidental errors, such as using salt instead of sugar while preparing meals. Black Jack thinks of her as his daughter while she thinks of herself as his wife. Black Jack modeled her face after a cute girl he had seen in a medical journal who suffers from a lung ailment of unknown origin (from Volume 7 Chapter 4: "The Two Pinokos"). Pinoko's life has been put in danger a few times; she was kidnapped (Volume 2 Chapter 8: "Kidnapping", Volume 14 Chapter 2: "The Third Call", Volume 15 Chapter 1: "Treasure Island"), swallowed a potassium cyanide pill (Volume 4 Chapter 12: "Gas"), hit by a bullet (Volume 7 Chapter 10: "Black and White"), crashed a car (Volume 8 Chapter 8: "A Visit from a Killer"), and caught an aggressive form of leukemia (Volume 9 Chapter 2: "Pinoko Lives"). Pinoko says she is 18 years old because that is how long she was in her sister's body, but Black Jack says she is 0-years-old when he built her. Because of that, she sometimes acts like an adult while other times as a 7-year-old. She cries when she is injured or throws things when she is mad. She is sometimes seen drawing pictures, playing games, or reading children's stories. Throughout the whole manga series, she is never seen going to school, but has school-aged friends such as Hosuke Sharaku. She aspires to go to school like others her size, and thought about taking the high school entrance exam. Black Jack never tries to give Pinoko an 18-year-old body even though she wants to be bigger. She almost received one when she nearly died in Volume 9 Chapter 2: "Pinoko Lives". She sometimes talks in third-person, using "Pinoko" instead of "I", "me", or "my". Before Black Jack extracted her from her twin, she temporarily had the ability to telepathically communicate; this characteristic saved her life in that Black Jack recognized her body was alive. As well, in Volume 13 Chapter 4: "Teratoid Cystoma, Part 2", she was able to talk to a teratoid cystoma in a patient in her sleep. Pinoko's main form of comic relief is yelling アッチョンブリケ(Acchonburike)—a phrase that has no real meaning but taken as a rough equivalent to "Oh my goodness!" (often spelled "Omigewdness" in fansubs) or "I don't believe it!" (as translated when she appeared in an episode of the Astro Boy 80s series), in English—while pressing her cheeks together with her hands when something surprising happens. In the 2004 English dub of the anime, she shouts "Allamoby!" Also, she says Aramanchu!, which has no real meaning, but can be roughly translated as "okey dokey!". Her name is derived from Pinocchio.
Supporting characters
Pinoko's Twin Sister
First Appearance: Volume 1 Chapter 3: "Teratoid Cystoma"
Pinoko's twin sister's name is never revealed in the manga. She doesn't like the fact that her teratoid cystoma is actually her twin sister. She would always look away and say that that thing isn't her sister. Her face and background is never revealed until Volume 17 Chapter 10: "A Visiting Memory". Her second appearance is in Volume 9 Chapter 2: "Pinoko Lives" where she donates some of her blood to Pinoko. She expresses hope that this would be the last time she would have to be involved with her, as she is engaged to be married. Her third appearance is in Volume 17 Chapter 10: "A Visiting Memory" where her face and background are finally revealed. Dr. Crab tells Black Jack that she is actually the daughter of an important Buddhist line. She was constrained by pedigree and form. The family is always churning in drama, and she ended up deeply depressed. Then she tries to commit suicide by jumping from the third floor of her house. She survived and, with a huge amount of cash and amnesia, ended up at Black Jack's house. Pinoko and her had a sisterly bond despite neither knowing the identity of the other. When she saw Dr. Crab, her memories returned and she quickly departed, having remembered the nature of her relationship to Pinoko. Pinoko didn't know who she really was, Black Jack did.
Voiced by: Osamu Saka
First Appearance: Volume 1 Chapter 5: "Sometimes like Pearls"
The reason why Black Jack pursued a career in medicine is because of Dr. Honma, his mentor and life-saver, who acted as the young boy's father-figure. Kagemitsu Hazama, Black Jack's real father, left his wife and son to live in Macau with his new wife Renka. (The reasons for Kagemitsu's behavior are later explained in the Black Jack 21 series). As a child, Black Jack suffered from paralysis in all four limbs and spent many lonely years in a wheelchair until he regained the use of them. Dr. Honma wrote a book about this miracle, as depicted in Volume 1 Chapter 11: "The Legs of an Ant".
The medical community accused him of conducting a live experiment on a patient with a rare "Honma's Hematoma" and killed the patient. He was then forced to retire. When he died, Black Jack went through Dr. Honma's old files and found a letter addressed to him. Dr. Honma wanted Black Jack to find out the mystery of "Honma's Hematoma", but until he solve the mystery, to not operate on any patients who have it. Lumps of blood in the heart will form, even after many surgeries to get rid of them, they will come back. Because of that, many patients die of weak hearts. In Volume 13 Chapter 9: "Honma's Hematoma", Black Jack found the cure. The patient's heart will be replaced with an artificial heart. But it turns out that "Honma's Hematoma" is a disease caused by patients who already have artificial hearts. Dr. Honma dies of old age in the episode four of Black Jack 4 Miracles of Life "Just like a Pearl" after a failed surgical attempt to revive him. However, he plays an important role in Black Jack 21, since he had once worked at the "Noir Project". In the manga, he dies in Volume 1 Chapter 5: "Sometimes like Pearls." He is seen in a dream in Volume 11 Chapter 14: "The SL Called Life". Dr. Honma is "played" by Saruta, a member of Tezuka's "star system" who appears in multiple volumes of Tezuka's Phoenix and other manga stories by Tezuka.
First Appearance: Volume 1 Chapter 6: "Confluence"
Megumi Kisaragi is Black Jack's tragic love, whom he met and courted during their internship. Her first appearance was in Volume 1 Chapter 6: "Confluence" in the manga. She stayed up late at work and cared more about the patients than everyone else. She discovered that Kuroo Hazama had been the one looking after her whenever she walked alone at night. Later, she is revealed to have ovarian cancer, and is afraid to tell Black Jack because of her fear that having these parts removed will interfere with their relationship. Nevertheless, the couple confesses their love before the operation while Megumi is "still a woman" (in reality, a hysterectomy or oophorectomy can affect sexual function, but the side effects associated with these procedures are not as extreme as those depicted in this story).
Afterwards, Megumi changed her name to Kei, a male name, and started living her life as a man, treating sick patients as a ship's doctor.
She is seen again in Volume 11 Chapter 14: "The SL Called Life" on the same train as Black Jack.
First Appearance: Volume 1 Chapter 9: "Black Queen"
First making her appearance in Volume 1 Chapter 9: "Black Queen", Kuwata Konomi was a doctor specializing in amputations, thought to be heartless by many, earning her the nickname 'Black Queen' in the medical world. She is engaged to Rock (referred to as Makube Rokuro in the TV series, probably to make up for the lack of "Carved Seal" episode), but her being infamous causes troubles for the couple. She met Black Jack, drunk, in a bar, naming herself as the Black Queen. The former is impressed by their similarities and falls in love with her, but he would eventually discover that Rock was her fiancé.
She is seen again two years after her first appearance, now in Volume 5 Chapter 5: "The Last Train". Her name is now Konomi Suzuki, after she married Rock. Half a year after Rock's surgery, they got married. She got fired and left for a plane to meet her husband.
Takashi
Voiced by: Kazuki Yao
First Appearance: Volume 2 Chapter 7: "Where Art Thou, Friend?"
Takashi grafted some of his skin to Black Jack when they were younger because Black Jack would always lend him his notes and help him with his homework. He donated 20 cm x 20 cm skin from his right buttock. Because he was of a mixed blood, half-African and half-Japanese, the skin that was surgically sewn onto Black Jack's face is tan. By the time Black Jack could remove the bandages from his body, Takashi had moved away. Years past and Black Jack started searching for Takashi. Takashi gave an unknown man a letter to deliver to Black Jack in Algiers. The letter explains that Takashi wanted to become a doctor who heals the earth but couldn't when he was slain in Algiers. He was a member of an environmentalist group which strongly opposed plans to build nuclear power plants in Africa. Now the skin on Black Jack's left side of his face became a memento. Black Jack considers him a friend.
Maestro Morozoff
Voiced by Kaneta Kimotsuki
First Appearance: Volume 2 Chapter 11: "Stradivarius"
Maestro Morozoff is a world-famous violinist who sat beside Black Jack on a plane ride from Tokyo, using a route through the North Pole. The passengers on board stayed in an Eskimo village until the blizzard died down and a rescue team could come. He considers his violin to be his son. When he went out to search for his violin, he caught a severe case of frostbite. Because Black Jack left his medical equipments in the plane and the blizzard snowed in the door, Black Jack couldn't do anything. Realizing he couldn't play anymore when he saw his dead fingers on a tray, Morozoff decided to retire. When the blizzard came to an end, they buried his fingers near the village. When they left, the couple that let the passengers stay, found the violin. They decided to bury it with Morozoff's fingers.
Voiced by: Nachi Nozawa
First Appearance: Volume 2 Chapter 14: "The Blind Acupuncturist"
Biwamaru is a wandering doctor who specializes in acupuncture. He made his first appearance in Volume 2 Chapter 14: "The Blind Acupuncturist" in the manga and episode 51 in the anime. He is blind, but he can walk on his own to many places, and goes wandering everywhere where his sensitive nose takes him, since he is able to smell out the whereabouts of people who are sick. He cures his patients without accepting any money in return, making him homeless. Biwamaru carries a walking stick and a huge purse-like bag with his medical equipment. He dislikes operations, saying that humans are not supposed to be operated on too many times and should depend on the healing power of their own bodies.
Biwamaru believes that his needle techniques are the solution to any medical problem. He often cures Black Jack's patients, causing Black Jack to feel unhappy and annoyed. One day he treated a patient of Black Jack's, a child; but he made a terrible mistake. He had thought that his needle techniques were perfect, but what he didn't know was that the small child had a fear of needles, worsening her condition. Black Jack was furious and intended to show the proud Biwamaru his mistake. Later, Biwamaru cured Black Jack's large intestine, which Black Jack has attempted to treat through surgery, by piercing a needle into his foot in return for Black Jack's kindness in helping him fix his error with the patient.
He is seen again in Volume 5 Chapter 7: "Two at the Baths" in the Pitbottom Hot Springs. When he accompanied Black Jack to a skilled swordsmith by the name of Hyo Jisai, the swordsmith knew that he needled 10,000 people, 200 of which are injured.
First Appearance: Volume 3 Chapter 9: "Two Dark Doctors"
Dr. Kiriko, the "death doctor" ("Reaper's Avatar" in the manga), is another shadowy doctor, traveling the world like Black Jack. He wears an eye patch covering his left eye. When Kiriko was a military doctor, he saw many patients in great pain, and came to practice euthanasia. He often appears in the manga, attempting to put down terminally ill patients whom Black Jack wants to save. He is so dedicated to euthanasia that he once attempted to commit suicide when he contracted a rare, infectious disease. Though arch-rivals, Kiriko and Black Jack have been in situations where they had to cooperate in order to survive or to accomplish a task, and manage to do so with good results. Whenever he is confronted by Black Jack after a successful operation which avoided the death alternative, Kiriko simply replies with something along the lines of "I'm a doctor as well, you know." He only gives people death if they ask for it or the chances of survival is 0%, no suicide.
He is seen a second time in Volume 5 Chapter 6: "There was a Valve!", when he tries to kill yet another patient, which is his father who has pneumothorax for five years. Dr. Kiriko couldn't find the hole until Black Jack pumped oxygen into his trachea but it was hopeless. Dr. Kiriko injected poison into his system. He died in the operating room.
He is seen yet again in Volume 5 Chapter 10: "99% Water" on an uninhabited island; he has gumma. Yuri brought Black Jack to the island to find out how to cure him. Black Jack found out that gumma was caused by an amoeba, similar to a jellyfish, which consists of 99.9% water. You have to freeze it to see it.
He made another appearance in Volume 6 Chapter 14: "Terror Virus" in the manga.
He is seen a fifth time in Volume 8 Chapter 10:"One Hour to Death" when he bought a new drug called cardiotoxin. Anyone who drinks it will fall asleep, then their heartbeat will slow down and, in one hour, die.
He is seen for the sixth time in Volume 11 Chapter 14: "The SL Called Life" on the same train as Black Jack.
7th time in Volume 13 Chapter 6: "A Fussy Suicide"
8th time in Volume 14 Chapter 6: "Urashima"
In the Clinical Chart OVA series, Dr. Kiriko is introduced only as Mozart, in homage to his affinity for classical music. In this OVA, it is also shown that Kiriko does not charge immense amounts of money like Black Jack, nor did he consider his style of treatment as a 'solution to all sicknesses,' as demonstrated by his act of charity when he provided basic nutrients and some food to a patient suffering from what appeared to be severe anorexia at one point.
In the same series of OVA, it is shown that he travels by motorcycle and has proficiency in mechanics and music.
Voiced by: Kōsei Tomita
First Appearance: Volume 4 Chapter 7: "Tetsu of the Yamanote Line"
Tetsu is a pickpocket. He could pickpocket anyone on the Yamanote Line and they wouldn't know it. He can tell how much money people are holding from the nervous look in their eyes. The inspector in charge of him kept an eye on him, to catch him in action, and arrest him. When Tetsu followed a man, who he thinks have a lot of money, through the line, he ended up being surround by his gang. They took him to a back alley and cut off four of his fingers. The inspector, who was following him, found him in the alley. He took him to the hospital and had Black Jack operate on Tetsu. The inspector wanted Tetsu's fingers to be restored to before the accident, to how nimble they were. His fingers were fully restored when he showed the inspector his stole badge, pen, and wallet. Then they went out to drink.
His second appearance is in Volume 11 Chapter 14: "The SL Called Life" when he is the conductor of an SL train.
In the anime, he has a steady role as the owner of Tom's, a coffee shop that Black Jack frequents. Owing his gratitude to Jotaro Honma, he fosters Kumiko and treats her as his daughter. In the past, he was a nameless magician who took up pickpocketing.
Tetsu is "played" by Shunsaku Ban, a member of Tezuka's "star system" who appears in several manga stories by Tezuka.
Voiced by: Makoto Ishii
First Appearance: Volume 4 Chapter 14: "Thieving Dog"
Largo was a stray dog found by Pinoko, Wato, and Sharaku during a car accident, in "Thieving Dog". Contrary to the manga, she is saved after an earthquake caused Black Jack's house to collapse on top of her, and she becomes his pet dog. She is named Largo for her lethargic nature, but she compensates with her sharp senses in detecting danger.
In the manga, she stole an umbrella from a stranger, causing her to get run over by a truck. Black Jack and Pinoko found her lying on the road. Black Jack refused to treat her but with Pinoko's screams, he treated her. Now she lives in a box, decorated by Pinoko, on the porch. She is an extremely lazy dog who uses a straw to drink water and takes two days to fetch the newspaper. It was her instinct as a dog, when she stole a necklace given to Black Jack by the President of Republic of Cainan, to force Black Jack to chase her with the necklace out of the house. Black Jack caught her and made her return it to his house. When she went into the house, a high magnitude earthquake shook his house. She is an extremely smart dog who stole something from someone to prevent them from dying from a fallen debris. She dies from a ceiling beam falling on top of her.
Yuri
First Appearance: Volume 5 Chapter 6: "There was a Valve!"
Yuri is Dr. Kiriko's sister. She is a kind girl who tries to prevent her brother from killing people. When secretly went to Black Jack to have him heal her father. In the end, Dr. Kiriko poisoned him.
She is seen again in Volume 5 Chapter 10: "99% Water" in Black Jack's house, to escort him to Dr. Kiriko to an uninhabited island because he has gumma.
Voiced by: Mako Hyoudou
First Appearance: Volume 7 Chapter 5: "Unexploded Bomb"
Mio Hazama was Black Jack's mother. She died after the incident which was explained in Volume 7 Chapter 5: "Unexploded Bomb". Her husband left her for another woman. Black Jack was filled with murderous attempts while she wept. Before she died, she told Black Jack to forgive his father, because she already knew the reason why his husband left them, which was mentioned in Volume 10 Chapter 2: "The Mask Chosen".
Kagemitsu Hazama
First Appearance: Volume 10 Chapter 2: "The Mask Chosen"
Kagemitsu Hazama is Black Jack's father. He left his wife and son after the incident which was explained in Volume 7 Chapter 5: "Unexploded Bomb" and wasn't heard from for 20 years. Later he flew to Macau, China with his new wife. But the reasons for Kagemitsu's behaviour is later explained in the Black Jack 21 series. In the manga, Volume 10 Chapter 2: "The Mask Chosen", he asks Black Jack to go to Aoyama to cure his second wife of Hansen's disease. Kagemitsu immediately reveals that he had an ulterior motive for summoning his son: because Hansen's disease had made Reika sterile, Kagemitsu wished to have Kurō live with them and become the heir to his fortune. When Black Jack asked him if he still loved Mio, he said no and only loves Reika.
His second appearance was in Volume 10 Chapter 8: "Flesh and Blood". He had a stroke and ended up in a coma for three days. He later dies and his son takes his body back to Japan to be buried with Mio as a final revenge against his father.
Reika Hazama
First Appearance: Volume 10 Chapter 2: "The Mask Chosen"
Reika Hazama is Kagemitsu Hazama's second wife and Black Jack's stepmother. She met Kagemitsu in Macao when he came for work. They started living together and he never went back to Japan. In Volume 10 Chapter 2: "The Mask Chosen", she had Hansen's disease and Black Jack surgically repaired her face. Out of revenge for Kagamitsu for not loving Mio, Black Jack gave her the face of his ex-wife, Mio.
Her second appearance was in Volume 10 Chapter 8: "Flesh and Blood". She called Black Jack to help Kagemitsu wake up from a coma but, instead, he dies. The reader later finds out that she sent Black Jack to come to Macao to then later kidnap him. She wanted Shoren to inherit Kagemitsu's legacy but Black Jack was in the way. Shoren was disgusted to learn that Reika would do something so deplorable, especially when she prevented Black Jack seeing his father's passing. In the end, Shoren disowns Reika and is killed by the same assassins Reika had hired and her stepson has severed all ties with her, leaving her alone in the world.
Ushigoro
Voiced by: Takeshi Aono
First Appearance: Volume 10 Chapter 4: "Unfinished House"
Ushigoro was the carpenter who built Black Jack's house before he was the owner. Before Black Jack moved in, the previous owner asked Ushigoro to build the house. He always leaves his trademark hand print on the places he built; if the owner doesn't like it, he leaves it in the attic. He told Black Jack, who was right out of med school, that he built the house in '32. From a blood sample, Black Jack was able to diagnose that Ushigoro has late-stage leukemia. Black Jack helped him build an operation room and a patient room. Even with leukemia, he pushes himself to finish building the house. The reason how he has leukemia was from the radiation at Hiroshima. He never noticed it for 30 years until a few years ago. Ushigoro became Black Jack's first patient at the new clinic. But since Black Jack was fresh out of med school, the leukemia was too much for him. He told Ushigoro to go to a large hospital; and each made a promise – Ushigoro will come back and finish the construction while Black Jack will become the world's best doctor. Even with Pinoko around, Black Jack's promise to Ushigoro is still kept.
Voiced by: Yumi Touma
First Appearance: Volume 10 Chapter 8: "Flesh and Blood"
In the manga, her name is Shoren. She is Black Jack's half-sister. The daughter of Kagemitsu Hazama and Reika. In the manga version, when she finds out what her mother did to Black Jack in Volume 10 Chapter 8: "Flesh and Blood", she spat on her and told her servants to deliver her father's corpse to Black Jack. At first she despises Black Jack since she thought he only came for the inheritance but after finding out the truth, she secretly forgave him. She later dies saving Black Jack from a pair of assassins her mother hired, but not before she and her half-brother wordlessly reconcile.
In the anime, Black Jack has two sisters. The first one is named Shoren and she plays a similar role to her manga counterpart, where she shuns Black Jack and believes he is after their money and sends him his father's corpse in exchange he leave their family alone. Unlike her manga counterpart, she is not sympathetic to him. The other sister is named Benitokage. She is raised by her grandfather, Zen Mantoku as an assassin to silence him and Pinoco everywhere he went for the sake of finding out the truth of the incident that happened during the bombing disaster on the mine field. She becomes increasingly obsessed with killing him since he always manages to escape and even disobeys orders to leave him alone as she claims it is her way of life to end her target. However, while obsessed with killing him, she ends up learning that she is his half brother taken from her parents by her grandfather due to his dislike for his son in law and she sacrifices herself to save him. she is similar to the manga counterpart in that she sacrifices herself to save Black Jack at the cost of her own life and the two reconcile at her death.
Guffaw
First Appearance: Volume 12 Chapter 13: "Prone to Laughter"
Guffaw is a boy who went to the same school as Black Jack. In the school, he is always seen laughing and everyone knows it. Everyone who heard it, laugh themselves, except Black Jack. He didn't like how Guffaw would laugh even when his parents left one night and committed suicide in a car. There was something about him that brought them together. One day when Black Jack visits him, Guffaw told him that he wanted to be a manga artist, so anyone who reads it will laugh. Later that night, the debt collectors came for his parents. Thinking that his parents secretly came home and leave, they attacked Guffaw. Black Jack threw one of his darts at one of the collectors. That person used it to stab Guffaw in the throat. He ended up getting cyanosis and eventually transferred far away. Laughter in the school faded away. Later, Black Jack studied medicine at a university and, after 8 years since the accident, he went to search for Guffaw. When Black Jack found him in the sanatorium, he still has the recurring effect of cyanosis. Wanting Guffaw to laugh again, Black Jack operated on him. The surgery was a success until a secondary infection occurred. Knowing his end was nearing, Guffaw laughed until he could laugh no more. Then he died.
Voiced by: Akiko Kawase
First Appearance: Volume 14 Chapter 4: "Full-Moon Disease"
In the manga, her name is Kumi Yamashita. She is Dr. Jotaro Honma's 18-year-old daughter. She used to work at a coffee shop until she came down with Cushing's Syndrome or known as Full-Moon Disease. Her ex-fiancée, Shoichi Marugiri, dumped her because of it. Black Jack was able to find her and surgically repair her. Her ex-fiancée came back wanting to marry again but Black Jack got rid of him. Other than her, Black Jack is the only one who visits Dr. Honma's grave.
In the anime, her name is Kumiko Honma. She is a character original to the TV series, she is an immigrant from China who transferred to Oana Senior High School. The daughter of Dr. Honma, whose life was saved by a teen Black Jack when she was a little girl. She works in Black Jack's favorite café and keeps an Inter Generational Friendship with him. Contrary to her best friend Wato, Kumiko has an introverted and attentive personality. For trying to save her father, healing Tetsu's fingers, and restoring her eyesight, she supports Black Jack. In the 2004 series she has glaucoma, so she has to get a cornea transplant to save her eyesight.
Dr. Yamadano
First Appearance: Volume 1 Chapter 12: "Two Loves"
Dr. Yamadano is a good friend of Black Jack. He sometimes calls Black Jack to help him on difficult surgeries. He is usually seen wearing a monocle on his left eye, sometimes right.
He is seen for the second time in Volume 2 Chapter 14: "The Blind Acupuncturist"
3rd time in Volume 5 Chapter 11: "The Helper"
4th time in Volume 9 Chapter 11: "Gift to the Future"
5th time in Volume 11 Chapter 1: "Spasm"
6th time in Volume 14 Chapter 4: "Full-Moon Disease"
7th time in Volume 14 Chapter 13: "Black Jack Disease"
8th time in Volume 15 Chapter 10: "A Surgeon Lives for Music".
9th time in Volume 16 Chapter 2: "Miyuki and Ben"
10th time in Volume 17 Chapter 7: "Money! Money! Money!"
Osamu Tezuka is a character that is the self caricature of the main author of Black Jack. Tezuka often inserted himself into his works and is distinguishable by his small round nose and round trimmed glasses and short brown hair. In the manga he sometimes appears in cameos as himself or in humorous situations or to break the fourth wall. In the anime, he appears as a doctor and friend of Black Jack, often referring patients with difficult to operate diseases to Black Jack and Black Jack tends to respect and listen to his opinion. He appears more often in the anime than manga (he does appear in the manga at least once as a doctor but more often than not appears as himself).
Inspector Tomobiki
Voiced by: Kenji Utsumi
Inspector Tomobiki is an inspector with a minor role in the manga and a slightly more recurring role in the anime. He is an inspector and appears in a couple of other Osamu Tezuka's works known under the name Acetylene Lamp. He is characteristic for having a candle appear on the back of his head when he has an idea. He mainly sets out to arrest Black Jack for not having a license, but tends to fail each time. In the manga, he forces Black Jack to operate on Tetsu, a pickpocket after his fingers are cut off so that way the inspector can finally catch the pickpocket in the act of stealing and arrest him. Later, he tries to arrest Black Jack because Black Jack failed to cure his son of a disease but instead is commissioned to watch over Black Jack and makes sure he takes a test to see if he is qualified to have a license. He is tasked to operate on a boy with a skin disorder and succeeds, and it turns out the child is the inspector's son. However, Black Jack is still unable to receive his license and the inspector walks away in shame when seeing Black Jack as he had previously accused him of not being able to heal his son. The anime mainly has him keeping the same role though in Black Jack 21 he helps temporarily hide Black Jack by using his authority to proclaim Black Jack is dead. He appears briefly in the Black Jack: Two Doctors of Darkness Movie trying to find the kidnapped Black Jack. He also appears infrequently in the OVAs (mainly OVAs 4 and 9) having moved to Juvenile department and having a more friendly relationship with Black Jack.
Voiced by: Ryōko Ono
Chiyoko Wato is a character not seen in the manga. A character adapted from The Three-Eyed One, Wato is the captain of kendo club in Ooana Senior High School, and is notorious for her tardiness. With a strong sense of justice, she is an outspoken tomboy, a contrast to her best friend Kumiko. Unlike in The Three-Eyed One, where she is a friend and love interest to Sharaku, in the animated version of Black Jack, Wato and Sharaku are siblings. After Black Jack heals Sharaku's illness in "The Missing Needle", Wato becomes a positive supporter and friend of the doctor. Her father, Dr. Kenmochi, is an archaeologist who works around South Asia.
Voiced by: Yūko Satō
Hosuke Sharaku is a character not seen in the manga. Sharaku is a schoolboy attending Shiokou Junior High School. He is a gentle boy who takes interest in the supernatural, as seen in "Invaders from Space". Since "The Missing Needle", wherein Black Jack healed him, he has been Pinoko's best friend and her partner-in-crime when it comes to comic relief. He is known to have a limitless memory of random information, yet does terribly in school.
Sharaku is a member of Tezuka's "star system" and appears in several manga stories by Tezuka. His primary manga is The Three-Eyed One, where he is the main character, alongside Wato Chiyoko.
Zen Mantoku
Voiced by: Seiji Matsuyama
Zen Mantoku is a character not seen in the manga. The true main antagonist in the Black Jack 21 series as he is the one who caused the beach explosion that injured Black Jack and his mother. He is also the one who framed Jotaro Honma by using the medical community to accuse him of human experimentation and forced him to retire. Afterwards, he used his partners as test subjects by improving their blood vessel by using the phoenix diseases in hopes of living for eternity. However, it all failed and they died one by one following by the story. He is the one, who separated the Renka older daughter for the sake to train her to become one of the most deadly assassin. Eventually, he is caused by the phoenix diseases throughout the world for the benefit of his organization around the globe. In the end, his final fate ended up by Renka shot him in his head and died.
Dr. White
Dr. White is a character not seen in the manga. Most technology doctors hired by the Japanese World Medicinal Organization with his evolution Machine to cure all the illness.
Patrick
A character from Black Jack OVA: Miracle in San Mérida.
A millionaire young man on a mission to find his true identity, due only being adopted by a rich American couple, who later died. He suffers from frequent blood ruptures on his skin. He also wanted to know someone who knew what and why he always dream a mother-and-daughter, who always mutter San Mérida on his dreams. He later knew who the doctor is, a man who reduced himself to being caretaker of a memorial for victims of San Mérida war and the one who operated him, flaying and grafting the skin of a dying woman who lost her daughter by government strafing run. The man died after the government killed him. He left San Mérida knowing why.
Media
Manga
The manga series was first serialized from 1973 to 1983. Each volume was divided into 12 to 15 chapters; each chapter is about 20-some pages long. The first episode was called "I Need a Doctor!", and the last episode was called "A Question of Priority". Most of the manga series had never been directly adapted into anime form until a Black Jack Special was aired in 2003, thus initiating the Black Jack anime series in 2004, and the Black Jack 21 series in 2006.
Vertical Inc. has released translated volumes of the series in the United States, starting with Vol. 1 in September 2008 and finishing with Vol. 17 in November 2011. These collected volumes include a dozen or so stories each in the original unflipped format, and the stories will be published in the same order as the Japanese Black Jack collections. Vertical has also released limited editions of the first three volumes that include bonus stories not printed in any other edition.
Two translated volumes had been previously published by Viz Communications, but those editions are now out of print.
There is also a series called Black Jack ALIVE which was published in 2005, this series was created from numerous artists adding stories onto the original series. A chapter from this series was published in the last volume of "Magetsukan Kitan". In 2013, he is celebrating his 40 anniversary since his first appearance, along with Princess Knight's 60th, and Astro boy's 50th.
A manga called Say Hello to Black Jack by Shūhō Satō has no connection with the Black Jack series, along with its sequel Shin Black Jack ni Yoroshiku.
A 2005 remake of the series was titled Black Jack – Kuroi Ishi.
Another manga called Black Jack NEO was published by a different author. It may be another remake. Not much information is known.
Young Black Jack is another manga, written by Yoshiaki Tabata and illustrated by Yūgo Ōkumaby, featuring Tezuka characters, that started in 2011. The story follows Black Jack as a medical student in the 1960s.
Anime
The first televised appearance of Black Jack was in the 1980 remake of Tetsuwan Atom. Episode 27 of Astro Boy brought together three separate Tezuka creations, as Astro, Uran, Doctor Roget (Black Jack) and Penny (Pinoko) travel back through time to 15th Century Molavia (Silverland). In this storyline, Black Jack performs a life-saving operation on a critically injured Princess Sapphire (from Ribbon no Kishi), while Astro and Uran fend off Gor, a malevolent magician bent on usurping the throne. Characteristically, Roget/Black Jack refuses to operate until he is offered the key to the treasury vault, but later takes only one commemorative coin from the grateful court (which turns out to be worth $200,000,000 when he returns to Astro's time).
Black Jack also made a cameo appearance in the theatrical film Phoenix 2772 as an interstellar prison warden, and is one of the main characters of the TV movie One Million-Year Trip: Bandar Book, in which he plays the role of a space pirate, somehow similar in concept to Leiji Matsumoto's Captain Harlock.
OVA
In 1992, Tezuka's protégé Osamu Dezaki directed a theatrical film and a ten OVA series which were released between 1993 and 2000. Six OVAs, along with the film, were originally only available in dub-only VHS form in North America, but the ten OVAs have since been released on bilingual Region 1 DVD. Wizard selected the series as their "Anime Pick of the Month" for August 1997, calling it "one of the darkest and hardest-hitting made-for-video series of recent years." A further two OVAs were released in 2011 and were referred to as Black Jack Final. In Black Jack Final Osami Dezaki was posthumously credited as honorary director.
TV series
In 2003, a four-episode TV promotional special aired called Black Jack Special: The 4 Miracles of Life.
From October 11, 2004, through to March 6, 2006, an original television series was aired called Black Jack, featuring 61 episodes. The series is an adaptation of Tezuka's original manga. The TV show can currently be viewed for free on Viki (website) and Crunchyroll. Anime Sols has successfully crowd-funded the first 26 episodes of it for DVD release, starting from Episode 0. Right Stuf and Crunchyroll are currently selling extra copies of the first boxset through their website.
From April 10, 2006, through to September 4 of the same year, a sequel series of seventeen episodes was aired, called Black Jack 21 (Black Jack for the 21st century). Adapted from standalone manga chapters, Black Jack 21 features an all-new overarching story line involving Jack's father and a powerful mysterious organization who try to assassinate Jack. Though the Black Jack 21 series has never been licensed in the U.S., there are several subtitled versions available on the internet.
The previous two anime, Black Jack and Black Jack 21, depart somewhat from the manga by changing the setting to the early 2000s, allowing for flat-screen LCD computer displays and other items not present in the 1973–83 manga. The episodes are based on chapters from the Black Jack manga, either in part or full, sometimes combining two stories in one episode, and also slightly modified to lighten stories' serious issues and overtones. Background and supporting characters such as Largo the dog, Wato, Sharaku and Hige were added and used for comic relief or to support Pinoko when the doctor was not present.
On October 1, 2015, a twelve episode anime entitled Young Black Jack began to air, about Black Jack's adventures as a medical student. It is based on the November 2011 and ongoing spin-off manga of the same title written by Yoshiaki Tabata and illustrated by Yūgo Ōkuma. More closely following the timeline of the original 1973–83 manga by Osamu Tezuka, the new anime is however somewhat discontinuous with the 2004 anime.
While Young Black Jack is set in the late 1960s against the backdrop of activism against the Vietnam War, the 2004 anime is set in the early 2000s, representing nearly a 40-year time difference, even though Black Jack appears to have aged less than 10 years between them.
ONA
An ONA adaptation of comprising 12 episodes also known as Black Jack Internet or Black Jack Flash was released in 2001–2002 and only available via a subscription online download. The series was created using Flash animation which had the unique "Zapping system" and "Action system". The "Zapping system" allowed gave the viewer an option to change the camera viewpoint and the "Action system" was used mostly for comical effect.
Films
In 1996, two films of the series were made: the first Black Jack: The Movie, a full-length feature, and the second Black Jack: Capital Transfer To Heian, a special 10-minute short.
In December 2005, a third film entitled Black Jack: The Two Doctors of Darkness was released. The film describes Black Jack's attempts to prevent a group known as the Ghost of Icarus from starting a widespread, biological war which could wipe out humanity, while working alongside the infamous Dr. Kiriko.
Shorts
A 7-minute short called Dr. Pinoko no Mori no Bōken was shown before Black Jack: The Two Doctors of Darkness.
Live-action
The first live-action adaptation of a Black Jack story was the 1977 film Hitomi no naka no houmonsha (瞳の中の訪問者 – "The Visitor in the Eye" AKA "The Eye's Visitor"), directed by Hausu director Nobuhiko Ôbayashi and starring Jō Shishido as Blackjack. Although the whole film is live-action, the opening titles are animated in Tezuka's signature style.
In 1981 started the TV drama series Kayama Yuzo no Blackjack, which, as the title suggests, stars actor Yūzō Kayama as Blackjack. In this version, Blackjack's origin story is changed and he is given a secret identity as Miro Ban do, a businessman and owner of an art gallery. The series aired on TV Asahi from January 8, to April 9, 1981, and lasted 13 episodes.
In 1996, three Black Jack direct-to-video films were released by Bandai Visual, starring Daisuke Ryu as Black Jack and Honami Tajima as Pinoko.
In 2000–2001, a series of three made-for-TV movies were aired on the TBS (Tokyo Broadcasting System) TV channel. They were directed by Yukihiko Tsutsumi and starred Masahiro Motoki as Blackjack.
Young Black Jack (ヤング ブラック・ジャック) is a reinvention of Black Jack's origin story, starring Masaki Okada as a young Kurō Hazama, before he became known as Black Jack. It started airing on April 23, 2011.
Chinese film production company Beijing Enlight Media is developing a live-action internet film series adaptation of Black Jack with 13 films planned and also a theatrical feature film.
Appearances in other media
An anime version of the character was seen in an ad teaming up with Dr. House from House for the promotion of the latter in Japan. Black Jack also appears as a playable character in the 2019 puzzle game Crystal Crisis.
Animoca Brands added Black Jack as well as Pinoko and Dr. Kiriko as playable characters to its game Crazy Defense Heroes in 2020.
Museum
Between March 3 – June 27, 2016, the Osamu Tezuka Manga Museum located in Takarazuka City, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan, sponsored an art exhibit focused on the "Heroines of Osamu Tezuka". It highlighted the leading ladies of Tezuka's comics, such as Sapphire of Princess Knight and Pinoko of Black Jack.
See also
Osamu Tezuka's Star System
Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde
Notes
References
External links
Official Black Jack TV website
Official Black Jack Page at publisher Vertical, Inc.
"Translated Manga Pick of the Month" -(J-pop.com)
Macias, Patrick. "Black Jack." Animerica.
eOne Picks Up Manga ‘Black Jack’ For TV Series
Hitomi no naka no houmonsha on ImDB
1973 manga
1993 anime OVAs
2004 anime television series debuts
2005 anime films
2006 anime television series debuts
Akita Shoten manga
AZN Television original programming
Brain transplantation in fiction
Central Park Media
Discotek Media
Manga adapted into films
Medical anime and manga
Japanese medical television series
Odex
Osamu Tezuka anime
Osamu Tezuka manga
Shōnen manga
Suspense anime and manga
Tezuka Productions
Vertical (publisher) titles
Viz Media manga
Winner of Kodansha Manga Award (Shōnen)
Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation original programming
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253747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chukchi%20language | Chukchi language | Chukchi , also known as Chukot, is a Chukotko–Kamchatkan language spoken by the Chukchi people in the easternmost extremity of Siberia, mainly in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. According to the 2002 census, about 7,000 of the 15,700 Chukchi people speak Chukchi; knowledge of the language is decreasing, and most Chukchi now speak Russian (fewer than 100 report not speaking Russian at all).
The language is closely related to Koryak. Chukchi, Koryak, Kerek, Alutor, and Itelmen form the Chukotko-Kamchatkan language family. There are many cultural similarities between the Chukchis and Koryaks, including economies based on reindeer herding. Both peoples refer to themselves by the endonym Luorawetlat (ԓыгъоравэтԓьат ; singular Luorawetlan ԓыгъоравэтԓьан ), meaning "the real people". All of these peoples and other unrelated minorities in and around Kamchatka are known collectively as Kamchadals.
Chukchi and Chukchee are anglicized versions of the Russian exonym Chukcha (plural Chukchi). This came into Russian from Čävča, the term used by the Chukchis' Tungusic-speaking neighbors, itself a rendering of the Chukchi word чавчыв , which in Chukchi means "[a man who is] rich in reindeer," referring to any successful reindeer herder, a wealthy man by local standards.
In the UNESCO Red Book, the language is on the list of endangered languages.
Scope
Many Chukchis use the language as their primary means of communication both within the family and while engaged in their traditional pastoral economic activity (reindeer herding). The language is also used in media (including radio and TV translations) and some business activities. However, Russian is increasingly used as the primary means of business and administrative communication, in addition to behaving as a lingua franca in territories inhabited by non-Chukchis such as Koryaks and Yakuts. Over the past few decades, fewer and fewer Chukchi children have been learning Chukchi as a native language. Almost all Chukchis speak Russian, although some have a lesser command than others. Chukchi language is used as a primary language of instruction in elementary school; the rest of secondary education is done in Russian with Chukchi taught as a subject.
A Chukchi writer, Yuri Rytkheu (1930–2008), has earned a measure of renown in both Russia and Western Europe, although much of his published work was written in Russian, rather than Chukchi. Chukchi poet Antonina Kymytval wrote in her native language.
Orthography
Until 1931, the Chukchi language had no official orthography, in spite of attempts in the 1800s to write religious texts in it.
At the beginning of the 1900s, Vladimir Bogoraz discovered specimens of pictographic writing by the Chukchi herdsman Tenevil (see :ru:File:Luoravetl.jpg). Tenevil's writing system was his own invention, and was never used beyond his camp. The first official Chukchi alphabet was devised by Bogoraz in 1931 and was based on the Latin script:
In 1937, this alphabet, along with all of the other alphabets of the non-Slavic peoples of the USSR, was replaced by a Cyrillic alphabet. At first it was the Russian alphabet with the addition of the digraphs К’ к’ and Н’ н’. In the 1950s the additional letters were replaced by Ӄ ӄ and Ӈ ӈ. These newer letters were mainly used in educational texts, while the press continued to use the older versions. At the end of the 1980s, the letter Ԓ ԓ was introduced as a replacement for Л л. This was intended to reduce confusion with the pronunciation of the Russian letter of the same form. The Chukchi alphabet now stands as follows:
Romanization of Chukchi
The romanization of Chukchi is the representation of the Chukchi language using Latin letters.
The following is the ISO 9 system of Romanization:
Phonology
There are no voiced stops in the language; these are only found in loanwords.
The vowels are , , , , , , and . and are pronounced identically but behave differently in the phonology. (Cf. the two kinds of in Inuit Eskimo, whose known cause is the merger of two vowels and , which are still separate in Yup'ik Eskimo.)
A notable feature of Chukchi is its vowel harmony system largely based on vowel height. alternate with , respectively. The second group is known as "dominant vowels" and the first group as "recessive vowels"; that is because whenever a "dominant" vowel is present anywhere in a word, all "recessive" vowels in the word change into their "dominant" counterpart. The schwa vowel does not alternate but may trigger harmony as if it belonged to the dominant group.
Initial and final consonant clusters are not tolerated, and schwa epenthesis is pervasive.
Stress tends to: 1. be penultimate; 2. stay within the stem; 3. avoid schwas.
Grammar
Chukchi is a largely polysynthetic, agglutinative, direct-inverse language and has ergative–absolutive alignment. It also has very pervasive incorporation. In particular, the incorporation is productive and often interacts with other linguistic processes. Chukchi allows free incorporation of adjuncts, such as when a noun incorporates its modifier. However, besides the unusual use of adjuncts, Chukchi behaves in a very normal linguistic manner. The language of Chukchi also uses a specific verb system. The basic locative construction of a sentence in Chukchi contains a single locative verb, unlike many other languages.
In the nominals, there are two numbers and about nine grammatical cases: absolutive, ergative, instrumental, locative, ablative, allative, orientative, two comitatives and a designative. Nouns are split into three declensions influenced by animacy: the first declension, which contains non-humans, has plural marking only in the absolutive case; the second one, which contains personal names and certain words for mainly older relatives, has obligatory plural marking in all forms; the third one, which contains other humans than those in the second declension, has optional plural marking. These nominal cases are used to identify the number of nouns, as well as their purpose and function in a sentence.
Verbs distinguish three persons, two numbers, three moods (declarative, imperative and conditional), two voices (active and antipassive) and six tenses: present I (progressive), present II (stative), past I (aorist), past II (perfect), future I (perfective future), future II (imperfective future). Past II is formed with a construction meaning possession (literally "to be with"), similar to the use of "have" in the perfect in English and other Western European languages.
Both subject and direct object are cross-referenced in the verbal chain, and person agreement is very different in intransitive and transitive verbs. Person agreement is expressed with a complex system involving both prefixes and suffixes; despite the agglutinative nature of the language, each individual combination of person, number, tense etc. is expressed in a way that is far from always straightforward. Besides the finite forms, there are also infinitive, supine (purposive), numerous gerund forms, and a present and past participle, and these are all used with auxiliary verbs to produce further analytic constructions.
The word order is rather free, though SOV is basic. The possessor normally precedes the possessed, and postpositions rather than prepositions are used.
Chukchi as a language often proves difficult to categorize. This is primarily due to the fact that it does not always follow a typical linguistic and syntactical pattern. These exceptions allow Chukchi to fit into more than one linguistic type.
Numbers
The numeral system was originally purely vigesimal and went up to 400, but a decimal system was introduced for numerals above 100 via Russian influence. Many of the names of the basic numbers can be traced etymologically to words referring to the human body ("finger", "hand" etc.) or to arithmetic operations (6 = "1 + 5" etc.).
Ordinary numbers are formed with the suffix -ӄeв/-ӄaв. -ӄeв is after closed vowels, and -ӄaв is after open vowels.
People
The Chukchi people have a rich history and culture, which have traditionally centered around war. The Chukchi prize warriors and the fighting spirit that they embody. This emphasis on conflict can be seen in the interactions between the Chukchi and the Russians, which date back to the middle of the seventeenth century and tell of glorious battles between the two groups. The Chukchi have also been known to battle nearby tribes, particularly the Tánñit, which comprise fellow Siberian peoples known as the Koryaks. However, over the last century, the Chukchi people have engaged in far fewer conflicts and have focused more on trading. Today, the Chukchi economy relies heavily on trade, particularly with Russia.
Besides trading with Russia, the Chukchi make their living off of herding reindeer and bartering with other tribes. There is also a group of Chukchi that do not herd reindeer and instead live along the coast, trading more with tribes who live along the pacific coast. Some Chukchi people even choose to go back and forth between the two divisions, trading with both. These people tend to control more of the trade and have been called Kavrálît or “Rangers”.
External influence
The external influences of Chukchi have not been well-studied. In particular, the degree of contacts between the Chukchi and Eskimo languages remains an open question. Research into this area is problematic in part because of the lack of written evidence. (Cf. de Reuse in the Bibliography.) Contact influence of Russian, which is increasing, consists of word borrowing and pressure on surface syntax; the latter is primarily seen in written communication (translated texts) and is not apparent in day-to-day speech.
References
Bibliography
Alevtina N. Zhukova, Tokusu Kurebito,"A Basic Topical Dictionary of the Koryak-Chukchi Languages (Asian and African Lexicon Series, 46)",ILCAA, Tokyo Univ. of Foreign Studies (2004),
Bogoras, W., 1922. "Chukchee". In Handbook of American Indian Languages II, ed. F. Boas, Washington, D.C.
Comrie, B., 1981. The Languages of the Soviet Union, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Language Surveys). (hardcover) and (paperback)
De Reuse, Willem Joseph, 1994. Siberian Yupik Eskimo: The Language and Its Contacts with Chukchi, Univ. of Utah Press,
Dunn, Michael, 2000. "Chukchi Women's Language: A Historical-Comparative Perspective", Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 42, No. 3 (Fall, 2000), pp. 305–328
Kolga, M. (2001). The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire. Tallinn: NGO Red Book.
Nedjalkov, V. P., 1976. "Diathesen und Satzstruktur im Tschuktschischen" [in German]. In: Ronald Lötzsch (ed.), Satzstruktur und Genus verbi (Studia Grammatica 13). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, pp. 181–211.
Skorik, P[etr] Ja., 1961. Grammatika čukotskogo jazyka 1: Fonetika i morfologija imennych častej reči (Grammar of the Chukchi Language: Phonetics and morphology of the nominal parts of speech) [in Russian]. Leningrad: Nauka.
Skorik, P[etr] Ja., 1977. Grammatika čukotskogo jazyka 2: Glagol, narečie, služebnye slova (Grammar of the Chuckchi Language: Verb, adverb, function words) [in Russian]. Leningrad: Nauka:
Weinstein, Charles, 2010. Parlons tchouktche [in French]. Paris: L'Harmattan.
External links
Endangered Languages of Siberia – The Chukchi language
Russian-Chukchi Phrasebook
Chukchi fairy tales in Chukchi and English
The Gospel of Luke in Chukchi
A Chukchi language appendix to the newspaper "Krayny Sever"
Population by mother tongue and districts in 50 Governorates of the European Russia in 1897
Volodin, A. P. and P. Ja. Skorik (1997). "Čukotskyj jazyk" (The Chukchi language) [in Russian]. In: Jazyki mira: Paleoaziatskije jazyki (Languages of the World: Paleoasiatic Languages), Moskva: Indrik, p. 23-39; online:
Skorik, P. J. (1961/1977). Grammatika čukotskogo jazyka (Grammar of the Chukchi Language) [in Russian]. Vol. 1/2. Leningrad: Nauka
Chukchi culture
Chukchi people
Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
Languages of Russia
Agglutinative languages
Polysynthetic languages
Vowel-harmony languages | [
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253749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Doe | Samuel Doe | Samuel Kanyon Doe (6 May 1951 – 9 September 1990) was a Liberian politician who served as the Liberian leader from 1980 to 1990, first as a military leader and later as a civilian. While a master sergeant in the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL), Doe staged a violent coup d'état in April 1980 that left him de facto head of state. During the coup, then-president William Tolbert and much of the True Whig Party leadership were executed. Doe then established the People's Redemption Council, assuming the rank of general.
Doe suspended the constitution and headed the country's military junta for the next five years. In 1985, he ordered an election and officially became the 21st President of Liberia. The election was marked by controversy as there was evidence of election fraud. Doe had support from the United States; it was a strategic alliance due to his anti-Soviet stance taken during the years of the Cold War prior to the changes in 1989 that led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
The first native head of state in the country's history, Doe was a member of the Krahn ethnic group, a largely rural people. Before the 1980 coup, natives had often held a marginal role in society, which was dominated by the descendants of the Americo-Liberian Pioneers; composed primarily of free-born North American blacks and freed slaves, the Pioneers were the immigrants who had established Liberia in the 1820s and led the country beginning with independence in 1847.
Doe opened Liberian ports to Canadian, Chinese and European ships. This brought in considerable foreign investment from foreign shipping firms and earned Liberia a reputation as a tax haven.
Doe attempted to legitimize his regime with passage of a new constitution in 1984 and elections in 1985. However, opposition to his rule increased, especially after the 1985 elections, which were declared to be fraudulent by most foreign observers. For political reasons, the U.S. continued to support him. Thomas Quiwonkpa was murdered due to a failed coup.
In the late 1980s, as the U.S. government adopted more fiscal austerity and the threat of Communism declined with the waning of the Cold War, the U.S. became disenchanted with the entrenched corruption of Doe's government and began cutting off critical foreign aid. This, combined with the popular anger generated by Doe's favoritism toward Krahns, placed him in a very precarious position.
A civil war began in December 1989, when rebels entered Liberia through Ivory Coast, capturing and overthrowing Doe on 9 September 1990. Doe was then tortured during interrogation and murdered by his captor, Prince Johnson, a one-time ally of Charles Taylor.
Early life
On 6 May 1951 Doe was born in Tuzon, a small inland village in Grand Gedeh County. His family belonged to the Krahn people, a minority indigenous group important in this area. At the age of sixteen, Doe finished elementary school and enrolled at a Baptist junior high school in Zwedru.
Two years later, he enlisted in the Armed Forces of Liberia, hoping thereby to obtain a scholarship to a high school in Kakata, but instead he was assigned to military duties. Over the next ten years, he was assigned to a range of duty stations, including education at a military school and commanding an assortment of garrisons and prisons in Monrovia. He finally completed high school by correspondence. Doe was promoted to the grade of Master sergeant on 11 October 1979 and made an administrator for the Third Battalion in Monrovia, which position he occupied for eleven months.
1980 bloody coup d'etat and new government
Commanding a group of Krahn soldiers, Master Sergeant Samuel Doe led a military coup on 12 April 1980 by attacking the Liberian Executive Mansion and killing President William R. Tolbert, Jr. His forces killed another 26 of Tolbert's supporters in the fighting. Thirteen members of the Cabinet were publicly executed ten days later. Shortly after the coup, government ministers were walked publicly around Monrovia in the nude and then summarily executed by a firing squad on the beach. The convicted were denied the right to a lawyer or to any appeal. Hundreds of government workers fled the country, while others were imprisoned.
After the coup, Doe assumed the rank of general and established a People's Redemption Council (PRC), composed of himself and 14 other low-ranking officers, to rule the country. The early days of the regime were marked by mass executions of members of Tolbert's deposed government. Doe ordered the release of about 50 leaders of the opposition Progressive People's Party, who had been jailed by Tolbert during the rice riots of the previous month.
Shortly after that, Doe ordered the arrest of 91 officials of the Tolbert regime. Within days, 11 former members of Tolbert's cabinet, including his brother Frank, were brought to trial to answer charges of "high treason, rampant corruption and gross violation of human rights." Doe suspended the Constitution, allowing these trials to be conducted by a Commission appointed by the state's new military leadership, with defendants being refused both legal representation and trial by jury, virtually ensuring their conviction.
Doe abruptly ended 133 years of Americo-Liberian political domination. Some hailed the coup as the first time since Liberia's establishment as a country that it was governed by people of native African descent instead of by the Americo-Liberian elite. Other persons without Americo-Liberian heritage had held the Vice Presidency (Henry Too Wesley), as well as Ministerial and Legislative positions in years prior. Many people welcomed Doe's takeover as a shift favoring the majority of the population that had largely been excluded from participation in government since the establishment of the country.
However, the new government, led by the leaders of the coup d'état and calling itself the People's Redemption Council (PRC), lacked experience and was ill-prepared to rule. Doe became head of state and suspended the constitution, but promised a return to civilian rule by 1985.
In the first alleged plot against his government, nine military personnel arrested two months after the original 1980 coup were reportedly jailed for life.
In June 1981, his government denounced another alleged coup in which thirteen members were executed behind closed doors.
Months later, Thomas Weh Syen, an outspoken critic of some of Doe's policies, including the closure months before the Libya diplomatic mission and the forced reduction of staff from fifteen to six at the Soviet embassy, was arrested on August 12 of that same year, along with four other officers. They were promised a defense attorney but none was given, and in three days they were executed, which caused panic in the citizens of the capital.
Theories on the genesis of the coup
In August 2008, before a Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) in Monrovia, Doe's former justice minister, Councillor Chea Cheapoo — who contested the 2011 Liberia Presidential elections — alleged the American CIA had provided a map of the Executive Mansion, enabling the rebels to break into it; that it was a white American CIA agent who shot and killed Tolbert; and that the Americans "were responsible for Liberia’s nightmare". However, the next day, before the same TRC, another former minister of Samuel Doe, Dr. Boima Fahnbulleh, testified that "the Americans did not support the coup led by Mr. Doe".
Some facts of the 1980 coup are still clouded by reports of an "Unknown Soldier". It is reported that an "unknown soldier" was one of the "white" mercenaries who would have staged the 1980 military takeover of the state. According to the autobiography of Tolbert's wife Victoria, the First Lady witnessed a masked man with a "white" hand stabbing her late husband.
Presidency
During his rule, Doe portrayed himself as an enlightened leader whose actions were intended to bring "relief to many". He styled himself "Dr. Doe" starting in 1982, after making a state visit to Chun Doo-hwan in South Korea and being awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Seoul. After seven years of calling himself a doctor, Doe announced in 1989 that he had completed a bachelor's degree from the University of Liberia.
Relations with the United States
During his first years in office, Doe openly supported U.S. Cold War foreign policy in Africa during the 1980s, severing diplomatic relations between Liberia and the Soviet Union.
The United States valued Liberia as an important ally during the Cold War, as it helped to contain the spread of Soviet influence in Africa. As part of the expanding relationship, Doe agreed to a modification of the mutual defense pact granting staging rights on 24-hour notice at Liberia's sea and airports for the U.S. Rapid Deployment Forces, which were established to respond swiftly to security threats around the world.
New constitution and 1985 elections
A draft constitution providing for a multi-party republic was issued in 1983 and approved by referendum in 1984. On 26 July 1984, Doe was elected President of the Interim National Assembly. He had a new constitution approved by referendum in 1984 and went on to stage a presidential election on 15 October 1985. According to official figures, Doe won 51% of the vote—just enough to avoid a runoff. The NDPL won 21 of the 26 Senate seats and 51 of the 64 seats in the House of Representatives. However, most of the elected opposition candidates refused to take their seats.
The election was heavily rigged; Doe had the ballots taken to a secret location and 50 of his own handpicked staff counted them. Foreign observers declared the elections fraudulent and suggested that runner-up Jackson Doe of the Liberian Action Party had actually won. Also, prior to the election he had more than 50 of his political opponents murdered. It is also alleged that he changed his official birth date from 1951 to 1950 in order to meet the new constitution's requirement that the president be at least 35 years old. Doe was formally sworn in on 6 January 1986. On the day of his inauguration as twenty-first president, in the stadium a show with several Liberian girls danced artistically in his honor with various hoops, later the dancers danced with maracas, finally the army paraded in line and in the first they played a majestic orchestra.
Doe publicly declared that if he lost the elections, he would not hand over power and the army would carry out another coup in less than two weeks, a position that was harshly criticized by the international community and the political parties participating in the elections. Official results showed that Doe received a narrow majority of the votes cast in the elections, although outside observers alleged widespread fraud.
Increased repression
General Thomas Quiwonkpa, who had been a leader of the 1980 coup along with Doe, attempted to seize power on 12 November 1985; the attempt failed after fighting in Monrovia in which Quiwonkpa was killed. Doe also announced in a radio and television broadcast that anyone found on the streets after a 6 p.m. curfew would be considered a rebel and executed immediately.
Doe's corrupt and totalitarian government became even more repressive after the attempted coup, shutting down newspapers and banning political activity. The government's mistreatment of certain ethnic groups, particularly the Gio (or Dan) and the Mano in the north (Quiwonkpa was an ethnic Gio), resulted in divisions and violence among indigenous populations who until then had coexisted peacefully.
Civil war
Charles Taylor, a former ally of Doe, crossed into Liberia from the Ivory Coast on 24 December 1989, to wage a guerrilla war against Doe. Taylor had broken out of a jail in the United States, where he was awaiting extradition to Liberia on charges of embezzlement. The conflict quickly flared into full-fledged civil war. By mid-1990, most of Liberia was controlled by rebel factions.
Approximately 600 civilians were killed at the church in the Sinkor section of Monrovia on 29 July 1990. The massacre was carried out by approximately 30 government soldiers loyal to President Samuel Doe. The perpetrators were of Doe's Krahn tribe while most of the victims were from the Gio and Mano tribes, which were in support of the rebels.
Capture
Doe was captured in Monrovia on 9 September 1990, by Prince Y. Johnson, leader of INPFL, a breakaway faction of Taylor's NPFL. General Quinoo, the head of ECOMOG, had invited Doe to the ECOMOG headquarters for a meeting and assured him of his safety from the rebels. On the morning of 9 September 1990, Doe arrived at a precarious time during an ongoing change in guard duty from the well-armed and better equipped Nigerian team of peacekeepers to the weaker Gambian contingent. The Nigerian team had just withdrawn from the scene when Doe's convoy of lightly armed personnel arrived. Doe was escorted to General Quinoo's office where he was formally welcomed, while most of his team of aides and guards waited outside. Johnson's rebels surprised everyone by suddenly arriving on the scene uninvited and heavily armed, overwhelming and disarming the entirety of Doe's team while encountering no resistance. They then started shooting Doe's team individually and later in groups. Upon hearing the gunshots from outside, Doe expressed concern to Quinoo, who assured him that all was fine. Quinoo later excused himself to check on what was happening outside and was followed by his aide, Captain Coker of the Gambian contingent. Both men took cover upon assessing the situation. Johnson's men moved indoors, finished off Doe's remaining team, shot him in the leg, and took him captive. When the dust settled, over 80 of Doe's men lay dead. Coker characterized the incident not as a fight, but a brutal massacre. Remarkably, none of the ECOMOG personnel were shot in the carnage.
Torture and Execution
Doe was taken to Johnson's military base. To prove that he was not protected by black magic, Johnson ordered Doe's ears be cut off in his presence. Shackles were also placed around Doe's legs and something strange was tied around his glans, as can be seen in the recording. At the end of the recording Doe was forced to get up, and some of his fingers and toes were also amputated,there were attempts to mutilate the middle finger. After 12 hours of torture at Johnson's hands, Doe was finally murdered; his corpse had its head shaved and was exhibited naked in the streets of Monrovia with cigarette burns. Doe's body was later exhumed and reburied. The spectacle of his torture was video-taped and seen on news reports around the country. The video shows Johnson sipping a beer as Doe's ear is cut off.
Personal life
Doe was a Baptist. At one time, he was a member of the First Baptist Church in the town of Zwedru in Grand Gedeh County. He changed his church membership to the Providence Baptist Church of Monrovia on 1 December 1985. Doe was a passionate football fan, and the Samuel Kanyon Doe Sports Complex bears his name.
Posterity
In November 2000 at a religious rally representing the Doe family, Doe's son Samuel Kanyon Doe, Jr; accompanied by his mother and President Nancy Doe's widow, told a conference that he had feelings of hatred and resentment against "a certain person in particular", thoughts of revenge against his father's murderer for the past 10 years and that he intended to cleanse his sins and feelings of hatred and revenge against his father's executioner. Both parties were reconciled at the hand of the Nigerian Reverend Pastor T. B. Joshua.
References
External links
1951 births
1990 deaths
1990 murders in Africa
Assassinated heads of government
Assassinated heads of state
Assassinated Liberian politicians
Executed presidents
Field marshals
Krahn people
Leaders who took power by coup
Liberian anti-communists
Liberian Baptists
National Democratic Party of Liberia politicians
People executed by torture
People from Grand Gedeh County
People murdered in Liberia
People's Redemption Council
Presidents of Liberia
Filmed executions
20th-century Baptists
20th-century Liberian politicians | [
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] |
253751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koryak | Koryak | Koryak may refer to:
Koryaks, a people of northeastern Siberia
Koryak language, language of the Koryaks
Koryak Okrug, an administrative division of Kamchatka Krai, Russia
Koryak, the son of Aquaman, a fictional character in DC Comics
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253752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSG | PSG | PSG may often be associated with the football club, Paris Saint-Germain. It may also refer to:
Businesses and organizations
Pacific Seabird Group, an ornithological society
Pagan Spirit Gathering, a US festival
Paramount Stations Group, former US TV owner
Social Equality Party (Germany) (German Partei für Soziale Gleichheit)
Guianese Socialist Party (French Parti socialiste guyanais)
Peru Support Group, a UK-based advocacy organisation
Pfadfinderinnenschaft Sankt Georg, a German Girl Scout association
Presidential Security Group, Philippines
Problem-Solving Group, in IT
Progressive Senate Group, Canada
Movement of Free Citizens (Serbian Pokret slobodnih građana, PSG)
Academic
PSG College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Philippine School in Greece
Places
Petersburg James A. Johnson Airport, Alaska, US, IATA code
Science and technology
Phosphosilicate glass
Polysomnography, sleep study
Programmable sound generator, a sound chip
Firearms
PSG-1, a rifle
Psg-90, the Swedish version of the Accuracy International Arctic Warfare rifle
Sport
Paris Saint-Germain F.C., a French football club
Paris Saint-Germain Féminines, its women's team
Paris Saint-Germain Academy
Paris Saint-Germain Handball
Paris Saint-Germain Rugby League, a former rugby league club
Pasargad F.C., a Filipino football club
Other uses
Particular social group, UN refugee category | [
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253755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Reid | USS Reid | Four ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Reid, after Sailing Master Samuel Chester Reid.
The first was a destroyer in service from 1909 to 1919.
The second was a destroyer in service from 1919 to 1930.
The third was a destroyer launched in 1936 and sunk by kamikazes in the Philippines in 1944.
The fourth was a guided-missile frigate commissioned 1983 and transferred to Turkey in 1999.
See also
United States Navy ship names | [
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253756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade | Wade | Wade, WADE, or Wades may refer to:
Places in the United States
Wade, California, a former settlement
Wade, Maine, a town
Wade, Mississippi, a census-designated place
Wade, North Carolina, a town
Wade, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Wade Township, Clinton County, Illinois
Wade Township, Jasper County, Illinois
Wade County, Choctaw Nation, a former political subdivision
Wades Branch, a river in Tennessee
People and fictional characters
Wade (given name), a list of people and fictional characters
Wade (surname), including a list of people and fictional characters
Other uses
Wade (film), a 2020 Indian animated short film
World Alliance for Decentralized Energy (WADE)
Wade Ceramics, manufacturers of porcelain and earthenware; known for making "Whimsies"
WADE (AM), a radio station in Wadesboro, North Carolina, United States
Wade–Giles, a method of Romanisation of Chinese, sometimes abbreviated as Wade
Wade Stadium, a baseball field in Duluth, Minnesota, United States
Wade Trophy, for the best woman basketball player in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I
The Wades, a British band
See also
Roe v. Wade, a landmark 1973 United States Supreme Court decision on the issue of abortion
Waad (disambiguation), another form of the name | [
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253757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Knobz | The Knobz | The Knobz were a New Zealand pop band, originally based in Dunedin, but not considered part of that city's main wave of Dunedin sound bands. They became famous in 1980 with their political song "Culture?" criticising Rob Muldoon, who was Prime Minister at the time and had stated that New Zealand's pop music was not culture. Muldoon had made the remarks in the context of refusing to lift a 40% tax on sales of music.
The Knobz were fairly typical of the New Zealand pop scene in the 1980s; they were described in an article of the time as "XTC meets The Knack". However, several things set them apart from their contemporaries. They were the first band to have a self-funded single hit the top 5 in New Zealand, released on Wellington independent label Bunk Records owned and run by Michael Alexander. They also managed themselves and toured extensively following chart success with two further singles - "Liverpool to America" (an opportune song about John Lennon) and "K.G.B." - and, later, an album, Sudden Exposure. They were considered to be an accomplished live act.
The band toured New Zealand before leaving for Australia in 1980, where they played with other acts of the period such as Divinyls, Men at Work, Mi-Sex, Swanee and Moving Pictures. The Knobz dispersed at the end of 1981, with some of the members moving on to other projects; most notably, drummer Bob Reid went on to play for the powerhouse Sydney band The Sharks.
The Knobz later reformed with songwriter Kevin Fogarty for one more trip around New Zealand and to promote the album Roads to Rome. The new album had been written by former band members, but these were replaced with drummer Tim Powles and bassist Warwick Keay, both formerly of Flight X-7.Carey Peterson from Auckland walk and The Visitors also joined the band as vocalist to tour with the band in 1982.
In their heyday, The Knobz can be said to have epitomised the early 80s period when punk still held a slender audience and New Romantic music was starting to make an impact.
Discography
Singles
New Zealand pop music groups
Musical groups established in 1979 | [
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253759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private%20bank | Private bank | Private banks are banks owned by either the individual or a general partner(s) with limited partner(s). Private banks are not incorporated. In any such case, creditors can look to both the "entirety of the bank's assets" as well as the entirety of the sole-proprietor's/general-partners' assets.
These banks have a long tradition in Switzerland, dating back to at least the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). Private banks also have a long tradition in the UK where C. Hoare & Co. has been in business since 1672.
Notable private banks
This list contains two types of banks:
Unincorporated banks owned by either an individual or a general partner(s) with limited partner(s).
Incorporated banks specialized in wealth management for high-net-worth individuals.
China
Bank of Communications, founded in 1908
China Merchants Bank
France
Compagnie Financière Edmond de Rothschild, Paris, founded in 1953; a member of Edmond de Rothschild Group
Société Générale
India
Kotak Mahindra Bank
ICICI Bank
Germany
Delbruck Bethmann Maffei, Frankfurt, founded in 1748; a member of ABN AMRO
M. M. Warburg & Co., Hamburg, founded in 1798
Sal. Oppenheim, Cologne, founded in 1789; a member of Deutsche Bank
Italy
Banca Sella Group, founded in 1886.
Liechtenstein
LGT Bank, Vaduz, founded in 1920; owned by Princely Family of Liechtenstein
Netherlands
Maduro & Curiel's Bank, Willemstad, founded in 1917
MeesPierson, Rotterdam, founded in 1720: a member of ABN AMRO
Van Lanschot Kempen, founded in 1737. It is the oldest independent bank in the Netherlands and the Benelux and one of the oldest independent banks in the world.
Switzerland
Banque privée Edmond de Rothschild, Geneva, founded in 1923; a member of Edmond de Rothschild Group
Baumann & Cie, Banquiers, Basel, founded in 1920
EFG International, Zurich, founded in 1995; a member of EFG Group, Geneva
Hyposwiss Private Bank Genève SA, founded in 1889
Julius Baer, Zurich, founded in 1890
La Roche & Co., Basel, founded in 1787
Landolt & Cie, Lausanne, founded in 1780
Lombard Odier & Cie, Geneva, founded in 1796
Pictet & Cie, Geneva, founded in 1805
Union Bancaire Privée, Geneva, founded in 1969
MBaer Merchant Bank AG, Zurich, founded in 2018
United Kingdom
Arbuthnot Latham & Co., London, founded in 1833
Brown Shipley, London, founded in 1810; a member of KBL epb Group
Cater Allen, London, founded in 1816: a member of Santander
Child & Co., London, founded in 1664; a member of NatWest Group
C. Hoare & Co., London, founded in 1672
Coutts & Co., London, founded in 1692; a member of NatWest Group
Hampden & Co., Edinburgh, founded in 2015
Weatherbys, Established in 1770 as a bank to the horse racing industry, now based in Northamptonshire
United States
Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., New York City, founded in 1818
See also
Bank secrecy
Family office
Offshore bank
Private banks
Public bank
Swiss bank
References
External links
Swiss Private Bankers Association
Banks | [
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253761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Liberia | Flag of Liberia | The flag of Liberia or the Liberian flag bears a close resemblance to the flag of the United States, representing Liberia's founding by former black slaves from the United States and the Caribbean.
The Liberian flag has similar red and white stripes, as well as a blue square with a white star in the canton. It was adopted on 24 August 1847.
History
The flag of Liberia was designed and hand-stitched by a committee of seven women. The chair of the committee was Susannah Elizabeth Lewis. The other members of the committee were Matilda Newport, Rachel Johnson, Mary Hunter, Mrs. J. B. Russwurm, Colonette Teage Ellis, and Sara Draper. All of the women were born in the United States, and many of them were wives of prominent men in Liberia. Lewis was the daughter of former vice colonial agent Colston Waring, the sister of the first First Lady of the Republic, Jane Roberts, and wife of John N. Lewis, one of the signers of the Liberian Declaration of Independence. The flag they designed was adopted on 24 August 1847, about a month after Liberia had declared independence on 26 July 1847. The day the flag was adopted, the nation held a celebration in Monrovia. There, the flag was unfurled to the public for the first time, and Susannah Lewis gave a patriotic speech. The ceremony also featured speeches by a number of notable Liberian politicians and religious leaders, as well as entertainment in the form of band music.
In the 1850s and 1860s, the Eusibia N. Roye became the first Liberian owned ship to display the flag in New York City and Liverpool ports. The vessel was owned by Edward James Roye. In 1860, the Liberian flag was featured on the first known stamp to be issued by the Liberian government. On 24 October 1915, President Daniel Edward Howard signed into law an act which proclaimed 24 August as Flag Day, a national holiday.
On 22 July 1974, the Legislature of Liberia passed an act giving authorization to the president to establish a commission to give consideration to possible changes to a number of national symbols, including the flag and national anthem. The commission was headed by McKinley Alfred Deshield Sr. The commission sought to reexamine the symbols, and remove divisive aspects of them. President William Tolbert appointed 51 members to the Commission on National Unity. The commission was also called the Deshield Commission, after the man who headed it. The commission submitted their report on 24 January 1978. The report ultimately recommended no changes to the flag.
The flag is seen on many ships around the world as Liberia offers registration under its flag. Shipping companies do this to avoid taxes and restrictions that other countries enforce. As the second most popular flag of convenience (after the flag of Panama), it is estimated that 1,700 foreign-owned ships fly the Liberian flag. This brings in much of the country's revenue.
Symbolism
The eleven stripes symbolize the signatories of the Liberian Declaration of Independence and the red and white symbolize courage and moral excellence. The white star represents the first independent republic in Africa, above the blue square representing the African continent. The Liberian flag is modeled after and resembles the United States flag because Liberia was founded, colonized, established, and controlled by free people of color and formerly enslaved black people from the United States and the Caribbean with the help and support of both the United States government and the American Colonization Society (ACS), a private organization dedicated to the removal of free people of color from across North America. Some time after the African Americans began arriving in Liberia in 1822, they came to be identified as "Americo-Liberians" in an effort to separate them from native groups and enslaved Africans rescued from illegal slaving ports and ships by the American navy.
Construction
Keep the length 110 units and width as 209 units. The canton's each side is 50 units, the circumscribed square of the 5-point star has all sides 30 units and its center is 25 units from the left and upper edge of the flag of the canton/flag.
Other flags
County flags
Liberia is subdivided into 15 counties, each of which is entitled to its own flag. Each county flag bears the national flag of Liberia in the canton. The county flags are flown at regional offices and together encircling the national flag of Liberia at the Presidential Palace. The flags were introduced in 1965 by William Tubman for the purpose of promoting the counties as meaningful entities. Their design was inspired by Liberia's quilting tradition.
References
External links
1847 introductions
Flags of Africa
Flag
Liberia–United States relations
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253763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20jubilee | Golden jubilee | A golden jubilee marks a 50th anniversary. It variously is applied to people, events, and nations.
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, golden jubilee refers the 50th anniversary year of the separation from Pakistan and is called in Bengali "সুবর্ণ জয়ন্তী" (Suborno joyonti). Vision 2021 was the political manifesto of the Bangladesh Awami League party before winning the National Elections of 2008. It stands as a political vision of Bangladesh for the year 2021, the golden jubilee of the nation. Several celebration programs will be held in countries including India, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Hungary, Poland, Nepal and Bhutan.
China
Emperor Wu of Han dynasty (141-87 BCE, Jubilee in 91 BCE)
Kangxi Emperor of Qing dynasty (1661–1722, Jubilee in 1711)
Qianlong Emperor of Qing dynasty (1735–1796, Jubilee in 1785)
Korea
Yeongjo of Joseon (1724-1776, Jubilee in 1774)
Japan
In Japan, golden jubilee refers to the 50th anniversary and is called . Emperor Hirohito (or Emperor Shōwa), celebrated his golden jubilee on 10 November 1976. Showa Memorial Park was established as part of a project to commemorate his golden jubilee.
Singapore
For the year 2015, the "Singapore50" initiative launched in Singapore to celebrate 50 years of independence from Malaysia, with a logo that spells "SG50". The term SG50 has since been used to refer to the celebrations as a whole. National Day Parade ceremonies for that year were themed Majulah Singapura - Our Golden Jubilee.
Thailand
The golden jubilee is a royal ceremony to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the accession of the king. The Thai word is kanchanaphisek (กาญจนาภิเษก). The first Golden Jubilee of Thailand was the celebration of King Bhumibol Adulyadej.
The celebration
King Rama IX celebrated his golden jubilee on 9 June 1996, having acceded to the throne in 1946. He was Thailand's longest-reigning monarch.
The 545.65 carat Golden Jubilee Diamond was purchased by Thai businessmen as a gift for the king on the 50th anniversary of his coronation. The diamond is held in the Royal Palace as part of Thailand's crown jewels.
In 1996, Prime Minister Banharn Silpa-archa and the Thai people celebrated the king with a multi-day celebration.
The symbol of the golden jubilee
The symbol of the golden jubilee of King Bhumibol Adulyadej was designed by Wiyada Charoensuk, winner of a design contest.
There are three elements to the design:
The king's throne (in center) is a sign of the Chakri dynasty (the dynasty of King Bhumibhol)
White tiered umbrellas of kingship, representing the constitution of Thailand
Two elephants, representing the Thai people
The Fine Arts Department wanted this design to:
Celebrate the king
Help Thai people remember Thailand's traditions
Show that Thais are proud to be subjects of the king
Show that Thais have a long history as a nation
United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms
In the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms, a golden jubilee celebration is held in the 50th year of a monarch's reign.
For King George III
The golden jubilee of King George III was celebrated on 25 October 1809, prior to the actual 50th anniversary in 1810.
For Queen Victoria
In 1887 the United Kingdom and the British Empire celebrated Queen Victoria's golden jubilee. Victoria marked 20 June 1887—the fiftieth anniversary of her accession—with a banquet, to which fifty European kings and princes were invited. Although she could not have been aware of it, there was a plan by Irish Republicans to blow up Westminster Abbey while the Queen attended a service of thanksgiving. This assassination attempt, when it was discovered, became known as the Jubilee Plot. At the time, Victoria was an extremely popular monarch.
For Queen Elizabeth II
Queen Elizabeth II celebrated her golden jubilee in 2002, having ascended the throne in 1952.
In other countries
Brunei, Abdul Jalilul Akbar celebrated his golden jubilee in 1648.
Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddin I celebrated his golden jubilee in 1790.
Bavaria, Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria celebrated his golden jubilee as Elector Palatine in 1792.
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Grand Duke Karl August celebrated his golden jubilee in 1826, dating from when he reached his majority.
Austria-Hungary, Emperor Franz Josef celebrated his golden jubilee in 1898.
Baden, Grand Duke Frederick I celebrated his golden jubilee in 1906, dated from when he became regent to his brother before succeeding to the throne.
Liechtenstein, Prince Johann II celebrated his golden jubilee in 1908.
Greece, King George I was assassinated mere weeks before his golden jubilee was due to be celebrated in 1913.
Montenegro, Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš celebrated his golden jubilee in 1914.
Norway, King Haakon VII celebrated his golden jubilee in 1955.
Burundi, King Mwambutsa IV Bangiriceng celebrated his golden jubilee in 1965.
Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie celebrated his golden jubilee, dating from when he became regent, in 1966.
Iran, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar was assassinated and killed while visiting a holy place around Tehran as a religious ceremony and preparing to celebrate the 50th anniversary of his monarchy. (In Lunar Calendar)
Iran, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi celebrated the 50th anniversary of Pahlavi Dynasty in 1976.
Japan, Emperor Showa celebrated his golden jubilee in 1976.
Monaco, Prince Rainier III celebrated his golden jubilee in 1999.
His Highness the Aga Khan IV celebrated his Golden Jubilee from July 11, 2007 to December 13, 2008.
Malaysia, Sultan Tuanku Abdul Halim Muadzam Shah celebrated his golden jubilee on 15 July 2008 after 50 years reigning the state of Kedah.
Egypt, the Egyptian Television celebrated its golden jubilee on 22 July 2010 after 50 years from airing for the first time.
Kenya, the Nation Media Group's Daily Nation and Sunday Nation celebrated their golden jubilee in the year 2010 after 50 years from being published for the first time. (Sunday Nation - March 1960; Daily Nation - October 1960)
In New Zealand, Kingseat Hospital celebrated 50 years of operation in 1982., and Maeroa Intermediate in 2004.
Detroit, Michigan in the United States, the 1946 Automotive Golden Jubilee was a citywide celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the American automotive industry.
Alhaji (Dr.) Ado Bayero The Emir of Kano, Nigeria celebrated his Golden Jubilee on June 2013.
Brunei, Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah celebrated his Golden Jubilee on 5 October 2017 after 50 years of his accession to the throne.
Denmark, Queen Margrethe II celebrated her Golden Jubilee on 14 January 2022, marking the 50th anniversary of her accession to the throne.
Sharjah (United Arab Emirates), Sultan bin Mohamed Al-Qassimi III celebrated the 50th anniversary of his accession to the throne on 25 January 2022.
List of golden jubilees
See also
Silver jubilee
Ruby jubilee
Diamond jubilee
Sapphire jubilee
Platinum jubilee
Wedding anniversary
Hierarchy of precious substances
References
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253764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc-Vivien%20Fo%C3%A9 | Marc-Vivien Foé | Marc-Vivien Foé (1 May 1975 – 26 June 2003) was a Cameroonian professional footballer, who played as a defensive midfielder for both club and country. Foé had success in France's Division 1 and England's Premier League, before his sudden death, due to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, during an international match, an event which shocked the football community worldwide. He was posthumously decorated with the Commander of the National Order of Valour and had his shirt number 23 retired by Manchester City.
Career
Foé was born on 1 May 1975 in Yaoundé. He started as a junior with Elite Two side Union de Garoua. Moving to Canon Yaoundé, one of the biggest clubs in Cameroon, he won the Cameroonian Cup in 1993. Foé began representing Cameroon at under-20s when he was called up to the squad of 18 players for the 1993 FIFA World Youth Championship in Australia, under the management of Jean Manga-Onguéné. He played in all of their three group stage matches, scoring one goal in a 3–2 defeat to Colombia in their second match on 8 March 1993, as Cameroon were eventually eliminated from the competition after finishing third. Foé later made his senior debut against Mexico on 22 September 1993 at the Memorial Coliseum, a match which Cameroon lost 1–0.
The following year, he was included in the Cameroon squad for the 1994 World Cup, starting all three of their matches. Marred by low morale caused by various financial and disciplinary disputes with the Cameroon Football Association, the 1994 Cameroon squad was a shadow of the squad which had famously reached the quarter-finals of the World Cup in 1990. Cameroon mustered just one point from three matches, and finished with an embarrassing 6–1 defeat to Russia. However, Foé's consistently strong performances as a defensive midfielder (including a goal assist) prompted interest from European clubs.
After turning down Auxerre for a trainee position, he signed for another French club, RC Lens of Ligue 1. His debut on 13 August 1994 was a 2–1 win against Montpellier. In five seasons at Lens, he won the 1998 French league title.
In 1998, he was targeted by Manchester United, but Lens turned down a £3 million offer for him. Further negotiations between the clubs were curtailed abruptly after he broke a leg at Cameroon's pre-World Cup training camp, and subsequently missed the whole of the 1998 World Cup.
Shortly after his recovery, he moved to English Premier League club West Ham United, for a club record fee of £4.2 million in January 1999. He played 38 league matches for West Ham, scoring one goal against Sheffield Wednesday. He also scored a goal in West Ham's 3–1 win against NK Osijek in the UEFA Cup.
In May 2000, he moved back to France, joining Lyon on a £6 million transfer. He missed much of the season after he developed symptoms of malaria. After recovery, he won the Coupe de la Ligue in 2001, and the Division 1 league title a year later.
He was in the Cameroon squad in the 2002 World Cup. As in 1994, he played in all of Cameroon's matches. Though the team performed better than in 1994, they were again eliminated at the group stage, having beaten Saudi Arabia, drawn with Ireland and lost to Germany.
Foé then returned to the English Premier League, loaned to Manchester City in the 2002–03 season for £550,000. His debut on the opening day of the season was a 3–0 loss to Leeds United. Foé was a first team regular for Kevin Keegan's team, starting 38 of 41 matches. His first goal for the club came against Sunderland at the Stadium of Light on 9 December 2002, and he scored five more goals in the next month. His second goal in a 3–0 victory against Sunderland on 21 April 2003 was the club's final goal at their old Maine Road stadium.
Death
Foé was part of the Cameroon squad for the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup. He played in wins against Brazil and Turkey, and was rested for the match against the United States, with Cameroon having already qualified.
On 26 June 2003, Cameroon faced Colombia in the semi-final, held at the Stade de Gerland in Lyon, France. In the 72nd minute of the match Foé collapsed in the centre circle with no other players near him. After attempts to resuscitate him on the pitch, he was stretchered off the field, where he received mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and oxygen. Medics spent 45 minutes attempting to restart his heart, and although he was still alive upon arrival at the stadium's medical centre, he died shortly afterwards. A first autopsy did not determine an exact cause of death, but a second autopsy concluded that Foé's death was heart-related as it discovered evidence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, a hereditary condition known to increase the risk of sudden death during physical exercise.
Foé's widow Marie-Louise stated that he had been ill with gastric problems and dysentery before his final match, but he was adamant to play in his adopted hometown of Lyon. Cameroon manager Winfried Schäfer wanted to substitute him minutes before his collapse, observing that the player seemed fatigued, but he signalled that he wanted to continue.
Personal life
Foé was a practising Roman Catholic and donated money to charity regularly.
Tributes
Foé's death caused a profound shock. Numerous tributes to his joyous personality and infectious humour were expressed in the media. Also Thierry Henry and other players pointed to the sky in tribute to Foé after Henry had opened the scoring against Turkey in France's Confederations Cup semi-final that evening.
It was suggested that the Confederations Cup and the Stade Gerland could have been renamed after him, and Manchester City manager Kevin Keegan announced that the club would no longer use the number 23 shirt Foé wore during his successful season there. At Manchester City's former ground, Maine Road, there is a small memorial to him in the stadium's memorial garden, and on the walls of the players' tunnel are plaques paid for by supporters, with their names, dubbed the Walk of Pride. The first plaque on the wall is for Marc and reads "Marc Vivien Foé – 1975–2003". His first club, Lens, gave his name to an avenue near the Stade Félix Bollaert. Foé was given a state funeral in Cameroon. Lens decided to withdraw the number 17 shirt that Foé wore for five years.
Lyon also decided to withdraw the number 17 shirt that Foé wore a year before when he played at the Stade de Gerland with the Lyon team. People in Lyon were shocked as he had received a warm welcome on his return to the stadium. However, when fellow Cameroonian Jean II Makoun was transferred to Lyon, Makoun took up the number 17 shirt, explaining that he wore the number: "In memory of Marc, for me and for the whole Cameroon, this will be for something."
Prior to the kick-off of the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup final between the United States and Brazil, his son, then fourteen years old, gave a brief speech in memory of his father.
Career statistics
Club
International
International goals
Cameroon score listed first, score column indicates score after each Foé goal.
Honours
Club
Canon Yaoundé
Cameroonian Cup: 1993
Lens
Division 1: 1997–98
West Ham United
UEFA Intertoto Cup: 1999
Lyon
Division 1: 2001–02
Coupe de la Ligue: 2000–01
International
Cameroon
Africa Cup of Nations: 2000, 2002
Individual
FIFA Confederations Cup Bronze Ball: 2003
See also
List of association footballers who died while playing
References
External links
Marc-Vivien Foé international statistics at 11v11.com
1975 births
2003 deaths
Sportspeople from Yaoundé
Cameroonian footballers
Cameroon under-20 international footballers
Cameroon international footballers
Cameroonian expatriate footballers
Cameroonian Roman Catholics
Cameroonian expatriate sportspeople in England
Ligue 1 players
RC Lens players
Premier League players
West Ham United F.C. players
Olympique Lyonnais players
Manchester City F.C. players
Expatriate footballers in France
Expatriate footballers in England
1994 FIFA World Cup players
1996 African Cup of Nations players
1998 African Cup of Nations players
2000 African Cup of Nations players
2002 African Cup of Nations players
2001 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
2003 FIFA Confederations Cup players
Sport deaths in France
Canon Yaoundé players
Association football players who died while playing
Recipients of the Order of Valour
Filmed deaths in sports
Association football midfielders
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253766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Adirondack | USS Adirondack | USS Adirondack may refer to:
, was a gunboat during the American Civil War that sank off the Bahamas
, was an iron-hulled screw tugboat originally known as Underwriter.
, was commissioned into the Navy in 1917 and used as a floating barracks until 1919.
, was an amphibious force flagship in service from 1945 to 1955.
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253767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunkirk%20evacuation | Dunkirk evacuation | The Dunkirk evacuation, codenamed Operation Dynamo and also known as the Miracle of Dunkirk, or just Dunkirk, was the evacuation of Allied soldiers during World War II from the beaches and harbour of Dunkirk, in the north of France, between 26 May and 4 June 1940. The operation commenced after large numbers of Belgian, British, and French troops were cut off and surrounded by German troops during the six-week Battle of France. In a speech to the House of Commons, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill called this "a colossal military disaster", saying "the whole root and core and brain of the British Army" had been stranded at Dunkirk and seemed about to perish or be captured. In his "We shall fight on the beaches" speech on 4 June, he hailed their rescue as a "miracle of deliverance".
After Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, France and the British Empire declared war on Germany and imposed an economic blockade. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was sent to help defend France. After the Phoney War of October 1939 to April 1940, Germany invaded Belgium, the Netherlands, and France on 10 May 1940. Three panzer corps attacked through the Ardennes and drove northwest to the English Channel. By 21 May, German forces had trapped the BEF, the remains of the Belgian forces, and three French field armies along the northern coast of France. BEF commander General Viscount Gort immediately saw evacuation across the Channel as the best course of action, and began planning a withdrawal to Dunkirk, the closest good port.
Late on 23 May, a halt order was issued by Generaloberst Gerd von Rundstedt, commander of Army Group A. Adolf Hitler approved this order the next day, and had the German High Command send confirmation to the front. Attacking the trapped BEF, French, and Belgian armies was left to the Luftwaffe until the order was rescinded on 26 May. This gave Allied forces time to construct defensive works and pull back large numbers of troops to fight the Battle of Dunkirk. From 28 to 31 May, in the siege of Lille, the remaining 40,000 men of the French First Army fought a delaying action against seven German divisions, including three armoured divisions.
On the first day only 7,669 Allied soldiers were evacuated, but by the end of the eighth day, 338,226 had been rescued by a hastily assembled fleet of over 800 vessels. Many troops were able to embark from the harbour's protective mole onto 39 British Royal Navy destroyers, four Royal Canadian Navy destroyers, at least three French Navy destroyers, and a variety of civilian merchant ships. Others had to wade out from the beaches, waiting for hours in shoulder-deep water. Some were ferried to the larger ships by what became known as the Little Ships of Dunkirk, a flotilla of hundreds of merchant marine boats, fishing boats, pleasure craft, yachts, and lifeboats called into service from Britain. The BEF lost 68,000 soldiers during the French campaign and had to abandon nearly all of its tanks, vehicles, and equipment. In his 4 June speech, Churchill also reminded the country that "we must be very careful not to assign to this deliverance the attributes of a victory. Wars are not won by evacuations."
Background
In September 1939, after Nazi Germany invaded Poland, the United Kingdom sent the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) to aid in the defence of France, landing at Cherbourg, Nantes, and Saint-Nazaire. By May 1940 the force consisted of ten divisions in three corps under the command of General John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort. Working with the BEF were the Belgian Army and the French First, Seventh, and Ninth Armies.
During the 1930s, the French had constructed the Maginot Line, a series of fortifications along their border with Germany. This line had been designed to deter a German invasion across the Franco-German border and funnel an attack into Belgium, which could then be met by the best divisions of the French Army. Thus, any future war would take place outside of French territory, avoiding a repeat of the First World War. The area immediately to the north of the Maginot Line was covered by the heavily wooded Ardennes region, which French General Philippe Pétain declared to be "impenetrable" as long as "special provisions" were taken. He believed that any enemy force emerging from the forest would be vulnerable to a pincer attack and destroyed. The French commander-in-chief, Maurice Gamelin, also believed the area to be of a limited threat, noting that it "never favoured large operations". With this in mind, the area was left lightly defended.
The initial plan for the German invasion of France called for an encirclement attack through the Netherlands and Belgium, avoiding the Maginot Line. Erich von Manstein, then Chief of Staff of the German Army Group A, prepared the outline of a different plan and submitted it to the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH; German High Command) via his superior, Generaloberst Gerd von Rundstedt. Manstein's plan suggested that panzer divisions should attack through the Ardennes, then establish bridgeheads on the Meuse River and rapidly drive to the English Channel. The Germans would thus cut off the Allied armies in Belgium. This part of the plan later became known as the Sichelschnitt ("sickle cut"). Adolf Hitler approved a modified version of Manstein's ideas, today known as the Manstein Plan, after meeting with him on 17 February.
On 10 May, Germany invaded Belgium and the Netherlands. Army Group B, under Generaloberst Fedor von Bock, attacked into Belgium, while the three panzer corps of Army Group A under Rundstedt swung around to the south and drove for the Channel. The BEF advanced from the Belgian border to positions along the River Dyle within Belgium, where they fought elements of Army Group B starting on 10 May. They were ordered to begin a fighting withdrawal to the Scheldt River on 14 May when the Belgian and French positions on their flanks failed to hold. During a visit to Paris on 17 May, Prime Minister Winston Churchill was astonished to learn from Gamelin that the French had committed all their troops to the ongoing engagements and had no strategic reserves. On 19 May, Gort met with French General Gaston Billotte, commander of the French First Army and overall coordinator of the Allied forces. Billotte revealed that the French had no troops between the Germans and the sea. Gort immediately saw that evacuation across the Channel was the best course of action, and began planning a withdrawal to Dunkirk, the closest location with good port facilities. Surrounded by marshes, Dunkirk boasted old fortifications and the longest sand beach in Europe, where large groups could assemble. On 20 May, on Churchill's suggestion, the Admiralty began arranging for all available small vessels to be made ready to proceed to France. After continued engagements and a failed Allied attempt on 21 May at Arras to cut through the German spearhead, the BEF was trapped, along with the remains of the Belgian forces and the three French armies, in an area along the coast of northern France and Belgium.
Prelude
Without informing the French, the British began planning on 20 May for Operation Dynamo, the evacuation of the BEF. This planning was headed by Vice Admiral Bertram Ramsay at the naval headquarters below Dover Castle, from which he briefed Churchill as it was under way. Ships began gathering at Dover for the evacuation. On 20 May, the BEF sent Brigadier Gerald Whitfield to Dunkirk to start evacuating unnecessary personnel. Overwhelmed by what he later described as "a somewhat alarming movement towards Dunkirk by both officers and men", due to a shortage of food and water, he had to send many along without thoroughly checking their credentials. Even officers ordered to stay behind to aid the evacuation disappeared onto the boats.
On 22 May, Churchill ordered the BEF to attack southward in coordination with the French First Army under General Georges Blanchard to reconnect with the remainder of the French forces. This proposed action was dubbed the Weygand Plan after General Maxime Weygand, appointed Supreme Commander after Gamelin's dismissal on 18 May. On 25 May, Gort had to abandon any hope of achieving this objective and withdrew on his own initiative, along with Blanchard's forces, behind the Lys Canal, part of a canal system that reached the sea at Gravelines. Sluice gates had already been opened all along the canal to flood the system and create a barrier (the Canal Line) against the German advance.
Battle of Dunkirk
By 24 May, the Germans had captured the port of Boulogne and surrounded Calais. The engineers of the 2nd Panzer Division under Generalmajor Rudolf Veiel built five bridges over the Canal Line and only one British battalion barred the way to Dunkirk. On 23 May, at the suggestion of Fourth Army commander Generalfeldmarschall Günther von Kluge, Rundstedt had ordered the panzer units to halt, concerned about the vulnerability of his flanks and the question of supply to his forward troops. He was also concerned that the marshy ground around Dunkirk would prove unsuitable for tanks and he wished to conserve them for later operations (in some units, tank losses were 30–50 per cent). Hitler was also apprehensive, and on a visit to Army Group A headquarters on 24 May, he endorsed the order.
Air Marshal Hermann Göring urged Hitler to let the Luftwaffe (aided by Army Group B) finish off the British, to the consternation of General Franz Halder, who noted in his diary that the Luftwaffe was dependent upon the weather and aircrews were worn out after two weeks of battle. Rundstedt issued another order, which was sent uncoded. It was picked up by the Royal Air Force (RAF) Y service intelligence network at 12:42: "By order of the Fuhrer ... attack north-west of Arras is to be limited to the general line Lens–Bethune–Aire–St Omer–Gravelines. The Canal will not be crossed." Later that day, Hitler issued Directive 13, which called for the Luftwaffe to defeat the trapped Allied forces and stop their escape. At 15:30 on 26 May, Hitler ordered the panzer groups to continue their advance, but most units took another 16 hours to attack. The delay gave the Allies time to prepare defences vital for the evacuation and prevented the Germans from stopping the Allied retreat from Lille.
The halt order has been the subject of much discussion by historians. Guderian considered the failure to order a timely assault on Dunkirk to be one of the major German mistakes on the Western Front. Rundstedt called it "one of the great turning points of the war", and Manstein described it as "one of Hitler's most critical mistakes". B. H. Liddell Hart interviewed many of the generals after the war and put together a picture of Hitler's strategic thinking on the matter. Hitler believed that once Britain's troops left continental Europe, they would never return.
Evacuation
26–27 May
The retreat was undertaken amid chaotic conditions, with abandoned vehicles blocking the roads and a flood of refugees heading in the opposite direction. Due to wartime censorship and the desire to keep up British morale, the full extent of the unfolding disaster at Dunkirk was not initially publicised. A special service attended by King George VI was held in Westminster Abbey on 26 May, which was declared a national day of prayer. The Archbishop of Canterbury led prayers "for our soldiers in dire peril in France". Similar prayers were offered in synagogues and churches throughout the UK that day, confirming to the public their suspicion of the desperate plight of the troops. Just before 19:00 on 26 May, Churchill ordered Dynamo to begin, by which time 28,000 men had already departed. Initial plans called for the recovery of 45,000 men from the BEF within two days, at which time German troops were expected to block further evacuation. Only 25,000 men escaped during this period, including 7,669 on the first day.
On 27 May, the first full day of the evacuation, one cruiser, eight destroyers, and 26 other craft were active. Admiralty officers combed nearby boatyards for small craft that could ferry personnel from the beaches out to larger craft in the harbour, as well as larger vessels that could load from the docks. An emergency call was put out for additional help, and by 31 May nearly four hundred small craft were voluntarily and enthusiastically taking part in the effort.
The same day, the Luftwaffe heavily bombed Dunkirk, both the town and the dock installations. As the water supply was knocked out, the resulting fires could not be extinguished. An estimated one thousand civilians were killed, one-third of the remaining population of the town. RAF squadrons were ordered to provide air supremacy for the Royal Navy during evacuation. Their efforts shifted to covering Dunkirk and the English Channel, protecting the evacuation fleet. The Luftwaffe was met by 16 squadrons of the RAF, who claimed 38 kills on 27 May while losing 14 aircraft. Many more RAF fighters sustained damage and were subsequently written off. On the German side, Kampfgeschwader 2 (KG 2) and KG 3 suffered the heaviest casualties. German losses amounted to 23 Dornier Do 17s. KG 1 and KG 4 bombed the beach and harbour and KG 54 sank the 8,000-ton steamer Aden. Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers sank the troopship Cote d' Azur. The Luftwaffe engaged with 300 bombers which were protected by 550 fighter sorties and attacked Dunkirk in twelve raids. They dropped 15,000 high explosive and 30,000 incendiary bombs, destroying the oil tanks and wrecking the harbour. No. 11 Group RAF flew 22 patrols with 287 aircraft this day, in formations of up to 20 aircraft.
Altogether, over 3,500 sorties were flown in support of Operation Dynamo. The RAF continued to inflict a heavy toll on the German bombers throughout the week. Soldiers being bombed and strafed while awaiting transport were for the most part unaware of the efforts of the RAF to protect them, as most of the dogfights took place far from the beaches. As a result, many British soldiers bitterly accused the airmen of doing nothing to help, reportedly leading to some army troops accosting and insulting RAF personnel once they returned to England.
On 25 and 26 May, the Luftwaffe focused their attention on Allied pockets holding out at Calais, Lille, and Amiens, and did not attack Dunkirk. Calais, held by the BEF, surrendered on 26 May. Remnants of the French First Army, surrounded at Lille, fought off seven German divisions, several of them armoured, until 31 May, when the remaining 35,000 soldiers were forced to surrender after running out of food and ammunition. The Germans accorded the honours of war to the defenders of Lille in recognition of their bravery.
28 May – 4 June
The Belgian Army surrendered on 28 May, leaving a large gap to the east of Dunkirk. Several British divisions were rushed in to cover that side. The Luftwaffe flew fewer sorties over Dunkirk on 28 May, switching their attention to the Belgian ports of Ostend and Nieuwpoort. The weather over Dunkirk was not conducive to dive or low-level bombing. The RAF flew 11 patrols and 321 sorties, claiming 23 destroyed for the loss of 13 aircraft. On 28 May, 17,804 soldiers arrived at British ports.
On 29 May, 47,310 British troops were rescued as the Luftwaffes Ju 87s exacted a heavy toll on shipping. The British destroyer HMS Grenade was sunk and the French destroyer Mistral was crippled, while her sister ships, each laden with 500 men, were damaged by near misses. British destroyers Jaguar and Verity were badly damaged but escaped the harbour. Two trawlers disintegrated in the attack. Later, the passenger steamer sank with 600 men aboard at the pier but the men were able to get off. The paddle steamer suffered a direct hit, caught fire, and sank with severe casualties. The raiders also destroyed the two rail-owned ships, the and the . Of the five major German attacks, just two were contested by RAF fighters; the British lost 16 fighters in nine patrols. German losses amounted to 11 Ju 87s destroyed or damaged.
On 30 May, Churchill received word that all British divisions were now behind the defensive lines, along with more than half of the French First Army. By this time, the perimeter ran along a series of canals about from the coast, in marshy country not suitable for tanks. With the docks in the harbour rendered unusable by German air attacks, senior naval officer Captain (later Admiral) William Tennant initially ordered men to be evacuated from the beaches. When this proved too slow, he re-routed the evacuees to two long stone and concrete breakwaters, called the east and west moles, as well as the beaches. The moles were not designed to dock ships, but despite this, the majority of troops rescued from Dunkirk were taken off this way. Almost 200,000 troops embarked on ships from the east mole (which stretched nearly a mile out to sea) over the next week. James Campbell Clouston, pier master on the east mole, organised and regulated the flow of men along the mole into the waiting ships. Once more, low clouds kept Luftwaffe activity to a minimum. Nine RAF patrols were mounted, with no German formation encountered. The following day, the Luftwaffe sank one transport and damaged 12 others for 17 losses; the British claimed 38 kills, which is disputed. The RAF and Fleet Air Arm lost 28 aircraft.
Of the total 338,226 soldiers, several hundred were unarmed Indian mule handlers on detachment from the Royal Indian Army Service Corps, forming four of the six units of Force K-6 transport. Cypriot muleteers were also present. Three units were successfully evacuated and one captured. Also present at Dunkirk were a small number of French Senegalese soldiers and Moroccans.
The next day, an additional 53,823 men were embarked, including the first French soldiers. Lord Gort and 68,014 men were evacuated on 31 May, leaving Major-General Harold Alexander in command of the rearguard. A further 64,429 Allied soldiers departed on 1 June, before the increasing air attacks prevented further daylight evacuation. The British rearguard of 4,000 men left on the night of 2–3 June. An additional 75,000 French troops were retrieved over the nights of 2–4 June, before the operation finally ended. The remainder of the rearguard, 40,000 French troops, surrendered on 4 June.
Navy
Evacuation routes
Three routes were allocated to the evacuating vessels. The shortest was Route Z, a distance of , but it entailed hugging the French coast and thus ships using it were subject to bombardment from on-shore batteries, particularly in daylight hours. Route X, although the safest from shore batteries, travelled through a particularly heavily mined portion of the Channel. Ships on this route travelled north out of Dunkirk, proceeded through the Ruytingen Pass, and headed towards the North Goodwin Lightship before heading south around the Goodwin Sands to Dover. The route was safest from surface attacks, but the nearby minefields and sandbanks meant it could not be used at night. The longest of the three was Route Y, a distance of ; using this route increased the sailing time to four hours, double the time required for Route Z. This route followed the French coast as far as Bray-Dunes, then turned north-east until reaching the Kwinte Buoy. Here, after making an approximately 135-degree turn, the ships sailed west to the North Goodwin Lightship and headed south around the Goodwin Sands to Dover. Ships on Route Y were the most likely to be attacked by German surface vessels, submarines, and the Luftwaffe.
Ships
The Royal Navy provided the anti-aircraft cruiser HMS Calcutta, 39 destroyers, and many other craft. The Merchant Navy supplied passenger ferries, hospital ships, and other vessels. Britain's Belgian, Dutch, Canadian, Polish, and French allies provided vessels as well. Admiral Ramsay arranged for around a thousand copies to be made of the required charts, had buoys laid around the Goodwin Sands and down to Dunkirk, and organised the flow of shipping. Larger ships such as destroyers were able to carry about 900 men per trip. The soldiers mostly travelled on the upper decks for fear of being trapped below if the ship sank. After the loss on 29 May of 19 British and French navy ships plus three of the larger requisitioned vessels, the Admiralty withdrew their eight best destroyers for the future defence of the country.
Little ships
A wide variety of small vessels from all over the south of England were pressed into service to aid in the Dunkirk evacuation. They included speedboats, Thames vessels, car ferries, pleasure craft, and many other types of small craft. The most useful proved to be the motor lifeboats, which had a reasonably good capacity and speed. Some boats were requisitioned without the owner's knowledge or consent. Agents of the Ministry of Shipping, accompanied by a naval officer, scoured the Thames for likely vessels, had them checked for seaworthiness, and took them downriver to Sheerness, where naval crews were to be placed aboard. Due to shortages of personnel, many small craft crossed the Channel with civilian crews.
The first of the "little ships" arrived at Dunkirk on 28 May. The wide sand beaches meant that large vessels could not get anywhere near the shore, and even small craft had to stop about from the waterline and wait for the soldiers to wade out. In many cases, personnel would abandon their boat upon reaching a larger ship, and subsequent evacuees had to wait for boats to drift ashore with the tide before they could make use of them. In most areas on the beaches, soldiers queued up with their units and patiently awaited their turn to leave. But at times, panicky soldiers had to be warned off at gunpoint when they attempted to rush to the boats out of turn. In addition to ferrying out on boats, soldiers at De Panne and Bray-Dunes constructed improvised jetties by driving rows of abandoned vehicles onto the beach at low tide, anchoring them with sandbags, and connecting them with wooden walkways.
Aftermath
Analysis
Before the operation was completed, the prognosis had been gloomy, with Churchill warning the House of Commons on 28 May to expect "hard and heavy tidings". Subsequently, Churchill referred to the outcome as a miracle, and the British press presented the evacuation as a "disaster turned to triumph" so successfully that Churchill had to remind the country in a speech to the House of Commons on 4 June that "we must be very careful not to assign to this deliverance the attributes of a victory. Wars are not won by evacuations." Andrew Roberts comments that the confusion over the Dunkirk evacuation is illustrated by two of the best books on it being called Strange Defeat and Strange Victory.
The 51st (Highland) Infantry Division was cut off south of the Somme, by the German "race to the sea", in addition to the remnants of the 1st Armoured Division and a host of logistical and labour troops. Some of the latter had been formed into the improvised Beauman Division. At the end of May, further elements of two divisions began deploying to France with the hope of establishing a Second BEF. The majority of the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division was forced to surrender on 12 June. However, almost 192,000 Allied personnel, including 144,000 British, were evacuated through various French ports from 15 to 25 June under the codename Operation Aerial. Remaining British forces under the Tenth Army as Norman Force retreated towards Cherbourg. The Germans marched into Paris on 14 June and France surrendered eight days later.
The more than 100,000 French troops evacuated from Dunkirk were quickly and efficiently shuttled to camps in various parts of south-western England, where they were temporarily lodged before being repatriated. British ships ferried French troops to Brest, Cherbourg, and other ports in Normandy and Brittany, although only about half of the repatriated troops were redeployed against the Germans before the surrender of France. For many French soldiers, the Dunkirk evacuation represented only a few weeks' delay before being killed or captured by the German army after their return to France. Of the French soldiers evacuated from France in June 1940, about 3,000 joined Charles de Gaulle's Free French army in Britain.
In France, the unilateral British decision to evacuate through Dunkirk rather than counter-attack to the south, and the perceived preference of the Royal Navy for evacuating British forces at the expense of the French, led to some bitter resentment. According to Churchill, French Admiral François Darlan originally ordered that the British forces should receive preference, but on 31 May, he intervened at a meeting in Paris to order that the evacuation should proceed on equal terms and that the British would form the rearguard. In fact, the 35,000 men who finally surrendered after covering the final evacuations were mostly French soldiers of the 2nd Light Mechanized and the 68th Infantry Divisions. Their resistance allowed the evacuation effort to be extended to 4 June, on which date another 26,175 Frenchmen were transported to England.
The evacuation was presented to the German public as an overwhelming and decisive German victory. On 5 June 1940, Hitler stated, "Dunkirk has fallen! 40,000 French and English troops are all that remains of the formerly great armies. Immeasurable quantities of materiel have been captured. The greatest battle in the history of the world has come to an end." Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (the German armed forces high command) announced the event as "the greatest annihilation battle of all time".
Casualties
The BEF lost 68,000 soldiers (dead, wounded, missing, or captured) from 10 May until the armistice with France on 22 June. 3,500 British were killed and 13,053 wounded. All the heavy equipment had to be abandoned. Left behind in France were 2,472 guns, 20,000 motorcycles, and almost 65,000 other vehicles; also abandoned were of stores, more than of ammunition and of fuel. Almost all of the 445 British tanks that had been sent to France with the BEF were abandoned.
Six British and three French destroyers were sunk, along with nine other major vessels. In addition, 19 destroyers were damaged. Over 200 British and Allied sea craft were sunk, with a similar number damaged. The Royal Navy's most significant losses in the operation were six destroyers:
, sunk by on 29 May
, sunk by air attack at Dunkirk on 29 May
, sunk by a torpedo from the E-boat S-30 on 29 May
, , and , sunk by air attack off the beaches on 1 June
The French Navy lost three destroyers:
, mined off Nieuport on 30 May
, sunk by the E-boats S-23 and S-26 on 31 May
Le Foudroyant, sunk by air attack off the beaches on 1 June
The RAF lost 145 aircraft, of which at least 42 were Spitfires, while the Luftwaffe lost 156 aircraft in operations in the nine days of Operation Dynamo, including 35 destroyed by Royal Navy ships (plus 21 damaged) during the six days from 27 May to 1 June.
For every seven soldiers who escaped through Dunkirk, one man was left behind as a prisoner of war. The majority of these prisoners were sent on forced marches into Germany. Prisoners reported brutal treatment by their guards, including beatings, starvation, and murder. Another complaint was that German guards kicked over buckets of water that had been left at the roadside by French civilians for the marching prisoners to drink.
Many of the prisoners were marched to the city of Trier, with the march taking as long as 20 days. Others were marched to the river Scheldt and were sent by barge to the Ruhr. The prisoners were then sent by rail to prisoner of war camps in Germany. The majority (those below the rank of corporal) then worked in German industry and agriculture for the remainder of the war.
Those of the BEF who died or were captured and have no known grave are commemorated on the Dunkirk Memorial.
Dunkirk Jack
The St George's Cross defaced with the arms of Dunkirk is the warranted house flag of the Association of Dunkirk Little Ships. It is known as the Dunkirk Jack. The flag may be flown from the jack staff only by civilian vessels that took part in the Dunkirk rescue operation.
Portrayals
Films
Dunkirk (1958)
Weekend at Dunkirk (1964)
Dunkirk (2017)
Television
Dunkirk (2004)
Books
The Snow Goose: A Story of Dunkirk, a novella by Paul Gallico
See also
1940 Dunkirk Veterans' Association
Dunkirk Medal
Little Ships of Dunkirk
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Spitfires Join the Fighting – aerial battle over Dunkirk
Official website of Dunkirk memorial and museum
BBC Archive – Dunkirk Evacuation
Dunkirk, Operation Dynamo – Battle of Britain 1940
Nazis invade France Video analysis on WW2History.com
BBC Archives – J. B. Priestley's 'Postscript' – radio broadcast from 5 June 1940
1940 in France
1940 in the United Kingdom
Amphibious operations of World War II
Battle of France
Battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom
Battles in Hauts-de-France
Conflicts in 1940
Evacuations
Evacuation
June 1940 events
May 1940 events
Naval battles and operations of the European theatre of World War II | [
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253768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CB | CB | CB and variants may refer to:
Places
CB postcode area, British post code for eastern England served by the Cambridge postal sorting office
Cambodia (FIPS Pub 10-4 country code and obsolete NATO digram CB)
Cape Breton (disambiguation)
Centura București, a ring road of Bucharest, Romania
Colegio Bolivar, an American school in Cali, Colombia
Province of Campobasso, Italy
ČB – České Budějovice, Czechia
People
Chris Bosh (born 1984), American basketball player
Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1836–1908), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1906–1908, widely referred to by his surname initials
Brands and enterprises
Carte Bancaire, a bank card brand
Christianssands Bryggeri, a Norwegian brewery
ScotAirways (IATA airline code CB)
Business and financial terms
Capacity building, the process by which individuals and organizations obtain, improve, and retain the skills and knowledge needed to undertake their tasks
Certification body
Chargeback, a reversal of a banking or credit card transaction
Convertible bond, a type of bond that can convert into a specified number of shares
Science and technology
Computing and telecommunications
Cell Broadcast, in GSM mobile networks
Citizens band radio (CB radio), a system of short-distance radio communications
Closed beta, a software development stage or testing process
Other uses in science and technology
Cannabinoids, a group of substances that bind to animal cannabinoid receptors
Circuit breaker, an automatic electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overcurrent
Columbium (Cb), an obsolete name for the element niobium
Cumulonimbus cloud (Cb), a type of cloud that is tall, dense, and involved in thunderstorms and other intense weather
Sea vessels
CB-class midget submarine, a group of midget submarines built for the Italian Navy during World War II
Block coefficient (Cb), a parameter describing the shape of a ship's hull
Large Cruiser, a retired US Navy hull classification (symbol CB)
Sports
Positions
Centre-back, a defensive position in association football
Cornerback, a position in American football
Teams
Chicago Bears, a team in the National Football League
Chicago Bulls, a team in the National Basketball Association
Cleveland Browns, a team in the National Football League
Titles
Chief Baron of the Exchequer, the chief judge of the Court of Exchequer, an abolished English court
Companion of The Most Honourable Order of the Bath, a title conferred to British and Commonwealth citizens
Other uses
2020 Singapore circuit breaker measures, commonly abbreviated as CB, a stay-at-home order implemented in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore
CB, dominical letter for a leap year starting on Friday
Casus belli, a Latin expression meaning reason for war
Construction Battalion (CB or "Seabee"), a United States Navy unit responsible for any type of construction be it general or combat on land or under water.
Curveball, a music festival hosted by the band Phish
Cone Beam (especially CBCT; Cone beam computed tomography)
Cumulative Bulletin, an annual compilation of the Internal Revenue Bulletin | [
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253769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Cycle | Operation Cycle | Operation Cycle is the name of the evacuation of Allied troops from Le Havre, in the Pays de Caux of Upper Normandy from 1940, towards the end of the Battle of France, during the Second World War. The operation was preceded by the better known rescue of and French soldiers from Dunkirk in Operation Dynamo On 20 May, the Germans had captured Abbeville at the mouth of the Somme and cut off the main Allied armies in the north. South of the river, the Allies improvised defences and made local counter-attacks, to dislodge the Germans from bridgeheads on the south bank and re-capture river crossings for an advance northwards to regain contact with the armies in northern France and Flanders.
The 1st Armoured Division arrived in France from 15 May, without artillery and less units that had been diverted to Calais. The division joined the large number of lines-of-communication troops south of the Somme, many of whom were hurriedly organised into the Beauman Division and other improvised units, despite a lack of training and weapons. French troops were sent into the area, as Général d'armée Maxime Weygand attempted to build up a defence in depth on the south bank of the Somme and make bigger attacks to eliminate the German bridgeheads. From about half of the German bridgehead south of Abbeville was recaptured by Franco-British troops; the Allies were reinforced by infantry divisions and the 4e Division cuirassée (4e DCr, Colonel Charles De Gaulle) but lost many of their tanks and the Germans much of their infantry, some units running back over the river Somme.
When Fall Rot (Case Red), the final German offensive, began on 5 June, the IX Corps of the French Tenth Army (including the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division (Major-General Victor Fortune) of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) after it arrived from the Saar on 28 May), was pushed back to the Bresle River. On 9 June, German tanks entered Rouen on the Seine, cutting off the IX Corps from the X Corps to the east and from the Seine to the south. The French and British commanders in the pocket decided to make for Le Havre and Fortune detached Arkforce, the equivalent of two brigades, to guard the routes back to the port. During the night of the remainder of the Highland Division and the French divisions of IX Corps prepared to continue the retreat but found that the 7th Panzer Division (Generalmajor Erwin Rommel) had advanced from Rouen through Yvetot to Cany and Veulettes-sur-Mer on the Durdent river.
With an Allied withdrawal to Le Havre cut off, the Highlanders and the French retreated to St Valery-en-Caux, where from 10 to 11 June, and soldiers were rescued by the Navy. The remainder, including over 6,000 Highlanders, were taken prisoner on 12 June. At Le Havre, from 10 to 13 June, troops from Arkforce, other British units in the port and Allied forces were evacuated; attempts by the Franco-British to prepare a national redoubt in Brittany came to nothing. Operation Cycle was followed by Operation Aerial from 14 to 25 June, in which another were embarked from Cherbourg, St. Malo and other Atlantic and Mediterranean ports, until the Armistice of 22 June 1940.
Background
Battle of France
On 10 May 1940, the Germans began Fall Gelb an offensive against France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Within a few days, Army Group A (Generaloberst Gerd von Rundstedt) broke through the French Ninth Army (General André Corap) in the centre of the French front near Sedan and drove westwards down the Somme river valley, led by Panzergruppe Kleist made up of the XIX Armeekorps under Generalleutnant Heinz Guderian and the XLI Armee Korps under Generalleutnant Georg-Hans Reinhardt. On 20 May, the Germans captured Abbeville at the mouth of the Somme River, cutting off the Allied troops in Northern France and Belgium. The Battle of Arras, a Franco-British counter-attack on 21 May, led the Germans to continue to attack north towards the channel ports, rather than advance southwards over the Somme. Apprehension about another Franco-British counter-attack led to the Arras halt order being issued by the German higher commanders on 21 May. The neighbouring XV Corps (General Hermann Hoth) was held back in reserve and a division of the XLI Korps was moved eastwards, when the corps was only from Dunkirk.
British lines-of-communication
Allied forces north of the Somme were cut off by the German advance to St. Omer and Boulogne on the night of which isolated the BEF from its supply entrepôts at Cherbourg in the Cotentin peninsula, Brittany and Nantes. The Pays de Caux, the coastal area between the Somme and the Seine, was known as the Northern District (Acting Brigadier Archibald Beauman) on the BEF lines-of-communication, with the Dieppe and Rouen districts as sub-areas. Dieppe was the main medical base of the BEF and Le Havre the principal supply and ordnance source. From St. Saëns to Buchy, north-east of Rouen, lay the main BEF ammunition depot and its infantry, machine-gun and base depots were at Rouen, Évreux and L'Epinay. A main railway line linking the bases and connecting them with bases further west in Normandy and with the BEF in the north, ran through Rouen, Abbeville and Amiens. Beauman was responsible for base security and guarding being built for the RAF, with troops drawn from the Royal Engineers, Royal Army Ordnance Corps, Royal Corps of Signals and older garrison troops.
Below the Seine in the Southern District, were three Territorial divisions and the 4th Border Regiment, 4th Buffs and the 1st/5th Sherwood Forester lines-of-communication battalions, which were moved into the Northern District on 17 May as a precaution. Rail movements between these bases and the Somme quickly became difficult, due to congestion and German bombing, the trains from the north mainly carrying Belgian and French troops and the roads filling with retreating troops and refugees. Beauman lost contact with the BEF GHQ and was also unable to discover if Allied troops were going to dig in on the Somme or further south. On 18 May, Major-General Philip de Fonblanque, commanding the lines-of-communication troops, ordered Beauman to prepare defences in the Northern District. Beauforce was improvised from the 2nd/6th East Surrey of the 12th (Eastern) Infantry Division, 4th Buffs, four machine-gun platoons and the 212th Army Troops Company RE.
Vicforce (Colonel C. E. Vickary) took over five provisional battalions created from reinforcement troops in infantry and general base depots, which held plenty of men but few arms and little equipment. Beauforce was sent to Boulogne on 20 May by road but the Germans had already cut off the port and it returned to the 12th (Eastern) Infantry Division near Abbeville. When German troops captured Amiens on 20 May and then began patrolling south of the river, their appearance caused panic and alarmist rumours, in the absence of reliable information. Beauman ordered the digging of a defence line along the Andelle and Béthune rivers, the most effective tank obstacles south of the Bresle river, to protect Dieppe and Rouen against an attack from the east. Bridges were prepared for demolition and obstacles placed on the approaches.
Battle of Abbeville
On 20 May, the 2nd Panzer Division advanced to Abbeville on the English Channel, overran the 25th Infantry Brigade of the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division and captured the town at Only a few British survivors managed to retreat to the south bank of the Somme. At on 21 May, the III Battalion, Rifle Regiment 2 reached the coast, west of Noyelles-sur-Mer. The 1st Armoured Division (Major-General Roger Evans) had arrived in France from 15 May without artillery, short of an armoured regiment and the infantry of the Support Group, which had been diverted to Calais. From 4 June to 4 July the Franco-British forces south of the Abbeville bridgehead, held by the German 2nd Panzer Division, then the 57th Infantry Division, recaptured about half of the area; the Allied forces lost many of their tanks and the Germans much of their infantry, some units running back over the River Somme. On 5 June, the German 4th Army attacked out of the remains of their bridgeheads south of the Somme and the Franco-British divisions opposite, drastically depleted by their counter-attacks of the previous four weeks, were pushed back to the Bresle with many casualties.
Prelude
Allied defensive preparations
The French armies and the "2nd BEF" were operating on interior lines and were closer to their bases and supplies. About troops from Dunkirk had returned to France via the ports of Normandy and Brittany and the troops in the area had been reinforced by about troops from England. The French had also managed to replace many of their tank and other armoured vehicle losses for the 1e and 2e DCr (heavy armoured divisions) and the 4e DCr had its losses replaced and French morale experienced something of a revival by the end of May.
Most French soldier replacements had not experienced the débâcle in the north and officers returned from Dunkirk had gained tactical experience against German mobile units and discovered that tank-for-tank, French vehicles were superior to their German equivalents, having thicker armour and better guns; the French artillery had also performed well. From the Seventh Army and the Tenth Army (General Robert Altmayer) were rebuilt and Weygand adapted to German tactics with defence in depth and delaying tactics, to inflict maximum attrition on German units. Villages, towns and cities were fortified for all-round defence, to serve as hedgehogs with the new infantry, armoured and half-mechanised divisions held back, ready to counter-attack and relieve surrounded units, which were to hold out at all costs.
German offensive preparations
On 21 May, Colonel General Franz Halder, the Chief of the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH) General Staff, submitted to Hitler Fall Rot (Case Red), a campaign plan for the final defeat of France, which after amendment was adopted on 31 May. On 5 June, Army Group A was to attack either side of Paris towards the Seine and the main attack by Army Group B (Colonel General Fedor von Bock) was to begin the main attack east of Paris on 9 June towards Rheims and then after about a week, Army Group C (Colonel General Wilhelm von Leeb) was to attack through the Maginot Line and the Upper Rhine. The three army groups would then converge on the Plateau de Langres south-east of Paris and on the rear of the Maginot Line. Army Group B had one cavalry, four motorised infantry, six panzer divisions and two motorised infantry brigades. Army Group A had two motorised infantry and four panzer divisions. The 4th Army, 6th Army and 9th Army were controlled by Army Group B and the 2nd Army, 12th Army and 16th Army by Army Group A; the 18th Army (General Georg von Küchler) with four divisions, was to remain at Dunkirk. Army Group C had divisions and divisions were held in OKH reserve. Seven divisions were left in eastern Germany and seven garrisoned Norway.
The motorised infantry and panzer divisions were concentrated into two groups of two corps each, Panzergruppe Guderian in Army Group A and Panzergruppe Kleist (General Ewald von Kleist) in Army Group B along with the XV Corps. The plan was based on the traditional concept of Vernichtungsgedanke (annihilation theory) in which (battles of manoeuvre) would lead to the encirclement and destruction of the opposing armies. The panzer groups were not to be used in independent operations but subordinated to the armies, despite having the same size and importance. Panzergruppe Guderian came under the 12th Army (Colonel General Wilhelm List), Panzergruppe Kleist the 6th Army (Colonel General Walter von Reichenau) and XV Corps under the 4th Army (Colonel General Günther von Kluge). Despite protests from Guderian, List planned the attack over the Aisne as an infantry operation, with the panzer divisions held back to exploit the breakthrough. Extensive redeployments were necessary and Panzergruppe Guderian moved to its start line, after travelling during the drive to Dunkirk, the troops beginning to show great tiredness and the vehicles wear and tear. The Luftwaffe made strategic attacks from (towards the end of the Dunkirk evacuation), against the Parisian aircraft industry and fuel dépôts around Marseilles, then resumed close support operations for the army for Fall Rot. (After the occupation of the capital on 14 June, Luftwaffe operations concentrated on the Channel Ports south of the Somme and the Atlantic ports, towards which the BEF was retreating.)
4th Army plan
On the German right flank, against the French Tenth Army, the 4th Army of Army Group B was to attack with the 5th Panzer Division, 7th Panzer Division, the 57th Infantry Division, 31st Infantry Division, 12th Infantry Division, 32nd Infantry Division, 27th Infantry Division, 46th Infantry Division and the 6th Infantry Division and the 2nd Motorised Division, the 11th Motorised Brigade and the 1st Cavalry Division. Advancing on a line from Abbeville to Amiens, with a flank guard on the left facing Paris, the main force was to make for the lower Seine, quickly to capture Le Havre and bridgeheads at Rouen, Les Andelys and Vernon. An advance beyond the Seine to the south or south-west was to wait on events.
Fall Rot
5 June
On 5 June, Fall Rot (Case Red), a German offensive to complete the defeat of France began and Army Group A attacked either side of Paris towards the Seine. The 4th Army offensive on the Somme began at opposite the 51st (Highland) Division at St. Valery sur Somme. German infantry moved forward against Saigneville, Mons, Catigny, Pendé, Tilloy and Sallenelle held by the 7th and 8th battalions, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Argyll), as other troops passed between them, the villages being too far apart for mutual support. Saigneville, Mons, Catigny, Pendé and Tilloy fell late in the afternoon and the 7th Argyll were surrounded at Franleu, by troops infiltrating between Mons and Arrest. The 4th Black Watch in reserve, were ordered forward to relieve Franleu but were stopped by German troops at Feuquières and an Argyll company sent forward was surrounded at the edge of Franleu. By dark, the remnants of the 154th Infantry Brigade had been pushed back to a line from Woincourt to Eu.
On the right, the 153rd Infantry Brigade was bombed by Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers along with the mortar and artillery-fire used on the rest of the front. The German infantry pushed the battalion back to Tœufles, Zoteux and Frières, where British machine-gun and artillery fire stopped the advance. The French 31st (Alpine) Division was forced back parallel to the British from Limeux to Limercourt and Béhen, with the 152nd Infantry Brigade on the right from Oisemont to the Blangy–Abbeville road. The 1st Lothian and Border Horse at Bray were attacked and fell back east of the village of Oisement. The Composite Regiment had several engagements and had tank losses before rallying at Beauchamps on the Bresle. The 51st Highland and 31st (Alpine) divisions had tried to hold a front and were so depleted after the bridgehead attacks up to 4 June, that the 1st Black Watch had to hold a front, in close country. The British troops held on until overwhelmed or retreated under the cover of their artillery, which also held on until the last moment before retiring.
The 51st (Highland) Division HQ requested air support from the South Component HQ at Boos but the three AASF fighter squadrons were down to aircraft and lost another four during the morning. Big Luftwaffe attacks had been expected on the industrial town of Rouen, a rail and road centre and Anglo-French base of operations; 1 Squadron and French fighters intercepted a raid early in the morning and shot down several aircraft but the remainder got through and bombed Boos aerodrome and an army camp. Another raid in the evening was caught by 501 Squadron but managed to bomb the airfield and camp again, the main bridge, power station, railway and factories. Bombing by the AASF and Bomber Command took place further east and during the night, attacked German communications in France and oil and transport targets in Germany.
6 June
During the night, Fortune wrote to Marshall-Cornwall, the War Office liaison officer at the Tenth Army HQ, asking for reinforcements and permission to retreat with the 31st (Alpine) Division to the Bresle but no more troops were left. Marshall-Cornwall prevailed upon Altmayer to agree to a retreat to the Bresle, where the 31st (Alpine) Division would hold from Senarpont to Gamaches and the 51st (Highland) Division from there to the sea, a front of . On 6 June, the day passed with German attacks on Oisemont supported by artillery and bombing, that were repulsed by the 1st Lothian and the 2e Division Légère de Cavalerie (2nd DLC, Colonel Berniquet) in a costly defensive success. Attacks further away were repulsed by artillery and small arms fire, except at Beauchamps. Infiltration attempts around Eu and Ponts-et-Marais were only just repulsed by the Composite Regiment of the 1st Armoured Division.
The Composite Regiment moved on to Eu and counter-attacked the infiltrations there. Later in the day, the 40th Division moved up beyond the Bresle from Senarpont to Aumale to reinforce parties of Royal Engineers and an anti-tank battery. During the day, reports arrived that German tanks had broken through on the right, that turned out to be alarmist rumours but the 5th and 7th Panzer divisions had attacked towards Rouen and their leading elements had got beyond the Poix–Rouen road, with the 2nd Motorised Division following. The 6th Infantry Division was advancing on the German left and the 32nd Infantry Division on the German right was away. The IX Corps position on the Bresle was vulnerable to being cut off in the Havre peninsula. A brigade group of the 52nd (Lowland) Division was due from England on 7 June and the War Office urged the French command to arrange a line of retreat south-east, away from the dead-end of Le Havre, towards the BEF lines of communication south of the Seine.
Weygand had forbidden a retirement, ordering the Bresle to be held come what may. Earlier, 12 Blenheims with air cover flew from England to attack German columns moving towards the Somme crossings and lost five aircraft. Later in the day, bombed bridges and roads from Abbeville to St. Valery-sur-Somme for no loss. Fighters of the AASF patrolled Rouen and during the evening flew sorties over the IX Corps area. In the afternoon, two fighter squadrons had flown from England to Boos airfield, refuelled and patrolled the battlefront but arrived after the German raids on Oisemont and Millebosc. Weygand also appealed for more fighters and the Air Ministry issued warning orders to several squadrons, as Command and aircraft raided German communications and oil targets that night.
7 June
A Brigade of the Beauman Division, with about of the 4th Buffs, 1st/5th Sherwood Forester and 4th Border battalions, was sent to reinforce the 51st (Highland) Division (whose 152nd, 153rd and 154th Infantry brigades had suffered casualties) and took over on the left; the remnants of the 152nd Infantry Brigade moved into reserve in the . By 7 June, the 51st (Highland) Division had taken up the new position on the Bresle and was in contact with the 31st (Alpine) Division on the right, which reverted to French command. The river made a good defensive position, particularly at the mouth where the banks had been flooded, forming a good tank obstacle and the only vulnerable points were at Eu and Ponts de Marais. During the day, the 4th Border and a company of the 1st/5th Forester attacked the German pocket on the south bank but only managed to push back the Germans to the north-west end of the . The 1st Lothian and the Composite Regiment were moved up as a precaution and for the rest of the day the Allied forces skirmished with the Germans opposite.
To the south-east, the situation continued to deteriorate and Fortune liaised with the 31st (Alpine) Division, to make sure that the limitations of the Support Group (Brigadier F. E. Morgan), 1st Armoured Division were understood. (The day before, the 1st Armoured Division had come under the command of Almayer at the Tenth Army HQ.) The Support Group was separated from the 51st (Highland) Division by the 31st (Alpine) Division, 40th Infantry Division, the 2e DLC and the 5e DLC. During 7 June, Evans met Marshall-Cornwall and Lieutenant-General Henry Pownall the former Chief of Staff of the BEF, who was over from England. It was known by then that the 5th Panzer Division had broken through the French from Grandvilliers and Formerie and overrun British troops south of the Aumale. Other parts of the Support Group on the Aumale–Serqueux front had defeated an attack but the panzers had then attacked south-west near Forges; the remains of the Support Group were withdrawn into the Basse Forêt d'Eu. The 5th and 7th Panzer divisions had already outflanked the Bresle line and the 1st Armoured Division units were ordered up to Gournay-en-Bray to make a flank attack on the German penetration. The division had tanks and tanks in the 3rd Armoured Brigade, six light tanks of Queen's Bays and the 10th Royal Hussars mounted in lorries of the 2nd Armoured Brigade, after refitting since the May offensive against the German Somme bridgeheads.
During the evening, Général d'armée Maxime Weygand, arrived at the Tenth Army HQ and told the Franco-British officers that the Tenth Army was fighting the decisive battle of the war, that as there were no reserves and all depended on the 1st Armoured Division holding of the Andelle line from Nolleval to Serqueux, as French formations counter-attacked from the south. Evans explained that it was a division in name only, its artillery, anti-tank guns and infantry having been detached and that the tanks were not suited to static defence and were already moving up for a counter-attack on the German flank. Weygand was unmoved, only giving permission for the division to retreat over the Seine if it was pushed back from the Andelle. Evans had to countermand the counter-attack, while some units were already engaging the Germans north-west of Gournay. By dawn on 8 June, the panzers were close to Rouen and IX Corps on the Bresle was on the brink of being cut off.
8 June
Bresle
On the Bresle, German troops did little while they waited for the panzer divisions to envelop the southern flank of the IX Corps defence line. The 4th Border and 1st/5th Forester continued their attempts to expel the Germans from positions in the but only managed to prevent the Germans from taking more ground and there was skirmishing around Beauchamps. At dawn, the German panzer divisions resumed their attack towards Rouen. By this time the 51st (Highland) Division and the reinforcement of A Brigade from the Beauman Division was holding the line of the Bresle from Gamaches to Eu under the command of the divisional headquarters. The 1st Armoured Division had been broken up as soon as it arrived in France and without the detachments to Calais had taken part in the Allied offensive against the German bridgeheads south of the Somme. Since then, a Composite Regiment from the 2nd Armoured Brigade had remained with the 51st (Highland) Division and was covering the Haute forêt d'Eu. The rest of the 2nd and 3rd Armoured brigades had been reduced by losses to improvised units and held part of the Andelle line from Nolleval to Serqueux and the remnants of the Support Group was in the Basse forêt d'Eu under the command of the 51st (Highland) Division. B and C brigades of the Beauman Division were defending the Béthune–Andelle line from the Seine to Dieppe.
Andelle
The panzer divisions attacked at Forges and Sigy-en-Bray, where French refugees and stragglers had been passing through, making it impossible to close the road blocks and a column of French tanks was allowed through, which turned out to be captured vehicles with German crews. The "French" tanks attacked the defences from the rear as the main German force attacked frontally, capturing Serqueux, losing it to a counter-attack and then regaining it. Sigy was bombarded and dive-bombed and the tanks of the 1st Armoured Division and the Beauman Division infantry were pushed back. Further north, Neufchatel was in flames and panzers reached Mathonville and pressed on towards the Neufchatel to L'Epinay and Rouen road. Earlier, the Composite Regiment in Haute forêt d'Eu had been ordered back to the 1st Armoured Division to guard the left flank of the defenders on the Andelle line and arrived at L'Epinay at but before the regiment could take post, German panzers and troops arrived on the road from Serqueux, away. For three hours the Composite Regiment resisted German attacks and was then pushed back.
The rest of the 5th Panzer Division had advanced towards Rouen and at engaged Syme's Battalion at Isneauville, which had been dive-bombed earlier in the day. The battalion, that had been improvised from reinforcement drafts only a week previous, had laid dannert wire and planted land-mines and after artillery preparation, resisted for three hours, preventing the Germans from reaching Rouen and claimed many infantry casualties, twelve tanks knocked out, six paratroops, an aircraft and a field gun. The battalion then made a fighting withdrawal to the Seine. During the afternoon and night, the remnants of the 1st Armoured Division and the Beauman Division also retreated over the Seine, which left only the 51st (Highland) Division and part of the Support Group on the north side. Weygand ordered the IX Corps to retreat to Les Andelys and Rouen, which had already fallen. Ihler received the orders as the Tenth Army HQ was out of touch while moving closer to Paris and gave the divisional commanders a retirement programme in which Rouen was to be reached in four days, despite the German spearheads being only four hours from the city.
Seine
On 6 June Syme's Battalion had arrived comprising soldiers from the base reinforcement depot and the 2nd/4th King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry (2nd/4th KOYLI) and 2nd/6th Duke of Wellington's (2nd/6th Duke's) battalions of the 46th Division, that had been recovering since the loss of Abbeville on 20 May, had taken up positions around Rouen, Syme's Battalion with four 2-pounder anti-tank guns and a machine-gun platoon around Isneauville, the 2nd/4th KOYLI on a bridge over the Seine and the 2nd/6th Duke's along the railway south of Boos. The Beauman Division had little artillery and its ill-equipped infantry was dispersed in about of ground from the south-east of Rouen on the Seine to St. Vaast on the Béthune and in positions around Rouen. In some places they were close to parties of the 1st Armoured Division and at others with French troops all under separate command, with few means of liaison. Refugees and stragglers on the roads made it impossible to close roads or prevent infiltration and led Beauman to give a general order, that troops were to hold for as long as possible and that brigadiers were to use their discretion, as to when a retreat to the south of the Seine had become necessary. (During the afternoon and night, the last of the 1st Armoured Division and the Beauman Division retreated over the river.)
9 June
During the morning, German tanks entered Rouen, to find that French and British troops had left and blown the Seine bridges. IX Corps on the Bresle began to retire as the German armoured forces turned north. Fortune had divided the 51st (Highland) Division to leapfrog backwards; the 153rd Brigade and A Brigade were to retreat to a line from Envermeu to Belleville-sur-Mer as the 154th and 152nd Brigades assembled on the Béthune further back. The Royal Army Service Corps made double trips to move the troops but some took until mid-morning on 9 June, to reach the new positions. (Resistance at two of the Bresle crossings by D Company of the 4th Border and A Company of the 1st/5th Sherwood Forester, which did not receive the retreat order, may have slowed a German follow-up, the two companies holding on for another six days until on 13 June, they realised that hostilities north of the Seine had ended.) The survivors of the Support Group in the Basse forêt d'Eu joined the remains of the 2e DLC and 5e DLC in Forêt d'Eawy. The Tenth Army HQ has lost contact with IX Corps and the 51st (Highland) Division lost contact with everyone, until a dispatch rider arrived from Le Havre with a message from the British commander in Le Havre, that the Port admiral had reported that the Germans had reached Rouen. Fortune conferred with Ihler and both agreed to retreat to Le Havre.
On the night of the rest of the 51st (Highland) Division blew the bridges over the Arques and the Eaulne, where the Germans promptly attacked. The 4th Seaforth and the 1st Black Watch managed to hold on, despite attacks at Arques la Bataille and Martigny, where the artillery repulsed several German advances. The panzer divisions had turned north from Rouen towards Dieppe and captured the Arkforce wireless lorry near Carny on the Durdent river at The river was the next position the 51st Highland Division was to retire to after dark and a reconnaissance by the 1st Lothian found the Germans on the river crossings at Veulettes-sur-Mer close to the coast too. German tanks were reported from divisional headquarters that afternoon and rear parties moving westwards preparatory to the retreat that night, ran into German troops. At , part of the destroyer force that had been giving the division fire support for several days, was damaged by German artillery on the cliffs near St. Valery-en-Caux and was hit while embarking troops from the beach; IX Corps had been cut off from Le Havre.
Operation Cycle
St. Valery
Admiral William James, the Commander-in-Chief Portsmouth, had arrived at Le Havre on 10 June, ordered destroyers to reconnoitre the smaller ports to the east and learned of the damage to Ambuscade and Boadicea; James signalled to the Admiralty that he planned to lift a large number of men from the port and that it must be done that night, if at all. The retreat to the coast began after dark and the last troops left the Béthune at without challenge. Fortune signalled to the War Office that there were two days' rations left and that evacuation from St. Valery to the mouth of the Durdent would be necessary. Units were ordered to dump non-essential equipment and guns were reduced to each to make room on the RASC transport for the men. The night move was difficult as French troops, many horse-drawn, encroached on the British route and alarmist rumours spread. Fortune and Ihler set up at a road junction near Veules-les-Roses to direct troops to their positions and by the morning of 11 June, IX Corps had established a defence round St. Valery. French transport continued to arrive at the perimeter and it was difficult in some places to recognise German troops following up, which inhibited defensive fire.
That evening, the captain of Codrington was ordered to begin the evacuation and two hours later, Fortune signalled that it was probably now or never. Troops not needed to hold the perimeter at St. Valery moved down to the beaches and the harbour but no ships arrived, because thick fog prevented them from moving inshore. An armada of ships and craft had been assembled but few had wireless and the fog ruined visual signalling; only at Veules-les-Roses at the east end of the perimeter, were many soldiers rescued, under fire from German artillery, which damaged the destroyers , Boadicea and Ambuscade. Near dawn, the troops at the harbour were ordered back into the town and at Fortune signalled that it might still be possible to escape the next night, then discovered that the local French commander had negotiated a surrender.
Le Havre
On 9 June, the French port Admiral at Le Havre sent word to the 10th Army and the 51st Highland Division that the Germans had captured Rouen and were heading for the coast. Ihler, the IX Corps commander and Fortune, decided that the only hope of escape was through Le Havre and abandoned the plan to retire through Rouen. The port admiral requested enough ships from the Admiralty to remove but this contradicted the plans given by Weygand for the IX Corps retirement and Dill hesitated, ignorant that delays in issuing the orders had made the retreat plan impossible. Karslake had also urged several times that the retirement be accelerated but had no authority to issue orders. Only after contacting the Howard-Vyse Military Mission at Weygand's headquarters, to report the request from the Le Havre port Admiral and then receiving a message during the night from Fortune, that the 51st (Highland) Division was participating in a retreat by IX Corps towards Le Havre, did Dill learn the true situation.
Fortune detached a force to guard Le Havre comprising the 154th Infantry Brigade, A Brigade of the Beauman Division, two artillery regiments and engineers, named Arkforce (Brigadier Stanley-Clarke) after the village of Arques-la-Bataille, where it was formed. Arkforce moved on the night of towards Fécamp, where most had passed through before the 7th Panzer Division arrived. A Brigade managed to force its way out but lost the wireless truck intended to keep contact with the 51st (Highland) Division. The possibility of holding a line from Fécamp to Lillebonne was discounted and Stanley-Clarke ordered Arkforce on to Le Havre. A Royal Navy demolition party had been in Le Havre since late May and the port was severely bombed by the Luftwaffe on 7 June; two days later, the Admiralty sent orders for an evacuation. Admiral William James, the Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth sent a flotilla leader, across the channel, accompanied by six British and two Canadian destroyers, smaller craft and many Dutch coasters (known as schuyts).
A hasty plan was made to block Dieppe harbour and on 10 June, (Captain G. A. Garnon-Williams) escorted three blockships to the port. Two were sunk in the approach channel but the third ship hit a mine just outside, which prevented it being sunk at the entrance to the inner harbour. (James had signalled that many IX Corps troops would probably be trapped against the sea near St. Valery, where he had assembled flotillas of smaller craft under the local Senior Naval Officer.) Beach parties landed at Le Havre to take control of the evacuation on 10 June and after a 24-hour postponement, the evacuation began on 11 June. The embarkation was hindered somewhat by the damage to the port caused by Luftwaffe bombing; the troopship , was hit and beached, the electric power was also cut, rendering the cranes on the docks useless. Ramps were tried for vehicle loading but it was too slow. On 12 June, RAF fighters began patrolling the port and deterred more raids and an attempt was made to save the transport and equipment by diverting it over the Seine via the ferry crossings at Caudebec or the ships at Quillebeuf at the river mouth. The quartermaster of the 14th Royal Fusiliers succeeded in getting the transport away.
Aftermath
Evacuations
A total of and soldiers were lifted from Veules-les-Roses but the remainder, including over of the 51st (Highland) Division, were taken prisoner on 12 June by the 7th Panzer Division (General Erwin Rommel). The 7th Panzer Division continued its advance through Normandy and reached Cherbourg on 18 June. The greatest number of troops were removed from Le Havre on the night of and the evacuation was completed by dawn; of the troops evacuated, of A Brigade of the Beauman Division were taken to Cherbourg and the 154th Infantry Brigade sailed via Cherbourg to England.
Analysis
Army Group B had attacked either side of Paris with 47 divisions including the majority of the mobile units and for the first 48 hours, the French withstood the German attacks. The 4th Army captured bridgeheads over the Somme but the attack on the Aisne failed against the French defence in depth. At Amiens, the Germans were repulsed several times by French artillery fire. Late on the third day of the offensive the Germans managed to cross the Somme and Aisne despite bombing by the Armée de l'Air (French Air Force). The German success was costly and French troops resisted from woods and other cover, where the Germans had broken through. South of Abbeville, the German XV Corps avoided the woods roads and villages, to move over the slightly undulating country where there were few ditches, the tanks leading and infantry vehicles following. The Tenth Army was broken through and retreated to Rouen and southwards along the Seine. German spearheads were vulnerable to flank attacks but operations obstructed French attempts to concentrate and the fear of air attack negated the mass and mobility of the French armies.
On 6 June, documents recovered from a dead German officer, gave the German programme for 7 and 8 June. Beauman, Evans and Marshall-Cornwall discussed the find at the Tenth Army HQ but Karslake was omitted, despite being the senior British officer in France. German forces were to reach the area of Forges-les-Eaux in the area of the Beauman Division and capture Rouen on 8 June. During the meeting, the isolated position of the 51st (Highland) Division and doubts about French assurances, were discussed and the view was taken that the division was doomed. Karslake had already made representations to the CIGS about the lack of unity of command but on 6 June, Dill had written to the Swayne Mission at Georges's HQ that Brooke could be expected the following week and that the 52nd (Lowland) Division was due soon. Dill sent Pownall to France to discuss the new BEF with the French and to liaise with British commanders and Karslake told him that it was vital to withdraw the 51st (Highland) Division before it was too late. Karslake also urged Pownall to get Lieutenant-General Alan Brooke to France and establish a corps headquarters, to unify the command of all British forces, not necessarily under the authority of Altmayer, the Tenth Army commander. Although Brooke had been placed in command of the new BEF on 2 June, he remained in Britain until 12 June, by when the 51st (Highland) Division had been trapped and forced to surrender along with the rest of IX Corps.
Subsequent operations
2nd BEF
Brooke had returned from Dunkirk on 30 May and on 2 June, was told by Field Marshal John Dill to go back to France to assemble another BEF, with the 51st (Highland) Division and 1st Armoured Division that were already in France. The 52nd Lowland Division and the 1st Canadian Division from Britain, were to be followed by the 3rd Division as soon as it was re-equipped. The II Corps headquarters had been spread around Britain after its return from Dunkirk and his first choice of chief of staff was busy with Lord Gort the former BEF commander, writing dispatches. Brook warned Dill and the Secretary of State for War, Anthony Eden that the enterprise was futile, except as a political gesture. Brook was told that on return to France he would come under the authority of Weygand. In France, Fonblanque was still in command of the lines-of-communication troops of the original BEF and lieutenant-generals Henry Karslake and James Marshall-Cornwall were assisting with command. A brigade group of the 52nd Lowland Division departed for France on 7 June but Brooke took until 12 June to arrive.
On 13 June, the RAF made a maximum effort to help the French armies that had been broken through on the Marne. The Germans were across the Seine in the west and the French armies near Paris fell back, dividing the Tenth Army, part on the channel coast and the rest retiring towards Paris. The German advance threatened the airfields of the AASF, which was ordered to retreat towards Nantes or Bordeaux, while supporting the French armies for as long as they kept fighting. The AASF flew armed reconnaissance sorties over the Seine from dawn and German columns were attacked by a force of then a second formation of and then On the Marne, attacked a concentration of German troops and tanks, followed by an attack by which lost six shot down and then a third attack by from Bomber Command that lost another four. RAF attacks continued through the night, with over the Seine, of Paris, the Marne and road and rail communications and against woods reported by the French to be full of German troops. Fighter sorties had been hampered by bad weather and were limited to coastal patrols.
Next day attacks resumed against German units south of the Seine but the weather had worsened and fewer sorties were flown. A raid by with fighter escort was made on Merville airfield for a loss of seven aircraft and ten Fighter Command squadrons patrolled twice in squadron strength or provided bomber escorts, in the biggest effort since Dunkirk, as fighters of the AASF patrolled south of the Seine. During the night, attacked German marshalling yards, forests and dropped mines in the Rhine, for a loss of two aircraft. The remnants of the 1st Armoured Division and two brigades of the Beauman Division were south of the river, along with thousands of lines-of-communication troops but only the 157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, which had commenced disembarkation on 7 June, engaged in military operations, occupying successive defensive, positions under command of the Tenth Army. The French armies were forced into divergent retreats, with no obvious front line; on 12 June, Weygand had recommended that the French government seek an armistice, which led to the abortive plan to create a defensive zone in Brittany.
On 14 June, Brooke was able to prevent the rest of the 52nd (Lowland) Division being sent to join the 157th Infantry Brigade and during the night he was informed that he was no longer under French command and must prepare to withdraw the British forces from France. Marshall-Cornwall was ordered to take command of all British forces under the Tenth Army as Norman Force and while continuing to co-operate, withdraw towards Cherbourg. The rest of the 52nd (Lowland) Division was ordered back to a defence line near Cherbourg to cover the evacuation on 15 June. The AASF was also directed to send the last bomber squadrons back to Britain and use the fighter squadrons to cover the evacuations. The German advance over the Seine had paused while bridges were built but the advance began again during the day, with the 157th Infantry Brigade engaged east of Conches-en-Ouche with the Tenth Army. The army was ordered to retreat to a line from Verneuil to Argentan and the Dives river, where the British took over an front, either side of the Mortagne-au-Perche–Verneuil-sur-Avre road. German forces followed up quickly and on 16 June, Altmayer ordered the army to retreat into the Brittany peninsula. Operation Aerial, the final Allied evacuation, had begun on 15 June.
Breton redoubt
On 29 May, the Prime Minister of France, Paul Reynaud, replied to Weygand, rejecting his recommendation that an armistice be considered and asked him to study the possibility that a national redoubt could be established around a naval port in the Brittany peninsula, to retain freedom of the seas and contact with French allies. The idea was discussed by the French and British governments on 31 May and an operational instruction was drawn up on 5 June, in which Lieutenant-General Alan Brook was appointed to command the new BEF ("2nd BEF") being prepared for France. Plan W, the original plan to land the BEF in 1939 was used, with the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division being directed to Cherbourg, to assemble at Evreux, ready to support the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division (major-General Victor Fortune), north of the Seine. On 6 June, Weygand issued orders to begin work on the redoubt, under the command of General René Altmayer.
German forces crossed the Seine on 9 June, cutting off the 51st (Highland) Division north of the river, two days after 52nd (Lowland) Division had begun to land and the assembly of the division was changed to Rennes in Brittany; the 157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade which arrived first, was directed to Beaumont near Le Mans, the rest of the division to follow on. The 1st Canadian Infantry Brigade of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division began its arrival at Brest on 11 June and was sent to Sablé-sur-Sarthe, on the assumption that two fresh divisions would be enough to allow the Tenth Army and attached British troops to retreat through them and take up positions prepared around the Brest peninsula. That day, the Anglo-French Supreme War Council met at Briare and General Charles de Gaulle (Minister of War) was sent to Rennes to survey progress on the redoubt; on 12 June, De Gaulle reported that Quimper would be a favourable place for the government to retreat to, since it would be easy to take ship to England or Africa, since the prospect of maintaining a redoubt in Brittany was non-existent.
Altmayer had reported that work had begun on defences, civilian labour had been recruited and troops had arrived to begin work, despite a lack of civil engineering machinery. Churchill visited France for the last time on 13 June, met Reynaud and approved the project. Brook had visited the 1st Canadian Division in England to give the gist of the plan and met Weygand and Georges at Briare on 14 June. It was agreed that the plan was futile but the will of the civilian leadership must be respected and a joint agreement was signed. Brook telephoned Dill in London to find that no agreement had been made with the French and after checking called with the news that "Mr. Churchill knew nothing about the Brittany project". Churchill was of the view that the new corps forming in France should stay, at least until the final French collapse and then return through the nearest port. Without the support of the 52nd Division on the left flank, the Tenth Army was cut off from Brittany, when two German divisions got into the peninsula first and forced the French line of retreat south to the Loire. French troops already in the area were able to join the main French force, after the Canadians had departed for England.
Notes
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
Operation Cycle
51st (Highland) Division at St. Valery
Supplement to The London Gazette: "Operations of the British Expeditionary Force, France from 12th June, 1940 to 19th June, 1940"
Conflicts in 1940
1940 in France
Battle of France
Evacuations
Naval battles and operations of the European theatre of World War II
Naval battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom | [
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253774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Aerial | Operation Aerial | Operation Aerial was the evacuation of Allied forces and civilians from ports in western France from 15 to 25 June 1940 during the Second World War. The evacuation followed the Allied military collapse in the Battle of France against Nazi Germany. Operation Dynamo, the evacuation from Dunkirk and Operation Cycle, an embarkation from Le Havre, finished on 13 June. British and Allied ships were covered from French bases by five Royal Air Force (RAF) fighter squadrons and assisted by aircraft based in England, to lift British, Polish and Czech troops, civilians and equipment from Atlantic ports, particularly from St Nazaire and Nantes.
On 17 June, the evaded RAF fighter patrols and attacked evacuation ships in the Loire estuary, sinking the Cunard liner and troopship HMT which was carrying thousands of troops, RAF personnel and civilians. The ship sank quickly but nearby vessels went to the rescue and saved about and crew while under air attack. The death toll is unknown because the passenger count broke down in the haste to embark as many people as possible. Estimates of at least make the sinking the greatest loss of life in a British ship. The British government tried to keep the sinking of Lancastria secret on the orders of the Prime Minister Winston Churchill.
Some equipment was embarked on the evacuation ships but lack of reliable information about the progress of the German Army towards the coast, rumours and alarmist reports, led some operations to be terminated early and much equipment was destroyed or left behind. The official evacuation ended on 25 June, in conformity with the terms of the Armistice of 22 June 1940 agreed by the French and German authorities but informal departures continued from French Mediterranean ports until 14 August. From the end of Operation Dynamo at Dunkirk, Operation Cycle from Le Havre, elsewhere along the Channel coast and the termination of Operation Aerial, another were rescued, bringing the total of military and civilian personnel returned to Britain during the Battle of France to British troops.
Background
Royal Navy
The evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) from Dunkirk left a surplus of men on the lines-of-communication, base depots and other establishments among the still in France. Sufficient lines-of-communication personnel for an armoured division and four infantry divisions and an Advanced Air Striking Force (AASF) were to be retained and the rest returned to Britain. Naval operations in the Norwegian Campaign and the evacuation of Dunkirk had suffered losses, which temporarily weakened the Home Fleet, particularly in smaller vessels needed to escort evacuation ships from the French Atlantic coast. Losses inflicted on the surface ships of the Kriegsmarine made it impossible for the Germans to challenge British naval supremacy in the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay. Seven German submarines patrolling off the west coast of France made no attempt to interfere and only the Luftwaffe was used against the evacuations. Operation Aerial was commanded by Admiral William Milbourne James, the Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth. James lacked the vessels necessary for convoys and organised a flow of troopships, storeships and motor vehicle vessels from Southampton, coasters to ply from Poole and the Dutch schuyts to work from Weymouth, while such warships as were available patrolled the shipping routes. Demolition parties sailed in the ships but it was hoped that supplies and equipment could be embarked as well as troops.
RAF
After Dunkirk, the AASF squadrons in France had been moved to the area between Orléans and Le Mans during the lull before Fall Rot (Case Red), the German offensive over the Somme and Aisne rivers. From the new bases the AASF was able to operate anywhere along the front, but after the German breakthrough on 11 June, British Air Forces in France (Air Vice-Marshal Arthur Barratt) was warned by the Air Ministry to be ready for a quick getaway from France. The British squadrons were moved west to bases around Angers, Saumur, Rennes and Nantes, which were already full of French aircraft and severely congested. Barratt sent the light bomber squadrons back to England on 15 June and kept the five fighter squadrons to cover the evacuation of RAF ground staff and the three British divisions commanded by Brooke.
After Marshal Philippe Pétain requested an armistice on 17 June, Barratt had to defend seven ports on the Atlantic coast and sent the AASF anti-aircraft batteries to La Pallice and La Rochelle, the least important embarkation harbours. Nantes and St Nazaire, the most important ports, were covered by 1 Squadron, 73 Squadron and 242 Squadron, with a small detachment covering Brest. Saint-Malo and Cherbourg were protected by 17 Squadron and 501 Squadron from the aerodrome at Dinard across the bay from Saint-Malo, then later from the Channel Islands. Fighter Command squadrons from RAF Tangmere were also available for Cherbourg and Coastal Command prepared to escort returning ships. Once the arrangements were made, Barratt left for England and the Senior Air Staff Officer (SASO), Air Vice-Marshal Douglas Evill took over.
Operations Dynamo and Cycle
Operation Dynamo, the evacuation at Dunkirk from 26 May to 3 June, had rescued much of the fighting element of the BEF. Some combat units from the 1st Armoured Division, the Beauman Division and more than and line-of-communication troops, had been cut off in the south by the German dash to the sea. By the end of May, medical stores had been removed from Dieppe and a demolition party landed, ready to blow up the port infrastructure. A big depot at Le Havre had been run down by feeding troops in the area from it and removing military stores not immediately needed. A reserve of motor transport collected at Rouen had been used as transport for improvised units and specialised ammunition had been moved from the reserve around Buchy but the removal of the huge quantity of ordinary ammunition there was impossible.
On 9 June, the French commander at Le Havre contacted the 10th Army and the 51st (Highland) Division with a message that the Germans had captured Rouen and were heading for the coast. Ihler, the IX Corps commander and Major-General Victor Fortune, commander of the 51st (Highland) Division, decided that the only hope of escape was through Le Havre and abandoned the plan to retire through Rouen. The port admiral requested enough ships from the Admiralty to remove but this contradicted the plans of the French supreme commander, Maxime Weygand. General John Dill (Chief of the Imperial General Staff) hesitated, ignorant that Weygand's delay in issuing the orders had made it impossible. Karslake had also urged several times that the retirement be accelerated but had no authority to issue orders. Only after receiving a message during the night from Fortune, that the 51st (Highland) Division was participating in a retreat by IX Corps towards Le Havre, did Dill learn the true situation.
Fortune detached a force to guard Le Havre comprising the 154th Infantry Brigade, A Brigade of the Beauman Division, two artillery regiments and engineers. Arkforce (Brigadier Stanley-Clarke), moved on the night of towards Fécamp, where most had passed through before the 7th Panzer Division arrived. A Brigade forced its way out but lost the wireless truck intended to keep contact with the 51st (Highland) Division. The possibility of holding a line from Fécamp to Lillebonne was discounted and Stanley-Clarke ordered Arkforce on to Le Havre. A Royal Navy demolition party had been in Le Havre since late May; the port was severely bombed by the on 7 June; two days later, the Admiralty sent orders for an evacuation. James sent a flotilla leader, , across the Channel, accompanied by six British and two Canadian destroyers, smaller craft and many Dutch .
A hasty plan was made to block Dieppe harbour and on 10 June, (Captain G. A. Garnon-Williams) escorted three blockships to the port. Two were sunk in the approach channel but the third ship hit a mine just outside, which prevented it being sunk at the entrance to the inner harbour. Beach parties landed at Le Havre to take control of the evacuation on 10 June and after a 24-hour postponement, the evacuation began on 11 June. The embarkation was hindered somewhat by the damage to the port caused by bombing; the troopship was damaged and had to be beached. Electric power to the docks was cut, rendering the cranes on the docks useless; loading vehicles via ramps was tried but was too slow. On 12 June, RAF fighters began patrolling the port, deterring more raids and an attempt was made to save the transport and equipment by diverting it over the Seine, via the ferry crossings at Caudebec or the ships at Quillebeuf at the river mouth. The quartermaster of the 14th Royal Fusiliers succeeded in getting the transport away. The greatest number of troops were removed on the night of and the evacuation was completed by dawn; of troops evacuated, of 'A' Brigade were taken to Cherbourg and the 154th Infantry Brigade sailed via Cherbourg to England.
St Valery-en-Caux
On 10 June British destroyers reconnoitred the smaller ports to the east of Le Havre. was damaged by artillery fire from the cliffs near St. Valery-en-Caux during the evening. Troops not needed to hold the perimeter at St Valery moved down to the beaches and the harbour but no ships arrived; thick fog prevented them from moving inshore. An armada of ships and craft had been assembled but few had wireless and the fog obscured visual signalling. Only at Veules-les-Roses were many soldiers rescued, under fire from German artillery, which damaged the destroyers , and Ambuscade. Near dawn, the troops at the harbour were ordered back into the town, only to discover that the local French commander had already negotiated a surrender. A total of and soldiers were rescued but over of the 51st (Highland) Division were taken prisoner on 12 June.
Prelude
2nd BEF
On 2 June, Brooke visited the War Office, having returned from Dunkirk on 30 May and was told by Dill to go back to France to assemble another BEF. In the emergency, the force would be the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division and 1st Armoured Division, already in France, with the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division and the 1st Canadian Infantry Division from Britain, to be followed by the 3rd Infantry Division as soon as it was re-equipped. The II Corps headquarters was spread around Britain after its return from Dunkirk and his first choice of chief of staff was busy with General Lord Gort, the former BEF commander, writing dispatches. Brooke warned Dill and the secretary of state for war, Anthony Eden, that the enterprise was futile, except as a political gesture. He was told that on return to France he would come under the authority of Weygand. In France, Fonblanque was still in command of the lines-of-communication troops of the original BEF and lieutenant-generals Henry Karslake and James Marshall-Cornwall were assisting with command. A brigade group (the 157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade) of the 52nd (Lowland) Division departed for France on 7 June and Brooke returned five days later.
On 13 June, the RAF made a maximum effort to help the French armies that had been broken through on the Marne. The Germans were across the Seine in the west and the French armies near Paris fell back, isolating the Tenth Army on the Channel coast. The German advance threatened the airfields of the AASF, which was ordered to retreat towards Nantes or Bordeaux, while supporting the French armies for as long as they kept fighting. The AASF flew armed reconnaissance sorties over the Seine from dawn and German columns were attacked by a force of then a second formation of followed by On the Marne, attacked a concentration of German troops and tanks, followed by an attack by which lost six aircraft and then a third attack by from Bomber Command, that lost another four. RAF attacks continued through the night, with over the Seine, of Paris, the Marne and road and rail communications and woods reported by the French to be full of German troops. Fighter sorties had been hampered by bad weather and were limited to coastal patrols.
Next day, attacks resumed against German units south of the Seine but the weather had worsened and fewer sorties were flown. A raid by with fighter escort was made on Merville airfield for a loss of ; ten Fighter Command squadrons patrolled twice in squadron strength or provided bomber escorts, the biggest effort since Dunkirk, as fighters of the AASF patrolled south of the Seine. During the night, attacked German marshalling yards and forests, and dropped mines in the Rhine river for a loss of two aircraft. The remnants of the 1st Armoured Division and two brigades of the Beauman Division were south of the river, along with thousands of lines-of-communication troops; but only the 157th Infantry Brigade of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, which had commenced disembarkation on 7 June, engaged in military operations. The brigade occupied successive defensive positions under command of the Tenth Army. The French armies were forced into divergent retreats with no obvious front line; on 12 June, Weygand had recommended that the French government seek an armistice, which led to the abortive plan to create a defensive zone in Brittany.
On 14 June, Brooke was able to prevent the rest of the 52nd (Lowland) Division being sent to join the 157th Infantry Brigade Group. During the night Brooke was informed that he was no longer under French command and must prepare to withdraw the British forces from France. Marshall-Cornwall was ordered to take command of all British forces under the Tenth Army as Norman Force and while continuing to co-operate, withdraw towards Cherbourg. The rest of the 52nd (Lowland) Division was ordered back to a defence line near Cherbourg to cover the evacuation on 15 June. The AASF was also directed to send the last bomber squadrons back to Britain and use the fighter squadrons to cover the evacuations. The German advance over the Seine had paused while bridges were built but the advance began again during the day, with the 157th Infantry Brigade Group engaged east of Conches-en-Ouche with the Tenth Army. The army was ordered to retreat to a line from Verneuil to Argentan and the Dives river, where the British took over an front either side of the Mortagne-au-Perche–Verneuil-sur-Avre road. German forces followed up quickly and on 16 June, the Tenth Army commander, General Robert Altmayer, ordered the army to retreat into the Brittany peninsula.
Breton redoubt
On 29 May the Prime Minister of France, Paul Reynaud, replied to Weygand, rejecting his recommendation that an armistice be considered and asked him to study the possibility that a national redoubt could be established around a naval port in the Brittany peninsula to retain freedom of the seas and contact with French allies. The idea was discussed by the French and British governments on 31 May and an operational instruction was drawn up on 5 June, in which Brooke was appointed to command the new BEF ("2nd BEF") being prepared for France. Plan W, the original plan to land the BEF in 1939, was used with the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division being directed to Cherbourg and to assemble at Evreux, ready to support the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division north of the Seine. On 6 June, Weygand issued orders to begin work on the redoubt under the command of General René Altmayer.
German forces crossed the Seine on 9 June, cutting off the 51st (Highland) Division north of the river, two days after 52nd (Lowland) Division had begun to land and the assembly point of the division was changed to Rennes in Brittany; the 157th Infantry Brigade, which had arrived first, was directed to Beaumont near Le Mans; the rest of the division to follow on. The 1st Canadian Infantry Brigade of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division began its arrival at Brest on 11 June and was sent to Sablé-sur-Sarthe, on the assumption that two fresh divisions would be enough to allow the Tenth Army to retreat through them and take up positions prepared around the Brest peninsula. That day, the Anglo-French Supreme War Council met at Briare and General Charles de Gaulle (minister of war) was sent to Rennes to survey progress on the redoubt; on 12 June, de Gaulle reported that Quimper would be a favourable place for the government to retreat to, since it would be easy to take ship to England or Africa; the prospect of maintaining a redoubt in Brittany was non-existent.
Altmayer had reported that work had begun on defences, civilian labour had been recruited and troops had arrived to begin work, despite a lack of civil engineering machinery. Churchill visited France for the last time on 13 June, met Reynaud and approved the project. Brooke had visited the 1st Canadian Division in England to give the gist of the plan and met Weygand and Georges at Briare on 14 June, where all agreed that the plan was futile but the will of the civilian leadership had to be respected and the generals signed a joint agreement. Brooke telephoned Dill in London to find that no agreement had been made with the French and after checking called with the news that "Mr. Churchill knew nothing about the Brittany project". Churchill was of the view that the new corps forming in France should stay, at least until the final French collapse, then return through the nearest port. Without the support of the 52nd (Lowland) Division on the left flank, the Tenth Army was cut off from Brittany when two German divisions reached the peninsula first and forced the French line of retreat south to the Loire. French troops already in the area were able to join the main French force after the Canadians had departed for England.
Evacuations
Cherbourg and Saint-Malo
Initially headquarters in England were reluctant to accept that evacuation was necessary, and on 15 June Alan Brooke was told by Dill that "for political reasons" the two brigades of the 52nd Division under Drew could not be embarked from Cherbourg at present. After further telephone discussions that day with Dill and Eden, when he said shipping and "valuable hours" were being wasted, he got permission to embark the gunners but not the infantry. Most of the 52nd Lowland Division and the remnants of the 1st Armoured Division embarked from 15 to 17 June. The Beauman Division and Norman Force, both improvised formations, left on the evening of 17 June and the rearguard battalion was evacuated in the afternoon of 18 June. A total of were rescued from Cherbourg and taken to Portsmouth. At Saint-Malo, mostly of the 1st Canadian Division, were evacuated from all but being British; no-one was killed and no ship was damaged. The Luftwaffe tried to intervene but was thwarted by the RAF and the 1st Canadian Division suffered only six losses during its brief excursion to the Continent; five men were reported missing and one man was killed; four of the missing were interned and then made it back to England.
Brest
The evacuation from the southern ports on the Bay of Biscay was commanded by Admiral Sir Martin Dunbar-Nasmith, the Commander-in-Chief of Western Approaches Command based in Devonport. The evacuation was made more difficult by a lack of information from Brest, St Nazaire and Nantes. Brest is a port city in the Finistère département in Brittany in north-west France, where a sense of urgency was communicated by the Cabinet in London and the evacuation was conducted quickly, albeit with some confusion; guns and vehicles which could have been removed were destroyed needlessly. The Germans were known to be in Paris and advancing southwards, but information about German progress was inaccurate, mainly being rumour. The ships, including the Arandora Star, Strathaird and Otranto rescued and personnel, mostly RAF ground crew from and the ships with room to spare were sent south to St Nazaire and the French wrecked the harbour facilities with assistance from the British demolition party. The French ships sailed and on 19 June the demolition party was removed aboard the destroyer .
St Nazaire and Nantes
Saint-Nazaire in Brittany is a commune in the Loire-Atlantique department and Nantes is the capital of the Pays de la Loire region, in the same and is the largest city in Brittany. Operations at St Nazaire, at the mouth of the Loire, where there were strong tides and other hazards to navigation and Nantes upriver, took place concurrently. Vague and contradictory information led the navy to believe that men were en route to Nantes but not when they would arrive. To lift so many men, Dunbar-Nasmith assembled the destroyers , and and the liners , , , RMS , the Polish ships and and several commercial cargo ships.
The ships had to anchor in Quiberon Bay, north-west of the Loire estuary, despite having no anti-submarine defences. The evacuation began on 16 June, with leaving for home on Georgic, Duchess of York and the two Polish ships. German bombers attacked the bay but were only able to damage Franconia. Loading of equipment continued overnight and more ships from England and Brest arrived, along with two more destroyers, and . The large troopships would have been exceedingly vulnerable, had German bombers been able to make daylight attacks. British fighter cover restricted the Luftwaffe to mine-laying, which only delayed movement until channels were swept. The RAF fighters each flew up to six sorties per day and the final patrol over Nantes was flown by 73 Squadron, then the last airworthy Hawker Hurricane flew to RAF Tangmere.
The last troops left for Plymouth at on 18 June in two convoys comprising merchant ships; much equipment was abandoned after alarmist reports led to the convoys sailing in haste. In the afternoon, Dunbar-Nasmith heard that troops were approaching the port and sent six destroyers and seven troop transports to St Nazaire, which arrived on 19 June but only appeared; no German forces were in hot pursuit. Unserviceable Hurricanes were burned by their ground crews, a staff car was given to a friendly local café proprietor and an airman tried to sell off an Austin 7. The rear parties then departed in transport aircraft, a few hours before German tanks arrived. (On the journey home during the night of Floristan, a merchantman with on board, of the and civilians in its convoy, was attacked by a being under way, dodged the bombs as soldiers fired back with Bren guns and riddled the cockpit. The bomber carried away the mast tops and aerial, then crashed into the sea to the cheers of the rest of the convoy.)
Lancastria
On 17 June, there were still about waiting ashore, many at St Nazaire; ferrying men to the big ships offshore resumed early in the morning, soon joined by lighters, tenders and destroyers. The men being transported were reinforcements and lines-of-communication troops, tradesmen, labourers, mechanics and engineers of the Royal Army Service Corps (RASC), pioneers and tradesmen in RAF maintenance units from Nantes aerodrome. Several merchantmen and railway ferries from the Dover–Calais route were among the armada off St Nazaire but the largest ship was the Lancastria of the Cunard Line. Lancastria was normally permitted to carry and but in the emergency Captain R. Sharp was ordered to take as many troops as could be crammed on board. Among the military personnel were about including embassy staff, men from Avions Fairey in Belgium and their families.
As the boarding progressed, a soldier heard Sharp and his chief officer, H. Grattidge, say that were on the ship, as a lighter came alongside and Sharp decide that it would be the last to deliver passengers. Sharp and Grattidge kept watch on the sky as aircraft fought above the Loire estuary and German bombers tried to hit about distant; at Oronsay was bombed and part of the bridge destroyed. Sharp was advised by the captain of Havelock to leave at once but for fear of U-boats, Sharp wanted a destroyer escort. No destroyer was forthcoming and Sharp decided to leave with Oronsay; Lancastria stayed at anchor rather than being made a moving target. At more German bombers appeared, while the RAF Hurricanes were at the far end of their patrol line and a bomber hit Lancastria with three or four bombs. The ship tilted to starboard, the bridge crew shouted for everyone to go to the port side and Lancastria came level again, then keeled over to port.
Grattidge called out "Your attention please. Clear away boats"; there were far too few for the number of people crammed aboard and some boats had been smashed in the bombing. After the remaining lifeboats had been launched, some sinking in the process after falling into the sea or being swamped, the order "every man for himself" was given. Some men in life jackets, jumped overboard from the starboard side and broke their necks, others walked down the side of the hull, where they could see the men trapped inside through portholes and stepped into the water as the ship settled. Once in the water, they were strafed by German bombers, which also dropped flares on patches of oil and burned alive some of the shipwrecked men. While Lancastria was on its side, the hull was covered by men who could not swim, singing Roll Out the Barrel until they sank with the ship, about fifteen minutes after the bombing. As time passed, exhaustion and despair led people in the sea to give up and slip underwater. About were rescued but more than women and children were killed.
La Pallice
La Pallice, the grand port maritime de La Rochelle is the commercial, deep water port of La Rochelle. A senior British naval officer arrived by destroyer on 16 June and the evacuation began the next day. The naval officer found and no transports so requisitioned ships in the port, embarked the troops less their transport and departed on 18 June. Ships included the British flagged MV Thistleglen (Captain G. F. Dobson) which embarked and a contingent of British nurses. Dunbar-Nasmith sent ships twice more, which picked up troops on 19 June. Few men were found on 20 June and surplus ships were sent south to the Gironde ports. Most of the British troops in France had gone but more Polish and Czech troops, embassy and consular staffs, British and other civilians remained.
Other Atlantic ports
Bordeaux and Le Verdon-sur-Mer are ports on the Garonne River in the Gironde départment in Aquitaine. Bayonne at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers and St Jean-de-Luz are ports and communes in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques , all four ports being on the south-west coast of France. was stationed off Bordeaux on 16 June as a wireless link and on 17 June, British and some Allied ships were cleared for England and the embarkation of Polish and Czech troops and civilians began. A (Lieutenant-Commander H. G. Walters) had been made available to Reynaud and the French government, also as a venue for discussions with Churchill and on 19 June, the ship evacuated the remaining British Consular staff from Bordeaux. British diplomatic staff, the President of Poland and his cabinet were given preferential treatment.
Berkeley was replaced by the cruiser and sailed for England with the VIPs. Evacuation continued at the nearby ports of Le Verdon at the river mouth and Bayonne, where on 19 June, the Polish ships Batory, Sobieski took about 9,000 Polish soldiers on board and the British and took on everyone they could find and sailed for St Jean-de-Luz on 20 June. The evacuation at St Jean de Luz ended officially at on 25 June, just after the deadline set by the terms of the armistice, with the sailing of the cargo ships , and , loaded with troops and civilians; about 19,000 people were lifted from Bayonne and St Jean de Luz, most being Polish troops. On the final day of the operation, the Canadian destroyer was accidentally rammed and sunk with many losses by the anti-aircraft cruiser in the Gironde estuary. Evacuations continued informally from the Mediterranean coast of France, until 14 August. On 23 June, the Admiralty gave orders that every available ship was to take anyone who could be squeezed on board to Gibraltar, thence to Britain. Small cargo ships organised by two destroyers removed about 10,000 Allied troops and civilians from 24 to 26 June, thence to Britain.
Aftermath
Analysis
In 1953, Lionel Ellis, the British official historian, wrote that by the end of the informal evacuations on 14 August, another had been evacuated after the rescue of in Operation Dynamo, a total of of whom British troops. In 2001, Brodhurst wrote that many civilians escaped from French Atlantic and Mediterranean ports to England via Gibraltar and that civilians left the Channel Islands from Brodhurst gave figures of troops and civilians evacuated. Although much equipment was lost, cycles. of ammunition, of stores, of petrol, and were recovered during Operation Aerial and the earlier evacuations. German submarines could have sunk British ships in the Bay of Biscay, many of the troopships being unescorted and out of range of England-based fighters but the seven in the area did not intervene. The Luftwaffe managed to sink Lancastria but German operations against Aerial showed a lack of co-ordination between the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine. Brodhurst wrote that the success of the operation was due to the professionalism of the Royal Navy, the decisions of middle-ranking officers like Ramsay and the conduct of the navy and civilian crews, who took grave risks to rescue the army.
In 1979, Karslake described the Breton Redoubt affair and concluded that all of the people involved knew of the scheme and all had agreed, albeit with little faith in its success, for it to go ahead. Karslake also reviewed the figures given in the official history of equipment recovered during Operation Aerial. Ellis had included equipment loaded onto ships in England but not landed in France in his figures for material recovered during the operation. Ellis recorded the recovery of the 51st (Highland) Division from Le Havre, the 52nd (Lowland) Division from Cherbourg, the 1st Canadian Division from Brest and of the Beauman Division from Cherbourg, in all, with not accounted for. Karslake wrote that some guns may have been on ships sent from England but not unloaded and could not have belonged to the two BEF anti-aircraft brigades south of the Somme; the anti-aircraft brigade protecting the lines-of-communication units and the AASF airfield defence brigade had only them. The 53rd Heavy AA Regiment reached Marseilles with its two heavy and one light batteries but could only load the light anti-aircraft guns, due to a lack of cranes and no jumbo derrick on the evacuation ship; the remaining thirteen 3-inch anti-aircraft guns having to be destroyed and left behind.
Of the brought back to Britain, most belonged to the 52nd and 1st Canadian divisions and had not been unloaded; the rest had been embarked before "panic orders" had been issued to the ports. Of the of ammunition recovered, Karslake had been given a priority list of small-arms ammunition, 25-pounder shells and the chemical warfare equipment dumped at Fécamp. Much of the chemical warfare material had been removed by early June and most of the rest of the ammunition brought back from France could be accounted for by a shipload not unloaded at Cherbourg on 15 June and another laden ship at St Nazaire. Of the of other stores saved, only material returned to Britain during May had been unloaded from ships and the of petrol was on a part-loaded ship which left St Nazaire on 16 June. On 4 June, Karslake had asked the CIGS to stop sending supplies but this request was ignored and troops saw more supplies being unloaded as they loaded ships for the evacuation. The 6th Battalion Royal Sussex Regiment stacked petrol tins in the Fôret de Savernay from and then set fire to it on 16 June.
As the RAF presence in France was reduced, its aviation fuel requirements fell and by 5 June most RAF aircraft had returned to England, yet deliveries continued. British armoured units were also less demanding of fuel as the number of vehicles dwindled, until the main users were the transport echelons of the front-line units and the lines-of-communication troops, which could be supplied by the fuel delivered up to the end of May. Karslake wrote that the small number of armoured vehicles removed from France was a mystery and that a train with the last tanks of the 2nd Armoured Brigade and some of those of the 3rd Armoured Brigade, departed from Le Mans for St Malo and disappeared. It was rumoured that the train had been sidelined by the French and the engine removed for another train but no effort was made by the road parties outside Brest to find their vehicles. No party accompanied the vehicles and no aircraft reconnaissance was sought, even though the Germans were a long way from Brittany.
Karslake wrote that in 1939, General Edmund Ironside, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), had warned Gort and Dill the Vice-CIGS before the BEF sailed for France, to prepare defence plans for rear areas, quickly to be implemented at communication centres and geographical bottlenecks, for which even the most non-combatant troops must be trained and equipped, but during the Phoney War nothing was done. It was fortunate that Brigadier Archibald Beauman, who had been "dug-out" of retirement, was on hand to organise the lines-of-communication troops south of the Somme, as far as anything could be achieved in the emergency. Karslake (jnr) wrote that had General Karslake been furnished with a staff and the power of command over all British troops, rather than this being vested in the cumbersome and disorganised French command system, the disadvantages under which the lines-of-communication troops were burdened could have been alleviated. When Brooke arrived on 12 June to command the British troops in France, he had no faith in military operations, left his staff at St Malo and concentrated on ending the British presence in France as quickly as possible.
Casualties
From May to June, including the period of Operation Aerial, the Luftwaffe lost and the RAF lost killed, wounded, died of wounds or injury, injured, lost at sea or taken prisoner and including shot down, destroyed on the ground or written off. The AASF lost the Air Component Command Command Coastal Command In the course of the operations from 5 to 18 June, the AASF lost Battles, two Blenheims and Fighter Command lost a Spitfire, and three Blenheims. During the Battle of France, the British army suffered killed, died of wounds, wounded, missing or taken prisoner and died of injury or illness; navy casualties could not be separated from operations elsewhere in the world. German casualties in the battle (only a few of the Luftwaffe losses occurring during Operation Aerial), were and missing.
See also
Notes
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
Operation Aerial – Admiralty War Diary
"Second BEF Home Again" – Pathé News reel
Allied Warships of WWII, Destroyer HMCS Fraser at uboat.net (22 October 1940)
1940 in France
Battle of France
Conflicts in 1940
Evacuations
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253775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DD | DD | DD, dd, or other variants may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
"D.D.", a track on mixtape Echoes of Silence by The Weeknd
DD (character), a character in The Saga of Seven Suns novels by Kevin J. Anderson
DD National or DD1, an Indian national television channel
Dancing Dolls, a Japanese all-female pop group
Daredevil (Marvel Comics character), a Marvel Comics character
Matt Murdock (Marvel Cinematic Universe), the Marvel Cinematic Universe counterpart
Donegal Daily, an Irish news website
Doordarshan, a public service broadcaster in India
Erann DD, a Danish singer and songwriter
DD, the production code for the 1966 Doctor Who serial The Tenth Planet
Business
DuPont (formerly traded under the stock ticker symbol DD)
Dunkin' Donuts, a company
Military
DD tank, an amphibious tank
Dishonorable discharge, a punitive discharge in the U.S. military
DD, the U.S. Navy hull classification for destroyers
DD Form 214, a form used by the U.S. Defense Department
Places
DD postcode area, in Scotland
.dd, a hypothetical domain name for the German Democratic Republic
Dresden, Germany (license plate code DD)
Science and technology
Computing
, an HTML element for specifying definition data
dd (Unix), a program that copies and converts files and data
Deckadance, a DJ program for Windows and Mac OS X designed by Image-Line
Deployment descriptor, a component in Java Platform, Enterprise Edition applications
Logo for Dolby Digital, audio compression technologies developed by Dolby Laboratories
Double density, a capacity designation on magnetic storage, usually floppy disks
Debian Developer, the traditional full-membership role in Debian
Other uses in science and technology
Data Deficient, a rating on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Decimal degrees, geographic coordinates shown using decimal fractions
Death domain, a protein-interaction module, a subclass of the death fold protein motif
DD Index, for Democracy-Dictatorship Index
Abbreviation for dolichospondylic dysplasia, a genetic syndrome
Developmental disability, or developmentally disabled, a diverse group of chronic conditions due to mental or physical impairments arising before adulthood
Deuterium-deuterium fusion, a type of nuclear fusion
Sports
Delhi Daredevils, former name of Delhi Capitals
Delhi Dynamos FC, an Indian Super League franchise, now Odisha FC
Transportation
DD tank, an amphibious tank
D-D locomotive, the AAR classification for a railway locomotive with two four-axle bogies
Danish Air Lines, an airline
Invincible D-D, a prototype aircraft
Nok Air, a low-cost airline based in Thailand
Victorian Railways Dd class, a class of steam locomotives in Australia
Other uses
DD, a brassiere measurement
Dd (digraph), in the Welsh language
Degree of difficulty, in several sports
Deputy Director (disambiguation), a rank in some organizations
Designated driver, a person who remains sober as the responsible driver
Doctor of Divinity, an academic degree
Dine and dash, a form of theft by fraud
Direct Debit a way of paying bills.
See also
Dede (disambiguation)
Dedee, a nickname
Deede (disambiguation)
Deedee (disambiguation)
Didi (disambiguation) | [
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253776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep%20III | Amenhotep III | Amenhotep III (, Amānəḥūtpū , "Amun is Satisfied"; Hellenized as Amenophis III), also known as Amenhotep the Magnificent or Amenhotep the Great, was the ninth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. According to different authors, he ruled Egypt from June 1386 to 1349 BC, or from June 1388 BC to December 1351 BC/1350 BC, after his father Thutmose IV died. Amenhotep was Thutmose's son by a minor wife, Mutemwiya.
His reign was a period of unprecedented prosperity and splendour, when Egypt reached the peak of its artistic and international power. When he died in the 38th or 39th year of his reign he was succeeded by his son Amenhotep IV, who later changed his name to Akhenaten.
Family and early life
Amenhotep was the son of Thutmose IV and his minor wife Mutemwiya. He was likely born around 1401 BC. Later in his life, Amenhotep would commission the depiction of his divine birth to be displayed at Luxor Temple. Amenhotep claimed that his true father was the god Amun, who had taken the form of Thutmose IV to father a child with Mutemwiya.
In Regnal Year 2, Amenhotep married Tiye, the daughter of Yuya and Tjuyu. Tiye would be Great Royal Wife throughout Amenhotep's reign. Many commemorative scarabs were commissioned and distributed during Amenhotep's reign. On the "marriage scarabs," Amenhotep affirmed his divine power and the legitimacy of his wife. With Tiye, Amenhotep would father at least two sons, Crown Prince Thutmose and Amenhotep IV (later called Akhenaten). In addition, several daughters are frequently credited to the couple: Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Iset, Nebetah, and Beketaten. Most of the daughters appear frequently on statutes and reliefs from Amenhotep's reign. However, Nebetah is attested only once, on a colossal limestone group of statues from Medinet Habu, and Beketaten only appears in Amarna.Amenhotep is also sometimes credited as the father of Smenkhkare or Tutankhamun, with varying proposals for their mothers, but these theories are not as accepted as his other, known children.
In addition to Tiye, Amenhotep had several other wives. In Regnal Year 10, Amenhotep married Gilukhepa, the daughter of Shuttarna II of Mitanni. He would later marry Tadukhepa, daughter of Tushratta of Mitanni, in or around Regnal Year 36 of his reign. Other wives, whose names are unknown, included: a daughter of Kurigalzu, king of Babylon; a daughter of Kadashman-Enlil, king of Babylon; a daughter of Tarhundaradu, ruler of Arzawa; and a daughter of the ruler of Ammia (modern-day Syria).
Finally, he followed tradition and married at least two of his daughters, Sitamun and Iset, in the last decade of his reign. Jar-label inscriptions from Regnal Year 30 indicate that Sitamun was elevated to the status of Great Royal Wife by that time. Although shunned by common Egyptians, incest was not uncommon among royalty. A sculpture restored by Amenhotep for his grandfather, Amenhotep II, shows Sitamun with a young prince beside her. This has led to theories that Sitamun was the mother of Smekhkare and/or Tutankhamun.
Life and reign
Amenhotep likely became pharaoh when he was between the ages of 6 and 12. While it is likely that a regent would have ruled until he came of age, none is attested to in the surviving records. In Regnal Year 11, Amenhotep commanded the construction of an artificial lake at Tiye's hometown of Djakaru. He then celebrated a Festival of Opening the Lake in the third month of Inundation, day sixteen, and rowed the royal barge Aten-tjehen on the lake. This event was commemorated on at least eleven commemorative scarabs.
From other scarabs, Amenhotep is known to have killed either 102 or 110 lions in the first ten years of his reign.
Despite the martial prowess Amenhotep displayed during the hunt, he is known to have participated in only one military incident. In Regnal Year Five, he led a victorious campaign against a rebellion in Kush. This victory was commemorated by three rock-carved stelae found near Aswan and Saï in Nubia. The official account of Amenhotep's military victory emphasizes his martial prowess with the period-typical hyperbole.
Court of Amenhotep III
There is a significant attestation for the court officials who served during Amenhotep's reign, primarily through the discovery of their tombs in the Theban Necropolis. Among these court officials were the viziers Ramose, Amenhotep, Aperel, and Ptahmose. Other officials included the treasurers Ptahmose and Merire; the high stewards, Amenemhat Surer and Amenhotep (Huy); and the Viceroy of Kush, Merimose.
Amenhotep, son of Hapu held many offices during the reign of Amenhotep the pharaoh, but is most well-known for receiving the right to build his mortuary temple behind that of the king Amenhotep, son of Hapu, would be deified after his death and be one of the few non-royals to be worshiped in such a manner.
Malkata Palace
The palace of Malkata was built in the 14th century BC and its ancient name was Per-Hay, "House of Rejoicing". Originally, the palace was known as the Palace of the Dazzling Aten. Built mostly out of mud-brick, it was Amenhotep's residence throughout most of the later part of his reign. Construction began around Regnal Year 11 and continued until the king moved to the palace permanently around Regnal Year 29. Once completed, it was the largest royal residence in Egypt.
Sed Festivals
Amenhotep celebrated three Sed Festivals in Regnal Years 30, 34, and 37, each at Malkata palace in Western Thebes. A temple of Amun and festival hall were built especially for the celebrations. The Sed Festival was a tradition that dated to the Old Kingdom, consisting of a series of tests that demonstrated the pharaoh's fitness for continuing as ruler of Egypt. Based on indications left by Queen Tiye's steward Khenruef, the festival may have lasted two to eight months.
Amenhotep wanted his Sed Festivals to be far more spectacular than those of the past. He appointed Amenhotep, son of Hapu to plan the ceremony, potentially because he was one of the few courtiers still alive to have served at the last Sed Festival, held for Amenhotep II. In preparation for the first Sed Festival, Amenhotep, son of Hapu enlisted scribes to gather information from records and inscriptions; most of the descriptions were found in ancient funerary temples. In addition to the rituals, they collected descriptions of costumes worn at previous festivals.
Temples were built and statues erected up and down the Nile. Craftsmen and jewelers created ornaments commentating the event including jewelry, ornaments, and stelae. The scribe Nebmerutef coordinated every step of the event. He directed Amenhotep to use his mace to knock on the temple doors. Beside him, Amenhotep-Hapu mirrored his effort like a royal shadow. The king was followed by Queen Tiye and the royal daughters. When moving to another venue, the banner of the jackal god Wepwawet, "Opener of Ways" preceded the King. The king changed his costume at each major activity of the celebration.
One of the major highlights of the Festival was the king's dual coronation. He was enthroned separately for Upper and Lower Egypt. For Upper Egypt, Amenhotep wore the white crown but changed to the red crown for the Lower Egypt coronation.
After the Sed Festival, Amenhotep transcended from being a near-god to one divine. The king may have later traveled across Egypt following the festival, potentially reenacting the ceremony for different audiences. Few Egyptian kings lived long enough for their own celebration. Those who survived used the celebration as the affirmation of transition to divinity.
International Relations
Diplomatic correspondence from Amenhotep's reign are partially preserved in the Amarna Letters, a collection of documents found near the city of Amarna. The letters come from the rulers of Assyria, Mitanni, Babylon, Hatti, and other states, typically including requests by those rulers for gold and other gifts from Amenhotep. The letters cover the period from Year 30 of Amenhotep until at least the end of Akhenaten's reign. In Amarna Letter EA 4, Amenhotep is quoted by the Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil I in firmly rejecting the latter's entreaty to marry one of this pharaoh's daughters:
Amenhotep's refusal to allow one of his daughters to be married to the Babylonian monarch may indeed be connected with Egyptian traditional royal practices that could provide a claim upon the throne through marriage to a royal princess, or, it could be viewed as a shrewd attempt on his part to enhance Egypt's prestige over those of her neighbours in the international world. Despite the refusal for his daughters to be married off to other kings, Amenhotep married several foreign princesses.
The Amarna Letters also reference the exchange between Amenhotep and the Mitanni King Tushratta of the statue of a healing goddess, Ishtar of Nineveh, late in Amenhotep's reign. Scholars have generally assumed that the statute's sojourn to Egypt was requested by Amenhotep in order to cure him of his various ailments, which included painful abscesses in his teeth. However, William L. Moran's analysis of Amarna Letter EA 23, relating to the dispatch of the statute to Thebes, discounts this theory.
The arrival of the statue is known to have coincided with Amenhotep's marriage with Tadukhepa, Tushratta's daughter, in the pharaoh's 36th year; letter EA 23's arrival in Egypt is dated to "regnal year 36, the fourth month of winter, day 1" of his reign. Furthermore, Tushratta never mentions in EA 23 that the statue's dispatch was meant to heal Amenhotep of his maladies. Instead, Tushratta writes in part:
The likeliest explanation is that the statue was sent to Egypt "to shed her blessings on the wedding of Amenhotep and Tadukhepa, as she had been sent previously for Amenhotep and Gilukhepa." Moran explained the visit of the statute might be to heal the king, but that it is more likely that it was sent in connection with the solemnities of the marriage of Tadukhepa to Amenhotep. Further, Moran argues that the contents of Amarna Letter EA 21 support this claim, wherein Tushratta asks the gods, including Ishtar, for their blessing of the marriage.
Succession
Thutmose, the eldest son of Amenhotep with his wife Tiye, spent at least part of his life as the Crown Prince. However, Thutmose predeceased his father and Amenhotep was ultimately succeeded by his second son, also named Amenhotep.
Proposed coregency with Amunhotep IV / Akhenaten
It has long been theorized that Amenhotep III shared a coregency with his son and successor, Amenhotep IV (later called Akhenaten). Writing in 1998, Lawrence Berman claimed that proponents of the coregency theory tended to be art historians, while historians remained unconvinced. Whether this remains true is unclear.
Eric Cline, Nicholas Reeves, Peter Dorman, and other scholars argue strongly against the establishment of a long coregency between the two rulers and in favor of either no coregency or one lasting at most two years. Donald B. Redford, William J. Murnane, Alan Gardiner, and Lawrence Berman contest the view of any coregency whatsoever between Akhenaten and his father.
Evidence against a coregency includes Amarna Letter EA 27, which is dated to Regnal Year 2 of Amenhotep IV. The subject of the letter involves a complaint from the Mitannian king Tushratta, claiming that Amenhotep IV did not honor his father's promise to send Tushratta gold statues as part of the marriage arrangement between Tadukhepa, and Amenhotep III. This correspondence implies that if any coregency occurred between Amenhotep and Akhenaten, it lasted no more than a year.
However in February 2014, Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced that findings from the tomb of Vizier Amenhotep-Huy gave "conclusive evidence" of a coregency that lasted at least eight years. In the tomb, the cartouches of the two pharaohs were carved side by side. However, this conclusion has since been called into question by other Egyptologists, according to whom the inscription only means that construction on Amenhotep-Huy's tomb started during Amenhotep III's reign and ended under Akhenaten's, and Amenhotep-Huy thus simply wanted to pay his respects to both rulers.
Final Years
Health and death
Amenhotep 's highest attested regnal date is Year 38, which appears on wine jar-label dockets from Malkata. He may have lived briefly into an unrecorded Year 39, dying before the wine harvest of that year. Reliefs from the wall of the temple of Soleb in Nubia and scenes from the Theban tomb of Kheruef, Steward of the King's Great Wife, Tiye, depict Amenhotep as a visibly weak and sick figure. Scientists believe that in his final years he suffered from arthritis and became obese. Further, a forensic examination of his mummy shows that he was probably in constant pain during his final years due to his worn and cavity-pitted teeth. An examination of his mummy by the Australian anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith concluded that the pharaoh was between 40 and 50 years old at death.
He was survived by at least one child, his successor Amenhotep IV, and by his wife Tiye, who is known to have outlived him by at least twelve years, as she is mentioned in several Amarna letters dated from her son's reign as well as depicted at a dinner table with Akhenaten and his royal family in scenes from the tomb of Huya, which were made during Year 9 and Year 12 of her son's reign.
Foreign leaders communicated their grief at the pharaoh's death, with Tushratta saying:
Amenhotep was buried in the Western Valley of the Valley of the Kings, in Tomb WV22. Sometime during the Third Intermediate Period his mummy was moved from this tomb and was placed in a side-chamber of KV35 along with several other pharaohs of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties where it lay until discovered by Victor Loret in 1898.
Mummy and burial
For the 18th dynasty the mummy shows an unusually heavy use of subcutaneous stuffing to make the mummy look more lifelike. Amunhotep was buried in the Valley of the Kings outside of Thebes, in the tomb labeled WV 22. The tomb is the largest in the West Valley of the Kings and includes two side chambers for his Great Royal Wives, Tiye and Sitamun. However, it does not seem as if either woman was buried there. Amenhotep's mummy was later moved, during the reign of Smendes.
In the present day, Amenhotep's mummy has the inventory number CG 61074. In April 2021 his mummy was moved from the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.
Monuments and legacy
Amenhotep has the distinction of having the most surviving statues of any Egyptian pharaoh, with over 250 of his statues having been discovered and identified. Since these statues span his entire life, they provide a series of portraits covering the entire length of his reign.
When Amenhotep died, he left behind a country that was at the very height of its power and influence, commanding immense respect in the international world; however, he also bequeathed an Egypt that was wedded to its traditional political and religious certainties under the Amun priesthood.
The resulting upheavals from his son Akhenaten's reforming zeal would shake these old certainties to their very foundations and bring forth the central question of whether a pharaoh was more powerful than the existing domestic order as represented by the Amun priests and their numerous temple estates. Akhenaten even moved the capital away from the city of Thebes in an effort to break the influence of that powerful temple and assert his own preferred choice of deities, the Aten. Akhenaten moved the Egyptian capital to the site known today as Amarna (though originally known as Akhetaten, 'Horizon of Aten'), and eventually suppressed the worship of Amun.
Amenhotep built extensively at the temple of Karnak including the Luxor temple which consisted of two pylons, a colonnade behind the new temple entrance, and a new temple to the goddess Ma'at. Amenhotep dismantled the Fourth Pylon of the Temple of Amun at Karnak to construct a new pylon—the Third Pylon—and created a new entrance to this structure where he erected two rows of columns with open papyrus capitals down the centre of this newly formed forecourt. The forecourt between the Third and Fourth Pylons, sometimes called an obelisk court, was also decorated with scenes of the sacred barque of the deities Amun, Mut, and Khonsu being carried in funerary boats. The king also started work on the Tenth Pylon at the Temple of Amun there. Amenhotep's first recorded act as king—in his Years 1 and 2—was to open new limestone quarries at Tura, just south of Cairo and at Dayr al-Barsha in Middle Egypt in order to herald his great building projects. He oversaw the construction of another temple to at Luxor and virtually covered Nubia with numerous monuments.
His enormous mortuary temple on the west bank of the Nile was, in its day, the largest religious complex in Thebes, but unfortunately, the king chose to build it too close to the floodplain and less than two hundred years later, it stood in ruins. Much of the masonry was purloined by Merneptah and later pharaohs for their own construction projects. The Colossi of Memnon—two massive stone statues, high, of Amenhotep that stood at the gateway of his mortuary temple—were the only elements of the complex that remained standing. Amenhotep also built the Third Pylon at Karnak and erected 600 statues of the goddess Sekhmet in the Temple of Mut, south of Karnak. Some of the most magnificent statues of New Kingdom Egypt date to his reign "such as the two outstanding couchant rose granite lions originally set before the temple at Soleb in Nubia" as well as a large series of royal sculptures. Several beautiful black granite seated statues of Amenhotep wearing the nemes headress have come from excavations behind the Colossi of Memnon as well as from Tanis in the Delta. In 2014, two giant statues of Amenhotep that were toppled by an earthquake in 1200 BC were reconstructed from more than 200 fragments and re-erected at the northern gate of the king's funerary temple.
One of the most stunning finds of royal statues dating to his reign was made as recently as 1989 in the courtyard of Amenhotep 's colonnade of the Temple of Luxor where a cache of statues was found, including a -high pink quartzite statue of the king wearing the Double Crown found in near-perfect condition. It was mounted on a sled, and may have been a cult statue. The only damage it had sustained was that the name of the god Amun had been hacked out wherever it appeared in the pharaoh's cartouche, clearly done as part of the systematic effort to eliminate any mention of this god during the reign of his successor, Akhenaten.
In 2021, excavations revealed a settlement near Amenhotep 's mortuary temple, called the Dazzling Aten, which is believed to have been built by Amenhotep . It is presumed to have housed craftsmen and labourers working on royal monuments and projects at Thebes, as well as in the ancillary industries needed to support such an administrative and skilled-worker population, and had its own bakery and cemetery.
One of the king's most popular epithets was Aten-tjehen which means "the Dazzling Sun Disk"; it appears in his titulary at Luxor temple and, more frequently, was used as the name for one of his palaces as well as the Year 11 royal barge, and denotes a company of men in Amenhotep's army. A Sed Festival Stela of Amenhotep III was taken from Egypt to Europe by an art dealer. It is now believed to be in the United States but not on public display. In Europe, Dr. Eric Cassirer at one time owned the stela. The dimensions of the white alabaster stela are 10 x 9 cm (3.94 x 3.54 in), but only the upper half of the stela survived. It was shaped in the form of a temple pylon with a gradual narrowing near the top.
Front view: The god Heh, who represents the number one million, holds notched palm leaves signifying years. Above his head, Heh appears to support the cartouche of Amenhotep symbolically for a million years.
Side view: A series of festival (ḥb) emblems together with a Sed (sd) emblem identifying the stela as one made for Amenhotep 's Sed Festival royal jubilee.
Top view: The top shows malicious damage to the stela where the cartouche was chipped away.
Back view: Like the top view, the cartouche has been eradicated.
Cassirer suggests Akhenaten, Amenhotep 's son and successor, was responsible for defacing the king's name on the stela. Akhenaten detested his royal family name so much, he changed his own name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten; he vandalized any reference to the god Amun since he had chosen to worship another god, the Aten. Other gods displayed on the stela, Re and Ma’at, showed no sign of vandalism.
The stela is believed to have been displayed prominently in Akhenaten's new capital city of Akhetaten (current day Amarna). With the royal name and Amun references removed, it likely had a prominent place in a temple or palace of Akhenaten. Akhenaten could then display the stela without reminders of his old family name or the false god Amun, yet celebrate his father's achievement.
Another striking characteristic of Amenhotep's reign is the series of over 200 large commemorative stone scarabs that have been discovered over a large geographic area ranging from Syria (Ras Shamra) through to Soleb in Nubia. Similarly, five other scarabs state that his wife Gilukhepa of Mitanni arrived in Egypt with a retinue of 317 women. She was the first of many such princesses who would enter the pharaoh's household.
Ancestry
DNA
In 2020 Yehia Gad and other researchers of the Hawass team published the results of an analysis of the mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups of several 18th Dynasty mummies including Amenhotep III and Tutankhamun. The results provided information about the genetic groups of his family members and their presence among the reported contemporary Egyptian population data. Genetic analysis yielded only partial matches for Amenhotep III; haplogroups YDNA R1b and mtDNA Hb2 are predicted. However, the YDNA haplogroup is not certain as different allele loci gave varying predictions: R1a at 55.5%, R1b at 31.5%, and Eb1b at 12.5%.A high frequency of R1b1a2 (R-V88) (26.9%) was observed among the Berbers from the Siwa Oasis. This haplogroup reaches its highest frequency in northern Cameroon, northern Nigeria, Chad, and Niger.
Gallery
See also
Colossal red granite statue of Amenhotep III
Colossal quartzite statue of Amenhotep III
History of ancient Egypt
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree
List of pharaohs
Quay with Sphinxes
The lion hunts of Amenhotep III during the first ten years of his reign
Footnotes
Bibliography
1350s BC deaths
14th-century BC Pharaohs
Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Egyptian architects
Ancient child rulers
Ancient Egyptian mummies
Amarna Period
Year of birth unknown
Children of Thutmose IV | [
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253779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGC | AGC | AGC may refer to:
Organizations
In business
AGC Inc. (formerly Asahi Glass Co.), a glass manufacturer
Associated General Contractors of America, an association of commercial construction contractors
Australian Guarantee Corporation, a financial company
Military
Army Geospatial Center, part of the US Army Corps of Engineers
Adjutant General's Corps, in the British Army
Amphibious Force, Flagship a World War 2 ship.
Religious organizations
Apostolic Generation Church, a non-denominational church located in Jakarta, Indonesia
Associated Gospel Churches of Canada, a Canadian evangelical Christian denomination
Other organizations
Assyrian General Conference, a political organization in Iraq
Science and technology
Apollo Guidance Computer, a digital computer produced for the Apollo program
Atypical Glandular Cells, in the Bethesda System for reporting Pap smear results
Automatic gain control, automatic control of electronic amplification level
Automatic generation control, automatic control of electricity generating powerplants
Autorail à grande capacité, a type of train
Auxiliary General sub-class C, former name of the U.S. Navy ship class Amphibious Command Ship
Automated Guided Cart, a small type of Automated Guided Vehicle, especially for the smart factory of the future
AGC, a codon for the amino acid serine
Other uses
Agatu language
Allegheny County Airport, US, by IATA airport code | [
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253780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conaire%20M%C3%B3r | Conaire Mór | Conaire Mór (the great), son of Eterscél, was, according to medieval Irish legend and historical tradition, a High King of Ireland. His mother was Mess Búachalla, who was either the daughter of Eochu Feidlech and Étaín, or of Eochu Airem and his daughter by Étaín. In the Old Irish saga Togail Bruidne Dá Derga he is conceived when his mother is visited by an unknown man who flies in her skylight in the form of a bird, and is brought up as Eterscél's son.
History
According to the Lebor Gabála Érenn, he took power after killing his predecessor, and his father's killer, Nuadu Necht. In Togail Bruidne Dá Derga he succeeds Eterscél directly. When Eterscél dies, a bull-feast is held. A bull is killed, a man eats his fill of its meat and drinks its broth, and sleeps as incantations are chanted over him. Whoever this man sees in his sleep will be the new king. He sees a naked man coming along the road to Tara with a stone in his sling. The young Conaire, meanwhile, is hunting birds in his chariot. He chases them into the sea, where they become armed men, announce themselves as Conaire's father's bird troop, and inform him that it is forbidden for him to hunt birds. The leader of the bird troop tells Conaire to go naked to Tara, where he will be made king, and places several geasa (taboos) on his reign. Among other things, he may not be preceded by three red men into the house of a red man. As he approaches Tara he is met by three kings carrying clothes for him, and when he arrives he is made king.
His reign is long and mostly peaceful. His end is told in the Old Irish epic Togail Bruidne Dá Derga, "The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel", in which events conspire to make him break his geasa one by one. After he has already broken several of them, he travels south along the coast of Ireland, he is advised to stay the night at Da Derga's Hostel, but as he approaches it, he sees three men dressed in red riding red horses arriving before him. "Da Derga" means "Red God". He realises that three red men have preceded him into the house of a red man, and another of his geasa has been broken. His three foster-brothers, the three sons of Dond Désa, whom Conaire had exiled to Alba (Britain) for their crimes, had made alliance with the king of the Britons, Ingcél Cáech, and they were marauding across Ireland with a large band of followers. They attack Da Derga's Hostel. Three times they attempt to burn it down, and three times the fire is put out. Conaire, protected by his champion Mac Cécht and the Ulster hero Conall Cernach, kills six hundred before he reaches his weapons, a further six hundred with his weapons. He asks for a drink, but all the water has been used to put out the fires. Mac Cécht travels across Ireland with Conaire's cup, but none of the rivers will give him water. He returns with a cup of water just in time to see two men cutting Conaire's head off. He kills both of them. Conaire's severed head drinks the water and recites a poem praising Mac Cécht. The battle rages for three more days. Mac Cécht is killed, but Conall Cernach escapes.
He had ruled for thirty or seventy years, depending on the source consulted. The Lebor Gabála Érenn synchronises his reign with that of the Roman emperor Augustus (27 BC – AD 14), and after the birth of Christ, and makes him contemporary with legendary provincial kings Conchobar mac Nessa, Cairbre Nia Fer and Ailill mac Máta. The chronology of Geoffrey Keating's Foras Feasa ar Éirinn dates his reign to 63–33 BC, that of the Annals of the Four Masters to 110–40 BC.
A descendant of Íar mac Dedad, Conaire belonged to the legendary Clanna Dedad, the legendary royal family of the Érainn. His descendants in Ireland and Scotland were known as the Síl Conairi. The last Gaelic king of Scotland from the line from Conaire Mór was Alexander III of Scotland.
References
Further reading
Dobs, Margaret C., Side-lights on the Táin age and other studies. Dundalk: WM. Tempest. 1917.
O'Rahilly, Thomas F., Early Irish History and Mythology. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. 1946.
Pokorny, Julius. "Beiträge zur ältesten Geschichte Irlands (3. Érainn, Dári(n)ne und die Iverni und Darini des Ptolomäus)", in Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie 12 (1918): 323-57.
Keane, Barry. Shades of Arthur. The Irish Legend of Conaire. Acta Philologica 45 (2014): 7-14. http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media//files/Acta_Philologica/Acta_Philologica-r2014-t-n45/Acta_Philologica-r2014-t-n45-s7-14/Acta_Philologica-r2014-t-n45-s7-14.pdf
Primary sources
Ulster Cycle
Legendary High Kings of Ireland
1st-century BC legendary rulers
Mythological swordfighters | [
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253782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ailill%20mac%20M%C3%A1ta | Ailill mac Máta | Ailill mac Máta is the king of the Connachta and the husband of queen Medb in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. He rules from Cruachan (Rathcroghan in County Roscommon).
Family background, marriage and offspring
The sagas explain mac Máta as a matronymic: his mother is Máta Muirisc, daughter of Mága, of the Fir Ol nEchmacht, a tribal grouping of Connacht, through whom he claimed the throne of the Connachta. His father is Rus Ruad, king of the Laigin, whose other sons include Cairbre Nia Fer, king of Tara, Find Fili, who succeeded him as king of the Laigin, and in some texts Cathbad, chief druid of Conchobar mac Nessa of the Ulaid. The Táin Bó Cúailnge says Medb chose him as husband, ahead of Find, Cairbre and Conchobar, because he alone among them was without meanness, jealousy or fear.
A late saga, Cath Boinde, tells a different story. It says Ailill was the grandson of Medb's sister Ele, and came to Cruachan as a young child to be raised by Medb, who was already reigning there with her then-husband Eochaid Dála. He grew up to be a fine warrior, and became chief of Medb's bodyguard, and her lover. Eochaid tried to expel Ailill from Connacht, but Medb would not allow it. He then challenged him to single combat, and lost. Ailill then became Medb's husband and king of the Connachta.
Ailill and Medb had seven sons, all called Maine. They originally had other names, but after Medb asked a druid which of her sons would kill Conchobar, and received the reply "Maine", they were all renamed as follows:
Fedlimid became Maine Athramail ("like his father")
Cairbre became Maine Máthramail ("like his mother")
Eochaid became Maine Andoe ("the swift")
Fergus became Maine Taí ("the silent")
Cet became Maine Mórgor ("of great duty")
Sin became Maine Mílscothach ("honey-speech")
Dáire became Maine Móepirt ("beyond description")
The prophecy was fulfilled when Maine Andoe went on to kill Conchobar, son of Arthur, son of Bruide — not Conchobar mac Nessa of the Ulaid, as Medb had assumed the druid meant. Medb and Ailill also had a daughter, Findabair.
Cattle raid
Ailill led the Táin Bó Cúailnge (cattle raid of Cooley) against the Ulaid, an expedition intended to steal their prize bull Donn Cúailnge. The prologue to the later version of the Táin says this was a result of a dispute between Ailill and Medb over who was wealthier. Their wealth was equal, except for one thing: the bull Finnbhennach, who was born into Medb's herd, but thought it was beneath his dignity to be owned by a woman and transferred himself into Ailill's ownership. The only bull his equal in Ireland was Donn Cúailnge, so it was decided to acquire him for Medb to restore their equality.
Fergus mac Róich, a former king of the Ulaid in exile and Medb's lover, was chosen to lead the way for the army. On the way the army split in two. Ailill led one party, and Medb and Fergus, leading the other, took the opportunity to sleep together. But Ailill had sent his charioteer, Cuillius, to spy on them, and Cuillius stole Fergus's sword while he was in flagrante. Ailill decided to forgive Medb on the grounds that she was probably trying to ensure Fergus' loyalty, and kept Fergus's sword safe but hidden.
Because of a divine curse on the Ulaid, the invasion was opposed only by the teenage Ulaid hero Cú Chulainn, who held up the army's advance by demanding single combat at fords. Medb and Ailill offered their daughter Findabair in marriage to a series of heroes as payment for fighting Cú Chulainn, but all were defeated. Nevertheless, they secured the bull. After Conchobar finally assembled the Ulaid's army, Ailill gave Fergus back his sword and the final battle began. The Connachta were forced to retreat, but Donn Cúailnge was brought back to Cruachan, where he fought Finnbhennach, killed him, and died of his wounds.
Death
Ailill managed to keep his promise to Medb to be without jealousy, despite her many lovers, until he saw her bathing in a lake with Fergus. His blind brother Lugaid Dalléces was nearby, so Ailill told him a hart and a doe were playing in the lake, and challenged him to kill them with a spear. Lugaid threw the spear and killed Fergus.
Late in life, the Ulaid hero Conall Cernach came to stay with Ailill and Medb, as theirs was the only household in Ireland that could satisfy his enormous appetite. Medb found Ailill was seeing another woman and demanded Conall kill him, something he was happy to do in revenge for Fergus. Ailill was killed on 1 May Lá Bealtaine which was on a Tuesday. Conall then fled, but the men of the Connachta pursued and killed him at the ford of Ballyconnell, County Cavan.
Texts
Ferchuitred Medba, aka Cath Bóinde: Medb's Men, or the Battle of the Boyne
Fled Bricrend: Bricriu's Feast
Aisling Óenguso: The Dream of Óengus
Táin Bó Fraích: The Cattle Raid of Fráech
Táin Bó Regamain: The Cattle Raid of Regamon
Táin Bó Dartada: The Raid for Dartaid's Cattle
Táin Bó Flidhais or The Mayo Táin: The Driving of Flidais's Cattle
Echtra Nerae: The Adventures of Nera
Táin Bó Cuailnge: The Cattle Raid of Cooley Recension 1, Recension 2
Aided Fergusa meic Róig: The Death of Fergus mac Róich
References
Ulster Cycle
Legendary Irish kings
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253784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AEF | AEF | AEF is a three-letter acronym which may refer to:
Aboriginal Evangelical Fellowship, Australia
Afrique Équatoriale Française or French Equatorial Africa
Agricultural Industry Electronics Foundation
Air Experience Flight
Allied Expeditionary Forces in World War II
American Eagle Foundation
American Expeditionary Forces, in World War I
Asia Education Foundation
Asian Pacific American Bar Association Educational Fund
Astana Economic Forum
Aviation Environment Federation
Agence d'Essais Ferroviaires (in English: Railway Testing Agency), a SNCF division of laboratory and facilities to carry out testing in a variety of areas: mechanics, electrics, industrial hygiene, and the environment | [
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253785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemstone%20Publishing | Gemstone Publishing | Gemstone Publishing is an American company that publishes comic book price guides. The company was formed by Diamond Comic Distributors President and Chief Executive Officer Steve Geppi in 1994 when he bought Overstreet.
Gemstone published licensed Disney comic books from June 2003 until November 2008. The company has also reprinted EC Comics of the 1950s.
BOOM! Kids acquired all comic publishing licenses regarding Disney characters in the second half of 2009.
Disney comics
Gemstone's flagship publications were comic books featuring Disney characters; particularly the Donald Duck/Uncle Scrooge comics of such Duck artists as Carl Barks and Don Rosa, and the Mickey Mouse comics of Floyd Gottfredson, César Ferioli, and Romano Scarpa, among others.
While popularly known as a reprint house, Gemstone's comics were actually dominated by stories that were new to United States audiences. Vintage material, though popular with readers, was not the majority of the content.
Gemstone issued annual editions of Christmas Parade, Vacation Parade, and Spring Fever; a giveaway for Free Comic Book Day; and occasional special editions (including comic adaptations of Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers and Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas).
Gemstone's first large-size book collection, Mickey And The Gang: Classic Stories In Verse, was issued in November 2005. It was a compilation, edited by David Gerstein, of Disney cartoon story pages published from 1934 to 1944 in Good Housekeeping magazine. Gerstein later edited two Gemstone softcover books that were official tie-ins to the Walt Disney Treasures DVD collections: Disney Comics: 75 Years of Innovation (2006) and Uncle Scrooge: A Little Something Special (2008).
Russ Cochran and EC Comics reprints
Gemstone has also published reprints of EC Comics. Gemstone's Comic Book Marketplace-editor Russ Cochran had previously published (in 1973) a dozen reprints of EC titles including Crypt of Terror, Weird Science, The Haunt of Fear, The Vault of Horror, etc., before moving to Gladstone Publishing and then to Gemstone, which has been the home of Cochran's EC reprints for over 15 years.
Reprinting the Cochran/Gladstone-reprints of The Haunt of Fear, The Vault of Horror and Weird Science (all 1992), Gemstone also republished (in single issue and 'annual' - four issues per 'annual' - format):
Crime SuspenStories, Shock SuspenStories, Two-Fisted Tales, Weird Fantasy and Weird Science-Fantasy in 1992;
Incredible Science Fiction (1994)
Frontline Combat (1995)
Panic (1997)
Piracy and Valor (1998)
Aces High, Impact, M.D. and Psychoanalysis (1999), and
Crime Patrol and Extra! in 2000.
Oversize, hardback, slip-cased collections of these comics had been previously published in black & white by Cochran during the 1980s as "The Complete EC Library". This Library was then added to by Cochran/Gemstone with 2005's Picto-Fiction collection, comprising the EC comics: Confessions Illustrated, Crime Illustrated, Shock Illustrated and Terror Illustrated, along with "18 previously unseen stories, never published before".
Full-color hardbacks
In 2006, Cochran and Gemstone began publication of a series of full-color EC Archives editions. Promising that "[e]ach EC Archive volume will reprint six complete issues (24 stories)", the first volumes of Weird Science and Shock Suspenstories both saw print in December, 2006, with forewords from (respectively) EC fans George Lucas and Steven Spielberg. Ostensibly beginning to publish two volumes every two months, the schedule changed to one-per-month and recently one every couple of months.
In addition, "Deluxe" versions of Weird Science Vol.s 1 & 2 (both signed by artist Al Feldstein), Shock Suspenstories Vol. 1 and Tales From the Crypt Vol. 1 have been published.
Closing
In early 2009, the future of Gemstone Publishing was unclear, after reports of unpaid printing bills, particularly from the EC Archives. In April, Geppi responded to the uncertainty, noting that while there had been "a reduction in staff at Gemstone," such moves did "not [signal] the end of Gemstone Publishing." Seven months after Geppi's optimistic statements, the last batch of Gemstone's Disney comics appeared in November 2008, complete with previews for next month's issues that Gemstone was to fail publishing. BOOM! Kids acquired all comic publishing licenses regarding Disney characters, and started publishing comic titles previously owned by Gemstone in the second half of 2009. Starting in 2013, Dark Horse comics began to reprint E.C. comics picking up where Gemstone left off, in the same full color hardback format.
References
External links
Official website
Gemstone Publishing's Official Disney Comics site
Interview with editor John Clark on the launch of Gemstone's Disney comics line
EC Comics
Comic book publishing companies of the United States
Disney comics publishers | [
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253786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price%20point | Price point | Price points are prices at which demand for a given product is supposed to stay relatively high.
Characteristics
Introductory microeconomics depicts a demand curve as downward-sloping to the right and either linear or gently convex to the origin. The downwards slope generally holds, but the model of the curve is only piecewise true, as price surveys indicate that demand for a product is not a linear function of its price and not even a smooth function. Demand curves resemble a series of waves rather than a straight line.
The diagram shows price points at the points labeled A, B, and C. When a vendor increases a price beyond a price point (say to a price slightly above price point B), sales volume decreases by an amount more than proportional to the price increase. This decrease in quantity-demanded more than offsets the additional revenue from the increased unit-price. As a result, total revenue (price multiplied by quantity-demanded) decreases when a firm raises its price beyond a price point. Technically, the price elasticity of demand is low (inelastic) at a price lower than the price point (steep section of the demand curve), and high (elastic) at a price higher than a price point (gently sloping part of the demand curve). Firms commonly set prices at existing price-points as a marketing strategy.
Causes
There are three main reasons for price points to appear:
Substitution price points
price points occur at the price of a close substitute
when an item's price rises above the cost of a close substitute, the quantity demanded drops sharply
Customary price points
the market grows accustomed to paying a certain amount for a type of product
increasing the price beyond this amount will cause sales to drop dramatically
Perceptual price points (also referred to as "psychological pricing" or as "odd-number pricing")
raising a price above 99 cents will cause demand to fall disproportionately because people perceive $1.00 as a significantly higher price
Oligopoly pricing
In relation to customary price points, oligopolies can also generate price points. Such price points do not necessarily result from collusion, but as an emergent property of oligopolies: when all firms sell at the same price, any firm which attempts to raise its selling price will experience a decrease in sales and revenues (preventing firms from raising prices unilaterally); on the other hand, any firm in an oligopoly which lowers its prices will most likely be matched by competitors, resulting in small increases in sales but decreases in revenues (for all the firms in that market). This effect can potentially produce a kinked demand-curve where the kink lies at the point of the current price-level in the market.
These results depend on the elasticity of the demand curve and on the properties of each market.
See also
Convex preferences
Cost the limit of price
List of topics in industrial organization
Pricing
References
Further reading
Pricing
Emergence | [
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253790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Felix | Operation Felix | Operation Felix () was the codename for a proposed German seizure of Gibraltar during the Second World War, subject to the co-operation of the Spanish dictator, Francisco Franco. The operation did not occur chiefly because of Franco's reluctance to enter the war.
Background
After the Fall of France in June 1940, Hermann Göring advised Adolf Hitler to occupy Spain and North Africa, rather than to invade the British Isles. As early as June 1940, before the armistice with France had been signed, General Heinz Guderian also argued for seizing Britain's strategically-important naval base of Gibraltar. Guderian even urged Hitler to postpone the armistice so that he could rush on through Spain with two Panzer divisions, take Gibraltar and invade French North Africa. General Alfred Jodl, Chief of Staff of Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) operations, presented Hitler with a formal plan to cut Britain from the east of its empire by invading Spain, Gibraltar, North Africa and the Suez Canal, instead of invading Britain.
On 12 July 1940, the OKW set up a special group for the necessary planning. On 22 July, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, the head of the Abwehr and an acknowledged expert on Spain, travelled with several other German officers to Madrid, Spain, where they held talks with the Spanish dictator, General Francisco Franco, and Spanish War Minister General Juan Vigón. They then travelled on to Algeciras, where they stayed some days to reconnoitre the approaches to Gibraltar, and they returned to Germany with the conclusion that Franco's regime was reluctant to enter the war. Canaris's group determined that Gibraltar might be seized by an air-supported ground assault by at least two infantry regiments, three engineer battalions and 12 artillery regiments. Canaris declared that without heavy assault cannon, which he knew were unavailable, Gibraltar could not be taken. When he reported to Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, Canaris gave his opinion that even if Germany were able, with the co-operation of Spain, to seize Gibraltar, the British would land in Morocco and French West Africa.
In August, Canaris met with Franco's brother-in-law, Ramón Serrano Súñer, who was about to become the Spanish Foreign Minister. Canaris urged Serrano Súñer to do what he could to convince Franco to stay out of the war. Soon afterward, Franco dispatched Serrano Súñer to Berlin to get an idea of Hitler's attitude since Canaris had assured him that Germany would not forcibly intervene in Spain. When Serrano Súñer met Hitler on 16 September, Hitler did not press very hard for Spanish involvement in the war, perhaps because he planned to meet Franco himself very soon.
On 24 August, Hitler approved a general plan to seize Gibraltar. On 23 October, he met Franco at Hendaye, France, and proposed for Spain to enter the war on the Axis side as early as January 1941. Gibraltar would be taken by special Wehrmacht units and turned over to Spain, but Franco refused the offer and emphasised Spain's need for large-scale military and economic assistance. Hitler took offence when Franco expressed doubts about the possibility of a German victory in fighting the British on its home territory. Franco also pointed out that even if the British Isles were invaded and conquered, the British government, as well as most of the British Army and the powerful Royal Navy, would probably retreat to Canada and continue the Battle of the Atlantic with the support of the United States.
A meaningless memorandum of understanding was signed at Hendaye by Franco and Hitler, with neither side getting what it wanted. A few days later, Hitler was reported to have told Benito Mussolini, "I would rather have four of my own teeth pulled out than go through another meeting with that man again!"
Planning
Despite those problems, German military leaders proceeded to prepare for a large-scale operation against Gibraltar, codenamed Operation Felix. The plan called for two German army corps to enter Spain across the Pyrenees. One corps, under General Ludwig Kübler, was to cross Spain and assault Gibraltar, and the other, commanded by General Rudolf Schmidt, was to secure its flanks. Air support would need one fighter and two dive-bomber wings. The overall command of Felix was to be assigned to Field Marshal Walther von Reichenau. The plan also made provisions for the occupation of Spanish possessions in North Africa: Spanish Morocco, Río de Oro, and the Canary Islands, whose ports could then be used as bases for German U-boats.
Proposed German order of battle
Expeditionary Corps (forming the covering force); General Rudolf Schmidt
16th Motorized Infantry Division (to concentrate at Valladolid)
16th Panzer Division (Cáceres)
SS Division Totenkopf (Seville)
49 Gebirgsarmeekorps or Army Mountain Corps (forming the assault force); General Ludwig Kübler
Grossdeutschland Infantry Regiment
98th Regiment of the 1st Mountain Division
26 medium and heavy artillery battalions
3 observation battalions
3 engineer battalions, which would use up to 150 "Goliath" remotely-controlled mine clearing vehicles
2 Nebelwerfer battalions
Regiment Brandenburg (detachment of 150)
Diplomatic issues
On 12 November, Hitler issued Führer Directive No. 18, which stated that "political measures to induce the prompt entry of Spain into the war have been initiated.... The aim of German intervention in the Iberian Peninsula (code name Felix) will be to drive the English out of the Western Mediterranean". It also mentioned the potential invasion of Portugal if the British gained a foothold and requested for the occupation of Madeira and the Azores to be investigated.
On 5 December 1940, Hitler met with the German High Command and decided to request permission from Franco for German troops to cross the Spanish border on 10 January 1941. It was planned that General Jodl would go to Spain to make preparations for the attack on Gibraltar as soon as Canaris had obtained Franco's agreement. Accordingly, Canaris met with Franco on 7 December and put to the need for Spain's immediate entry into the war. Franco responded that Spain was simply not capable of supporting the German Army because of shortages of food and the crippled infrastructure and nature of the country still recovering from its recent civil war. He also expressed his fear that a German seizure of Gibraltar would lead to the loss of the Canary Islands and of Spanish Africa by a British counterinvasion.
On receiving Canaris's report, Hitler decided that Operation Felix should be cancelled. His disappointment was reflected in a later letter to Mussolini in which he said, "I fear that Franco is committing here the greatest mistake of his life".
In the opening weeks of 1941, unsuccessful efforts were made by the ambassadors in Berlin and Rome to encourage the Spanish government to change its stance. Franco answered negatively to another request from Hitler to join the war that was received on 6 February citing the precarious state of Spain's economy and army. German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop told Hitler that in his opinion, "Franco has no intention of ever joining the war". In February 1941, the OKW advised the naval high command that Operation Felix was out of the question for the time being since the troops that were earmarked for it would soon be needed elsewhere.
British countermeasures
The British were well aware of Gibraltar's strategic value and its vulnerability to attack from the Spanish mainland. On the outbreaks of war with Italy, most of the civilian population were evacuated to the United Kingdom and other parts of the Empire, except for those in vital jobs in the dockyard or who were members of the Gibraltar Defence Force. The garrison was more than doubled, and the anti-aircraft defences were greatly improved. Work started on a programme of improvements to Gibraltar's fortifications, including a new network of tunnels deep inside the Rock and a system of strongpoints and minefields covering the land border.
British garrison: spring 1941
2nd Battalion, The King's Regiment
2nd Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry
4th Battalion, The Black Watch (from July 1940)
4th Battalion, Devonshire Regiment (from July 1940)
3rd Heavy Regiment, Royal Artillery, with 8 x 9.2 inch, 7 x 6 inch and 6 x twin 6 pounder coast artillery guns
10th Anti Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery, with 4 x 3 inch, 4 x 3.7 inch, and 2 x 2 pounder anti-aircraft guns
82nd Heavy AA Regiment, Royal Artillery, (from July 1940), with 16 x 3.7 inch guns, 8 x 40mm 40mm Bofors AA guns and radar
3rd Searchlight Battery, Royal Artillery.
"Special Detachment" of No. 1 Tunnelling Company, Royal Canadian Engineers (from November 1940)
No. 2 Tunnelling Company, Royal Canadian Engineers (from March 1941)
Royal Engineers, Royal Signals and supporting arms.
A further countermeasure was the creation of a group of specialist army and navy officers known as the 128th Liaison Delegation Party, which would be activated in the event of the German Army moving into Spain. It had two alternative roles. The initial role would be to provide support to General Franco should he decide to resist the Germans and to provide liaison for any British force sent to support the Spanish forces. The second role, in the event of Franco colluding with the Germans, was to demolish Spanish ports and infrastructure and to organise resistance and sabotage with the participation of the Special Operations Executive. That role became pre-eminent later in the war when the group was renamed the Joint Intelligence Centre.
Felix-Heinrich
On Hitler's insistence, the OKW developed a revised plan for the capture of Gibraltar, which might have been implemented once the German invasion of the Soviet Union had been completed. Codenamed Felix-Heinrich, the plan was submitted to General Franz Halder on 10 March 1941. It proposed that as soon as the invading forces in the Soviet Union reached a line between Kiev and Smolensk, hopefully by 15 July, units could then be withdrawn to prepare for the Gibraltar operation, which it was thought could begin on 15 October. Felix-Heinrich would broadly follow the original plan, with the same forces, but with new supporting units.
See also
Operation Isabella
Operation Pilgrim
Military history of Gibraltar during World War II
Spain in World War II
Axis ship-watching activities in the Gibraltar area
Notes
Abandoned projects of Nazi Germany
Mediterranean theatre of World War II
Francoist Spain
Cancelled military operations involving Germany
Cancelled military operations involving Spain
Gibraltar in World War II
Spain in World War II
German World War II special forces
Cancelled invasions
Cancelled military operations of World War II | [
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] |
253796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witch%20hazel%20%28disambiguation%29 | Witch hazel (disambiguation) | Witch hazel (Hamamelis) is a genus of flowering shrubs.
Witch hazel may also refer to:
Witch hazel (astringent), an astringent topical medicine derived from the Hamamelis plant
Witch Hazel (Disney), a Disney cartoon and comics character
Witch Hazel (Looney Tunes), a Looney Tunes cartoon character
Witch Hazel, Oregon, United States, an unincorporated community
Buttercup witch hazel, Corylopsis pauciflora, a spring-flowering shrub
See also
Witchazel, an album by Matt Berry | [
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253801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Gilbert | Stephen Gilbert | Stephen Gilbert (15 January 1910 – 12 January 2007) was a painter and sculptor from Scotland. He was one of the few British artists fully to embrace the avant-garde movement in Paris in the 1950s.
Early years
Gilbert was born in Wormit, in the north-east of Fife, Scotland, of English parents. His father was a commander in the Royal Navy; his grandfather, Sir Alfred Gilbert was the Art Nouveau sculptor of The Angel of Christian Charity in Piccadilly Circus.
Education
He studied architecture at the Slade School of Art in London from 1929 to 1932, where he befriended fellow student Roger Hilton. Gilbert won the Slade Scholarship at the end of his first year, and the principal Sir Henry Tonks encouraged him to start painting from 1930. He also met sculptor Jocelyn Chewett at the Slade, and they were married in 1935.
Career
He exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1936, and put on an early solo show in London, at the Wertheim Gallery in 1938. He moved to Paris in 1937, where his wife studied under Ossip Zadkine, leaving before the Second World War. He failed a medical for military service, and he spent the war in Ireland near Dublin with his wife and son, Humphrey. He joined The White Stag group of refugee artists. His work was inspired by Masson, and by reading Jung, Nietzsche and Jakob Böhme, with fantastic creatures and plants painted in vivid colours.
He returned to Paris in 1946, after the birth of his daughter Frances. He exhibited at the Salon des Surindépendents in Paris in 1948, attracting the attention of Danish artist Asger Jorn, and leading to his membership of the CoBrA avant-garde art group. He was one of only two British members, the other being William Gear. He was included in the first issue of the group's journal and participated in both major exhibitions: the Bregnerød congress in August 1949, where he worked on the collective mural, and the Amsterdam exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum in November of that year, where he worked with Constant Nieuwenhuys. A French art critic described him as "le plus français des sculpteurs anglais et l'un des plus européens parmi les artistes" ("the most French of British sculptors and one of the most European of artists").
He also visited Svanberg in Sweden. After his contact with CoBrA, his approach to painting became more abstract, but he remained in contact with Pierre Alechinsky after CoBrA dissolved. He exhibited several times at the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles.
During the 1950s, he concentrated on three-dimensional and architectural forms, formed from sheets of aluminium. He joined André Bloc's Groupe Espace in 1954, exhibiting at the Salon de la Jeune Sculpture. He was also a founder of the Néovision group, and worked with experimental architect Peter Stead. He moved on to more curvilinear forms, exhibited at the Drian Galleries in London in 1961, and completed two public commissions in London. He received a Gulbenkian award in 1962, and the sculpture prize at the Tokyo Biennale in 1965.
His wife died in 1979, and his sculpture moved on from open forms to more enclosed structures. He returned to painting in the 1980s. Examples of his work are held by many public collections.
He died in Frome, Somerset and he was survived by his son and daughter.
References
Sources
Obituary, The Times, 19 January 2007
Obituary, The Independent, 24 January 2007
Obituary, The Guardian, 14 February 2007
External links
Works in the Tate Collection
2006 retrospective at Henry Moore Institute, Leeds
1910 births
2007 deaths
20th-century Scottish painters
Scottish male painters
21st-century Scottish painters
Modern painters
People from Wormit
Alumni of the Slade School of Fine Art
Abstract painters | [
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253802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above%20the%20Law | Above the Law | Above the Law may refer to:
Above the Law (website), a law blog
Righting Wrongs, a 1986 Hong Kong film titled "Above the Law" for international release
Above the Law (1988 film), an American action film starring Steven Seagal
Above the Law (2017 film), a Belgian-French thriller film starring Lubna Azabal
Above the Law (group), an American hip hop group
Above the Law (TV series), an Australian television series
"Above the Law", a song by Bad Meets Evil from Hell: The Sequel
"Above the Law" is third episode of The Walking Dead: A New Frontier
See also
, doctrine of Roman Law as coined by Ulpian: "The sovereign is not bound by the laws." ()
Immunity (legal concept)
Impeachment | [
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253803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel%20Appel | Karel Appel | Christiaan Karel Appel (; 25 April 1921 – 3 May 2006) was a Dutch painter, sculptor, and poet. He started painting at the age of fourteen and studied at the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam in the 1940s. He was one of the founders of the avant-garde movement CoBrA in 1948. He was also an avid sculptor and has had works featured in MoMA and other museums worldwide.
Childhood
Christiaan Karel Appel was born on 25 April 1921 in his parents' house at Dapperstraat 7 in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
As a child he was often called 'Kik'. On the ground floor his father, Jan Appel, had a barbershop. His mother, born Johanna Chevalier, was a descendant of French Huguenots. Karel Appel had three brothers.
At fourteen, Appel produced his first real painting on canvas, a still life of a fruit basket. For his fifteenth birthday, his wealthy uncle Karel Chevalier gave him a paint set and an easel. An avid amateur painter himself, Chevalier gave his namesake some lessons in painting.
Career
From 1940 to 1943, during the German occupation, Appel studied at the Rijksakademie van Beeldende Kunsten in Amsterdam, and it was there he met the young painter Corneille and, some years later, Constant; they became close friends for years. His parents opposed his choice to become an artist, leading him to leave home; this was also necessary because he needed to hide from the German police so that he would not be picked up and sent to Germany to work in the weapons industry.
Appel had his first show in Groningen in 1946. In 1949 he participated with the other CoBrA artists in the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; this generated a huge scandal and many objections in the press and public. He was influenced by Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and the French brute-art artist Jean Dubuffet. In 1947 he started sculpting with all kinds of used materials (in the technique of assemblage) and painted them in bright colors: white, red, yellow, blue, and black.
He joined the together with the young Dutch painters Anton Rooskens, Theo Wolvecamp, and Jan Nieuwenhuys. Later the Belgian writer Hugo Claus joined the group.
In 1948 Appel joined CoBrA (coined by the Belgian poet Christian Dotremont from the initials of the members' home countries' capital cities: Copenhagen, Brussels, Amsterdam) together with the Dutch artists Corneille, Constant, and Jan Nieuwenhuys (see also Aart Kemink). The new art of the CoBrA group was not popular in the Netherlands, but it found a warm and broad welcome in Denmark. By 1939, Danish artists had already started to make spontaneous art and one of their sources of inspiration was Danish and Nordic mythology. It was also in Denmark that the CoBrA artists started cooperating by collectively painting the insides of houses, which encouraged and intensified the exchange of the typical 'childish' and spontaneous picture language used by the CoBrA group. Appel used this very intensively; his 1949 fresco 'Questioning Children' in Amsterdam City Hall caused controversy and was covered up for ten years.
As a result of this controversy and other negative Dutch reactions to CoBrA, Appel moved to Paris in 1950 and developed his international reputation by travelling to Mexico, the USA, Yugoslavia, and Brazil. He also lived in New York City and Florence. His first American gallery exhibition took place in 1954 at the Martha Jackson Gallery. The following year his painting Child and Beast II (1951) was included in the influential exhibition, The New Decade at the Museum of Modern Art which featured the work of twenty-two European painters and sculptors including newcomers like Francis Bacon, Jean Dubuffet, and Pierre Soulages. He is particularly noted for his mural work. After 1990 he became much more popular in the Netherlands; he had several big shows in Amsterdam and Bruxelles, organized by director Rudy Fuchs. Also, the CoBrA-museum in Amstelveen organized several shows featuring his work. He became the most famous Dutch CoBrA artist.
Appel's work has been exhibited in a number of galleries, including the Anita Shapolsky Gallery in New York City, Galerie Lelong in Paris, Galerie Ulysses in Vienna, and Gallery LL in Amsterdam.
Death
Appel died on 3 May 2006 in his home in Zürich, Switzerland. He suffered from a heart ailment. He was buried on 16 May 2006 at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, France.
Years before his death, Appel established the Karel Appel Foundation, whose purpose is "to preserve [Appel's] artworks, to promote public awareness and knowledge of Karel Appel's oeuvre, and to supervise publication of the Oeuvre Catalogue of the paintings, the works on paper, and the sculptures."
In 2002 a number of Appel's works went missing on the way to his foundation, an event that was not to be resolved before his death. However, in 2012 the works were found in a disused UK warehouse and returned to the foundation.
In the wake of his death, the Foundation (based in Amsterdam) functions as his official estate in addition to its primary service as an image archive. The U.S. copyright representative for the Karel Appel Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.
Gallery
Public collections
Among the public collections holding works by Karel Appel are:
Museum de Fundatie, Zwolle, The Netherlands
Aboa Vetus & Ars Nova, Turku, Finland
Art Gallery of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Rijksmuseum, The Netherlands
The Phillips Collection, Washington DC, USA
Gallery Delaive, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Frances Lehman Loeb Art Center, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA
Art Museum of Southeast Texas, Beaumont, Texas
Bibliography
Appel, Karel: Psychopathological Notebook. Drawings and Gouaches 1948–1950. Bern – Berlin: Verlag Gachnang & Springer, 1999.
References
Further reading
Kuspit, Donald (2010). "Titanic Power: Karel Appel in the Tradition of the New". Psychodrama: Modern Art as Group Therapy. London: Ziggurat. pp. 13–45. .
Tapié, Michel; Amsterdam (Netherlands). Stedelijk Museum. Karel Appel (Publisher: Amsterdam, author, 1955) OCLC 11554905 (Worldcat link)
External links
Karel Appel Foundation
Karel Appel, Dutch Expressionist Painter, Dies at 85 in the New York Times (obituary)
Karel Appel in The Guardian (obituary)
images of painting art of Karel Appel
Art Signature Dictionary – See Karel Appel's signature
Art Informel and Tachisme painters
1921 births
2006 deaths
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Dutch male sculptors
Modern painters
Modern sculptors
Painters from Amsterdam
20th-century Dutch painters
Dutch male painters
Abstract painters
School of Paris
Commanders of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
20th-century Dutch sculptors
Dutch contemporary artists | [
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] |
253805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty%20Motor%20Car | Liberty Motor Car | The Liberty Motor Car Company was a United States automobile maker based in Detroit, Michigan that started in February 1916 with capital stock of $400,000. Its president was Percy Owen, who was the vice-president of Saxon. It ran into financial trouble, and in September 1923, it was acquired by Columbia Motors.
Models
Only one model named Liberty Six was offered, propelled by a monobloc 3394 cc 6-cylinder engine.
See also
List of automobile manufacturers
Notes
External links
Former Liberty Motor Car Company headquarters building (photograph and information)
1920 Liberty Model 10-C (photograph and information)
References
Wise, David Burgess, Encyclopedia of Automobiles,
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1916
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Columbia Motors
1916 establishments in Michigan
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1923
1923 disestablishments in Michigan
1923 mergers and acquisitions
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Detroit | [
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253806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia%20Motors | Columbia Motors | Columbia Motors was a Detroit, Michigan, United States based automobile manufacturer that produced automobiles from 1916 to 1924.
Columbia Motors was incorporated in 1916, with John George Bayerline as company president and William E. Metzger as vice-president. Bayerline was the former president and general manager of the King Motor Car Company and former general manager and founder of the Warren Motor Car Company. Prior to founding Columbia, Metzger was a founder of the E-M-F Company which was later purchased by the Studebaker Corporation.
Columbia Motors produced two models powered by Continental six-cylinder engines including the popular Columbia Six. In 1916, Columbia bought Argo Electric. A 1916 news item in the journal Horseless Age presents a "Columbia Touring Car". In 1923, Columbia acquired Liberty Motor Car.
See also
Brass Era car
List of defunct United States automobile manufacturers
References
Wise, David Burgess, Encyclopedia of Automobiles,
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
American companies established in 1917
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1917
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1924
1917 establishments in Michigan
1924 disestablishments in Michigan | [
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] |
253807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSF | PSF | PSF is an abbreviation that may refer to:
Organisations
Political parties
French Social Party (Parti Social Français)
French Socialist Party (Parti Socialiste Français)
Palestinian Popular Struggle Front
Peoples Students Federation, the youth wing of the Pakistan Peoples Party
Provisional Sinn Féin
Socialist Party without Borders (Parti Socialiste sans Frontières), a leftist party in Chad
Law enforcement
Puntland Security Force
Public Security Forces the principal law-enforcement arm of the Bahraini Ministry of Interior
Business and companies
Professional service firm, a company offering consulting, legal, or other services
Premium Standard Farms, Inc
P.S.F. Records, a record label
Pressed Steel Fisher
Other
Pakistan Science Foundation
Pharmaciens Sans Frontières
Pondicherry Science Forum
Python Software Foundation
Technology
Physical Storage Format, a data format for navigation data
Portable Sound Format
Progressive segmented frame, a scheme to handle progressive scan video using interlaced equipment
Protein structure file for molecular dynamics, a chemical file format
Point spread function, the response of an imaging system to a point source
Protein Segment Finder
Polysulfone
PSF, Potassium fluorosilicate, specifically when referring to phosphors.
Units
Price per square foot
Pounds per square foot, a measure of pressure; see also Pounds per square inch
Other
Prolate spheroidal wave function
Pennsylvania Shakespeare Festival
Phelps Stokes Fund
Pittsfield Municipal Airport (IATA airport code: PSF)
Posterior spinal fusion | [
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253808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton%20Affair | Thornton Affair | The Thornton Affair, also known as the Thornton Skirmish, Thornton's Defeat, or Rancho Carricitos was a battle in 1846 between the military forces of the United States and Mexico west upriver from Zachary Taylor's camp along the Rio Grande. The much larger Mexican force defeated the Americans in the opening of hostilities, and was the primary justification for U.S. President James K. Polk's call to Congress to declare war.
Background
Although the United States had annexed Texas, both the US and Mexico claimed the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. Polk had ordered Taylor's Army of Occupation to the Rio Grande early in 1846 soon after Mexican President Mariano Paredes declared in his inaugural address that he would uphold the integrity of Mexican territory to the Sabine River.
Mariano Arista assumed command of the Division of the North on April 4 and arrived at Matamoros on April 24, making the total force there about 5000 men, and notified Taylor hostilities had commenced. Arista promptly ordered General Anastasio Torrejón to cross the Rio Grande fourteen miles upstream at La Palangana.
Battle
Taylor received two reports on April 24 of Mexicans crossing the Rio Grande, the first crossing below his camp, the other a crossing upriver. Taylor ordered Captain Croghan Ker to investigate downriver and Captain Seth B. Thornton with two Dragoon companies to investigate upriver. Ker found nothing but Thornton rode into an ambush and his 80-man force was quickly overwhelmed by Torrejon's 1600, resulting in the capture of those not immediately killed. Thornton's guide brought news of the hostilities to Taylor and was followed by a cart from Torrejón containing the six wounded, Torrejon stating he could not care for them.
Aftermath
In the fierce encounter, fourteen of Thornton's men were killed, six wounded and one was fatally wounded, while the rest were taken prisoner (including Captain Thornton and his second in command Captain William J. Hardee). Mexican casualties are unknown. Torrejón continued on to the Matamoros-Point Isabel road, surprising Samuel H. Walker's Texas Rangers on April 28, before continuing on to Longoreno to cover the crossing of the main Mexican army.
Following the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Arista and Taylor agreed to a prisoner exchange which resulted in the release of Thornton, Hardee and their men. Thornton was killed on August 20, 1847 in an engagement at Churubusco outside Mexico City. With eerie symmetry, this soldier who was wounded at the war's opening act was killed in this last conflict of the war.
Declaration of war
Upon learning of the incident, President James K. Polk asked for a Declaration of war before a joint session of the United States Congress, and summed up his justification for war by famously stating:
"The cup of forbearance had been exhausted even before the recent information from the frontier of the Del Norte [Rio Grande]. But now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war.".
On May 13, 1846, the U.S. Congress declared war on Mexico, despite the Mexican government's position that Thornton had crossed the border into Mexican Texas, which Mexico maintained began south of the Nueces River (the historical border of the province of Texas). Opposition also existed in the United States, with one senator declaring that the affair had been "as much an act of aggression on our part as is a man's pointing a pistol at another's breast".
Congressman Abraham Lincoln demanded to know the "particular spot of soil on which the blood of our citizens was so shed" (the spot resolutions). The ensuing Mexican–American War was waged from 1846 to 1848 which cost the lives of many thousands and the loss of all northern provinces from Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war on February 2, 1848, and established the Rio Grande as the border between the U.S. and Mexico, and led to Mexico recognizing Texas as a part of the United States.
See also
List of battles of the Mexican–American War
References
External links
History channel "The Mexican-American War"
Battle report and list of casualties
A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
1846 in Mexico
Texas Campaign
April 1846 events
Invasions of the United States | [
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253809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Church%20of%20England%20dioceses | List of Church of England dioceses | There are 42 Church of England dioceses, each being an administrative territorial unit governed by a bishop. These cover England, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and a small part of Wales. The Diocese in Europe is also a part of the Church of England, and covers the whole of continental Europe, Morocco and the post-Soviet states. The structure of dioceses within the Church of England was initially inherited from the Catholic Church as part of the Protestant Reformation. During the Reformation a number of new dioceses were founded, but no more were then created until the middle of the 19th century, when dioceses were founded mainly in response to the growing population, especially in the northern industrial cities. The most recent diocese to be established was the Diocese of Leeds, which came into being on 20 April 2014. Prior to that, no new dioceses had been created since 1927. Leeds was created by combining three previous dioceses: the Diocese of Bradford, the Diocese of Ripon and Leeds, and the Diocese of Wakefield.
The 42 current dioceses are divided into two provinces. The Province of Canterbury in the south comprises 30 dioceses and the Province of York in the north comprises 12. The archbishops of Canterbury and York have pastoral oversight over the bishops within their province, along with certain other rights and responsibilities. All of the dioceses have one cathedral each except the Diocese of Leeds, which has three that are considered co-equal. Of all the dioceses, Derby has the smallest cathedral; Derby Cathedral takes up only . One diocese dates back to the 6th century, eight date back to the 7th century, two to the 10th century, five to the 11th century, two to the 12th century, five to the 16th century, seven to the 19th century, and ten to the 20th century. The territories administered by the various dioceses generally accord with the counties as they existed before the Local Government Act 1972.
Dioceses
Statistics
Source: Diocese of Europe excluded.
1persons per square mile
See also
Historical development of Church of England dioceses
List of Anglican dioceses in the United Kingdom and Ireland
List of cathedrals in the United Kingdom
Notes
Bibliography
England geography-related lists
Dioceses
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253810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Fort%20Texas | Siege of Fort Texas | The siege of Fort Texas marked the beginning of active campaigning by the armies of the United States and Mexico during the Mexican–American War. The battle is sometimes called the siege of Fort Brown. Major Jacob Brown, not to be confused with War of 1812 General Jacob Brown, was one of the two Americans killed in action.
Background
On 28 March 1846, the Army of Occupation under General Zachary Taylor reached the north bank of the Rio Grande. Taylor ordered Captain Joseph K. Mansfield to construct an earthen star fort for 800 men named "Fort Texas". The fort was garrisoned by 500 men under Major Jacob Brown, including the 7th Infantry, Capt. Allen Lowd's four 18-pounders, and Lt. Braxton Bragg's field battery.
Mexican General Francisco Mejia's 2,000 men also erected similar fortifications, including for his twenty cannons, for 800 men upstream at the Las Anacuitas ferry crossing, called Fort Paredes; and two redoubts about 800 yards from Taylor's camp, placing it in a crossfire. The largest cannon was a 12-pounder.
Following the Thornton Affair, Mexican forces under General Mariano Arista crossed the Rio Grande and then besieged Fort Texas, after realizing that on 1 May Taylor had taken most of his forces to Fort Polk on Point Isabel to protect his supply depot.
Siege
At dawn on 3 May 1846, Mexican forces bombarded Fort Texas, but were silenced by the American response, although the Mexican artillery down the river was more successful. Lowd attempted to set fire to Matamoros with "hot shot". Mexican fire stopped at 7:30 pm, the American's at 11 pm. On 4 May, Mexican guns and a mortar were placed on the northern bank of the Rio Grande and on 5 May General Pedro de Ampudia arrived with 1,230 men and four guns. Since Ampudia's artillery was too light to breach the earthworks and the infantry disinclined to make an assault, the siege continued until 9 May with General Antonio Canales Rosillo's irregular cavalry astride the Point Isabel road preventing supplies from reaching the fort.
Captain Edgar S. Hawkins took command of Fort Texas when Major Brown was mortally wounded on 6 May at ten o'clock. When Arista demanded the fort's surrender at 4:30 that afternoon, Hawkins responded with "My interpreter is not skilled in your language but if I understand you correctly...I must respectfully decline to surrender."
As soon as it became clear Taylor was leaving Fort Polk, Arista moved his army from his camp at Tanques del Ramiereno to block Taylor's path leading to the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma.
Aftermath
Though the confrontation at Fort Texas lasted six days, with periods of heavy cannon fire, casualties were remarkably low. Only two U.S. soldiers died in the bombardment. Major Brown was struck in the leg by a cannonball on May 6 and survived for several days only to die on May 9, just hours before the siege ended. Despite his wound, Major Brown had helped maintain troop morale throughout the siege, thus contributing to the success of the defense of the Fort. Mexican leaders reported two killed and two wounded from American artillery fire during the siege. The effect of artillery fire on the civilian population of Matamoros is unknown. Laundress and cook Sarah Borginnes, who refused to take shelter during the siege but instead provided food and coffee to the American troops, was named "Heroine of Fort Brown" by the American newspapers.
See also
Battles of the Mexican–American War
List of conflicts in the United States
Saint Patrick's Battalion
References
Sources
Brooks, N.C., A Complete History of The Mexican War
Handbook of Texas Online, Fort Brown,
Alcaraz, Ramon. Apuntes para La Historia De La Guerra Estes Mexico y los Estados-Unidos Tipografia De Manuel Payno Mexico (City) 1848
External links
A Continent Divided: The U.S.–Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington.
1846 in Mexico
Mexican–American War forts
F
Cameron County, Texas
Fort Texas
Irish-American history and culture in Texas
1846 in Texas
May 1846 events | [
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253813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniting%20Church%20in%20Australia | Uniting Church in Australia | The Uniting Church in Australia (UCA) was founded on 22 June 1977, when most congregations of the Methodist Church of Australasia, about two-thirds of the Presbyterian Church of Australia and almost all the churches of the Congregational Union of Australia united under the Basis of Union. According to the church, it had 243,000 members in 2018. In the , about 870,200 Australians identified with the church; in the , the figure was 1,065,796. The UCA is Australia's third-largest Christian denomination, behind the Catholic and the Anglican Churches. There are around 2,000 UCA congregations, and 2001 National Church Life Survey (NCLS) research indicated that average weekly attendance was about 10 per cent of census figures.
The UCA is Australia's largest non-government provider of community and health services. Its service network consists of over 400 agencies, institutions, and parish missions, with its areas of service including aged care, hospitals, children, youth and family, disability, employment, emergency relief, drug and alcohol abuse, youth homelessness and suicide. Affiliated agencies include UCA's community and health-service provider network, affiliated schools, the Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress, Frontier Services, and UnitingWorld.
Organisation
The UCA is a national, unincorporated association of councils, each of which has responsibility for functions in the church. The councils are congregations (local), presbyteries (regional), synods (state) and an
assembly (national).
The membership of each council is established by the constitution. Each council includes Women and Men, lay and ordained. The offices of president of assembly, moderator of synod (who chair these councils) and other offices are open to all UCA members.
The UCA is a non-episcopal church, with no bishops. Leadership and pastoral roles are nominally performed by presbyteries, but in reality by individuals.
Assembly
The UCA assembly meets every three years, and is chaired by the president. The 14th Assembly met in Perth from 12 to 18 July 2015. The 15th Assembly, hosted by the Synod of Victoria and Tasmania in Box Hill, met in July 2018. Assembly business between meetings is conducted by the Assembly Standing Committee, which meets three times per year (usually in March, July and November). Membership is drawn from throughout Australia, with 18 members elected at each assembly.
President
The current president is Reverend Sharon Hollis since she was installed as president in the online meeting of the 16th Assembly on 17 July 2021. She replaced Deidre Palmer, who had succeeded Stuart McMillan at the start of the 15th Assembly on 8 July 2018. Palmer is the second woman in the role, following Jill Tabart (1994-1997). Palmer was the moderator of the Presbytery and Synod of South Australia from November 2013 to November 2016. Hollis was moderator of the Synod of Victoria and Tasmania at the time of her election in 2018 as the president-elect and became president at the beginning of the sixteenth assembly, which was to be held in Queensland in 2021. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the meeting was moved to a shorter, online form.
Synods
Synods are UCA councils which roughly correspond to state boundaries. Each synod meets about once per year, with a standing committee to represent it between sessions. Synod responsibilities include the promotion and encouragement of the church's mission, theological and ministerial education, and overseeing property matters. There are six synods:
Synod of New South Wales and the ACT (formerly the NSW Synod)
Synod of Queensland
Presbytery and Synod of South Australia
Synod of Western Australia
Synod of Victoria and Tasmania
The Northern Synod, which includes the Northern Territory and north Western and South Australia
Presbyteries
Each synod generally consists of a number of presbyteries. Western Australia has a unitary presbytery-synod model. South Australia also had a single presbytery and synod for 15 years, until 2019. These large presbyteries enable groups of congregations to work together, based on geographic location or similar interests or characteristics. Selection of ministerial candidates and the placement of ministers are decided at the presbytery level.
Congregations
There are about 2,000 UCA congregations, with 243,000 members and adherents. Congregations range in size from a dozen to hundreds of members. They are the local church, the setting for regular worship (generally on Sundays). Many churches also conduct worship services at other times, such as a monthly weekday service, a late-night service for day-shift workers, a "cafe church", or Friday- or Saturday-evening services.
A Meeting of the Congregation must be held at least twice each year. The meetings typically consider and approve the budget, local policy matters, property matters (ratified by the presbytery and synod) and the "call" (employment) of a new minister or other staff.
Congregations manage themselves through a council. All elders are members, as are ministers with pastoral responsibility for the congregation; there may also be other members. The council meets regularly, and is responsible for approving worship times and other matters.
Some united congregations exist. The UCA has joined with other churches, such as the Baptist Union and the Churches of Christ, in some locations. There are also cooperative arrangements where supplying ministry to congregations is impossible, particularly in remote areas. This includes arrangements with the Anglican Church, where ministry and (sometimes) property resources are shared.
Faith communities are less structured than congregations. They are groups of people who gather together for worship, witness or service and choose to be recognised by the presbytery. Local churches are sometimes also used by congregations of other denominations; for example, a Tongan Seventh-day Adventist congregation may make arrangements to meet in the building on a Saturday. The UCA is committed to inclusivity, and there are a number of multicultural ministry (MCM) arrangements in which Korean, Tongan and other groups form congregations of the church.
Co-operating congregations
Co-operating congregations, typically in rural areas, have several denominations worshiping as one congregation and rotate the denomination appointing its next minister. They are known as union churches in some places, with several denominations using the building at different times.
Frontier Services
A Frontier Services ministry is available to residents of the outback, with ministers and pastors visiting families by air or four-wheel drive vehicles. Visits are normally arranged in advance so adjacent families can travel for significant events, such as baptisms. These "padres" are based in a major town or city, and the local synod is normally their organisational and funding body.
Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress
The Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress (UAICC, sometimes known simply as the Congress), is constitutionally recognised as having responsibility for oversight of church ministry to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people:
A Synod may at the request of a Regional Committee of the Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress prescribe that the Regional Committee may have and exercise all or specific rights, powers, duties and responsibilities of a Presbytery under this Constitution and the Regulations (including ordination and other rights, powers and responsibilities relating to Ministers) for the purpose of fulfilling any responsibility of the Regional Committee for Uniting Church work with Aboriginal and Islander people
within the bounds of the Synod.
Agencies
UnitingCare Australia, the country's largest provider of social care, is its largest operator of aged-care facilities. Other activities include shelters and emergency housing for men, women and children; family-relationships support; disability services, and food kitchens.
Education
The UCA provides theological training through a number of theological colleges:
New South Wales: United Theological College, Parramatta a member of the School of Theology at Charles Sturt University.
Queensland: Trinity College (with Australian Catholic University)
South Australia: Uniting College for Leadership and Theology, Adelaide College of Divinity
Victoria and Tasmania: Pilgrim Theological College, part of the University of Divinity
Western Australia: Perth Theological Hall
Training generally takes five years, and includes supervised practical experience.
Youth
The National Christian Youth Convention is a national UCA activity during school and university holidays, every two or three years in a different city. NCYC 2007, "Agents of Change", was held in Perth. The 2009 "Converge" was held in Melbourne. NCYC 2011 was held from 29 December 2010 to 4 January 2011 at the Southport School on Queensland's Gold Coast. Yuróra NCYC 2014 was held in North Parramatta, Sydney from 7 to 10 January 2014. Yuróra NCYC 2017, "Uniting Culture", was also held in Sydney in January 2017.
International aid
UnitingWorld is the church's international-aid agency. It receives funding from the government of Australia to implement development and poverty-alleviation programs in the Pacific, Asia and Africa. UnitingWorld works in partnership with 18 overseas denominations to support over 180,000 people annually through sustainable community development projects.
Ministry
The role of the laity is valued in the UCA, which recognises that ministry is a function of the entire church. However, "specified ministries" are defined. Of these, the roles of elder and pastor are open to lay members. The church has two orders of ordained ministry: minister and deacon.
When it is not possible (or desirable) to have an ordained minister, a lay preacher or lay ministry team may act in their place (similar to a Methodist local preacher). Lay preachers are required to participate in training and examinations conducted by each synod, and must be approved by the presbytery.
Culture
The UCA was one of the first Australian churches to grant self-determination to its indigenous members through the Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress. Partnerships exist with South Pacific and Asian churches, especially those which share a Congregational, Presbyterian or Methodist heritage. An increasing number of ethnic churches worship in their own languages as well as in English. Five to seven per cent of the membership worship in languages other than English, including Aboriginal languages.
The UCA advocates for social justice. It has taken stances on issues such as native title for indigenous people; the environment; apartheid; refugee status, and safe injection facilities for drug users. The church is similar to other united and uniting churches, which maintain a cultural identity in their own country and practise ecumenical fellowship with other Christian denominations worldwide. Between 1991 and 2013, UCA attendance declined by 41 per cent. In 2013, about 97,200 people attended weekly worship services throughout Australia.
Liturgy
The church is liturgically varied. Practices range from experimental liturgies, informal worship reminiscent of the Jesus movement to conventional Reformed services. Music also varies from traditional and contemporary hymns in the Australian Hymn Book and Together in Song, through Hillsong and contemporary Christian music to hard alternative and metal.
Liturgical dress in the UCA is generally lenient, and is optional for ministers and other leaders of worship. When liturgical dress is worn, it most commonly consists of a white alb and a stole (for ministers and deacons) or scarf (for lay preachers). The colour of the scarf or stole is often related to the liturgical calendar, such as purple for Lent or red for Pentecost.
Decision-making
Since 1997, most councils and agencies have used the consensus decision-making procedures outlined in the church's Manual for Meetings. The procedures may use orange ("support") and blue ("do not support") cards, which may also be displayed times other than voting.
Theology
The UCA's theological range is broad, reflecting its Methodist, Presbyterian and Congregational origins and its commitment to ecumenism. Its theology may be described as mainline Protestantism, with a commitment to social justice. The church's perspectives are evangelical, left (or progressive), and liberal. Morality, faith, and (in particular) sexuality have been debated. Concerns focus on biblical understanding and accommodation to the broad culture.
Uniting Network Australia is "the national network for lesbian, gay, bisexual, intersex and transgender people, their families, friends and supporters within the Uniting Church in Australia." The establishment of Evangelical Members within the Uniting Church in Australia (EMU), the Reforming Alliance and their merger with the Assembly of Confessing Congregations (ACC) illustrate conservative opposition to the ordination of gay and lesbian candidates and the influence of the Confessing Movement (not to be confused with the anti-Nazi Confessing Church).
Homosexuality
Issues debated since early in UCA history are the role of gay and lesbian people in the church, their possibility of being ordained and the blessing of same-sex unions. The church permits local presbyteries to ordain gay and lesbian ministers, and extends the local option to marriage; a minister may bless a same-sex marriage.
The fairly broad consensus has been that a person's sexual orientation should not be a bar to attendance, membership or participation in the church. More controversial has been the issue of sexual activity by gay and lesbian people and the sexual behaviour of ordination candidates. In 2003, the church voted to allow local presbyteries to decide whether to ordain gay and lesbian people as ministers. Ministers were permitted to bless same-sex couples entering civil unions even before same-sex marriage was legalised in Australia in late 2017. In July 2018, the national assembly approved the creation of marriage rites for same-sex couples.
Since 1997, some ministers living in same-sex relationships have come out without their ordination (or ministry) being challenged. In 2011, the church approved the blessing of same-sex unions. Seven years later it allowed local congregations and ministers to decide whether to perform same-sex marriages, and ministers may now do so.
In March 2021, the UCA became the first mainstream Australian church to induct a transgender minister, when Jo Inkpin was installed at Pitt Street Uniting Church in Sydney.
Theologians
Alan Walker
James Haire
Bill Loader
Wesley Wildman
Benjamin Myers
Assemblies
See also
Christian Conference of Asia
Confessing Movement
Congregational Federation of Australia
Fellowship of Congregational Churches
Homosexuality and Christianity
Presbyterian Church of Australia
Progressive Christianity
Rupert Grove
United and uniting churches
United Church of Canada
Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia
World Alliance of Reformed Churches
World Methodist Council
References
External links
Official websites
National Assembly website
UnitingWorld website
UnitingCare Australia
Relations with Other Faiths website
Multicultural and Cross Cultural website
UnitingJustice website
Journey magazine website
Assembly of Confessing Congregations within the UCA
Other websites
United and uniting churches
Methodist denominations
Presbyterian denominations in Australia
Congregationalist denominations
Members of the World Communion of Reformed Churches
Members of the World Council of Churches
Christian organizations established in 1977
1977 establishments in Australia
Christian denominations in Australia | [
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253816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Monterey | Battle of Monterey | The Battle of Monterey, at Monterey, California, occurred on 7 July 1846, during the Mexican–American War. The United States captured the town unopposed.
Prelude
In February 1845, at the Battle of Providencia, the Californio forces had ousted the Mexican-appointed non-Californio governor, Manuel Micheltorena, and most of his forces from Alta California. The central government in Mexico City cancelled an attempt to reassert authority and grudgingly recognized the regime of the succeeding Californio governor, Pio Pico, who remained nominally in charge in Alta California.
The main forces available to the United States in California were the about 400–500 bluejacket sailors and U.S. Marines on board the five ships of the Navy’s Pacific Squadron. In November 1845, Commodore John D. Sloat, commander of the Pacific Squadron, then at Mazatlan, Mexico, was joined by the , which carried orders that if Sloat learned "beyond a doubt" that war between the U.S. and Mexico had begun, he was to seize San Francisco Bay and blockade the other California ports.
On 17 May 1846, Commodore Sloat received word of the first open hostilities on the Rio Grande. On 26 May, Sloat received word of the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, upon which he sent a coded message to Secretary of the Navy George Bancroft that he was leaving for California. After delaying his departure, Sloat received news on 7 June that an American squadron had blockaded Vera Cruz. Sloat sailed on the frigate Savannah on 8 June, arriving at Monterey on 1 July.
They joined the sloop Cyane, which had sailed on 19 June and was already there. There were U.S. fears that the British might try to annex California to satisfy British creditors. The British Pacific Station's ships off California were stronger in number, guns and men.
On 5 July, Sloat received a message from Capt. John B. Montgomery of the Portsmouth in San Francisco Bay reporting the events of the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma and its open support by Brevet Capt. John C. Frémont. On 6 July, believing Frémont to be acting either on orders from Washington or information that war had been declared, Sloat therefore began to carry out his orders. In a message to Montgomery, Sloat relayed his decision to seize Monterey and ordered the commander to take possession of Yerba Buena (San Francisco), adding, "I am very anxious to know if Captain Frémont will cooperate with us."
Battle
Early on 7 July 1846, the frigate USS Savannah and the two sloops, USS Cyane and USS Levant of the United States Navy, commanded by Commodore John D. Sloat, captured Monterey and raised the flag of the United States.
Capt. William Mervine of the Cyane came ashore with a small party from the Savannah at 7:30 a.m., seeking the surrender of the port from the Mexican commandant, Capt. Mariano Silva. Silva replied that he was "not authorized to surrender the place." In fact, Silva was in command of a nonexistent garrison, as it would have had no gunpowder to use in its few cannons. Californio General Jose Maria Castro had quartered his cavalry forces inland at San Juan Bautista.
At 10 a.m., 225 sailors and marines from Sloat's three warships landed and formed before the Customs House. Purser Rodman M. Price read Sloat's proclamation and posted it in both English and Spanish, declaring that a state of war existed between the U.S. and Mexico and that "henceforth California would be a portion of the United States."
The only shots fired were a 21-gun salute to the new U.S. flag fired by each of the U.S. Navy ships in the harbor. The British ships observed but took no action. A messenger was sent to General Castro at San Juan Bautista requesting his surrender, which he refused.
Aftermath
Sloat recognized Mexican real estate titles and church lands. He also established justices of the peace when the alcaldes resigned their offices.
Captain Montgomery of the Portsmouth received Sloat's message to seize Yerba Buena on 8 July and sent Lt. Joseph W. Revere to Sonoma and Sutter's Fort to notify Fremont of the capture of Monterey. Montgomery and 70 men landed shortly before 8:00 a.m. on 9 July to curious onlookers and read the pronouncement at the Customs House. He then replaced the Bear Flag, which had been raised on 2 July, with the American flag. The American flag was run up with a 21-gun salute. Montgomery then sent Purser James H. Watmough to notify Fremont of the occupation of Yerba Buena and Sloat’s request for a meeting.
Commodore Robert F. Stockton arrived at Monterey Bay aboard the Congress on 15 July and took over command from the 65-year-old Sloat. The British ship of the line Collingwood arrived in Monterey on 23 July, and Juno arrived at Yerba Buena on 11 July, but neither ship interfered in the American activities.
On 19 July, Frémont's party entered Monterey. Frémont, having been requested, met with Sloat on board the Savannah. When Sloat learned that Frémont had acted on his own authority (thus raising doubt regarding a war declaration), he retired to his cabin. On 23 July, Frémont was appointed major in command of the California Battalion, which he had helped form with his 60 man exploratory force and volunteers from the Bear Flag Republic. The California Battalion, which varied from 160 to 428 men, drew regular army wages and were used to garrison and maintain order in the towns that had surrendered.
The Americans held northern California, but General Castro and Governor Pico planned resistance in the south. However, on 11 August, upon learning of the advance of the American army on Pueblo de Los Angeles, with about 1,500 residents, the California army of about 100 men, which lacked money and popular support, broke up. Its leaders, Castro and Pico, departed that day for the Mexican department of Sonora. The Mexican government in California had ceased to exist.
See also
Battles of the Mexican–American War
References
External links
First-hand account of battle
Monterey
1846 in Alta California
Monterey
Battles and conflicts without fatalities
United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries
Monterey, California
History of Monterey County, California
July 1846 events
1846 in the Mexican-American War | [
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253826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toccoa%20Falls%20College | Toccoa Falls College | Toccoa Falls College is a private Christian college in Toccoa Falls, Georgia. The campus occupies , bordering the Chattahoochee National Forest and is home to Toccoa Falls, a high waterfall. It is affiliated with the Christian and Missionary Alliance and is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). The college is also a member of Council for Christian Colleges and Universities.
History
In 1907, Toccoa Falls College was founded by Richard A. Forrest in the community of Golden Valley, North Carolina, as the Golden Valley Institute. On January 1, 1911, Forrest put $10.00 down on the $25,000.00 purchase price for the Haddock Inn and of land in northeast Georgia. In October, he relocated the school to near Toccoa, Georgia, in order to be near a mainline railroad. He renamed the school Toccoa Falls Institute and added secondary school courses to the theological classes. A 1913 fire destroyed the Haddock Inn, which was the classroom and residence building. After operating in tents for a time, the school built a new campus. In 1928 the secondary courses were reorganized, and the state of Georgia accredited it as Toccoa Falls High School, which remained open until 1976. In 1937, the state chartered the four-year college program and allowed it to grant the degree Bachelor of Arts in Biblical Education.
Dam break disaster
On November 6, 1977, the Kelly Barnes Dam, which had been built up and used by the college for electrical power since the Toccoa Falls Institute days, collapsed. The lake it impounded drained through the lower part of the campus. The resulting flood killed 39 people and injured 60, as well as destroying much of the on-campus married student housing and damaging part of the men's dormitory. The dam was never rebuilt. With the destruction of the dam and the subsequent draining of the lake, there exists no possibility of a similar flood.
Recent history
The current president, Dr. Robert Myers, became the seventh president of the college in 2012.
On January 12, 2009, Gate Cottage, one of the most historic buildings on campus, was destroyed by fire. The cottage had been built in 1939 and was the fourth oldest building on campus. No one was in the building at the time of the fire. Gate Cottage has been rebuilt with a bigger gift shop and dining area for various occasions, but without the School of Counseling, which was relocated to a new location between the Mission Building and Bandy Hall.
Toccoa Falls
With a vertical drop of , Toccoa Falls, located on the college campus, stands as one of the tallest free-falling waterfalls in the eastern United States. The waterfall was purchased in 1907 as part of the campus of Toccoa Falls College and stands today as the distinguishing landmark of the college. Locals commonly refer to it as “The Falls.”
Academics
Toccoa Falls College consists of four schools (School of Christian Ministries, School of Arts and Sciences, School of Professional Studies, and the Fetterman School of Nursing) with a total of ten departments. Within these departments, 35 majors and 43 minors are offered. The Seby Jones Library is the primary academic library on campus.
Campus life
Toccoa Falls College offers a wide variety of activities. Intercollegiate and intramural sports as well as the Student Government Association (SGA) are two of the main extracurricular possibilities for student participation.
Campus housing and residence life
On-campus student housing consists of single-sex dormitories, a large men's dormitory, two women's dormitories, and some smaller, suite-style dormitories, as well as various cottages, including married student housing. On-campus housing is advised by the college in the handbook, and is required for all regular underclassmen. There is a mandatory curfew for all on-campus students.
Forrest Hall - men's dormitory
Letourneau and Fant Halls - women's dormitories
Terraces - men's terraces and women's terraces (these include Alys Reeder, Louise Bell, Damron, McDuffy, Powell, Tyler, Prentice and Hilyard)
Married student apartments (colloquially, MSA)
Sports
Toccoa Falls College offers a variety of sports, both intercollegiate and intramural. Men's sports include soccer, baseball, cross country, golf, and basketball. Women's sports include soccer, basketball, cross country, and volleyball.
The baseball team won the NCCAA Division II National Championship in 2009, 2011, 2012, and 2013. Additionally, in 2012 and 2013 the baseball team won the NCCAA Division II Regional Championship.
The golf team won the NCCAA Division II National Invitational in 2009.
The women's soccer team won the NCCAA Division II Regional Championship in 2010.
The women's basketball team won the NCCAA Division II National Championship in 1986 and 1992.
Intramural sports include soccer, basketball, softball, spike ball, tennis, volleyball, beach volleyball, ultimate frisbee, and flag football.
Radio
The college's student-run radio station was WTXR, The Eagle 89.7. The college also operated WRAF, a radio station with various teaching and preaching programming as well as Christian music and a weekly Radio Theater program. All of the college's radio holdings, including WTXR and WRAF, were sold to Radio Training Network, Inc. effective July 25, 2016, for $2.1 million. WRAF is now a repeater station for WLFJ-FM at W220CK.
Notable alumni
Kenneth Borland, Ed.D. - Past University President & Provost, Current Higher Education Professor
Michael G. Scales, Ed.D. - President of Nyack College
Aaron Shust - Contemporary Christian music artist
Luxury (Georgia band)
References
External links
Educational institutions established in 1907
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Christian and Missionary Alliance
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Education in Stephens County, Georgia
Buildings and structures in Stephens County, Georgia
Evangelicalism in Georgia (U.S. state)
Council for Christian Colleges and Universities
1907 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Private universities and colleges in Georgia (U.S. state) | [
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253827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20princely%20states%20of%20British%20India%20%28by%20region%29 | List of princely states of British India (by region) | Before the Partition of India in 1947, about 584 princely states, also called "native states", existed in India, which were not fully and formally part of British India, the parts of the Indian subcontinent which had not been conquered or annexed by the British but under indirect rule, subject to subsidiary alliances.
Things moved quickly after the partition of British India in 1947. By the end of 1949, all of the states had chosen to accede to one of the newly independent states of India or Pakistan or else had been conquered and annexed.
Outline
In principle, the princely states had internal autonomy, while by treaty the British Crown had suzerainty and was responsible for the states' external affairs. In practice, while the states were indeed ruled by potentates with a variety of titles, such as Maharaja, Raja, Nizam, Raje, Deshmukh, Nawab, Mirza, Baig, Chhatrapati, Khan, Thakur Sahab, Darbar saheb or specially Jam for Jadeja/Samma, the British still had considerable influence.
By the time of the departure of the British in 1947, only four of the largest of the states still had their own British Resident, a diplomatic title for advisors present in the states' capitals, while most of the others were grouped together into Agencies, such as the Central India Agency, the Deccan States Agency, and the Rajputana Agency.
From 1920, the states were represented in the Chamber of Princes, which held its meetings in New Delhi.
The most important states were ranked as salute states, whose rulers were entitled to a given number of salute guns.
By the Indian Independence Act 1947, the British gave up their suzerainty of the states and left each of them free to choose whether to join one of the newly independent countries of India and Pakistan or to remain outside them. For a short time, some of the rulers explored the possibility of a federation of the states separate from either, but this came to nothing. Most of the states then decided to accede to India or to Pakistan, such as Junagadh (1947–1948), Hyderabad on 18 September 1948, Bilaspur on 12 October 1948, and Bhopal on 1 May 1949. Travancore also chose to remain an independent country.
In Jammu and Kashmir, a state with a Muslim majority but a Hindu ruler, the Maharaja hoped to remain independent but acceded to India on 27 October 1947 at the outset of the invasion of Jammu and Kashmir by Pakistan — leading to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947.
On 31 March 1948, Kalat acceded to Pakistan, although the brother of the Khan led a rebellion against this decision.
Princely States at the time of independence on 14 August 1947
Individual residencies
Baluchistan Agency
Princely States of the Baluchistan Agency.
Deccan States Agency and Kolhapur Residency (Maratha)
Princely States of Deccan States Agency and Kolhapur Residency (Maratha).
Gwalior Residency (Maratha)
Princely States of the Gwalior Residency.
Madras Presidency
Princely States of the Madras Presidency.
North-west Frontier States Agency
Princely States of the North-West Frontier States Agency (all in present Pakistan).
Agencies included the Dir Swat and Chitral Agency and the Deputy Commissioner of Hazara acting as the Political Agent for Amb and Phulra.
Gilgit Agency
The States of Hunza and Nagar and many feudal Jagirs (Puniyal, Shigar, etc.) in the Gilgit Agency were tributary to the Maharaja of Jammu & Kashmir.
Province of Sind
Punjab state agency
States of the Punjab States Agency (Punjab).
States of the Rajputana Agency
States of the Rajputana Agency.
Gujarat States Agency and Baroda Residency
Kathiawar Agency
States of Central India Agency
Ajaigarh
Alipura
Alirajpur
Baraundha
Barwani
Basoda
Bhaisunda
Bhopal
Bijawar
Charkhari
Chhatarpur
Chirgaon
Datia
Dewas Junior
Dewas Senior
Dhar
Dhurwai
Gaurihar
Gwalior
Indore
Jaora
Jaso
Jobat
Kamta-Rajaula
Khaniadhana
Khilchipur
Kothi
Kurwai
Maihar
Makrai
Muhammadgarh
Nagod
Narsighgarh
Orchha
Pahra
Paldeo
Panna
Pathari
Piploda
Rajgarh
Ratlam
Rewa
Sailana
Singrauli
Sitamau
Sohawal
Taraon
Tori Fatehpur
States of the Eastern States Agency
Orissa States Agency
Athgarh
Athmallik
Bamra
Baramba
Baudh
Bonai
Daspalla
Dhenkanal
Gangpur
Hindol
Kalahandi (Karond)
Keonjhar
Khandpara
Kharsawan
Mayurbhanj
Narsinghpur
Nayagarh
Nilgiri
Pal Lahara
Patna (Balangir)
Rairakhol
Ranpur
Seraikela
Sonepur
Talcher
Tigiria
Chhattisgarh States Agency
Bastar
Changbhakar
Chhuikandan
Jashpur
Kanker
Kawardha
Khairagarh
Koriya (Korea)
Nandgaon
Raigarh
Sakti
Sarangarh
Surguja
Udaipur (Dharamjaigarh)
Bengal States Agency
Cooch Behar
Tripura
States of the Mahi Kantha Agency
Idar
Danta
Vijaynagar (Pol)
Malpur
Mansa
Mohanpur
Ilol
Katosan
Ambaliara
Pethapur
Punadra
Ranasa
Dabha
Dadhalia
Rupal
Varsoda
Vasna
Former Princely States annexed during the British Raj
Ballabhgarh (1858)
Banpur, seized in 1857
Bhaddaiyan Raj (1858)
Bijeraghogarh
Chirgaon (one of the seized Hasht Bhaiya jagirs)
Khaddi
Kulpahar (1858)
Makrai (1890 - 1893)
Purwa (one of the seized Chaube Jagirs)
Satara state (1849)
Shahgarh, seized in 1857
Tiroha
Tulsipur (1859)
Udaipur, Chhattisgarh (1854 - 1860)
Vallbhpur (1860)
Manipur (1891) Manipur was the last princeley state annexed by British.
Former kingdoms annexed during the British East India Company era
Carnatic (1801)
Sivagangai (1803)
Guler (1813)
Jaitpur (1849)
Jalaun (1840)
Jaswan (1849)
Jhansi (1854)
Kangra (1846)
Kumaon (1816)
Lakhahi (?)
Kutlehar (1825)
Punjab, Multan (1849)
Nagpur (1854)
Nurpur (1849)
Oudh (1856)
Ramgarh(1858)
Sambalpur (1849)
Siba (1849)
Tanjore (1855)
See also
List of princely states of British India (alphabetical)
List of Maratha dynasties and states
List of Rajput dynasties and states
Notes
Sources
Indian Princely States Genealogy
Flags of Indian Princely States
Further reading
The Relationship Between the Indian Princely States and the Indian Central Government, 1921-1933, by Harry Dunseth Wood. Published by University of Chicago, 1951.
The Paramount Power and the Princely States of India, 1858-1881, by Ajit K. Neogy. Published by K. P. Bagchi, 1974.
Rajahs and Prajas: An Indian Princely State, Then and Now, by S. Devadas Pillai. Published by Popular Prakashan, 1976.
Princely States and the Paramount Power, 1858-1876: A Study on the Nature of Political Relationship Between the British Government and the Indian State, by Mihir Kumar Ray. Rajesh Publications, 1981.
Documents and Speeches on the Indian Princely States, by Adrian Sever. Published by B.R. Pub. Corp., 1985.
The Late Pre-colonial Background to the Indian Princely States, by Richard B Barnett. Published by Centre for South Asian Studies, University of Punjab, 1988.
Indian Princely Medals: A Record of the Orders, Decorations, and Medals of the Indian Princely States, by Tony McClenaghan. Published by Spantech & Lancer, 1996. .
British Policy Towards Princely States of India: Seminar Entitled "British Policy Towards North Indian Princely States" : Selected Papers, by R P Vyas. Published by Rajasthan-Vidya Prakashan, 1992.
The Princely States of India: A Chronological Checklist of Their Rulers, by David P. Henige. Published by Borgo Press, 1997. .
Constitutional Development in the Indian Princely States, by Ranjana Kaul. Published by UBS Publishers Distributors, 1998. .
The Maharaja & the Princely States of India, by Sharada Dwivedi. Published by Lustre Press, 1999. .
Illustrated Encyclopaedia & Who's who of Princely States in Indian Sub-continent, by J. C. Dua. Published by Kaveri Books, 2000. .
The Golden Book of India: A Genealogical and Biographical Dictionary of the Ruling Princes, Chiefs, Nobles, and Other Personages, Titled or Decorated, of the Indian Empire, by Sir Roper Lethbridge. Adamant Media Corporation, 2001. .
True Tales of British India & the Princely States: & The Princely States, by Michael Wise. Published by In Print, 1993. .
Princely States of India: A Guide to Chronology and Rulers, by David P. Henige. Published by Orchid Press, 2006. .
India's Princely States: People, Princes and Colonialism, by Waltraud Ernst, Biswamoy Pati. Published by Routledge, 2007. .
External links
History of West Bengal
Subdivisions of British India
History of Pakistan
Princely States
History of India
Pakistan history-related lists | [
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253828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mummy%20%281999%20film%29 | The Mummy (1999 film) | The Mummy is a 1999 American action-adventure film written and directed by Stephen Sommers. It is a remake of the 1932 film of the same name, starring Brendan Fraser, Rachel Weisz, John Hannah, Kevin J. O'Connor, and Arnold Vosloo in the title role as the reanimated mummy. The film follows adventurer Rick O'Connell as he travels to Hamunaptra, the City of the Dead, with a librarian and her older brother, where they accidentally awaken Imhotep, a cursed high priest with supernatural powers.
Development of the film took years, with multiple screenplays and directors attached. In 1997, Stephen Sommers successfully pitched his version of a more adventurous and romantic take on the source material. Principal photography took place in Morocco and the United Kingdom; the crew endured dehydration, sandstorms, and snakes shooting on location in the Sahara desert. Industrial Light & Magic provided many of the visual effects, blending live-action footage and computer-generated imagery to create the titular monster. Jerry Goldsmith provided the orchestral score.
The Mummy was theatrically released on May 7, 1999. Despite mixed reviews from critics, it was a commercial success and grossed over $416.4 million worldwide against a production budget of $80 million. The film's success spawned two direct sequels, The Mummy Returns (2001) and The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor (2008). It also led to spinoffs such an animated series and the prequel The Scorpion King (2002), which generated its own sequels. Attempts to reboot the property and kickstart a new media franchise led to a 2017 film.
Plot
In Thebes, Egypt, 1290 BC, high priest Imhotep has an affair with Anck-su-namun, the mistress of Pharaoh Seti I. Imhotep and Anck-su-namun kill the Pharaoh after he discovers their relationship. Imhotep flees, while Anck-su-namun kills herself, believing that Imhotep can resurrect her. Imhotep and his priests steal her corpse and travel to Hamunaptra, the city of the dead. The resurrection ritual is stopped by Pharaoh's bodyguards, the Medjai. Imhotep is buried alive with flesh-eating scarab beetles and locked in a sarcophagus at the feet of a statue of the Egyptian god Anubis. The Medjai are sworn to prevent Imhotep's return.
In 1926 AD, Jonathan Carnahan presents his sister Evelyn—a librarian and aspiring Egyptologist—with an intricate box and map that lead to Hamunaptra. Jonathan reveals he stole the box from an American adventurer, Rick O'Connell, who discovered the city while in the French Foreign Legion. Evelyn and Jonathan find Rick and make a deal with him to lead them to the city.
Rick guides Evelyn and her party to the city, encountering a band of American treasure hunters led by Rick's cowardly acquaintance Beni Gabor. Despite being warned to leave by Ardeth Bay, leader of the Medjai, the two expeditions continue their excavations. Evelyn searches for the Book of Amun-Ra, made of pure gold. Instead of finding the book, she stumbles upon Imhotep's remains. The team of Americans, meanwhile, discover the black Book of the Dead, accompanied by canopic jars carrying Anck-su-namun's preserved organs.
At night, Evelyn reads from the Book of the Dead aloud, accidentally awakening Imhotep. The expeditions return to Cairo, and Imhotep follows them with the help of Beni, who has agreed to serve him. Imhotep regenerates his full strength by killing the members of the American expedition and brings the ten plagues back to Egypt.
Rick, Evelyn, and Jonathan meet Ardeth at a museum. Ardeth hypothesizes that Imhotep wants to resurrect Anck-su-namun by sacrificing Evelyn. Evelyn believes that if the Book of the Dead brought Imhotep back to life, the Book of Amun-Ra can kill him again and deduces the book's whereabouts in Hamunaptra. Imhotep corners the group with an army of slaves. Evelyn agrees to accompany Imhotep if he spares the rest of the group. Although Imhotep does not honor his word, Rick and the others fight their way to safety.
Imhotep, Evelyn, and Beni return to Hamunaptra, pursued by Rick, Jonathan, and Ardeth, who are able to locate the Book of Amun-Ra. Imhotep prepares to sacrifice Evelyn, but she is rescued after a battle with Imhotep's mummified priests. Evelyn reads from the Book of Amun-Ra, making Imhotep mortal, and he is fatally wounded by Rick.
Beni accidentally sets off a booby trap while looting the city of its riches, and is killed by a swarm of flesh-eating scarabs as Hamunaptra collapses into the sand. Ardeth bids Rick, Evelyn, and Jonathan goodbye, and the trio rides away on a pair of camels laden with Beni's treasure.
Cast
Brendan Fraser as Rick O'Connell
Rachel Weisz as Evelyn Carnahan
John Hannah as Jonathan Carnahan
Arnold Vosloo as Imhotep
Kevin J. O'Connor as Beni Gabor
Jonathan Hyde as Dr. Allen Chamberlain
Oded Fehr as Ardeth Bay
Erick Avari as Dr. Terence Bey
Stephen Dunham as Isaac Henderson
Corey Johnson as David Daniels
Tuc Watkins as Bernard Burns
Omid Djalili as Warden Gad Hassan
Aharon Ipalé as Pharaoh Seti I
Bernard Fox as Captain Winston Havelock
Patricia Velásquez as Anck-su-namun
Production
Origins
In the late 1980s, producers James Jacks and Sean Daniel decided to update the original 1932 Mummy film for the modern era. Universal gave them the go-ahead, but only if they kept the budget around $10 million. Jacks remembers that the studio "essentially wanted a low-budget horror franchise". In 1987, George A. Romero wrote a film treatment, and was attached to direct. Screenwriter Abbie Bernstein recalled that Universal Studios wanted an unstoppable Mummy akin to the Terminator. Bernstein's story took place in the present; scientists inadvertently bring a mummy to life, who wants to use an ancient device to destroy all life on earth. "[The Mummy] had no more social interaction than the T-Rex did in Jurassic Park," Bernstein recalled. Romero drifted away from the project and the script was abandoned.
Next, Jacks and Daniel recruited horror filmmaker/writer Clive Barker to direct. Barker's 1990 treatment and a successive 1991 screenplay by Mick Garris were dark and violent, with the story revolving around an art museum that rebuilds an entire Egyptian tomb in Beverly Hills. Jacks recalls that Barker's take was "dark, sexual and filled with mysticism", and that, "it would have been a great low-budget movie". Barker recalled the concept was too weird for the studio, and that his vision treated the Mummy as a jumping-off point for the film instead of the central character.
Alan Ormsby, unaware of the previous efforts to launch the film, was brought on next. Ormsby pitched a more straightforward update to the 1932 film, again focusing on the Mummy as a relentless Terminator-like character. Joe Dante was attached as director, increasing the budget for his idea of Daniel Day-Lewis as a brooding Mummy. This version's draft was later re-written by John Sayles. It was set in contemporary times and focused on reincarnation with elements of a love story. It came close to being made—with some elements like the flesh-eating scarabs making it to the final product—but Universal balked at the higher price tag.
George A. Romero returned to the project in 1994 with a vision of a zombie-style horror film similar to Night of the Living Dead, but which also relied heavily upon elements of tragic romance and ambivalence of identity. Romero completed a draft in October 1994, co-written with Ormsby and Sayles, that revolved around female archaeologist Helen Grover and her discovery of the tomb of Imhotep, an Egyptian general who lived in the time of Ramesses II. Unfolding in a nameless American city in modern times, events are set into motion when Imhotep inadvertently awakens as a result of his body having been exposed to rays from an MRI scan in a high-tech forensic archaeology lab. Helen finds herself drawn into a tentative relationship with Imhotep while also experiencing clairvoyant flashbacks to a previous life in the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt as a priestess of Isis. Summoning mystical powers through incantation, Imhotep later resurrects the mummy of Karis, a loyal slave. Karis embarks on a vengeful rampage against the grave robbers of his tomb. Romero's script was considered too dark and violent by Jacks and the studio, who wanted a more accessible picture. Romero was unable to extricate himself from another contract he had in negotiation with MGM, and so his involvement with the film was severed and the development of an entirely new script was commissioned.
Mick Garris returned in 1995, developing a script that combined elements of the 1932 film and 1942's The Mummy's Tomb. This draft was a period piece awash in Egyptian art-inspired Art Deco, but the vision once again proved too expensive for the studio and was discarded for a modern setting. While the project came close to entering production, Universal was sold to Seagram. Sheinberg chose to produce The Mummy through his independent company and write a new script. Unable to find a suitable high-profile writer and director (Wes Craven was offered the film but turned it down) the project unraveled again, and Garris left the project for the second time.
Still determined to create a new Mummy film, in 1996 Universal hired Kevin Jarre to write a new screenplay. According to Jacks, the executives were now convinced the film should be a larger-budget period piece. Stephen Sommers called Jacks and Daniel in 1997 with his vision of The Mummy "as a kind of Indiana Jones or Jason and the Argonauts with the mummy as the creature giving the hero a hard time". Sommers had seen the original film when he was eight, and wanted to recreate the things he liked about it on a bigger scale. Discussing other classic horror characters, Sommers recalled that "Frankenstein made me said—I always felt sorry for him. Dracula was kind of cool and sexy. But The Mummy just plain scared me." He had wanted to make a Mummy film, but other writers or directors were always attached.
After the box office disappointment of Babe: Pig in the City and other films, Universal needed a hit film. At the time, Universal's management had changed in response to the box office failures, and the losses led the studio to revisit its successful franchises from the 1930s. New chair Stacey Snider distributed packets detailing the studio's holdings—including nearly 5,000 old scripts and films. Sommers received his window of opportunity and pitched his Mummy to Universal with an 18-page treatment.
Sommers did not want to remake the original film; instead of making another straight horror movie, he wanted to turn it into a romantic adventure with horror elements. Conscious of how the shambling, bandaged Mummy of the old films had become something of a punchline, he wanted a faster, meaner, and scarier monster. Sommers incorporated his own research and the services of a UCLA archaeology professor to make the ancient Egyptian language accurate. Snider recalled that Sommer's treatment was unique in that it took place in the 1920s, rather than a contemporary setting. Universal liked the treatment so much that they approved the concept and increased the budget, and Sommers spent a year working on the screenplay.
Casting
Producer James Jacks offered the role of Rick O'Connell to Tom Cruise (who was later cast in the reboot film), Brad Pitt, Matt Damon and Ben Affleck, but the actors were not interested or could not fit the role into their respective schedules. Jacks and director Stephen Sommers were impressed with the money that George of the Jungle was making at the box office and cast Brendan Fraser as a result; Sommers also commented that he felt Fraser fit the Errol Flynn swashbuckling character he had envisioned for Rick perfectly. Fraser's turn in George bolstered his perceived star power, yet he remained far cheaper than the biggest actors working. The actor understood that his character "doesn't take himself too seriously, otherwise the audience can't go on that journey with him."
Evelyn Carnahan was named in tribute to Lady Evelyn Carnarvon, the daughter of amateur Egyptologist Lord Carnarvon, both present at the opening of the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922. The studio originally considered American actresses, and Rachel Weisz auditioned multiple times before getting the part. Rachel Weisz was not a big fan of horror films, but saw the movie as more of a "hokum" comic book. John Hannah was picked for the role of Jonathan Carnahan, despite the fact that Hannah felt he was not a comedic actor. Said Sommers, "He had no idea why we cast him."
Jacks had previously produced Hard Target with Arnold Vosloo. The South African actor liked the Mummy script, but told Sommers he wanted to play the role "absolutely straight. From Imhotep's point of view, this is a skewed version of Romeo and Juliet." He was offered the role after a single audition. Carrying some extra weight and conscious of it because of Imhotep's skimpy costume, Vosloo lost 10 to 15 pounds for the role by eschewing alcohol and sugar.
Filming
Filming began on May 4, 1998, and lasted 17 weeks. The crew could not shoot in Egypt because of unstable political conditions, so principal photography began in Marrakech, Morocco. Marrakech had the extra advantage of being a much less modern city than Cairo, making it easier to dress like the 1920s; the production set up two weeks before filming, taking down telephone wires and cables and shipping in period cars and camels. Locals served as extras for crowd scenes. After shooting in Marrakech, filming moved to the Sahara desert outside the small town of Erfoud. Production designer Allan Cameron found a dormant volcano, Gara Medouar, where the exteriors for Hamunaptra could be constructed. A concrete ramp was built to allow access into the horseshoe-shaped formation, where the city was built from prefabricated parts shipped from England. A survey of the volcano was conducted so that an accurate model and scale models of the columns and statues could be replicated back at Shepperton Studios, where all of the scenes involving the underground passageways of the City of the Dead were shot. These sets took 16 weeks to build, and included fiberglass columns rigged with special effects for the movie's final scenes. To avoid dehydration in the scorching heat of the Sahara, the production's medical team created a drink that the cast and crew had to consume every two hours. Sandstorms were daily inconveniences, and wildlife were a major problem, with many crew members having to be airlifted to medical care after being bitten or stung. Brendan Fraser nearly died during a scene where his character is hanged. The production had the official support of the Royal Moroccan Army, and the cast members had kidnapping insurance taken out on them.
After shooting in North Africa, production moved back to the United Kingdom before completion of shooting on August 29, 1998. Here, the dockyards at Chatham doubled for the Giza Port on the Nile River. This set was in length and featured "a steam train, an Ajax traction engine, three cranes, an open two-horse carriage, four horse-drawn carts, five dressing horses and grooms, nine pack donkeys and mules, as well as market stalls, Arab-clad vendors and room for 300 costumed extras".
Special effects
The filmmakers reportedly spent $15 million of the budget on the special effects alone. The Mummy features hundreds of shots that required optical or digital special effects in post-production. Effects house Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) contributed more than 140 shots to the film, with additional work done by Cinesite (60 shots) and Pacific Title/Mirage (45 shots, and the film's title sequences.)
Sommers engaged ILM while still developing the script, having previously worked with ILM effects supervisor John Andrew Berton, Jr. on Deep Rising. ILM was eager for the challenge the film provided, and produced a proof of concept for The Mummys effects in late 1997 to demonstrate the feasibility of Sommers' vision to executives.
The filmmakers sought to make something faster and scarier for the title creature, using cutting-edge techniques to create something never before seen. ILM started developing the look of the Mummy three months before filming started. "We wanted to create a photorealistic corpse that was obviously not a man in a suit, obviously not an animatronic, and obviously alive," he recalled. Over a months-long period, the designers worked on developing four distinct stages for the Mummy. Stage one was the mummy at its most decayed, with tattered bits of clothing, skin, and sinew hanging over a skeleton. Stage two added areas of regenerated skin, with stages three and four having the Mummy almost fully regenerated with only small areas of its innards showing through. The artists developed black-and-white sketches, then moved on to color treatments before building the creature in the computer; models were also made to use as reference for the digital artists. The initial states of the Mummy were created entirely by computer, while later stages combined live-action performance. To supplement prosthetics and makeups applied on set, LED lights and pieces of tape served as tracking points so that digital "cutouts" could be applied to Vosloo's face and body in postproduction; Vosloo remarked that walking around the set he felt like a Christmas tree.
The final creature was created with a combination of live-action acting with prosthetics and digital imagery. A digital representation of the Mummy was created in Alias, featuring simulated muscles for much of the body attached to a skeleton. The animators controlled parts of the Mummy via procedural animation; animating the underlying bones in turn controlled the stretch and movement of the overlaid muscles. Finally, layered on top of the procedural animation and motion capture was additional animation to tweak the performance; given the limitations of the technology, subtle movements like facial or hand animations had to be done by hand. Shots that featured Vosloo with overlaid computer-generated prosthetics were the most difficult for the effects team, requiring careful match-moving.
Rather than using a stunt performer, Vosloo performed the motion capture for the character himself. Scenes were blocked out and performed on set during principle photography (first with Vosloo in the scene, than without.) The shots were then replicated in the motion capture studio, with Vosloo's performance recorded by eight cameras from different angles.
In addition to the Mummy, the script called for numerous effects shots to magnify the sweeping adventure of the film. Vistas like a flashback shot of the ancient city of Thebes combined location footage shot in the desert with composited actors shot on green screen, model miniatures, matte paintings, and computer-generated effects. The plagues Imhotep unleashes were accomplished using particle-based computer graphics, with ILM designers swapping out models of different qualities depending on how far from the camera the swarming "insects" were. While the film made extensive use of computer-generated imagery, many scenes, including ones where Rachel Weisz's character is covered with rats and locusts, were shot using live animals. Another close-up shot used footage of anesthetized locusts attached to a stunt performer combined with extra computer-generated pests. Sandstorms used procedural graphics based on programs used to create tornados in Twister, while the masses of flesh-eating scarabs used techniques developed for Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. A shot of a firestorm engulfing Cairo combined real palm trees, physical models, and matte paintings with computer-generated hail, fire, and rubble. Pacific Title/Mirage also enhanced shots with digital camera shake.
The finale involves an army of mummies coming to Imhotep's defense. Many of these mummies were created by Make-Up Effects Supervisor Nick Dudman, who produced makeup, prosthetics, and animatronic effects in the film. Each suit came with variations for stunt moves or pyrotechnics. After principal photography, the suits were sent to ILM to scan and be modeled in the computer. Using parts of the Imhotep mummy to save time, ILM recreated the underlings digitally to add into the scenes, and used motion capture to animate them. The animators credited Fraser's ability to consistently re-enact his movements in multiple takes as saving time when it came to match the motion-captured digital mummies to the live-action fight scenes.
Music
The score for The Mummy was composed and conducted by Jerry Goldsmith, with orchestrations provided by Alexander Courage. Goldsmith had previously scored Deep Rising for Sommers. As he reached the final few years of his career, Goldsmith was coming off a number of action and adventure films in the 1990s, from multiple Star Trek films to Air Force One. Goldsmith provided The Mummy with suitably bombastic music, with the traditional European orchestra supplemented with regional instruments such as the bouzouki.
The opening of the film contains nearly all of Goldsmith's major themes for the score, with what music critic Jeff Bond calls an "Egyptian theme" reused in different configurations throughout to establish the epic settings and sense of place for Hamunaptra; a theme for Imhotep/the Mummy that is performed in an understated manner early in the film, before repeating in more forceful, brassy renditions after the Mummy has regenerated; a love theme used for both Imhotep/Anck-su-namun and Rick/Evelyn; and a heroic theme for Rick. In addition to the extensive brass and percussion elements, the score uses sparing amounts of vocals, unusual for much of Goldsmith's work.
The soundtrack was released by Decca Records on May 4, 1999. Overall, Goldsmith's score was well received. AllMusic described it as a "grand, melodramatic score" which delivered the expected highlights. Other reviews positively noted the dark, percussive sound meshed well with the plot, as well as the raw power of the music. The limited but masterful use of the chorus was also lauded, and most critics found the final track on the CD to be the best overall. On the other hand, some critics found the score lacked cohesion, and that the constant heavy action lent itself to annoying repetition. Roderick Scott off CineMusic.net summed up the score as "representative of both Goldsmith's absolute best and his most mediocre. Thankfully […] his favourable work on this release wins out."
Release
Test audiences reacted poorly to the film's title, which conjured up negative impressions of an old horror film, but domestic marketing president Marc Shmuger recalled that they decided "we would redefine the myth with the film" rather than change the title. Enthusiasm for the film was low, but Universal took out a television spot for the Super Bowl (reportedly costing $1.6 million) that Sommers recalled immediately reversed the discussion of the film's prospects.
The producers were concerned that the imminent release of The Phantom Menace would sink the film's box office fortunes, resulting in them moving the release date from May 21 to 7. The Mummy grossed $43 million in 3,210 theaters in the United States and Canada on its opening weekend. Its weekend take was the highest non-holiday May opening, and ninth-biggest opening of all time. The film later fell to second place behind The Phantom Menace. The Mummy grossed over $155.4 million in the United States and Canada and $261 million internationally, grossing over $416.4 million worldwide.
The Mummy was released on home video in VHS and DVD formats in September 1999. The title was a tremendous success for Universal on home video, selling 7 million units on VHS and 1 million on DVD, making it the year's best-selling live-action VHS and second-best-selling DVD (behind The Matrix.) The Mummys performance helped Universal gross over $1 billion in home video sales. The film was later digitally remastered and received a Blu-ray release in 2008.
Critical response
The Mummy received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 61%, based on 101 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9 out of 10. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 48 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating mixed or average reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a positive review, writing, "There is hardly a thing I can say in its favor, except that I was cheered by nearly every minute of it. I cannot argue for the script, the direction, the acting or even the mummy, but I can say that I was not bored and sometimes I was unreasonably pleased." Critics such as Entertainment Weeklys Owen Gleiberman and The New York Times Stephen Holden concurred with the assessment of the film as a breezy crowd-pleaser. Less positively, Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club wrote that the film's attempt to create a big, Indiana Jones-inspired action film felt "forced" and the end result was unsatisfying. Other reviews complained of an overstuffed plot or recycled elements from better movies. Reviewers comparing the film to the 1932 original sometimes favored the original's focus on atmosphere and dread, though others welcomed the change to a more energetic Indiana Jones-type film.
The effects were generally praised, especially the title creature. Ernest Larson's review for Jump Cut felt that the effects were too similar to ILM's other work, and that the effects alone could not support the weight of the rest of the movie. Bob Graham of the San Francisco Chronicle and Hal Hinson from the Dallas Observer agreed that the effects never overshadowed the human aspects of the film. Gleiberman noted that the horrors of the effects were undercut by the lightheartedness of the film, while the BBC's Almar Haflidason felt that the effects were occasionally unconvincing, and the heavy reliance on cutting-edge computer-generated imagery would likely date the film heavily as time passed.
Critics generally praised the acting, with Haflidason writing that the efforts of the cast sold material that would otherwise have been cheesy. David Hunter of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that all the actors managed to hold their own amid the special effects, although he felt Vosloo was largely wasted after Imhotep regenerates and the screenplay gives him little to do. Reviews from USA Today, the British Film Institute, and The A.V. Club noted the film featured questionable casting of ethnic roles and occasionally traded in stereotypes of Arabs.
Writing to commemorate the twentieth anniversary of the film's release, writer Maria Lewis noted that on paper, The Mummy should not have been a success, as yet another period adventure film coming after a decade of failed period adventure films. Its connection with audiences, if not critics, was down to its successful blend of "heart, humour, [heroics], and horror." She declared it the "pivotal blockbuster of the nineties." Emma Stefansky, writing for Thrillist, noted it was "the beginning of the end" for action-adventure films, as superhero films would soon supplant it in the coming years. Rotten Tomatoes called the film "Indiana Jones for a new generation." Reviewers noted Fraser's portrayal of Rick set a new mold for action heroes that more films would follow in the years after, while also considering Evelyn a character allowed to break free from a traditional damsel in distress role.
Adaptations
The Mummys box office performance led to numerous sequels and spinoffs. The film sequel The Mummy Returns (2001) features most of the surviving principal characters. As a married couple, Rick and Evelyn confront Imhotep and the Scorpion King. The film also introduces the heroes' son, Alex. A second sequel, The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor (2008), takes place in China with the Terracotta Emperor inspiring the villain, and Rachel Weisz replaced with Maria Bello. The films inspired both an animated TV series titled The Mummy, which lasted two seasons, and a spin-off prequel, The Scorpion King (2002). Universal announced plans in 2012 to reboot the franchise; a new film, also titled The Mummy, was released in June 2017.
Developer Konami Nagoya published two video game adaptations of The Mummy under license from Universal Interactive Studios, in 2000: an action-adventure game for the PlayStation and Microsoft Windows developed by Rebellion Developments, as well as a Game Boy Color puzzle game. There was also a 2002 video game based on the 2001 animated series, published by Ubisoft for Game Boy Advance. The film also inspired a roller coaster, Revenge of the Mummy, found in three Universal Studios Theme Parks: Hollywood, California; Orlando, Florida; and Sentosa, Singapore.
Notes
References
External links
1990s action films
1990s fantasy adventure films
1999 films
1999 horror films
Remakes of American films
American films
Ancient Egypt in fiction
Egyptian-language films
English-language films
Films based on Egyptian mythology
Films directed by Stephen Sommers
Films produced by James Jacks
Films produced by Sean Daniel
Films scored by Jerry Goldsmith
Films set in 1923
Films set in 1926
Films set in ancient Egypt
Films set in deserts
Films shot at Shepperton Studios
Films set in Egypt
Films set in the 13th century BC
Films shot in Egypt
Films shot in Morocco
Films with screenplays by Stephen Sommers
Films using motion capture
Mummy films
Reboot films
Seti I
The Mummy (franchise)
Treasure hunt films
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253830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing | Washing | Washing is a method of cleaning, usually with water and soap or detergent. Washing and then rinsing both body and clothing is an essential part of good hygiene and health.
Often people use soaps and detergents to assist in the emulsification of oils and dirt particles so they can be washed away. The soap can be applied directly, or with the aid of a washcloth.
People wash themselves, or bathe periodically, often using a shower or a bathtub. Infants, the sick, and people with disabilities are bathed by a caregiver, but those that can wash themselves often do so. People bathe naked under most circumstances and commonly do so in the privacy of their homes. Bathing may also be practiced for religious ritual or therapeutic purposes or as a recreational activity.
In Europe, some people use a bidet to wash their external genitalia and the anal region after using the toilet, instead of using toilet paper. The bidet is common in predominantly Catholic countries where water is considered essential for anal cleansing.
More frequent is washing of just the hands, e.g. before and after preparing food and eating, after using the toilet, after handling something dirty, etc. Hand washing is important in reducing the spread of germs. Also common is washing the face, which is done after waking up, or to keep oneself cool during the day. Brushing one's teeth is also essential for hygiene and is a part of washing.
'Washing' can also refer to the washing of clothing or other cloth items, like bedsheets, whether by hand or with a washing machine. It can also refer to washing one's car, by lathering the exterior with car soap, then rinsing it off with a hose, or washing cookware.
Excessive washing may damage the hair, causing dandruff, or cause rough skin/skin lesions.
See also
Bathing
Car wash
Cleaning agent
Cleanliness
Hygiene
Hygiene in Christianity
Dishwashing
Hand washing
Laundry symbols, washing machine
Sanitation
Wikibooks:Car Washing Techniques
ingredients
References
Hygiene
Cleaning methods | [
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253831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummy%20%28disambiguation%29 | Mummy (disambiguation) | Mummy often refers to either:
A term of endearment for a Mother.
A well preserved corpse, see; Mummy
Mummy (undead), a popular trope of horror fiction; see Arts and Entertainment
Mummy or The Mummy may also refer to:
Places
Mummy Range, a mountain range in the Rocky Mountains of northern Colorado in the United States
Mummy Cave, a rock shelter and archeological site in Park County, Wyoming, United States, near the eastern entrance to Yellowstone National Park
Mummy ride, a dark ride at three theme parks based on the film franchise
People
Mummy, a nickname for mother
Ray Schoenke, American football player nicknamed "The Mummy"
Joe D'Acquisto, professional wrestler nicknamed "The Mummy"
Arts and entertainment
Film
The Mummy (1911 film), an American movie made by the Thanhouser Company
The Mummy (Universal film franchise), an American horror/adventure film series by Universal
The Mummy (1932 film), an American movie starring Boris Karloff as Imhotep/Ardath Bey
The Mummy (1999 film), first Universal Pictures remake of their earlier 1932 film
The Mummy (2017 film), second remake of the 1932 film, and the 1999 version, starring Tom Cruise
The Mummy (1959 film), a British movie starring Christopher Lee as Kharis
The Night of Counting the Years (also released as The Mummy), 1969 Egyptian film directed by Shadi Abdel Salam
Tale of the Mummy, a 1998 British-American horror film
Mummy (2016 film), an Indian Kannada-language film
Literature
The Mummy! (or The Mummy, or A Tale of the Twenty-Second Century), an 1827 novel by Jane C. Loudon
The Mummy, or Ramses the Damned, a 1989 novel by Anne Rice
The Mummy. A Handbook of Egyptian Funerary Archaeology, by Egyptologist E. A. Wallis Budge
Mummies: A Voyage Through Eternity, a 1991 illustrated book by Françoise Dunand and Roger Lichtenberg
Other arts and entertainment
The Mummy (TV series), based on the film franchise
The Mummy, a 1999 radio-drama produced by Radio Tales for National Public Radio
"The Mummy", a song by JJ Lin from the album Qi Dai Ai
"The Mummy", a song by Massacration from the album Good Blood Headbanguers
The Mummies, 1980s American garage punk band
Other uses
Mummia, a substance also known as "mummy"
Mummy brown, a pigment claimed to be made from mummies
Mummy paper, a paper claimed to be made from mummies
Mummy wasp, wasp of the genus Aleiodes
Mummification (BDSM), a bondage practice
See also
Mom (disambiguation)
Mommy (disambiguation)
Mum (disambiguation) | [
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253832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Dingson | Operation Dingson | Operation Dingson (5–18 June 1944) was an operation in the Second World War, conducted by 178 Free French paratroops of the 4th Special Air Service (SAS), commanded by Colonel Pierre-Louis Bourgoin, who jumped into German occupied France near Vannes, Morbihan, Southern Brittany, in Plumelec, on the night of 5 June 1944 (11 h 30) with Captain Pierre Marienne and 17 men, then advanced to Saint-Marcel (8–18 June).
At this time there were approximately 100,000 German troops, and artillery, preparing to move to the Normandy landing areas.
Immediately upon landing in Brittany, on the night of 5 June 1944 (11 h 30), the Free French SAS who jumped in near Plumelec went into action fighting against German troops (actually, Georgians and Ukrainians).
One hour later (0 h 40), the first victim of the liberation of his country, Corporal Émile Bouétard (born 1915 in Brittany) was killed near Plumelec.
The Free French SAS established a base (Saint-Marcel) and began to arm and equip members of local resistance fighters, operating with up to 3,000 Maquis fighters and 200 paratroopers. However, their base was heavily attacked by a German paratroop division on 18 June and was forced to disperse.
A few weeks later, Captain Pierre Marienne and 17 of his companions (6 paratroopers, 8 resistance fighters and 3 farmers) were summarily executed after being captured in Kerihuel, Plumelec (12 July at dawn).
The Dingson team was joined by the men who had just completed Operation Cooney. Dingson was conducted alongside Operation Samwest and Operation Lost.
Operation Dingson 35A
On 5 August 1944, 10 Waco CG-4 gliders towed by aircraft of 298 Squadron and 644 Squadron transported the French SAS men and armed jeeps to Brittany near Vannes (Locoal-Mendon), each glider carrying 3 SAS troopers and a jeep which carried two Vickers K machine guns plus explosives, sten guns and a PIAT antitank gun. The gliders were escorted by 32 Spitfires for part of the trip. One glider was lost with the death of the British pilot.
The SAS teams remained behind enemy lines in occupied territory until the Allies arrived. The glider pilots were looked after by the local Resistance and then met up with the advancing American army at Auray.
Notes
Henry Corta (1921–1998), a Free French SAS lieutenant veteran, les bérets rouges (red berets), Paris, 1952, amicale des anciens parachutistes SAS,
Henry Corta, Qui ose gagne (Who dares wins), Vincennes, 1997, service historique de l'armée de terre.
Glider Pilot Regiment operations
World War II British Commando raids
Operation Overlord
Special Air Service
fr:Opérations SAS en Bretagne#Opération Dingson | [
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253833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mummy%20%281932%20film%29 | The Mummy (1932 film) | The Mummy is a 1932 American pre-Code horror film directed by Karl Freund. The screenplay by John L. Balderston was from a story by Nina Wilcox Putnam and Richard Schayer. Released by Universal Studios, the film stars Boris Karloff, Zita Johann, David Manners, Edward Van Sloan and Arthur Byron. In the film, an ancient Egyptian mummy named Imhotep is discovered by a team of archaeologists and inadvertently brought back to life through a magic scroll. Disguised as a modern Egyptian named Ardeth Bey, Imhotep searches for his lost love, who he believes has been reincarnated into a modern girl.
Plot
In 1921, an archaeological expedition led by Sir Joseph Whemple (Arthur Byron) finds the mummy of an ancient Egyptian high priest named Imhotep (Boris Karloff). An inspection of the mummy by Whemple's friend Dr. Muller (Edward Van Sloan) reveals that the viscera were not removed, and from the signs of struggling Muller deduces that although Imhotep had been wrapped like a traditional mummy, he had been buried alive. Also buried with Imhotep is a casket with a curse on it. Despite Muller's warning, Sir Joseph's assistant Ralph Norton (Bramwell Fletcher) opens it and finds an ancient life-giving scroll, the "Scroll of Thoth". He translates the symbols and then reads the words aloud. Imhotep rises, the sight of which snaps Norton's mind and causes him to laugh hysterically as the Mummy shuffles off with the scroll.
Ten years later, Imhotep has assimilated into a mysterious Egyptian historian named Ardeth Bey. He calls upon Sir Joseph's son Frank (David Manners) and Professor Pearson (Leonard Mudie) and shows them where to dig to find the tomb of the princess Anck-su-namun. After locating the tomb, the archaeologists present its treasures to the Cairo Museum, and Ardeth Bey disappears.
Ardeth soon encounters Helen Grosvenor (Zita Johann), a half-Egyptian woman bearing a striking resemblance to the princess. He reveals to her that his horrific death was punishment for sacrilege: attempting to resurrect his forbidden lover, Princess Anck-su-namun. Believing her to be Anck-su-namun's reincarnation, he attempts to kill her, with the intention of mummifying her, resurrecting her, and finally making her his immortal bride. Helen is rescued when she remembers her ancestral past life and prays to the goddess Isis to come to her aid. The statue of Isis raises its arm and emits a flash that sets the Scroll of Thoth on fire. This breaks the spell that had given Imhotep his immortality, causing him to crumble to dust. At the urging of Dr. Muller, Frank calls Helen back to the world of the living while the Scroll of Thoth continues to burn.
Cast
In credits order
Boris Karloff as Ardeth Bey / Imhotep / The Mummy (billed as KARLOFF)
Zita Johann as Helen Grosvenor / Princess Anck-su-namun
David Manners as Frank Whemple
Arthur Byron as Sir Joseph Whemple
Edward Van Sloan as Dr. Muller
Bramwell Fletcher as Ralph Norton
Noble Johnson as The Nubian
Kathryn Byron as Frau Muller
Leonard Mudie as Professor Pearson
James Crane as Pharaoh Amenophis
Henry Victor as The Saxon Warrior. (Henry Victor is listed in the credits but never appears in the film. The Saxon Warrior was originally part of a long flashback sequence showing all of Helen's past lives from ancient Egypt to the present. The sequence was cut from the film by Karl Freund due to time.)
C. Montague Shaw as Gentleman (uncredited)
Production
Inspired by the opening of Tutankhamun's tomb in 1922 and the Curse of the Pharaohs, producer Carl Laemmle Jr. commissioned story editor Richard Schayer to find a novel to form a basis for an Egyptian-themed horror film, just as the novels Dracula and Frankenstein inspired their 1931 films Dracula and Frankenstein. Schayer found none, although the plot bears a strong resemblance to a short story by Arthur Conan Doyle entitled "The Ring of Thoth". Schayer and writer Nina Wilcox Putnam learned about Alessandro Cagliostro and wrote a nine-page treatment entitled Cagliostro. The story, set in San Francisco, was about a 3,000-year-old magician who survives by injecting nitrates.
Pleased with the Cagliostro concept, Laemmle hired John L. Balderston to write the script. Balderston had contributed to Dracula and Frankenstein, and had covered the opening of Tutankhamun's tomb for the New York World when he was a journalist so he was more than familiar with the well publicised tomb unearthing. Balderston moved the story to Egypt and renamed the film and its title character Imhotep, after the historical architect. He also changed the story from one of revenge upon all the women who resembled the main character's ex-lover to one where the main character is determined to revive his old love by killing and mummifying her reincarnated self before resurrecting her with the spell of the Scroll of Thoth. Balderston invented the Scroll of Thoth, which gave an aura of authenticity to the story. Thoth was the wisest of the Egyptian gods who, when Osiris died, helped Isis bring her love back from the dead. Thoth is believed to have authored The Book of the Dead, which may have been the inspiration for Balderston's Scroll of Thoth. Another likely source of inspiration is the fictional Book of Thoth that appeared in several ancient Egyptian stories.
Karl Freund, the cinematographer on Dracula, was hired to direct, making this his first film in the United States as a director. Freund had also been the cinematographer on Fritz Lang's Metropolis. The film was retitled The Mummy. Freund cast Zita Johann, who believed in reincarnation, and named her character 'Anck-su-namun' after the only wife of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. The real Ankhesenamun's body had not been discovered in the tomb of King Tut and her resting place was unknown. Her name, however, would not have been unknown to the general public.
Filming began in September 1932 and was scheduled for three weeks. Karloff's first day was spent shooting the Mummy's awakening from his sarcophagus. Make-up artist Jack Pierce had studied photos of Seti I's mummy to design Imhotep; however, Karloff looked nothing like the mummy of Seti I in the film, instead bearing a resemblance to the mummy of Ramesses III. Pierce began transforming Karloff at 11 a.m., applying cotton, collodion and spirit gum to his face; clay to his hair; and wrapping him in linen bandages treated with acid and burnt in an oven, finishing the job at 7 p.m. Karloff finished his scenes at 2 a.m., and another two hours were spent removing the make-up. Karloff found the removal of gum from his face painful, and overall found the day "the most trying ordeal I [had] ever endured". Although the images of Karloff wrapped in bandages are the most iconic taken from the film, Karloff appears on screen in this make-up only for the opening vignette; the rest of the film sees him wearing less elaborate make-up.
A lengthy and detailed flashback sequence was longer than now exists. This sequence showed the various forms Anck-su-namun was reincarnated in over the centuries: Henry Victor is credited in the film as "Saxon Warrior", despite his performance having been deleted. Stills exist of those sequences, but the footage (save for Karloff's appearance and the sacrilegious events leading up to his mummification in ancient Egypt) are lost.
The piece of classical music heard during the opening credits, taken from the Tchaikovsky ballet Swan Lake, was previously also used (in the same arrangement) for the opening credits of Universal's Dracula (1931) and Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932); it would be re-used as the title music of the same studio's Secret of the Blue Room (1933).
Reception
The Los Angeles Times was positive, although the film otherwise gained mixed reviews and was a box office success. When the film opened at New York's RKO Mayfair theater, a reviewer for The New York Times was ultimately unimpressed:"For purposes of terror there are two scenes in The Mummy that are weird enough in all conscience. In the first the mummy comes alive and a young archaeologist, going quite mad, laughs in a way that raises the hair on the scalp. In the second Im-Ho-Tep is embalmed alive, and that moment when the tape is drawn across the man's mouth and nose, leaving only his wild eyes staring out of the coffin, is one of decided horror. But most of The Mummy is costume melodrama for the children."
The film was a success at the box-office in the United Kingdom
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an 88% score, based on 42 reviews, with an average rating of 7.9/10. The site's consensus states: "Relying more on mood and atmosphere than the thrills typical of modern horror fare, Universal's The Mummy sets a masterful template for mummy-themed films to follow."
The Mummy has been decried for "othering" Eastern culture, especially portraying it as being more primitive and superstitious than Western culture. In one scene, Helen Grosvenor longs for the "real" (Classical) Egypt, disparaging that she is in contemporary Islamic Egypt. This is viewed by critic Caroline T. Schroeder as a slight against Islamic culture at the time.
According to Mark A. Hall, of the Perth Museum and Art Gallery, film portrayals of Egypt, especially in Egyptian archaeology, often deal with themes of appropriating and controlling the dangers of non-European cultures, or deal with the past if it relates to legend and superstition. Mummies, Hall says, are a common example of this. While he commended the archaeological wisdom espoused by Sir Joseph Whemple in the film, he writes that "much more is learned from studying bits of broken pottery than from all the sensational finds" and that archaeologists' job is to "increase the sum of human knowledge of the past", and mentions that the archaeological element was only used as a foil for the supernatural elements. As a result, per Hall, what it and similar films offered was a "depiction of archaeology as a colonial imposition by which cultural inheritance is appropriated".
Legacy
Sequels
Unlike other Universal Monsters films, The Mummy had no official sequels, but rather was reimagined in The Mummy's Hand (1940) and its sequels, The Mummy's Tomb (1942), The Mummy's Ghost (1944), The Mummy's Curse (1944), and the studios' comedy–horror crossover movie Abbott and Costello Meet the Mummy (1955). These films focus on the titular character named Kharis (Klaris in the Abbott and Costello film). The Mummy's Hand recycled footage from the original film for use in the telling of Kharis' origins, where Karloff is clearly visible in several of these recycled scenes but was not credited. Lon Chaney Jr. played the Mummy in The Mummy's Tomb, The Mummy's Ghost, and The Mummy's Curse.
Hammer Film Productions series
In the late 1950s, British Hammer Film Productions took up the Mummy theme, beginning with The Mummy (1959), which, rather than being a remake of the 1932 Karloff film, is based on Universal's The Mummy's Hand (1940) and The Mummy's Tomb (1942). Hammer's follow-ups — The Curse of The Mummy's Tomb (1964), The Mummy's Shroud (1966) and Blood from The Mummy's Tomb (1971) — are unrelated to the first film or even to each other, apart from the appearance of The Scroll of Life in Curse of The Mummy's Tomb and Blood from The Mummy's Tomb.
Remake series
The much later Universal film The Mummy (1999) also suggests that it is a remake of the 1932 film, but has a different story line. However, in common with most postmodern remakes of classic horror and science-fiction films, it may be considered as such in that it is produced-distributed by the same studio, its titular character is again named Imhotep, resurrected by the Book of the Dead, and out to find the present-day embodiment of the soul of his beloved Anck-su-namun, and features an Egyptian named Ardeth Bay (in this case, a guard of the city and of Imhotep's tomb). This film spawned two sequels with The Mummy Returns (2001) and The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor (2008). The Mummy Returns also spawned a prequel spin-off of that sequel, The Scorpion King (2002), which in turn spawned a prequel, The Scorpion King 2: Rise of a Warrior (2008), and three sequels, The Scorpion King 3: Battle for Redemption (2012), The Scorpion King 4: Quest for Power (2015) and Scorpion King: Book of Souls (2018). Also, a short-lived animated series simply titled The Mummy ran from 2001 to 2003.
Reboot
In 2012, Universal announced a reboot of the film, more in-line with the horror films, from the Universal Monsters film franchise. The reboot was directed by Alex Kurtzman. The Mummy was planned as the first film in a series of interconnected monster films, as Universal has planned to build a shared universe film series out of its vault of classic monster movies. On January 21, 2016 it was announced that Tom Cruise would be starring in the film. Sofia Boutella was cast to portray Princess Ahmunet / The Mummy for the film, while Russell Crowe would appear as Dr. Henry Jekyll / Mr. Hyde, two roles which had previously been portrayed by Boris Karloff in the studios' previous film franchise. In June 2017, the studio announced the name, logo, theme music (written by Danny Elfman), and upcoming schedule for the shared universe titled Dark Universe. It received negative reviews and is considered a box office bomb scrapping the plans for the upcoming films of the dark universe.
Honors
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2001: AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – Nominated
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:
Imhotep – Nominated Villain
Historical accuracy
The Scroll of Thoth is a fictional artifact, though likely based on the Book of the Dead. Thoth, the Egyptian god of knowledge, is said to be the inventor of hieroglyphs and the author of the Book of the Dead. The film also makes reference to the Egyptian myth of the goddess Isis resurrecting Osiris after his murder by his brother Set.
Conspirators were caught in a plot to assassinate Pharaoh Ramesses III around 1151 B.C.E. Papyrus trial transcripts reveal that the conspirators were prescribed ‘great punishments of death’, and archaeological evidence led to the suggestion that at least one of them may have been buried alive. Although such punishment was not common practice, this discovery probably influenced the film's screenplay.
There is no evidence to suggest that the ancient Egyptians believed in or considered the possibility of reanimated mummies. Mummification was a sacred process meant to prepare a dead body to carry the soul through the afterlife, not for being reincarnated and living again on Earth. While it is possible that some individuals were mummified by being buried alive, it is unlikely that ancient Egyptians would think resurrection was possible because they were very aware of the fact that all the necessary organs had been removed and the body would be of little use on Earth anymore. However, Egyptologist Stuart Tyson Smith notes that ‘the idea of mobile mummies was not entirely alien to ancient Egypt’, citing one of the Hellenistic-era stories of Setna Khaemwas, which features both the animated mummy of Naneferkaptah and a fictional Book of Thoth and may have inspired screenwriter John Balderston.
References
Sources
External links
The Mummy (franchise)
Universal Classic Monsters films
1932 films
American films
English-language films
1930s fantasy films
1932 horror films
1930s monster movies
American black-and-white films
American fantasy films
American supernatural horror films
Ancient Egypt in fiction
Films about curses
Films about reincarnation
Films directed by Karl Freund
Films set in Egypt
Films set in 1921
Films set in 1932
Films shot in California
Mummy films
1932 in California
Universal Pictures films | [
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253834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mummy%20%281959%20film%29 | The Mummy (1959 film) | The Mummy is a 1959 British horror film, directed by Terence Fisher and starring Peter Cushing and Christopher Lee. It was written by Jimmy Sangster and produced by Michael Carreras and Anthony Nelson Keys for Hammer Film Productions. The film was distributed in the U.S. in 1959 on a double bill with either the Vincent Price film The Bat or the Universal film Curse of the Undead.
Though the title suggests Universal Pictures' 1932 film of the same name, the film actually derives its plot and characters entirely from two 1940s Universal films, The Mummy's Hand and The Mummy's Tomb, with the climax borrowed directly from The Mummy's Ghost. The character name Joseph Whemple, the use of a sacred scroll, and a few minor plot elements are the only connections with the 1932 version.
Plot
In Egypt in 1895, archaeologists John Banning (Cushing), his father Stephen (Felix Aylmer) and his uncle Joseph Whemple (Raymond Huntley) are searching for the tomb of Princess Ananka, the high priestess of the god Karnak. John has a broken leg and cannot accompany his father and uncle when they open the tomb. Before they enter, an Egyptian named Mehemet Bey (George Pastell) warns them not to go in, lest they face the fatal curse against desecrators. Stephen and Joseph ignore him, and discover within the sarcophagus of Ananka. After Joseph leaves to tell John the good news, Stephen finds the Scroll of Life and reads from it. Outside, members of the archaeological team hear his screams and rush into the tomb to find Stephen in a catatonic state.
Three years later, back in England, Stephen Banning comes out of his catatonia at the Engerfield Nursing Home for the Mentally Disordered, and sends for his son. He tells him that when he read from the Scroll of Life, he unintentionally brought back to life Kharis (Lee), the mummified high priest of Karnak. The high priest had been sentenced to be entombed alive to serve as the guardian of Princess Ananka's tomb: Kharis secretly loved the princess and attempted to restore her to life after she died; when he was discovered, eternal life and mummification were his punishment. Now, Stephen tells his disbelieving son that Kharis will hunt down and kill all those who desecrated Ananka's tomb.
Meanwhile, Mehemet Bey, a devoted worshiper of Karnak, comes to Engerfield under the alias of Mehemet Atkil to wreak vengeance on the Bannings. He hires a pair of drunken carters, Pat and Mike, to bring the slumbering Kharis in a crate to his rented home, but the two men's drunken driving cause Kharis's crate to fall off and sink into a bog. Later, using the Scroll of Life, Mehemet exhorts Kharis to rise from the mud, then sends him to murder Stephen Banning. When Kharis kills Joseph Whemple the next night, John witnesses it. He shoots Kharis with a revolver at close range, but to no effect.
Police Inspector Mulrooney is assigned to solve the murders but, because he is skeptical and deals only in "cold, hard facts", he does not believe John's incredible story about a killer mummy, even when John tells him that he is likely to be Kharis' third victim. While Mulrooney investigates, John notices that his wife Isobel bears an uncanny resemblance to Princess Ananka. Gathering testimonial evidence from other individuals in the community, Mulrooney slowly begins to wonder if the mummy is real.
Mehemet Bey sends the mummy to the Bannings' home to slay his final victim. However, when Isobel rushes to her husband's aid, Kharis sees her, releases John, and leaves. Mehemet Bey mistakenly believes that Kharis has completed his task, and prepares to return to Egypt. John, suspecting Mehemet Bey of being the one controlling the mummy, pays him a visit, much to Bey's surprise.
After John leaves, Mehemet Bey leads Kharis in a second attempt on John's life. The mummy knocks Mulrooney unconscious, while Mehemet Bey deals with another policeman guarding the house. Kharis finds John in his study and starts to choke him. Alerted by John's shouts, Isobel runs to the house without Mulrooney; at first, the mummy does not recognize her, but John tells her to loosen her hair and the mummy releases John. When Mehemet orders Kharis to kill Isobel, he refuses; Mehemet tries to murder Isobel himself, but is killed by Kharis instead. The mummy carries the unconscious Isobel into the swamp, followed by John, Mulrooney and other policemen. John yells to Isobel; when she regains consciousness, she tells Kharis to put her down. The mummy reluctantly obeys. When Isobel has moved away from him, the policemen open fire, causing Kharis to sink into a quagmire, taking the Scroll of Life with him.
Cast
Peter Cushing as John Banning
Christopher Lee as Kharis / The Mummy
Yvonne Furneaux as Isobel Banning / Princess Ananka
Eddie Byrne as Inspector Mulrooney
Felix Aylmer as Stephen Banning
Raymond Huntley as Joseph Whemple
George Pastell as Mehemet Bey
Michael Ripper as Poacher
George Woodbridge as P. C. Blake
Harold Goodwin as Pat
Denis Shaw as Mike
Gerald Lawson as Irish Customer
Willoughby Gray as Dr. Reilly
John Stuart as Coroner
David Browning as Police Sergeant
Frank Sieman as Bill
Stanley Meadows as Attendant
Frank Singuineau as Head Porter
Production
Originally the scenes of Kharis's tongue being cut out and shotgun demise were more graphic, but were trimmed for the British censor.
In the video, Flesh and Blood: The Hammer Heritage of Horror, Peter Cushing says he suggested the scene in which he drives a spear through the mummy. He was inspired by the pre-release poster (see image above) which shows the mummy with a shaft of light passing through it.
A fibreglass replica of a sarcophagus created for the film is in the collection of the Perth Museum and Art Gallery.
Critical reception
The Monthly Film Bulletin of the UK wrote, "More glamorously photographed than ever, Hammer's latest excursion into nineteenth century macabre fantasy is weighed down by wordy historical exposition, flashbacks to ancient Egyptian burial ceremonies and a resultant slackening in pace." Howard Thompson of The New York Times thought that the film was "woodenly directed" and "should have been better." Variety wrote that the film was "excellently executed" in all technical departments, and while there was "little of actual newness" to the plot, the film "carries the type of action expected, and while chiller aspects aren't too pronounced they're sufficient to those who want to find them." Harrison's Reports called it "a fairly good picture of its kind, produced on a more lavish scale than its predecessors and enhanced by Technicolor photography."
The Hammer Story: The Authorised History of Hammer Films wrote of the film: "Structurally little more than a string of picturesque and nice-lit killings, The Mummy's melancholic presentation and romantic undertow grants it a certain atmosphere which elevates this bandaged brute far beyond its cinematic predecessors."
It currently holds a positive 89% "Fresh" on film review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes based on 9 reviews.
In other media
The film was adapted into a 12-page comic strip for the July 1978 issue (#22) of the magazine Hammer's Halls of Horror. It was drawn by David Jackson from a script by Steve Moore. The cover of the issue featured a painting by Brian Lewis of Christopher Lee as Kharis.
The film is cited as a particular influence on the Doctor Who serial Pyramids of Mars (1975).
References
Bibliography
External links
1959 films
1959 horror films
1950s English-language films
1950s historical fantasy films
1950s historical horror films
Ancient Egypt in fiction
British films
British historical fantasy films
British historical horror films
Films about curses
Films adapted into comics
Films directed by Terence Fisher
Films set in 1895
Films set in 1898
Films with screenplays by Jimmy Sangster
Gothic horror films
Hammer Film Productions horror films
Mummy films
Reboot films
Universal Pictures films | [
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] |
253835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Lost | Operation Lost | During the Second World War, Operation Lost was a reactive seven-man Special Air Service operation inserted into Brittany alongside Operation Dingson on 22–23 June 1944. The team, drawn from officers and men of 37 Military Mission and the SAS Brigade, was originally inserted to discover what had happened to the Dingson base after it had been attacked and dispersed by German led rear area security troops.
These SAS operations trained and armed local fighters and harassed the defenders as they tried to react to the Overlord landings. The Lost team was active from 23 June to 18 July.
The team was commanded by Major Oswald A. J. Cary-Elwes, (A career soldier who subsequently rose to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel) who was asked to join the SAS by its first Commanding Officer David Stirling. Stirling and Cary-Elwes were friends.
The Lost team was given instructions to search for and re-organise irregular French resistance forces formerly in touch with the French SAS, but which had been attacked and dispersed into woodland. This was one of several tasks under the overall leadership of the one-armed Free French Colonel, later member of Parliament, Pierre Bourgoin (1907-1970), the CO of 4eme BIA (Bataillon de l'Infanterie de l'Air) or 2eme RCP (Regiment de Chasseurs Parachutistes), which was known, colloquially, to the British as '4 SAS'.
Cary-Elwes and his batman were eventually exfiltrated by sea from northern Brittany in July 1944, on an escape line maintained by MI9, a now-defunct branch of the British War Office Directorate of Intelligence, at this period closely integrated with the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) who had joint control of the branch and knew it as P15.
See also
Operation Samwest
Operation Cooney
External links
Oswald Cary-Elwes
Lost
fr:Opérations SAS en Bretagne#Opération Lost | [
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253836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surround%20sound | Surround sound | Surround sound is a technique for enriching the fidelity and depth of sound reproduction by using multiple audio channels from speakers that surround the listener (surround channels). Its first application was in movie theaters. Prior to surround sound, theater sound systems commonly had three screen channels of sound that played from three loudspeakers (left, center, and right) located in front of the audience. Surround sound adds one or more channels from loudspeakers to the side or behind the listener that are able to create the sensation of sound coming from any horizontal direction (at ground level) around the listener.
The technique enhances the perception of sound spatialization by exploiting sound localization: a listener's ability to identify the location or origin of a detected sound in direction and distance. This is achieved by using multiple discrete audio channels routed to an array of loudspeakers. Surround sound typically has a listener location (sweet spot) where the audio effects work best and presents a fixed or forward perspective of the sound field to the listener at this location.
Surround sound formats vary in reproduction and recording methods, along with the number and positioning of additional channels. The most common surround sound specification, the ITU's 5.1 standard, calls for 6 speakers: Center (C), in front of the listener; Left (L) and Right (R), at angles of 60°; Left Surround (LS) and Right Surround (RS) at angles of 100–120°; and a subwoofer, whose position is not critical.
Fields of application
Though cinema and soundtracks represent the major uses of surround techniques, its scope of application is broader than that as surround sound permits creation of an audio-environment for all sorts of purposes. Multichannel audio techniques may be used to reproduce contents as varied as music, speech, natural or synthetic sounds for cinema, television, broadcasting, or computers. In terms of music content for example, a live performance may use multichannel techniques in the context of an open-air concert, of a musical theatre performance or for broadcasting; for a film, specific techniques are adapted to movie theater or to home (e.g. home cinema systems). The narrative space is also a content that can be enhanced through multichannel techniques. This applies mainly to cinema narratives, for example the speech of the characters of a film, but may also be applied to plays performed in a theatre, to a conference, or to integrate voice-based comments in an archeological site or monument. For example, an exhibition may be enhanced with topical ambient sound of water, birds, train or machine noise. Topical natural sounds may also be used in educational applications. Other fields of application include video game consoles, personal computers and other platforms. In such applications, the content would typically be synthetic noise produced by the computer device in interaction with its user. Significant work has also been done using surround sound for enhanced situation awareness in military and public safety application.
Types of media and technologies
Commercial surround sound media include videocassettes, DVDs, and SDTV broadcasts encoded as compressed Dolby Digital and DTS, and lossless audio such as DTS HD Master Audio and Dolby TrueHD on HDTV Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD, which are identical to the studio master. Other commercial formats include the competing DVD-Audio (DVD-A) and Super Audio CD (SACD) formats, and MP3 Surround. Cinema 5.1 surround formats include Dolby Digital and DTS. Sony Dynamic Digital Sound (SDDS) is an 8 channel cinema configuration which features 5 independent audio channels across the front with two independent surround channels, and a Low-frequency effects channel. Traditional 7.1 surround speaker configuration introduces two additional rear speakers to the conventional 5.1 arrangement, for a total of four surround channels and three front channels, to create a more 360° sound field.
Most surround sound recordings are created by film production companies or video game producers; however some consumer camcorders have such capability either built-in or available separately. Surround sound technologies can also be used in music to enable new methods of artistic expression. After the failure of quadraphonic audio in the 1970s, multichannel music has slowly been reintroduced since 1999 with the help of SACD and DVD-Audio formats. Some AV receivers, stereophonic systems, and computer sound cards contain integral digital signal processors or digital audio processors to simulate surround sound from a stereophonic source (see fake stereo).
In 1967, the rock group Pink Floyd performed the first-ever surround sound concert at "Games for May", a lavish affair at London’s Queen Elizabeth Hall where the band debuted its custom-made quadraphonic speaker system. The control device they had made, the Azimuth Co-ordinator, is now displayed at London's Victoria and Albert Museum, as part of their Theatre Collections gallery.
History
The first documented use of surround sound was in 1940, for the Disney studio's animated film Fantasia. Walt Disney was inspired by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's operatic piece Flight of the Bumblebee to have a bumblebee featured in his musical Fantasia and also sound as if it was flying in all parts of the theatre. The initial multichannel audio application was called 'Fantasound', comprising three audio channels and speakers. The sound was diffused throughout the cinema, controlled by an engineer using some 54 loudspeakers. The surround sound was achieved using the sum and the difference of the phase of the sound. However, this experimental use of surround sound was excluded from the film in later showings. In 1952, "surround sound" successfully reappeared with the film "This is Cinerama", using discrete seven-channel sound, and the race to develop other surround sound methods took off.
In the 1950s, the German composer Karlheinz Stockhausen experimented with and produced ground-breaking electronic compositions such as Gesang der Jünglinge and Kontakte, the latter using fully discrete and rotating quadraphonic sounds generated with industrial electronic equipment in Herbert Eimert's studio at the Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR). Edgar Varese's Poème électronique, created for the Iannis Xenakis-designed Philips Pavilion at the 1958 Brussels World's Fair, also used spatial audio with 425 loudspeakers used to move sound throughout the pavilion.
In 1957, working with artist Jordan Belson, Henry Jacobs produced Vortex: Experiments in Sound and Light - a series of concerts featuring new music, including some of Jacobs' own, and that of Karlheinz Stockhausen, and many others - taking place in the Morrison Planetarium in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. Sound designers commonly regard this as the origin of the (now standard) concept of "surround sound." The program was popular, and Jacobs and Belson were invited to reproduce it at the 1958 World Expo in Brussels.
There are also many other composers that created ground-breaking surround sound works in the same time period.
In 1978, a concept devised by Max Bell for Dolby Laboratories called "split surround" was tested with the movie Superman. This led to the 70mm stereo surround release of Apocalypse Now, which became one of the first formal releases in cinemas with three channels in the front and two in the rear. There were typically five speakers behind the screens of 70mm-capable cinemas, but only the Left, Center and Right were used full-frequency, while Center-Left and Center-Right were only used for bass-frequencies (as it is currently common). The Apocalypse Now encoder/decoder was designed by Michael Karagosian, also for Dolby Laboratories. The surround mix was produced by an Oscar-winning crew led by Walter Murch for American Zoetrope. The format was also deployed in 1982 with the stereo surround release of Blade Runner.
The 5.1 version of surround sound originated in 1987 at the famous French Cabaret Moulin Rouge. A French engineer, Dominique Bertrand used a mixing board specially designed in cooperation with Solid State Logic, based on 5000 series and including six channels. Respectively: A left, B right, C centre, D left rear, E right rear, F bass. The same engineer had already achieved a 3.1 system in 1974, for the International Summit of Francophone States in Dakar, Senegal.
Creating surround sound
Surround sound is created in several ways. The first and simplest method is using a surround sound recording technique—capturing two distinct stereo images, one for the front and one for the back or by using a dedicated setup, e.g. an augmented Decca tree—or mixing-in surround sound for playback on an audio system using speakers encircling the listener to play audio from different directions. A second approach is processing the audio with psychoacoustic sound localization methods to simulate a two-dimensional (2-D) sound field with headphones. A third approach, based on Huygens' principle, attempts reconstructing the recorded sound field wave fronts within the listening space; an "audio hologram" form. One form, wave field synthesis (WFS), produces a sound field with an even error field over the entire area. Commercial WFS systems, currently marketed by companies sonic emotion and Iosono, require many loudspeakers and significant computing power. The 4th approach is using three mics, one for front, one for side and one for rear, also called Double MS recording.
The Ambisonics form, also based on Huygens' principle, gives an exact sound reconstruction at the central point; however, it is less accurate away from the central point. There are many free and commercial software programs available for Ambisonics, which dominates most of the consumer market, especially musicians using electronic and computer music. Moreover, Ambisonics products are the standard in surround sound hardware sold by Meridian Audio. In its simplest form, Ambisonics consumes few resources, however this is not true for recent developments, such as Near Field Compensated Higher Order Ambisonics. Some years ago it was shown that, in the limit, WFS and Ambisonics converge.
Finally, surround sound can also be achieved by mastering level, from stereophonic sources as with Penteo, which uses digital signal processing analysis of a stereo recording to parse out individual sounds to component panorama positions, then positions them, accordingly, into a five-channel field. However, there are more ways to create surround sound out of stereo, for instance with the routines based on QS and SQ for encoding Quad sound, where instruments were divided over 4 speakers in the studio. This way of creating surround with software routines is normally referred to as "upmixing", which was particularly successful on the Sansui QSD-series decoders that had a mode where it mapped the L ↔ R stereo onto an ∩ arc.
Standard configurations
There are many alternative setups available for a surround sound experience, with a 3-2 (3 front, 2 back speakers and a Low Frequency Effects channel) configuration (more commonly referred to as 5.1 surround) being the standard for most surround sound applications, including cinema, television and consumer applications. This is a compromise between the ideal image creation of a room and that of practicality and compatibility with two-channel stereo. Because most surround sound mixes are produced for 5.1 surround (6 channels), larger setups require matrixes or processors to feed the additional speakers.
The standard surround setup consists of three front speakers LCR (left, center and right), two surround speakers LS and RS (left and right surround respectively) and a subwoofer for the Low Frequency Effects (LFE) channel, that is low-pass filtered at 120 Hz. The angles between the speakers have been standardized by the ITU (International Telecommunication Union) recommendation 775 and AES (Audio Engineering Society) as follows: 60 degrees between the L and R channels (allows for two-channel stereo compatibility) with the center speaker directly in front of the listener. The Surround channels are placed 100-120 degrees from the center channel, with the subwoofer's positioning not being critical due to the low directional factor of frequencies below 120 Hz. The ITU standard also allows for additional surround speakers, that need to be distributed evenly between 60 and 150 degrees.
Surround mixes of more or fewer channels are acceptable, if they are compatible, as described by the ITU-R BS. 775-1, with 5.1 surround. The 3-1 channel setup (consisting of one monophonic surround channel) is such a case, where both LS and RS are fed by the monophonic signal at an attenuated level of -3 dB.
The function of the center channel is to anchor the signal so that any central panned images do not shift when a listener is moving or is sitting away from the sweet spot. The center channel also prevents any timbral modifications from occurring, which is typical for 2-channel stereo, due to phase differences at the two ears of a listener. The centre channel is especially used in films and television, with dialogue primarily feeding the center channel. The function of the center channel can either be of a monophonic nature (as with dialogue) or it can be used in combination with the left and right channels for true three-channel stereo. Motion Pictures tend to use the center channel for monophonic purposes with stereo being reserved purely for the left and right channels. Surround microphones techniques have however been developed that fully use the potential of three-channel stereo.
In 5.1 surround, phantom images between the front speakers are quite accurate, with images towards the back and especially to the sides being unstable. The localisation of a virtual source, based on level differences between two loudspeakers to the side of a listener, shows great inconsistency across the standardised 5.1 setup, also being largely affected by movement away from the reference position. 5.1 surround is therefore limited in its ability to convey 3D sound, making the surround channels more appropriate for ambience or effects.)
7.1 channel surround is another setup, most commonly used in large cinemas, that is compatible with 5.1 surround, though it is not stated in the ITU-standards. 7.1 channel surround adds two additional channels, center-left (CL) and center-right (CR) to the 5.1 surround setup, with the speakers situated 15 degrees off centre from the listener. This convention is used to cover an increased angle between the front loudspeakers as a product of a larger screen.
Surround microphone techniques
Most 2-channel stereophonic microphone techniques are compatible with a 3-channel setup (LCR), as many of these techniques already contain a center microphone or microphone pair. Microphone techniques for LCR should, however, try to obtain greater channel separation to prevent conflicting phantom images between L/C and L/R for example. Specialised techniques have therefore been developed for 3-channel stereo. Surround microphone techniques largely depend on the setup used, therefore being biased towards the 5.1 surround setup, as this is the standard.
Surround recording techniques can be differentiated into those that use single arrays of microphones placed in close proximity, and those treating front and rear channels with separate arrays. Close arrays present more accurate phantom images, whereas separate treatment of rear channels is usually used for ambience. For accurate depiction of an acoustic environment, such as a halls, side reflections are essential. Appropriate microphone techniques should therefore be used, if room impression is important. Although the reproduction of side images are very unstable in the 5.1 surround setup, room impressions can still be accurately presented.
Some microphone techniques used for coverage of three front channels, include double-stereo techniques, INA-3 (Ideal Cardioid Arrangement), the Decca Tree setup and the OCT (Optimum Cardioid Triangle). Surround techniques are largely based on 3-channel techniques with additional microphones used for the surround channels. A distinguishing factor for the pickup of the front channels in surround is that less reverberation should be picked up, as the surround microphones will be responsible for the pickup of reverberation. Cardioid, hypercardioid, or supercardioid polar patterns will therefore often replace omnidirectional polar patterns for surround recordings. To compensate for the lost low-end of directional (pressure gradient) microphones, additional omnidirectional (pressure microphones), exhibiting an extended low-end response, can be added. The microphone's output is usually low-pass filtered.
A simple surround microphone configuration involves the use of a front array in combination with two backward-facing omnidirectional room microphones placed about 10–15 meters away from the front array. If echoes are notable, the front array can be delayed appropriately. Alternatively, backward facing cardioid microphones can be placed closer to the front array for a similar reverberation pickup.
The INA-5 (Ideal Cardioid Arrangement) is a surround microphone array that uses five cardioid microphones resembling the angles of the standardised surround loudspeaker configuration defined by the ITU Rec. 775. Dimensions between the front three microphone as well as the polar patterns of the microphones can be changed for different pickup angles and ambient response. This technique therefore allows for great flexibility.
A well established microphone array is the Fukada Tree, which is a modified variant of the Decca Tree stereo technique. The array consists of five spaced cardioid microphones, three front microphones resembling a Decca Tree and two surround microphones. Two additional omnidirectional outriggers can be added to enlarge the perceived size of the orchestra or to better integrate the front and surround channels. The L, R, LS and RS microphones should be placed in a square formation, with L/R and LS/RS angled at 45 degrees and 135 degrees from the center microphone respectively. Spacing between these microphones should be about 1.8 meters. This square formation is responsible for the room impressions. The center channel is placed a meter in front of the L and R channels, producing a strong center image. The surround microphones are usually placed at the critical distance (where the direct and reverberant field is equal), with the full array usually situated several meters above and behind the conductor.
The NHK (Japanese broadcasting company) developed an alternative technique also involving five cardioid microphones. Here a baffle is used for separation between the front left and right channels, which are 30 cm apart. Outrigger omnidirectional microphones, low-pass filtered at 250 Hz, are spaced 3 meters apart in line with the L and R cardioids. These compensate for the bass roll-off of the cardioid microphones and also add expansiveness. A 3-meter spaced microphone pair, situated 2–3 meters behind front array, is used for the surround channels. The centre channel is again placed slightly forward, with the L/R and LS/RS again angled at 45 and 135 degrees respectively.
The OCT-Surround (Optimum Cardioid Triangle-Surround) microphone array is an augmented technique of the stereo OCT technique using the same front array with added surround microphones. The front array is designed for minimum crosstalk, with the front left and right microphones having supercardioid polar patterns and angled at 90 degrees relative to the center microphone. It is important that high quality small diaphragm microphones are used for the L and R channels to reduce off-axis coloration. Equalization can also be used to flatten the response of the supercardioid microphones to signals coming in at up to about 30 degrees from the front of the array. The center channel is placed slightly forward. The surround microphones are backwards facing cardioid microphones, that are placed 40 cm back from the L and R microphones. The L, R, LS and RS microphones pick up early reflections from both the sides and the back of an acoustic venue, therefore giving significant room impressions. Spacing between the L and R microphones can be varied to obtain the required stereo width.
Specialized microphone arrays have been developed for recording purely the ambience of a space. These arrays are used in combination with suitable front arrays, or can be added to above mentioned surround techniques. The Hamasaki square (also proposed by NHK) is a well established microphone array used for the pickup of hall ambience. Four figure-eight microphones are arranged in a square, ideally placed far away and high up in the hall. Spacing between the microphones should be between 1–3 meters. The microphones nulls (zero pickup point) are set to face the main sound source with positive polarities outward facing, therefore very effectively minimizing the direct sound pickup as well as echoes from the back of the hall The back two microphones are mixed to the surround channels, with the front two channels being mixed in combination with the front array into L and R.
Another ambient technique is the IRT (Institut für Rundfunktechnik) cross. Here, four cardioid microphones, 90 degrees relative to one another, are placed in square formation, separated by 21–25 cm. The front two microphones should be positioned 45 degrees off axis from the sound source. This technique therefore resembles back to back near-coincident stereo pairs. The microphones outputs are fed to the L, R and LS, RS channels. The disadvantage of this approach is that direct sound pickup is quite significant.
Many recordings do not require pickup of side reflections. For Live Pop music concerts a more appropriate array for the pickup of ambience is the cardioid trapezium. All four cardioid microphones are backward facing and angled at 60 degrees from one another, therefore similar to a semi-circle. This is effective for the pickup of audience and ambience.
All the above-mentioned microphone arrays take up considerable space, making them quite ineffective for field recordings. In this respect, the double MS (Mid Side) technique is quite advantageous. This array uses back to back cardioid microphones, one facing forward, the other backwards, combined with either one or two figure-eight microphone. Different channels are obtained by sum and difference of the figure-eight and cardioid patterns. When using only one figure-eight microphone, the double MS technique is extremely compact and therefore also perfectly compatible with monophonic playback. This technique also allows for postproduction changes of the pickup angle.
Bass management
Surround replay systems may make use of bass management, the fundamental principle of which is that bass content in the incoming signal, irrespective of channel, should be directed only to loudspeakers capable of handling it, whether the latter are the main system loudspeakers or one or more special low-frequency speakers called subwoofers.
There is a notation difference before and after the bass management system. Before the bass management system there is a Low Frequency Effects (LFE) channel. After the bass management system there is a subwoofer signal. A common misunderstanding is the belief that the LFE channel is the "subwoofer channel". The bass management system may direct bass to one or more subwoofers (if present) from any channel, not just from the LFE channel. Also, if there is no subwoofer speaker present then the bass management system can direct the LFE channel to one or more of the main speakers.
Low frequency effects channel
Because the low-frequency effects (LFE) channel requires only a fraction of the bandwidth of the other audio channels, it is referred to as the .1 channel; for example 5.1 or 7.1.
The LFE channel is a source of some confusion in surround sound. It was originally developed to carry extremely low sub-bass cinematic sound effects (e.g., the loud rumble of thunder or explosions) on their own channel. This allowed theaters to control the volume of these effects to suit the particular cinema's acoustic environment and sound reproduction system. Independent control of the sub-bass effects also reduced the problem of intermodulation distortion in analog movie sound reproduction.
In the original movie theater implementation, the LFE was a separate channel fed to one or more subwoofers. Home replay systems, however, may not have a separate subwoofer, so modern home surround decoders and systems often include a bass management system that allows bass on any channel (main or LFE) to be fed only to the loudspeakers that can handle low-frequency signals. The salient point here is that the LFE channel is not the subwoofer channel; there may be no subwoofer and, if there is, it may be handling a good deal more than effects.
Some record labels such as Telarc and Chesky have argued that LFE channels are not needed in a modern digital multichannel entertainment system. They argue that all available channels have a full-frequency range and, as such, there is no need for an LFE in surround music production, because all the frequencies are available in all the main channels. These labels sometimes use the LFE channel to carry a height channel. The label BIS Records generally uses a 5.0 channel mix.
Channel notation
Channel notation indicates the number of discrete channels encoded in the audio signal, not necessarily the number of channels reproduced for playback. The number of playback channels can be increased by using matrix decoding. The number of playback channels may also differ from the number of speakers used to reproduce them if one or more channels drives a group of speakers. Notation represents the number of channels, not the number of speakers.
The first digit in "5.1" is the number of full range channels. The ".1" reflects the limited frequency range of the LFE channel.
For example, two stereo speakers with no LFE channel = 2.0
5 full-range channels + 1 LFE channel = 5.1
An alternative notation shows the number of full-range channels in front of the listener, separated by a slash from the number of full-range channels beside or behind the listener, with a decimal point marking the number of limited-range LFE channels.
E.g. 3 front channels + 2 side channels + an LFE channel = 3/2.1
The notation can be expanded to include Matrix Decoders. Dolby Digital EX, for example, has a sixth full-range channel incorporated into the two rear channels with a matrix. This is expressed:
3 front channels + 2 rear channels + 3 channels reproduced in the rear in total + 1 LFE channel = 3/2:3.1
The term stereo, although popularised in reference to two channel audio, historically also referred to surround sound, as it strictly means "solid" (three-dimensional) sound. However this is no longer common usage and "stereo sound" almost exclusively means two channels, left and right.
Channel identification
In accordance with ANSI/CEA-863-A
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ANSI/CEA-863-A identification for surround sound channels
! colspan=3 | Zero-based channel index
! rowspan=2 | Channel name
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | Color-coding on commercialreceiver and cabling
|-
! MP3/WAV/FLAC
! DTS/AAC
! Vorbis/Opus
|-
|0
|1
|0
|Front left
|style="background:white"| ||White
|-
|1
|2
|2
|Front right
|style="background:red;color:white"| ||Red
|-
|2
|0
|1
|Center
|style="background:limegreen"| ||Green
|-
|3
|5
|7
|Subwoofer
|style="background:SlateBlue;color:white"| ||Purple
|-
|4
|3
|3
|Side left
|style="background:dodgerblue;color:white"| ||Blue
|-
|5
|4
|4
|Side right
|style="background:gray;color:white"| ||Grey
|-
|6
|6
|5
|Rear left
|style="background:saddlebrown;color:white"| ||Brown
|-
|7
|7
|6
|Rear right
|style="background:khaki"| ||Khaki
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|+Diagram
|style="background:white"|Front Left
|style="background:limegreen"|Center
|style="background:red;text-align:right;color:white"|Front right
|-
|style="background:dodgerblue;color:white"|Side left
|style="text-align:center;font-size:200%;" rowspan="2"|☺
|style="background:gray;text-align:right;color:white"|Side right
|-
|style="background:saddlebrown;color:white"|Rear left
|style="background:khaki;text-align:right"|Rear right
|-
|style="background:SlateBlue;text-align:center;color:white" colspan="3"|Subwoofer
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|+Height channels
!Index
!Channel name
!colspan=2|Color-coding on commercialreceiver and cabling
|-
|8
|Left height 1
|style="background:yellow"| ||Yellow
|-
|9
|Right height 1
|style="background:orange;color:white"| ||Orange
|-
|10
|Left height 2
|style="background:pink"| ||Pink
|-
|11
|Right height 2
|style="background:magenta;color:white"| ||Magenta
|}
Sonic Whole Overhead Sound
In 2002, Dolby premiered a master of We Were Soldiers which featured a Sonic Whole Overhead Sound soundtrack. This mix included a new ceiling-mounted height channel.
Ambisonics
Ambisonics is a recording and playback technique using multichannel mixing that can be used live or in the studio and which recreates the soundfield as it existed in the space, in contrast to traditional surround systems, which can only create illusion of the soundfield if the listener is located in a very narrow sweetspot between speakers. Any number of speakers in any physical arrangement can be used to recreate a sound field. With 6 or more speakers arranged around a listener, a 3-dimensional ("periphonic", or full-sphere) sound field can be presented. Ambisonics was invented by Michael Gerzon.
Binaural recording
Binaural recording is a method of recording sound that uses two microphones, arranged with the intent to create the 3-D stereo experience of being present in the room with the performers or instruments. The idea of a three dimensional or "internal" form of sound has developed into technology for stethoscopes creating "in-head" acoustics and IMAX movies creating a three dimensional acoustic experience.
Panor-Ambiophonic (PanAmbio) 4.0/4.1
PanAmbio combines a stereo dipole and crosstalk cancellation in front and a second set behind the listener (total of four speakers) for 360° 2D surround reproduction. Four channel recordings, especially those containing binaural cues, create speaker-binaural surround sound. 5.1 channel recordings, including movie DVDs, are compatible by mixing C-channel content to the front speaker pair. 6.1 can be played by mixing SC to the back pair.
Standard speaker channels
Several speaker configurations are commonly used for consumer equipment. The order and identifiers are those specified for the channel mask in the standard uncompressed WAV file format (which contains a raw multichannel PCM stream) and are used according to the same specification for most PC connectible digital sound hardware and PC operating systems capable of handling multiple channels. While it is possible to build any speaker configuration, there is little commercial movie or music content for alternative speaker configurations. However, source channels can be remixed for the speaker channels using a matrix table specifying how much of each content channel is played through each speaker channel.
Most channel configuration may include a low frequency effects (LFE) channel (the channel played through the subwoofer.) This makes the configuration ".1" instead of ".0". Most modern multichannel mixes contain one LFE, some use two.
7.1 surround sound
7.1 surround sound is a popular format in theaters & Home cinema including Blu-rays with Dolby and DTS being major players.
7.1.2/7.1.4 immersive sound
7.1.2 and 7.1.4 immersive sound along with 5.1.2 and 5.1.4 format adds either 2 or 4 overhead speakers to enable sound objects and special effect sounds to be panned overhead for the listener. Introduced for theatrical film releases in 2012 by Dolby Laboratories under the trademark name Dolby Atmos.
10.2 surround sound
10.2 is the surround sound format developed by THX creator Tomlinson Holman of TMH Labs and University of Southern California (schools of Cinema/Television and Engineering). Developed along with Chris Kyriakakis of the USC Viterbi School of Engineering, 10.2 refers to the format's promotional slogan: "Twice as good as 5.1". Advocates of 10.2 argue that it is the audio equivalent of IMAX.
11.1 surround sound
11.1 sound is supported by BARCO with installations in theaters worldwide.
22.2 surround sound
22.2 is the surround sound component of Ultra High Definition Television, developed by NHK Science & Technical Research Laboratories. As its name suggests, it uses 24 speakers. These are arranged in three layers: A middle layer of ten speakers, an upper layer of nine speakers, and a lower layer of three speakers and two sub-woofers. The system was demonstrated at Expo 2005, Aichi, Japan, the NAB Shows 2006 and 2009, Las Vegas, and the IBC trade shows 2006 and 2008, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
See also
3D audio effect
Binaural recording
Dolby Surround
Duophonic
Four-channel Compact Disc Digital Audio
Holophonics
MPEG Surround
Precedence effect
Soundfield microphone
Virtual surround
Notes
References
External links
Consumer electronics
Film sound production
Home video
Virtual reality | [
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253837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Samwest | Operation Samwest | During World War II, Operation Samwest (5–12 June 1944) was a large raid conducted by 116 Free French paratroops of the 4th Special Air Service Regiment. Their objective was to hinder movement of German troops from west Brittany to the Normandy beaches via ambush and sabotage attempts.
The first phase of the mission was to establish a secure base on the Breton Peninsula, near St. Brieuc in Duault in the Bretagne Region. Their base was heavily attacked by German troops on 12 June and they were forced to disperse.
See also
Operation Dingson
Operation Cooney
Operation Lost
References
Airborne operations of World War II
Special Air Service
Operation Overlord
World War II British Commando raids | [
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253838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20ProDOS | Apple ProDOS | ProDOS is the name of two similar operating systems for the Apple II series of personal computers. The original ProDOS, renamed ProDOS 8 in version 1.2, is the last official operating system usable by all 8-bit Apple II series computers, and was distributed from 1983 to 1993. The other, ProDOS 16, was a stop-gap solution for the 16-bit Apple II that was replaced by GS/OS within two years.
ProDOS was marketed by Apple as meaning Professional Disk Operating System, and became the most popular operating system for the Apple II series of computers 10 months after its release in January 1983.
Background
ProDOS was released to address shortcomings in the earlier Apple operating system (called simply DOS), which was beginning to show its age.
Apple DOS only has built-in support for 5.25" floppy disks and requires patches to use peripheral devices such as hard disk drives and non-Disk-II floppy disk drives, including 3.5" floppy drives. ProDOS adds a standard method of accessing ROM-based drivers on expansion cards for disk devices, expands the maximum volume size from about 400 kilobytes to 32 megabytes, introduces support for hierarchical subdirectories (a vital feature for organizing a hard disk's storage space), and supports RAM disks on machines with 128kB or more of memory. ProDOS addresses problems with handling hardware interrupts, and includes a well-defined and documented programming and expansion interface, which Apple DOS had always lacked. Although ProDOS also includes support for a real-time clock (RTC), this support went largely unused until the release of the Apple II, the first in the Apple II series to include an RTC on board. Third-party clocks were available for the II Plus, IIe, and IIc, however.
ProDOS, unlike earlier Apple DOS versions, has its developmental roots in SOS, the operating system for the ill-fated Apple III computer released in 1980. Pre-release documentation for ProDOS (including early editions of Beneath Apple ProDOS) documented SOS error codes, notably one for switched disks, that ProDOS itself could never generate. Its disk format and programming interface are completely different from those of Apple DOS, and ProDOS cannot read or write DOS 3.3 disks except by means of a conversion utility; while the low-level track-and-sector format of DOS 3.3 disks was retained for 5.25-inch disks, the high-level arrangement of files and directories is completely different. For this reason, most machine-language programs that run under Apple DOS will not work under ProDOS. However, most BASIC programs work, though they sometimes require minor changes. A third-party program called DOS.MASTER enables users to have multiple virtual DOS 3.3 partitions on a larger ProDOS volume.
With the release of ProDOS came the end of support for Integer BASIC and the original Apple II model, which had long since been effectively supplanted by Applesoft BASIC and the Apple II Plus. Whereas DOS 3.3 always loads built-in support for BASIC programming, under ProDOS this job is given to a separate system program called , which one launches to run and write Applesoft BASIC programs. BASIC itself continued to be built into the Apple ROMs; is merely a command interpreter enhancement that allows BASIC programs to access ProDOS by means of the same "Control-D" text output they had used under DOS 3.3. alone requires about as much memory as the whole of DOS 3.3. Since the ProDOS kernel itself is stowed away in the "Language Card" RAM, the usable amount of RAM for BASIC programmers remains the same under ProDOS as it had been under DOS 3.3.
Despite ProDOS's many advantages, many users and programmers resisted it for a time because of their investment in learning the ins and outs of Apple DOS and in Apple-DOS-based software and data formats. A contributing reason was that ProDOS allows only 15 characters in a filename compared to Apple DOS's 30. But Apple's integrated software package AppleWorks, released in 1984, proved a compelling reason to switch, and by the end of 1985 few new software products were being released for the older operating system. Apple IIs continued to be able to boot the older DOS (even the Apple IIGS can boot the older DOS floppies) but as 3.5" floppies and hard disks became more prevalent, most users spent the bulk of their time in ProDOS.
The Apple IIe, also released in 1983, was the first Apple II computer to have 64kB of memory built in. For a while, Apple shipped both DOS 3.3 and ProDOS with new computers.
The original ProDOS was renamed ProDOS 8 when ProDOS 16 was released to support the 16-bit Apple II computer, although ProDOS 16 (which was 8-bit at its core) was soon replaced by GS/OS.
Requirements
All editions of ProDOS require an Apple II series computer or compatible.
ProDOS 8 requires 64kB of memory to run. The original ProDOS (8) 1.0 through 1.0.2 requires only 48kB for the kernel, but nearly all programs, including the needed to use Applesoft BASIC, require 64kB, making a 48kB system useless for ProDOS as a practical matter, and support for 48kB machines was removed in version 1.1.
ProDOS 8 version 2.x requires a 65C02 or later (65802, 65816) CPU. ProDOS 8 2.x runs in 64kB, but the utility programs on the system disk require 128kB. Systems with a 6502 CPU instead of a 65C02 must use ProDOS 8 versions prior to version 2.0.
ProDOS 16 requires an Apple IIGS.
Unlicensed Apple II clones
With the release of ProDOS version 1.01 and higher, a check was added to see if it was running on an official Apple-manufactured computer. If the word "Apple" is found in the computer's ROM firmware, ProDOS will load up as normal. If anything else is found (e.g. "Golden", "Franklin", "Elite") ProDOS refuses to run, locking up at the boot splash screen. This measure was taken by Apple Computer to discourage use of unlicensed Apple II clones. It is still possible to run newer versions of ProDOS on clones; however, users have to apply a small byte patch to every successive version of ProDOS. Some users go as far as replacing their physical ROM chip(s) with an illegal copied version of Apple's own ROM; or, failing that, a custom patched ROM with "Apple" added in the name.
Disk support
ProDOS 8 natively supports Disk II-compatible floppy drives, a RAM drive of approximately 59kB on computers having 128K or more RAM, and block devices whose controllers support the Pascal firmware protocol, a standardized method of accepting block reads and writes originally introduced for use with the UCSD p-System. This latter category includes 3.5" disk and hard drives. Custom block device drivers can be hooked into the OS as well.
File system
ProDOS uses the same file system as the earlier Apple SOS for the Apple III. The SOS/ProDOS file system is native to Apple SOS, ProDOS 8, ProDOS 16, and GS/OS. Some classic Mac OS versions also come with a file system translator to handle this file system.
A volume is allocated in 512-byte blocks. (5.25" floppy disks are still formatted using 256-byte sectors, as this is the format required by the controller ROM to boot the disk. ProDOS simply treats pairs of 256-byte sectors as a single block on such drives.) A volume can have a capacity of up to 32 megabytes, and each file can be up to 16 megabytes. Each volume (floppy disk or hard drive partition) has a "volume name", a filename which is used as the base directory name; having two volumes with the same volume name can result in conflicts. If necessary, ProDOS searches all available drives to find a named volume. Subdirectories are supported, and the concept of a "prefix" (working directory or current path) was provided to make working with subdirectories easier.
File, directory, and volume names can be 1 to 15 characters, starting with a letter, then containing more letters, digits or periods. Each file entry also contains the 16-bit (2-byte) pointer to the block containing the beginning of the file (or its block index); a 16-bit block count; a 24-bit (3-byte) file size; an 8-bit (1-byte) filetype; a 16-bit auxiliary type (the meaning of which depends upon the filetype); creation and modification timestamps; and data related to how the file is stored on the volume. Sparse files are supported, but files are never "sparsified" by removing zero-filled blocks. The volume header contains similar information as relevant to volumes.
Directories (including the root directory) are sequentially indexed, with each block starting with the address of the previous block (or zero if none) and the subsequent block (or zero if none). The root directory on most disks is initialized to 4 blocks, allowing 51 entries (excluding the volume header). It never changes in size, except by manual intervention with special tools. Subdirectories begin at one block, and grow automatically as needed.
Normal files are progressively indexed. Single-block files (under 513 bytes) have no index block; the directory entry points directly to the block of file data. Files with between 2 and 256 blocks (513 bytes to 128 kB) of data have a single index block, to which the directory entry points, which contains a list of up to 256 data block addresses. Larger files have a master index block containing a list of up to 256 index block addresses. When the Apple IIgs was introduced, a new storage format was introduced for files with two forks, as was typical for IIgs system and program files; the directory entry points to an informational block that tells the computer the storage format of the two forks. These files cannot be read or written natively by ProDOS 8, though the volume itself remains compatible.
The volume has a bitmap of used blocks. Other than this, there is no central file allocation table.
A ProDOS 8 volume formatted by Apple's tools has a boot sector that supports booting both ProDOS and SOS depending on what computer it is booted on. Block 0 is the Apple II boot block and block 1 boots SOS. This allows a disk to be used to boot on either Apple II or Apple III computers by putting both operating system kernels in the top directory: the Apple II boot sector looks for the file and the Apple III boot sector looks for the file . Third-party formatting utilities often did not provide the SOS boot block, and some would even mark block 1 available for user data.
ProDOS has no kernel support for other file systems. If necessary, a conversion utility on the main system disk is used to transfer files individually between ProDOS and older Apple DOS 3.3 disks. Because they use a different low-level disk format than DOS 3.3 and ProDOS, transferring data from DOS 3.2 disks to ProDOS is a two-step process using a DOS 3.3 disk as an intermediary (utilizing the DOS 3.3 utility MUFFIN or similar).
References
Notes
Don Worth and Pieter Lechner. Beneath Apple ProDOS. Quality Software, Chatsworth, California, 1984.
External links
Apple II History: DOS 3.3, ProDOS & Beyond
Apple II Information Reference - Apple2.info - ProDOS 8 Technical Reference Manual, wiki formatted, with FAQs, compatibility guides, etc.
ProDOS 8 Technical Reference Manual - HTML formatted
Apple II System Disk 4.0.2 - Apple II System Disk 4.0.2, with ProDOS 8 2.0.3 and the system utilities, as an 800K DiskCopy format image
Apple Operating Systems - DOS, ProDOS 8, GS/OS, Basic.System
ProDOS
ProDOS
Disk operating systems
Discontinued operating systems
1983 software | [
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253839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Cooney | Operation Cooney | Operation Cooney was the deployment of elements of the 4ème Bataillon d'Infanterie de l'Air - the 4th Free French Parachute Battalion (later renamed 2ème Régiment de Chasseurs Parachutistes) - also known as 4th Special Air Service.
On 7 June 1944, the 9 aircraft of 38 Group (including two from No. 297 Squadron RAF), dropped the parachutists.
These men were to disrupt enemy communications between West Brittany and the remainder of France, and in all 58 Free French soldiers were dropped on no fewer than 18 undefended drop zones between St. Malo and Vannes. Their goal was to impair the German Army's response to the unfolding invasion of Normandy, Operation Overlord.
Breaking into 18 three-man or five-man SAS teams, the commandos scattered throughout Brittany destroying railroad targets. As a sign they had passed through they tied railroad ties around trees.
Some raiders then joined the base established by the Dingson team in Saint-Marcel, Morbihan or the base established by the Samwest team in Duault, Côtes d'Armor.
See also
Operation Lost
Notes
Henry Corta (1921–1998), a Free French SAS lieutenant veteran, les bérets rouges (red berets), Paris, 1952, amicale des anciens parachutistes SAS,
Henry Corta, Qui ose gagne (Who dares wins), Vincennes, 1997, service historique de l'armée de terre.
Dramatization
The Longest Day, a 1962 American film produced by Darryl F. Zanuck :
3 Free French SAS paratroopers, 1 woman (Janine Boitard) and 1 Resistance fighter against 2 german soldiers on the railroad near the bridge before the explosion.
Special Air Service
Operation Overlord
1944 in France
World War II British Commando raids | [
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253840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus%20station | Bus station | A bus station or a bus interchange is a structure where city or intercity buses stop to pick up and drop off passengers. While the term bus depot can also be used to refer to a bus station, it generally refers to a bus garage. A bus station is larger than a bus stop, which is usually simply a place on the roadside, where buses can stop. It may be intended as a terminal station for a number of routes, or as a transfer station where the routes continue.
Bus station platforms may be assigned to fixed bus lines, or variable in combination with a dynamic passenger information system. The latter requires fewer platforms, but does not supply the passenger the comfort of knowing the platform well in advance and waiting there.
Accessible station
An accessible station is a public transportation passenger station which provides ready access, is usable and does not have physical barriers that prohibit and/or restrict access by people with disabilities, including those who use wheelchairs.
Largest bus stations
The under construction Coimbatore Integrated Bus Terminus in Coimbatore, India will become the largest bus station in the world, the build up area is .
At , the Chennai Mofussil Bus Terminus in Chennai, India, is the largest bus station in Asia.
The Woodlands Bus Interchange in Singapore is one of the busiest bus interchanges in the world, handling up to 400,000 passengers daily across 42 bus services. Other bus interchanges such as Bedok, Tampines and Yishun handle similar number of passengers daily.
The largest underground bus station in Europe is Kamppi Centre of Helsinki, Finland completed in 2006. The terminal cost 100 million Euro to complete and took 3 years to design and build. Today, the bus terminal, which covers 25,000 square meters, is the busiest bus terminal in Finland. Every day, the terminal has around 700 bus departures, transporting some 170,000 passengers.
Preston Bus Station in Preston, Lancashire, built in 1969 and later heritage-listed, was described in 2014 as "depending on how you measure it, the largest bus station in the world, the second-biggest in Europe, and the longest in Europe". It was fully refurbished in 2018.
The largest bus terminal in North America is the Port Authority Bus Terminal located in Manhattan, New York City. The terminal is located in Midtown at 625 Eighth Avenue between 40th Street and 42nd Street, one block east of the Lincoln Tunnel and one block west of Times Square. The terminal is the largest in the Western Hemisphere and the busiest in the world by volume of traffic, serving about 8,000 buses and 225,000 people on an average weekday and more than 65 million people a year. It has 223 gates. It operates intercity bus routes all over the US and some international destinations mostly in Canada which most of them are operated by Greyhound Lines.
The largest bus terminal in the southern hemisphere is the Tietê Bus Terminal located in São Paulo, Brazil. It is also the 2nd busiest in the world, serving about 90,000 people per weekday in 300 bus lines on its 89 platforms (72 for boarding and 17 for deboarding), with services to over 1,000 cities over the country and South America. The terminal is also connected to an adjacent metro station.
See also
Bus depot (bus garage)
Bus stop
Bus terminus
Bus Interchange (New Zealand)
Bus Stations (Singapore)
Intermodal passenger transport
Railway station
Ticket (admission)
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253842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board%20foot | Board foot | The board foot or board-foot is a unit of measurement for the volume of lumber in the United States and Canada. It equals the volume of a length of a board, one foot wide and thick.
Board foot can be abbreviated as FBM (for "foot, board measure"), BDFT, or BF. A thousand board feet can be abbreviated as MFBM, MBFT, or MBF. Similarly, a million board feet can be abbreviated as MMFBM, MMBFT, or MMBF.
Until 1970s in Australia and New Zealand the terms super foot and superficial foot were used with the same meaning.
One board foot equals:
1 ft × 1 ft × 1 in
12 in × 12 in × 1 in
144 in3
1/12 ft3
≈
≈
≈ or steres
1/1980 Petrograd Standard of board
The board foot is used to measure rough lumber (before drying and planing with no adjustments) or planed/surfaced lumber. An example of planed lumber is softwood 2 × 4 lumber sold by large lumber retailers. The 2 × 4 is actually only , but the dimensions for the lumber when purchased wholesale could still be represented as full 2 × 4 lumber, although the "standard" can vary between vendors. This means that nominal lumber includes air space around the physical board when calculating board feet in some situations, while the true measurement of "board feet" should be limited to the actual dimensions of the board.
For planed lumber, board feet refer to the nominal thickness and width of lumber, calculated in principle on its size before drying and planing. Here the actual length is used.
See dimensional lumber for a full discussion of the relationship of actual and nominal dimensions. Briefly, for softwoods, to convert nominal to actual, subtract for dimensions under 2 inches; subtract for dimensions over 2 inches and under 8 inches; and subtract for larger measurements. The system is more complicated for hardwoods.
See also
Canadian units
Cord
Cubic ton
Forest product
Hoppus foot
List of unusual units of measurement
Measurement Canada
Measurement Information Division of Industry Canada
Petrograd Standard
Standard (unit)
Stere
United States customary units
Units of measurement
Weights and Measures Act
References
Units of volume
Customary units of measurement in the United States
Logging
Wood | [
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253844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal | Temporal | Temporal can refer to time, or to material existence and secularity, or to the temple in anatomy. Below is a list of possible uses.
Anatomy
Temporal bone, a part of the skull
Temporal fascia, covers the temporalis muscle
Temporal lobe, a part of the brain
Temporal muscle, one of the muscles of mastication
Temporal scales, on the sides of the head of reptiles
Temporal, an alternative for lateral (Anatomical terms of location#Medial and lateral) in the head; towards the Temporal bone
Entertainment
Temporal (video game), a 2008 freeware platform and puzzle game
Temporal (band), an Australian Metal band
Temporal (Love Spirals Downwards album), 2000
Temporal (Isis album), 2012
Existence
Temporal condition (mortality), see Death
Grammar
Temporal clause, a type of dependent adverbial clause indicating the timing of an action, e.g. "She was talking to her sister [while I was on the phone]".
Philosophy
Temporality
Temporal actual entity, see Process and Reality#Whitehead's actual entities
Temporal worldview, see Materialism
Psychology
Temporal anxiety, see Death anxiety (psychology)
Religion
Temporal punishment, see Indulgence
Temporal concerns, see Economic materialism
The Temporal power (papal) of the Popes of the Roman Catholic Church
The Lords Temporal, secular members of the House of Lords
Temporality (ecclesiastical), secular possessions of the Church
Science and technology
Temporal database, a database recording aspects of time-varying values
Temporal logic, a variety of formal systems for reasoning about time
Temporal paradox in hypothetical time travel
Temporal coupling in computer programming
Security (fire)
Code-3 temporal pattern, fire alarm notification appliance
See also
Ephemeral
Impermanence
Temporal region (disambiguation)
Temporary (disambiguation) | [
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253848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20DOS | Apple DOS | Apple DOS is the family of disk operating systems for the Apple II series of microcomputers from late 1978 through early 1983. It was superseded by ProDOS in 1983. Apple DOS has three major releases: DOS 3.1, DOS 3.2, and DOS 3.3; each one of these three releases was followed by a second, minor "bug-fix" release, but only in the case of Apple DOS 3.2 did that minor release receive its own version number, Apple DOS 3.2.1. The best-known and most-used version is Apple DOS 3.3 in the 1980 and 1983 releases. Prior to the release of Apple DOS 3.1, Apple users had to rely on audio cassette tapes for data storage and retrieval.
Version history
When Apple Computer introduced the Apple II in April 1977, the new computer had no disk drive or disk operating system (DOS). Although Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak designed the Disk II controller late that year, and believed that he could have written a DOS, his co-founder Steve Jobs decided to outsource the task. The company considered using Digital Research's CP/M, but Wozniak sought an operating system that was easier to use. On 10 April 1978 Apple signed a $13,000 contract with Shepardson Microsystems to write a DOS and deliver it within 35 days. Apple provided detailed specifications, and early Apple employee Randy Wigginton worked closely with Shepardson's Paul Laughton as the latter wrote the operating system with punched cards and a minicomputer.
There was no Apple DOS 1 or 2. Versions 0.1 through 2.8 were serially enumerated revisions during development, which might as well have been called builds 1 through 28. Apple DOS 3.0, a renamed issue of version 2.8, was never publicly released due to bugs. Apple published no official documentation until release 3.2.
Apple DOS 3.1 was publicly released in June 1978, slightly more than one year after the Apple II was introduced, becoming the first disk-based operating system for any Apple computer. A bug-fix release came later, addressing a problem by means of its utility, which was used to create Apple DOS master (bootable) disks: The built-in command created disks that could be booted only on machines with at least the same amount of memory as the one that had created them. includes a self-relocating version of DOS that boots on Apples with any memory configuration.
Apple DOS 3.2 was released in 1979 to reflect changes in computer booting methods that were built into the successor of the Apple II, the Apple II Plus. New firmware included an auto-start feature which automatically found a disk controller and booted from it when the system was powered up—earning it the name "Autostart ROM". DOS 3.2.1 was then released in July of 1979 with some minor bug fixes.
Apple DOS 3.3 was released in 1980. It improves various functions of release 3.2, while also allowing for large gains in available floppy disk storage; the newer P5A/P6A PROMs in the disk controller enabled the reading and writing of data at a higher density, so instead of 13 sectors (3.25 KiB), 16 sectors (4 KiB) of data can be stored per disk track, increasing the capacity from 113.75 KB to 140 KB per disk side 16 KB of which is used by filesystem overhead and a copy of DOS, on a DOS 3.3-formatted disk, leaving 124 KB for user programs and data. DOS 3.3 is, however, not backward compatible; it cannot read or write DOS 3.2 disks. To address this problem, Apple Computer released a utility called "MUFFIN" to migrate Apple DOS 3.2 files and programs to version 3.3 disks. Apple never offered a utility to copy in the other direction. To migrate Apple DOS 3.3 files back to version 3.2 disks, someone wrote a "NIFFUM" utility. There are also commercial utilities (such as Copy II Plus) that can copy files from and to either format (and eventually ProDOS as well). Release 3.3 also improves the ability to switch between Integer BASIC and Applesoft BASIC, if the computer has a language card (RAM expansion) or firmware card.
Technical details
Apple DOS 3.1 disks use 13 sectors of data per track, each sector being 256 B. It uses 35 tracks per disk side, and can access only one side of the floppy disk, unless the user flipped the disk over. This gives the user a total storage capacity of 113.75 KB per side, of which about 10 KB are used to store DOS itself and the disk directory, leaving about 100 KB for user programs.
The first layer of the operating system is called RWTS, which stands for "read/write track sector". This layer consists of subroutines for track seeking, sector reading and writing, and disk formatting. An API called the File Manager was built on top of this, and implements functions to open, close, read, write, delete, lock (i.e. write-protect), unlock (i.e. write-enable), and rename files, and to verify a file's structural integrity. There is also a catalog function, for listing files on the diskette, and an "init" function, which formats a disk for use with DOS, storing a copy of DOS on the first three tracks, and storing a startup program (usually called HELLO) that is auto-started when this disk is booted from. On top of the File Manager API, the main DOS routines are implemented which hook into the machine's BASIC interpreter and intercept all disk commands. It provides BLOAD, BSAVE, and BRUN for storing, loading, and running binary executables. LOAD, RUN, and SAVE are provided for BASIC programs, and an EXEC was provided for running text-based batch files consisting of BASIC and DOS commands. Finally, four types of files exist, identified by letters in a catalog listing:
I – Integer BASIC programs (stored in a compact format, not plain-text)
A – Applesoft BASIC programs (also stored in a packed, space-saving format)
B – Binary files, either executable machine-language programs, or data files
T – ASCII text files (or plain-text, unpacked batch files)
There are four additional file types; "R", "S", and an additional "A" and "B", none of which are fully supported. DOS recognizes these types for catalog listings only, and there are no direct ways to manipulate these types of files. The "R" type found some use for relocatable binary executable files. A few programs support the "S" type as data files.
A call vector table in the region of $03D0–03FF allows programs to find DOS wherever it is loaded in the system memory. For example, if the DOS hooked into the BASIC CLI stops functioning, it can be reinitialized by calling location $03D0 (976) hence the traditional "3D0G" ("3D0 go") command to return to BASIC from the System Monitor.
Boot loader
The process of loading Apple DOS involves a series of very tiny programs, each of which carries the loading process forward a few steps before passing control to the next program in the chain.
Originally, the Apple II ROM did not support disk booting at all. At power-up it would display the System Monitor prompt. Both the Monitor and Integer BASIC have commands to redirect printing to a printer driver in a designated slot, so the conventional way to boot from disk then was to command the computer to start "printing" to the disk interface card, typically installed in slot 6, using the command 6 Control-P (from the ML monitor) or PR#6 (from BASIC). When the monitor or BASIC issued the next prompt character, the computer would call the ROM routines on the disk card to "print" to it, which would then proceed with the boot sequence. (One could use input redirection to similar ends.) Alternatively, from the ML monitor, the user could type the slot number, typing C600G to invoke the controller's boot code directly.
When the Apple II Plus was introduced, it included the ability to scan each expansion slot (working downward from slot 7 to slot 1) for a bootable expansion card ROM, and automatically call it.
The expansion card ROM boot code attempts to boot from drive 1 of the controller by moving the read/write arm to track zero and attempting to read 256 bytes from sector zero of that track. (If no readable disk is available, the drive spins indefinitely until one is provided and the drive door is closed.)
Sector zero contains a small program which instructs the computer to read sectors 0 through 9 of track zero into memory using part of the ROM boot code (rereading sector 0 in the process).
The program in sectors 1–9 of track 0, including the complete RWTS code, then proceeds to load tracks 1 and 2, which contain the rest of DOS. On a system master disk, code is also included to determine the computer's RAM configuration and relocate DOS as high into system memory as possible, up to the 48 KB limit of the Apple II's main memory ($BFFF).
Once DOS is loaded into memory, it attempts to load and execute a startup program as indicated in the DOS program code. This is commonly a BASIC language program named HELLO (or some other name) but DOS can be modified to run other types of programs at startup, such as an executable binary file. The appearance of the right-hand bracket (]) on the screen is an indication to the user that an Applesoft BASIC startup program is loading, while a greater-than symbol (>) indicates that an Integer BASIC program is loading. (These are the prompts for the respective versions of BASIC, which are being initialized at this point.)
The startup program then begins executing.
Integer BASIC and Applesoft BASIC support
The original Apple II included BASIC interpreter in ROM known originally as Apple BASIC and later as Integer BASIC. Variables in this language can only handle integer numbers ranging from −32,768 to +32,767 (16-bit binary values); floating point numbers are not supported. Apple commissioned Microsoft to develop Applesoft BASIC, capable of handling floating-point numbers. Applesoft BASIC cannot run Integer BASIC programs, causing some users to resist upgrading to it.
DOS 3.3 was released when Applesoft BASIC was standard in ROM on the Apple II Plus, so Apple designed it to support switching back and forth between the two BASIC interpreters. Integer BASIC is loaded into RAM on the language card of Apple IIs (if present) and by typing FP or INT from BASIC, the user can switch between either version.
Decline
After 1980, Apple DOS entered into a state of stagnation as Apple concentrated its efforts on the ill-fated Apple III computer and its SOS operating system. Two more versions of Apple DOS, both still called DOS 3.3 but with some bug fixes and better support for the new Apple IIe model, were released in early and mid-1983.
Without third-party patches, Apple DOS can only read floppy disks running in a 5.25-inch Disk II drive and cannot access any other media, such as hard disk drives, virtual RAM drives, or 3.5-inch floppy disk drives. The structure of Apple DOS disks (particularly the free sector map, which was restricted to part of a single sector) is such that it is not possible to have more than 400 KB available at a time per drive without a major rewrite of almost all sections of the code; this is the main reason Apple abandoned this iteration of DOS in 1983, when Apple DOS was entirely replaced by ProDOS.
ProDOS retains the 16-sector low-level format of DOS 3.3 for 5.25 inch disks, but introduces a new high-level format that is suitable for devices of up to 32 MB; this makes it suitable for hard disks from that era and 3.5-inch floppies. All the Apple computers from the II Plus onward can run both DOS 3.3 and ProDOS, the Plus requiring a "Language Card" memory expansion to use ProDOS; the e and later models have built-in Language Card hardware, and so can run ProDOS straight. ProDOS includes software to copy files from Apple DOS disks. However, many people who had no need for the improvements of ProDOS (and who did not like its much higher memory footprint) continued using Apple DOS or one of its clones long after 1983. The Apple convention of storing a bootable OS on every single floppy disk means that commercial software can be used no matter what OS the user owns. A program called DOS.MASTER enables users to have multiple virtual DOS 3.3 partitions on a larger ProDOS volume, which allows the use of many floppy-based DOS programs with a hard disk.
Shortly after ProDOS came out, Apple withdrew permission from third parties to redistribute DOS 3.3, but granted one company, Syndicomm, an exclusive license to resell DOS 3.3.
Commercial games usually did not use Apple DOS, instead having their own custom disk routines for copy protection purposes as well as for performance.
Performance improvements
DOS's RWTS routine can read or write a track in two revolutions with proper interleaving. A sector of the spinning disk passes under the read/write head while the RWTS routine is decoding the just-read sector (or encoding the next one to be written), and if this missed sector is the next one needed, DOS needs to wait nearly an entire revolution of the disk for the sector to come around again. This is called "blowing a rev" and is a well-understood performance bottleneck in disk systems. To avoid this, the sectors on a DOS disk are arranged in an interleaved order:
0 7 e 6 d 5 c 4 b 3 a 2 9 1 8 f
Later, ProDOS arranged the sectors in this order:
0 8 1 9 2 a 3 b 4 c 5 d 6 e 7 f
When reading and decoding sector 0, then sector 8 passes by, so that sector 1, the next sector likely to be needed, will be available without waiting. When reading sector 7, two unneeded sectors, f and 0, pass by before sector 8 is available, and when reading sector 15, the drive will always have to wait an extra revolution for sector 0 on the same track. However, the sector 0 actually needed in most cases will be on the next-higher track, and that track can be arranged relative to the last one to allow the needed time to decode the just-read sector and move the head before sector 0 comes around. On average, a full track can be read in two revolutions of the disk.
Unfortunately, the early DOS File Manager subverted this efficiency by copying bytes read from or written to a file one at a time between a disk buffer and main memory, requiring more time and resulting in DOS constantly blowing revs when reading or writing files. Programs became available early on to format disks with modified sector interleaves; these disks give DOS more time between sectors to copy the data, ameliorating the problem.
Later, programmers outside Apple rewrote the File Manager routines to avoid making the extra copy for most sectors of a file; RWTS was instructed to read or write sectors directly to or from main memory rather than from a disk buffer whenever a full sector was to be transferred. An early "patch" to provide this functionality was published in Call-A.P.P.L.E.. Speedups in the LOAD command of three to five times were typical.
This functionality soon appeared in commercial products, such as Pronto-DOS, Diversi-DOS, Hyper-DOS, and David-DOS, along with additional features, but it was never used in an official Apple DOS release. Similar functionality was, however, employed by Apple's successor operating system, ProDOS. The Apple IIGS-specific operating system GS/OS would eventually employ an even more efficient "scatter read" technique that would read any sector that happened to be passing under the read head if it was needed for the file being read.
Source code release
In 2013, more than 35 years after the Apple II debuted, the original Apple DOS source code was released by the Computer History Museum on its website. It was donated by the original author, Paul Laughton.
References
Further reading
External links
Paul Laughton's account of writing DOS 3.1
Apple II History: DOS
A2Central.com - Apple II news and downloads
Everything2.com's DOS 3.1 Article
Apple II DOS version 3.1 source code (1978, released in 2013 with the permission of Apple Inc.)
DOS
DOS, Apple
Discontinued operating systems
Disk operating systems
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253849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-value%20%28insulation%29 | R-value (insulation) | In the context of construction, the R-value is a measure of how well a two-dimensional barrier, such as a layer of insulation, a window or a complete wall or ceiling, resists the conductive flow of heat. R-value is the temperature difference per unit of heat flux needed to sustain one unit of heat flux between the warmer surface and colder surface of a barrier under steady-state conditions.
The R-value is the building industry term for thermal resistance "per unit area." It is sometimes denoted RSI-value if the SI units are used.
An R-value can be given for a material (e.g. for polyethylene foam), or for an assembly of materials (e.g. a wall or a window). In the case of materials, it is often expressed in terms of R-value per metre. R-values are additive for layers of materials, and the higher the R-value the better the performance.
The U-factor or U-value is the overall heat transfer coefficient and can be found by taking the inverse of the R-value. It is a property that describes how well building elements conduct heat per unit area across a temperature gradient. The elements are commonly assemblies of many layers of materials, such as those that make up the building envelope. It is expressed in watts per square metre kelvin (W/m2⋅K). The higher the U-value, the lower the ability of the building envelope to resist heat transfer. A low U-value, or conversely a high R-Value usually indicates high levels of insulation. They are useful as it is a way of predicting the composite behaviour of an entire building element rather than relying on the properties of individual materials.
Insulating camping products such as sleeping mats and foam mattresses are often given a rating such as R-7 or R24, which may be called "the R Value" but is not the same. It is intended as a simple, non-technical rating which consumers can understand. Higher numbers are better insulating.
R-value definition
This relates to the technical/constructional value.
In its most practical form it must be inverted, so an R-value of 4 becomes , and that is 0.25 watts being lost, for each degree Celsius temperature difference, through each square metre of area.
For example, in winter it might be 2 °C outside and 20 °C inside, making a temperature difference of 18 °C. If the material has an R-value of 4, it will lose 0.25 W/(°C⋅m2). With an area of 100 m2, the heat energy being lost is 0.25 W/(°C⋅m2) × 18 °C × 100 m2 = 450 W. There will be other losses through the floor, windows, ventilation slots, etc. But for that material alone, 450 W is going out, and can be replaced with a 450 W heater inside, to maintain the inside temperature.
Here is the technical expression of that, using kelvins (K) instead of degrees Celsius (°C):
where:
(K⋅m2/W) is the R-value,
(K) is the temperature difference between the warmer surface and colder surface of a barrier,
(W/m2) is the heat flux through the barrier.
The R-value per unit of a barrier's exposed surface area measures the absolute thermal resistance of the barrier.
where:
is the R-value (K⋅W−1⋅m2)
is the barrier's exposed surface area (m2)
is the absolute thermal resistance (K⋅W−1)
Absolute thermal resistance, , quantifies the temperature difference per unit of heat flow rate needed to sustain one unit of heat flow rate. Confusion sometimes arises because some publications use the term thermal resistance for the temperature difference per unit of heat flux, but other publications use the term thermal resistance for the temperature difference per unit of heat flow rate. Further confusion arises because some publications use the character R to denote the temperature difference per unit of heat flux, but other publications use the character R to denote the temperature difference per unit of heat flow rate. This article uses the term absolute thermal resistance for the temperature difference per unit of heat flow rate and uses the term R-value for the temperature difference per unit of heat flux.
In any event, the greater the R-value, the greater the resistance, and so the better the thermal insulating properties of the barrier. R-values are used in describing the effectiveness of insulating material and in analysis of heat flow across assemblies (such as walls, roofs, and windows) under steady-state conditions. Heat flow through a barrier is driven by temperature difference between two sides of the barrier, and the R-value quantifies how effectively the object resists this drive: The temperature difference divided by the R-value and then multiplied by the exposed surface area of the barrier gives the total rate of heat flow through the barrier, as measured in watts or in BTUs per hour.
where:
is the R-value (K⋅m2/W),
is the temperature difference (K) between the warmer surface and colder surface of the barrier,
is the exposed surface area (m2) of the barrier,
is the heat flow rate (W) through the barrier.
As long as the materials involved are dense solids in direct mutual contact, R-values are additive; for example, the total R-value of a barrier composed of several layers of material is the sum of the R-values of the individual
RSI value
Note that the R-value is the building industry term for what is in other contexts called "thermal resistance" "for a unit It is sometimes denoted RSI-value if the SI (metric) units are used.
An R-value can be given for a material (e.g. for polyethylene foam), or for an assembly of materials (e.g. a wall or a window). In the case of materials, it is often expressed in terms of R-value per unit length (e.g. per inch of thickness). The latter can be misleading in the case of low-density building thermal insulations, for which R-values are not additive: their R-value per inch is not constant as the material gets thicker, but rather usually decreases.
The units of an R-value (see below) are usually not explicitly stated, and so it is important to decide from context which units are being used: an R-value expressed in I-P (inch-pound) units is about 5.68 times larger than when expressed in SI units, so that, for example, a window that is R-2 in I-P units has an RSI of 0.35 (since 2/5.68 = 0.35). For R-values there is no difference between US customary units and imperial units. As far as how R-values are reported, all of the following mean the same thing: "this is an R-2 window"; "this is an R2 "this window has an R-value of 2"; "this is a window with R = 2" (and similarly with RSI-values, which also include the possibility "this window provides RSI 0.35 of resistance to heat flow").
Apparent R-value
The more a material is intrinsically able to conduct heat, as given by its thermal conductivity, the lower its R-value. On the other hand, the thicker the material, the higher its R-value. Sometimes heat transfer processes other than conduction (namely,
convection and radiation) significantly contribute to heat transfer within the material. In such cases, it is useful to introduce an "apparent thermal conductivity", which captures the effects of all three kinds of processes, and to define the R-value more generally as the thickness of a sample divided by its apparent thermal conductivity. Some equations relating this generalized R-value, also known as the apparent R-value, to other quantities are:
where:
is the apparent R-value (K/W) across the thickness of the sample,
is the thickness (m) of the sample (measured on a path parallel to the heat flow),
is the apparent thermal conductivity of the material (W/(K⋅m)),
is the thermal transmittance or "U-value" of the material (W/K),
is the apparent thermal resistivity of the material (K⋅m/W).
An apparent R-value quantifies the physical quantity called thermal insulance.
However, this generalization comes at a price because R-values that include non-conductive processes may no longer be additive and may have significant temperature dependence. In particular, for a loose or porous material, the R-value per inch generally depends on the thickness, almost always so that it decreases with increasing thickness (polyisocyanurate ("polyiso") being an exception; its R-value/inch increases with thickness). For similar reasons, the R-value per inch also depends on the temperature of the material, usually increasing with decreasing temperature (polyiso again being an exception); a nominally R-13 fiberglass batt may be R-14 at and R-12 at . Nevertheless, in construction it is common to treat R-values as independent of temperature. Note that an R-value may not account for radiative or convective processes at the material's surface, which may be an important factor for some applications.
The R-value is the reciprocal of the thermal transmittance (U-factor) of a material or assembly. The U.S. construction industry prefers to use R-values, however, because they are additive and because bigger values mean better insulation, neither of which is true for U-factors.
U-factor/U-value
The U-factor or U-value is the overall heat transfer coefficient that describes how well a building element conducts heat or the rate of transfer of heat (in watts) through one square metre of a structure divided by the difference in temperature across the structure. The elements are commonly assemblies of many layers of components such as those that make up walls/floors/roofs etc. It is expressed in watts per meter squared kelvin W/(m2⋅K). This means that the higher the U-value the worse the thermal performance of the building envelope. A low U-value usually indicates high levels of insulation. They are useful as it is a way of predicting the composite behavior of an entire building element rather than relying on the properties of individual materials.
In most countries the properties of specific materials (such as insulation) are indicated by the thermal conductivity, sometimes called a k-value or lambda-value (lowercase λ). The thermal conductivity (k-value) is the ability of a material to conduct heat; hence, the lower the k-value, the better the material is for insulation. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) has a k-value of around 0.033 W/(m⋅K). For comparison, phenolic foam insulation has a k-value of around 0.018 W/(m⋅K), while wood varies anywhere from 0.15 to 0.75 W/(m⋅K), and steel has a k-value of approximately 50.0 W/(m⋅K). These figures vary from product to product, so the UK and EU have established a 90/90 standard which means that 90% of the product will conform to the stated k-value with a 90% confidence level so long as the figure quoted is stated as the 90/90 lambda-value.
U is the inverse of R with SI units of W/(m2⋅K) and U.S. units of BTU/(h⋅°F⋅ft2)
where is the heat flux, is the temperature difference across the material, k is the material's coefficient of thermal conductivity and L is its thickness. In some contexts, U is referred to as unit surface conductance.
See also: tog (unit) or thermal overall grade (where 1 tog = 0.1 m2·K/W), used for duvet rating.
The term U-factor is usually used in the U.S. and Canada to express the heat flow through entire assemblies (such as roofs, walls, and windows). For example, energy codes such as ASHRAE 90.1 and the IECC prescribe U-values. However, R-value is widely used in practice to describe the thermal resistance of insulation products, layers, and most other parts of the building enclosure (walls, floors, roofs). Other areas of the world more commonly use U-value/U-factor for elements of the entire building enclosure including windows, doors, walls, roof, and ground slabs.
Units: metric (SI) vs. inch-pound (I-P)
The SI (metric) unit of R-value is
kelvin square-metre per watt (K⋅m2/W or, equally, °C⋅m2/W),
whereas the I-P (inch-pound) unit is
degree Fahrenheit square-foot hour per British thermal unit (°F⋅ft2⋅h/BTU).
For R-values there is no difference between U.S. and Imperial units, so the same I-P unit is used in both.
Some sources use "RSI" when referring to R-values in SI units.
R-values expressed in I-P units are approximately 5.68 times as large as R-values expressed in SI units. For example, a window that is R-2 in the I-P system is about RSI 0.35, since 2/5.68 ≈ 0.35.
In countries where the SI system is generally in use, the R-values will also normally be given in SI units. This includes the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.
I-P values are commonly given in the United States and Canada, though in Canada normally both I-P and RSI values are listed.
Because the units are usually not explicitly stated, one must decide from context which units are being used. In this regard, it helps to keep in mind that I-P R-values are 5.68 times larger than the corresponding SI R-values.
More precisely,
R-value (in I-P) = RSI-value (in SI) × 5.678263337
RSI-value (in SI) = R-value (in I-P) × 0.1761101838
Different insulation types
The Australian Government explains that the required total R-values for the building fabric vary depending on climate zone. "Such materials include aerated concrete blocks, hollow expanded polystyrene blocks, straw bales and rendered extruded polystyrene sheets."
In Germany, after the law Energieeinsparverordnung (EnEv) introduced in 2009 (October 10) regarding energy savings, all new buildings must demonstrate an ability to remain within certain boundaries of the U-value for each particular building material. Further, the EnEv describes the maximum coefficient for each new material if parts are replaced or added to standing structures.
The U.S. Department of Energy has recommended R-values for given areas of the USA based on the general local energy costs for heating and cooling, as well as the climate of an area. There are four types of insulation: rolls and batts, loose-fill, rigid foam, and foam-in-place. Rolls and batts are typically flexible insulators that come in fibers, like fiberglass. Loose-fill insulation comes in loose fibers or pellets and should be blown into a space. Rigid foam is more expensive than fiber, but generally has a higher R-value per unit of thickness. Foam-in-place insulation can be blown into small areas to control air leaks, like those around windows, or can be used to insulate an entire house.
Thickness
Increasing the thickness of an insulating layer increases the thermal resistance. For example, doubling the thickness of fiberglass batting will double its R-value, perhaps from 2.0 m2⋅K/W for 110 mm of thickness, up to 4.0 m2⋅K/W for 220 mm of thickness. Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to adding resistance to a series circuit with a fixed voltage. However, this only holds approximately because the effective thermal conductivity of some insulating materials depends on thickness. The addition of materials to enclose the insulation such as drywall and siding provides additional but typically much smaller R-value.
Factors
There are many factors that come into play when using R-values to compute heat loss for a particular wall. Manufacturer R-values apply only to properly installed insulation. Squashing two layers of batting into the thickness intended for one layer will increase but not double the R-value. (In other words, compressing a fiberglass batt decreases the R-value of the batt but increases the R-value per inch.) Another important factor to consider is that studs and windows provide a parallel heat conduction path that is unaffected by the insulation's R-value. The practical implication of this is that one could double the R-value of insulation installed between framing members and realize substantially less than a 50 percent reduction in heat loss. When installed between wall studs, even perfect wall insulation only eliminates conduction through the insulation but leaves unaffected the conductive heat loss through such materials as glass windows and studs. Insulation installed between the studs may reduce, but usually does not eliminate, heat losses due to air leakage through the building envelope. Installing a continuous layer of rigid foam insulation on the exterior side of the wall sheathing will interrupt thermal bridging through the studs while also reducing the rate of air leakage.
Primary role
The R-value is a measure of an insulation sample's ability to reduce the rate of heat flow under specified test conditions.
The primary mode of heat transfer impeded by insulation is conduction, but insulation also reduces heat loss by all three heat transfer modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.
The primary heat loss across an uninsulated air-filled space is natural convection, which occurs because of changes in air density with temperature. Insulation greatly retards natural convection making conduction the primary mode of heat transfer. Porous insulations accomplish this by trapping air so that significant convective heat loss is eliminated, leaving only conduction and minor radiation transfer.
The primary role of such insulation is to make the thermal conductivity of the insulation that of trapped, stagnant air. However this cannot be realized fully because the glass wool or foam needed to prevent convection increases the heat conduction compared to that of still air.
The minor radiative heat transfer is obtained by having many surfaces interrupting a "clear view" between the inner and outer surfaces of the insulation such as visible light is interrupted from passing through porous materials. Such multiple surfaces are abundant in batting and porous foam. Radiation is also minimized by low emissivity (highly reflective) exterior surfaces such as aluminum foil.
Lower thermal conductivity, or higher R-values, can be achieved by replacing air with argon when practical such as within special closed-pore foam insulation because argon has a lower thermal conductivity than air.
General
Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to electrical resistance. The heat transfers can be worked out by thinking of resistance in series with a fixed potential, except the resistances are thermal resistances and the potential is the difference in temperature from one side of the material to the other. The resistance of each material to heat transfer depends on the specific thermal resistance [R-value]/[unit thickness], which is a property of the material (see table below) and the thickness of that layer. A thermal barrier that is composed of several layers will have several thermal resistors in the analogous with circuits, each in series. Analogous to a set of resistors in parallel, a well insulated wall with a poorly insulated window will allow proportionally more of the heat to go through the (low-R) window, and additional insulation in the wall will only minimally improve the overall R-value. As such, the least well insulated section of a wall will play the largest role in heat transfer relative to its size, similar to the way most current flows through the lowest resistance resistor in a parallel array. Hence ensuring that windows, service breaks (around wires/pipes), doors, and other breaks in a wall are well sealed and insulated is often the most cost effective way to improve the insulation of a structure, once the walls are sufficiently insulated.
Like resistance in electrical circuits, increasing the physical length (for insulation, thickness) of a resistive element, such as graphite for example, increases the resistance linearly; double the thickness of a layer means double the R-value and half the heat transfer; quadruple, quarters; etc. In practice, this linear relationship does not always hold for compressible materials such as glass wool and cotton batting whose thermal properties change when compressed. So, for example, if one layer of fiberglass insulation in an attic provides R-20 thermal resistance, adding on a second layer will not necessarily double the thermal resistance because the first layer will be compressed by the weight of the second.
Calculating heat loss
To find the average heat loss per unit area, simply divide the temperature difference by the R-value for the layer.
If the interior of a home is at 20 °C and the roof cavity is at 10 °C then the temperature difference is 10 °C (or 10 K). Assuming a ceiling insulated to RSI 2.0 (R = 2 m2⋅K/W), energy will be lost at a rate of 10 K / (2 K⋅m2/W) = 5 watts for every square meter of ceiling. The RSI-value used here is for the actual insulating layer (and not per unit thickness of insulation).
Relationships
Thickness
R-value should not be confused with the intrinsic property of thermal resistivity and its inverse, thermal conductivity. The SI unit of thermal resistivity is K⋅m/W. Thermal conductivity assumes that the heat transfer of the material is linearly related to its thickness.
Multiple layers
In calculating the R-value of a multi-layered installation, the R-values of the individual layers are added:
R-value(outside air film) + R-value(brick) + R-value(sheathing) + R-value(insulation) + R-value(plasterboard) + R-value(inside air film) = R-value(total).
To account for other components in a wall such as framing, first calculate the U-value (=1/R-value) of each component, then the area-weighted average U-value. The average R-value will be 1/(this average U-value). For example, if 10% of the area is 4 inches of softwood (R-value 5.6) and 90% is 2 inches of silica aerogel (R-value 20), the area-weighted U-value is 0.1/5.6 + 0.9/20 = 0.0629 and the weighted R-value is 1/0.0629 = 15.9.
Controversy
Thermal conductivity versus apparent thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity is conventionally defined as the rate of thermal conduction through a material per unit area per unit thickness per unit temperature differential (ΔT). The inverse of conductivity is resistivity (or R per unit thickness). Thermal conductance is the rate of heat flux through a unit area at the installed thickness and any given ΔT.
Experimentally, thermal conduction is measured by placing the material in contact between two conducting plates and measuring the energy flux required to maintain a certain temperature gradient.
For the most part, testing the R-value of insulation is done at a steady temperature, usually about with no surrounding air movement. Since these are ideal conditions, the listed R-value for insulation will almost certainly be higher than it would be in actual use, because most situations with insulation are under different conditions
A definition of R-value based on apparent thermal conductivity has been proposed in document C168 published by the American Society for Testing and Materials. This describes heat being transferred by all three mechanisms—conduction, radiation, and convection.
Debate remains among representatives from different segments of the U.S. insulation industry during revision of the U.S. FTC's regulations about advertising R-values illustrating the complexity of the issues.
Surface temperature in relationship to mode of heat transfer
There are weaknesses to using a single laboratory model to simultaneously assess the properties of a material to resist conducted, radiated, and convective heating. Surface temperature varies depending on the mode of heat transfer.
If we assume idealized heat transfer between the air on each side and the surface of the insulation, the surface temperature of the insulator would equal the air temperature on each side.
In response to thermal radiation, surface temperature depends on the thermal emissivity of the material. Low-emissivity surfaces such as shiny metal foil will reduce heat transfer by radiation.
Convection will alter the rate of heat transfer between the air and the surface of the insulator, depending on the flow characteristics of the air (or other fluid) in contact with it.
With multiple modes of heat transfer, the final surface temperature (and hence the observed energy flux and calculated R-value) will be dependent on the relative contributions of radiation, conduction, and convection, even though the total energy contribution remains the same.
This is an important consideration in building construction because heat energy arrives in different forms and proportions. The contribution of radiative and conductive heat sources also varies throughout the year and both are important contributors to thermal comfort
In the hot season, solar radiation predominates as the source of heat gain. According to the Stefan–Boltzmann law, radiative heat transfer is related to the fourth power of the absolute temperature (measured in kelvins: T [K] = T [°C] + 273.16). Therefore, such transfer is at its most significant when the objective is to cool (i.e. when solar radiation has produced very warm surfaces). On the other hand, the conductive and convective heat loss modes play a more significant role during the cooler months. At such lower ambient temperatures the traditional fibrous, plastic and cellulose insulations play by far the major role: the radiative heat transfer component is of far less importance, and the main contribution of the radiation barrier is in its superior air-tightness contribution.
In summary: claims for radiant barrier insulation are justifiable at high temperatures, typically when minimizing summer heat transfer; but these claims are not justifiable in traditional winter (keeping-warm) conditions.
The limitations of R-values in evaluating radiant barriers
Unlike bulk insulators, radiant barriers resist conducted heat poorly. Materials such as reflective foil have a high thermal conductivity and would function poorly as a conductive insulator.
Radiant barriers retard heat transfer by two means: by reflecting radiant energy away from its irradiated surface and by reducing the emission of radiation from its opposite side.
The question of how to quantify performance of other systems such as radiant barriers has resulted in controversy and confusion in the building industry with the use of R-values or 'equivalent R-values' for products which have entirely different systems of inhibiting heat transfer. (In the U.S., the federal government's R-Value Rule establishes a legal definition for the R-value of a building material; the term 'equivalent R-value' has no legal definition and is therefore meaningless.) According to current standards, R-values are most reliably stated for bulk insulation materials. All of the products quoted at the end are examples of these.
Calculating the performance of radiant barriers is more complex. With a good radiant barrier in place, most heat flow is by convection, which depends on many factors other than the radiant barrier itself. Although radiant barriers have high reflectivity (and low emissivity) over a range of electromagnetic spectra (including visible and UV light), their thermal advantages are mainly related to their emissivity in the infra-red range. Emissivity values are the appropriate metric for radiant barriers. Their effectiveness when employed to resist heat gain in limited applications is established,
even though R-value does not adequately describe them.
Deterioration
Insulation aging
While research is lacking on the long-term degradation of R-value in insulation, recent research indicates that the R-values of products may deteriorate over time. For instance, the compaction of loose fill cellulose creates voids that reduce overall performance; this may be avoided by densely packing at initial installation. Some types of foam insulation, such as polyurethane and polyisocyanurate are blown into form with heavy gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) or hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HFCs). However, over time these gases diffuse out of the foam and are replaced by air, thus reducing the effective R-value of the product. There are other foams which do not change significantly with aging because they are blown with water or are open-cell and contain no trapped CFCs or HFCs (e.g., half-pound low density foams). On certain brands, twenty-year tests have shown no shrinkage or reduction in insulating value.
This has led to controversy as how to rate the insulation of these products. Many manufacturers will rate the R-value at the time of manufacture; critics argue that a more fair assessment would be its settled value. The foam industry adopted the LTTR (Long-Term Thermal Resistance) method, which rates the R-value based on a 15-year weighted average. However, the LTTR effectively provides only an eight-year aged R-value, short in the scale of a building that may have a lifespan of 50 to 100 years.
Research has been conducted by the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center on the long-term degradation of insulating materials. Values on the degradation were obtained from short-term laboratory testing on materials exposed to various temperature and humidity conditions. Results indicate that moisture absorption and loss of blowing agent (in closed cell spray polyurethane foam) were major causes of R-Value loss. Fiberglass and extruded polystyrene retained over 97% of their initial R-values while, aerogels and closed cell polyurethane saw a reduction of 15% and 27.5%, respectively. Results point to the conclusion that an exponential decay law may be applied to the reduction in R-values over time for closed cell polyurethanes and aerogel blankets.
Infiltration
Correct attention to air sealing measures and consideration of vapor transfer mechanisms are important for the optimal function of bulk insulators. Air infiltration can allow convective heat transfer or condensation formation, both of which may degrade the performance of an insulation.
One of the primary values of spray-foam insulation is its ability to create an airtight (and in some cases, watertight) seal directly against the substrate to reduce the undesirable effects of air leakage.
R-value in-situ measurements
The deterioration of R-values is especially a problem when defining the energy efficiency of an existing building. Especially in older or historic buildings the R-values defined before construction might be very different than the actual values. This greatly affects energy efficiency analysis. To obtain reliable data, R-values are therefore often determined via U-value measurements at the specific location (in situ). There are several potential methods to this, each with their specific trade-offs: thermography, multiple temperature measurements, and the heat flux method.
Thermography
Thermography is applied in the building sector to assess the quality of the thermal insulation of a room or building. By means of a thermographic camera thermal bridges and inhomogeneous insulation parts can be identified. However, it does not produce any quantitative data. This method can only be used to approximate the U-value or the inverse R-value.
Multiple temperature measurements
This approach is based on three or more temperature measurements inside and outside of a building element. By synchronizing these measurements and making some basic assumptions, it is possible to calculate the heat flux indirectly, and thus deriving the U-value of a building element. The following requirements have to be fulfilled for reliable results:
Difference between inside and outside temperature, ideal > 15 K
Constant conditions
No solar radiation
No radiation heat nearby measurements
Heat flux method
The R-value of a building element can be determined by using a heat flux sensor in combination with two temperature sensors. By measuring the heat that is flowing through a building element and combining this with the inside and outside temperature, it is possible to define the R-value precisely. A measurement that lasts at least 72 hours with a temperature difference of at least 5 °C is required for a reliable result according to ISO 9869 norms, but shorter measurement durations give a reliable indication of the R-value as well. The progress of the measurement can be viewed on the laptop via corresponding software and obtained data can be used for further calculations. Measuring devices for such heat flux measurements are offered by companies like FluxTeq, Ahlborn, greenTEG and Hukseflux.
Placing the heat flux sensor on either the inside or outside surface of the building element allows one to determine the heat flux through the heat flux sensor as a representative value for the heat flux through the building element. The heat flux through the heat flux sensor is the rate of heat flow through the heat flux sensor divided by the surface area of the heat flux sensor. Placing the temperature sensors on the inside and outside surfaces of the building element allows one to determine the inside surface temperature, outside surface temperature, and the temperature difference between them. In some cases the heat flux sensor itself can serve as one of the temperature sensors. The R-value for the building element is the temperature difference between the two temperature sensors divided by the heat flux through the heat flux sensor. The mathematical formula is:
where:
is the R-value (K⋅W−1⋅m2),
is the heat flux (W⋅m−2),
is the surface area of the heat flux sensor (m2),
is the rate of heat flow (W),
is the inside surface temperature (K),
is the outside surface temperature (K), and
is the temperature difference (K) between the inside and outside surfaces.
The U-value can be calculated as well by taking the reciprocal of the R-value. That is,
where is the U-value (W⋅m−2⋅K−1).
The derived R-value and U-value may be accurate to the extent that the heat flux through the heat flux sensor equals the heat flux through the building element. Recording all of the available data allows one to study the dependence of the R-value and U-value on factors like the inside temperature, outside temperature, or position of the heat flux sensor. To the extent that all heat transfer processes (conduction, convection, and radiation) contribute to the measurements, the derived R-value represents an apparent R-value.
Example values
Vacuum insulated panels have the highest R-value, approximately R-45 (in U.S. units) per inch; aerogel has the next highest R-value (about R-10 to R-30 per inch), followed by polyurethane (PUR) and phenolic foam insulations with R-7 per inch. They are followed closely by polyisocyanurate (PIR) at R-5.8, graphite impregnated expanded polystyrene at R-5, and expanded polystyrene (EPS) at R-4 per inch. Loose cellulose, fibreglass (both blown and in batts), and rock wool (both blown and in batts) all possess an R-value of roughly R-2.5 to R-4 per inch.
Straw bales perform at about R-2.38 to 2.68 per inch, depending on orientation of the bales. However, typical straw bale houses have very thick walls and thus are well insulated. Snow is roughly R-1 per inch. Brick has a very poor insulating ability at a mere R-0.2 per inch; however it does have a relatively good thermal mass.
Note that the above examples all use the U.S. (non-SI) definition for R-value.
Typical R-values
Typical R-values for surfaces
Non-reflective surface R-values for air films
When determining the overall thermal resistance of a building assembly such as a wall or roof, the insulating effect of the surface air film is added to the thermal resistance of the other materials.
In practice the above surface values are used for floors, ceilings, and walls in a building, but are not accurate for enclosed air cavities, such as between panes of glass. The effective thermal resistance of an enclosed air cavity is strongly influenced by radiative heat transfer and distance between the two surfaces. See insulated glazing for a comparison of R-values for windows, with some effective R-values that include an air cavity.
Radiant barriers
R-Value Rule in the U.S.
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) governs claims about R-values to protect consumers against deceptive and misleading advertising claims. It issued the R-Value Rule.
The primary purpose of the rule is to ensure that the home insulation marketplace provides this essential pre-purchase information to the consumer. The information gives consumers an opportunity to compare relative insulating efficiencies, to select the product with the greatest efficiency and potential for energy savings, to make a cost-effective purchase and to consider the main variables limiting insulation effectiveness and realization of claimed energy savings.
The rule mandates that specific R-value information for home insulation products be disclosed in certain ads and at the point of sale. The purpose of the R-value disclosure requirement for advertising is to prevent consumers from being misled by certain claims which have a bearing on insulating value. At the point of transaction, some consumers will be able to get the requisite R-value information from the label on the insulation package. However, since the evidence shows that packages are often unavailable for inspection prior to purchase, no labeled information would be available to consumers in many instances. As a result, the Rule requires that a fact sheet be available to consumers for inspection before they make their purchase.
Thickness
The R-value Rule specifies:
See also
Building insulation
Building insulation materials
Condensation
Cool roofs
Heat transfer
Passivhaus
Passive solar design
Sol-air temperature
Superinsulation
Thermal bridge
Thermal comfort
Thermal conductivity
Thermal mass
Thermal transmittance
Tog (unit)
References
External links
Table of Insulation R-Values at InspectApedia includes original source citations
Information on the calculations, meanings, and inter-relationships of related heat transfer and resistance terms
American building material R-value table
Working with R-values
Insulation R-value Explained
Building engineering
Insulators
Thermal protection
Heat transfer
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253850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatiron%20Building | Flatiron Building | The Flatiron Building, originally the Fuller Building, is a triangular 22-story, steel-framed landmarked building located at 175 Fifth Avenue in the eponymous Flatiron District neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan, New York City. Designed by Daniel Burnham and Frederick Dinkelberg, it was one of the tallest buildings in the city upon its 1902 completion, at 20 floors high, and one of only two "skyscrapers" north of 14th Street – the other being the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower, one block east. The building sits on a triangular block formed by Fifth Avenue, Broadway, and East 22nd Street – where the building's back end is located – with East 23rd Street grazing the triangle's northern (uptown) peak. As with numerous other wedge-shaped buildings, the name "Flatiron" derives from its resemblance to a cast-iron clothes iron.
The building, which has been called "one of the world's most iconic skyscrapers and a quintessential symbol of New York City", anchors the south (downtown) end of Madison Square and the north (uptown) end of the Ladies' Mile Historic District. The neighborhood around it is called the Flatiron District after its signature building, which has become an icon of New York City. The Flatiron Building was designated a New York City landmark in 1966, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1989.
Site
The Flatiron Building sits on a triangular block formed by Fifth Avenue to the west, Broadway to the east, and East 22nd Street to the south. Due to the diagonal path of Broadway, the western and eastern facades converge, forming a "peak" at the northern corner of the building where Fifth Avenue and Broadway intersect with East 23rd Street. Adjacent buildings include the Toy Center to the north and Madison Green to the southeast. The Flatiron Building is also part of the Ladies' Mile Historic District. Entrances to the New York City Subway's 23rd Street station, served by the , are located adjacent to the building.
Earlier usage
The St. Germain Hotel (alternatively spelled St. Germaine) was built in 1853-1854 on the south end of the lot. The entire block was purchased in 1857 by Amos Eno, who shortly built the Fifth Avenue Hotel on a site diagonally across from it. Eno tore down the St. Germain Hotel and replaced it with a seven-story apartment building, the Cumberland. On the remainder of the lot he built four three-story buildings for commercial use. This left four stories of the Cumberland's northern face exposed, which Eno rented out to advertisers, including The New York Times, which installed a sign made up of electric lights. Eno later put a canvas screen on the wall, and projected images onto it from a magic lantern on top of one of his smaller buildings, presenting advertisements and interesting pictures alternately. Both the Times and the New York Tribune began using the screen for news bulletins, and on election nights tens of thousands of people would gather in Madison Square, waiting for the latest results.
During his life Eno resisted suggestions to sell "Eno's flatiron", as the site had become known, but after his death in 1899 his assets were liquidated, and the lot went up for sale. The New York State Assembly appropriated $3 million for the city to buy it, but this fell through when a newspaper reporter discovered that the plan was a graft scheme by Tammany Hall boss Richard Croker. Instead, the lot was bought at auction by William Eno, one of Amos's sons, for $690,000 – the elder Eno had bought the property for around $30,000 forty years earlier. Three weeks later, William re-sold the lot to Samuel and Mott Newhouse for $801,000. The Newhouses intended to put up a 12-story building with street-level retail shops and bachelor apartments above.
History
In 1901, the Newhouse family sold "Eno's flatiron" for about $2 million to Cumberland Realty Company, an investment partnership created by Harry S. Black, CEO of the Fuller Company. The Fuller Company was the first true general contractor that dealt with all aspects of building construction except design, and they specialized in building skyscrapers. Black intended to construct a new headquarters building on the site, despite the recent deterioration of the surrounding neighborhood. Black engaged Burnham to design the building, which would be Burnham's first in New York City, would also be the first skyscraper north of 14th Street. It was to be named the Fuller Building after George A. Fuller, founder of the Fuller Company and "father of the skyscraper", who had died two years earlier. However, locals persisted in calling it "The Flatiron", a name which has since been made official.
Construction
Once construction of the building began, it proceeded at a very fast pace. The steel was so meticulously pre-cut that the frame went up at the rate of a floor each week. By February 1902 the frame was complete, and by mid-May the building was half-covered by terra-cotta tiling. The building was completed in June 1902, after a year of construction.
The Flatiron Building was not the first building of its triangular ground-plan: aside from a possibly unique triangular Roman temple built on a similarly constricted site in the city of Verulamium, Britannia; Casa Saccabarozzi, Turin, Italy (1840); Bridge House, Leeds, England (1875); the Maryland Inn in Annapolis (1782); the Granger Block in Syracuse, New York (1869); I.O.O.F. Centennial Building (18760) in Alpena, Michigan; the Phelan Building in San Francisco (1881); the Gooderham Building of Toronto (1892); and the English-American Building in Atlanta (1897) predate it. All, however, are smaller than their New York counterpart.
Two features were added to the Flatiron Building following its completion. The "cowcatcher" retail space at the front of the building was added in order to maximize the use of the building's lot and produce some retail income. Harry Black had insisted on the space, despite objections from Burnham. Another addition to the building not in the original plan was the penthouse, which was constructed after the rest of the building had been completed to be used as artists' studios, and was quickly rented out to artists such as Louis Fancher, many of whom contributed to the pulp magazines which were produced in the offices below.
Initial response
The Flatiron Building became an icon of New York City, and the public response to it was enthusiastic, but the critical response to it at the time was not completely positive, and what praise it garnered was often for the cleverness of the engineering involved. Montgomery Schuyler, editor of Architectural Record, said that its "awkwardness [is] entirely undisguised, and without even an attempt to disguise them, if they have not even been aggravated by the treatment. ... The treatment of the tip is an additional and it seems wanton aggravation of the inherent awkwardness of the situation." He praised the surface of the building, and the detailing of the terra-cotta work, but criticized the practicality of the large number of windows in the building: "[The tenant] can, perhaps, find wall space within for one roll top desk without overlapping the windows, with light close in front of him and close behind him and close on one side of him. But suppose he needed a bookcase? Undoubtedly he has a highly eligible place from which to view processions. But for the transaction of business?"
When the building was first constructed, it received mixed feedback. The most known criticism received was known as "Burnham's Folly". This criticism, focused on the structure of the building, was made on the grounds that the "combination of triangular shape and height would cause the building to fall down." Critics believed that the building created a dangerous wind-tunnel at the intersection of the two streets, and could possibly knock the building down. The building's shape was blamed for the 1903 death of a bicycle messenger, who was blown into the street and run over by a car. However, the building's structure was meant to accommodate four times the typical wind loads in order to stabilize and retain the building's iconic triangular shape.
The New York Tribune called the new building "A stingy piece of pie ... the greatest inanimate troublemaker in New York", while the Municipal Art Society said that it was "Unfit to be in the Center of the City". The New York Times called it a "monstrosity". But some saw the building differently. Futurist H. G. Wells wrote in his 1906 book The Future in America: A Search After Realities:
I found myself agape, admiring a sky-scraper the prow of the Flat-iron Building, to be particular, ploughing up through the traffic of Broadway and Fifth Avenue in the afternoon light.
The Flatiron was to attract the attention of numerous artists. It was the subject of one of Edward Steichen's atmospheric photographs, taken on a wet wintry late afternoon in 1904, as well as a memorable image by Alfred Stieglitz taken the year before, to which Steichen was paying homage (see below). Stieglitz reflected on the dynamic symbolism of the building, noting upon seeing it one day during a snowstorm that "... it appeared to be moving toward me like the bow of a monster ocean steamer – a picture of a new America still in the making," and remarked that what the Parthenon was to Athens, the Flatiron was to New York. When Stieglitz's photograph was published in Camera Work, his friend Sadakichi Hartmann, a writer, painter and photographer, accompanied it with an essay on the building: "A curious creation, no doubt, but can it be called beautiful? Beauty is a very abstract idea ... Why should the time not arrive when the majority without hesitation will pronounce the 'Flat-iron' a thing of beauty?"
Besides Stieglitz and Steichen, photographers such as Alvin Langdon Coburn, Jessie Tarbox Beals, painters of the Ashcan School like John Sloan, Everett Shinn and Ernest Lawson, as well as Paul Cornoyer and Childe Hassam, lithographer Joseph Pennell, illustrator John Edward Jackson as well the French Cubist Albert Gleizes all took the Flatiron as the subject of their work. But decades after it was completed, others still could not come to terms with the building. Sculptor William Ordway Partridge remarked that it was "a disgrace to our city, an outrage to our sense of the artistic, and a menace to life".
Original tenants
The Fuller Company originally took the 19th floor of the building for its headquarters. In 1910, Harry Black moved the company to Francis Kimball's Trinity Building at 111 Broadway, where its parent company, U.S. Realty, had its offices. U.S. Realty moved its offices back to the Flatiron in 1916, and left permanently for the Fuller Building on 57th Street in 1929.
The Flatiron's other original tenants included publishers (magazine publishing pioneer Frank Munsey, American Architect and Building News and a vanity publisher), an insurance company (the Equitable Life Assurance Society), small businesses (a patent medicine company, Western Specialty Manufacturing Company and Whitehead & Hoag, who made celluloid novelties), music publishers (overflow from "Tin Pan Alley" up on 28th Street), a landscape architect, the Imperial Russian Consulate, the Bohemian Guides Society, the Roebling Construction Company, owned by the sons of Tammany Hall boss Richard Croker, and the crime syndicate, Murder, Inc.
The retail space in the building's "cowcatcher" at the "prow" was leased by United Cigar Stores, and the building's vast cellar, which extended into the vaults that went more than under the surrounding streets, was occupied by the Flatiron Restaurant, which could seat 1,500 patrons and was open from breakfast through late supper for those taking in a performance at one of the many theatres which lined Broadway between 14th and 23rd Streets.
In 1911, the building introduced a restaurant/club in the basement. It was among the first of its kind that allowed a black jazz band to perform, thus introducing ragtime to affluent New Yorkers.
Even before construction on the Flatiron Building had begun, the area around Madison Square had started to deteriorate somewhat. After U.S. Realty constructed the New York Hippodrome, Madison Square Garden was no longer the venue of choice, and survived largely by staging boxing matches. The base of the Flatiron became a cruising spot for gay men, including some male prostitutes. Nonetheless, in 1911 the Flatiron Restaurant was bought by Louis Bustanoby, of the well-known Café des Beaux-Arts, and converted into a trendy 400-seat French restaurant, Taverne Louis. As an innovation to attract customers away from another restaurant opened by his brothers, Bustanoby hired a black musical group, Louis Mitchell and his Southern Symphony Quintette, to play dance tunes at the Taverne and the Café. Irving Berlin heard the group at the Taverne and suggested that they should try to get work in London, which they did. The Taverne's openness was also indicated by its welcoming a gay clientele, unusual for a restaurant of its type at the time. The Taverne was forced to close due to the effects of Prohibition on the restaurant business.
Sales and new tenants
In October 1925, Harry S. Black, in need of cash for his U.S. Realty Company, sold the Flatiron Building to a syndicate set up by Lewis Rosenbaum, who also owned assorted other notable buildings around the U.S. The price was $2 million, which equaled Black's cost for buying the lot and erecting the Flatiron. The syndicate defaulted on its mortgage in 1933, and was taken over by the lender, Equitable Life Assurance Company after failing to sell it at auction. To attract tenants, Equitable did some modernization of the building, including replacing the original cast-iron birdcage elevators, which had cabs covered in rubber tiling and were originally built by Hecla Iron Works, but the hydraulic power system was not replaced. By the mid-1940s, the building was fully rented.
When the U.S. entered World War I, the Federal government instituted a "Wake Up America!" campaign, and the United Cigar store in the Flatiron's cowcatcher donated its space to the U.S. Navy for use as a recruiting center. Liberty Bonds were sold outside on sidewalk stands. By the mid-1940s, the cigar store had been replaced with a Walgreens drug store. During the 1940s, the building was dominated by clothing and toy companies.
Equitable sold the building in 1946 to the Flatiron Associates, an investor group headed by Harry Helmsley, whose firm, Dwight-Helmsley (which would later become Helmsley-Spear) managed the property. The new owners made some superficial changes, such as adding a dropped ceiling to the lobby, and, later, replacing the original mahogany-panelled entrances with revolving doors.
In 1959, St. Martin's Press moved into the building, and gradually its parent company, Macmillan, rented other offices as they became available, until by 2004, all 21 floors of the Flatiron Building's office space was rented by Macmillan. During its tenancy, Macmillan renovated some of the Flatiron Building's floors. for its imprints such as Tor/Forge, Picador and Henry Holt and Company. Macmillan, which is owned by Verlagsgruppe Georg von Holtzbrinck of Stuttgart, Germany, wrote about the building:
The Flatiron's interior is known for having its strangely-shaped offices with walls that cut through at an angle on their way to the skyscraper's famous point. These "point" offices are the most coveted and feature amazing northern views that look directly upon another famous Manhattan landmark, the Empire State Building.
Because the Helmsley/Flatiron Associates ownership structure was a tenancy-in-common, in which all partners have to agree on any action, as opposed to a straightforward partnership, it was difficult to get permission for necessary repairs and improvements to be done, and the building declined during the Helmsley/Flatiron Associates era. The facade of the Flatiron Building was restored in 1991 by the firm of Hurley & Farinella. Helmsley-Spear stopped managing the building in 1997, when some of the investors sold their 52% of the building to Newmark Knight-Frank, a large real estate firm, which took over management of the property. Shortly afterwards, Helmsley's widow, Leona Helmsley, sold her share as well. Newmark made significant improvements to the property, including installing new electric elevators, replacing the antiquated hydraulic ones, which were the last hydraulic elevators in New York City.
21st century
During a 2005 restoration of the Flatiron Building a 15-story vertical advertising banner covered the facade of the building. The advertisement elicited protests from many New York City residents, prompting the New York City Department of Buildings to step in and force the building's owners to remove it.
In January 2009, Italian real estate investment firm Sorgente Group, based in Rome, bought a majority stake in the Flatiron Building, with plans to turn it into a luxury hotel. The firm's Historic and Trophy Buildings Fund owns a number of prestigious buildings in France and Italy, and was involved in buying, and then selling, a stake in the Chrysler Building in Midtown New York. The value of the 22-story Flatiron Building, which is already zoned by the city to allow it to become a hotel, was estimated to be $190 million.
In July 2017, Macmillan announced it was consolidating its New York offices to the Equitable Building at 120 Broadway. By June 2019, Macmillan had left the building, and all 21 office floors were vacant. Following Macmillan's departure, the owners of the Flatiron Building, the family-owned GFP Real Estate, planned to use the absence of tenants to upgrade the interior of the building. GFP planned to install a central air and heating system, strip away all interior partitions – leaving triangular open floors – put in a new sprinkler system and a second staircase, and upgrade the elevators. The lobby would also be renovated. The cost would be $60–80 million and the project was estimated to take a year. The owners were interested in renting the entire building to a single tenant, hiring a high-profile real estate agency to find a suitable tenant. The executive director of the ownership company said: "The building was born as a commercial property, and we want to keep it as such." , the building is empty, and the full renovation is expected to take at least until 2022.
Design
The Flatiron Building was designed by Chicago architect Daniel Burnham as a vertical Renaissance palazzo with Beaux-Arts styling. Unlike New York's early skyscrapers, which took the form of towers arising from a lower, blockier mass, such as the contemporary Singer Building (built 1902–1908), the Flatiron Building epitomizes the Chicago school conception. Like a classical Greek column, its facade – limestone at the bottom, changing to glazed terra-cotta from the Atlantic Terra Cotta Company in Tottenville, Staten Island, as the floors rise – is divided into a base, shaft, and capital. Some sources mistakenly describe it as one of the world's first skyscrapers or steel-framed buildings.
Early sketches by Daniel Burnham show a design with an (unexecuted) clockface and a far more elaborate crown than in the actual building. Though Burnham maintained overall control of the design process, he was not directly connected with the details of the structure as built. That task was performed by his designer Frederick P. Dinkelberg, a Pennsylvania-born architect in Burnham's office, who first worked for Burnham in putting together the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, for which Burnham was the chief of construction and master designer. Working drawings for the Flatiron Building, however, remain to be located, though renderings were published at the time of construction in American Architect and Architectural Record.
Steel skeleton
Building the Flatiron was made feasible by a change to New York City's building codes in 1892, which eliminated the requirement that masonry be used for fireproofing considerations. This opened the way for steel-skeleton construction. Since it employed a steel skeleton – with the steel coming from the American Bridge Company in Pennsylvania – it could be built to 22 stories (285 feet) relatively easily, which would have been difficult using other construction methods of that time. It was a technique familiar to the Fuller Company, a contracting firm with considerable expertise in building such tall structures. At the vertex, the triangular tower is only 6.5 feet (2 m) wide; viewed from above, this pointed end of the structure describes an acute angle of about 25 degrees.
Purdy and Henderson were the structural engineers. They strengthened the structure to deal with the wind load, as the building was quite narrow and therefore had less volume to resist it. They designed it so that, in theory, the building would turn compactly before any failure could occur in the metal structure. For the first time the construction of a skyscraper steel structure could be witnessed in full by the public, an event that received a great response and was immortalized by photographers Edward Steichen and Alfred Stieglitz.
Design features
The "cowcatcher" retail space at the front of the building was not part of Burnham or Dinkelberg's design, but was added at the insistence of Harry Black in order to maximize the use of the building's lot and produce some retail income to help defray the cost of construction. Black pushed Burnham hard for plans for the addition, but Burnham resisted because of the aesthetic effect it would have on the design of the "prow" of the building, where it would interrupt the two-story high Classical columns which were echoed at the top of the building by two columns which supported the cornice. Black insisted, and Burnham was forced to accept the addition, despite the interruption of the design's symmetry.
The building was considered to be "quirky" overall, with drafty wood-framed and cooper-clad windows, no central air conditioning, a heating system which utilized cast-iron radiators, an antiquated sprinkler system, and a single staircase should evacuation of the building be necessary. The triangular shape of the structure led to a "rabbit warren" of oddly-shaped rooms. Other oddities about the building's interior include that bathrooms for males and females are placed on alternating floors, with the men's rooms on even floors and the women's rooms on odd ones. Additionally, to reach the top floor – the 21st, which was added in 1905, three years after the building was completed – a second elevator has to be taken from the 20th floor. On the 21st floor, the bottoms of the windows are chest-high.
Influence
As an icon of New York City, the exterior of the Flatiron Building remains a popular spot for tourist photographs, making it "possibly one of the most photographed buildings in the world."
"23 skidoo"
When construction on the building began, locals took an immediate interest, placing bets on how far the debris would spread when the wind knocked it down. This presumed susceptibility to damage had also given it the nickname "Burnham's Folly". But thanks to the steel bracing designed by engineer Corydon Purdy, which enabled the building to withstand four times the amount of wind force it could ever be expected to endure, there was no possibility that the wind would knock over the Flatiron Building. Nevertheless, the wind was a factor in the public attention the building received.
Due to the geography of the site, with Broadway on one side, Fifth Avenue on the other, and the open expanse of Madison Square and the park in front of it, the wind currents around the building could be treacherous. Wind from the north would split around the building, downdrafts from above and updrafts from the vaulted area under the street would combine to make the wind unpredictable. This is said to have given rise to the phrase "23 skidoo", from what policemen would shout at men who tried to get glimpses of women's dresses being blown up by the winds swirling around the building due to the strong downdrafts.
In popular culture
In the 1958 comedy film Bell, Book and Candle, James Stewart and Kim Novak were filmed on top of the Flatiron Building in a romantic clinch, and for Warren Beatty's 1980 film Reds, the base of the building was used for a scene with Diane Keaton.
Today, the Flatiron Building is frequently used in television commercials and documentaries as an easily recognizable symbol of the city, shown, for instance, in the opening credits of the Late Show with David Letterman or in scenes of New York City that are shown during scene transitions in the TV sitcoms Friends, Spin City, and Veronica's Closet. In 1987, the building was used as the scene of a murder for the TV series Murder, She Wrote, in the episode "No Accounting for Murder". In the 1998 film Godzilla, the Flatiron Building is accidentally destroyed by the US Army while in pursuit of Godzilla. It is depicted as the headquarters of the Daily Bugle, for which Peter Parker is a freelance photographer, in Sam Raimi's Spider-Man trilogy, and once again in The Spectacular Spider-Man animated series. It is shown as the location of the Channel 6 News headquarters where April O'Neil works in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles TV series. The Flatiron Building is also the home of the fictional company Damage Control in the Marvel Universe comics and for the CIA-sponsored superhero management team "The Boys" in the Dynamite Comics title of the same name.
In 2013, the Whitney Museum of American Art installed a life-sized 3D-cutout replica of Edward Hopper's 1942 painting Nighthawks in the Flatiron Art Space located in the "prow" of the Flatiron building. Although Hopper said his picture was inspired by a diner in Greenwich Village, the prow is reminiscent of the painting, and was selected to display the two-dimensional cutouts.
In 2014, the Lego Architecture series produced a model of the Flatiron Building to add to their landmark series. The subsequent New York City set, introduced in 2015, also included the building.
Gallery
See also
Buildings
47 Plaza Street West, Brooklyn
10 Sullivan
, Meatpacking District, Manhattan (1849)
Phelan Building, San Francisco (1881)
Gooderham Building, Toronto (1892)
English-American Building, Atlanta (1897)
Sibley Triangle Building, Rochester, New York (1897)
Columbus Tower (San Francisco) (1907)
Vesteda Toren, Eindhoven, the Netherlands (2006)
Het Strijkijzer, The Hague, the Netherlands (2007)
Other Flatiron Buildings
General
Early skyscrapers
Flatiron District
Ladies' Mile Historic District
Madison Square
References
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
New York Architecture listing
1902 establishments in New York City
23rd Street (Manhattan)
Articles containing video clips
Broadway (Manhattan)
Chicago school architecture in New York (state)
Fifth Avenue
Flatiron District
Headquarters in the United States
National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
Office buildings completed in 1902
Office buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
Renaissance Revival architecture in New York City
Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan
Triangular buildings | [
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253854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ark-La-Tex | Ark-La-Tex | The Ark-La-Tex (a portmanteau of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas; also stylized as Arklatex or ArkLaTex) is a socio-economic tri-state region where the Southern U.S. states of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas join together. The region contains portions of Northwest Louisiana, Northeast Texas, and South Arkansas as well as the extreme southeastern tip of Oklahoma, in McCurtain County (part of Choctaw Country), partly centered upon the Red River, which flows along the Texas–Oklahoma state line into Southwestern Arkansas and Northwest Louisiana.
The population estimate of the 40-county core region as of 2018 is estimated to be 1,498,647 people, up from 1,043,570 in 2010. Shreveport, Louisiana, with approximately 189,149 people in 2018, is the largest city, economic and geographic center of the region, and principal hub for both the Shreveport–Bossier City metropolitan area and Northwestern Louisiana. Longview, Texas, with an approximate population of 81,647 people in 2018, is the second-largest city as well as a principal city of the Tyler–Longview metropolitan conurbation and Greater Longview metropolitan area. The twin cities of Texarkana, Texas, and Texarkana, Arkansas, are the fourth- and sixth-largest cities, respectively, but collectively make up the region's third-largest metropolitan area (with a combined population exceeding 150,000 residents) as the center of the Texarkana metropolitan area encompassing Miller County, Arkansas, and Bowie County, Texas. Other cities in the Ark-La-Tex with 20,000 or more residents include Bossier City, Louisiana; Nacogdoches, Texas; Marshall, Texas; and Ruston, Louisiana.
The counties in the western section of the area are largely part of the East Texas region (except for McCurtain County, Oklahoma, which is part of the Choctaw Country tourist region) and mainly encompass the Tyler–Longview–Lufkin–Nacogdoches television market area, while the counties and parishes in the eastern half of the region are included in the Shreveport–Texarkana television market. However, some Arkansas counties—under certain, looser definitions of the Ark-La-Tex region—in northwesternmost areas of the southwestern section of the state are included in the Little Rock viewing area.
Etymology
Although use of the term to refer to the tri-state region dates back to the early 1900s, the name "Ark-La-Tex" was popularized regionally by a Shreveport Chamber of Commerce promotional campaign developed in 1932–33 to increase tourism in the area. The campaign, dubbing the area as "The Land of Arklatex", was based on the idea that "the interests of all the people in the Tri-state area of South Arkansas, North Louisiana and East Texas are practically identical in matters pertaining to agriculture, industry, commerce and trade, and education." The region is alternatively, although seldom in most media and promotional parlance, referred to as "Arklatexoma", which more inclusively encompasses McCurtain County and other parts of extreme Southeastern Oklahoma that lie along the Red River.
Geography
The Ark-La-Tex covers over across the four-state area; if the Ark-La-Tex were a U.S. state, it would be larger than Maryland. Most of the Ark-La-Tex is located in the Piney Woods, an ecoregion of dense forests of mixed deciduous and conifer flora. The forests are periodically punctuated by sloughs and bayous that are linked to larger bodies of water such as Caddo Lake or the Red River. Three of the four National Forests located within the Piney Woods of East Texas are wholly or partially within the Ark-La-Tex boundaries: Angelina National Forest (spanning Angelina, Nacogdoches, San Augustine and Jasper counties), Sabine National Forest (near Hemphill) and Davy Crockett National Forest (between Lufkin and Crockett).
The Red River is the principal mainstem waterway in the region, exiting from the eastern end of Lake Texoma and running generally east along the Oklahoma–Texas border towards Southwestern Arkansas (entering it near the state line between Little River County, Arkansas, and Bowie County, Texas) before turning southward northwest of Texarkana (in so doing, forming the eastern border of Miller County) and passing into Northwestern Louisiana. The bordering Louisiana cities of Shreveport and Bossier City were developed along the river bank; its span within the Ark-La-Tex ends in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana (where the Red River spans to the adjacent northwest of the parish's namesake county seat), at its intersection with Grant and Rapides parishes.
Definition
As with all vernacular regions, the Ark-La-Tex has no official boundaries or status and is defined differently by various sources. Most definitions of the Ark-La-Tex delineate the region as encompassing 40 parishes and counties, and most weather radars suggest a 40-county or -parish area.
Alternate definitions can include eight additional Texas counties (Lamar, Delta, Hopkins, Franklin, Wood, Smith, Cherokee, and Angelina), include the Monroe, Louisiana metropolitan area and Ouachita Parish, Louisiana (which is considered part of the Ark-La-Miss region), exclude the counties encompassing the El Dorado, Arkansas micropolitan area, or exclude McCurtain County, Oklahoma. McCurtain County is usually included in the region's areal definition, primarily for media distribution purposes, even though the Oklahoma Department of Tourism and Recreation formally defines it as being part of its Choctaw Country tourism region. Another alternate definition is solely the vicinity of the Ark-La-Tex region's three principal cities, Shreveport, Longview, and Texarkana.
Climate
The Ark-La-Tex is situated in a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) typical of the Southeastern United States, albeit occasionally interrupted by intrusions of cold air during the winter months. Rainfall is abundant, with the normal annual precipitation averaging over in some areas (such as Shreveport), with monthly averages ranging from less than in August to more than in June. Portions of East Texas within the region receive more rainfall, , than the rest of the state. Due to the flat topography of some areas and the prominence of smaller waterways that are prone to backwater flooding from the Red River, communities occasionally experience severe flooding events. A notable occurrence of severe flooding occurred in March 2016, after torrential rains caused a rapid rise of many local waterways, displacing upwards of 3,500 people from their homes across Caddo and Bossier parishes and adjacent areas of Northwest Louisiana that lie along the Red River. Freezing rain and ice storms occasionally occur during the winter months.
Severe thunderstorms with heavy rain, hail, damaging winds and tornadoes occur in the area during the spring and summer months, although severe weather can also occur during the winter months. The region is in the western section of the "Dixie Alley" tornado climatology region, where tornadogenesis is most often attributed by high precipitation supercell thunderstorms—within which tornadoes are often partially or fully wrapped in curtains of heavy rain, impairing them from being seen by storm spotters and chasers, law enforcement, and the public—due to an increase of moisture from proximity to the nearby Gulf of Mexico. Some areas of the region, such as Bossier City, average a slightly above normal rate of tornadoes when compared to the national average. The winter months are normally mild; Shreveport, in particular, averages 35 days of freezing or below-freezing temperatures per year. Ice and sleet storms occasionally occur during this timeframe. The summer months are hot and humid, with high to very high relative average humidity, often as a result of moisture being advected from the Gulf of Mexico; in Shreveport, maximum temperatures exceed an average of 91 days per year.
The National Weather Service (NWS) operates a Weather Forecast Office in Shreveport, which provides local weather forecasts and warnings, watches and advisories for hazardous weather conditions for 39 counties and parishes within the greater Ark-La-Tex region.
Communities
Largest cities
List of cities with over 3,500 people:
Metropolitan and micropolitan areas
Metropolitan statistical areas
Micropolitan statistical areas
Culture
The culture of the Ark-La-Tex region, and especially its music, shows a mixture of influences from the related, but distinct, cultures of its surrounding states. The music of the area is marked by country and blues sounds typical of the music of the Southern United States, the Western music of Texas, and the well-documented music of New Orleans and Acadiana in Louisiana. The area had a significant role in the development of country and rock-and-roll music, beginning in the 1940s. On March 1, 1948, Shreveport radio station KWKH launched a country music variety show called the Ark-La-Tex Jubilee, followed a month later by the long-running and influential Louisiana Hayride program. Hayride director Horace Logan and regular performer Webb Pierce started a music publishing company called Ark-La-Tex Music. Drummer Brian Blade, a Shreveport native, included a song entitled "Ark.La.Tex." on his 2014 album Landmarks, exploring the mixture of musical influences in his home region.
Education
Colleges and universities
The region contains Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, one of four public universities unaffiliated with any of Texas's six university systems, and Louisiana Tech University, a public research university in Ruston, which are the largest public institutions of higher education in the Ark-La-Tex. Named after Stephen F. Austin, who led the second and most successful colonization of the region that would become the state of Texas through the migration of 300 families from other parts of the United States in 1825, the former of the two major universities was founded as a teachers' college in 1923 as a result of legislation authored by State Senator Wilfred Roy Cousins, Sr. Louisiana Tech opened in 1894 (as the Industrial Institute and College of Louisiana) to provide educational subjects pertaining to the arts and sciences for the development of an industrial economy in Louisiana post-Reconstruction. In the 1960s the school (then named Louisiana Polytechnic Institute) became desegregated, and allowed integrated classes with white and black students; after it achieved criteria of a research university under the leadership of President F. Jay Taylor, the university officially adopted its current name in 1970. Louisiana Tech also operates a satellite campus in Shreveport as well as classes at the Academic Success Center and Barksdale Air Force Base Instructional Site in Bossier City, and at the CenturyLink corporate headquarters in Monroe. Ruston is also home to a branch campus of Monroe-based Louisiana Delta Community College.
The Shreveport–Bossier City area is home to several colleges; among them, the Methodist-affiliated Centenary College of Louisiana (originally founded in the East Feliciana Parish town of Jackson in 1825, eventually relocating to Shreveport in 1908), Louisiana Baptist University and Theological Seminary (founded in 1973), Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Shreveport (opened in 1969 as the only medical school in northern Louisiana) and one of the largest nursing schools in northern Louisiana, the Northwestern State University College of Nursing (opened in 1949) as well as satellite campuses of Louisiana State University (opened as a two-year institution in 1967, and expanded into a four-year college in 1976), Southern University (opened in 1967 with a two-year associate's degree program). Inclusively, Tyler, Texas is also home to satellite higher education campuses through the University of Texas System by way of the University of Texas at Tyler (opened in 1971 as Tyler State College) and the University of Texas Health Center at Tyler (opened in 1947 as the East Texas Tuberculosis Sanitarium and chartered into The University of Texas System in 1977 by the system's Board of Regents) as well as one of two independent institutions, Tyler Junior College (opened in 1926).
The Texarkana metropolitan area is home to Texas A&M University–Texarkana, a four-year satellite branch of the Texas A&M University System (founded as an upper-level extension college of East Texas State University in 1971), and Texarkana College (a public community college formed in 1927 as a branch of the Texarkana Independent School District and separated into an independent institution via a public vote in 1941). Arkadelphia is home to two liberal arts institutions: Henderson State University (founded in 1890 as Arkadelphia Methodist College), which is the only member of the Council of Public Liberal Arts Colleges based in Arkansas and announced plans to join the Arkansas State University System in October 2019, and Ouachita Baptist University, a private, Baptist college affiliated with the Arkansas Baptist State Convention (opened in 1886).
The area also houses several historically black colleges and universities (HBCU). The largest of these, Grambling State University, located in the namesake Lincoln Parish town of Grambling ( west of the Louisiana Tech University campus), was founded in 1901 as the Colored Industrial and Agricultural School. The university was created out of the desire of African-American farmers in rural areas of northern Louisiana to educate other black residents in that section of the state; it moved to its present location in 1905 (as the North Louisiana Agricultural and Industrial School) and became a state junior college (renamed the Louisiana Negro Normal and Industrial Institute) by 1928, when it began offering two-year professional certificates and diplomas to graduates. Grambling received accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) in 1949. Other HBCUs in the region include Texas College in Tyler (opened in 1894), Jarvis Christian College in Hawkins (a Christian-based HBCU founded in 1912), and Wiley College in Marshall (a private liberal arts college founded in 1873 by Methodist Episcopal Church Bishop Isaac Wiley and certified in 1882 by the Freedman's Aid Society, which is one of the oldest predominantly black colleges west of the Mississippi River).
Media
Newspapers
Athens Daily Review – Athens (Daily, except Sundays and Mondays)
Bossier Press-Tribune – Bossier City (Bi-weekly)
The Daily Sentinel – Nacogdoches (Daily/Morning)
Longview News-Journal – Longview (Daily)
Lufkin Daily News – Lufkin (Daily)
Marshall News Messenger – Marshall (Daily/Morning)
McCurtain County Gazette – Idabel (Daily/Morning)
Natchitoches Times – Natchitoches (Daily/Morning)
Ruston Daily Leader – Ruston (Daily, except Saturdays)
Texarkana Gazette – Texarkana, AR (Daily/Morning)
The Times – Shreveport (Daily/Morning)
Tyler Morning Telegraph – Tyler (Daily/Morning)
TV
Radio
AM stations
FM stations
Transportation
Airports
Shreveport Regional Airport (IATA: SHV; ICAO: KSHV), located off Hollywood Avenue in southwestern Shreveport, is the region's primary commercial airport. Established in 1952, Shreveport Regional is served by Allegiant Air (with flights to McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas and Orlando Sanford International Airport), American Airlines (to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport), Delta Air Lines (to Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport), GLO Airlines (to Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport), and United Airlines (as United Express, to George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston and Denver International Airport). Shreveport Downtown Airport (IATA: DTN; ICAO: KDTN), built in 1931 and located north of downtown Shreveport along the Red River, is the city's general aviation airport and also serves as a reliever airport for Shreveport Regional Airport, itself built to replace the Downtown Airport as Shreveport's main commercial airport due to the limited growth that could be made to that facility due to its close proximity of the Red River.
General and limited commercial aviation is additionally available at several smaller airfields in the Ark-La-Tex; Tyler Pounds Regional Airport (IATA: TYR; ICAO: KTYR), a city-owned public use airport in Tyler; offers service to and from Dallas/Fort Worth International and, on a seasonal basis, Denver International, respectively, via American Eagle and Frontier Airlines. East Texas Regional Airport (IATA: GGG; ICAO: KGGG), located south of Longview, is used for general aviation and military training but also provides connector service to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport via American Airlines and American Eagle. Texarkana Regional Airport (IATA: TXK; ICAO: KTXK), a city-owned public use facility located northeast of Texarkana, Arkansas's central business district, mainly provides general aviation travel but is also served by American Eagle. Exclusively general aviation service is provided by Angelina County Airport (IATA: LFK; ICAO: KLFK), located southwest of downtown Lufkin; A.L. Mangham Jr. Regional Airport (IATA: OCH; ICAO: KOCH), located outside Loop 224 northwest of TX State Highway 7; and Natchitoches Regional Airport (ICAO: KIER), located south of downtown Natchitoches.
Major highways
The Ark-La-Tex is an integral point on the United States Interstate Network, with three major interstate highways—Interstate 20, Interstate 30, and Interstate 49—servicing the region, connecting five of the region's largest cities, Tyler, Longview, Marshall, Shreveport and Bossier City. Interstates 20 and 49—the latter of which has its northern terminus at the intersection of the former of the two Interstates—bisect Shreveport, intersecting with I-220 and LA Highway 3132 (which both serve as bypass routes connecting the northern and southern parts of Shreveport) on the city's west side, with U.S. 171 in downtown Shreveport, and with I-220 in central Bossier Parish (north of Barksdale Air Force Base, at which point it begins sharing an overlap with U.S. 71 as it traverses eastward towards Monroe).
The region is a point within the planned extension of the otherwise presently disjointed Interstate 69. A branch of the Interstate (I-369) presently runs north on U.S. 59 within Texas from Tenaha to Texarkana, where the span will eventually connect to Interstates 30 and 49. In response to widespread opposition from environmental groups and property rights activists, the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) announced in June 2008 that it would complete I-69 through upgrades to the existing spans of U.S. 59, U.S. 77 and U.S. 281 to Interstate standards through rural areas, with bypasses around urban centers along the route, which will be financed through private sector investment. An approximately portion of the I-69 extension to extend from south of Clarksdale, Mississippi, to the Louisiana/Texas state line will be built as a new-terrain route that parallels existing U.S. and state highways in some areas. One of the current segments, SIU 16, covers areas of East Texas to the northeast of Nacogdoches, extending until it terminates at U.S. 171 near Stonewall. Another segment, SIU 15, continues over the southern and eastern sections of Shreveport, crossing I-49 and ending at I-20 near Haughton. The third existing segment, SIU 14, extends northeast from I-20 to US 82 near El Dorado, Arkansas.
River transportation
River transportation is available through two inland multi-modal transportation and distribution centers along the Red River: the Port of Caddo-Bossier, located at the head of navigation on the J. Bennett Johnston Waterway ( south of Shreveport on LA Highway 1), and the Natchitoches Parish Port, located on Louisiana Highways 6 and 486 (U.S. 71/U.S. 84) in Campti, Louisiana on the only slack water port on the Red River. The Port of Caddo-Bossier began loading its first cargo in 1995, and has () received more than nine million tons of barge freight and over eight million tons of rail freight. The port—which houses more than 17 freight and shipping companies—links the Ark-La-Tex to domestic and international markets via the Mississippi River, and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. Bossier City hosts three riverboat casino gambling resorts along the east bank of the Red River: Margaritaville Resort Casino, Horseshoe Bossier City, and Boomtown Bossier City.
Notable people
Notes
References
Regions of the United States
Regions of Louisiana
Regions of Texas
Regions of Arkansas
Geography of Shreveport, Louisiana
Red River of the South
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253859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20topos%20theory | History of topos theory | This article gives some very general background to the mathematical idea of topos. This is an aspect of category theory, and has a reputation for being abstruse. The level of abstraction involved cannot be reduced beyond a certain point; but on the other hand context can be given. This is partly in terms of historical development, but also to some extent an explanation of differing attitudes to category theory.
In the school of Grothendieck
During the latter part of the 1950s, the foundations of algebraic geometry were being rewritten; and it is here that the origins of the topos concept are to be found. At that time the Weil conjectures were an outstanding motivation to research. As we now know, the route towards their proof, and other advances, lay in the construction of étale cohomology.
With the benefit of hindsight, it can be said that algebraic geometry had been wrestling with two problems for a long time. The first was to do with its points: back in the days of projective geometry it was clear that the absence of 'enough' points on an algebraic variety was a barrier to having a good geometric theory (in which it was somewhat like a compact manifold). There was also the difficulty, that was clear as soon as topology took form in the first half of the twentieth century, that the topology of algebraic varieties had 'too few' open sets.
The question of points was close to resolution by 1950; Alexander Grothendieck took a sweeping step (invoking the Yoneda lemma) that disposed of it—naturally at a cost, that every variety or more general scheme should become a functor. It wasn't possible to add open sets, though. The way forward was otherwise.
The topos definition first appeared somewhat obliquely, in or about 1960. General problems of so-called 'descent' in algebraic geometry were considered, at the same period when the fundamental group was generalised to the algebraic geometry setting (as a pro-finite group). In the light of later work (c. 1970), 'descent' is part of the theory of comonads; here we can see one way in which the Grothendieck school bifurcates in its approach from the 'pure' category theorists, a theme that is important for the understanding of how the topos concept was later treated.
There was perhaps a more direct route available: the abelian category concept had been introduced by Grothendieck in his foundational work on homological algebra, to unify categories of sheaves of abelian groups, and of modules. An abelian category is supposed to be closed under certain category-theoretic operations—by using this kind of definition one can focus entirely on structure, saying nothing at all about the nature of the objects involved. This type of definition can be traced back, in one line, to the lattice concept of the 1930s. It was a possible question to ask, around 1957, for a purely category-theoretic characterisation of categories of sheaves of sets, the case of sheaves of abelian groups having been subsumed by Grothendieck's work (the Tôhoku paper).
Such a definition of a topos was eventually given five years later, around 1962, by Grothendieck and Verdier (see Verdier's Nicolas Bourbaki seminar Analysis Situs). The characterisation was by means of categories 'with enough colimits', and applied to what is now called a Grothendieck topos. The theory was rounded out by establishing that a Grothendieck topos was a category of sheaves, where now the word sheaf had acquired an extended meaning, since it involved a Grothendieck topology.
The idea of a Grothendieck topology (also known as a site) has been characterised by John Tate as a bold pun on the two senses of Riemann surface. Technically speaking it enabled the construction of the sought-after étale cohomology (as well as other refined theories such as flat cohomology and crystalline cohomology). At this point—about 1964—the developments powered by algebraic geometry had largely run their course. The 'open set' discussion had effectively been summed up in the conclusion that varieties had a rich enough site of open sets in unramified covers of their (ordinary) Zariski-open sets.
From pure category theory to categorical logic
The current definition of topos goes back to William Lawvere and Myles Tierney. While the timing follows closely on from that described above, as a matter of history, the attitude is different, and the definition is more inclusive. That is, there are examples of toposes that are not a Grothendieck topos. What is more, these may be of interest for a number of logical disciplines.
Lawvere and Tierney's definition picks out the central role in topos theory of the sub-object classifier. In the usual category of sets, this is the two-element set of Boolean truth-values, true and false. It is almost tautologous to say that the subsets of a given set X are the same as (just as good as) the functions on X to any such given two-element set: fix the 'first' element and make a subset Y correspond to the function sending Y there and its complement in X to the other element.
Now sub-object classifiers can be found in sheaf theory. Still tautologously, though certainly more abstractly, for a topological space X there is a direct description of a sheaf on X that plays the role with respect to all sheaves of sets on X. Its set of sections over an open set U of X is just the set of open subsets of U. The space associated with a sheaf, for it, is more difficult to describe.
Lawvere and Tierney therefore formulated axioms for a topos that assumed a sub-object classifier, and some limit conditions (to make a cartesian-closed category, at least). For a while this notion of topos was called 'elementary topos'.
Once the idea of a connection with logic was formulated, there were several developments 'testing' the new theory:
models of set theory corresponding to proofs of the independence of the axiom of choice and continuum hypothesis by Paul Cohen's method of forcing.
recognition of the connection with Kripke semantics, the intuitionistic existential quantifier and intuitionistic type theory.
combining these, discussion of the intuitionistic theory of real numbers, by sheaf models.
Position of topos theory
There was some irony that in the pushing through of David Hilbert's long-range programme a natural home for intuitionistic logic's central ideas was found: Hilbert had detested the school of L. E. J. Brouwer. Existence as 'local' existence in the sheaf-theoretic sense, now going by the name of Kripke–Joyal semantics, is a good match. On the other hand Brouwer's long efforts on 'species', as he called the intuitionistic theory of reals, are presumably in some way subsumed and deprived of status beyond the historical. There is a theory of the real numbers in each topos, and so no one master intuitionist theory.
The later work on étale cohomology has tended to suggest that the full, general topos theory isn't required. On the other hand, other sites are used, and the Grothendieck topos has taken its place within homological algebra.
The Lawvere programme was to write higher-order logic in terms of category theory. That this can be done cleanly is shown by the book treatment by Joachim Lambek and P. J. Scott. What results is essentially an intuitionistic (i.e. constructive logic) theory, its content being clarified by the existence of a free topos. That is a set theory, in a broad sense, but also something belonging to the realm of pure syntax. The structure on its sub-object classifier is that of a Heyting algebra. To get a more classical set theory one can look at toposes in which it is moreover a Boolean algebra, or specialising even further, at those with just two truth-values. In that book, the talk is about constructive mathematics; but in fact this can be read as foundational computer science (which is not mentioned). If one wants to discuss set-theoretic operations, such as the formation of the image (range) of a function, a topos is guaranteed to be able to express this, entirely constructively.
It also produced a more accessible spin-off in pointless topology, where the locale concept isolates some insights found by treating topos as a significant development of topological space. The slogan is 'points come later': this brings discussion full circle on this page. The point of view is written up in Peter Johnstone's Stone Spaces, which has been called by a leader in the field of computer science 'a treatise on extensionality'. The extensional is treated in mathematics as ambient—it is not something about which mathematicians really expect to have a theory. Perhaps this is why topos theory has been treated as an oddity; it goes beyond what the traditionally geometric way of thinking allows. The needs of thoroughly intensional theories such as untyped lambda calculus have been met in denotational semantics. Topos theory has long looked like a possible 'master theory' in this area.
Summary
The topos concept arose in algebraic geometry, as a consequence of combining the concept of sheaf and closure under categorical operations. It plays a certain definite role in cohomology theories. A 'killer application' is étale cohomology.
The subsequent developments associated with logic are more interdisciplinary. They include examples drawing on homotopy theory (classifying toposes). They involve links between category theory and mathematical logic, and also (as a high-level, organisational discussion) between category theory and theoretical computer science based on type theory. Granted the general view of Saunders Mac Lane about ubiquity of concepts, this gives them a definite status. The use of toposes as unifying bridges in mathematics has been pioneered by Olivia Caramello in her 2017 book.
References
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/category-theory/
Topos theory
History of mathematics | [
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253860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichenau%2C%20Switzerland | Reichenau, Switzerland | Reichenau () is a village in the municipality of Tamins in the Canton of Graubünden, Switzerland, where the two Rhine tributaries Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein meet, forming the Alpine Rhine.
It is a major traffic junction of the routes from Chur towards the Oberalp Pass and Lukmanier Pass and from Chur towards San Bernardino Pass and Julier Pass.
The civilisation of the place is traced back until the year 500. The name originates from the Benedictine Abbey of Reichenau on Reichenau Island in Lake Constance which owned properties in this area during the Middle Ages. The monastery was founded in 724 and drew to itself abbots with connections to the highest Carolingian and Ottonian society; it housed a school, and a famous scriptorium. See Abbey of Reichenau.
In the 14th century the first bridges were built over the Rhine tributaries.
A roadhouse was built 1570 to collect the bridge toll. In the 17th century the first buildings for the sovereignty of Reichenau were built which became the castle of Reichenau. The Rhaetian Railway reached Reichenau in 1896.
Transportation
Rhaetian Railway operate services to Reichenau-Tamins (Rhaetian Railway station) nearby.
References
Armon Planta: Verkehrswege im alten Rätien. Band 4. Chur, 1990. .
External links
Villages in Graubünden
Alpine Rhine basin | [
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253862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rithmomachy | Rithmomachy | Rithmomachy
(or Rithmomachia, Arithmomachia,
Rythmomachy,
Rhythmomachy,
or several other variants),
sometimes known as The Philosophers' Game,
is a complex early European mathematical board game. Its earliest known description dates from the eleventh century. A literal translation of its name is
"The Battle of the Numbers".
The game is somewhat like chess except that most methods of capture depend on the numbers inscribed on each piece.
David Sepkoski
proposes that between the twelfth and sixteenth centuries, "rithmomachia served as a practical exemplar for teaching the contemplative values of Boethian mathematical philosophy, which emphasized the natural harmony and perfection of number and proportion, that it was used both as a mnemonic drill for the study of Boethian number theory and, more importantly, as a vehicle for moral education, by reminding players of the mathematical harmony of creation.
History
Very little is known about the origin of the game. Medieval writers attributed it to Pythagoras, but no trace of it has been discovered in Greek literature,. The earliest mention of it is from the time of Hermannus Contractus (1013–1054).
The name, which appears in a variety of forms, points to a Greek origin, the more so because Greek was little known at the time when the game first appeared in literature. Based upon the Greek theory of numbers, and having a Greek name, it is still speculated by some that the game originated in Greek civilization, perhaps in the later schools of Byzantium or Alexandria.
The first written evidence of Rithmomachia dates to around 1030, when a monk named Asilo created a game that illustrated the number theory of Boëthius' De institutione arithmetica, for the students of monastery schools. The rules of the game were improved shortly thereafter by another monk, Hermannus Contractus from Reichenau, and in the school of Liège. In the following centuries, Rithmomachia spread quickly through schools and monasteries in the southern parts of Germany and France. It was used mainly as a teaching aid, but gradually intellectuals started to play it for pleasure. In the 13th century Rithmomachia came to England, where famous mathematician Thomas Bradwardine wrote a text about it. Even Roger Bacon recommended Rithmomachia to his students, while Sir Thomas More let the inhabitants of the fictitious Utopia play it for recreation.
The game was well enough known as to justify printed treatises in Latin, French, Italian, and German, in the sixteenth century, and to have public advertisements of the sale of the board and pieces under the shadow of the old Sorbonne.
Gameplay
The game was played on a board resembling the one used for chess or checkers, with eight squares on the shorter side, but with sixteen on the longer side. The forms used for the pieces were triangles, squares, and rounds. Pyramids could be formed by stacking pieces. The game was noteworthy in that the black and white forces were not symmetrical. Although each side had the same array of pieces, the numbers on them differed, allowing different possible captures and winning configurations to the two players.
The rules below describe the most common version of the game, played through much of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. There was also a variant propounded by Fulke in the 16th century, with significantly different (and somewhat more consistent) capture rules.
Pieces
There are four types of pieces, which are Rounds, Triangles, Squares, and Pyramids.
Rounds: Rounds move one square in any of the four diagonals.
Triangles: Triangles can move exactly two squares vertically or horizontally, but not diagonally.
Squares: Squares can move exactly three squares vertically or horizontally, but not diagonally.
Pyramids: Pyramids are not actually one piece, but more than one piece put together. The White Pyramid is made of a "36" Square, a "25" Square, a "16" Triangle, a "9" Triangle, a "4" Round, and a "1" Round, which totals up to the Pyramid's value of 91. The Black Pyramid is made up of a "64" Square, a "49" Square, a "36" Triangle, a "25" Triangle, and a "16" Round, which adds up to the Pyramid's value of 190. These irregular values make it hard for them to be captured by most of the capturing methods listed below, except for Siege. Pyramids can move like a Round, a Triangle, or a Square, as long as they still contain the respective piece, which makes them very valuable.
Capturing
There were a variety of capture methods. Pieces do not land on another piece to capture it, but instead remain in their square and remove the other. If a piece is captured, it changes sides.
Meeting: If a piece could capture another piece with the same value by landing on it, the piece stays in its location and the opponent's piece is taken from the board.
Assault: If a piece with a small value, multiplied by the number of vacant spaces between it and another larger piece is equal to the larger piece, the larger piece is captured.
Ambuscade: If two pieces' sum is equal to an enemy piece that is placed between the two (i.e. the enemy piece is within a move of both attacking pieces), the enemy piece is captured and removed from the board.
Siege: If a piece is surrounded on all four sides, it is removed.
Victory
There were also a variety of victory conditions for determining when a game would end and who the winner was. There were common victories, and proper victories, which were recommended for more skilled players. Proper victories required placing pieces in linear arrangements in the opponent's side of the board, with the numbers formed by the arrangement following various types of numerical progression. The types of progression required — arithmetic, geometric and harmonic — suggest a connection with the mathematical work of Boëthius.
Common Victories:
De Corpore (Latin: "by body"): If a player captures a certain number of pieces set by both players, they win the game.
De Bonis ("by goods"): If a player captures enough pieces to add up to or exceed a certain value that is set by both players, they win the game.
De Lite ("by lawsuit"): If a player captures enough pieces to add up to or exceed a certain value that is set by both players, and the number of digits in their captured pieces' values are less than a number set by both players, they win the game.
De Honore ("by honour"): If a player captures enough pieces to add up to or exceed a certain value that is set by both players, and the number of pieces they captured are less than a certain number set by both players, they win the game.
De Honore Liteque ("by honour and lawsuit"): If a player captures enough pieces to add up to or exceed a certain value that is set by both players, the number of digits in their captured pieces' values are less than a number set by both players, and the number of pieces they captured are less than a certain number set by both players, they win the game.
Proper Victories:
Victoria Magna ("great victory"): This occurs when three pieces that are arranged are in an arithmetic progression.
Victoria Major ("greater victory"): This occurs when four pieces that are arranged have three pieces that are in a certain progression, and another three pieces that are in another type of progression.
Victoria Excellentissima ("most excellent victory"): This occurs when four pieces that are arranged have all three types of mathematical progressions in three different groups.
Popularity
At its peak, Rithmomachy rivalled chess for popularity in Europe. The game virtually disappeared from the 17th century until the late 19th and early 20th century, when it was rediscovered by historians.
References
Bibliography
Menso Folkerts, Die «Rithmachia» des Werinher von Tegernsee, in M. Folkerts - J. P. Hogendijk, Vestigia mathematica: Studies in Medieval and Early Modern Mathematics in Honour of H.L.L. Busard, Amsterdam 1993, pp. 107-142
R. C. Bell, The Boardgame Book, p. 136,
Arno Borst, Das mittelalterliche Zahlenkampfspiel,
Jean-Louis Cazaux and Rick Knowlton, A World of Chess: Its Development and Variations Through Centuries and Civilizations,
Underwood Dudley, Numerology, or What Pythagoras Wrought, Chapter 17, Mathematical Association of America,
Ann E. Moyer, The Philosopher's Game, University of Michigan Press,
David Sepkoski, “Ann E. Moyer: The Philosopher’s Game: Rithmomachia in Medieval and Renaissance Europe.” Isis, Vol. 95, No. 4 (December 2004), pp. 697–699.
Joseph Strutt and J. Charles Cox, Strutt's Sports & Pastimes of the People of England, pp.254–5
David Parlett, The Oxford History of Board Games, pp. 332–342,
Jean-Marie Lhôte, Histoire des jeux de société, pp. 201 & 598-9,
William Fulke (1563), translating Boissiere (1556), The Most Noble, ancient and learned playe, called the Philosopher's Game, STC 15542a. Online transcription
External links
A translation of the rules established by Claude de Boissière in 1556
Rules for the Fulke's 16th century variant of the game
Medieval & Renaissance Games Home Page
Abstract strategy games
Recreational mathematics
History of board games
Traditional board games
mathematical games | [
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253865 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Huskisson | William Huskisson | William Huskisson (11 March 177015 September 1830) was a British statesman, financier, and Member of Parliament for several constituencies, including Liverpool.
He is commonly known as the world's first widely reported railway passenger casualty as he was run over and fatally wounded by Robert Stephenson's pioneering locomotive Rocket.
Background and education
Huskisson was born at Birtsmorton Court, Malvern, Worcestershire, the son of William and Elizabeth Huskisson, both members of Staffordshire families. He was one of four brothers. After their mother Elizabeth died, their father William eventually remarried and had further children by his second wife.
Early life
Huskisson was a student at Appleby Grammar School (later renamed Sir John Moore Church of England Primary School), a boarding school designed by Sir Christopher Wren on the Leicestershire/Derbyshire borders. In 1783, Huskisson was sent to Paris to live with his maternal great-uncle Dr. Richard Gem, who was physician to the British embassy there. He remained in Paris until 1792, and his experience as an eyewitness to the prelude and beginning of the French Revolution gave him a lifelong interest in politics. Huskisson first came to public notice while still in Paris. As a supporter of the moderate party, he became a member of the "Club of 1789", which favoured making France into a constitutional monarchy. On 29 August 1790, he delivered a speech entitled "Sur les Assignats", about the issue of assignats by the French government. This speech gave him a reputation as an expert in finance. From 1790 to 1792, the Marquess of Stafford was the British ambassador to Paris. Huskisson became a protégé of the Marquess, and returned to London with him.
Political career
Once in London, Huskisson quickly gained an additional two powerful political patrons: Henry Dundas, the Home Secretary, and William Pitt the Younger, the Prime Minister. Because of Huskisson's fluency in French, Dundas appointed him in January 1793 to oversee the execution of the Aliens Act, which mostly dealt with French refugees. In the discharge of his delicate duties, he manifested such ability that in 1795 he was appointed Under-Secretary at War (the Secretary at War's deputy).
In the following year he entered Parliament as member for Morpeth, but for a considerable period he took scarcely any part in the debates. In 1800 he inherited a fortune from Dr Gem. On the retirement of Pitt in 1801 he resigned office, and after contesting Dover unsuccessfully he withdrew for a time into private life. Having in 1804 been chosen to represent Liskeard, he was appointed secretary of the treasury on the restoration of the Pitt ministry, holding office till the dissolution of the ministry after the death of Pitt in January 1806.
After being elected for Harwich in 1807, he accepted the same office under the Duke of Portland, but he withdrew from the ministry along with Canning in 1809. In the following year he published a pamphlet on the currency system, which confirmed his reputation as the ablest financier of his time; but his free-trade principles did not accord with those of his party. In 1812 he was returned for Chichester.
When in 1814 he re-entered the public service, it was only as First Commissioner of Woods and Forests, but his influence was from this time very great in the commercial and financial legislation of the country. He took a prominent part in the debates over the Corn Laws in 1814 and 1815; and in 1819 he presented a memorandum to Lord Liverpool advocating a large reduction in the unfunded debt, and explaining a method for the resumption of cash payments, which was embodied in the act passed the same year. In 1821 he was a member of the committee appointed to inquire into the causes of the agricultural distress then prevailing, and the proposed relaxation of the Corn Laws embodied in the report was understood to have been chiefly due to his strenuous advocacy.
In 1823 he was appointed President of the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the Navy, and shortly afterwards he received a seat in the cabinet. In the same year he was returned for Liverpool as successor to Canning, and as the only man who could reconcile the Tory merchants to a free trade policy. Among the more important legislative changes with which he was principally connected were a reform of the Navigation Acts, admitting other nations to a full equality and reciprocity of shipping duties; the repeal of the labour laws; the introduction of a new sinking fund; the reduction of the duties on manufactures and on the importation of foreign goods, and the repeal of the quarantine duties.
As a Secretary for Colonies in 1826, he proposed the revised Consolidated Slave Law which was accepted by Parliament and passed by the Barbadian legislature.
In 1826 after the Power-loom riots, a number of manufacturers subsequently agreed to pay a standard rate to the weavers, but on their own admission it was a "starvation" wage. Those who stuck to the agreement found it difficult to compete with those manufacturers who did not, and could therefore undercut them,
prompting an appeal to William Huskisson, the President of the Board of Trade, to introduce a legally binding minimum wage. Huskisson's response was dismissive, expressing his view that to introduce such a measure would be "a vain and hazardous attempt to impose the authority of the law between the labourer and his employer in regulating the demand for labour and the price to be paid for it".
In accordance with his suggestion Canning in 1827 introduced a measure on the corn laws proposing the adoption of a sliding scale to regulate the amount of duty. A misapprehension between Huskisson and the Duke of Wellington led to the duke proposing an amendment, the success of which caused the abandonment of the measure by the government.
After the death of Canning in the same year Huskisson accepted the secretaryship of the colonies under Lord Goderich, an office which he continued to hold in the new cabinet formed by the Duke of Wellington in the following year. After succeeding with great difficulty in inducing the cabinet to agree to a compromise on the corn laws, Huskisson finally resigned office in May 1828 on account of a difference with his colleagues in regard to the disfranchisement of East Retford.
He was followed out of the government by other Tories who are usually described as Canningites including Lord Palmerston, Charles Grant, Lord Dudley, and Lord Melbourne.
Death
Huskisson had been diagnosed with strangury, a tender inflammation of the kidneys. He had undergone surgery, and had been advised by Royal doctor William George Maton to cancel all forthcoming appointments, which included the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Huskisson chose to ignore this advice, believing the opening event too important to cancel. He rode down the line in a special train constructed for the Duke of Wellington and his guests and dignitaries, pulled by the locomotive Northumbrian which was driven by George Stephenson himself. This train was the only train on the south track; the other seven were in procession on the northern track. At Parkside railway station, near the midpoint of the line, the locomotives made a scheduled stop to take on fuel and water. Although the company had implicitly warned passengers to remain on the trains while this took place, around fifty of the dignitaries on board alighted when the Duke of Wellington's special train stopped. One of those who got off was Huskisson, who approached the Duke to take this opportunity to repair their relationship after a great falling out, which resulted in Huskisson leaving the government, and shook his hand.
At this time the train being pulled by Rocket approached on the other line. Rocket was being driven by Joseph Locke, George Stephenson's assistant and future eminent engineer in his own right. A shout went up, "An engine is approaching. Take care, gentlemen!" The other disembarked passengers either climbed back into their seats, or stepped over the northern line and completely out of the way. A third option was available, to stand with one's back to the stationary coaches, as there was a four-foot gap between the lines, and even though the Duke's private carriage was wider than a then-standard carriage, it would have still been possible to stand between the stationary train and the travelling train and remain safe. However, what unfolded was a calamitous series of events. Huskisson was known to be clumsy, and had endured a long list of problems from his regular trips and falls; he had twice broken his arm and never fully recovered the use of it. Added to this, he was only a few weeks post surgery and was present against his doctor's advice.
On realising his danger he panicked and made two attempts to cross the other line, but changed his mind and returned to the Duke's carriage. At this point Joseph Locke became aware and threw Rocket into reverse, but it would have taken ten seconds to have any effect. Huskisson then panicked that the gap between the two trains was not big enough and so tried to clamber into the Duke's carriage. However, the carriage door had not been latched, and so it slowly swung open, leaving him hanging directly in the path of the oncoming Rocket, which hit the door, throwing Huskisson onto the tracks in front of the train. His leg was horrifically mangled by the locomotive.
A door was ripped from a railway building and Huskisson was placed on it, George Stephenson uncoupled Northumbrian from the Duke's train and coupled it to a small carriage that had been occupied by a band; the mortally wounded MP was placed inside with a small group of friends. They set off to Eccles and walked from the station to the vicarage, where a doctor was called. A tourniquet had been applied, but it was not deemed possible to do a field amputation, so he was made comfortable with the assistance of the vicar's wife Emma Blackburne, whose "activity, sense & conduct" were mentioned in The Manchester Courier and The Times and remembered with gratitude by Huskisson's widow Emily who arrived at the vicarage from Liverpool. Huskisson was able to make his will and at 9 pm he finally succumbed to his injury.
The death and funeral of Huskisson led to wide reporting on the opening of the railway, for the first time making people around the world aware that cheap and rapid long-distance transport was now possible, if dangerous.
Family and commemorations
On 6 April 1799, Huskisson married Emily Milbanke, the younger daughter of Mark Milbanke, the commander-in-chief at Portsmouth. Emily Huskisson survived her husband and did not remarry, dying in April 1856. They had no children. In 1800 Huskisson bought Eartham House in West Sussex from his friend William Hayley, and is commemorated in the parish church by a long carved eulogy from Emily on the south wall.
The monument where his remains are buried is the centrepiece of St James Cemetery, Liverpool. A marble statue of him was housed in a mausoleum there until 1968, when it was transferred to the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool.
Emily also commissioned a second marble statue for the Custom House in Liverpool. This statue now stands in Pimlico Gardens in London, between Grosvenor Road and the river Thames. A bronze casting of it was unveiled at the Custom House in 1847 and, after several moves, is now in Duke Street in Liverpool city centre.
See also
Lists of rail accidents
Huskisson, New South Wales, a town named after William Huskisson
List of statues and sculptures in Liverpool
Consolidated Slave Law
References
Sources
Bibliography
Further reading
Brady, Alexander, William Huskisson and liberal reform; an essay on the changes in economic policy in the twenties of the nineteenth century, Oxford, OUP, 1928. (2nd ed. London, Cass, 1967).
External links
William Huskisson page on the Peel Web.
A Piece of Lowton History has information about Huskisson's death and memorial.
|-
|-
1770 births
1830 deaths
People from Eccles, Greater Manchester
People from Malvern, Worcestershire
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Liverpool
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Morpeth
British MPs 1796–1800
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for constituencies in Cornwall
UK MPs 1801–1802
UK MPs 1802–1806
UK MPs 1806–1807
UK MPs 1807–1812
UK MPs 1812–1818
UK MPs 1818–1820
UK MPs 1820–1826
UK MPs 1826–1830
Secretaries of State for War and the Colonies
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Railway accident deaths in England
Railway accidents in 1830
Leaders of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Morpeth
Presidents of the Board of Trade
People from Chichester District | [
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0.051836106926202774,
-0.21685609221458435,
0.5318096876144409,
-0.0682619959115982,
-0.08235593885183334,
-0.2563653290271759,
0.11946143209934235,
-0.07860597968101501
] |
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