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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20of%20the%20Confederate%20States
Constitution of the Confederate States
The Constitution of the Confederate States was the supreme law of the Confederate States of America. It was adopted on March 11, 1861, and was in effect from February 22, 1862, to the conclusion of the American Civil War (May 1865). The Confederacy also operated under a Provisional Constitution from February 8, 1861, to February 22, 1862. The original Provisional Constitution is located at the American Civil War Museum in Richmond, Virginia, and differs slightly from the version later adopted. The final, handwritten Constitution is located in the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Georgia. Most of its provisions are word-for-word duplicates from the United States Constitution; however, there are crucial differences between the two documents in tone and legal content, primarily regarding slavery. Comparison with U.S. Constitution The preambles of both the U.S. and the Confederate Constitutions have some similarities, but it seems that the Confederate Constitution authors set out to give a different feel to the new preamble. Both preambles are provided here. The bold text shows the differences between them. The Confederate Constitution's preamble includes references to God, a perpetual government, and the sovereignty and the independence of each state. The Preamble to the U.S. Constitution: "We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America." The Preamble to the Confederate Constitution: "We, the people of the Confederate States, each state acting in its sovereign and independent character, in order to form a permanent federal government, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity — invoking the favor and guidance of Almighty God — do ordain and establish this Constitution for the Confederate States of America." Article summaries The Confederate Constitution followed the U.S. Constitution for the most part in the main body of the text but with some changes: Article I differences Amended Article I Section 2(1) to prohibit persons "of foreign birth" who were "not a citizen of the Confederate States" from voting "for any officer, civil or political, State or Federal." Article I Section 2(3) is essentially the same, and the clause still counts only "three-fifths of all slaves" for the population total of each state, just as it did in the US with the Three-Fifths Compromise: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every fifty thousand". while in the U.S. Constitution "The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand." A proposed Amendment to the U.S. Constitution which had been awaiting ratification by the states would have changed the maximum number of representatives to one for every fifty thousand. Amended Article I Section 2(5) to allow the state legislatures to impeach federal officials who live and work only within their state with a two-thirds vote of both houses of the state legislature. Concerning the appointment of Senators, Article I Section 3(1) adds "at the regular session next immediately preceding the commencement of the term of service." The state legislature, which then was responsible for the appointment of senators, had to wait until the seat was vacant. Article I Section 4(1) deals with elections and adds "subject to the provisions of this Constitution" to the U.S. Constitution Clause. That meant that each state legislature was free to make its own decision except if the constitution laid out other rules. The aforementioned Article I Section 2(1) and Article I Section 3(1) clauses would fall into that category. Amended Article I Section 6(2) to allow the House of Representatives and the Senate the ability to grant seats to the heads of each executive department to discuss issues involving their departments with Congress. The clause is the same as the one from the U.S. Constitution and adds: But Congress may, by law, grant to the principal officer in each of the Executive Departments a seat upon the floor of either House, with the privilege of discussing any measures appertaining to his department. Amended Article I Section 7(2) to provide the President of the Confederate States of America with a line-item veto but also required any bill in which the president used the veto in to be resubmitted to both houses for a possible override vote by two thirds of both houses. In an attempt to prevent the Confederate Congress from protecting industry, the framers added to Article I Section 8(1): The Congress shall have power – To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises for revenue, necessary to pay the debts, provide for the common defense, and carry on the Government of the Confederate States; but no bounties shall be granted from the Treasury; nor shall any duties or taxes on importations from foreign nations be laid to promote or foster any branch of industry; and all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the Confederate States. The phrase "general Welfare" was dropped from the Confederate Clause as well. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; Article I Section 8(3) added quite a bit to the U.S. Constitution in an attempt to block the Confederate Congress from passing laws to "facilitate commerce," with some exceptions allowing for safety and improvement to waterways. Article I Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution. To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes. Article I Section 8(3) of the Confederate Constitution. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; but neither this, nor any other clause contained in the constitution, shall ever be construed to delegate the power to Congress to appropriate money for any internal improvement intended to facilitate commerce; except for the purpose of furnishing lights, beacons, and buoys, and other aids to navigation upon the coasts, and the improvement of harbors and the removing of obstructions in river navigation, in all which cases, such duties shall be laid on the navigation facilitated thereby, as may be necessary to pay the costs and expenses thereof. There are changes and additions to Article 1 Section 9 Clauses (1), (2), and (4) that are covered in the Slavery section below. The first twelve amendments to the U.S. Constitution, including the Bill of Rights, were directly incorporated into the Confederate Constitution. That was done primarily in Article I Section 9 of the Confederate Constitution, with the first eight amendments to the U.S. Constitution becoming clauses (12) to (19). In addition to were three altogether-new clauses in the Confederate Constitution for Article I, Section 9. Article I, Section 9(9) Congress shall appropriate no money from the treasury except by a vote of two-thirds of both Houses, taken by yeas and nays, unless it be asked and estimated for by some one of the heads of Department, and submitted to Congress by the President; or for the purpose of paying its own expenses and contingencies; or for the payment of claims against the Confederate States, the justice of which shall have been judicially declared by a tribunal for the investigation of claims against the government, which it is hereby made the duty of Congress to establish. Article I, Section 9(10) All bills appropriating money shall specify in federal currency the exact amount of each appropriation and the purposes for which it is made; and Congress shall grant no extra compensation to any public contractor, officer, agent or servant, after such contract shall have been made or such service rendered. Amendments I through VIII are contained, in the same order, in Article I, Section 9(12) through Article I, Section 9(19) (the remainder of the US Bill of Rights is in Article VI). Article I, Section 9(20) was added to limit new bills to only one subject presented. Every law or resolution having the force of law, shall relate to but one subject, and that shall be expressed in the title. Then in Section 10: Article I Section 10(3): Confederate States did not have the ability to tax ships and negotiate treaties concerning waterways with other States without the consent of Congress. That clause limited the Confederate States in their ability to keep troops or to engage in war, but they would have the ability to enter compacts for the improvement of shared rivers. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, except on sea-going vessels, for the improvement of its rivers and harbors navigated by the said vessels; but such duties shall not conflict with any treaties of the Confederate States with foreign nations; and any surplus revenue, thus derived, shall, after making such improvement, be paid into the common treasury. Nor shall any state keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. But when any river divides or flows through two or more States, they may enter into compacts with each other to improve the navigation thereof. Article II The President of the Confederate States of America is to be elected by electors, chosen by the individual states, for a single six-year term, rather than a then-unlimited number of four-year terms. Article 2 Section 1(1) reads as: "The executive power shall be vested in a President of the Confederate States of America. He and the Vice President shall hold their offices for the term of six years; but the President shall not be re-eligible." Amendment XII of the U.S. Constitution is added here as Article II Section 1(3), (4), and (5) Article II Section 1(7) of the Confederate Constitution required candidates for the President of the Confederacy to have resided "within the limits of the Confederate States" for 14 years. Changes to Article III Article III Section 2(1) of the Confederate Constitution combines the first clause of Article III Section 1 in the U.S. Constitution with Amendment XI. The phrase "citizens of the same state" is left out and "and foreign states, citizens or subjects; but no state shall be sued by a citizen or subject of any foreign state" is added in the Confederate Constitution. Changes to Article IV There were changes and additions to Article IV Section 2(1) and Article IV Section 3(3), which are covered in the Slavery section below. Article IV Section 3(1) required a two-thirds of both houses of Congress vote for a new state to join the Confederacy. Other states may be admitted into this Confederacy by a vote of two-thirds of the whole House of Representatives, and two-thirds of the Senate, the Senate voting by states; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. Changes to Article V The Confederate Congress, unlike in the U.S. Constitution, could not propose amendments. Instead, amendments had to be proposed by constitutional conventions in at least three states. The Confederate Constitution also clarified an ambiguity in the U.S. Constitution's Article V by declaring that a national convention could propose only amendments that were suggested by state conventions, as opposed to having the authority to amend the entire Constitution. The process of amendment became easier (Article V Section 1(1)) by requiring only two thirds of the states to ratify, rather than three fourths. Changes to Article VI The Confederate Constitution added a clause to aid with the transition from the provisional government. Article VI Section 1(1) The Government established by this Constitution is the successor of the Provisional Government of the Confederate States of America, and all the laws passed by the latter shall continue in force until the same shall be repealed or modified; and all the officers appointed by the same shall remain in office until their successors are appointed and qualified, or the offices abolished. Amendments IX and X of the U.S. Constitution were added here as Article VI Section 1(5), and (6) Changes to Article VII Article VII Section 1(2), with instructions for electing permanent officials after the ratification of the Confederate Constitution, was added. When five states shall have ratified this Constitution, in the manner before specified, the Congress under the Provisional Constitution, shall prescribe the time for holding the election of President and Vice President; and, for the meeting of the Electoral College; and, for counting the votes, and inaugurating the President. They shall, also, prescribe the time for holding the first election of members of Congress under this Constitution, and the time for assembling the same. Until the assembling of such Congress, the Congress under the Provisional Constitution shall continue to exercise the legislative powers granted them; not extending beyond the time limited by the Constitution of the Provisional Government. Differences by subject Slavery There were several major differences between the constitutions concerning slavery. Whereas the original U.S. Constitution did not use the word "slavery" or the term "Negro Slaves" but instead used "Person[s] held to Service or Labour," which included whites and Native Americans in indentured servitude, the Confederate Constitution addresses the legality of slavery directly and by name. Though Article I, Section 9(1), of both constitutions are quite similar in banning the importation of slaves from foreign nations, the Confederate Constitution permitted the Confederate States to import slaves from the United States and specified the "African race" as the subject. The importation of slaves into the United States, including the South, had been illegal since 1808. Article I Section 9(1) The importation of Negroes of the African race from any foreign country, other than the slave-holding States or Territories of the United States of America, is hereby forbidden; and Congress is required to pass such laws as shall effectually prevent the same. While the U.S. Constitution reads The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. The Confederate Constitution then added a clause that gave Congress the power to prohibit the importation of slaves from any non-Confederate state. Article I Section 9(2) Congress shall also have power to prohibit the introduction of slaves from any State not a member of, or Territory not belonging to, this Confederacy. While the U.S. Constitution has a clause that states "No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed," the Confederate Constitution also added a phrase that explicitly protected slavery. Article I Section 9(4) No bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law denying or impairing the right of property in negro slaves shall be passed. The U.S. Constitution states in Article IV, Section 2, "The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States." The Confederate Constitution added that a state government could not prohibit the rights of slave owners traveling or visiting from a different state with their slaves. Article IV Section 2(1) The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States; and shall have the right of transit and sojourn in any State of this Confederacy, with their slaves and other property; and the right of property in said slaves shall not be thereby impaired. The Confederate Constitution added a clause about the question of slavery in the territories, the key constitutional debate of the 1860 election, by explicitly stating slavery to be legally protected in the territories. Article IV Section 3(3) The Confederate States may acquire new territory; and Congress shall have power to legislate and provide governments for the inhabitants of all territory belonging to the Confederate States, lying without the limits of the several states; and may permit them, at such times, and in such manner as it may by law provide, to form states to be admitted into the Confederacy. In all such territory, the institution of negro slavery as it now exists in the Confederate States, shall be recognized and protected by Congress, and by the territorial government: and the inhabitants of the several Confederate States and Territories, shall have the right to take to such territory any slaves lawfully held by them in any of the states or territories of the Confederate states. States' rights The Confederate Constitution's preamble included the phrase "each State acting in its sovereign and independent character," which focused the new constitution on the rights of the individual states. The Preamble to the Confederate Constitution, began, "We, the people of the Confederate States, each State acting in its sovereign and independent character...." States of the Confederacy gained several rights that states of the Union do not have, such as the right to impeach federal judges and other federal officers if they worked or lived solely in their state.Article I Section 2(5) The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment; except that any judicial or other federal officer, resident and acting solely within the limits of any state, may be impeached by a vote of two-thirds of both branches of the Legislature thereof. The Confederate Constitution omitted the phrase "emit Bills of Credit" from Article 1 Section 10 of the U.S. Constitution, which denied the states the right to issue such bills of credit. Article I Section 10(1) No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or grant any title of nobility. U.S. Constitution's Article I Section 10 including the included "emit Bills of Credit." No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. The Confederate Constitution enabled states to tax ships by omitting the phrase from the U.S. Constitution that prohibits it. Article I Section 9(7) No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another. The U.S. Constitution reads: No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. The ability to tax ships to raise revenue for the Confederate States is reinforced in Article 1 Section 10(3). Article I Section 10(3) No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, except on seagoing vessels, for the improvement of its rivers and harbors navigated by the said vessels; but such duties shall not conflict with any treaties of the Confederate States with foreign nations; and any surplus revenue thus derived shall, after making such improvement, be paid into the common treasury. Also in Article I Section 10(3), the Confederate States had the power to make treaties between one another concerning waterways. Nor shall any State keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. But when any river divides or flows through two or more States they may enter into compacts with each other to improve the navigation thereof. The Confederate States lost a few rights that the Union states retained. States lost the right to determine if foreigners can vote in their states: Article I Section 2(1) as mentioned above. States also lost the ability to restrict the rights of traveling and sojourning slave owners: Article IV Section 2(1) as mentioned above. (Many Southerners were already of the opinion that the U.S. Constitution already protected the rights of sojourning and traveling slave owners and that the Confederate Constitution merely made it explicit.) The Confederate Congress could determine taxes between states. Article I Section 9(6) No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State, except by a vote of two-thirds of both Houses. The Confederate Constitution contained many of the phrases and clauses that had led to disagreement among US states, including a Supremacy Clause, a Commerce Clause, and a Necessary and Proper Clause. The Supremacy Clause and the Necessary and Proper Clause are nearly identical in both constitutions. The Commerce Clause differed as follows in that the Confederate Congress was prevented from passing laws to "facilitate commerce," as is shown above. Signers The signers and the states they represented were: Howell Cobb, President of the Congress South Carolina: R. Barnwell Rhett, C. G. Memminger, Wm. Porcher Miles, James Chesnut, Jr., R. W. Barnwell, William W. Boyce, Laurence Keitt, T. J. Withers Georgia: R. Toombs, Francis S. Bartow, Martin J. Crawford, Alexander H. Stephens, Benjamin H. Hill, Thos. R. R. Cobb, E. A. Nisbet, Augustus R. Wright, A. H. Kenan Florida: Jackson Morton, J. Patton Anderson, Jas. B. Owens Alabama: Richard W. Walker, Robt. H. Smith, Colin J. McRae, William P. Chilton, Stephen F. Hale, David P. Lewis, Tho. Fearn, Jno. Gill Shorter, J. L. M. Curry Mississippi: Alex. M. Clayton, James T. Harrison, William S. Barry, W. S. Wilson, Walker Brooke, W. P. Harris, J. A. P. Campbell Louisiana: John Perkins Jr., Alex. de Clouet, C. M. Conrad, Duncan F. Kenner, Henry Marshall, Edward Sparrow Texas: John Hemphill, Thomas N. Waul, John H. Reagan, Williamson S. Oldham, Louis T. Wigfall, John Gregg, William Beck Ochiltree Ratification Congress began to move for ratification of the Confederate States Constitution on March 11, 1861: Judicial review Although the Confederate States Supreme Court was never constituted, the supreme courts of the various Confederate states issued numerous decisions interpreting the Confederate Constitution. Unsurprisingly, since the Confederate Constitution was based on the United States Constitution, the Confederate State Supreme Courts often used United States Supreme Court precedents. The jurisprudence of the Marshall Court thus influenced the interpretation of the Confederate Constitution. The state courts repeatedly upheld robust powers of the Confederate Congress, especially on matters of military necessity. Analysis Contemporary historians overwhelmingly agree that secession was motivated by the preservation of slavery. There were numerous causes for secession, but the preservation and the expansion of slavery were easily the most important of them. The confusion may come from blending the causes of secession with the causes of the war, which are separate but related issues. (Lincoln entered a military conflict not to free the slaves but to put down a rebellion.) According to the historian Kenneth M. Stampp, each side supported states' rights or federal power only when it was convenient to do so. Stampp also cited Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens's A Constitutional View of the Late War Between the States as an example of a Southern leader who said that slavery was the "cornerstone of the Confederacy" when the war began but, after the Southern defeat, said that the war had been instead about states' rights. According to an 1861 speech delivered by the Alabama politician Robert Hardy Smith, the State of Alabama declared its secession from the United States to preserve and to perpetuate the practice of slavery, the debate over which he referred to as the "Negro quarrel." In his speech, Smith praised the Confederate constitution for its lack of euphemisms and its succinct protections of the right to own "Negro" slaves: The Georgia Democrat Alexander H. Stephens, who would become the Confederate vice president, stated within his Cornerstone Speech that the Confederate constitution was "decidedly better than" the American one, as the former "put at rest, forever, all the agitating questions relating to our peculiar institution. African slavery as it exists amongst us; the proper status of the negro in our form of civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution. Jefferson in his forecast, had anticipated this, as the 'rock upon which the old Union would split.' He was right." See also List of national constitutions References Further reading External links Confederate States Constitution at The Avalon Project Confederate States Constitution at the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Georgia Confederate States Constitution compared to the United States Constitution 1862 documents 1862 establishments in the Confederate States of America 1862 in law 1865 disestablishments in the Confederate States of America 19th century in Montgomery, Alabama Constitutions of the Confederate States Confederate States March 1861 events Political charters Political history of the Confederate States Provisional Congress of the Confederate States University of Georgia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye%20of%20the%20Beholder%20%28video%20game%29
Eye of the Beholder (video game)
Eye of the Beholder is a role-playing video game for personal computers and video game consoles developed by Westwood Associates. It was published by Strategic Simulations, Inc. in 1991, for the MS-DOS operating system and later ported to the Amiga, the Sega CD and the SNES. The Sega CD version features a soundtrack composed by Yuzo Koshiro. A port to the Atari Lynx handheld was developed by NuFX in 1993, but was not released. In 2002, an adaptation of the same name was developed by Pronto Games for the Game Boy Advance. The game has two sequels, Eye of the Beholder II: The Legend of Darkmoon, also released in 1991, and Eye of the Beholder III: Assault on Myth Drannor, released in 1993. The third game, however, was not developed by Westwood, which had been acquired by Virgin Interactive in 1992 and created the Lands of Lore series instead. Plot The lords of the city of Waterdeep hire a team of adventurers to investigate an evil coming from beneath the city. The adventurers enter the city's sewer, but the entrance gets blocked by a collapse caused by Xanathar, the eponymous beholder. The team descends further beneath the city, going through Dwarf and Drow clans, to Xanathar's lair, where the final confrontation takes place. Once the eponymous beholder is killed, the player would be treated to a small blue window describing that the beholder was killed and that the adventurers returned to the surface where they were treated as heroes. Nothing else was mentioned in the ending and there were no accompanying graphics. This was changed in the later released Amiga version, which featured an animated ending. Gameplay Eye of the Beholder features a first-person perspective in a three-dimensional dungeon, very similar to the earlier Dungeon Master. The player controls four characters, initially, using a point-and-click interface to fight monsters. This can be increased to a maximum of six characters, by resurrecting one or more skeletons from dead non-player characters (NPCs), or finding NPCs that are found throughout the dungeons. The possibility to increase the size of the player's party through the recruiting of NPCs was a tradition in all of the Eye of the Beholder series. It was also possible to import a party from Eye of the Beholder into The Legend of Darkmoon or from The Legend of Darkmoon into Assault on Myth Drannor; thus, a player could play through all three games with the same party. Development The graphics for the MS-DOS version were created using Deluxe Paint. Over 150 Adlib sound effects exist in the game's audio. Reception Critical reception Eye of the Beholder was reviewed in 1991 in Dragon #171 by Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser in "The Role of Computers" column, who gave it 5 out of 5 stars. It was #1 on the Software Publishers Association's list of top MS-DOS games for April 1991, the last SSI D&D game to reach the rank. Dennis Owens of Computer Gaming World called it "a stunning, brilliantly graphic and agonizingly tricky" 3-D CRPG. The magazine stated that the game's VGA graphics and sound card audio finally gave IBM PC owners a Dungeon Master-like game. Scorpia, another reviewer for the magazine, was less positive. Although also praising the graphics and audio, stating that they "really give you the feeling of being in an actual dungeon", she criticized the awkward spell user interface and the "outrageous" abrupt ending. Other areas that needed work included the combat, plot, and NPC interaction; nonetheless, she was hopeful that with such improvements "the Legend series will become one of the leaders in the CRPG field". In 1993 Scorpia called the game "an impressive first effort that bodes well for the future". The One gave the Amiga version of Eye of the Beholder an overall score of 92%, heavily comparing it to Dungeon Master, stating that "Comparisons to the [aging] classic – Dungeon Master – are inevitable. When two games look this similar, even their programmers would have trouble telling them apart." The One praises Eye of the Beholder's gameplay, stating that "in contrast to previous AD&D titles, there's more emphasis on puzzle-solving than combat – a refreshing change ... Combat is also handled extremely well, the spells and 'ranged weapons' rules are all faithful to the original game ... The gameplay works wonderfully, conjuring up both the spirit and the atmosphere that you get from [tabletop AD&D]." Despite this, The One expresses that Eye of the Beholder is on par with Dungeon Master and Chaos Strikes Back, but states that Eye of the Beholder is still "an essential purchase for followers of the AD&D series". Hailing the game as "a dream come true" for Dungeons & Dragons fans, Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the Super NES version a 6.2 out of 10, praising its 3-D graphics and variety of characters. They gave the Sega CD version a 7.2 out of 10, this time praising the ability to create custom characters but criticizing the audio. They also remarked that the game has a difficult learning curve. While reviewing the Sega CD version, Computer and Video Games said it is "Not quite up there with Snatcher, but without doubt a highly ace role-player". According to GameSpy in 2004, despite the issues in the first Eye of the Beholder, "most players found the game well worth the effort". IGN ranked Eye of the Beholder No. 8 on their list of "The Top 11 Dungeons & Dragons Games of All Time" in 2014. Ian Williams of Paste rated the game #8 on his list of "The 10 Greatest Dungeons and Dragons Videogames" in 2015. In 1991, PC Format placed Eye of the Beholder on its list of the 50 best computer games of all time. The editors called it a "classic romp through dungeons dealing with monsters, puzzles, traps and things mythical". Commercial performance SSI sold 129,234 copies of Eye of the Beholder. By mid-1991, over 150,000 copies had been sold worldwide. The Eye of the Beholder series overall, including the game's two sequels, reached global sales above 350,000 units by 1996. Promotion In January 1991, SSI participated in Computer Gaming World'''s Top Ad contest and their cover art for Eye of the Beholder came in first place among voting readers, despite the magazine publisher's objection to the piece. From February till October 1991, SSI started up a contest "Beholder Bonus", which required players to find a bonus feature (easter egg) in each level of the game, indicated by an onscreen message. The first 50 PC players and 50 Amiga players to discover all 12 features would win $100 worth of prizes. Legacy Sequels There were two sequels:Eye of the Beholder II: The Legend of Darkmoon used a modified version of the first game's engine, added outdoor areas and greatly increased the amount of interaction the player had with their environment, along with substantially more 'roleplaying' aspects to the game.Eye of the Beholder III: Assault on Myth Drannor was not developed by Westwood, the developer of Eye of the Beholder and The Legend of Darkmoon, but rather in-house by the publisher SSI.Eye of the Beholder Trilogy (1995, SSI) was a rerelease of all the three games for MS-DOS on CD-ROM. Interplay released the three games along with a number of other AD&D DOS Games in two collection CDs: The Forgotten Realms Archives (1997) and Gamefest: Forgotten Realms Classics (2001). Related games Several modules for Neverwinter Nights (2002) have been created by fans as remakes of the original Eye of the Beholder'' game. A team of Indie game developers led by Andreas Larsson did a fan conversion of the game for the Commodore 64. References External links Review in Compute! Review in Info 1991 video games DOS games Amiga 1200 games Amiga games Cancelled Atari Lynx games First-person party-based dungeon crawler video games Forgotten Realms video games NEC PC-9801 games Role-playing video games ScummVM-supported games Sega CD games Strategic Simulations games Super Nintendo Entertainment System games U.S. Gold games Video games developed in the United States Video games featuring protagonists of selectable gender Video games scored by Motohiro Kawashima Video games scored by Yasuaki Fujita Video games scored by Yuzo Koshiro Westwood Studios games Windows Mobile Professional games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure%20Island%20Dizzy
Treasure Island Dizzy
Treasure Island Dizzy is a computer puzzle game published in 1989 by Codemasters for the Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum, and later ported to the Commodore 64, NES, Amiga, Atari ST and Atari Jaguar. Treasure Island Dizzy was the second game in the Dizzy series, and is the sequel to Dizzy – The Ultimate Cartoon Adventure. The game was developed by the Oliver Twins with graphics being designed by Neil Adamson and music by David Whittaker. Design This game is quite different from its predecessor, with a new inventory system and improved animations. The game contains fewer enemies than the previous title. It is more centred on inventory based problem solving. The aim of the game is to solve various puzzles in order to obtain a boat so that Dizzy can return to his friends and family, the Yolkfolk. To do this Dizzy must journey through haunted mines, tree villages, as well as underwater. The game also features a subquest (albeit one essential to completing the game) in which thirty gold coins must be collected. Such subquests were found in many of the sequels. Critics consider this one of the most difficult Dizzy games as the energy bar system of later titles was not yet implemented and Dizzy is provided with only one life—contrasting with five in the first game and three in Fantasy World Dizzy, the immediate sequel, and most subsequent titles. Also unique to this game, the player is unable to select any particular item from the inventory for use—Dizzy simply puts down whichever item is at the top of the list. If Dizzy is underwater and the snorkel happens to be at the top of the inventory list, he will drop the snorkel when the player collects another item and instantly die. Treasure Island Dizzy therefore requires more foresight and planning than the other games in the series. Adding to the difficulty of the game was the fact that the player had two main tasks to complete; the escape from the islands, and the collection of the thirty coins. Upon escaping the final island, the Shopkeeper character appears and tells Dizzy that he cannot leave without finding all thirty coins. Given that a number of the coins were hidden behind scenery, this second task proved to be more difficult than the main game. Commodore Format printed a "complete" solution and map which did not include the hidden coins, frustrating many players. Ports A version for the Nintendo Entertainment System was published by Camerica as part of a video game compilation Quattro Adventure. This version was released for the Evercade handheld game system in October 2020 as part of The Oliver Twins Collection compilation cartridge. Codemasters released a version of Treasure Island Dizzy for Microsoft Windows on the company's website in December 2004. Available for download after registration, it was in fact the Commodore 64 version bundled with the CCS64 emulator in a single executable. The download is no longer available. Reception The game spent over two years in the Gallup All Formats Top 40. The ZX Spectrum version alone sold over 100,000 copies and was voted the 16th best Spectrum game of all time in a special issue of Your Sinclair magazine in 2004. References External links 1988 video games Amiga games Amstrad CPC games Atari Jaguar games Atari ST games Amiga CD32 games Codemasters games Commodore 64 games Dizzy (series) Metroidvania games Nintendo Entertainment System games Video games developed in the United Kingdom Video games scored by Allister Brimble Video games scored by David Whittaker Windows games ZX Spectrum games
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253871
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%201991
Eurovision Young Dancers 1991
The Eurovision Young Dancers 1991 was the fourth edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at the Helsinki City Theatre in Helsinki, Finland on 5 June 1991. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Yleisradio (YLE), dancers from eight countries participated in the televised final. A total of fifteen countries took part in the competition. made their début (making this the first Eurovision event to feature a former Warsaw Pact country ahead of the 1994 Eurovision Song Contest), while , and withdrew from the contest. However, the Austrian broadcaster ÖRF and the Canadian CBC broadcast the event. Each country could send one or two dancers, male or female, who could perform one or two dances. The non-qualified countries were , , , , , and . Amaya Iglesias of Spain won the contest, with France and Denmark placing second and third respectively. Location Helsinki City Theatre, was the host venue for the 1991 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers. Format The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'. Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members. Results Preliminary round A total of fifteen countries took part in the preliminary round of the 1991 contest, of which eight qualified to the televised grand final. The following countries failed to qualify. Final Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union. Jury members The jury members consisted of the following: – Jorma Uotinen (Head of Jury) – Josette Amiel – Frank Andersen / – Gigi Gheorghe Caciuleanu – Peter Van Dyk – André-Philippe Hersin – Heinz Spoerli – Gösta Svalberg – Víctor Ullate Broadcasting The 1991 Young Dancers competition was broadcast in 17 countries including Austria and Canada. See also Eurovision Song Contest 1991 References External links Eurovision Young Dancers by year 1991 in Finland June 1991 events in Europe Events in Helsinki
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%201993
Eurovision Young Dancers 1993
The Eurovision Young Dancers 1993 was the fifth edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at the Dance House in Stockholm, Sweden on 15 June 1993. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Sveriges Television (SVT), dancers from eight countries participated in the televised final. A total of fifteen countries took part in the competition. , , and made their début with returning and , , , and withdrawing from the contest. As in 1989 and 1991, a semi-final was held to choose the finalists. The semi-final took place 2 days before the final (13 June 1993). The jury chose the finalists and top 3 performances. The prizes were presented by Princess Christina, the youngest sister of Carl XVI Gustaf, King of Sweden. The non-qualified countries were Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, Italy, Norway, Portugal and Yugoslavia. Zenaida Yanowsky of Spain won the contest, with Switzerland and Austria and France placing second and joint third respectively. Location The Dance House in Stockholm, Sweden, was the host venue for the 1993 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers. Format The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'. Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members. Results Preliminary round A total of fifteen countries took part in the preliminary round of the 1993 contest, of which eight qualified to the televised grand final. The following countries failed to qualify. Final Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union. Jury members The jury members consisted of the following: – Nils-Åke Häggbom (Head of Jury) – Birgit Cullberg – Frank Andersen / – Gigi Gheorghe Caciuleanu – Paolo Bortoluzzi – Peter Van Dyk – María de Ávila – Heinz Spoerli – Micha Van Hoecke – Pierre Lacotte – Elsa-Marianne von Rosen – Elisabetta Terabust – Jorma Uotinen Broadcasting The 1993 Young Dancers competition was broadcast in at least 15 countries. See also Eurovision Song Contest 1993 References External links Eurovision Young Dancers by year 1993 in Sweden June 1993 events in Europe Events in Stockholm
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix%20decomposition
Matrix decomposition
In the mathematical discipline of linear algebra, a matrix decomposition or matrix factorization is a factorization of a matrix into a product of matrices. There are many different matrix decompositions; each finds use among a particular class of problems. Example In numerical analysis, different decompositions are used to implement efficient matrix algorithms. For instance, when solving a system of linear equations , the matrix A can be decomposed via the LU decomposition. The LU decomposition factorizes a matrix into a lower triangular matrix L and an upper triangular matrix U. The systems and require fewer additions and multiplications to solve, compared with the original system , though one might require significantly more digits in inexact arithmetic such as floating point. Similarly, the QR decomposition expresses A as QR with Q an orthogonal matrix and R an upper triangular matrix. The system Q(Rx) = b is solved by Rx = QTb = c, and the system Rx = c is solved by 'back substitution'. The number of additions and multiplications required is about twice that of using the LU solver, but no more digits are required in inexact arithmetic because the QR decomposition is numerically stable. Decompositions related to solving systems of linear equations LU decomposition Traditionally applicable to: square matrix A, although rectangular matrices can be applicable. Decomposition: , where L is lower triangular and U is upper triangular Related: the LDU decomposition is , where L is lower triangular with ones on the diagonal, U is upper triangular with ones on the diagonal, and D is a diagonal matrix. Related: the LUP decomposition is , where L is lower triangular, U is upper triangular, and P is a permutation matrix. Existence: An LUP decomposition exists for any square matrix A. When P is an identity matrix, the LUP decomposition reduces to the LU decomposition. If the LU decomposition exists, then the LDU decomposition exists. Comments: The LUP and LU decompositions are useful in solving an n-by-n system of linear equations . These decompositions summarize the process of Gaussian elimination in matrix form. Matrix P represents any row interchanges carried out in the process of Gaussian elimination. If Gaussian elimination produces the row echelon form without requiring any row interchanges, then P = I, so an LU decomposition exists. LU reduction Block LU decomposition Rank factorization Applicable to: m-by-n matrix A of rank r Decomposition: where C is an m-by-r full column rank matrix and F is an r-by-n full row rank matrix Comment: The rank factorization can be used to compute the Moore–Penrose pseudoinverse of A, which one can apply to obtain all solutions of the linear system . Cholesky decomposition Applicable to: square, hermitian, positive definite matrix A Decomposition: , where is upper triangular with real positive diagonal entries Comment: if the matrix is Hermitian and positive semi-definite, then it has a decomposition of the form if the diagonal entries of are allowed to be zero Uniqueness: for positive definite matrices Cholesky decomposition is unique. However, it is not unique in the positive semi-definite case. Comment: if A is real and symmetric, has all real elements Comment: An alternative is the LDL decomposition, which can avoid extracting square roots. QR decomposition Applicable to: m-by-n matrix A with linearly independent columns Decomposition: where is a unitary matrix of size m-by-m, and is an upper triangular matrix of size m-by-n Uniqueness: In general it is not unique, but if is of full rank, then there exists a single that has all positive diagonal elements. If is square, also is unique. Comment: The QR decomposition provides an effective way to solve the system of equations . The fact that is orthogonal means that , so that is equivalent to , which is very easy to solve since is triangular. RRQR factorization Interpolative decomposition Decompositions based on eigenvalues and related concepts Eigendecomposition Also called spectral decomposition. Applicable to: square matrix A with linearly independent eigenvectors (not necessarily distinct eigenvalues). Decomposition: , where D is a diagonal matrix formed from the eigenvalues of A, and the columns of V are the corresponding eigenvectors of A. Existence: An n-by-n matrix A always has n (complex) eigenvalues, which can be ordered (in more than one way) to form an n-by-n diagonal matrix D and a corresponding matrix of nonzero columns V that satisfies the eigenvalue equation . is invertible if and only if the n eigenvectors are linearly independent (i.e., each eigenvalue has geometric multiplicity equal to its algebraic multiplicity). A sufficient (but not necessary) condition for this to happen is that all the eigenvalues are different (in this case geometric and algebraic multiplicity are equal to 1) Comment: One can always normalize the eigenvectors to have length one (see the definition of the eigenvalue equation) Comment: Every normal matrix A (i.e., matrix for which , where is a conjugate transpose) can be eigendecomposed. For a normal matrix A (and only for a normal matrix), the eigenvectors can also be made orthonormal () and the eigendecomposition reads as . In particular all unitary, Hermitian, or skew-Hermitian (in the real-valued case, all orthogonal, symmetric, or skew-symmetric, respectively) matrices are normal and therefore possess this property. Comment: For any real symmetric matrix A, the eigendecomposition always exists and can be written as , where both D and V are real-valued. Comment: The eigendecomposition is useful for understanding the solution of a system of linear ordinary differential equations or linear difference equations. For example, the difference equation starting from the initial condition is solved by , which is equivalent to , where V and D are the matrices formed from the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of A. Since D is diagonal, raising it to power , just involves raising each element on the diagonal to the power t. This is much easier to do and understand than raising A to power t, since A is usually not diagonal. Jordan decomposition The Jordan normal form and the Jordan–Chevalley decomposition Applicable to: square matrix A Comment: the Jordan normal form generalizes the eigendecomposition to cases where there are repeated eigenvalues and cannot be diagonalized, the Jordan–Chevalley decomposition does this without choosing a basis. Schur decomposition Applicable to: square matrix A Decomposition (complex version): , where U is a unitary matrix, is the conjugate transpose of U, and T is an upper triangular matrix called the complex Schur form which has the eigenvalues of A along its diagonal. Comment: if A is a normal matrix, then T is diagonal and the Schur decomposition coincides with the spectral decomposition. Real Schur decomposition Applicable to: square matrix A Decomposition: This is a version of Schur decomposition where and only contain real numbers. One can always write where V is a real orthogonal matrix, is the transpose of V, and S is a block upper triangular matrix called the real Schur form. The blocks on the diagonal of S are of size 1×1 (in which case they represent real eigenvalues) or 2×2 (in which case they are derived from complex conjugate eigenvalue pairs). QZ decomposition Also called: generalized Schur decomposition Applicable to: square matrices A and B Comment: there are two versions of this decomposition: complex and real. Decomposition (complex version): and where Q and Z are unitary matrices, the * superscript represents conjugate transpose, and S and T are upper triangular matrices. Comment: in the complex QZ decomposition, the ratios of the diagonal elements of S to the corresponding diagonal elements of T, , are the generalized eigenvalues that solve the generalized eigenvalue problem (where is an unknown scalar and v is an unknown nonzero vector). Decomposition (real version): and where A, B, Q, Z, S, and T are matrices containing real numbers only. In this case Q and Z are orthogonal matrices, the T superscript represents transposition, and S and T are block upper triangular matrices. The blocks on the diagonal of S and T are of size 1×1 or 2×2. Takagi's factorization Applicable to: square, complex, symmetric matrix A. Decomposition: , where D is a real nonnegative diagonal matrix, and V is unitary. denotes the matrix transpose of V. Comment: The diagonal elements of D are the nonnegative square roots of the eigenvalues of . Comment: V may be complex even if A is real. Comment: This is not a special case of the eigendecomposition (see above), which uses instead of . Moreover, if A is not real, it is not Hermitian and the form using also does not apply. Singular value decomposition Applicable to: m-by-n matrix A. Decomposition: , where D is a nonnegative diagonal matrix, and U and V satisfy . Here is the conjugate transpose of V (or simply the transpose, if V contains real numbers only), and I denotes the identity matrix (of some dimension). Comment: The diagonal elements of D are called the singular values of A. Comment: Like the eigendecomposition above, the singular value decomposition involves finding basis directions along which matrix multiplication is equivalent to scalar multiplication, but it has greater generality since the matrix under consideration need not be square. Uniqueness: the singular values of are always uniquely determined. and need not to be unique in general. Scale-invariant decompositions Refers to variants of existing matrix decompositions, such as the SVD, that are invariant with respect to diagonal scaling. Applicable to: m-by-n matrix A. Unit-Scale-Invariant Singular-Value Decomposition: , where S is a unique nonnegative diagonal matrix of scale-invariant singular values, U and V are unitary matrices, is the conjugate transpose of V, and positive diagonal matrices D and E. Comment: Is analogous to the SVD except that the diagonal elements of S are invariant with respect to left and/or right multiplication of A by arbitrary nonsingular diagonal matrices, as opposed to the standard SVD for which the singular values are invariant with respect to left and/or right multiplication of A by arbitrary unitary matrices. Comment: Is an alternative to the standard SVD when invariance is required with respect to diagonal rather than unitary transformations of A. Uniqueness: The scale-invariant singular values of (given by the diagonal elements of S) are always uniquely determined. Diagonal matrices D and E, and unitary U and V, are not necessarily unique in general. Comment: U and V matrices are not the same as those from the SVD. Analogous scale-invariant decompositions can be derived from other matrix decompositions, e.g., to obtain scale-invariant eigenvalues. Other decompositions Polar decomposition Applicable to: any square complex matrix A. Decomposition: (right polar decomposition) or (left polar decomposition), where U is a unitary matrix and P and P are positive semidefinite Hermitian matrices. Uniqueness: is always unique and equal to (which is always hermitian and positive semidefinite). If is invertible, then is unique. Comment: Since any Hermitian matrix admits a spectral decomposition with a unitary matrix, can be written as . Since is positive semidefinite, all elements in are non-negative. Since the product of two unitary matrices is unitary, taking one can write which is the singular value decomposition. Hence, the existence of the polar decomposition is equivalent to the existence of the singular value decomposition. Algebraic polar decomposition Applicable to: square, complex, non-singular matrix A. Decomposition: , where Q is a complex orthogonal matrix and S is complex symmetric matrix. Uniqueness: If has no negative real eigenvalues, then the decomposition is unique. Comment: The existence of this decomposition is equivalent to being similar to . Comment: A variant of this decomposition is , where R is a real matrix and C is a circular matrix. Mostow's decomposition Applicable to: square, complex, non-singular matrix A. Decomposition: , where U is unitary, M is real anti-symmetric and S is real symmetric. Comment: The matrix A can also be decomposed as , where U2 is unitary, M2 is real anti-symmetric and S2 is real symmetric. Sinkhorn normal form Applicable to: square real matrix A with strictly positive elements. Decomposition: , where S is doubly stochastic and D1 and D2 are real diagonal matrices with strictly positive elements. Sectoral decomposition Applicable to: square, complex matrix A with numerical range contained in the sector . Decomposition: , where C is an invertible complex matrix and with all . Williamson's normal form Applicable to: square, positive-definite real matrix A with order 2n×2n. Decomposition: , where is a symplectic matrix and D is a nonnegative n-by-n diagonal matrix. Matrix square root Decomposition: , not unique in general. In the case of positive semidefinite , there is a unique positive semidefinite such that . Generalizations There exist analogues of the SVD, QR, LU and Cholesky factorizations for quasimatrices and cmatrices or continuous matrices'. A ‘quasimatrix’ is, like a matrix, a rectangular scheme whose elements are indexed, but one discrete index is replaced by a continuous index. Likewise, a ‘cmatrix’, is continuous in both indices. As an example of a cmatrix, one can think of the kernel of an integral operator. These factorizations are based on early work by , and . For an account, and a translation to English of the seminal papers, see . See also Matrix splitting Non-negative matrix factorization Principal component analysis References Notes Citations Bibliography External links Online Matrix Calculator Wolfram Alpha Matrix Decomposition Computation » LU and QR Decomposition Springer Encyclopaedia of Mathematics » Matrix factorization GraphLab GraphLab collaborative filtering library, large scale parallel implementation of matrix decomposition methods (in C++) for multicore. Matrix theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%201995
Eurovision Young Dancers 1995
The Eurovision Young Dancers 1995 was the sixth edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at the Palais de Beaulieu in Lausanne, Switzerland on 6 June 1995. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SRG SSR), dancers from nine countries participated in the televised final. A total of fifteen countries took part in the competition. and made their début while and withdrew. However, the Danish broadcaster DR broadcast the event as did Bulgaria and Romania. The semi-final took place days 3 before the final (3 June 1995). Like in the previous contests, each country could participate with one or two dancers, male or female, not older than 19, that could perform one or two different dances: either a 2 variations (individual) no longer than 5 minutes each or a "pas de deux" (couples) no longer than 10 minutes. The disqualified countries were, , , , , and . Spain, represented by Jesús Pastor Sahuquillo and Ruth Miró Salvador, won the contest for the 4th time (3rd in a row) with Sweden and Belgium placing second and third respectively. Location Palais de Beaulieu, a convention centre in Lausanne, Switzerland, was the host venue for the 1995 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers. The centre includes the Théâtre de Beaulieu concert, dance and theatre hall and hosted the 1989 Eurovision Song Contest. With 1,850 seats, the Théâtre de Beaulieu is the biggest theatre in Switzerland. The Prix de Lausanne, an international ballet competition, is hosted at the centre. Format The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'. Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members. Results Preliminary round A total of fifteen countries took part in the preliminary round of the 1995 contest, of which eight qualified to the televised grand final. The following countries failed to qualify. Final Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union. Jury members The jury members consisted of the following: – Heinz Spoerli (Head of Jury) / – Maurice Béjart (Honorary guest of the Jury) / – Oscar Araiz / – Gigi Caciuleanu – Paola Cantalupo – Peter Van Dyk / – Beatriz Consuelo – Víctor Ullate – Gilbert Mayer – Pierre Lacotte – Youri Vámos – Jorma Uotinen Broadcasting The 1995 Young Dancers competition was broadcast in 18 countries. Bulgaria, Denmark, and Romania broadcast the contest in addition to the competing countries. See also Eurovision Song Contest 1995 References External links Eurovision Young Dancers by year 1995 in Switzerland June 1995 events in Europe Events in Lausanne
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleaning
Cleaning
Cleaning is the process of removing unwanted substances, such as dirt, infectious agents, and other impurities, from an object or environment. Cleaning occurs in many different contexts, and uses many different methods. Several occupations are devoted to cleaning. Contexts Cleaning occurs in various commercial, domestic, personal, and environmental contexts, which differ in scale and requirements. Commercial cleaning, in business or other commercial settings Terminal cleaning, in healthcare settings Environmental remediation, the removal of pollution or contaminants from the natural environment Housekeeping, including spring cleaning Hygiene, including personal grooming Methods Cleaning is broadly achieved through mechanical action and/or solvent action; many methods rely on both processes. Washing, usually done with water and often some kind of soap or detergent Pressure washing, using a high-pressure stream of water Wet cleaning, methods of professional laundering that avoid the use of chemical solvents Abrasive blasting, typically used to remove bulk material from a surface, may be used to remove contaminants as well Acoustic cleaning, the use of sound waves to shake particulates loose from surfaces Ultrasonic cleaning, using ultrasound, usually from 20–400 kHz Megasonic cleaning, a gentler mechanism than ultrasonic cleaning, used in wafer, medical implant, and industrial part cleaning Carbon dioxide cleaning, a family of methods for parts cleaning and sterilization using carbon dioxide in its various phases Dry cleaning of clothing and textiles, using a chemical solvent other than water Flame cleaning of structural steel, with an oxyacetylene flame Green cleaning, using environmentally friendly methods and products Plasma cleaning, using energetic plasma or dielectric barrier discharge plasma created from various gases Sputter cleaning, performed in a vacuum by using physical sputtering of the surface Steam cleaning, in both domestic and industrial contexts Thermal cleaning, in industrial settings, involving pyrolysis and oxidation Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, which destroys microorganisms; used extensively in the medical and food industries Cleaning by item Some items and materials require specialized cleaning techniques, due to their shape, size, location, or the material properties of the object and contaminants. Buildings and infrastructure Beach cleaning Carpet cleaning Chimney cleaning Crime scene cleanup Exterior cleaning Floor cleaning Graffiti removal Roof cleaning Silo cleaning Street cleaning Other items Coin cleaning Jewellery cleaning Laundry, the washing of clothes and other textiles Parts cleaning, in industry Pot washing, in food service Teeth cleaning Tube cleaning Occupations involving cleaning Several occupations involve cleaning, either in their entirety or among other duties. Cleaner Housekeeper (domestic worker) Janitor Maid See also General Cleaning (disambiguation), for other uses of the term Cleanliness, an abstract concept for a state that may be achieved by cleaning Cleaning agent, substances used in cleaning Contamination control, of which cleaning is a part Biology and health Cleaning symbiosis, among living creatures Hygiene, a set of practices performed for the preservation of health Sanitation, techniques to protect human health by providing a clean environment Sterilization (microbiology), the elimination or deactivation of biological agents Organizing Professional organizing, improvement of organizing systems and processes Sorting, any process of arranging items systematically Other contexts Cleaning event, in which solar panels on planetary rovers are cleaned by wind Cleaning validation, used to assure that manufacturing residues are removed Cleanroom, a room with low levels of particulates, used in specialized manufacturing or research Broad-concept articles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Nazaire%20Raid
St Nazaire Raid
The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot was a British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German-occupied France during the Second World War. The operation was undertaken by the Royal Navy (RN) and British Commandos under the auspices of Combined Operations Headquarters on 28 March 1942. St Nazaire was targeted because the loss of its dry dock would force any large German warship in need of repairs, such as , sister ship of , to return to home waters by running the gauntlet of the Home Fleet of the Royal Navy and other British forces, via the English Channel or the North Sea. The obsolete destroyer , accompanied by 18 smaller craft, crossed the English Channel to the Atlantic coast of France and was rammed into the Normandie dock gates. The ship had been packed with delayed-action explosives, well hidden within a steel and concrete case, that detonated later that day, putting the dock out of service until 1948. A force of commandos landed to destroy machinery and other structures. German gunfire sank, set ablaze, or immobilized virtually all the small craft intended to transport the commandos back to England. The commandos fought their way through the town to escape overland but many surrendered when they ran out of ammunition or were surrounded by the Wehrmacht defending Saint-Nazaire. Of the 612 men who undertook the raid, 228 returned to Britain, 169 were killed and 215 became prisoners of war. German casualties included over 360 dead, some of whom were killed after the raid when Campbeltown exploded. To recognise their bravery, 89 members of the raiding party were awarded decorations, including five Victoria Crosses. After the war, St Nazaire was one of 38 battle honours awarded to the commandos. The operation has been called "the greatest raid of all" in British military circles. Background St Nazaire is on the north bank of the Loire, from the nearest British port. In 1942, it had a population of 50,000. The St Nazaire port has an outer harbour known as the Avant Port, formed by two piers jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean. This leads to two lock gates before the Bassin de St Nazaire. These gates control the water level in the basin so that it is not affected by the tide. Beyond the basin is the larger inner dock called the Bassin de Penhoët, which can accommodate ships up to 10,000 tons. There is also an old entrance to the Bassin de St Nazaire midway along the Bassin de St Nazaire. Immediately upstream of this lies the Normandie dry dock, between the Bassin de St Nazaire and the Loire, with its southern end giving on to the Loire and the northern end facing into the Bassin de Penhoët. Built to house the ocean liner , this dock was the largest dry dock in the world when it was completed in 1932. The "Old Mole" jetty juts into the Loire halfway between the southern pier of the Avant Port and the old entrance into the basin. On 24 May 1941, the Battle of the Denmark Strait was fought between the German ships and and the British ships and . Hood was sunk and the damaged Prince of Wales was forced to retire. Bismarck, also damaged, ordered her consort to proceed independently while she headed for the French port of St Nazaire, which was the only port on the Atlantic coast with a dry dock able to accommodate a ship of her size. She was intercepted by the British and sunk en route. Britain's Naval Intelligence Division first proposed a commando raid on the dock in late 1941. When the was declared operational in January 1942, the Royal Navy (RN) and Royal Air Force (RAF) were already drawing up plans to attack her. Planners from Combined Operations Headquarters were looking at potential scenarios if Tirpitz escaped the naval blockade and reached the Atlantic. They decided the only port able to accommodate her was St Nazaire, especially if, like Bismarck, she was damaged en route and needed repairs. They came to the conclusion that if the dock at St Nazaire were unavailable, the Germans were unlikely to risk sending Tirpitz into the Atlantic. Combined Operations examined several options while planning the destruction of the dock. At this stage of the war the British government still tried to avoid civilian casualties. This ruled out a bombing attack by the RAF, which at the time did not possess the accuracy needed to destroy the dock without serious loss of civilian life. The Special Operations Executive were approached to see if its agents could destroy the dock gates. They decided that the mission was beyond their capabilities because the weight of explosives required would have needed too many agents to carry them. The Royal Navy was also unable to mount an operation, as St Nazaire is up the Loire estuary. Any naval ships large enough to cause sufficient damage would be detected well before they were within range. The planners then examined whether a commando force could accomplish the task. An unusually high spring tide was due in March 1942 which would allow a light ship to pass over the sand banks in the estuary and approach the docks, bypassing the heavily defended dredged channel. In one early plan, the planners designed a raid to approach the docks with only motor launches. John Hughes-Hallett and his colleagues immediately rejected this plan. Their opposition to the plan was strong. They argued, "they'll never reach the shore..." They concluded, "no destroyer, no operation." The approach was also too shallow for an infantry landing ship, but the planners believed if a destroyer could be lightened it might have a draft shallow enough to enable it to get through. Plan The purpose of the raid was to destroy the Normandie dock, the old gates into the Bassin de St Nazaire with the water pumping machinery and other installations and any U-boats or other shipping in the area. The initial Combined Operations plan required one specially lightened destroyer to carry out the raid. It would be packed with explosives and rammed into the dock gates. Commandos on board would then disembark and use demolition charges to destroy nearby dock installations, searchlights and gun emplacements. The destroyer would then be blown up. At the same time the RAF would undertake diversionary air raids in the area. When the plan was presented to the Admiralty they refused to support it. The certain loss of one or both destroyers to eliminate the dry dock was out of the question. They suggested they could provide an old Free French destroyer, , and a flotilla of small motor launches to transport the commandos and evacuate them afterwards. Approval for the mission, codenamed Operation Chariot, was given on 3 March 1942. Using a French ship would involve using the Free French forces and increase the number of people aware of the raid. Consequently, it was decided the navy would have to provide a ship of their own. The RAF complained that the raid would draw heavily on their resources and the number of aircraft assigned by RAF Bomber Command dwindled during the planning of the raid. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill further complicated matters when he ordered that bombing should only take place if targets were clearly identified. Combined Operations Headquarters worked closely with several intelligence organisations to plan the raid. The Naval Intelligence Division compiled information from a variety of sources. A detailed plan of the town of St Nazaire was provided by the Secret Intelligence Service, and information on the coastal artillery nearby was sourced from the War Office's Military Intelligence branch. Intelligence about the dock itself came from pre-war technical journals. The Naval Operational Intelligence Centre selected the route and timing for the raid based on intelligence about the location of minefields and German recognition signals sourced from Enigma decryptions and knowledge of Luftwaffe patrols compiled by the Air Ministry's Air Intelligence Branch. When all the plans had been pulled together and the timing worked out, the main part of the raid was expected to last no longer than two hours. The commandos and crew from Campbeltown were to board the motor launches at the Old Mole jetty and then return to base. Composition of the raiding force The revised Combined Operations plan required one destroyer to ram the dock gates and a number of smaller craft to transport the commandos. The Royal Navy would therefore provide the largest contingent for the raid, under the overall command of the senior naval officer, Commander Robert Ryder. The ship selected to ram into the dock gates was , commanded by Lieutenant Commander Stephen Halden Beattie. Campbeltown was a First World War destroyer and had previously been in the United States Navy. She had come into RN service in 1940 as one of 50 destroyers transferred to the United Kingdom under the destroyers-for-bases deal. Converting Campbeltown for the raid took ten days. She had to be lightened to raise her draught to get over the sand banks in the estuary. This was achieved by completely stripping all her internal compartments. The dockyard removed her three guns, torpedoes and depth charges from the deck and replaced the forward gun with a light quick-firing 12-pounder gun. Eight 20 mm Oerlikons were installed on mountings raised above deck level. The bridge and wheelhouse were given extra armour-plate protection, and two rows of armour were fixed along the sides of the ship to protect the commandos on the open deck. Two of her four funnels were removed, and the forward two were cut at an angle to resemble those of a German destroyer. The bow was packed with 4.5 tons of high explosives, which were set in concrete. It was decided that the explosive charge would be timed to detonate after the raiders had left the harbour. To prevent the Germans towing her away, the crew would open the ship's seacocks before abandoning the ship. Should she become disabled or sunk before getting to the dock, four motor launches had been detailed to take off the crew and put the commandos ashore. The charge would be reset to explode after the last boat had left. Other naval units involved were two s, and , which would accompany the force to and from the French coast and remain out at sea during the raid. A motor gun boat (the Fairmile C type MGB 314) was the headquarters ship for the raid, with Commander Ryder and the commanding officer of the commandos on board. A motor torpedo boat (a 70 ft Vosper, MTB 74), commanded by Sub-Lieutenant Michael Wynn, had two objectives: If the outer Normandie dock gates were open, she had to torpedo the inner dock gates. If the gates were closed she would instead torpedo the gates at the old entrance into the St Nazaire basin. Wynn's boat was offered for the raid at the last moment. She was temperamental. The ML consumed a lot of petrol... It was capable of only two speeds: a slow six knots and a fast 33 knots. The flaw meant the ML could only float by leap frogging and waiting. It was clear she would need a tow if taken in that condition. The flawed boat brought disapproval. Following the disapproval, Wynn and a mechanic fixed the flaws at the 24th hour. To assist in transporting the commandos, 12 Fairmile B Motor Launches (ML) were assigned from the 20th and 28th Motor Launch flotillas. These boats were re-armed with two Oerlikon 20 mm guns mounted forward and aft to complement their twin 0.303-in Lewis guns. At the last minute another four MLs were assigned from the 7th Motor Launch flotilla (see Footnotes for flotilla details). These four boats were also armed with two torpedoes each. Instead of transporting the commandos, these boats were to engage any German shipping found in the estuary. All the MLs had a auxiliary fuel tank fixed to the upper deck to increase their range. The S-class submarine would leave before the rest of the convoy and be in position to act as a navigational beacon to guide the convoy into the Loire estuary. The man selected to lead the Commando force was Lieutenant Colonel Charles Newman; his No. 2 Commando would provide the largest commandos contingent, 173 men, for the raid. The Special Service Brigade headquarters used the raid to provide experience for their other units and 92 men were drawn from Nos 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, and 12 Commandos. The commandos were divided into three groups: One and Two would travel in the 12 MLs, while Three would be in Campbeltown. Half the commandos would be in the motor launches, alongside the explosive destroyer. Under the command of Captain Hodgeson, Group One traveling in ML 447, 457, 307, 443, 306 and 446 had the objectives of securing the Old Mole and eliminating the anti-aircraft gun positions around the southern quays. They were then to move into the old town and blow up the power station, bridges and locks for the new entrance into the basin from the Avant port. The capture of the mole was a major objective, as it was to be the embarkation point for the evacuation after the mission. Group Two, under the command of Captain Burn, in ML 192, 262, 267, 268, 156 and 177 would land at the old entrance to the St Nazaire basin. Its objectives were to destroy the anti-aircraft positions in the area and the German headquarters, to blow up the locks and bridges at the old entrance into the basin and then to guard against a counterattack from the submarine base. Group Three was under the command of Major William 'Bill' Copland, who was also the commandos' second in command. It was to secure the immediate area around Campbeltown, destroy the dock's water-pumping and gate-opening machinery and the nearby underground fuel tanks. All three groups were subdivided into assault, demolition, and protection teams. The assault teams would clear the way for the other two. The demolition teams carrying the explosive charges only had sidearms for self-defence; the protection teams, armed with Thompson submachine guns, were to defend them while they completed their tasks. The commandos were aided in their planning for the operation by Captain Bill Pritchard of the Royal Engineers, who had pre-war experience as an apprentice in the Great Western Railway dockyards and whose father was the dock master of Cardiff Docks. In 1940 while part of the British Expeditionary Force in France, his duties had included determining how to disable the French dockyards if they were captured. One of the dockyards he had studied was St Nazaire, and he had submitted a report detailing how to put the dock out of action. German forces The Germans had around 5,000 troops in the immediate area of St Nazaire. The port was defended by the 280th Naval Artillery Battalion under the command of Kapitän zur See Edo Dieckmann. The battalion was composed of 28 guns of various calibres from 75 mm to 280 mm railway guns, all positioned to guard the coastal approaches. The heavy guns were supplemented by the guns and searchlights of the 22nd Naval Flak Brigade under the command of Kapitän zur See Karl-Konrad Mecke. The brigade was equipped with 43 anti-aircraft guns ranging in calibre from 20 to 40 mm. These guns had a dual role as both anti-aircraft and coastal defence weapons. Many were in concrete emplacements on top of the submarine pens and other dockside installations of the St Nazaire submarine base. The harbour defence companies were responsible for local defence and for the security of the ships and submarines moored in the harbour. These companies and the harbour defence boats used to patrol the river were under the command of Harbour Commander Korvettenkapitän Kellerman. The 333rd Infantry Division was the German Army unit responsible for the defence of the coast between St Nazaire and Lorient. The division had no troops based in the town, but some were garrisoned in villages nearby and would be able to respond to any attack on the port. The Kriegsmarine (German navy) had at least three surface ships in the Loire estuary: a destroyer, an armed trawler and a Sperrbrecher ('minesweeper'), the last being the guard ship for the port. On the night of the raid there were also four harbour defence boats and ten ships from the 16th and 42nd Minesweeper flotillas berthed in the basin, while two tankers were berthed inside the Normandie dock. The 6th and 7th U-boat flotillas, commanded by Kapitänleutnant Georg-Wilhelm Schulz and Korvettenkapitän Herbert Sohler respectively, were permanently based in the port. It is not known how many submarines were present on the day of the raid. The submarine base had been inspected by the U-boat Commander in Chief, Vizeadmiral Karl Dönitz, the day before the raid. He asked what would they do if the base was subjected to an attack by British Commandos. Sohler replied that "an attack on the base would be hazardous and highly improbable." The raid Outward journey The three destroyers and 16 small boats left Falmouth, Cornwall, at 14:00 on 26 March 1942. They formed into a convoy of three lanes, with the destroyers in the middle. On arrival at St Nazaire the portside MLs were to head for the Old Mole to disembark their commandos, while the starboard lane would make for the old entrance to the basin to disembark theirs. Not having the range to reach St Nazaire unaided, the MTB and MGB were taken under tow by Campbeltown and Atherstone. The convoy next encountered two French fishing trawlers. Both crews were taken off and the ships sunk for fear they might report the composition and location of the convoy. At 17:00 the convoy received a signal from Commander-in-Chief Plymouth that five German torpedo boats were in the area. Two hours later another signal informed them that another two Hunt-class destroyers, and , had been dispatched at full speed to join the convoy. The convoy reached a position off St Nazaire at 21:00 and changed course toward the estuary, leaving Atherstone and Tynedale as a sea patrol. The convoy adopted a new formation with the MGB and two torpedo MLs in the lead, followed by Campbeltown. The rest of the MLs formed two columns on either side and astern of the destroyer, with the MTB bringing up the rear. The first casualty of the raid was ML 341, which had developed engine trouble and was abandoned. At 22:00 the submarine Sturgeon directed her navigation beacon out to sea to guide the convoy in. At about the same time Campbeltown raised the German naval ensign in an attempt to deceive any German lookouts into thinking she was a German destroyer. At 23:30 on 27 March, five RAF squadrons (comprising 35 Whitleys and 27 Wellingtons) started their bombing runs. The bombers had to stay above and were supposed to remain over the port for 60 minutes to divert attention toward themselves and away from the sea. They had orders to only bomb clearly identified military targets and to drop only one bomb at a time. As it turned out, poor weather with full cloud cover over the port meant that only four aircraft bombed targets in St Nazaire. Six aircraft managed to bomb other nearby targets. At around 02:00, the convoy was sighted by the , which dived and later reported the British ships as moving westward, further complicating the German understanding of the raid. The unusual behaviour of the bombers concerned Kapitän zur See Mecke. At 00:00 on 28 March, he issued a warning that there might be a parachute landing in progress. At 01:00 on 28 March, he followed up by ordering all guns to cease firing and searchlights to be extinguished in case the bombers were using them to locate the port. Everyone was placed on a heightened state of alert. The harbour defence companies and ships' crews were ordered out of the air raid shelters. During all this a lookout reported seeing some activity out at sea, so Mecke began suspecting some type of landing and ordered extra attention to be paid to the approaches to the harbour. Ramming the dry dock At 00:30 hours on 28 March the convoy crossed over the shoals at the mouth of the Loire estuary, with Campbeltown scraping the bottom twice. Each time she pulled free, and the group proceeded toward the harbour in darkness. They had come within about eight minutes' passage from the dock gates when, at 01:22, the entire convoy was illuminated by searchlights on both banks of the estuary. A naval signal light demanded their identification. MGB 314 replied in a coded response obtained from a German trawler boarded during the Vågsøy raid in 1941. A few bursts were fired from a shore battery and both Campbeltown and MGB 314 replied: "Ship being fired upon by friendly forces". The deception gave them a little more time before every German gun in the bay opened fire. At 01:28, with the convoy from the dock gates, Beattie ordered the German flag lowered and the White Ensign raised. The intensity of the German fire seemed to increase. The guard ship opened fire and was quickly silenced when the ships in the convoy responded, shooting into her as they passed. By now all the ships in the convoy were within range to engage targets ashore and were firing at the gun emplacements and searchlights. Campbeltown was hit several times and increased her speed to . The helmsman on her bridge was killed, and his replacement was wounded and replaced as well. Blinded by the searchlights, Beattie knew they were close to their objective. Still under heavy fire, the MGB turned into the estuary as Campbeltown cleared the end of the Old Mole, cut through anti-torpedo netting strung across the entrance and rammed the dock gates, striking home at 01:34, three minutes later than scheduled. The force of the impact drove the ship onto the gates. Disembarkation from Campbeltown and the MLs The commandos on Campbeltown now disembarked. These comprised two assault teams, five demolition teams with their protectors and a mortar group. Three demolition teams were tasked with destroying the dock pumping machinery and other installations associated with the dry dock. The Captain Donald William Roy – 'The Laird' – and his 14-man kilted assault troop were tasked with knocking out two pump-house roof-top gun emplacements high above the quayside and securing a bridge to provide a route for the raiding parties to exit the dock area. Roy and Sgt Don Randall used scaling ladders and grenades to accomplish the former, and a head-on rush to secure the bridge and form a bridgehead that enabled Captain Bob Montgomery and Lt Corran Purdon and their demolition teams to exit the area. They lost four men in this action. The fifth team also succeeded in completing all their objectives, but almost half their men were killed. The other two commando groups were not as successful. The MLs transporting Groups One and Two had almost all been destroyed on their approach. ML 457 was the only boat to land its commandos on the Old Mole and only ML 177 had managed to reach the gates at the old entrance to the basin. That team succeeded in planting charges on two tugboats moored in the basin. There were only two other MLs in the vicinity: ML 160 had continued past the dock and was engaging targets upriver, ML 269 appeared to be out of control and was running in circles. Lt Col Newman aboard the MGB need not have landed, but he was one of the first ashore. One of his first actions was to direct mortar fire onto a gun position on top of the submarine pens that was causing heavy casualties among the commandos. He next directed machine-gun fire onto an armed trawler, which was forced to withdraw upriver. Newman organised a defence that succeeded in keeping the increasing numbers of German reinforcements at bay until the demolition parties had completed their tasks. Some 100 commandos were still ashore when Newman realised that evacuation by sea was no longer possible. He gathered the survivors and issued three orders: To do our best to get back to England; Not to surrender until all our ammunition is exhausted; Not to surrender at all if we can help it. Newman and Copland led the charge from the old town across a bridge raked by machine gun fire and advanced into the new town. The commandos attempted to get through the narrow streets of the town and into the surrounding countryside, but were eventually surrounded. When their ammunition was expended, they surrendered. Not all the commandos were captured, as five men reached neutral Spain and eventually returned to England. Small ships Most of the MLs had been destroyed on the run in and were burning. The first ML in the starboard column was the first boat to catch fire. Her captain managed to beach her at the end of the Old Mole. Some starboard boats managed to reach their objective and disembark their commandos. ML 443, the leading boat in the port column, got to within of the mole in the face of heavy direct fire and hand grenades before being set on fire. The crew were rescued by ML 160, one of the torpedo MLs which had been looking for targets of opportunity such as the two large tankers reported to be in the harbour. The commanders of ML 160 and ML 443, Lieutenants T Boyd and T D L Platt, were awarded the Distinguished Service Order for their bravery. The rest of the port column had been destroyed or disabled before reaching the mole. ML 192 and ML 262 were set on fire, and all but six of their men were killed. ML 268 was blown up, with one survivor. Thomas O'Leary, the wireless operator for ML 446, said:"One commando was remarking how pretty the tracer fire, red and green, was. A moment later one blew the back of his head out. I was down below with my tin hat because by now the bullets were going through (the boat) and out the other side. If I wanted to get about I had to crawl on my hands and knees and I was lucky nothing came through at my level. We couldn't get in (to the objective) and all of a sudden the wounded started coming down. By then all our guns had jammed and most of the other ships were on fire." ML 177, the launch that had successfully taken off some of the crew from Campbeltown, was sunk on her way out of the estuary. ML 269, another torpedo-armed boat, moved up and down the river at high speed to draw German fire away from the landings. Soon after passing Campbeltown it was hit and its steering damaged. It took ten minutes to repair the steering. The boat turned and started in the other direction, opening fire on an armed trawler in passing. Return fire from the trawler set the boat's engine on fire. ML 306 also came under heavy fire when it arrived near the port. Sergeant Thomas Durrant of No. 1 Commando, manning the aft Lewis gun, engaged gun and searchlight positions on the run in. He was wounded but stayed with his gun. The ML reached the open sea but was attacked at short range by the German torpedo boat Jaguar. Durrant returned fire, aiming for the torpedo boat's bridge. He was wounded again but remained at his gun even after the German commander asked for their surrender. He fired many drums of ammunition until the ML was boarded. Durrant died of his wounds and, on the recommendation of Jaguars commander, was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross. After the commando headquarters group had landed, Commander Ryder went to check for himself that Campbeltown was firmly stuck in the dock. Some of her surviving crewmen were being taken on board the MGB. Ryder returned to the boat and ordered the MTB to carry out its alternative task and torpedo the lock gates at the old entrance to the basin. After a successful torpedo attack, Ryder ordered the MTB to leave. On their way out of the estuary they stopped to collect survivors from a sinking ML and were hit and set on fire. Back at the docks the MGB had positioned itself in mid-river to engage enemy gun emplacements. The forward 2 pounder was manned by Able Seaman William Alfred Savage. Commander Ryder reported that "The rate of supporting fire had evidently been felt, and the commandos in the area of the Tirpitz dock had undoubtedly overcome the resistance in that area. There was an appreciable slackening in the enemy's fire." Ryder could see no ships other than seven or eight burning MLs. He then realised that the landing places at the Old Mole and the entrance to the basin had both been recaptured by the Germans. There was nothing more they could do for the commandos, so they headed out to sea. On their way they were continuously illuminated by German searchlights and were hit at least six times by the German guns. Passing ML 270, they ordered her to follow and made smoke to hide both boats. When they reached the open sea the smaller calibre guns were out of range and stopped firing but the heavier artillery continued to engage them. The boats were about off-shore when the last German salvo straddled them and killed Savage, who was still at his gun. He was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for his exploits. His citation recognised both Savage and the bravery of "many others, unnamed, in Motor Launches, Motor Gun Boats and Motor Torpedo Boats who gallantly carried out their duties in entirely exposed positions against Enemy fire at very close range." Return journey At 06:30 the five German torpedo boats that the convoy had evaded the previous day were sighted by HMS Atherstone and Tynedale. The destroyers turned toward them and opened fire at a range of . After ten minutes the German boats turned away, making smoke. The destroyers sighted the MGB and two accompanying MLs soon after and transferred their casualties to Atherstone. Not expecting any more boats to arrive, they headed for home. Just after 09:00 the Hunt-class escort destroyers Brocklesby and Cleveland arrived, sent by Commander-in-Chief Plymouth. Shortly after this the ships were spotted by a Heinkel 115 floatplane of the Luftwaffe. The next German aircraft on the scene, a Junkers 88, was engaged by a RAF Bristol Beaufighter which had appeared in the area earlier. Both machines crashed into the sea. Other German planes arrived but were driven off by Beaufighters and Hudsons from Coastal Command. The Atlantic weather conditions deteriorated. Amid concerns about the growing German threat and the realisation that the damaged small ships would not be able to keep up, Commander Sayer ordered the crews off the smaller boats and had them sunk. ML 160, ML 307 and ML 443 reached the rendezvous and waited until 10:00 for the destroyers to appear. Having already been attacked once, they moved further out into the Atlantic to try to avoid the Luftwaffe but a Junkers 88 appeared overhead at 07:30 and approached them at low level for a closer look. The ships opened fire, hit the Junkers in the cockpit and the aircraft crashed into the sea. The next aircraft to appear was a Blohm & Voss seaplane which attempted to bomb the ships but left after being damaged by machine-gun fire. The MLs eventually reached England unaided the following day. Campbeltown explodes The explosive charges in HMS Campbeltown detonated at noon on 28 March 1942, and the dry dock was destroyed. Reports vary on the fate of the two tankers that were in the dock; they were either swept away by the wall of water and sunk, or swept to the far end of the dock, but not sunk. A party of 40 senior German officers and civilians who were on a tour of Campbeltown were killed. In total, the explosion killed about 360 men. The wreck of Campbeltown could still be seen inside the dry dock months later when RAF photo reconnaissance planes were sent to photograph the port. According to Captain Robert Montgomery (Royal Engineers, attached to No. 2 Commando), Campbeltown was meant to have detonated at 04:30, the delay caused, he believes, by some of the acid in the pencil detonators being distilled away. As the morning progressed, more and more captured comrades joined him in the German HQ. The day after the explosion, Organisation Todt workers were assigned to clean up the debris and wreckage. On 30 March at 16:30 the torpedoes from MTB 74, which were on a delayed fuse setting, exploded at the old entrance into the basin. This raised alarms among the Germans. The Organisation Todt workers ran away from the dock area. German guards, mistaking their khaki uniforms for British uniforms, opened fire, killing some of them. The Germans also thought that some commandos were still hiding in the town, and made a street by street search, during which some townspeople were also killed. Aftermath The explosion put the dry dock out of commission for the remainder of the war. The St Nazaire raid had been a success, but at a cost – of the 612 men of the Royal Navy and commandos who took part in the raid, only 228 men returned to England. Five commandos escaped via neutral Spain and Gibraltar with the help of French citizens and took a ship to England; 169 men were killed (105 RN and 64 commandos) and another 215 became prisoners of war (106 RN and 109 commandos). They were first taken to La Baule and then sent to Stalag 133 at Rennes. The fallen British raiders were buried at the La Baule-Escoublac cemetery, west of St Nazaire, with military honours. To recognise their achievement, 89 decorations were awarded for the raid, including Victoria Crosses awarded to Lieutenant Commander Beattie, Lieutenant Colonel Newman and Commander Ryder and posthumously to Sergeant Durrant and Able Seaman Savage. Distinguished Service Orders were awarded to Major William Copland, Captain Donald Roy, Lieutenant T. Boyd and Lieutenant T. D. L. Platt. Other decorations awarded were four Conspicuous Gallantry Medals, five Distinguished Conduct Medals, 17 Distinguished Service Crosses, 11 Military Crosses, 24 Distinguished Service Medals and 15 Military Medals. Four men were awarded the Croix de guerre by France and another 51 were mentioned in dispatches. Adolf Hitler was furious that the British had been able to sail a flotilla of ships up the Loire unhindered and he sacked Generaloberst Carl Hilpert, chief-of-staff to the OB West (Commander in Chief West). The raid refocused German attention on the Atlantic Wall and special attention was given to ports to prevent any repeat of the raid. By June 1942, the Germans began using concrete to fortify gun emplacements and bunkers in quantities previously only used in U-boat pens. Hitler laid out new plans in a meeting with Armaments Minister Albert Speer in August 1942, calling for the construction of 15,000 bunkers by May 1943 to defend the Atlantic coast from Norway to Spain. The battleship Tirpitz never entered the Atlantic. She remained in Norwegian fjords to threaten Allied shipping until she was destroyed by the RAF in Operation Catechism on 12 November 1944. Legacy St Nazaire was one of the 38 battle honours presented to the commandos after the war. The survivors formed their own association, the St Nazaire Society, which is a registered charity in the United Kingdom. A memorial to the raid erected in Falmouth bears the following inscription: A new , a Type 22 frigate, was launched on 7 October 1987. She carried the ship's bell from the first Campbeltown, which had been rescued during the raid and been presented to the town of Campbelltown, Pennsylvania, at the end of the Second World War. In 1988 the people of Campbelltown voted to lend the bell to the new ship for as long as she remained in Royal Navy service. The bell was returned to the town on 21 June 2011 when HMS Campbeltown was decommissioned. On 4 September 2002, a tree and seat at the National Memorial Arboretum were dedicated to the men of the raid. The seat bears the inscription:In memory of the Royal Navy Sailors and Army Commandos killed in the raid on St Nazaire on 28 March 1942 A new Type 31 HMS Campbeltown has been announced as part of the new "Inspiration class" of frigates for the Royal Navy, announced on 19 May 2021. See also Bill Etches Gift Horse (film) Attack on the Iron Coast (film) Donald William Roy Medal of Honor: European Assault (game) Notes Footnotes Citations References External links After action report by Commander Ryder; includes detailed maps St Nazaire: Operation Chariot, Combined Operations I Was There! – We Went With the Raiders to St. Nazaire, The War Illustrated St Nazaire Society Conflicts in 1942 World War II British Commando raids Raid Military operations of World War II involving Germany 1942 in France Explosions in France Naval battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom Military history of the Bay of Biscay Amphibious operations of World War II March 1942 events Amphibious operations involving the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%201997
Eurovision Young Dancers 1997
The Eurovision Young Dancers 1997 was the seventh edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at the Teatr Muzyczny in Gdynia, Poland on 17 June 1997. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Telewizja Polska (TVP), dancers from seven countries participated in the televised final. A total of thirteen countries took part in the competition. and made their début while five countries (, , , and ) withdrew from the contest. However, France, Switzerland and Norway broadcast the event and, for the first time, Ireland. The participant countries could send one or two dancers, male or female, who performed one or two dances. The semi-final took place six days before the final (11 June 1997). The non-qualified countries were, , , , , and . Spain, with Antonio Carmena San José, won the contest for a 5th time (4th in a row) with Belgium and Sweden placing second and third respectively. Location Teatr Muzyczny, a theatre in Gdynia, Poland, was the host venue for the 1997 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers. Format The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'. Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. Once all the jury votes have been counted, the two participants which received the highest total of points progress to a final round. The final round consists of a 90-second 'dual', were each of the finalists perform a 45-second random dance-off routine. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members. Results Preliminary round A total of thirteen countries took part in the preliminary round of the 1997 contest, of which seven qualified to the televised grand final. The following countries failed to qualify. Final Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union. Jury members The jury members consisted of the following: – Maya Plisetskaya (Head of Jury) / – Gigi Caciuleanu – Paola Cantalupo – Katarzyna Gdaniec – Uwe Scholz – Gösta Svalberg – Heinz Spoerli Broadcasting The 1997 Young Dancers competition was broadcast in 17 countries. France, Ireland, Norway, and Switzerland broadcast it in addition to the competing countries. See also Eurovision Song Contest 1997 References External links Eurovision Young Dancers by year 1997 in Poland June 1997 events in Europe Historical events in Poland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%201999
Eurovision Young Dancers 1999
The Eurovision Young Dancers 1999 was the eighth edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at the Opéra de Lyon, in Lyon, France, on 10 July 1999. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster France 3, dancers from ten countries participated in the televised final. A total of sixteen countries took part in the competition. made their début while host country , , and returned. and withdrew from the contest. Both single dancers and couples younger than 20 could enter the competition, male or female. Single dancers had to perform 2 pieces of maximum 10 minutes in total, while couples could choose to perform 1 or 2 dances, but in total no longer than 10 minutes as well. The semi-final that took place in the same venue 6 days before the final (4 July 1999). The non-qualified countries were , , , , Switzerland and United Kingdom. Katja Wünsche and Stegli Yohan of Germany won the contest, with Sweden and Spain placing second and joint third respectively. Location Opéra de Lyon, in Lyon, France, was the host venue for the 1999 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers. The Opéra Nouvel (Nouvel Opera House) in Lyon, France, is the home of the Opéra National de Lyon. The original opera house was re-designed by the distinguished French architect, Jean Nouvel between 1985 and 1993 in association with the agency of scenography dUCKS scéno and the acoustician Peutz. Serge Dorny was appointed general director in 2003. Format The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'. Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members. Results Preliminary round A total of sixteen countries took part in the preliminary round of the 1999 contest, of which ten qualified to the televised grand final. The following countries failed to qualify. Final Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union. Jury members The jury members consisted of the following: – Boris Eifman (Head of Jury) – Maguy Marin – Meryl Tankard / – Jean-Christophe Maillot – Tero Saarinen – Vicente Sáez – Victoria Maragopoulou Broadcasting A total of 20 countries broadcast the 1999 event, including , , and . Agnes Letestu, the 1989 Eurovision Young Dancers winner, commented on this year's contest for the host broadcaster France 3. See also Eurovision Song Contest 1999 References External links Eurovision Young Dancers by year 1999 in France July 1999 events in Europe Events in Lyon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver%20Twins
Oliver Twins
Andrew Nicholas Oliver and Philip Edward Oliver, together known as the Oliver Twins, are British twin brothers and video game designers. They began to professionally develop computer games while they were still at school, contributing their first type-in game to a magazine in 1983. They worked with publishers Codemasters for a number of years following their first collaboration Super Robin Hood, creating the Dizzy series of games and many of Codemasters' Simulator Series games. At one point during the 1980s it was reported that 7% of all UK games sales were attributable to the Oliver Twins. In 1990 they founded Interactive Studios which later became Blitz Games Studios. In October 2013 they founded Radiant Worlds, based in Leamington Spa, with long time friend and colleague Richard Smithies. History Philip and Andrew Oliver first began programming computer games while at school (Clarendon School in Trowbridge). They discovered their interest in computing when their brother bought a used ZX 81 when they were 13. They bought a Dragon 32 in September 1982, as they wanted to have a faster computer with a bigger memory. They tried to improve the type-in games they found in magazines and eventually created their own game, Road Runner, which was published as written code in Computer and Video Games Magazine in January 1984. The same year they won first prize in a national TV competition (The Saturday Show) to design a computer game. Their first very successful game, Super Robin Hood for the Amstrad CPC, was published in 1985 by Codemasters. Codemasters The Codemasters publishing relationship led to the origin of the Dizzy series and the Simulator series. Whilst with Codemasters, they were responsible for over 10 UK number one best sellers and over 3 million sales. In 1986, it was reported that an estimated 7% of all UK games sales were attributable to the Oliver Twins. Interactive Studios (Blitz Games Studios) In 1990, at the age of 22, they started Interactive Studios, later called Blitz Games Studios. Apart from their own games, the Oliver Twins were also responsible for porting a number of other prominent games to the Sega platforms, including Theme Park and Syndicate. After 23 years, Blitz Games folded in 2013, with the loss of 175 staff, and owing millions to creditors. Radiant Worlds In October 2013 they founded Radiant Worlds, based in Leamington Spa, UK, with long time friend and colleague Richard Smithies to develop SkySaga: Infinite Isles for Korean-based Smilegate. SkySaga was an ambitious online voxel based game based on an original concept by members of the Blitz Games Studios team. In August 2017 Smilegate put SkySaga on hold and the Olivers and Smithies put the company up for sale. In January 2018, Rebellion, a UK games developer and publisher purchased the company and renamed it to Rebellion (Warwick). The twins remained with Rebellion until February 2019, at which point they left to form a game consultancy business. Dizzy revival In 2015 Philip Oliver found a hand drawn map titled Wonderland Dizzy while preparing for a talk the twins were due to give at that year's Play Blackpool event, after looking around further a disk was found which contained the full uncompiled source code of a game with the same name which they had written 22 years earlier for the NES but had forgotten about. The twins came into contact with Lukasz Kur via a Dizzy fansite, who fixed a few bugs in the game's code and translated it into a few languages before compiling it. The game was released online and free to play on 24 October 2015. In 2016, they released a second lost Dizzy game, Mystery World Dizzy, which was originally scheduled for release on the Nintendo in 1993. In May 2017 the twins announced they would be working on a new Dizzy game, their first for over 20 years. In a fun video for the ZX Spectrum Next Kickstarter campaign they revealed the game would be inspired by the classic The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by author L. Frank Baum, and would be called Wonderful Dizzy. Leadership Both of the Olivers take an active role in supporting the UK games industry. Philip Oliver is one of the founders of developers' trade body TIGA and has served as an active board member (currently a director) since its inception in 2001. He was also a director on the board for e-skills UK for several years. The brothers received honorary doctorates in 2008 from Coventry University (in business administration (DBA) and technology (DTech) for Philip and Andrew respectively) in recognition of their contribution to the growth of the electronic games industry both regionally and internationally, and were honoured as Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts in 2010. After Philip attended the launch of the UK Government's Next Gen Report (also known as the Livingstone-Hope Report) in February 2011 about challenges faced by the UK Games industry, he established Made in Creative UK which with Andrew they run as a not for profit campaign to raise awareness of the world class game developers and digital creatives developers based in the UK. The campaign has over 350 supporting companies and many high-profile supporters, including Sajid Javid MP (Culture Secretary & Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills) The Oliver Twins' early games and story inspired many people to develop video games as a career, and this was captured in Chris Wilkins and Roger Kean’s book Let’s go Dizzy: The Story of The Oliver Twins published December 2016 through Fusion Retro Books. A video shot at the launch of the book entitled Videogame Legends – Computerphile prompted Markus Persson ‘Notch’, the creator of Minecraft, to tweet that he was one of those inspired by the Oliver Twins games “I grew up loving and being inspired by their work.” In September 2018 the Guinness World Records awarded the Oliver Twins "Most Prolific 8-bit videogame developers", adding "Philip and Andrew Oliver (aka The Oliver Twins) developed 26 commercially released games for 8-bit computers and consoles from 1984-1992, and they designed 35 overall. Taking into account the many different platforms at that time - notably the Dragon 32, BBC Micro, Amstrad CPC, Spectrum, Commodore 64, NES, Master System and Game Gear - they actively wrote 49 released 8 bit games, they also produced titles that never saw the light of day. During that time they had 14 number one games for the Amstrad CPC series of computers and 12 number ones on the Spectrum. They also produced Dizzy, one of the most iconic characters on 8-bit computers. They are still active in the UK games Industry. Their first game was Road Runner, which was published as a type-in in C&VG in 1983." Games developed Road Runner - (C&VG Magazine) December 1983 - Dragon 32 (Type-in listing) Gambit (initially called Strategy) - (Acornsoft) April 1984 - BBC Model B Tellscope - (Acorn User) November 1984 - BBC Model B Easy Art - (Interceptor) - Amstrad CPC (Original written for the BBC Model B for Firebird but never released) Cavey - (Players) - BBC Model B Panda Sprites - (Interceptor) - Amstrad CPC Rescue Mission - (Beebug) - BBC Model B Magic Maths - (Players) - Amstrad CPC Magic Clock - (Players) - Amstrad CPC Killapede - (Players) - Amstrad CPC Excaliber - half complete & unreleased - Amstrad CPC Super Robin Hood – (Codemasters) November 1986 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, ST, Amiga, NES Ghost Hunters – (Codemasters) February 1987 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64 Grand Prix Simulator – (Codemasters) April 1987 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga Dizzy - The Ultimate Cartoon Adventure – (Codemasters) June 1987 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64 Professional Ski Simulator – (Codemasters) October 1987 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga 3D Starfighter – (Codemasters) November 1987 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum Fruit Machine Simulator – (Codemasters) February 1988 – ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, C64, Atari ST, Amiga Treasure Island Dizzy – (Codemasters) August 1988 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga, NES, PC DOS Advanced Pinball Simulator – (Codemasters) October 1988 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64 Pro BMX Simulator – (Codemasters) November 1988 – C64, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Atari ST, Amiga Fast Food Dizzy – (Codemasters) December 1988 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga, PC DOS Grand Prix Simulator II – (Codemasters) February 1989 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64 The Race Against Time – (Codemasters) May 1989 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64 Jet Bike Simulator – (Codemasters) September 1989 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga Incredible Shrinking Sphere – (published by Activision) October 1988 – C64, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Atari ST, Amiga Fantasy World Dizzy – (Codemasters) October 1989 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga, PC Ghostbusters II (published by Activision) August 1989 – C64, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Atari ST, Amiga Operation Gunship – (Codemasters) August 1989 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64 Kwik Snax – (Codemasters) November 1989 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga, PC Magicland Dizzy – (Codemasters) February 1990 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga, PC Dizzy Panic! – (Codemasters) May 1990 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Master System, Game Gear Dizzy Prince of the Yolkfolk – (Codemasters) August 1990 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga, PC Bubble Dizzy – (Codemasters) November 1990 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga, PC Spellbound Dizzy – (Codemasters) December 1990 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga, PC Dizzy Down the Rapids – (Codemasters) April 1991 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64 Fantastic Dizzy – (Codemasters) April 1992 – NES, Amiga, Mega Drive/Genesis, PC, Game Boy, Master System, Game Gear. Firehawk – (Codemasters) September 1992 – NES, Atari ST, Amiga Crystal Kingdom Dizzy – (Codemasters) December 1992 – Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, C64, Atari ST, Amiga, PC Robin Hood Legend Quest – (Codemasters) January 1993 – NES (Quattro Adventure), Atari ST, Amiga, Dizzy The Adventurer – (Codemasters) November 1992 – NES (Bundled with Aladdin) Go! Dizzy Go! – (Codemasters) November 1992 – NES (Quattro Arcade) BMX Simulator – (Codemasters) March 1993 – NES (Quattro Sports) The Excellent Dizzy Collection – (Codemasters) November 1993 – Master System, Game Gear Wonderland Dizzy – (FusionRetro Kickstarter) November 2015 – NES Dreamworld Pogie – (FusionRetro Kickstarter) May 2017 – NES Mystery World Dizzy – (FusionRetro Kickstarter) February 2018 – NES Key to formats... They are in order of release, the first in the list being the first and main version, from which others were derived. Bold Designed and written by The Oliver Twins. Plain Font Converted by other people to these formats. Bold + Italic Converted to these formats by The Oliver Twins. Later games (Developed after 1993) Games created or published by Complex Software, Interactive Studios, Blitz Games Studios, and Radiant Worlds: Puss in Boots (Q4 2011) Michael Phelps: Push the Limit (Q4 2011) SpongeBob's Surf and Skate Roadtrip (Q4 2011) Fantastic Pets (2011) Yoostar 2 (2011) Droplitz Delight (2010) SFG Soccer: Football Fever (2010) – Published by Blitz 1UP The Biggest Loser: Ultimate Workout (2010) The Biggest Loser Challenge (2010) Dead to Rights: Retribution (2010) All Star Karate (2010) Biggest Loser (2009) Karaoke Revolution (2009) iCarly (2009) KrissX (2009)- Published by Blitz 1UP Fluttabyes (2009)- Published by Blitz 1UP Mole Control (2009)- Published by Blitz 1UP Clover: A Curious Tale (2009)- Published by Blitz 1UP Invincible Tiger: The Legend of Han Tao (Q4 2009) Droplitz (Q3 2009) PowerUp Forever (2008) Buccaneer: The Pursuit of Infamy (2008)- Published by Blitz 1UP Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol Encore 2 (2008) Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader? Make the Grade (2008) Bratz Girlz Really Rock (2008) Tak and the Guardians of Gross (2008) Project Aftermath (2008)- Published by Blitz 1UP Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol Encore (2008) SpongeBob SquarePants – Underpants Slam (2007) Bratz: The Movie (video game) (2007) Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol (2007) Big Bumpin' (2006) PocketBike Racer (2006) Sneak King (2006) SpongeBob SquarePants: Creature from the Krusty Krab (2006) Bratz: Forever Diamondz (2006) Reservoir Dogs (2006) Pac-Man World 3 (2005) Bratz: Rock Angelz (2005) The Fairly OddParents: Shadow Showdown (2004) Bad Boys: Miami Takedown (2004) Barbie Horse Adventures: Wild Horse Rescue (2003) The Fairly OddParents: Breakin' Da Rules (2003) Zapper: One Wicked Cricket (2002) Taz: Wanted (2002) Lilo & Stitch: Trouble in Paradise (2002) Fuzion Frenzy (2001) The Mummy Returns (2001) Chicken Run (2000) The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea (2000) Frogger 2: Swampy's Revenge (2000) Action Man: Destruction X (2000) Action Man: Mission Xtreme (1999) Glover (1999) WarGames (1998) Radiant Worlds SkySaga: Infinite Isles (Alpha released Q4 2014 ) References External links Official Oliver Twins website Blitz Games Studios website Desert Island Discs style interview with Andrew Oliver Oliver Twins interview Oliver Twins interview with the Goddess from GIGnews The Dizzy Fansite page dedicated to Oliver Twins games Wonderland Dizzy website Mystery World Dizzy website 1969 births Living people Twin people from the United Kingdom British video game designers British video game programmers British computer programmers Oliver Twins Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%202001
Eurovision Young Dancers 2001
The Eurovision Young Dancers 2001 was the eighth edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at the Linbury Studio Theatre of the Royal Opera House in London, United Kingdom between 18 and 23 June 2001. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), dancers from eleven countries participated in the televised final. A total of eighteen countries took part in the competition. and made their début while , and returned. and withdrew from the contest, along with who broadcast the event. The semi-final that took place five days before the final (18 June 2001). Each country could send one or two performers, male and female, not older than 20, who could perform one or two dances. The dancers could choose between classical and contemporary dance. The non-qualified countries were Austria, , , Ireland, Norway, and Ukraine. David and Marcin Kupinski of Poland won the contest, with Belgium and Netherlands placing second and third respectively. Location The Linbury Studio Theatre of the Royal Opera House in London, United Kingdom was the host venue for the 2001 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers. The Linbury is most notable for hosting performances of experimental and independent dance and music, by independent companies and as part of the ROH2, the contemporary producing arm of the Royal Opera House. The Linbury Studio Theatre regularly stages performances by the Royal Ballet School and also hosts the Young British Dancer of the Year competition. Format The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'. Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members. Results Preliminary round A total of eighteen countries took part in the preliminary round of the 2001 contest, of which eleven qualified to the televised grand final. The following countries failed to qualify. Final Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union. Jury members The jury members consisted of the following: – Matthew Bourne (Head of Jury) – Amanda Miller – Maina Gielgud / — Samuel Wuersten – Monique Veaute Broadcasting A total of 19 countries broadcast the 2001 event. France was the only country to broadcast the event without competing. See also Eurovision Song Contest 2001 References External links Eurovision Young Dancers by year 2001 in London June 2001 events in Europe Events in London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20MacCormick
John MacCormick
John MacDonald MacCormick (20 November 1904 – 13 October 1961) was a Scottish lawyer, Scottish nationalist politician and advocate of Home Rule in Scotland. Early life MacCormick was born in Pollokshields, Glasgow, in 1904. His father was Donald MacCormick, a sea captain who was from the Isle of Mull. His mother was the first district nurse in the Western Isles. MacCormick was educated at Woodside School, and studied law at the University of Glasgow (1923–1928). He became involved in politics while at university, and joined the Glasgow University Labour Club and the Independent Labour Party in 1923. In September 1927 MacCormick left the ILP and formed the Glasgow University Scottish Nationalist Association (GUSNA), which was designed to promote Scottish culture and nationalism and self-government. The association was sufficiently neutral to act as the honest broker between the various nationalist organisations which would merge to form the National Party of Scotland (NPS) in April 1928. MacCormick was a talented speaker and organiser, and served as the national secretary of the NPS. MacCormick was often known by his nickname "King John", which he said came from a heckle during a debate he was participating in when upon a question from the floor whether a devolved Scotland would retain the monarchy, or would be a republic, someone interjected and said: "no, it will be a kingdom and John MacCormick will be our king." The failure of the NPS to make an electoral breakthrough led him to question current tactics and he concluded that the party's fundamentalist wing was frightening away potential support because of its support for republicanism and independence. In consequence, MacCormick initiated a campaign to redefine the policy of the NPS, to make it more moderate and to tone down demands for independence. He first stood for Parliament as an NPS candidate at the 1929 general election, when he came third in Glasgow Camlachie, with 1,646 votes. He also stood at Inverness at the 1931 general election. SNP In 1932, MacCormick began to make overtures to the right-wing Scottish Party, believing that, as the Scottish Party included a number of members of the Scottish 'establishment', their conversion to the cause of home rule would enhance the credibility of the nationalists. To secure an accommodation, MacCormick purged the NPS of radical elements, and moved the policy of the NPS towards that of the Scottish Party. His endeavours paid dividends, and in 1934 the two parties merged to form the Scottish National Party (SNP). MacCormick himself was not a dogmatic politician, and described himself as a radical, by which he meant a form of centrist liberal. His response to the failure of the SNP to make an electoral impact in the mid-1930s was to search for alternative strategies. He considered the basic problem to be that, although many people in Scotland favoured home rule, they were not, on the whole, willing to put the issue above conventional party loyalties. The solution, MacCormick argued, was to make the other parties take home rule seriously, and to demonstrate widespread support for the cause. In 1939 he launched the idea of a Scottish national convention, which would bring together all sections of Scottish society and all shades of Scottish political opinion in favour of home rule. He had made contact with both the Labour and Liberal parties, and although the first meeting, scheduled for September 1939, was cancelled because of the outbreak of World War II, MacCormick pushed negotiations throughout the war. As a leading figure in the SNP, MacCormick came under increasing attack from the rank and file members for his failure to maintain party structure and organisation. He considered that his preferred strategy of co-operation with other organisations meant that there was little need for the SNP to function as a mainstream political party. He endeavoured to present an acceptable face of Scottish nationalism, and did much to reverse the party's official anti-conscription policy following the outbreak of the Second World War. MacCormick stood as an SNP candidate for Inverness at the 1935 general election and at the 1937 Glasgow Hillhead by-election. He resigned from the party in 1942 following his failure to persuade the party to adopt a devolutionist stance rather than supporting all out Scottish independence and due to the victory of Douglas Young over his favoured candidate, William Power, for the leadership of the SNP. Along with a number of dissatisfied delegates to that year's SNP conference, he established the Scottish Convention to campaign for home rule for Scotland and later formed the Scottish Covenant Association. Scottish Convention, Scottish Covenant and later years MacCormick took the decision to join the Liberal Party as he viewed them as being the party most closely allied to his devolutionist ambitions for Scotland. He stood as the Liberal candidate for Inverness at the 1945 general election. The Scottish Convention succeeded in 1947 in setting up an assembly along the lines planned in 1939. In 1951, MacCormick formed the Scottish Covenant Association, a non-partisan political organisation which campaigned to secure the establishment of a devolved Scottish Assembly. This covenant was hugely successful in securing support from across the political spectrum, as well as in capturing the Scottish public's imagination (over 2 million signed a petition demanding the convocation of an Assembly. In 1948, he stood as an independent candidate at the Paisley by-election, with what he erroneously believed to be Liberal and Conservative support, and lost. His failure discredited claims as to the popularity of home rule, and further served to reinforce notions that the Scottish Convention was an anti-Labour organisation. MacCormick's failure left the SNP with a monopoly of the cause of home rule. MacCormick was elected Rector of the University of Glasgow in October 1950. He served as Rector until 1953. He was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Laws by the university in 1951. This association with GUSNA also saw the formation of a political friendship with a then young law student at Glasgow University, Ian Hamilton, who had run his campaign to be elected rector. MacCormick was involved, along with Hamilton, in the removal of the Stone of Destiny from Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1950 and its return to Arbroath Abbey. He also mounted a legal challenge, MacCormick v. Lord Advocate, over the right of Queen Elizabeth using the title Queen Elizabeth II, on grounds that there had been no previous Scottish Queen Elizabeth. In 1955 MacCormick had a book detailing his activities in the home rule movement published, entitled The Flag in the Wind. His last attempt to enter parliament came at the 1959 General Election, when he stood for the Liberal Party at Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles, again finishing second. In the film Stone of Destiny MacCormick is played by Robert Carlyle. Personal life MacCormick married Margaret Isobel Miller in 1939, with whom he had two sons and two daughters. Their elder son, Iain (1939–2014), served as SNP Member of Parliament for Argyll from 1974 till 1979 (and was a founder member of the Social Democratic Party. Their second son, Neil (1941–2009) was regius professor of Public Law and Vice-Principal of the University of Edinburgh, and served as an SNP Member of the European Parliament from 1999 to 2004. He was also the uncle of the journalist and broadcaster Donald MacCormick. MacCormick died on 13 October 1961. His funeral was held in the chapel of the University of Glasgow. References Scottish National Party politicians Alumni of the University of Glasgow Lawyers from Glasgow Rectors of the University of Glasgow 1904 births 1961 deaths Political party founders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Young%20Dancers%202003
Eurovision Young Dancers 2003
The Eurovision Young Dancers 2003 was the tenth edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at the Stadsschouwburg Theatre in Amsterdam, Netherlands between 29 June and 4 July 2003. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Nederlandse Programma Stichting (NPS), dancers from ten countries participated in the televised final. A total of seventeen countries took part in the competition therefore a semi-final was held a few days before at the same venue. and made their début while , and withdrew from the contest. The semi-final took place on 2 July 2003. Each country could send one or two dancers, male or female, not older than 20. All countries except the host (Netherlands) had to take part in the semi final. The non-qualified countries were Armenia, , , , , and . Kristina Oom and Sebastian Michanek of Sweden won the contemporary dance prize, with Jerlin Ndudi of Ukraine winning the classical dance prize. Monika Hejduková and Viktor Konvalinka of Czech Republic won the 'Youth Jury Choice' award. Location Stadsschouwburg Theatre in Amsterdam, Netherlands was the host venue for the 2003 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers. The building is in the neo-Renaissance style dating back to 1894, and is the former home of the National Ballet and Opera. Format The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'. Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members. Results Preliminary round A total of seventeen countries took part in the preliminary round of the 2003 contest, of which ten qualified to the televised grand final. The following countries failed to qualify. Final There were 2 prizes given this year: one for contemporary dance (awarded to ) and one for classical ballet dance (awarded to ). A special "young jury" award was given as well by a group of young viewers that were in the audience, this went to contemporary runner-up . Classical category Contemporary category Jury members The jury members consisted of the following: – Vladimir Vasiliev – Susanne Linke – Paola Cantalupo – Derrick Brown – Liz Imperio Broadcasting 26 national broadcasters in 24 countries transmitted the 2003 event. Albania, Croatia, Germany, Iceland, Puerto Rico, and Serbia and Montenegro all broadcast the contest in addition to the competing countries. See also Eurovision Song Contest 2003 Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2003 Notes and references Notes References External links Eurovision Young Dancers by year 2003 in the Netherlands July 2003 events in Europe Events in Amsterdam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Plowshare
Project Plowshare
Project Plowshare was the overall United States program for the development of techniques to use nuclear explosives for peaceful construction purposes. As part of the program, 31 nuclear warheads were detonated in 27 separate tests. Plowshare was the US portion of what are called Peaceful Nuclear Explosions (PNE); a similar Soviet program was carried out under the name Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy. Successful demonstrations of non-combat uses for nuclear explosives include rock blasting, stimulation of tight gas, chemical element manufacture, unlocking some of the mysteries of the R-process of stellar nucleosynthesis and probing the composition of the Earth's deep crust, creating reflection seismology vibroseis data which has helped geologists and follow-on mining company prospecting. The project's uncharacteristically large and atmospherically vented Sedan nuclear test also led geologists to determine that Barringer crater was formed as a result of a meteor impact and not from a volcanic eruption, as had earlier been assumed. This became the first crater on Earth definitely proven to be from an impact event. Negative impacts from Project Plowshare's tests generated significant public opposition, which eventually led to the program's termination in 1977. These consequences included tritiated water (projected to increase by CER Geonuclear Corporation to a level of 2% of the then-maximum level for drinking water) and the deposition of fallout from radioactive material being injected into the atmosphere before underground testing was mandated by treaty. Rationale By exploiting the peaceful uses of the "friendly atom" in medical applications, earth removal, and later in nuclear power plants, the nuclear industry and government sought to allay public fears about nuclear technology and promote the acceptance of nuclear weapons. At the peak of the Atomic Age, the United States Federal government initiated Project Plowshare, involving "peaceful nuclear explosions". The United States Atomic Energy Commission chairman at the time, Lewis Strauss, announced that the Plowshares project was intended to "highlight the peaceful applications of nuclear explosive devices and thereby create a climate of world opinion that is more favorable to weapons development and tests". Proposals Proposed uses for nuclear explosives under Project Plowshare included widening the Panama Canal, constructing a new sea-level waterway through Nicaragua nicknamed the Pan-Atomic Canal, cutting paths through mountainous areas for highways, and connecting inland river systems. Other proposals involved blasting caverns for water, natural gas, and petroleum storage. Serious consideration was also given to using these explosives for various mining operations. One proposal suggested using nuclear blasts to connect underground aquifers in Arizona. Another plan involved surface blasting on the western slope of California's Sacramento Valley for a water transport project. One of the first serious cratering proposals that came close to being carried out was Project Chariot, which would have used several hydrogen bombs to create an artificial harbor at Cape Thompson, Alaska. It was never carried out due to concerns for the native populations and the fact that there was little potential use for the harbor to justify its risk and expense. Project Carryall, proposed in 1963 by the Atomic Energy Commission, the California Division of Highways (now Caltrans), and the Santa Fe Railway, would have used 22 nuclear explosions to excavate a massive roadcut through the Bristol Mountains in the Mojave Desert, to accommodate construction of Interstate 40 and a new rail line. A project proposed in a 1963 memorandum by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory would have used 520 2-megaton nuclear explosions to excavate a canal through the Negev Desert in Israel at an estimated cost of $575 million ($5 billion in 2021), to serve as an alternative route to the Suez Canal. At the end of the program, a major objective was to develop nuclear explosives, and blast techniques, for stimulating the flow of natural gas in "tight" underground reservoir formations. In the 1960s, a proposal was suggested for a modified in situ shale oil extraction process which involved creation of a rubble chimney (a zone in the oil shale formation created by breaking the rock into fragments) using a nuclear explosive. However, this approach was abandoned for a number of technical reasons. Plowshare testing The first PNE blast was Project Gnome, conducted on December 10, 1961, in a salt bed 24 mi (39 km) southeast of Carlsbad, New Mexico. The explosion released 3.1 kilotons (13 TJ) of energy yield at a depth of 361 meters (1,184 ft) which resulted in the formation of a diameter, high cavity. The test had many objectives. The most public of these involved the generation of steam which could then be used to generate electricity. Another objective was the production of useful radioisotopes and their recovery. Another experiment involved neutron time-of-flight physics. A fourth experiment involved geophysical studies based upon the timed seismic source. Only the last objective was considered a complete success. The blast unintentionally vented radioactive steam while the press watched. The partly developed Project Coach detonation experiment that was to follow adjacent to the Gnome test was then canceled. A number of proof-of-concept cratering blasts were conducted; including the Buggy shot of 5 1 kt devices for a channel/trench in Area 30 and the largest being 104 kiloton (435 terajoule) on July 6, 1962, at the north end of Yucca Flats, within the Atomic Energy Commission's Nevada Test Site (NTS) in southern Nevada. The shot, "Sedan", displaced more than 12 million short tons (11 teragrams) of soil and resulted in a radioactive cloud that rose to an altitude of 12,000 ft (3.7 km). The radioactive dust plume headed northeast and then east towards the Mississippi River. Over the next 11 years 26 more nuclear explosion tests were conducted under the U.S. PNE program. The radioactive blast debris from 839 U.S. underground nuclear test explosions remains buried in-place and has been judged impractical to remove by the DOE's Nevada Site Office. Funding quietly ended in 1977. Costs for the program have been estimated at more than (US) $770 million. Natural gas stimulation experiment Three nuclear explosion experiments were intended to stimulate the flow of natural gas from "tight" formation gas fields. Industrial participants included El Paso Natural Gas Company for the Gasbuggy test; CER Geonuclear Corporation and Austral Oil Company for the Rulison test; and CER Geonuclear Corporation for the Rio Blanco test. The final PNE blast took place on May 17, 1973, under Fawn Creek, 76.4 km north of Grand Junction, Colorado. Three 30-kiloton detonations took place simultaneously at depths of 1,758, 1,875, and 2,015 meters. If it had been successful, plans called for the use of hundreds of specialized nuclear explosives in the western Rockies gas fields. The previous two tests had indicated that the produced natural gas would be too radioactive for safe use; the Rio Blanco test found that the three blast cavities had not connected as hoped, and the resulting gas still contained unacceptable levels of radionuclides. By 1974, approximately $82 million had been invested in the nuclear gas stimulation technology program. It was estimated that even after 25 years of production of all the natural gas deemed recoverable, only 15 to 40 percent of the investment would be recouped. Also, the concept that stove burners in California might soon emit trace amounts of blast radionuclides into family homes did not sit well with the general public. The contaminated gas was never channeled into commercial supply lines. The situation remained so for the next three decades, but a resurgence in Colorado Western slope natural gas drilling has brought resource development closer and closer to the original underground detonations. By mid-2009, 84 drilling permits had been issued within a 3-mile radius, with 11 permits within one mile of the site. Impacts, opposition and economics Operation Plowshare "started with great expectations and high hopes". Planners believed that the projects could be completed safely, but there was less confidence that they could be completed more economically than conventional methods. Moreover, there was insufficient public and Congressional support for the projects. Projects Chariot and Coach were two examples where technical problems and environmental concerns prompted further feasibility studies which took several years, and each project was eventually canceled. Citizen groups voiced concerns and opposition to some of the Plowshare tests. There were concerns that the blast effects from the Schooner explosion could dry up active wells or trigger an earthquake. There was opposition to both Rulison and Rio Blanco tests because of possible radioactive gas flaring operations and other environmental hazards. In a 1973 article, Time used the term "Project Dubious" to describe Operation Plowshare. There were negative impacts from a select few of Project Plowshare’s 27 nuclear explosions, primarily those conducted in the project's infancy and those that were very high in explosive yield. On Project Gnome and the Sedan test: Project Plowshare shows how something intended to improve national security can unwittingly do the opposite if it fails to fully consider the social, political, and environmental consequences. It also “underscores that public resentment and opposition can stop projects in their tracks”. The social scientist Benjamin Sovacool contends that the main problem with oil and gas stimulation, which many considered the most promising economic use of nuclear detonations, was that the produced oil and gas was radioactive, which caused consumers to reject it and this was ultimately the program's downfall. Oil and gas are sometimes naturally radioactive to begin with, however, and the industry is set up to deal with oil and gas that contain radioactive contaminants. Historian Dr. Michael Payne notes that it was primarily changing public opinion, in response to events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, that drove the protests, court cases and general hostility that ended the oil and gas stimulation efforts. Furthermore, as the years went by without further development and production of nuclear weapons slowed, interest in peaceful applications waned in the 1950s–60s. Cheaper, non-nuclear stimulation techniques suitable for most US gas fields were developed in the following years. As a point of comparison, the most successful and profitable nuclear stimulation effort that did not result in customer product contamination issues was the 1976 Project Neva on the Sredne-Botuobinsk gas field in the Soviet Union, made possible by multiple cleaner stimulation explosives, favorable rock strata and the possible creation of an underground contaminant storage cavity. The Soviet Union retains the record for the cleanest/lowest fission-fraction nuclear devices so far demonstrated. The public records for devices that produced the highest proportion of their yield via fusion-only reactions, and therefore created orders of magnitude smaller amounts of long-lived fission products as a result, are the USSR's Peaceful nuclear explosions of the 1970s, with the three detonations that excavated part of Pechora–Kama Canal, being cited as 98% fusion each in the Taiga test's three 15-kiloton explosive yield devices, that is, a total fission fraction of 0.3 kilotons in a 15 kt device. In comparison, the next three high fusion-yielding devices were all much too high in total explosive yield for oil and gas stimulation: the 50-megaton Tsar Bomba achieved a yield 97% derived from fusion, while in the US, the 9.3-megaton Hardtack Poplar test is reported as 95.2%, and the 4.5-megaton Redwing Navajo test as 95% derived from fusion. Nuclear tests The U.S. conducted 27 PNE shots in conjunction with other, weapons-related, test series. A report by the Federation of American Scientists includes yields slightly different from those presented below. Non-nuclear tests In addition to the nuclear tests, Plowshare executed a number of non-nuclear test projects in an attempt to learn more about how the nuclear explosives could best be used. Several of these projects led to practical utility as well as to furthering knowledge about large explosives. These projects included: Proposed nuclear projects A number of projects were proposed and some planning accomplished, but were not followed through on. A list of these is given here: See also Plowshares movement Atoms for Peace Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy – the equivalent Soviet program(s) that achieved "practical application" status. Atomic age Project Oilsand, a 1958 proposal to exploit the Athabasca oil sands in Canada via the underground detonation of nuclear bombs. Notes References Further reading IAEA review of the 1968 book: The constructive uses of nuclear explosions by Edward Teller. “The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions”, Project Director Gregory E van der Vink, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-ISC-414, (Oct 1989). External links . . . . . . . . . . . milestones, including proposed tests and projects conducted. Plowshare Peaceful nuclear explosions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulu%20Sea
Sulu Sea
The Sulu Sea (; Tausug: Dagat sin Sūg; Chavacano: Mar de Sulu; Cebuano: Dagat sa Sulu; Hiligaynon: Dagat sang Sulu; Karay-a: Dagat kang Sulu; Cuyonon: Dagat i'ang Sulu; ) is a body of water in the southwestern area of the Philippines, separated from the South China Sea in the northwest by Palawan and from the Celebes Sea in the southeast by the Sulu Archipelago. Borneo is found to the southwest and Visayas to the northeast. The Sulu Sea contains a number of islands. The Cuyo Islands and the Cagayan Islands are part of the province of Palawan whereas Mapun and the Turtle Islands are part of the province of Tawi-Tawi. Sulu Sea is also where the Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park, one of the World Heritage Sites is located. The Panay Gulf is an extension of the Sulu Sea. Straits out of the Sulu Sea include the Iloilo Strait, the Guimaras Strait, and the Basilan Strait. Geography The sea's surface area is . The Pacific Ocean flows into Sulu Sea in northern Mindanao and between Sangihe talaud Archipelago, North Sulawesi. Extent The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the Sulu Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits as follows: It extends about from north to south and from east to west. Waves can stretch across to . The sea is deep but on its southern end Sulu Archipelago raises the sea floor to . In popular culture The Star Trek character Hikaru Sulu is named after the Sulu Sea. According to Sulu actor George Takei, "[Gene] Roddenberry's vision for Sulu was to represent all of Asia, being named for the Sulu Sea instead of using a country-specific name". See also Sulu Pirates References External links Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean Seas of the Philippines Seas of Malaysia Geography of Mindanao Malaysia–Philippines border Maritime Southeast Asia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess%20Tutu
Princess Tutu
is a Japanese magical girl anime series created by illustrator and animator Ikuko Itoh. Inspired by ballet and fairy tales, particularly The Ugly Duckling and Swan Lake, the story follows a duck who is transformed into the mythical ballerina Princess Tutu in order to save the shattered heart of a storybook prince come to life. The first season was broadcast in Japan in 2002 and the second in 2002 and 2003. It was also adapted into a two-volume manga. Both the manga and anime series were licensed by ADV Films in 2004 for distribution in North America, then by AEsir Holdings when ADV Films closed in 2009, while Sentai Filmworks distributed the Blu-Ray release of the show, as the latter two are parts of Section23 Films. The series explores the concepts of destiny and free will. Reviewers point out that although Princess Tutu is nominally a magical girl series, it is more of a "fairy tale set to ballet with a few magical girl elements mixed in," and its use of dance in lieu of violence to solve conflicts carries "surprisingly effective emotional appeal." Plot Once there was a writer named Drosselmeyer, who had the power to make his stories come to life. But he died before he could finish his final tale, The Prince and the Raven, leaving the two title characters locked in an eternal battle. After many years, the Raven managed to break free into the real world, and the Prince pursued him. To seal away the Raven's evil, Prince Siegfried shattered his own heart with his sword, causing him to lose all his memories and emotions. Drosselmeyer, now a ghost, decides the story must have an ending. He finds it in the form of a little duck, who has fallen in love with Mytho, the empty remainder of Siegfried. He gives her a magic pendant that can transform her, first into an ordinary human girl, then into the graceful ballerina Princess Tutu, another character in the story. As Tutu, it's Duck's job to find all the scattered shards of Mytho's heart and return them to him. But not everyone wants Mytho to get his heart back. Rue, the Raven's daughter reborn as a human, has fallen in love with him too, and worries he might not return her feelings if he has a heart. Her desire to stop him from regaining his emotions unleashes her ability to transform into Princess Kraehe, Tutu's evil counterpart. Fakir, the boy who found and took care of Mytho after he escaped the story, also tries to stop Tutu, fearing that the story progressing means the Raven will return and Mytho will have to risk his life fighting it again. What's more, Duck learns that part of Princess Tutu's story is that she can never confess her love to Mytho, or else she'll turn into a speck of light and vanish. However, it becomes clear that Mytho wants his heart restored, so despite Fakir and Kraehe's interference, she persists. Eventually, Fakir accepts Mytho's choice and decides to help Tutu, even discovering her true identity as a Duck and becoming good friends with her. He also learns he's a descendant of Drosselmeyer, meaning he too has the power to make what he writes a reality. Rue finds out she's not the Raven's daughter, but a human child he stole to serve him. After most of Mytho's heart is returned to him, the seal trapping the Raven begins to break. Finally able to feel love again, Mytho realizes he loves Rue – just as the Raven kidnaps her. Duck discovers her pendant is the final shard, meaning she must give up her life as a human to return it. She eventually finds the courage to do so, and becomes a humble duck again. Mytho and the Raven battle once more. When the fight turns bleak, Mytho considers shattering his heart to seal the monster away again. Duck begins dancing to show him he must not give up. As she does, Fakir writes a story about how she never stops, no matter how many times the Raven's minions attack her. Together they create hope, which gives Mytho the strength he needs to rescue Rue and defeat the Raven. Mytho asks Rue to be his princess and they return to his kingdom inside the story. Duck and Fakir continue their relationship, even though she's stuck in her duck form. With nothing left to do, Drosselmeyer departs in search of another story. Media Anime Princess Tutu was conceptualized by Ikuko Itoh, who also designed the characters, and directed by Junichi Sato and Shogo Koumoto, with Michiko Yokote handling series composition and Kaoru Wada composing the music. It was produced by Hal Film Maker and TUTU, a production committee consisting of King Records, IMAGICA Imageworks, Dentsu, Marvelous Entertainment and Memory-Tech. The series originally aired in two seasons. The first season, "Kapitel des Eies" ("Chapter of the Egg"), consisted of 13 half-hour episodes. The second season, "Kapitel des Junges" ("Chapter of the Fledgling") in R2 DVDs, and "Kapital des Kükens" ("Chapter of the Chick") in R1 DVDs, was aired as 25 quarter-hour episodes and one half-hour episode; to conform to the format of the time slot, each episode was halved. These were brought back together in the DVD release as 13 complete episodes. North American DVD releases In 2004, ADV Films announced that they had licensed the anime series for distribution in North America. ADV Films produced English adaptations for all episodes and, beginning in 2005, the series was periodically released as single DVD "volumes" that each contained several episodes. In 2007, the series was released as a complete DVD collection of all 26 episodes. In 2011, AEsir Holdings announced the licensing of the series and the release of a complete DVD collection of all 26 episodes distributed by Section23 Films. In 2018, as AEsir Holdings and Sentai Filmworks are parts of Section23 Films, the latter released a complete Blu-ray collection of all 26 episodes on December 11, 2018. Princess Tutu Marchen (DVD 1), episodes 1–5, release date: 2005-01-25 Traum (DVD 2), episodes 6–9, release date: 2005-11-29 Erwachen (DVD 3), episodes 10–13, release date: 2006-01-24 Prinz und Rabe (DVD 4), episodes 14–18, release date: 2006-03-21 Schwert und Feder (DVD 5), episodes 19–22, release date: 2006-05-23 Abschied (DVD 6), episodes 23–26, release date: 2006-07-25 DVD Collection (DVD 1-6), episodes 1–26, release date: 2007-11-20 Complete Collection (DVD), episodes 1–26, release date: 2009-04-21 Complete Collection (DVD), episodes 1–26, release date: 2011-10-11 Complete Collection (DVD), episodes 1-26, release date: 2016-04-19 Complete Collection (Blu-ray), episodes 1-26, release date: 2018-12-11 Reception The series has been reviewed many times, starting from the Japanese language streams, through the latest North American English language DVD releases. Generally the reviews are very positive. The first DVD volume (DVD 1) included episodes 1 through 5. Theron Martin reviewed this volume for the Anime News Network and awarded grades from "C+" (art) to "A" (music). The second DVD volume (DVD 2) included episodes 6 through 9. Zac Bertschy reviewed this volume for the Anime News Network and awarded grades from "B+" (story) to "A" (most everything else). The fourth DVD volume (DVD 4) included episodes 14 through 18. Theron Martin reviewed this volume and awarded grades from "B" (animation) to "A+" (music). The sixth DVD volume (DVD 6) included episodes 23 through 26. Theron Martin reviewed this volume and awarded grades from "B+" (animation & art) to "A+" (music). The 2011 Complete Collection (DVD) release was reviewed by Chris Beveridge for the media blog The Fandom Post and given an overall grade of A−. Streaming Anime Network formerly offered all 26 episodes of the series, English dubbed only, from their internet streaming site for North America. After the service was shut down, the series was moved to Hidive. Hulu and Amazon Prime Instant Video both have the English dub available for streaming. Manga A manga adaptation of the anime series was written by Mizuo Shinonome and published in Japan by Akita Shoten in the shōnen manga magazine Champion Red. Two tankōbon volumes of the manga series were published in 2003. The Japanese manga series was translated to English and published in North America by ADV Manga in two volumes. Volume list Note: The English language manga continues to use the Japanese name "Ahiru" rather than the name "Duck" used in the English language version of the anime television series. References External links 2002 anime television series debuts 2002 manga ADV Films ADV Manga Akita Shoten manga Anime and manga based on fairy tales Anime with original screenplays Tutu Dance in anime and manga Tutu Hal Film Maker Horror anime and manga Madman Entertainment anime Magical girl anime and manga Marvelous Entertainment franchises Metafictional television series Music in anime and manga NHK original programming Sentai Filmworks Seinen manga Television series about ballet Television series about princesses Television shows based on works by Hans Christian Andersen Works based on The Ugly Duckling Swan Lake
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel%20Shepherd
Joel Shepherd
Joel Shepherd (born 1974 in Adelaide, South Australia) is an Australian science fiction author. He moved to Perth, Western Australia with his family when he was seven, where he later studied film and television arts at Curtin University. He now lives in Adelaide. He is the son of Kate Shepherd, owner/operator of Austral Ed, a small Australian educational book supplier to Asia. He helps his mother in this business and has traveled widely as a result. His first unpublished manuscript was shortlisted for the George Turner Prize in 1998 and the manuscript for Crossover was shortlisted in 1999. His first novel Crossover was shortlisted for the science fiction division of the 2001 Aurealis Awards, that recognise the achievements of Australian science fiction, fantasy and horror writers. His first series follows the adventures of Cassandra Kresnov, an artificially created super-soldier who becomes disillusioned with the policies and actions of her country, the League. She defects to the city of Tanusha, on the planet of Callay in the Federation, the League’s rival nation, and attempts to live as a civilian software expert. His second series follows the adventures of Sasha, a rebellious Lenayin princess with a talent for sword-fighting who gets embroiled in a widespread religious crusade spanning most of the region. His third series follows the crew of a battle carrier spaceship called Phoenix and falls into the space opera genre. It is self-published. All of the sixteen books are also available as audiobooks. Bibliography Cassandra Kresnov Crossover (2001) Breakaway (2003) Killswitch (2004) 23 Years on Fire (2013) Operation Shield (2014) Originator (2015) A Trial of Blood and Steel Sasha (2007), Petrodor (2008), Tracato (2009), Haven (2010), The Spiral Wars "Renegade" (2015), ASIN B0138YJ3WA "Drysine Legacy" (2015), ASIN B019H7KFEW "Kantovan Vault" (2016), ASIN B01LWZJOMJ "Defiance" (2017), ASIN B073PCBKJ2 "Croma Venture" (2018), "Rando Splicer" (2019), ASIN B07X8C4TG8 "Qalea Drop" (2020), ASIN B08ML8FBS4 External links Joel Shepherd's official website Publisher's Profile Book release announcement from Austral Ed The George Turner Prize 1998 shortlist 2001 Aurealis Awards shortlist Interview at SFFWorld.com Review of Crossover at SFFWorld.com Story Behind 23 Years on Fire - Online Essay by Joel Shepherd References 1974 births Living people Shepard, Joel Shepard, Joel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Hamilton%20%28footballer%2C%20born%201950%29
Ian Hamilton (footballer, born 1950)
Ian Michael Hamilton (born 31 October 1950) is an English former footballer who played as a midfielder. He made more than 300 appearances in the Football League playing for Chelsea, Southend United, Aston Villa and Sheffield United, and more than 100 in the North American Soccer League for Minnesota Kicks and San Jose Earthquakes. He was nicknamed "Chico" after the jazz drummer. Hamilton joined Chelsea as a junior and became the Stamford Bridge club's youngest ever player and goalscorer at 16 years, 138 days when he scored against Tottenham Hotspur on his debut, on 18 March 1967, a feat which earned comparisons with another famous Chelsea striker who also scored on his debut against Spurs – Jimmy Greaves. Thereafter he played only four more first-team games for Chelsea, spending the 1968–69 season with Southend United before moving to Aston Villa in 1968. At Villa he carved out a long career as a midfielder, helping the club win the Third Division title in 1972, and playing in two League Cup finals – they lost in 1971 and won in 1975. After two seasons with Sheffield United, Hamilton became one of many British footballers who ended their careers in the North American Soccer League, where he played for Minnesota Kicks and San Jose Earthquakes. After he finished his professional career, he spent 17 years as boys' soccer coach at Thomas Worthington High School, in Worthington, Ohio, returning after a seven-year gap to coach girls' soccer. He coached a total of 33 years. He passed away at the age of 71 in Land O' Lakes, FL of a heart attack playing his second favorite sport, Golf, on February 4, 2022. References External links NASL stats 1950 births Living people Footballers from Streatham English footballers Association football midfielders Chelsea F.C. players Southend United F.C. players Aston Villa F.C. players Sheffield United F.C. players Minnesota Kicks players San Jose Earthquakes (1974–1988) players English Football League players North American Soccer League (1968–1984) indoor players North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players English expatriate footballers Expatriate soccer players in the United States People from Worthington, Ohio English expatriate sportspeople in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebersberg%20%28district%29
Ebersberg (district)
Landkreis (district) Ebersberg is located in Upper Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the districts of Erding, Mühldorf, Rosenheim and Munich. History The most important event in the district's history was the battle of Hohenlinden on December 3, 1800, which was a part of the Napoleonic Wars. Geography The district includes rural areas east of the city of Munich. Despite the vicinity of Munich urbanisation is low. In the north there is a contiguous forest area of 80 km², serving as a recreation area for the population of the Bavarian capital. The forest consists of three separate unincorporated areas, Anzinger Forst, Ebersberger Forst, and Eglhartinger Forst. Coat of arms The arms display both parts of the word "Ebersberg": a boar (German "Eber") standing on a mountain (German "Berg"). These two symbols are part of the arms of the city of Ebersberg as well. In addition the district's arms include a fir, symbolising the forests of the region. Towns and municipalities Unincorporated Areas Anzinger Forst Ebersberger Forst Eglhartinger Forst References External links Official website (German) Districts of Bavaria
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Elliott%20Clarke
George Elliott Clarke
George Elliott Clarke, (born February 12, 1960) is a Canadian poet, playwright and literary critic who served as the Poet Laureate of Toronto from 2012 to 2015 and as the 2016–2017 Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate. His work is known largely for its use of a vast range of literary and artistic traditions (both "high" and "low"), its lush physicality and its bold political substance. One of Canada's most illustrious poets, Clarke is also known for chronicling the experience and history of the Black Canadian communities of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, creating a cultural geography that he has coined "Africadia". Life Clarke was born to William and Geraldine Clarke in Windsor, Nova Scotia, near the Black Loyalist and Afro-Métis community of Three Mile Plains, and grew up in Halifax, Nova Scotia. He graduated from Queen Elizabeth High School in 1978. He earned a BA honours degree in English from the University of Waterloo (1984), an MA degree in English from Dalhousie University (1989) and a PhD degree in English from Queen's University (1993). He has received honorary degrees from Dalhousie University (LL.D.), the University of New Brunswick (Litt.D.), the University of Alberta (Litt.D.), the University of Waterloo (Litt.D.), and most recently, Saint Mary's University (Litt.D). He taught English and Canadian Studies at Duke University from 1994 to 1999 and was appointed the Seagrams Visiting Chair in Canadian Studies at McGill University for the academic year 1998–1999. In 1999, he became professor of English at the University of Toronto, where, in 2003, he was appointed the inaugural E J Pratt Professor of Canadian Literature. Clarke has also served as a Noted Scholar at the University of British Columbia (2002), as a Visiting Scholar at Mount Allison University (2005), and as the William Lyon Mackenzie King Visiting Professor in Canadian Studies at Harvard University (2013–14); and, outside of the academic sphere, as a researcher for the Ontario Provincial Parliament (1982–83), editor of the Imprint (University of Waterloo, 1984–85) and The Rap (Halifax, 1985–87), social worker for the Black United Front of Nova Scotia (1985–86), parliamentary aide to Howard McCurdy (1987–91), and newspaper columnist for the Halifax Daily News (1988–89). Clarke is a sought-after conference speaker and is active in poetry circles throughout Canada, the US, the Caribbean, and Europe. He is also a founding member of the music collective Afro-Métis Nation, which put out its first album, Constitution, in May 2019. The group derives its name from the artists' mixed Africadian and Mi'kmaq descent. Clarke has described the group's sound as "a mash-up of southern-fried blues and saltwater spirituals, with Nashville guitars, Mi’kmaw-and-“African” drums, Highland bagpipes and Acadien fiddles." Writing career Clarke is recognized both for his own oeuvre, which includes seventeen collections of poetry, two novels, and four works of drama and opera, and for collecting and promoting stories of African-Canadian writers and poets in anthologies and studies such as Border Lines (1995), Eyeing the North Star (1997), Odysseys Home (2002), Fire on the Water (2002), Directions Home (2012) and Locating Home (2017). His artistic influences stretch from Shakespeare to Miles Davis, from Ezra Pound to Pierre Elliott Trudeau and Malcolm X, and it is from the fertile contradictions and tensions between thinkers of all periods of history that Clarke's later work draws much of its power. His style, with its embrace of the vernacular, the rambunctious, the unresolved and the spontaneous, lends itself well to the bold, passionate performances for which he is well known. His poetic and academic careers intersect in their particular emphasis on the perspectives of the African descendants in Canada and Nova Scotia, especially the African-American slaves’ descendants who settled on the East coast of Nova Scotia, whom he calls "Africadian." He writes that it is a word that he "minted from 'Africa' and 'Acadia' (the old name for Nova Scotia and New Brunswick), to denote the Black populations of the Maritimes and especially of Nova Scotia". He views "Africadian" literature as "literal and liberal—I canonize songs and sonnets, histories and homilies." Clarke has stated that he found further writing inspiration in the 1970s and his "individualist poetic scored with implicit social commentary" came from the "Gang of Seven" intellectuals, "poet-politicos: jazz trumpeter Miles Davis, troubadour-bard Bob Dylan, libertine lyricist Irving Layton, guerrilla leader and poet Mao Zedong, reactionary modernist Ezra Pound, Black Power orator Malcolm X and the Right Honourable Pierre Elliott Trudeau." Clarke found "as a whole, the group’s blunt talk, suave styles, acerbic independence, raunchy macho, feisty lyricism, singing heroic and a scarf-and-beret chivalry quite, well, liberating." His poetry and scholarship, which address and challenge historic encounters with racism, segregated areas, discrimination, hatred, forced relocation and a loss of a sense of identity and a sense of belonging experienced by the Black populations of Canada, have earned him worldwide acclaim. In his anthology Fire On The Water, Clarke uses a biblical timeline stretching from Genesis to Psalms and Proverbs to Revelation to present Black writings and authors born within a specific period. These names reflect the Africadians’ and other Black peoples’ forebears and the first singers' own preferences for singing "the Lord’s song in this strange land." In his most recent book, These Are the Words, a collaboration with Canadian Poet John B. Lee, Clarke translates one of the nine books of the Bible's apocrypha into a vigorous English vernacular. It is a prime example of his wide and open poetic sensibility, in which the spiritual and the sensual have equally their part. His intellectual contributions involve both his ability to combine literary criticism and theatrical forte and his continuance of the themes of cultural inclusiveness and Canadian iconic symbolism. In his 2007 play Trudeau: Long March, Shining Path, Clarke features his Liberal hero Trudeau (1919–2000) describing him as "the Shakespearean character: ...He’s a figure about whom it is almost impossible to say anything definitive because he is encompassed by so many contradictions but that’s what makes him interesting." In presenting a multicultural Trudeau on the international stage, Clarke seeks to capture the human dimensions, the personality of Trudeau rather than his politics so as to emphasize the dialogues among key characters and "show the people as people not just exponents of ideas". In 2012 Clarke was given substantial critical recognition in a volume devoted to the body of his writing, Africadian Atlantic: Essays on George Elliott Clarke, edited by Joseph Pivato. In his 2016 and 2017 collections of poems, the names of which, Canticles I (MXXVI) and Canticles I (MMXVII), are a reference to Ezra Pound's The Cantos and The Song of Solomon, Clarke puts famous thinkers, explorers and rulers of the 17th, 18th and 20th Centuries into a dialogue on slavery and heritage. Together, these collections make up the first part of a projected three-part epic. Canticles II: MMXIX was released in 2019. In his time as Poet Laureate of Toronto, Clarke created the Poets' Corner at City Hall, and worked with the Toronto Public Library to create the Toronto Poetry Map, an electronic map of the city that marks all sites referenced in Canadian poetry, and presents the relevant lines to the viewer. He also founded the East End Poetry Festival. For these accomplishments and more he is credited with expanding the role and responsibilities of the Poet Laureate considerably. Clarke similarly expanded the role of Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate during his tenure, becoming the first to have his poems recited in the Houses and recorded in Hansard. Family Mr Clarke is a great-nephew of the late Canadian opera singer Portia White, politician Bill White and labour union leader Jack White. Clarke is a seventh-generation African Canadian and is descended from African-American refugees from the War of 1812 who escaped to the British and were relocated to Nova Scotia. Clarke is the great grandson of William Andrew White, an American-born Baptist preacher and missionary, army chaplain, and radio pioneer, who was one of the very few black officers in the British army worldwide during World War I. Clarke also has Mi'kmaq Indigenous ancestry. Awards and merits In 1998 Clarke won the Portia White Prize for Artistic Achievement. In 2001, he won the Governor General's Award for poetry for his book Execution Poems, as well as the National Magazine Gold Medal for Poetry. He has also won the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Achievement Award (2004), the Pierre Elliott Trudeau Fellowship Prize (2005-2008), the Dartmouth Book Award for Fiction (2006), and the Eric Hoffer Book Award for Poetry (2009). Clarke was appointed to the Order of Nova Scotia in 2006, and to the Order of Canada, at the rank of Officer, in 2008. On January 16, 2008 Clarke was made an honorary Fellow of the Haliburton Literary Society, the oldest literary society in North America, at the University of King's College, Halifax; and in 2009 he was a co-recipient of the William P. Hubbard Award for Race Relations from the City of Toronto for his outstanding achievements and commitment in making a distinct difference in racial relations in Toronto. Clarke was chosen expressly for "his local and national leadership role in creating an understanding and awareness of African and black culture and excellence in his contribution to redefining culture." In November 2012, Clarke became Toronto's fourth Poet Laureate. In January 2016, Clarke became Canada's seventh Parliamentary Poet Laureate. In 2018, thanks to a gift from Ms. Rebecca Gardiner, the George Elliott Clarke Scholarship Fund was established at Duke University. Bibliography "To Paris, Burning," In Constance Rooke (ed.), Writing Away: the PEN Canada Travel Anthology, McClelland & Stewart Inc., 1994. Kamboureli, Smaro (1996), Making a Difference: Canadian Multicultural Literature. Toronto: Oxford University Press, pp. 491 Tracey, Lindalee (1999), A Scattering of Seeds: The Creation of Canada. Toronto: McArthur & Company Africadian Atlantic: Essays on George Elliott Clarke. ed. Joseph Pivato. Toronto: Guernica Editions, 2012. Poetry 1983: Saltwater Spirituals and Deeper Blues, Lawrencetown Beach, Nova Scotia: Pottersfield. 1990: Whylah Falls, Vancouver: Polestar, (revised edition, 2000, ) 1994: Lush Dreams, Blue Exile: Fugitive Poems 1978–1993. Lawrencetown Beach, Nova Scotia: Pottersfield. 1999: Gold Indigoes. Durham: Carolina Wren, 2001: Execution Poems: The Black Acadian Tragedy of George and Rue. Wolfville, Nova Scotia: Gaspereau Press, 2001: Blue. Vancouver: Polestar, 2001: Blue II, A Trestle Chapbook in Running With Scissors, Montréal: Cumulus Press, 2005: Illuminated Verses. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press, 2006: Black. Vancouver: Polestar, 2008: Blues and Bliss: The Poetry of George Elliott Clarke. Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2009: I & I. Fredericton: Goose Lane, 2011: Red. Gaspereau Press, 2013: Lasso the Wind: Aurélia’s Verses and Other Poems. Illus. Susan Tooke. Nimbus Books, 2013: Illicit Sonnets. Eyewear Publishing, 2014: Traverse. Exile Editions, 2015: Extra Illicit Sonnets. Exile Editions, 2016: Gold. Gaspereau Press, 2016: Canticles I (MMXVI). Guernica Editions, 2017: Canticles I (MMXVII). Guernica Editions, 2017: The Merchant of Venice (Retried). Kentville, Nova Scotia: Gaspereau Press. 2018: These Are the Words. Collaboration with John B. Lee. Hidden Book Press, 2019: Portia White: A Portrait in Words. Nimbus Publishing, Plays 1999: Whylah Falls: The Play. Toronto: Playwrights Canada, 1999: Beatrice Chancy. Vancouver: Polestar, 2003: Québécité. Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Gaspereau Press, 2007: Trudeau: Long March, Shining Path. Kentville, Nova Scotia: Gaspereau Press, Novels 2005: George and Rue. Toronto: HarperCollins, / 2016: The Motorcyclist. Toronto: HarperCollins Memoir 2021: Where Beauty Survived Anthologies edited 1991: Fire on the Water: An Anthology of Black Nova Scotian Writing, Volume One. Lawrencetown Beach, Nova Scotia: Pottersfield, 1992: Fire on the Water: An Anthology of Black Nova Scotian Writing, Volume Two. Lawrencetown Beach, Nova Scotia: Pottersfield, 1995: Border Lines: Contemporary Poems in English. Edited by J.A. Wainwright, George Elliot Clarke and others. Mississauga, Ont.: Copp Clark, 1995. 1997: Eyeing the North Star: Directions in African-Canadian Literature. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1997 2018: Locating Home: The First African-Canadian Novel and Verse Collections. Tightrope Books, 2018. Criticism 2002: Odysseys Home: Mapping African-Canadian Literature. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011: Directions Home: Approaches to African-Canadian Literature. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Awards 1979: Honourable Mention, Atlantic Writing Competition (Adult Poetry), Writers' Federation of Nova Scotia 1981: First Prize, Atlantic Writing Competition (Adult Poetry), Writers' Federation of Nova Scotia 1983: Second Prize, Bliss Carman Poetry Award, Banff Centre 1991: Archibald Lampman Award for Poetry, Ottawa Independent Writers 1998: Portia White Prize, Nova Scotia Arts Council 1998: Bellagio Center Fellow, Rockefeller Foundation, New York City 1999: Alumni Achievement Award, University of Waterloo 2002: Governor General's Award for Poetry, for Execution Poems National Magazine Gold Award for Poetry 2004: Martin Luther King Jr. Achievement Award, Black Theatre Workshop 2006: Pierre Elliott Trudeau Fellowship Prize, Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation 2006: Dartmouth Book Award for Fiction 2006: Frontieras Poesis Premuil [Prize], Poesis Magazine, International Poetry Festival, Satu Mare, Romania 2006: Order of Nova Scotia 2007: Longlisted for the International Dublin Literary Award, for George and Rue 2008: Officer of the Order of Canada 2009: Shortlisted, Dartmouth Book Award for Fiction 2010: Shortlisted, Acorn-Plantos Award for People's Poetry 2012: Honorary Doctor of Letters degree from Acadia University 2012: Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal 2012: Excellence in the Arts Award (Canadian Civil Liberties Association) 2012: Appointed by the Toronto City Council to the post of Poet Laureate of Toronto 2016: Appointed by The Parliament of Canada to the post of Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate 2017: Lifetime Achievement Award, Dalhousie University Alumni Association 2017: Trailblazers Award: National Black Canadians Summit, Federation of Black Canadians & Michaëlle Jean Foundation 2017: Elected, Fellow of the Royal Canadian Geographical Society See also Acadia Canadian literature Canadian poetry List of Canadian poets List of Canadian writers List of University of Waterloo people References Further reading Nora Tunkel: Tracing the Lyrics of the Unvoiced: G. E. Clarke, in Tunkel, Transcultural imaginaries. History and globalization in contemporary Canadian literature. Winter, Heidelberg 2012, S. 169 – 178. = Doct. thesis, Universität Wien 2009 1960 births Living people Black Canadian writers Black Nova Scotians 20th-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights 21st-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights Canadian literary critics Canadian male novelists Canadian people of American descent Canadian people of African-American descent 20th-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian male writers Canadian male poets Dalhousie University alumni Duke University faculty Governor General's Award-winning poets Writers from Nova Scotia Members of the Order of Nova Scotia Officers of the Order of Canada People from Windsor, Nova Scotia Queen's University at Kingston alumni University of Alberta alumni University of Waterloo alumni University of Toronto faculty 21st-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian poets Canadian librettists Canadian male dramatists and playwrights Poets Laureate of Toronto 21st-century Canadian male writers Canadian male non-fiction writers Canadian Parliamentary Poets Laureate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-tailed%20jaeger
Long-tailed jaeger
The long-tailed skua or long-tailed jaeger (Stercorarius longicaudus) is a seabird in the skua family Stercorariidae. Etymology The word "jaeger" is derived from the German word Jäger, meaning "hunter". The English word "skua" comes from the Faroese name skúgvur for the great skua, with the island of Skúvoy known for its colony of that bird. The general Faroese term for skuas is kjógvi . The genus name Stercorarius is Latin and means "of dung"; the food disgorged by other birds when pursued by skuas was once thought to be excrement. The specific longicaudus is from Latin longus, "long", and cauda, "tail". Description This species is unmistakable as an adult, with grey back, dark primary wing feathers without a white "flash", black cap and very long tail. Adults often hover over their breeding territories. Juveniles are much more problematic, and are difficult to separate from parasitic jaeger over the sea. They are slimmer, longer-winged and more tern-like than that species, but show the same wide range of plumage variation. However, they are usually colder toned than Arctic, with greyer shades, rather than brown. This is the smallest of the skua family at , depending on season and age. However up to of its length can be made up by the tail which may include the tail streamers of the summer adult. The wingspan of this species ranges from and the body mass is . Subspecies Two subspecies are described: S. l. longicaudus – Vieillot, 1819: nominate, found in northern Scandinavia and Russia. S. l. pallescens – Løppenthin, 1932: found in eastern Siberia, Arctic North America, and Greenland. Breeding This species breeds in the high Arctic of Eurasia and North America, with major populations in Russia, Alaska and Canada and smaller populations around the rest of the Arctic. It is a migrant, wintering in the south Atlantic and Pacific. Passage juvenile birds sometimes hunt small prey in ploughed fields or golf-courses, and are typically quite fearless of humans. They nest on dry tundra or higher fells laying two spotted olive-brown eggs. On the breeding grounds they can be heard making yelping and rattling sounds. Outside of the breeding season they spend most of their time over open ocean and have a harsh kreeah cry. This bird feeds on fish (mainly caught from other seabirds), smaller birds, food scraps, small mammals, fruit and carrion. On migration, long-tailed jaegers are more likely to catch their own food, and less likely to steal from gulls and terns than larger species. References External links Long-tailed jaeger photos at Oiseaux.net long-tailed jaeger Birds of the Arctic Holarctic birds long-tailed jaeger Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal
Illegal
Illegal, or unlawful, typically describes something that is explicitly prohibited by law, or is otherwise forbidden by a state or other governing body. Illegal may also refer to: Law Violation of law Crime, the practice of breaking the criminal law An illegal immigrant, a person that performed illegal immigration Entertainment The Illegal (novel) (2015), by Canadian writer Lawrence Hill Films Illegal (1932 film), British Illegal (1955 film), American Illegal (2010 film), Belgian The Illegal (2019), film starring Suraj Sharma Music Illegal (group), a 1990s rap group "Illegal" (song), a track from pop singer Shakira's 2005 release, Oral Fixation Vol. 2 See also The Illegal (disambiguation) Illegalism, an anarchist philosophy which openly embraced criminality as a lifestyle
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn%20Coady
Lynn Coady
Lynn Coady (born January 24, 1970) is a Canadian novelist and journalist. Life and career Coady was born and grew up in Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia. After high school, she attended Carleton University in Ottawa; after graduating, she moved to New Brunswick, where she worked at odd jobs for several years and began a career as a playwright. In 1996, she relocated to Vancouver, British Columbia, where she earned a Master of Fine Arts degree in creative writing from the University of British Columbia. In 2006 she moved to Edmonton and taught creative writing at Athabasca University where she developed a new course in writing the short story and in 2007 moved to Toronto to work at Anansi Press. Coady's first book, Strange Heaven (1998), was nominated for a Governor General's Award. The novel is set in Nova Scotia, giving Coady the opportunity to paint a different picture of her home province. Strange Heaven touches on the life of Bridget Murphy who has been admitted to a psychiatric ward after birthing a child who was put up for adoption. Upon returning to her Cape Breton home Murphy sees everything and everyone in a different light but still manages to find solace in this bizarre and somewhat dysfunctional home. Coady's second book, Play the Monster Blind (2000), was a national bestseller and a "Best Book" of 2000 for The Globe and Mail. Saints of Big Harbour (2002) was a Globe and Mail "Best Book" in 2002. Mean Boy was recognized as a "Best Book" in 2006. The novel is a first person account of 19-year-old Lawrence Campbell during his first year of university in a small New Brunswick town. The year is 1975 and Campbell has dreams of becoming a poet. He was drawn away from his rural Prince Edward Island home by the allure of studying with his poet hero, Jim Arsenault. As Campbell progresses through the year, much of Arsenault's shine wears off and Campbell learns that people are not always what one expects, but rather are complex and multi-dimensional. Coady's 2011 novel The Antagonist concerns the life of Gordon Rankin, Coady's fictional character known more commonly in the novel as Rank. The character reflects how being cast as a hockey goon and tough guy impacted his life. In response to a novel written about him by an old university friend Rank dedicates himself to providing his own account of events from his past. The reader is brought into Rank's world and exposed to his hurts, joys, and ultimately the realization that one must narrate their own lives and reject the labels others may try to give you. This novel was shortlisted for the 2011 Scotiabank Giller Prize;. Coady's 2013 book, Hellgoing is a collection of short stories, each about characters going through their own personal versions of hell. Despite this, the stories prompt laughing far more often than tears. This book was the winner of the 2013 Scotiabank Giller Prize. Coady has been awarded the Canadian Authors Association/Air Canada Award for the best writer under thirty, as well as the Dartmouth Book and Writing Award for fiction. Her articles and reviews have been featured in many publications, including Saturday Night, This Magazine, and Chatelaine. She has written several plays, and contributes regularly to The Globe and Mail. In 2017, Coady was announced as juror for the 2017 Scotiabank Giller Prize. Coady now lives in Toronto, Ontario. Bibliography Novels Strange Heaven (1998) Saints of Big Harbour (2002) Mean Boy (2006) The Antagonist (2011) Watching You Without Me (2019) Short stories Play the Monster Blind (2000) Hellgoing (2013) (won the 2013 Scotiabank Giller Prize) Non-fiction Who Needs Books? Reading in the Digital Age (University of Alberta Press, 2016) Anthologies Victory Meat: New Fiction from Atlantic Canada (2003) (editor) Penguin Book of Contemporary Canadian Women's Short Stories (2006) (contributor) Penguin Book of Canadian Short Stories (2007) (contributor) The Anansi Reader: Forty Years of Very Good Books (2007) (editor) The Journey Prize Stories 20: The Best of Canada's New Writers (2008) (co-editor)Great Expectations'' (2008) House of Anansi (contributor) References External links Lynn Coady Records of Lynn Coady are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books 1970 births People from Inverness County, Nova Scotia Living people Canadian women novelists Writers from Nova Scotia Canadian humorists Canadian satirists 20th-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian novelists Carleton University alumni University of British Columbia alumni 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian women writers Canadian women short story writers Women satirists 20th-century Canadian short story writers 21st-century Canadian short story writers Canadian Film Centre alumni Canadian women non-fiction writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIP
AIP
AIP may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Action International Pictures Afghan Islamic Press AIP Records, a record label American International Pictures, an independent film production/distribution company, now a subsidiary of MGM Art Institute of Pittsburgh Artistic Infusion Program, a program of the United States Mint, established in 2003 Aviation Aeronautical Information Publication Airport Improvement Program Medicine Aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein Acute intermittent porphyria Acute interstitial pneumonitis, Hamman-Rich syndrome Autoimmune pancreatitis Non-profit organizations American Institute of Parliamentarians American Institute of Philanthropy American Institute of Physics Australian Institute of Physics Political organizations Alaskan Independence Party American Independent Party Azərbaycan İslam Partiyası, Azerbaijan Islamic Party Other uses Adaptive Internet Protocol, a protocol used by Sun Secure Global Desktop Agreement in principle, a stepping stone to a contract Air-independent propulsion, a technology used in submarines Air Injection Pump, a component of the air injection system of an engine Archival information package, a component of the Open Archival Information System model Arrow information paradox, whereby proprietary information loses market value once revealed Astrophysical Institute Potsdam See also Aluminium phosphide (AlP), with a lower-case L instead of an I
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exogamy
Exogamy
Exogamy is the social norm of marrying outside one's social group. The group defines the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity. One form of exogamy is dual exogamy, in which two groups engage in continual wife exchange. In social science, exogamy is viewed as a combination of two related aspects: biological and cultural. Biological exogamy is marriage of nonblood-related beings, regulated by forms of incest law. Cultural exogamy is marrying outside a specific cultural group; the opposite being endogamy, marriage within a social group. Biology of exogamy Exogamy often results in two individuals that are not closely genetically related marrying each other; that is, outbreeding as opposed to inbreeding. In moderation, this benefits the offspring as it reduces the risk of the offspring inheriting two copies of a defective gene. Increasing the genetic diversity of the offspring improves the chances of offspring reproducing themselves, up until the fourth-cousin level of relatedness; however, reproduction between individuals on the fourth-cousin level of relatedness decreases evolutionarily fitness. In native populations, exogamy is "selected against" even if the population has "significant inbreeding depression because the benefits of local adaptation are greater than the cost of inbreeding." However, non-native, "invasive" populations that have "not yet established a pattern of local adaptation" may derive some adaptive benefit from admixture. Nancy Wilmsen Thornhill states that the drive in humans to not reproduce or be attracted to one's immediate family is evolutionarily adaptive, as it reduces the risk of children having genetic defects caused by inbreeding, as a result of inheriting two copies of a deleterious recessive gene. In one Old Order Amish society, inbreeding increases the risk of "neonatal and postneonatal mortality." In French populations, people who reproduce with their first cousin develop cystinosis at a greater rate than the general population. Cultural exogamy Cultural exogamy is the custom of marrying outside a specified group of people to which a person belongs. Thus, persons may be expected to marry outside their totem clan(s) or other groups, in addition to outside closer blood relatives. Researchers have proposed different theories to account for the origin of exogamy. Edvard Westermarck said an aversion to marriage between blood relatives or near kin emerged with a parental deterrence of incest. From a genetic point of view, aversion to breeding with close relatives results in fewer congenital diseases. If one person has a faulty gene, breeding outside his group increases the chances that his partner will have another functional type gene and their child may not suffer the defect. Outbreeding favours the condition of heterozygosity, that is having two nonidentical copies of a given gene. J. F. McLennan holds that exogamy was due originally to a scarcity of women among small bands. Men were obliged to seek wives from other groups, including marriage by capture, and exogamy developed as a cultural custom. Émile Durkheim derives exogamy from totemism. He said that a people had religious respect for the blood of a totemic clan, for the clan totem is a god and is present especially in the blood, a sacred substance. Morgan maintains that exogamy was introduced to prevent marriage between blood relations, especially between brother and sister, which had been common in an earlier state of promiscuity. Frazer says that exogamy was begun to maintain the survival of family groups, especially when single families became larger political groups. Lang in 1905 argued against Howitt's claim of group marriage and claims that so-called group marriage is only tribe-regulated licence. Claude Lévi-Strauss introduced the "Alliance Theory" of exogamy, that is, that small groups must force their members to marry outside so as to build alliances with other groups. According to this theory, groups that engaged in exogamy would flourish, while those that did not would all die, either literally or because they lacked sufficient ties for cultural and economic exchange, leaving them at a disadvantage. The exchange of men or women served as a uniting force between groups. Dual exogamy Dual exogamy is a traditional form of arranging marriages in numerous modern societies and in many societies described in classical literature. It can be matrilineal or patrilineal. It is practiced by some Australian tribes, historically widespread in the Turkic societies, Taï societies (Ivory Coast), Eskimo, among Ugrians and others. In tribal societies, the dual exogamy union lasted for many generations, ultimately uniting the groups initially unrelated by blood or language into a single tribe or nation. Linguistic exogamy Linguistic exogamy is a form of cultural exogamy in which marriage occurs only between speakers of different languages. The custom is common among indigenous groups in the northwest Amazon, such as the Tucano tribes. It is also used to describe families in Atlantic Canada with a Francophone and an Anglophone parent. See also Chinese surname: surname exogamy in China Emmanuel Todd, author of several demographic-history textbooks on the impact of exogamy on political-religious ideology Endogamy Gotra: exogamous unit in India Heterophily Hypergamy Interfaith marriage Interracial marriage Kinship Miscegenation References External links Multiculturalism Population genetics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied%20invasion%20of%20Sicily
Allied invasion of Sicily
The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a major campaign of World War II, in which the Allies took the island of Sicily from the Axis powers (Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany). It began with a large amphibious and airborne operation, followed by a six-week land campaign, and initiated the Italian Campaign. To divert some of the Axis forces to other areas, the Allies engaged in several deception operations, the most famous and successful of which was Operation Mincemeat. Husky began on the night of 9–10 July 1943, and ended on 17 August. Strategically, Husky achieved the goals set out for it by Allied planners; the Allies drove Axis air, land and naval forces from the island and the Mediterranean sea lanes were opened for Allied merchant ships for the first time since 1941. The Italian leader, Benito Mussolini, was toppled from power in Italy and the way was opened for the Allied invasion of Italy. The German leader, Adolf Hitler, "canceled a major offensive at Kursk after only a week, in part to divert forces to Italy", resulting in a reduction of German strength on the Eastern Front. The collapse of Italy necessitated German troops replacing the Italians in Italy and to a lesser extent the Balkans, resulting in one fifth of the entire German army being diverted from the east to southern Europe, a proportion that would remain until near the end of the war. Background Allies The plan for Operation Husky called for the amphibious assault of Sicily by two Allied armies, one landing on the south-eastern and one on the central southern coast. The amphibious assaults were to be supported by naval gunfire, as well as tactical bombing, interdiction and close air support by the combined air forces. As such, the operation required a complex command structure, incorporating land, naval and air forces. The overall commander was American General Dwight D. Eisenhower, as Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of all the Allied forces in North Africa. British General Sir Harold Alexander acted as his second-in-command and as the 15th Army Group commander. The American Major General Walter Bedell Smith was appointed as Eisenhower's Chief of Staff. The overall Naval Force Commander was the British Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham. The Allied land forces were from the American, British and Canadian armies, and were structured as two task forces. The Eastern Task Force (also known as Task Force 545) was led by General Sir Bernard Montgomery and consisted of the British Eighth Army (which included the 1st Canadian Infantry Division). The Western Task Force (Task Force 343) was commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton and consisted of the American Seventh Army. The two task force commanders reported to Alexander as commander of the 15th Army Group. The U.S. Seventh Army consisted initially of three infantry divisions, organized under II Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley. The 1st and 3rd Infantry Divisions, commanded by Major Generals Terry Allen and Lucian Truscott respectively, sailed from ports in Tunisia, while the 45th Infantry Division, under Major General Troy H. Middleton, sailed from the United States via Oran in Algeria. The 2nd Armored Division, under Major General Hugh Joseph Gaffey, also sailing from Oran, was to be a floating reserve and be fed into combat as required. On 15 July, Patton reorganized his command into two corps by creating a new Provisional Corps headquarters, commanded by his deputy army commander, Major General Geoffrey Keyes. The British Eighth Army had four infantry divisions and an independent infantry brigade organized under XIII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Miles Dempsey, and XXX Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese. The two divisions of XIII Corps, the 5th and 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Divisions, commanded by Major-Generals Horatio Berney-Ficklin and Sidney Kirkman, sailed from Suez in Egypt. The formations of XXX Corps sailed from more diverse ports: the 1st Canadian Infantry Division, under Major-General Guy Simonds, sailed from the United Kingdom, the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division, under Major-General Douglas Wimberley, from Tunisia and Malta, and the 231st Independent Infantry Brigade Group from Suez. The 1st Canadian Infantry Division was included in Operation Husky at the insistence of the Canadian Prime Minister, William Mackenzie King, and the Canadian Military Headquarters in the United Kingdom. This request was granted by the British, displacing the veteran British 3rd Infantry Division. The change was not finalized until 27 April 1943, when Lieutenant-General Andrew McNaughton, then commanding the Canadian First Army in the United Kingdom, deemed Operation Husky to be a viable military undertaking and agreed to the detachment of both the 1st Canadian Infantry Division and the 1st Canadian Tank Brigade. The "Red Patch Division" was added to Leese's XXX Corps to become part of the British Eighth Army. In addition to the amphibious landings, airborne troops were to be flown in to support both the Western and Eastern Task Forces. To the east, the British 1st Airborne Division, commanded by Major-General George F. Hopkinson, was to seize vital bridges and high ground in support of the British Eighth Army. The initial plan dictated that the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division, commanded by Major General Matthew Ridgway, was to be held as a tactical reserve in Tunisia. Allied naval forces were also grouped into two task forces to transport and support the invading armies. The Eastern Naval Task Force was formed from the British Mediterranean Fleet and was commanded by Admiral Bertram Ramsay. The Western Naval Task Force was formed around the U.S. Eighth Fleet, commanded by Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt. The two naval task force commanders reported to Admiral Cunningham as overall Naval Forces Commander. Two sloops of the Royal Indian Navy – HMIS Sutlej and HMIS Jumna – also participated. At the time of Operation Husky, the Allied air forces in North Africa and the Mediterranean were organized into the Mediterranean Air Command (MAC) under Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder. The major sub-command of MAC was the Northwest African Air Forces (NAAF) under the command of Lieutenant General Carl Spaatz with headquarters in Tunisia. NAAF consisted primarily of groups from the United States 12th Air Force, 9th Air Force, and the British Royal Air Force (RAF) that provided the primary air support for the operation. Other groups from the 9th Air Force under Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton operating from Tunisia and Egypt, and Air H.Q. Malta under Air Vice-Marshal Sir Keith Park operating from the island of Malta, also provided important air support. The U.S. Army Air Force 9th Air Force's medium bombers and P-40 fighter that were detached to NAAF's Northwest African Tactical Air Force under the command of Air Marshal Sir Arthur Coningham moved to southern airfields on Sicily as soon they were secured. At the time, the 9th Air Force was a sub-command of RAF Middle East Command under Air Chief Marshal Sir Sholto Douglas. Middle East Command, like NAAF and Air H.Q. Malta were sub-commands of MAC under Tedder who reported to Eisenhower for NAAF operations and to the British Chiefs of Staff for Air H.Q. Malta and Middle East Command operations. Axis The island was defended by the two corps of the Italian 6th Army under General Alfredo Guzzoni, although specially designated Fortress Areas around the main ports (), were commanded by admirals subordinate to Naval Headquarters and independent of the 6th Army. In early July, the total Axis force in Sicily was about 200,000 Italian troops, 32,000 German troops and 30,000 Luftwaffe ground staff. The main German formations were the Panzer Division Hermann Göring and the 15th Panzergrenadier Division. The Panzer division had 99 tanks in two battalions but was short of infantry (with only three battalions), while the 15th Panzergrenadier Division had three grenadier regiments and a tank battalion with 60 tanks. About half of the Italian troops were formed into four front-line infantry divisions and headquarters troops; the remainder were support troops or inferior coastal divisions and coastal brigades. Guzzoni's defence plan was for the coastal formations to form a screen to receive the invasion and allow time for the field divisions further back to intervene. By late July, the German units had been reinforced, principally by elements of the 1st Parachute Division, 29th Panzergrenadier Division and the XIV Panzer Corps headquarters (General der Panzertruppe Hans-Valentin Hube), bringing the number of German troops to around 70,000. Until the arrival of the corps headquarters, the two German divisions were nominally under Italian tactical control. The panzer division, with a reinforced infantry regiment from the panzergrenadier division to compensate for its lack of infantry, was under Italian XVI Corps and the rest of the panzergrenadier division under the Italian XII Corps. The German commanders in Sicily were contemptuous of their allies and German units took their orders from the German liaison officer attached to the 6th Army HQ, Generalleutnant Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin who was subordinate to Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring, the German C-in-C Army Command South (). Von Senger had arrived in Sicily in late June as part of a German plan to gain greater operational control of its units. Guzzoni agreed from 16 July to delegate to Hube control of all sectors where there were German units involved, and from 2 August, he commanded the Sicilian front. Planning At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943, with the end of the North African Campaign in sight, the political leaders and the military Chiefs of Staff of the United States and Britain met to discuss future strategy. The British Chiefs of Staff were in favour of an invasion of Sicily or Sardinia, arguing that it would force Germany to disperse its forces and might knock Italy out of the war and move Turkey to join the Allies. At first, the Americans opposed the plan as opportunistic and irrelevant, but were persuaded to agree to a Sicilian invasion on the grounds of the great savings to Allied shipping that would result from the opening of the Mediterranean by the removal of Axis air and naval forces from the island. The Combined Chiefs of Staff appointed General Eisenhower as C-in-C of the Allied Expeditionary Force, General Alexander as Deputy C-in-C with responsibility for detailed planning and execution of the operation, Admiral Cunningham as Naval Commander, and Air Chief Marshal Tedder as Air Commander. The outline plan given to Eisenhower by the Chiefs of Staff involved dispersed landings by brigade and division-sized formations in the south-east, south and north-west areas of the island. The logic behind the plan was that it would result in the rapid capture of key Axis airfields that posed a threat to the beachheads and the invasion fleet lying off them. It would also see the rapid capture of all the main ports on the island, except for Messina, including Catania, Palermo, Syracuse, Licata and Augusta. This would facilitate a rapid Allied build-up, as well as denying their use to the Axis. High-level planning for the operation lacked direction because the three mainland commanders, Alexander, Montgomery and Patton, were fully occupied in operations in Tunisia. Effort was wasted in presenting plans that Montgomery, in particular, disliked because of the dispersion of forces involved. He was finally able to articulate his objections and put forward alternative proposals on 24 April. Tedder and Cunningham opposed Montgomery's plan because it would leave 13 landing grounds in Axis hands, posing a considerable threat to the Allied invasion fleet. Eisenhower called a meeting for 2 May with Montgomery, Cunningham and Tedder, in which Montgomery made new proposals to concentrate the Allied effort on the southeast corner of Sicily, discarding the intended landings close to Palermo and using the south-eastern ports. After Alexander joined the meeting on 3 May, Montgomery's proposals were finally accepted on the basis that it was better to take an administrative risk (having to support troops by landing supplies across beaches) than an operational one (dispersion of effort). Not for the last time, Montgomery had argued a sound course of action, yet done so in a conceited manner, which suggested to others, particularly his American allies, that he was preoccupied with his own interests. In the event, maintaining the armies by landing supplies across the beaches proved easier than expected, partly because of the successful introduction of large numbers of the new amphibious DUKW vehicle. Alexander was later to write "It is not too much to say that the DUKW revolutionised the problem of beach maintenance." On 17 May, Alexander issued his Operation Instruction No. 1 setting out his broad plan and defining the tasks of the two armies. Broadly speaking, he intended to establish his armies along a line from Catania to Licata preparatory to a final operation to reduce the island. He later wrote that at that stage it was not practicable to plan further ahead but that his intentions were clear in his own mind what the next step would be: he would drive north ultimately to Santo Stefano on the northern coast to split the island in two and cut his enemy's east-west communications. The Seventh Army was assigned to land in the Gulf of Gela, in south-central Sicily, with the 3rd Infantry Division and 2nd Armored Division to the west at Licata Mollarella beach, 1st Division in the center at Gela, and 45th Division to the east at Scoglitti. The 82nd Airborne Division was assigned to drop behind the defences at Gela and Scoglitti. The Seventh Army's beach-front stretched over . The British Eighth Army was assigned to land in south-eastern Sicily. XXX Corps would land on either side of Cape Passero, while XIII Corps would land in the Gulf of Noto, around Avola, off to the north. The Eighth Army's beach front also stretched , and there was a gap of some between the two armies. Preparatory operations Once the Axis forces had been defeated in Tunisia, the Allied strategic bomber force commenced attacks on the principal airfields of Sardinia, Sicily and southern Italy, industrial targets in southern Italy and the ports of Naples, Messina, Palermo and Cagliari (in Sardinia). The attacks were spread to maintain uncertainty as to the next Allied move, and to pin down Axis aircraft and keep them away from Sicily. Bombing of northern Italy (by aircraft based in the UK) and Greece (by aircraft based in the Middle East) was increased. From 3 July, bombing concentrated on Sicilian airfields and Axis communications with Italy, although beach defences were left alone, to preserve surprise as to where the landings would occur. By 10 July, only two airfields in Sicily remained fully operational and over half the Axis aircraft had been forced to leave the island. Between mid-May and the invasion, Allied airmen flew 42,227 sorties and destroyed 323 German and 105 Italian aircraft, for the loss of 250 aircraft, mostly to anti-aircraft fire over Sicily. Operations began in May against the small island of Pantelleria, some southwest of Sicily and northwest of Malta, to prevent the airfield there being used in support of Axis troops attempting to withdraw from North Africa. On 13 and 31 May the cruiser bombarded the island and from 6 June, Allied attacks increased. On 11 June, after a naval bombardment and seaborne landing by the British 1st Infantry Division (Operation Corkscrew) the island garrison surrendered. The Pelagie Islands of Lampedusa and Linosa, some west of Malta, followed in short order on 12 June. Headquarters The Allies used a network of tunnels and chambers located below the Lascaris Battery in Valletta, Malta (the "Lascaris War Rooms"), for the advance headquarters of the invasion of Sicily. In July 1943, General Eisenhower, Admiral Cunningham, General Montgomery, and Air Marshal Tedder occupied the war rooms. Earlier, the war rooms had served as the British headquarters for the defence of Malta. Deception To distract the Axis, and if possible divert some of their forces to other areas, the Allies engaged in several deception operations. The most famous and successful of these was Operation Mincemeat, conceived by Naval intelligence officer Ewen Montagu and RAF Squadron Leader Charles Cholmondeley. The British allowed a corpse, disguised as a British Royal Marines officer, to drift ashore in Spain carrying a briefcase containing fake secret documents. The documents purported to reveal that the Allies were planning "Operation Brimstone" and that an "Operation Husky" was an invasion of Greece. German intelligence accepted the authenticity of the documents and the Germans diverted much of their defensive effort from Sicily to Greece until the occupation of Pantelleria on 11 June, which concentrated German and Italian attention on the western Mediterranean. Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel was sent to Greece to assume command. The Germans transferred a group of "R boats" (German minesweepers and minelayers) from Sicily and laid three additional minefields off the Greek coast. They also moved three panzer divisions to Greece, one from France and two from the Eastern Front which reduced German combat strength in the Kursk salient. Campaign Allied landings Airborne landings Two American and two British attacks by airborne troops were carried out just after midnight on the night of 9–10 July, as part of the invasion. The American paratroopers consisted largely of Colonel James M. Gavin's 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment (expanded into the 505th Parachute Regimental Combat Team with the addition of the 3rd Battalion of the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, along with the 456th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion, Company 'B' of the 307th Airborne Engineer Battalion and other supporting units) of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division, making their first combat drop. The British landings were preceded by pathfinders of the 21st Independent Parachute Company, who were to mark landing zones for the troops who were intending to seize the Ponte Grande, the bridge over the River Anape just south of Syracuse, and hold it until the British 5th Infantry Division arrived from the beaches at Cassibile, some to the south. Glider infantry from the British 1st Airborne Division's 1st Airlanding Brigade, commanded by Brigadier Philip Hicks, were to seize landing zones inland. Strong winds of up to blew the troop-carrying aircraft off course and the American force was scattered widely over south-east Sicily between Gela and Syracuse. By 14 July, about two-thirds of the 505th had managed to concentrate, and half the U.S. paratroopers failed to reach their rallying points. The British air-landing troops fared little better, with only 12 of the 147 gliders landing on target and 69 crashing into the sea, with over 200 men drowning. Among those who landed in the sea were Major General George F. Hopkinson, commander of the British 1st Airborne Division, who, after several hours spent clutching a piece of wreckage, was eventually rescued by the landing ship HMS Keren. The scattered airborne troops attacked patrols and created confusion wherever possible. A platoon of the 2nd Battalion, South Staffordshire Regiment, under Lieutenant Louis Withers, part of the British 1st Airlanding Brigade, landed on target, captured Ponte Grande and repulsed counterattacks. Additional paratroops rallied to the sound of shooting and by 08:30 were holding the bridge. By 11:30, a battalion of the Italian 75th Infantry Regiment (Colonel Francesco Ronco) from the 54th Infantry Division "Napoli" arrived with some artillery. The British force held out until about 15:30 hours, when, low on ammunition and by now reduced to 18 men, they were forced to surrender, 45 minutes before the leading elements of the British 5th Division arrived from the south. Despite these mishaps, the widespread landing of airborne troops, both American and British, had a positive effect as small isolated units, acting on their initiative, attacked vital points and created confusion. Seaborne landings The strong wind also made matters difficult for the amphibious landings but also ensured surprise as many of the defenders had assumed that no one would attempt a landing in such poor conditions. Landings were made in the early hours of 10 July on 26 main beaches spread along of the southern and eastern coasts of the island between the town of Licata where the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division, under the command of Major General Lucian Truscott, landed at Torre di Gaffe, red beach, and Mollarella and Poliscia, green beaches in the west, and Cassibile in the east, with British and Canadian forces in the east and Americans toward the west. This constituted the largest amphibious operation of World War II in terms of size of the landing zone and the number of divisions put ashore on the first day. The Italian defensive plan did not contemplate a pitched battle on the beaches and so the landings themselves were somewhat anti-climactic. More trouble was experienced from the difficult weather conditions (especially on the southern beaches) and unexpected hidden offshore sandbars than from the coastal divisions. Some troops landed in the wrong place, in the wrong order and as much as six hours behind schedule, but the weakness of the defensive response allowed the Allied force to make up lost time. Nevertheless, several Italian coastal units fought well; the 429th Coastal Battalion (under Major Marco Rubellino), tasked with defending Gela, lost 45 percent of its men, while the attacking U.S. Army Ranger Battalion lost several men to mines and machine-gun and cannon fire. Gruppo Tattico Carmito (under Lieutenant-Colonel Francesco Tropea), tasked with defending Malati Bridge, defeated a Royal Marines Commando Battalion on 13 July with the help of the local middle-age reservists. Lieutenant-Colonel Tropea's 4th Self-Propelled Artillery Battalion attacked the Commandos with the help of the 372nd Coastal Defence Battalion, Italian 53rd Motorcycle Company, and three Panzer IV medium tanks. The 246th Coastal Battalion defeated British attempts to capture Augusta on the night of 11–12 July. In Major General Terry Allen's U.S. 1st Infantry Division sector at Gela, there was an Italian division-sized counterattack where the dispersed 505th Parachute Regimental Combat Team was supposed to have been. Tiger tanks of the Hermann Göring Panzer Division, which had been due to advance with the 4th Infantry Division "Livorno", were late. On highways 115 and 117 during 10 July, Italian tanks of the "Niscemi" Armoured Combat Group and Livorno Division infantry nearly reached the Allied position at Gela, but gunfire from the destroyer and the light cruiser destroyed several tanks and dispersed the attacking infantry battalion. The 3rd Battalion, 34th Regiment, "Livorno" Infantry Division, composed mainly of conscripts, made a daylight attack on the Gela beachhead two days later, with infantry and armor of the Hermann Göring Panzer Division, but was repulsed. By the morning of 10 July, the Joint Task Force Operations Support System Force captured the port of Licata, at the cost of nearly 100 killed and wounded in the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division, and the division beat back a counter-attack from the 538th Coastal Defence Battalion. By 11:30, Licata was firmly in American hands and the U.S. 3rd Division had lost fewer than one hundred men. Salvage parties had already partially cleared the harbor, and shortly after noon Truscott and his staff came ashore and set up headquarters at Palazzo La Lumia. About that time, the 538th Coastal Defense Battalion, which had been deployed as a tactical reserve, launched a counter-attack. By the evening of 10 July, the seven Allied assault divisions—three American, three British and one Canadian—were well established ashore, the port of Syracuse had been captured, and fears of an Axis air onslaught had proved unfounded. The preparatory bombing of the previous weeks had greatly weakened the Axis air capability and the heavy Allied presence of aircraft operating from Malta, Gozo, and Pantelleria kept most of the Axis attempts at air attack at bay. Some attacks on the first day of the invasion got through, and German aircraft sank the landing ship LST-313 and minesweeper . Italian Stukas sank the destroyer and the Indian hospital ship Talamba, and in the following days Axis aircraft damaged or sank several more warships, transport vessels and landing craft starting with the Allied troopship hit and damaged by an Italian bomber formation on the morning of 11 July. Italian Stukas (named Picchiatello in Italian service) and Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 torpedo-bombers coordinated their attacks with German Stuka and Ju 88 bomber units. As part of the seaborne landings south at Agnone, some 400 men of Lieutenant Colonel John Durnford-Slater's No. 3 Commando captured Malati Bridge on 13 July, only to lose possession of it when the 4th Self-Propelled Artillery Battalion and the Italian 53rd Motorcycle Company counter-attacked. The Commandos lost 28 killed, 66 wounded and 59 captured or missing. Exploitation General Alexander's plan was to first establish his forces on a line between Licata in the west and Catania in the east before embarking on operations to reduce the rest of the island. Key to this was capturing ports to facilitate the buildup of his forces and the capture of airfields. The task of General Montgomery's British Eighth Army was, therefore, to capture the Pachino airfield on Cape Passero and the port of Syracuse before moving northwards to take the ports of Augusta and Catania. Their objectives also included the landing fields around Gerbini, on the Catania plain. The objectives of Lieutenant General Patton's U.S. Seventh Army included capturing the port of Licata and the airfields of Ponte Olivo, Biscari and Comiso. It was then to prevent the enemy reserves from moving eastward against the Eighth Army's left flank. According to Axis plans, (Colonel Wilhelm Schmalz), in conjunction with the 54th Infantry Division "Napoli" (Major-General Giulio Cesare Gotti Porcinari), was to counter-attack an Allied landing on the Augusta–Syracuse coast. On 10 July, Colonel Schmalz had been unable to contact the Italian division and had proceeded alone towards Syracuse. Unknown to Schmalz, a battalion of 18 Renault R35 tanks (commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Massimo D'Andretta) and supporting infantry from the Napoli Division, broke through the forward positions held by the 2nd Battalion, Wiltshire Regiment, part of the 13th Brigade of Major-General Horatio Berney-Ficklin's British 5th Division, and were stopped only by anti-tank and artillery fire in the Priolo and Floridia suburbs of Syracuse. On the night of 11–12 July, the Royal Navy attempted to capture Augusta but the 246th Coastal Battalion repelled the British landing force that was supported by three destroyers. On 12 July, several Italian units took up rearguard positions and covered the withdrawal of and the Hermann Göring Division. The American advance toward Canicattì was temporarily held up by Semovente da 90/53 tank destroyers, 526th Bersaglieri Battalion and 177th Bersaglieri Regiment from Gruppo Tattico Venturi (under General Enrico Francisci, killed in action and posthumously awarded the Gold Medal of Military Valour), as retreated toward Catania. The 246th Coastal Battalion retreated to strong points at Cozzo Telegrafo and Acquedolci. The 76th Infantry Regiment of the Napoli Division covered the left flank of which withdrew toward Lentini and then retired to Palermo. The Hermann Göring Division eventually pulled back from the Piano Lupo area toward Caltagirone and the Livorno Division withdrew its right flank toward Piazza Armerina, to cover the Hermann Göring Division. Early on 13 July, elements of the British 5th Division on Eighth Army's right flank, which had been delayed by , entered Augusta. On their left, Major-General Sidney Kirkman's British 50th Division had pushed up Route 114 toward Lentini, northwest of Augusta and met increasing resistance from the Napoli Division. The commander of the Italian division and his staff were captured by Brigadier John Currie's British 4th Armoured Brigade on 13 July and it was not until 18:45 on 14 July that the town was cleared of obstructions and snipers and the advance resumed. A battalion of the Napoli Division managed to break through the British lines and took up new positions at Augusta but the British advance forced it to retire again on 14 July. Further left, in the XXX Corps sector, Major-General Douglas Wimberley's 51st (Highland) Division had moved directly north to take Palazzolo and Vizzini west of Syracuse, while the Canadians secured Pachino airfield and headed north-west to make contact with the American right wing at Ragusa; after having driven off the Italian 122 Infantry Regiment north of Pachino. The Canadians captured more than 500 Italians. In the Canadian area, the 2nd Special Service Brigade, under Brigadier Robert Laycock, was counter-attacked by the 206th Coastal Division (under General Achille d'Havet) who launched a strong counter-attack that threatened to penetrate the area between the Canadians and the Royal Marine Commandos before being repulsed. In the American sector, by the morning of 10 July, the port of Licata had been captured. On 11 July, Patton ordered his reserve parachute troops from the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment (minus the 3rd Battalion already deployed in Sicily, attached to the 505th) under Colonel Reuben Tucker, part of Major General Matthew Ridgway's 82nd Airborne Division, to drop and reinforce the center. In addition, going along with the 504th would be the 376th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion, Company 'C' of the 307th Airborne Engineer Battalion and other supporting units. Warning orders had been issued to the fleet and troops on 6, 7, 10 and 11 July concerning the planned route and timing of the drop, so that the aircraft would not be fired on by friendly forces. They were intended to drop east of Ponte Olivo, about inland from Gela, to block routes to the 1st Infantry Division's bridgehead at Gela. The 144 Douglas C-47 transports arrived at the same time as an Axis air raid; the first echelon of troop carrying planes had dropped their loads without interference, when an Allied naval vessel fired on the formation. Immediately, all the other naval vessels and shore troops joined in, shooting down friendly aircraft and forcing paratroopers to jump far from their drop zones. The 52nd Troop Carrier Wing lost 23 of 144 С-47s to friendly fire; there were 318 casualties with 83 dead. Thirty-seven aircraft were damaged, while eight returned to base without dropping their parachutists. The paratroopers suffered 229 casualties to "friendly fire", including 81 dead. Among the casualties was Brigadier General Charles L. Keerans, Jr., the 82nd Airborne's assistant division commander (ADC), who was along with the 504th as an unofficial observer. The 325th Glider Infantry Regiment, part of the 82nd Airborne Division and commanded by Colonel Harry L. Lewis, was then waiting in North Africa and scheduled to land in Sicily by glider that night, together with the rest of the division staff. After what happened to the 504th, Ridgway canceled the operation. Despite this, the American beach landings went well and a substantial amount of supplies and transport was landed. Despite the failure of the airborne operation, the 1st Infantry Division took Ponte Olivo on 12 July and continued north, while Major General Troy H. Middleton's 45th Infantry Division on the right had taken the airfield at Comiso and entered Ragusa to link-up with the Canadians. On the left, Major General Truscott's 3rd Infantry Division, having landed at Licata, pushed troops up the coast almost to Argento and inland to Canicatti. Once the beachheads were secure, Alexander planned to split the island in half by thrusting north through the Caltanissetta and Enna region, to deny the defenders the central east-west lateral road. A further push north to Nicosia would cut the next lateral route and a final advance to Santo Stefano on the north coast would cut the coastal route. In new orders issued on 13 July, he gave this task to Montgomery's Eighth Army, perhaps based on a somewhat over-optimistic situation report by Montgomery late on 12 July, while the Seventh Army were to continue their holding role on the left flank of the Eighth Army, despite what appeared to be an opportunity for them to make a bold offensive move. On 12 July, Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring had visited Sicily and formed the opinion that German troops were fighting virtually on their own. As a consequence, he concluded that the German formations needed to be reinforced, and that western Sicily should be abandoned in order to shorten the front line. The priority was first to slow and then halt the Allied advance, while a was formed running from San Stefano on the northern coast, through Nicosia and Agira to Cantenanuova and from there to the eastern coast south of Catania. While XIII Corps, under Lieutenant General Miles Dempsey, continued to push along the Catania road, XXX Corps, under Lieutenant General Oliver Leese, were directed north along two routes; the first was an inland route through Vizzini, and the second following Route 124, which cut across the U.S. 45th Infantry Division, which had to return to the coast at Gela for redeployment behind the U.S. 1st Infantry Division. Progress was slow as skilfully delayed the British 5th Infantry Division, allowing time for two regiments from the German 1st Parachute Division flying to Catania to deploy. On 12 July, the British 1st Parachute Brigade, commanded by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury, had been dropped in Operation Fustian, an attempt to capture the Primosole Bridge over the river Simeto, on the southern edge of the Catania plain. The British paratroopers suffered heavy casualties, but managed to hold the bridge against fierce Axis attacks. The initial counterattacks were Italian in the form of reinforcements from the 10th Arditi Paratroop Regiment (Major Vito Marciano), gunners from the 29th Artillery Group fighting in the infantry role and an armoured car squadron that nearly overran the headquarters of 9th Battalion, the Durham Light Infantry, at nightfall in the first day of the battle for Primosole Bridge. The British 5th Division was delayed by strong opposition, but made contact early on 15 July; nevertheless, it was not until 17 July that a shallow bridgehead north of the river was consolidated. On 16 July, the surviving Italian aircraft withdrew to the mainland. About 160 Italian planes had been lost in the first week of the invasion, 57 lost to Allied fighters and anti-aircraft fire on 10–12 July alone. That day, an Italian bomber torpedoed the aircraft carrier HMS Indomitable, and the torpedoed the cruiser HMS Cleopatra. Both ships were put out of action for over a year. On the night of 17 July, the , equipped with EC.3 Gufo radar, detected and engaged four British Elco motor torpedo boats lurking away, while passing the Strait of Messina at high speed. MTB 316 was sunk and MTB 313 damaged between Reggio di Calabria and Pellaro–twelve British sailors were killed. On the night of 17–18 July, Montgomery renewed his attack toward Catania, with two brigades of Major General Kirkman's 50th Division. They met strong opposition and by 19 July Montgomery decided to call off the attack and instead increase the pressure on his left. The 5th Division attacked on the 50th Division's left but with no greater success, and on 20 July, the 51st Division, further west, crossed the river Dittaino at Sferro and made for the Gerbini airfields. They too were driven back by counter-attacks on 21 July. On the left flank, the 1st Canadian Division continued to advance but it was becoming clear that, as German units settled into their new positions in north eastern Sicily, the army would not have sufficient strength to carry the whole front and the Canadians were ordered to continue north to Leonforte and then turn eastward to Adrano on the south-western slopes of Mount Etna, instead of an encirclement of Mount Etna using Route 120 to Randazzo. Montgomery called forward his reserve division from North Africa, Major-General Vyvyan Evelegh's British 78th Infantry Division. Patton had reorganised his forces into two corps. The Provisional Corps, commanded by Major General Geoffrey Keyes, consisting of the 2nd Armored, 3rd Infantry, and 82nd Airborne Divisions, was on the left. Lieutenant General Omar Bradley's U.S. II Corps was on the right. By 17 July, Provisional Corps had captured Porto Empedocle and Agrigento. On 18 July, II Corps took Caltanissetta, just short of Route 121, the main east–west lateral through the center of Sicily. The American advance toward Agrigento was temporarily held up by the 207th Coastal Defence Division (under Colonel Augusto De Laurentis) that was at Sant'Oliva Station, inland from Licata. The 10th Bersaglieri Regiment (under Colonel Fabrizio Storti) forced Colonel William O. Darby's 1st and 3rd Ranger Battalions of the 3rd Infantry Division to fight their way into Agrigento. By late afternoon on 16 July, the city was in American hands. The 15th Panzer Grenadier Division managed to join the other German formations in the east of the island. Patton was ordered on 18 July to push troops north through Petralia on Route 120, the next east–west lateral, and then to cut the northern coast road. After that, he would mop up the west of the island. Bradley's II Corps were given the task of making the northward move, while the Provisional Corps was tasked with the mopping up operation. Alexander issued further orders to Patton to develop an eastward threat along the coast road once he had cut it. He was also directed to capture Palermo as quickly as possible as the main supply base for further eastward commitment north of Mount Etna. On 21 July, the Seventh Army's Provisional Corps overran the Italian battlegroup Raggruppamento Schreiber (under General Ottorino Schreiber), covering the withdrawal of the 15th Panzer Panzergrenadier Division, but Patton lost 300 men killed and wounded in the process. On 22 July, the Provisional Corps entered Palermo, and the next day the 45th Division cut the north coast road. Battles for Etna positions During the last week in July, General Montgomery gathered his forces to renew the attack on 1 August. His immediate objective was Adrano, the capture of which would split the German forces on either side of Mount Etna. During the week, the Canadians and Brigadier Roy Urquhart's 231st Brigade Group continued their eastward push from Leonforte, and on 29 July had taken Agira, some west of Adrano. On the night of 29 July, the British 78th Division with the 3rd Canadian Brigade under command, took Catenanuova and made a bridgehead across the river Dittaino. On the night of 1 August, they resumed their attack to the northwest toward Centuripe, an isolated pinnacle of rock, which was the main southern outpost of the Adrano defences. After heavy fighting against the Hermann Göring Division and the 3rd Parachute Regiment all day on 2 August, the town was finally cleared of defenders on the morning of 3 August. The capture of Centuripe proved critical, in that the growing threat to Adrano made the position covering Catania untenable. Patton had decided that his communications could support two divisions pushing east, the 45th Division on the coast road and the 1st Division on Route 120. In order to maintain the pressure, he relieved the 45th Division with the fresher 3rd Division and called up Major General Manton Eddy's 9th Infantry Division from reserve in North Africa to relieve the 1st Division. Axis forces were now settled on a second defensive line, the Etna Line, running from San Fratello on the north coast through Troina and Aderno. On 31 July, the 1st Division with elements of the arriving 9th Division attached, reached Troina and the Battle of Troina commenced. This important position was held by the 15th Panzer Grenadier Division. The remnants of the 28th Infantry Division "Aosta" in the form of four battalions had also been pulled back to Troina to assist in the defensive preparations and forthcoming battle. For six days, the Germans and Italians conducted a costly defence; during the battle, they launched 24 counter-attacks and many small local ones. By 7 August, Colonel George Smith's U.S. 18th Infantry Regiment, of the 9th Division, had captured Mount Pellegrino, which overlooked the Troina defences, allowing accurate direction of Allied artillery. The defenders' left flank was also becoming exposed as the adjacent Hermann Göring Division was pushed back by British XXX Corps and they were ordered to withdraw that night in phases to the defensive positions of the Tortorici Line. Elements of the 29th Panzergrenadier Division and 26th Infantry Division "Assietta", were also proving difficult to dislodge on the coast at Santa Agata and San Fratello. Patton sent a small amphibious force behind the defences, which led to the fall of Santa Agata on 8 August after holding out for six days. On 3 August, XIII Corps exploited the disorganisation caused by the threat to Adrano and resumed their advance on Catania, and by 5 August the town was in their hands. Adrano fell to the 78th Division on the night of 6 August, while on the right, the 51st (Highland) Division took Biancavilla, southeast of Adrano. After the fall of Adrano, the 1st Canadian Division was withdrawn into Army Reserve. On 8 August, the 78th Division moved north from Adrano took Bronte and the 9th Division, advancing from Troina, took Cesaro, valuable positions on the New Hube Line. Both divisions converged on Randazzo, on the north-west slopes of Etna. Randazzo fell on 13 August and 78th Division was taken into reserve. As the Allied advance continued, the front line shortened and Montgomery decided to withdraw XIII Corps HQ and the British 5th Infantry Division, now commanded by Major General Gerard Bucknall (replacing Major General Berney-Ficklin who returned to England), on 10 August, to allow them to prepare for the landings on mainland Italy. On the northern coast, the U.S. 3rd Division continued to meet strong resistance and difficulties created by extensive demolition of the road. Two more end-run amphibious attacks, and the rebuilding efforts of the engineers, kept the advance moving. Although Generalfeldmarschall Kesselring had already decided to evacuate, the Axis forces continued their delaying tactics, assisted by the favorable defensive terrain of the Messina Peninsula; on the night of 16 August, the leading elements of the 3rd Division entered Messina. Axis evacuation By 27 July, the Axis commanders had realised that the outcome of the campaign would be an evacuation from Messina. Kesselring reported to Hitler on 29 July that an evacuation could be accomplished in three days and initial written plans were formulated dated 1 August. However, when Hube suggested on 4 August that a start should be made by transferring superfluous men and equipment, Guzzoni refused to sanction the idea without the approval of the Comando Supremo. The Germans nevertheless went ahead, transferring over 12,000 men, 4,500 vehicles and 5,000 tons of equipment from 1–10 August. On 6 August, Hube suggested to Guzzoni, via von Senger, that HQ 6th Army should move to Calabria. Guzzoni rejected the idea but asked if Hube had decided to evacuate Sicily. Von Senger replied that Hube had not. The next day, Guzzoni learned of the German plan for evacuation and reported to Rome of his conviction of their intentions. On 7 August, Guzzoni reported that, without German support, any last ditch stand would only be short. On 9 August, Rome ordered that Guzzoni's authority should be extended to Calabria and that he should transfer some forces there to reinforce the area. On 10 August, Guzzoni informed Hube that he was responsible for the defence of northeast Sicily and that Italian coastal units and the Messina garrison were under his command. Guzzoni then crossed to the mainland with 6th Army HQ and 16th Corps HQ, leaving Admiral Pietro Barone and Admiral Pietro Parenti to organise the evacuation of the remains of the Livorno and Assietta divisions (and any other troops and equipment that could be saved). The German plan was thorough, with clear lines of command imposing strict discipline on the operation. Oberst Ernst-Günther Baade was the German Commandant Messina Straits, with Fortress Commander powers, including control over infantry, artillery, anti-aircraft, engineer and construction, transport and administration units as well as German naval transport headquarters. On the mainland, Generalmajor Richard Heidrich, who had remained in Calabria with the 1st Parachute Division headquarters and the 1st Parachute Regiment, when the rest of the division had been sent as reinforcements to Sicily, was appointed XIV Panzer Corps Mainland Commander to receive evacuating formations, while Hube continued to control the operations on the island. Full-scale withdrawal began on 11 August and continued to 17 August. During this period, Hube ordered successive withdrawals each night of between , keeping the following Allied units at arm's length with the use of mines, demolitions and other obstacles. As the peninsula narrowed, shortening his front, he was able to withdraw units for evacuation. The Allies attempted to counter this by launching brigade-sized amphibious assaults, one each by the Seventh and Eighth Armies, on 15 August. However, the speed of the Axis withdrawal was such that these operations "hit air". The German and Italian evacuation schemes proved highly successful. The Allies were not able to prevent the orderly withdrawal nor effectively interfere with transports across the Strait of Messina. The narrow straits were protected by 120 heavy and 112 light anti-aircraft guns. The resulting overlapping gunfire from both sides of the strait was described by Allied pilots as worse than the Ruhr, making daylight air attacks highly hazardous and generally unsuccessful. Night attacks were less hazardous and there were times when air attack was able to delay and even suspend traffic across the straits but when daylight returned, the Axis were able to clear the backlog from the previous night. Nor was naval interdiction any more practicable. The straits varied from wide and were covered by artillery up to in caliber. This, combined with the hazards of a current and fear that Italian warships were preparing to attack the Straits of Messina in a suicide run, made risking warships unjustifiable. Aftermath On 18 August, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht recorded that 60,000 troops had been recovered and the Italian figure was about 75,000. In 2004, Tomlin wrote that the Italians evacuated 62,182 men, 41 guns and 227 vehicles with the loss of only one motor raft and the train ferry Carridi, which was scuttled when Allied troops entered Messina. The Germans evacuated some 52,000 troops (including 4,444 wounded), 14,105 vehicles, 47 tanks, 94 guns, 1,100 tons of ammunition, and about 20,700 tons of gear and stores. Casualties The U.S. Seventh Army lost 8,781 men (2,237 killed or missing, 5,946 wounded, and 598 captured), while the British Eighth Army suffered 11,843 casualties (2,062 killed or missing, 7,137 wounded and 2,644 captured). The U.S. Navy lost 546 killed or missing and 484 wounded and the Royal Navy lost 314 killed or missing, 411 wounded and four captured. The USAAF reported 28 killed, 88 missing and 41 wounded. Canadian forces had suffered 2,310 casualties, including 562 killed, 1,664 wounded, and 84 captured. In 2007, Samuel W. Mitcham and Friederich von Stauffenberg wrote that German units lost about 20,000 men who were either killed, wounded or captured and in Germany and the Second World War (2007) Messerschmidt et al. reported that the German forces lost 4,325 men killed, 4,583 missing, 5,532 captured and 13,500 wounded, a total of 27,940 casualties. According to the Historical Branch of the Italian Army, Italian military losses were 4,678 killed, 36,072 missing, 32,500 wounded and 116,681 captured. A large part of the missing were presumed to have been killed and buried on the battlefield or in unknown locations, whereas another part presumably included locally recruited soldiers who deserted and returned to their homes. In 2007, Mitcham and Von Stauffenberg estimated Italian total casualties as 147,000. An earlier Canadian study of the Allied invasion estimated the total number of Italian and Germans taken prisoner in Sicily to be around 100,000. War crimes Immediately after landing in Sicily, some killings of civilians by US troops were reported. These include the Vittoria massacre, where 12 Italians died (including Giuseppe Mangano, podestà of Acate, and his seventeen-year-old son Valerio, who was killed by a bayonet thrust to his face), in Piano Stella, Agrigento, where a group of peasants was murdered, and the Canicattì massacre, in which at least eight civilians, including an eleven-year-old girl, were killed. After the capture of Biscari airfield on 14 July, American soldiers from the 180th Regimental Combat Team of the 45th Division murdered 74 Italian and two German prisoners of war in two massacres at Biscari airfield on 14 July 1943. Sergeant Horace T. West and Captain John T. Compton were charged with a war crime; West was convicted and sentenced to life in prison and stripped of his rank but was released back to active service in November 1944 as a private, and honorably discharged at the end of his service. Compton was charged with killing 40 prisoners in his charge but was acquitted and transferred to another regiment, where he died in November 1943 in the fighting in Italy. Various sources, including the Special Investigation Branch as well as evidences from Belgian reporters, said that rape and sexual harassment by British troops occurred frequently following the invasion of Sicily in 1943. According to Mitcham and von Stauffenberg, the Canadian The Loyal Edmonton Regiment also murdered German prisoners of war during the Invasion of Sicily. Constituent operations Operation Barclay/Operation Mincemeat: Deception operations aimed at misleading Axis forces as to the actual date and location of the Allied landings. Operation Corkscrew: Allied invasion of the Italian island Pantelleria on 10 June 1943. Operation Ladbroke: Glider landing at Syracuse on 9 July 1943. Operation Narcissus: Commando raid on a lighthouse near the main landings on 10 July 1943. Operation Chestnut: Advanced air drop by 2 SAS to disrupt communications on 12 July 1943. Operation Fustian: Airborne landing at Primosole Bridge ahead on 13–14 July 1943. See also Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories References Bibliography published in Further reading External links Describes Operation Mincemeat Gela Beachhead Counterattack of 1943 Husky Operations Plan Sicily Excerpt from The Day Of Battle by Rick Atkinson March From The Beaches, Time, 26 July 1943 Canadians in Sicily, 1943 Canadians in Sicily: Photos, battle info, video footage and newspaper archives World War Two Online Newspaper Archives – The Sicilian and Italian Campaigns, 1943–1945 Operation Husky: The Allied Invasion of Sicily, 1943 by Thomas E. Nutter Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and Second World War (Sicily) 2nd World War Best of Sicily History of the Allied Campaign and its social context The 82nd Airborne during World War II Historical Museum of the Military Invasion of Sicily, 1943 (Museo Storico dello Sbarco in Sicilia 1943) Dedicated to the historical event which culminated in the liberation of Sicily and Italy from the German occupation German Soldiers' Cemetery, Motta S. Anastasia, Sicily (in German) Commonwealth War Cemetery, Catania, Sicily Syracuse War Cemetery, Sicily Agira Canadian War Cemetery, Sicily Sicily-Rome American Cemetery and Memorial COHQ bulletin Y6 digest of reports on Operation 'Husky' COHQ bulletin Y1 notes on the planning and assault phase of the Sicilian operation 45th Infantry Division in the Sicilian Campaign The Irish Brigade 1941–47 account of the 38th (Irish) Brigade in Sicily in August 1943 Licata Landing La Vedettaonline Sicily and the Surrender of Italy/Landing at Mollarella Beach US Official History Agrigento-Licata from 10–16 July Husky Planning on 10 July 1943 20th century in Sicily 1943 in Italy Conflicts in 1943 Battles and operations of World War II involving Canada Military history of Canada during World War II Invasions by Canada Battles and operations of World War II involving Germany Battles and operations of World War II involving Italy Battles and operations of World War II involving the United States United States Army Rangers Military history of Sicily Italian campaign (World War II) Naval battles and operations of the European theatre of World War II World War II operations and battles of the Italian Campaign Sicily Military history of France during World War II Amphibious operations of World War II Amphibious operations involving the United States Amphibious operations involving the United Kingdom Amphibious operations involving Canada Military operations of World War II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen%20Connelly
Karen Connelly
Karen Marie Connelly (born 12 March 1969) is a Canadian travel writer, novelist and poet who has written extensively about her experiences living in Greece, Thailand and Canada. Life and work Connelly was born in Calgary, Alberta. At seventeen, she lived in a Thai village thanks to a Rotary exchange scholarship. She returned to Canada a year later. At nineteen, she left for Spain, where she lived almost two years. Having no work visa, she supported herself by, among other things, teaching English as a second language. In her spare time, she wrote about her experiences and took photographs with which to illustrate her writing. She also reworked the letters and journals, which she had written in Thailand, into a manuscript that was to become Touch the Dragon by Karen Connelly. In 1991, she moved to France and settled in Montclar, Avignon, where she studied French and Spanish. Soon after, she travelled to Greece, spending most of her time on the island of Lesbos, to which she has occasionally returned. She then moved back to Canada for an extended period, writing and promoting her work. Her first book, a poetry collection entitled The Small Words in My Body (1990), won the Pat Lowther Award for poetry in 1991. Her second book, Touch the Dragon: A Thai Journal (1992), won the Governor General's Award for non-fiction. Three poetry collections followed, This Brighter Prison (1993) The Disorder of Love (1997) and The Border Surrounds Us (2000). She also compiled a book of letters, One Room in a Castle, detailing her experiences in Europe. In 1996, she returned to Thailand and also visited Myanmar (she prefers the older name, Burma). Her experiences there served as the basis for her novel about a political prisoner, The Lizard Cage, which won the Orange Broadband Prize for New Writers and was longlisted for the 2007 International Dublin Literary Award. Connelly remained in Thailand for two years before returning to Canada, where she married. She lives in Toronto. Bibliography The Small Words in My Body – 1990 Touch the Dragon: A Thai Journal — 1992 This Brighter Prison: A Book of Journeys — 1993 One Room in a Castle — 1995 The Disorder of Love — 1997 The Border Surrounds Us — 2000 Grace and Poison [reprints The Small Words in My Body and The Disorder of Love with a new preface] – 2001 The Lizard Cage – 2005 Burmese Lessons – 2010 Come Cold River – 2013 The Change Room – 2017 See also List of Canadian poets References External links Official Website Karen Connelly's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia 1993 Interview Transcript 2007 online interview from CBC Words at Large Audio interview about Burmese Lessons (2009) 1969 births Living people 20th-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian poets 21st-century Canadian women writers Canadian people of Irish descent Canadian women poets Canadian women novelists Governor General's Award-winning non-fiction writers Writers from Calgary Canadian women non-fiction writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nad%20Tatrou%20sa%20bl%C3%BDska
Nad Tatrou sa blýska
{{Infobox anthem |title = Nad Tatrou sa blýska |english_title = Lightning over the Tatras |prefix = National |country = Slovakia Former co-national anthem of Czechoslovakia |image = Nad_Tatrou_1851.gif |image_size = |caption = The first printed version of "Nad Tatrou sa blýska" |alt_title = "Dobrovoľnícka" |en_alt_title = "Volunteer Song" |composer = Kopala studienku |author = Janko Matúška, 1844 |adopted = |until = (by Czechoslovakia) |readopted = (by Slovakia) |sound = Nad Tatrou sa blýska.ogg |sound_title = "Nad Tatrou sa blýska" (instrumental, one verse) }} "Nad Tatrou sa blýska'" (; , "Above Tatras it is lightening") is the national anthem of Slovakia. The origins of it are in the Central European activism of the 19th century. Its main themes are a storm over the Tatra mountains that symbolized danger to the Slovaks, and a desire for a resolution of the threat. It used to be particularly popular during the 1848–1849 insurgencies. It was one of Czechoslovakia's dual national anthems and was played in many Slovak towns at noon; this tradition ceased to exist after Czechoslovakia split into two different states in the early 1990s with the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Origin Background 23-year-old Janko Matúška wrote the lyrics of "Nad Tatrou sa blýska" in January and February 1844. The tune came from the folk song "Kopala studienku" () suggested to him by his fellow student Jozef Podhradský, a future religious and Pan-Slavic activist and gymnasial teacher. Shortly afterwards, Matúška and about two dozen other students left their prestigious Lutheran lyceum of Pressburg (preparatory high school and college) in protest over the removal of Ľudovít Štúr from his teaching position by the Lutheran Church under pressure from the authorities. The territory of present-day Slovakia was part of the Kingdom of Hungary within the Austrian Empire then, and the officials objected to his Slovak nationalism. "Lightning over the Tatras" was written during the weeks when the students were agitated about the repeated denials of their and others' appeals to the school board to reverse Štúr's dismissal. About a dozen of the defecting students transferred to the Lutheran gymnasium of Levoča. When one of the students, the 18-year-old budding journalist and writer Viliam Pauliny-Tóth, wrote down the oldest known record of the poem in his school notebook in 1844, he gave it the title of Prešporskí Slováci, budúci Levočania (Pressburg Slovaks, Future Levočians), which reflected the motivation of its origin. The journey from Pressburg (present-day Bratislava) to Levoča took the students past the High Tatras, Slovakia's and the then Kingdom of Hungary's highest, imposing, and symbolic mountain range. A storm above the mountains is a key theme in the poem. Versions No authorized version of Matúška's lyrics has been preserved and its early records remained without attribution. He stopped publishing after 1849 and later became clerk of the district court. The song became popular during the Slovak Volunteer campaigns of 1848 and 1849. Its text was copied and recopied in hand before it appeared in print in 1851 (unattributed, as Dobrovoľnícka – Volunteer Song), which gave rise to some variation, namely concerning the phrase zastavme ich ("let's stop them") or zastavme sa ("let's stop"). A review of the extant copies and related literature inferred that Matúška's original was most likely to have contained "let's stop them." Among other documents, it occurred both in its oldest preserved handwritten record from 1844 and in its first printed version from 1851. The legislated Slovak national anthem uses this version, the other phrase was used before 1993. National anthem On 13 December 1918, only the first stanza of Janko Matúška's lyrics became half of the two-part bilingual Czechoslovak anthem, composed of the first stanza from a Czech operetta tune, Kde domov můj (Where Is My Home?), and the first stanza of Matúška's song, each sung in its respective language and both played in that sequence with their respective tunes. The songs reflected the two nations' concerns in the 19th century when they were confronted with the already fervent national-ethnic activism of the Hungarians and the Germans, their fellow ethnic groups in the Habsburg Monarchy. During the Second World War, "Hej, Slováci" was adopted as the unofficial state anthem of the puppet regime Slovak Republic. When Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic in 1993, the second stanza was added to the first and the result legislated as Slovakia's national anthem. Lyrics Lyrical English translation (first two stanzas) : Far above the Tatras Lightning bolts are pounding. These bolts shall we banish, brothers, they will vanish; Slovaks are rebounding. Our Slovakia was, until now, quiescent. But the lightning flashing and the thunder crashing made it effervescent. Romantic poets began to employ the Tatras as a symbol of the Slovaks' homeland. That is, to join the national-ethnic activism already underway among other peoples of Central Europe in the 19th century. The standard meaning of sláva is "glory" or "fame". The figurative meaning, first used by Ján Kollár in the monumental poem The Daughter Of Sláva in 1824, is "Goddess/Mother of the Slavs". The idiomatic simile "like a fir" (ako jedľa) was applied to men in a variety of positive meanings: "stand tall," "have a handsome figure," "be tall and brawny," etc. See the article on Kriváň for the mountain's symbolism. Poetics One of the trends shared by many Slovak Romantic poets was frequent versification that imitated the patterns of the local folk songs. The additional impetus for Janko Matúška to embrace the trend in Lightning over the Tatras was that he actually designed it to replace the lyrics of an existing folk song. Among the Romantic-folkloric features in the structure of Lightning over the Tatras are the equal number of syllables per verse, and the consistent a−b−b−a disyllabic rhyming of verses 2-5 in each stanza. Leaving the first verses unrhymed was Matúška's license (a single matching sound, blýska—bratia'', did not qualify as a rhyme): — Nad Tatrou sa blýska a - Hromy divo bijú b - Zastavme ich bratia b - Veď sa ony stratia a - Slováci ožijú Another traditional arrangement of Matúška's lines gives 4-verse stanzas rhymed a−b−b−a with the first verse made up of 12 syllables split by a mid-pause, and each of the remaining 3 verses made up of 6 syllables: a - Nad Tatrou sa blýska, hromy divo bijú b - Zastavme ich bratia b - Veď sa ony stratia a - Slováci ožijú See also Slovak nationalism References External links Anthem of the Slovak Republic – A page at the official website of the President of Slovakia featuring various audio files of the state anthem Slovak National Anthem, sheet music, lyrics Slovakia: Nad Tatrou sa blýska - Audio of the national anthem of Slovakia, with information and lyrics European anthems National symbols of Slovakia Slovak songs National anthems Slovak Uprising of 1848–49 National anthem compositions in G minor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallpaper
Wallpaper
Wallpaper is a material used in interior decoration to decorate the interior walls of domestic and public buildings. It is usually sold in rolls and is applied onto a wall using wallpaper paste. Wallpapers can come plain as "lining paper" (so that it can be painted or used to help cover uneven surfaces and minor wall defects thus giving a better surface), textured (such as Anaglypta), with a regular repeating pattern design, or, much less commonly today, with a single non-repeating large design carried over a set of sheets. The smallest rectangle that can be tiled to form the whole pattern is known as the pattern repeat. Wallpaper printing techniques include surface printing, gravure printing, silk screen-printing, rotary printing, and digital printing. Wallpaper is made in long rolls which are hung vertically on a wall. Patterned wallpapers are designed so that the pattern "repeats", and thus pieces cut from the same roll can be hung next to each other so as to continue the pattern without it being easy to see where the join between two pieces occurs. In the case of large complex patterns of images this is normally achieved by starting the second piece halfway into the length of the repeat, so that if the pattern going down the roll repeats after 24 inches, the next piece sideways is cut from the roll to begin 12 inches down the pattern from the first. The number of times the pattern repeats horizontally across a roll does not matter for this purpose. A single pattern can be issued in several different colorways. History The main historical techniques are: hand-painting, woodblock printing (overall the most common), stencilling, and various types of machine-printing. The first three all date back to before 1700. Wallpaper, using the printmaking technique of woodcut, gained popularity in Renaissance Europe amongst the emerging gentry. The social elite continued to hang large tapestries on the walls of their homes, as they had in the Middle Ages. These tapestries added color to the room as well as providing an insulating layer between the stone walls and the room, thus retaining heat in the room. However, tapestries were extremely expensive and so only the very rich could afford them. Less well-off members of the elite, unable to buy tapestries due either to prices or wars preventing international trade, turned to wallpaper to brighten up their rooms. Early wallpaper featured scenes similar to those depicted on tapestries, and large sheets of the paper were sometimes hung loosely on the walls, in the style of tapestries, and sometimes pasted as today. Prints were very often pasted to walls, instead of being framed and hung, and the largest sizes of prints, which came in several sheets, were probably mainly intended to be pasted to walls. Some important artists made such pieces - notably Albrecht Dürer, who worked on both large picture prints and also ornament prints - intended for wall-hanging. The largest picture print was The Triumphal Arch commissioned by the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and completed in 1515. This measured a colossal 3.57 by 2.95 metres, made up of 192 sheets, and was printed in a first edition of 700 copies, intended to be hung in palaces and, in particular, town halls, after hand-coloring. Very few samples of the earliest repeating pattern wallpapers survive, but there are a large number of old master prints, often in engraving of repeating or repeatable decorative patterns. These are called ornament prints and were intended as models for wallpaper makers, among other uses. England and France were leaders in European wallpaper manufacturing. Among the earliest known samples is one found on a wall from England and is printed on the back of a London proclamation of 1509. It became very popular in England following Henry VIII's excommunication from the Catholic Church - English aristocrats had always imported tapestries from Flanders and Arras, but Henry VIII's split with the Catholic Church had resulted in a fall in trade with Europe. Without any tapestry manufacturers in England, English gentry and aristocracy alike turned to wallpaper. During the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell, the manufacture of wallpaper, seen as a frivolous item by the Puritan government, was halted. Following the Restoration of Charles II, wealthy people across England began demanding wallpaper again - Cromwell's Puritan regime had imposed a repressive and restrictive culture on the population, and following his death, wealthy people began purchasing comfortable domestic items which had been banned under the Puritan state. 18th century In 1712, during the reign of Queen Anne, a wallpaper tax was introduced which was not abolished until 1836. By the mid-eighteenth century, Britain was the leading wallpaper manufacturer in Europe, exporting vast quantities to Europe in addition to selling on the middle-class British market. However this trade was seriously disrupted in 1755 by the Seven Years' War and later the Napoleonic Wars, and by a heavy level of duty on imports to France. In 1748 the British Ambassador to Paris decorated his salon with blue flock wallpaper, which then became very fashionable there. In the 1760s the French manufacturer Jean-Baptiste Réveillon hired designers working in silk and tapestry to produce some of the most subtle and luxurious wallpaper ever made. His sky blue wallpaper with fleurs-de-lys was used in 1783 on the first balloons by the Montgolfier brothers. The landscape painter Jean-Baptiste Pillement discovered in 1763 a method to use fast colours. Hand-blocked wallpapers like these use hand-carved blocks and by the 18th century designs include panoramic views of antique architecture, exotic landscapes and pastoral subjects, as well as repeating patterns of stylized flowers, people and animals. In 1785 Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf had invented the first machine for printing coloured tints on sheets of wallpaper. In 1799 Louis-Nicolas Robert patented a machine to produce continuous lengths of paper, the forerunner of the Fourdrinier machine. This ability to produce continuous lengths of wallpaper now offered the prospect of novel designs and nice tints being widely displayed in drawing rooms across Europe. Wallpaper manufacturers active in England in the 18th century included John Baptist Jackson and John Sherringham. Among the firms established in 18th-century America: J. F. Bumstead & Co. (Boston), William Poyntell (Philadelphia), John Rugar (New York). High-quality wallpaper made in China became available from the later part of the 17th century; this was entirely handpainted and very expensive. It can still be seen in rooms in palaces and grand houses including Nymphenburg Palace, Łazienki Palace, Chatsworth House, Temple Newsam, Broughton Castle, Lissan House, and Erddig. It was made up to 1.2 metres wide. English, French and German manufacturers imitated it, usually beginning with a printed outline which was coloured in by hand, a technique sometimes also used in later Chinese papers. France and America Towards the end of the 18th century the fashion for scenic wallpaper revived in both America and France, leading to some enormous panoramas, like the 1804 20 strip wide panorama, Sauvages de la Mer du Pacifique (Savages of the Pacific), designed by the artist Jean-Gabriel Charvet for the French manufacturer Joseph Dufour et Cie showing the Voyages of Captain Cook. This famous so-called "papier peint" wallpaper is still in situ in Ham House, Peabody, Massachusetts. It was the largest panoramic wallpaper of its time, and marked the burgeoning of a French industry in panoramic wallpapers. Dufour realized almost immediate success from the sale of these papers and enjoyed a lively trade with America. The Neoclassical style currently in favour worked well in houses of the Federal period with Charvet's elegant designs. Like most 18th-century wallpapers, the panorama was designed to be hung above a dado. Beside Joseph Dufour et Cie (1797 - c. 1830) other French manufacturers of panoramic scenic and trompe-l'œil wallpapers, Zuber et Cie (1797–present) and Arthur et Robert exported their product across Europe and North America. Zuber et Cie's c. 1834 design Views of North America hangs in the Diplomatic Reception Room of the White House. Among the firms begun in France in the 19th century: Desfossé & Karth. In the United States: John Bellrose, Blanchard & Curry, Howell Brothers, Longstreth & Sons, Isaac Pugh in Philadelphia; Bigelow, Hayden & Co. in Massachusetts; Christy & Constant, A. Harwood, R. Prince in New York. The earliest known American wallpaper sample book that has survived to present day resides in the collection of Old Sturbridge Village in Sturbridge, MA. It was produced by the firm Janes & Bolles of Hartford, Connecticut, between 1821 and 1828. England During the Napoleonic Wars, trade between Europe and Britain evaporated, resulting in the gradual decline of the wallpaper industry in Britain. However, the end of the war saw a massive demand in Europe for British goods which had been inaccessible during the wars, including cheap, colourful wallpaper. The development of steam-powered printing presses in Britain in 1813 allowed manufacturers to mass-produce wallpaper, reducing its price and so making it affordable to working-class people. Wallpaper enjoyed a huge boom in popularity in the nineteenth century, seen as a cheap and very effective way of brightening up cramped and dark rooms in working-class areas. It became almost the norm in most areas of middle-class homes, but remained relatively little used in public buildings and offices, with patterns generally being avoided in such locations. In the latter half of the century Lincrusta and Anaglypta, not strictly wallpapers, became popular competitors, especially below a dado rail. They could be painted and washed, and were a good deal tougher, though also more expensive. Wallpaper manufacturing firms established in England in the 19th century included Jeffrey & Co.; Shand Kydd Ltd.; Lightbown, Aspinall & Co.; John Line & Sons; Potter & Co.; Arthur Sanderson & Sons; Townshend & Parker. Designers included Owen Jones, William Morris, and Charles Voysey. In particular, many 19th century designs by Morris & Co and other Arts and Crafts designers remain in production. 20th century By the early twentieth century, wallpaper had established itself as one of the most popular household items across the Western world. Manufacturers in the USA included Sears; designers included Andy Warhol. Wallpaper has gone in and out of fashion since about 1930, but the overall trend has been for wallpaper-type patterned wallcoverings to lose ground to plain painted walls. 21st century In the early 21st century, wallpaper evolved into a lighting feature, enhancing the mood and the ambience through lights and crystals. Meystyle, a London-based company, invented LED-incorporated wallpaper. The development of digital printing allows designers to break the mould and combine new technology and art to bring wallpaper to a new level of popularity. Historical collections Historical examples of wallpaper are preserved by cultural institutions such as the Deutsches Tapetenmuseum (Kassel) in Germany; the Musée des Arts Décoratifs (Paris) and Musée du Papier Peint (Rixheim) in France; the Victoria & Albert in the UK; the Smithsonian's Cooper-Hewitt, Historic New England, Metropolitan Museum of Art, U.S. National Park Service, and Winterthur in the USA. Original designs by William Morris and other English wallpaper companies are held by Walker Greenbank. Types and sizes In terms of methods of creation, wallpaper types include painted wallpaper, hand-printed blockwood wallpaper, hand-printed stencil wallpaper, machine-printed wallpaper, and flock wallpaper. Modern wallcoverings are diverse, and what is described as wallpaper may no longer actually be made from paper. Two of the most common factory trimmed sizes of wallpaper are referred to as "American" and "European" rolled goods. American rolled goods are by in length. European rolled goods are wide by in length, approximately . Most wallpaper borders are sold by length and with a wide range of widths therefore surface area is not applicable, although some may require trimming. The most common wall covering for residential use and generally the most economical is prepasted vinyl coated paper, commonly called "strippable" which can be misleading. Cloth backed vinyl is fairly common and durable. Lighter vinyls are easier to handle and hang. Paper backed vinyls are generally more expensive, significantly more difficult to hang, and can be found in wider untrimmed widths. Foil wallpaper generally has paper backing and can (exceptionally) be up to wide, and be very difficult to handle and hang. Textile wallpapers include silks, linens, grass cloths, strings, rattan, and actual impressed leaves. There are acoustical wall carpets to reduce sound. Customized wallcoverings are available at high prices and most often have minimum roll orders. Solid vinyl with a cloth backing is the most common commercial wallcovering and comes from the factory as untrimmed at approximately, to be overlapped and double cut by the installer. This same type can be pre-trimmed at the factory to approximately. Wallpaper also comes as 'borders', typically hung horizontally at the tops of walls, and above wainscotting. Bordering wallpaper comes in an array of colours and patterns, straight or shaped edges, and widths (sometimes called 'heights' due to its orientation), and is used to provide a finished look to walls already hung with printed wallpaper, or as an accent for painted or plain-papered walls. Some bordering wallpapers are decorated with pictures and even writing, which, when hung, can tell a simple story or a well-known theme, such as fairytales, poems, pictographs of alphabets or numerals, or religious works. In modern western homes, these are referred-to as 'friezes' and commonly adorn nurseries and children's bedrooms. They can also be found in classrooms and libraries. Non-woven wallpaper: Non-woven wallpaper is made from a mixture of chemical pulp and textile fibres, and is used on its own or as a backing for other types of wallpaper. When hanging this wallpaper, the paste is applied directly to the wall, after which the wallpaper will hang on without booking time. Paper wallpaper: Made of recyclable paper. Is also used as backing material for other wallpapers. When using paper as wallpaper the booking time has to be considered. Photo and metal wallpaper: These Wallpapers are applied on a backing material like non-woven or paper wallpaper. When producing photo wallpaper, the picture will be printed on a paper backing. To create a metallic optic wallpaper, the coating of the backing material consist of metal foil like aluminium. Modern developments Custom printing New digital inkjet printing technologies using ultraviolet (UV) cured inks are being used for custom wallpaper production. Very small runs can be made, even a single wall. Photographs or digital art are output onto blank wallpaper material. Typical installations are corporate lobbies, restaurants, athletic facilities, and home interiors. This gives a designer the ability to give a space the exact look and feel desired. High-tech New types of wallpaper under development or entering the market in the early 21st century include wallpaper that blocks certain mobile phone and WiFi signals, in the interest of privacy. The wallpaper is coated with a silver ink which forms crystals that block outgoing signals. Seismic In 2012, scientists at the Institute of Solid Construction and Construction Material Technology at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology announced that they had developed a wallpaper that can help keep a masonry wall from failing in an earthquake. The wallpaper uses glass fibre reinforcement in several directions and a special adhesive which forms a strong bond with the masonry when dry. As a means of artistic expression Tsang Kin-Wah, one of Hong Kong's best-known painters, creates large-scale wallpaper installations that evoke the floral designs of William Morris in a style that has become known as word-art installation. Installation Like paint, wallpaper requires proper surface preparation before application. Additionally wallpaper is not suitable for all areas. For example, bathroom wallpaper may deteriorate rapidly due to excessive steam (if is not sealed with a specific varnish). Proper preparation includes the repair of any defects in the drywall or plaster and the removal of loose material or old adhesives. For a better finish with thinner papers and poorer quality walls the wall can be cross-lined (horizontally) with lining paper first. Accurate room measurements (length, width, and height) along with number of window and door openings is essential for ordering wallpaper. Large drops, or repeats, in a pattern can be cut and hung more economically by working from alternating rolls of paper. After pre-pasted wallpaper is moistened, or dry wallpaper is coated with wet paste, the wet surface is folded onto itself and left for a few minutes to activate the glue, which is called "booking wallpaper." Besides conventional installation on interior walls and ceilings, wallpapers have been deployed as decorative covering for hatboxes, bandboxes, books, shelves, and window-shades. Wallpaper adhesives Most wallpaper adhesives are starch or methylcellulose based. See also Faux painting Mural Wall decals Wallpaper group William Morris wallpaper designs References A Hyatt Mayor; Prints and People; Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1971 (reprints Princeton). Further reading Published in the 19th century Published in the 20th century 1900s-1920s Nancy McClelland. Historic Wall-Papers: From Their Inception to the Introduction of Machinery (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1924) A. V. Sugden and J. L. Edmundson: A History of English Wallpaper, 1509–1914 (London, 1925) 1930s-1970s E. A. Entwisle: ‘Painted Chinese Wallpapers’, Connoisseur, xciii (1934) H. Clouzot and C. Follot: Histoire du papier peint en France (Paris, 1935) E. A. Entwisle: The Book of Wallpaper (London, 1954) "The Hang of Wallpapering." Popular Mechanics, March 1954, pp. 177–182, the basics. E. A. Entwisle: A Literary History of Wallpaper (London, 1960) B. Greysmith: Wallpaper (London, 1976) 1980s-1990s James Hamm and Patricia D. Hamm, "Historic Wallpaper in the Historic Structure: Factors Influencing Degradation and Stability," Conservation Within Historic Buildings, The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, London (1980). O. Nouvel: Wallpapers of France, 1800–1850 (London, 1981) C. C. Oman and J. Hamilton: Wallpapers: A History and Illustrated Catalogue of the Collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, 1982) F. Teynac, P. Nolot and J. D. Vivien: Wallpaper: A History (London, 1982) J. Hamilton: An Introduction to Wallpaper (London, 1983) M. Schoeser: Fabrics and Wallpapers: Twentieth Century (London, 1986) B. Jacque and O. Nouvel-Kammerer: Le Papier peint décor d’illusion (Barenbach, 1987) P. J. Kipp: ‘Wallpaper Conservation’, IADA Preprints, 7th International Congress of Restorers of Graphic Art: Uppsala, 1991 E. F. Koldeweij, M. J. F. Knuijt and E. G. M. Adriaansz: Achter het behang: 400 jaar wanddecoratie in het Nederlandse binnenhuis (Amsterdam, 1991) R. C. Nylander: Wallpapers for Historic Buildings (Washington, DC, 1992) London Wallpapers: Their Manufacture and Use, 1690–1840 (exh. cat. by T. Rosaman, London, RIBA, 1992) L. Hoskins, ed.: The Papered Wall (London, 1994) Kosuda-Warner, Joanne, Kitsch to Corbusier: Wallpapers from the 1950s (exhibition catalogue) Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum, Smithsonian Institution, New York, 1995 Published in the 21st century O. Nouvel: French Scenic Wallpaper, 1790–1865 (Paris, 2000) J. Kosuda-Warner and E. Johnson: Landscape Wallcoverings (London, 2001) L. Jackson: Twentieth-century Pattern Design: Textile & Wallpaper Pioneers (New York, 2002) G. Saunders: Wallpaper in Interior Decoration (London, 2002) On the Wall: Contemporary Wallpaper (exh. cat. by J. Tannenbaum and M. B. Stroud, Providence, RI, Sch. Des., Mus. A., 2003) L. Lencek and G. Bosker: Off the Wall: Wonderful Wall Coverings of the Twentieth Century (San Francisco, 2004) L. Hoskins: The Papered Wall: The History, Patterns and Techniques of Wallpaper (London, 2005) B. Jacque and others: ‘Wallpaper in the Royal Apartments at the Tuileries, 1789–1792’, Stud. Dec. A., xiii/1 (Fall–Winter 2005–6) Interior design Ornaments Paper products Printmaking Wallcoverings Coated paper
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Hall%20%28actor%29
Albert Hall (actor)
Albert W. Hall (born November 10, 1937) is an American actor. He portrayed Chief Phillips in the 1979 war film Apocalypse Now and Judge Seymore Walsh in Ally McBeal and The Practice. He also played Brother Baines in the 1992 Spike Lee film Malcolm X. Early life and education Hall was born and raised in Brighton, Alabama. He graduated from the Columbia University School of the Arts. Career Early work After portraying Pointer in Willie Dynamite (1974), Hall had a part in the 1976 biopic Leadbelly. He played a co-pilot in the 1978 film The Bermuda Triangle. Hall had a small role in the 1979 miniseries Roots: The Next Generations. Apocalypse Now Hall gained mainstream attention for his role as Chief Phillips in Francis Ford Coppola's 1979 war classic Apocalypse Now, in which his character leads the rest of crew upriver from Vietnam to Cambodia so that Captain Willard (Martin Sheen) can complete his mission to assassinate Colonel Kurtz (Marlon Brando). To prepare for the role, Hall did research to accurately portray someone experiencing the Vietnam War first hand. The actor described filming in the Philippines as "exotic" and added that "it was all fun." When Hall's Separate but Equal (1991) co-star Jeffrey Wright told him that Apocalypse Now is his favorite film, he gave him a book in which he wrote inside, "Jeffrey, evolution is when a young actor comes up to you and says, 'I've seen your work, you know, a hundred so times, and it has meaning to me.'" According to Slate, some of Hall's dialogue in Apocalypse Now Redux is semi-improvised. Hall's performance in both versions has been praised by the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette and Variety respectively. Later work Hall appeared in the 1981 miniseries The Sophisticated Gents. In 1983, Hall had his first regular role in the short-lived series Ryan's Four. Hall also appeared alongside Sidney Poitier in the 1991 television movie Separate but Equal. Throughout the 1990s, Hall appeared in a range of films, starting with memorable performances in Malcolm X (1992) and Rookie of the Year (1993). He collaborated with Spike Lee, the director of the former film, again in Get on the Bus (1996). Other films Hall appeared in during that decade include Major Payne (1995), Devil in a Blue Dress (1995), Courage Under Fire (1996) and Beloved (1998). In the late 1990s, Hall became known by television audiences for his recurring role as Judge Seymore Walsh in the series The Practice and Ally McBeal, both of which were created by David E. Kelley. Coincidentally, he portrayed the role of a judge in soap operas such as The Young and the Restless and Days of Our Lives. Hall has portrayed real life figures such as Hank Aaron in the 1998 television film The Tiger Woods Story and Elijah Muhammad in Michael Mann's 2001 biopic Ali. Hall played the recurring role of Bruce in the series Men of a Certain Age. Filmography Cotton Comes to Harlem (1970) - Background Detective (uncredited) Willie Dynamite (1974) - Pointer Leadbelly (1976) - Dicklicker Apocalypse Now (1979) - Chief Phillips Cry Freedom (1981) - Haraka The Night They Saved Christmas (1984) - Loomis Trouble in Mind (1985) - Leo Betrayed (1988) - FBI Agent Al Sanders The Fabulous Baker Boys (1989) - Henry Music Box (1989) - Mack Jones Malcolm X (1992) - Baines Rookie of the Year (1993) - Martinella Major Payne (1995) - Gen. Decker Devil in a Blue Dress (1995) - Odell The Great White Hype (1996) - Roper's Manager Courage Under Fire (1996) - Speaker Get on the Bus (1996) - Craig Jimi (1996) - Boxcar Anarchy TV (1998) - Bobby Beloved (1998) - Stamp Paid Apocalypse Now Redux (2001) Ali (2001) - Elijah Muhammad Honeydripper (2007) - Reverend Cutlip National Treasure: Book of Secrets (2007) - Dr. Nichols Not Easily Broken (2009) - Bishop Wilkes References External links 1937 births Living people African-American male actors Male actors from Alabama American male stage actors American male film actors American male television actors 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors Columbia University School of the Arts alumni People from Brighton, Alabama 20th-century African-American people 21st-century African-American people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20Cook%20%28Canadian%20novelist%29
Hugh Cook (Canadian novelist)
Hugh Cook (born 1942) is a Canadian novelist. Born in The Hague, Netherlands, his family emigrated to Canada in 1950, settling in Burnaby, British Columbia. Cook holds degrees from Calvin College, Simon Fraser University and the University of Iowa. In 1982, he joined the English faculty at Redeemer College, now Redeemer University College, in Ancaster, Ontario, teaching Canadian, American literature, and creative writing. He retired from full-time teaching in 2005 to devote time to his writing. Cook's stories have been published in Canada's leading literary journals. His stories in Home in Alfalfa were adapted into a stage play which was performed by the Redeemer University College Theatre Arts department in the fall of 2007. Cook's novel The Homecoming Man has been translated into Dutch under the title Een Man Komt Thuis. His novel Heron River will appear in Dutch translation in 2015 under the title De Tuin van Adam. Cook lives in Hamilton, Ontario. He gives frequent readings from his work and speaks at writers' conferences. Bibliography Cracked Wheat and Other Stories - 1985 () The Homecoming Man - 1989 () Home in Alfalfa - 1998 () Heron River - 2011 () References 1942 births Living people Canadian male novelists Writers from Hamilton, Ontario Simon Fraser University alumni Writers from The Hague 20th-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian novelists 20th-century Canadian male writers 21st-century Canadian male writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis%20of%20Portugal
Denis of Portugal
Denis (, ; 9 October 1261 – 7 January 1325 in Santarém), called the Farmer King (Rei Lavrador) and the Poet King (Rei Poeta), was King of Portugal. The eldest son of Afonso III of Portugal by his second wife, Beatrice of Castile, and grandson of Alfonso X of Castile (known as the Wise), Denis succeeded his father in 1279. His marriage to Elizabeth of Aragon, who was later canonised as a saint of the Roman Catholic Church, was arranged in 1281 when she was 10 years old. Denis ruled Portugal for over 46 years. He worked to reorganise his country's economy and gave an impetus to Portuguese agriculture. He ordered the planting of a large pine forest (that still exists today) near Leiria to prevent the soil degradation that threatened the region and to serve as a source of raw materials for the construction of the royal ships. He was also known for his poetry, which constitutes an important contribution to the development of Portuguese as a literary language. Reign In 1290, Denis began to pursue the systematic centralisation of royal power by imposing judicial reforms, decreeing Portuguese "the official language of legal and judicial proceedings", creating the first university in Portugal, and ridding the military orders in the country of foreign influences. His policies encouraged economic development with the creation of numerous towns and trade fairs. He advanced the interests of the Portuguese merchants, and set up by mutual agreement a fund called the Bolsa de Comércio, the first documented form of marine insurance in Europe, approved on 10 May 1293. Always concerned with development of the country's infrastructure, he encouraged the discovery and exploitation of sulphur, silver, tin and iron mines and organised the export of excess production of agricultural crops, salt, and salted fish to England, Flanders, and France. Denis signed the first Portuguese commercial agreement with England in 1308, and secured a contract in 1317 for the services of the Genoese merchant sailor Manuel Pessanha (Portuguese form of the Italian "Pezagno") as hereditary admiral of his fleet, with the understanding that Pessanha and his successors should provide twenty Genoese captains to command the king's galleys, thus effectively founding the Portuguese navy. In 1289 Denis had signed the Concordat of Forty Articles with Pope Nicholas IV, swearing to protect the Church's interests in Portugal. When Pope Clement V allowed the annihilation of the Knights Templar throughout most of Europe on charges of heresy, Denis created in 1319 a Portuguese military order, the Order of Christ, for those knights who survived the purge. The new order was designed to be a continuation of the Order of the Temple. Denis negotiated with Clement's successor, John XXII, for recognition of the new order and its right to inherit the Templar assets and property. Cultural pursuits During Denis' reign, Lisbon became one of Europe's centres of culture and learning. The first university in Portugal, then called the Estudo Geral (General Study), was founded with his signing of the document Scientiae thesaurus mirabilis in Leiria on 3 March 1290. Lectures in the arts, civil law, canon law, and medicine were given, and on 15 February 1309, the king granted the university a charter, the Magna Charta Privilegiorum. The university was moved between Lisbon and Coimbra several times, and finally installed permanently in Coimbra in 1537 by order of King John III. As a devotee of the arts and sciences, Denis studied literature and wrote several books on topics ranging from government administration to hunting, science and poetry, as well as ordering the translation of many literary works into Galician-Portuguese (Portuguese had not yet fully evolved into a distinct language), among them the works attributed to his grandfather Alfonso X. He patronised troubadours, and wrote lyric poetry in the troubadour tradition himself. His best-known work is the Cantigas de Amigo, a collection of love songs as well as satirical songs, which contributed to the development of troubador poetry in the Iberian Peninsula. All told, 137 of the songs attributed to him, in the three main genres of Galician-Portuguese lyric, are preserved in the two early 16th-century manuscripts, the Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional and the Cancioneiro da Vaticana. A spectacular find in 1990 by American scholar Harvey Sharrer brought to light the Pergaminho Sharrer, which contains, albeit in fragmentary form, seven cantigas d'amor by King Denis with musical notation. These poems are found in the same order in the two previously known codices. King Denis was fond of hunting and in 1294 was hunting around Beja, when a bear attacked him and his horse, bringing them to the ground. It is said that he attacked the beast single-handedly and killed him with a dagger. To commemorate the incident, the king had a live bear captured and taken to his palace of Fuellas for the amusement of the gentleman and ladies of his court. (Miquel, P. “The Days of Knights & Castles,” 1980. London: Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd., page 57.) Administration As heir-apparent to the throne, Denis was summoned by his father Afonso III to share governmental responsibilities. The country was again in conflict with the Catholic Church at the time, Afonso having been excommunicated in 1277, and only being absolved in 1279 when he acceded to Rome's demands on his deathbed. Consequently, the church was favorably inclined to reach an agreement with the new monarch upon his accession to the throne. In 1284, however, Denis emulated the example of his grandfather and father, and launched a new series of inquiries to investigate the expropriation of royal property; this was to the detriment of the church. The next year he took further steps against ecclesiastical power when he promulgated amortisation laws. These prohibited the church and religious orders from buying lands, and required that they sell or forfeit any they had purchased since the start of his reign. Several years later he issued another decree forbidding them to inherit the estates of recruits to the orders. In 1288, Denis managed to persuade Pope Nicholas IV to issue a papal Bull that separated the Order of Santiago in Portugal from that in Castile, to which it had been subordinate. With the extinction of the Knights Templar, he was able to transfer their assets in the country to the Order of Christ, specially created for this purpose. Denis was essentially an administrator and not a warrior king. He went to war with the kingdom of Castile in 1295, relinquishing the villages of Serpa and Moura. In 1297, he signed the Treaty of Alcañices with Castile, which defined the current borders between the two Iberian countries, and reaffirmed Portugal's possession of the Algarve. The treaty also established an alliance of friendship and mutual defense, leading to a peace of 40 years between the two nations. Denis pursued his father's policies on legislation and centralisation of power, and promulgated the nucleus of a Portuguese civil and criminal law code, protecting the lower classes from abuse and extortion. These edicts survived in the Livro das Leis e Posturas (Book of Laws and Postures), and the Ordenações Afonsinas (Afonsine Ordinances), proclaimed during the reign of Afonso V. These are not legislative "codes" as we understand them today, but rather compilations of laws and customary municipal law, as amended and restated by the Portuguese crown. As king, Denis travelled around the country to resolve various problems. He ordered the construction of numerous castles, created new towns, and granted the privileges due cities to several others. He declared in 1290 that 'the language of the people' was to become the language of the state, and officially known as Portuguese. Denis also decreed that Portuguese replace Latin as the language of the law courts in his kingdom. His wife Elizabeth donated much of the large income generated by her lands and properties to charities, inspiring Denis to help improve the life of the poor and found several social institutions. The frequent procedural issues that arose when he issued his decrees increasingly occupied Denis in his quest to frame the common law as being within the scope of the crown's jurisdiction, and in exercising royal power in the realm. The restrictions he placed on the actions of alvazis (local council officials), judges, as well as proctors and advocates in the courts, show that a merely nominal power of the monarchy over all the inhabitants of the kingdom, as was typical in the Middle Ages, was not compatible with his effort to assert a royal prerogative to scrutinise legal procedures or moralise on the exercise of justice. The appointment of magistrates clearly marks the start of the process of the crown claiming territorial jurisdiction, thus expanding the royal domain, along with the growing importance of Lisbon as the nation's de facto capital. The preference for Lisbon as a venue of the royal court was accentuated during Denis's long reign. There was as yet no official capital of the country, but Lisbon's location, as well as its advanced urban, economic and commercial development, made the city the most viable choice for a national centre of administration. Its geographical situation between the ancient divisions of the country, i.e., the north and the south, enhanced Lisbon's status as the most practical centre for an emergent united Portuguese nation, the south now receiving as much royal attention as the north and becoming the residence of the monarchy. Their different characters created a realm where the two regions complemented each other. The great manors were closer together in the north, and the vast dominions conquered from the Muslims in the south, as well as the large areas of unclaimed land there, expanded the domain of the crown, and much of the territory of the extreme south came under the control of the military orders. Denis promoted development of the rural infrastructure, earning the nickname of "the Farmer" (o Lavrador). He redistributed land, founded agricultural schools to improve farming techniques, and took a personal interest in the expansion of exports. He set up regular markets in a number of towns and regulated their activities. One of his principal achievements was to protect agricultural lands from advancing coastal sands by ordering the planting of a pine forest near Leiria. which also provided a source of raw materials for construction of a naval fleet. This forest, known as the Pinhal de Leiria (Leiria Pinewood), still exists, and is an important conservation area. Later years and death The latter part of Denis' generally peaceful reign was nevertheless marked by internal conflicts. The contenders were his two sons: Afonso, the legitimate heir, and Afonso Sanches, his bastard son, who quarreled frequently among themselves for royal favour. At the time of Denis' death in 1325, he had placed Portugal on an equal footing with the other Iberian Kingdoms. Afonso, born in Lisbon, was the rightful heir to the Portuguese throne. However, he was not Denis' favourite son, the old king preferring Afonso Sanches, his illegitimate son by Aldonça Rodrigues Talha. The notorious rivalry between the half brothers led to civil war several times. Elizabeth would serve as intermediary between her husband and Afonso during the civil war of 1322–1324. The Infante Afonso greatly resented the king, whom he accused of favouring Afonso Sanches. Denis had little popular support in the war because of the many privileges he had granted to the nobles in the last years of his reign, while the infante had the support of the county's cities; these circumstances were rooted in the longstanding conflict between the upper and lower classes of Portuguese society. Repulsed to the town of Alenquer, which supported the Infante, Denis was prevented from killing his son through the intervention of the Queen. As legend holds, in 1323, Elizabeth, mounted on a mule, positioned herself between the opposing armies on the field of the Battle of Alvalade in order to prevent the combat. Peace returned in 1324 when Afonso Sanches was sent into exile and the Infante swore loyalty to the king. King Denis died on 7 January 1325 at Santarém, and was buried in the Monastery of Saint Denis in Odivelas, near Lisbon. Afonso then became king, whereupon he exiled his rival to Castile, and stripped him of all the lands and fiefdoms bestowed by their father. From Castile, Afonso Sanches orchestrated a series of attempts to usurp the crown. After he failed several times to mount an invasion of Portugal, the brothers signed a peace treaty, arranged by Afonso IV's mother Queen Elizabeth. Appraisal of reign Bearing in mind the many centuries that separate Denis from the present, an impression of his personality can be gathered from the historical record: he was determined, even obstinate, in his attempts to systematically centralise the government and consolidate royal power. For example, he launched general inquiries (Inquirições gerais) at a remarkably accelerated pace to investigate land ownership and identify cases where abuses were committed. Denis revealed early on his ability as an effective strategist in the pursuit of his goals, and as an innovator of proactive legislative policy. With the benefit of hindsight, it is clear that his administrative decisions were not made randomly or without consideration of his ideal of a well-governed nation. The wide range of his policies is indicated by a few examples: the concomitant creation of new towns and trade fairs, the fortification of the country's borders and the increasing dependence of the military orders on the royal power. He was recognized as an intelligent, perceptive ruler with demonstrated success, both by contemporaries and by later historians. Denis was not lacking in political skill. Being adroit in negotiation and a student of human nature, he knew how to go about "opposing and appeasing alternately the secular and the ecclesiastical manorial interests. He confiscated the properties of the clergy, but made the concordat [of 1289] with the Portuguese bishops; he restricted the comedoria (victuals) rights of the monasteries, but replaced those rights with a fixed annual sum of money. His actions were sufficiently [statesmanlike, and his political position was strong] enough, for him to secure the confiscation laws and check the erosion of the state patrimony". As administration of the royal properties became more efficient and he became richer, Denis gained fame for his wealth, even being mentioned in Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy. Nevertheless, Denis is described in contemporary chronicles as a wise and able ruler. Although most of the legislative work of his reign focused on procedural juridical issues, the purpose of much of this new legislation was to avoid excessive delays and court costs and to prevent abuse by attorneys and prosecutors. The personal determination that allowed Denis to achieve so much in the political realm could sometimes harden into obstinacy and arrogance. He was described occasionally as cruel, especially in family relations, shown for example in the way he dealt with his legitimate son and rightful heir, Afonso (never his favourite), and his wife, Elizabeth, to whom he turned over the children born of his infidelities, leaving her the responsibility of their care and education. An inescapable figure in the history of the Iberian Peninsula in the 13th and the beginning of the 14th centuries, Denis was first called "father of his country" (Pai da Pátria) by the historian Duarte Nunes de Leão in 1600. Physical description The historical sources of King Denis's time, as well as later authors, failed to provide any detailed physical description of the monarch. The information known comes from an accidental opening of his tomb during a restoration in 1938. It was discovered that the legend of a figure of towering height was not an accurate one as he was only about tall. Denis made his will when he was 61 and died at age 63. He apparently enjoyed excellent health throughout his life, as he traveled frequently, got involved in wars from an early age and at age 60 still hunted. He died with complete dentition, a rarity for the time, something that even today continues to be fairly unusual. A distinctive feature of his physiognomy revealed by examination of the body was that his hair and beard were auburn. This is a curious fact, as he was the first of the Portuguese royal line up to that time to have that hair color. This genetic trait could have been passed on the maternal side, as his uncle Ferdinand, called "La Cerda", or "the bristly one", had red hair as well. Denis may have inherited the trait from Henry II of England, who was his ancestor on both the paternal and maternal sides, or even possibly from his maternal great grandmother Elisabeth of Hohenstaufen, granddaughter of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa ("barbarossa" means "red beard" in Italian). Opening of the tomb In 2016, the tomb of the king was opened for the first time since 1938. Initially a restoration work, the tomb became the subject of research. A physiognomic report of the king is expected to be published in the future. Marriage and descendants Denis' only wife was Isabel or Elizabeth of Aragon, daughter of Peter III of Aragon. They married in 1288 and she bore him a son and a daughter. Like other monarchs of the time, he had several illegitimate children as well. See also Cantiga de amigo Galician-Portuguese References This article incorporates information translated from the equivalent article on the Portuguese Wikipedia. 1261 births 1325 deaths Portuguese infantes House of Burgundy-Portugal Portuguese male poets 13th-century Galician-Portuguese troubadours People from Lisbon Portuguese classical composers 13th-century Portuguese monarchs 14th-century Portuguese monarchs Portuguese male classical composers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%2C%20King%20of%20Portugal
Edward, King of Portugal
Duarte (; 31 October 1391 – 9 September 1438), known in English as Edward and called the King Philosopher (o Rei-Filósofo) or the Eloquent (o Eloquente), was King of Portugal from 1433 until his death. He was born in Viseu, the son of John I of Portugal and his wife, Philippa of Lancaster. Edward was the oldest member of the "Illustrious Generation" of accomplished royal children who contributed to the development of Portuguese civilization during the 15th century. As a cousin of several English kings, he became a Knight of the Garter. Early life Before he ascended the throne, Duarte always followed his father in the affairs of the kingdom. He was knighted in 1415 after the Portuguese capture of the city of Ceuta in North Africa, across from Gibraltar. He became king in 1433, when his father died of the plague. As king, Duarte soon showed interest in building internal political consensus. During his short reign of five years, he called the Portuguese Cortes (the national assembly) no less than five times to discuss the political affairs of his kingdom. He also followed the politics of his father concerning the maritime exploration of Africa. He encouraged and financed his famous brother, Henry the Navigator, who initiated many expeditions on the west coast of Africa. An expedition of Gil Eanes in 1434 first rounded Cape Bojador on the northwestern coast of Africa, leading the way for further exploration southward along the African coast. Colonial affairs The colony at Ceuta rapidly became a drain on the Portuguese treasury, and it was realised that without the city of Tangier, possession of Ceuta was worthless. After Ceuta was captured by the Portuguese, the camel caravans that were part of the overland trade routes began to use Tangier as their new destination. This deprived Ceuta of the materials and goods that made it an attractive market and a vibrant trading locale, and it became an isolated community. In 1437, Duarte's brothers Henry and Ferdinand persuaded him to launch an attack on the Marinid sultanate of Morocco. The expedition was not unanimously supported and was undertaken against the advice of the Pope. Infante Peter, Duke of Coimbra, and the Infante John were both against the initiative; they preferred to avoid conflict with the Marinid Sultan. Their instincts proved to be justified. The resulting Battle of Tangier, led by Henry, was a debacle. Failing to take the city in a series of assaults, the Portuguese siege camp was soon itself surrounded and starved into submission by a Moroccan relief army. In the resulting treaty, Henry promised to deliver Ceuta back to the Marinids in return for allowing the Portuguese army to depart unmolested. Duarte's youngest brother, Ferdinand, was handed over to the Marinids as a hostage for the final handover of the city. Late life The debacle at Tangier dominated Duarte's final year. Peter and John urged him to fulfill the treaty, yield Ceuta and secure Ferdinand's release, whereas Henry (who had signed the treaty) urged him to renege on it. Caught in indecision, Duarte assembled the Portuguese Cortes at Leiria in early 1438 for consultation. The Cortes refused to ratify the treaty, preferring to hang on to Ceuta and requesting that Duarte find some other means of obtaining Ferdinand's release. Duarte died late that summer, in Tomar, of the plague, like his father and mother (and her mother) before him. Popular lore suggested he died of heartbreak over the fate of his hapless brother; Ferdinand would remain in captivity in Fez until his own death in 1443. Legacy Duarte's premature death provoked a political crisis in Portugal. Leaving only a young son, Afonso, to inherit the throne, it was generally assumed that Duarte's brothers would take over the regency of the realm. But Duarte's will appointed his unpopular foreign wife, Eleanor of Aragon, as regent. A popular uprising followed, in which the burghers of the realm, assembled by John of Reguengos, acclaimed Peter of Coimbra as regent. But the nobles backed Eleanor's claim, and threatened civil war. The regency crisis was defused by a complicated and tense power-sharing arrangement between Eleanor and Peter. Another less political side of Duarte's personality is related to culture. A reflective and scholarly infante, he wrote the treatises O Leal Conselheiro (The Loyal Counsellor) and Livro Da Ensinança De Bem Cavalgar Toda Sela ("Book of Teachings on Riding Well on Every Saddle") as well as several poems. He was in the process of revising the Portuguese law code when he died. Marriages and descendants Duarte married Eleanor of Aragon, a daughter of Ferdinand I of Aragon and Eleanor of Alburquerque, in 1452. Ancestry Footnotes References Sources Portuguese infantes Knights of the Garter House of Aviz Portuguese male writers 1391 births 1438 deaths People from Viseu 15th-century Portuguese monarchs 15th-century deaths from plague (disease) Sons of kings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian%20of%20Portugal
Sebastian of Portugal
Sebastian ( ; 20 January 1554 – 4 August 1578) was King of Portugal from 11 June 1557 to 4 August 1578 and the penultimate Portuguese monarch of the House of Aviz. He was the son of João Manuel, Prince of Portugal, and his wife, Joanna of Austria. He was the grandson of King John III of Portugal and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. He disappeared (presumably killed in action) in the battle of Alcácer Quibir, against the Saadians of Morocco. Sebastian I is often referred to as The Desired (Portuguese: o Desejado) or The Asleep (Portuguese: o Adormecido), as the Portuguese people longed for his return to end the decline of Portugal that began after his death. He is considered to be the Portuguese example of the King asleep in mountain legend as Portuguese tradition states his return, in a foggy dawn, on Portugal's greatest hour of need. Early life Sebastian was born shortly after eight in the morning of 20 January 1554 (the feast of Saint Sebastian), and he was given the saint's name in commemoration. The name Sebastian was highly unusual for members of any European royal family at the time. Accession as a minor Sebastian was born heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal, since his birth occurred two weeks after the death of his father. Soon after his birth, his mother Joanna of Spain left her infant son to serve as regent of Spain for her father, Emperor Charles V. After his abdication in 1556, she served in the same capacity for her brother Philip II of Spain. Joanna remained in Spain until her death in 1573, never to see her son again. Sebastian succeeded to the throne at the age of three, on the death of his paternal grandfather King John III. Since he was still a child, a regency was necessary. It was handled first by his paternal grandmother, Catherine of Austria, and then by his great-uncle, Cardinal Henry of Évora. This period saw the continued Portuguese colonial expansion in Angola, Mozambique, and Malacca, as well as the annexation of Macau in 1557. Sebastian was a bright and lively boy. Contemporaries described him as fearless due to his great physical strength. Tall, slim, and blond, he was brought up by his grandmother Catherine. She was a domineering woman who exercised firm control over her grandson. Obedient as a child, he became obstinate and impulsive in later life. Education The young king grew up under the guidance and heavy influence of the Jesuits. Aleixo de Meneses, a military man of solid reputation and former tutor and guardian of Prince John, was appointed tutor to Sebastian by the boy's grandmother. Other teachers included the priest Luís Gonçalves da Câmara and his assistant, the priest Amador Rebelo. His upbringing made Sebastian extremely devout. He carried a copy of Thomas Aquinas on a belt at his waist and was constantly accompanied by two monks of the Theatine Order who were intent on preserving the king's innocence. As a child, Sebastian reportedly would react to visitors by running off into hiding with the monks until the visitors had gone. Marriage plans Sebastian died young and did not marry. However, he was involved in some proposed marriage alliances. In particular, the Queen dowager of France, Catherine de' Medici, nurtured a plan for a long time to marry her youngest daughter, Margaret of Valois, to Sebastian, a plan which was supported by Sebastian's maternal uncle, King Philip II of Spain, on occasion. Later, Margaret married Henry Bourbon, King of Navarre. Sebastian himself, however, put an end to that plan, declaring that he was unimpressed by the mild suppression of the Huguenot Protestants in France, and that he would not bind himself to the House of Valois until he had seen how the situation would develop. Later, he agreed — being persuaded by emissaries of the Pope — to marry Margaret in order to prevent her from marrying the Huguenot Henry of Navarre; by that time, however, the French king and his mother were already intent on Margaret marrying Henry. Sebastian's proposal was rejected, and Margaret married Henry in 1572. Sebastian was also offered his cousin Elisabeth of Habsburg, the daughter of Emperor Maximilian II (Maximilian was Charles V's nephew.). Sebastian himself made a proposal in 1577 to his first cousin Isabella Clara Eugenia, daughter of his maternal uncle Philip II of Spain. Later reign During Sebastian's short personal reign, he strengthened ties with the Holy Roman Empire, England and France through diplomatic efforts. He also restructured much of the administrative, judicial and military life in his kingdom. In 1568, Sebastian created scholarships to assist students who wished to study medicine or pharmacy at the University of Coimbra. That same year he rewarded Indians in Brazil who helped in the fight against the French. The chief of the Temiminós Indians, Araribóia, was given lands near the Bay of Guanabara. In 1569, Sebastian ordered Duarte Nunes de Leão to compile all the laws and legal documents of the kingdom in a collection of Leis Extravagantes known as the Código Sebastiânico (Sebastian's code). During the great plague of Lisbon in 1569, Sebastian sent for doctors from Seville to help the Portuguese doctors fight the plague. He created two hospitals in Lisbon to take care of those afflicted with the disease. In his concern for the widows and orphans of those killed by the plague, he created several Recolhimentos (shelters) known as the Recolhimento de Santa Marta (shelter of Santa Marta) and the Recolhimento dos Meninos (shelter of the children) and provided wet nurses to take care of the babies. Legal reforms Sebastian created laws for the military, the Lei das Armas, that would become a military organization model. Goa was attacked by a pan-Asian alliance in 1570 during the War of the League of the Indies, but the Portuguese were successful in repulsing the assault. Also in 1570, Sebastian ordered that the Brazilian Indians should not be used as slaves and ordered the release of those held in captivity. In 1572, the poet Luís de Camões presented his masterpiece Os Lusíadas and dedicated a poem to Sebastian that won him a royal pension. In 1573, he commissioned the construction of the Royal Basilica in Castro Verde as a tribute to the Battle of Ourique. In 1575 with the Carta de Lei de Almeirim, the king established a system of measures for solid and liquid products and also defined the role of public servants. The Celeiros Comuns (Communal Granaries) were inaugurated in 1576 on Sebastian's orders. These were lending institutions intended to help to poor farmers when farm production decreased, giving credit, lending seeds and commodities to the needy. They were allowed to pay back their debts with farm products when they recovered from losses. The mathematician and cosmographer Pedro Nunes was appointed by Sebastian as a cosmography teacher for sea pilots. It was during Sebastian's reign that Nunes wrote his Petri Nonii Salaciensis Opera. In 1577, Sebastian's ordinance Da nova ordem do juízo, sobre o abreviar das demandas, e execução dellas decreased the time for handling legal actions, regulated the action of lawyers, scribes and other court officials, and created fines for delays. Last projects After attaining his majority in 1568, Sebastian dreamed of a great crusade against the kingdom of Morocco, where over the preceding generation several Portuguese way stations on the route to India had been lost. A Moroccan succession struggle gave him the opportunity, when Abu Abdallah Mohammed II Saadi lost his throne in 1576 and fled to Portugal. After arriving, he asked for King Sebastian's assistance in defeating his Turkish-backed uncle and rival, Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I Saadi. During the Christmastide of 1577, Sebastian met with his uncle King Philip II of Spain at Guadalupe. Philip refused to be party to the crusade as he was negotiating a truce with the Ottoman Empire, though he promised a contingent of Spanish volunteers. Despite his lack of a son and heir, King Sebastian embarked on his crusade in 1578. The Portuguese army of 17,000 men, including a significant number of foreign mercenaries hired from the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, Spain, and the Italian States, and almost all of the country's nobility, sailed at the beginning of June from Lisbon. They visited Cádiz, where they expected to find Spanish volunteers who failed to appear, then crossed into Morocco. Death in battle At Arzila, Sebastian joined his ally Abu Abdullah Mohammed II, who had around 6,000 Moorish soldiers and, against the advice of his commanders, marched into the interior. At the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (Battle of the Three Kings), the Portuguese army was routed by Abd Al-Malik at the head of more than 60,000 men. Sebastian was almost certainly killed in battle. He was last seen riding headlong into the enemy lines. Whether his body was ever found is uncertain, but Philip II of Spain claimed to have received his remains from Morocco and buried them in the Jerónimos Monastery in Belém, Lisbon, after he ascended to the Portuguese throne in 1580. The body could not be identified as Sebastian's, however, which left some people unconvinced of his death. Sebastian was succeeded as king by his great-uncle Henry, brother of his grandfather, King John III. Legend and legacy According to Timothy Coates, he was not a remarkable and wise monarch: Pretenders After the defeat at Alcácer Quibir, many efforts were made to ransom imprisoned Portuguese soldiers in Morocco. Several soldiers returned to Portugal, which led many Portuguese to believe Sebastian had survived the battle and would return to claim his throne. This led to Sebastianism, the belief that Sebastian could return at any moment. Politically, there was a belief that Philip was not the rightful heir to the throne. Subsequently, imposter pretenders appeared in Portugal who fraudulently claimed to be the king. During the time of the Iberian Union, between 1580 and 1640, four different pretenders claimed to be the returned King Sebastian. The last of these pretenders, who was in fact an Italian, was hanged in 1619, while another was obtained by the Spanish from Venice, tried, found guilty and hanged in 1603. In the long term, many myths and legends about Sebastian appeared, the principal one being that he was a great Portuguese patriot, the "sleeping king" who would return to help Portugal in its darkest hour (similar to the Britons' King Arthur, the German Frederick Barbarossa or the Byzantine Constantine XI Palaeologus). He came to be known by symbolic names: O Encoberto (The Hidden One) who would return on a foggy morning to save Portugal, or as O Desejado (The Desired One). These legends were vigorously promoted through the massive circulation of popular rhymes (trovas) written by António Gonçalves de Bandarra. Even as late as the 19th century, "Sebastianist" peasants in the town of Canudos in the Brazilian sertão believed that the king would return to help them in their rebellion against the "godless" Brazilian republic. Sebastian's life was dramatised in 1843 in the opera Dom Sébastien by the Italian composer Gaetano Donizetti. Belgian playwright Paul Dresse also dramatised his life in the 1975 play Sébastien de Portugal ou le Capitaine de Dieu. The legend of Sebastian's disappearance and alleged return is the basis for the popular song "" ("The Legend of King Sebastian") by the Portuguese band Quarteto 1111 (1968). See also List of people who disappeared Ancestry References Sources História e histórias - Castro Verde, Joaquim Boiça/Rui Mateus, Artinvento, Região de Turismo da Planicie Dourada/Câmara Municipal de Castro Verde; Antas, Miguel Martins de (1988). Os Falsos Dom Sebastião, 2a. Edição, tr. Maria de Fátima Boavida, comment. Francisco Sales de Mascarenhas Loureiro. Lisboa: Europress. Baños-Garcia, António Villacorta (2001). Don Sebastián, Rey de Portugal. Barcelona. Eborense, André Rodrigues (1984). Sentenças para a Ensinança e Doutrina do Príncipe D. Sebastião, facsimile do manuscrito inédito da Casa Cadaval, intr. Luís de Matos, anot. Aristides Pinheiro e Abílio Rita. Lisboa: Banco Pinto & Sotto Mayor, Fernandes, Maria de Lurdes Correia (1991). «Francisco de Monzón, capelão e pregador de D. * Loureiro, Francisco de Sales de Mascarenhas (1973). «O padre Luís Gonçalves da Câmara e Dom Sebastiäo» in separata da revista O Instituto, no. 136. Coimbra. Loureiro, Francisco de Sales de Mascarenhas (1978). «Relação de Vida d'Elrey D. Sebastião do Pe. Amador Rebelo» in separata da Revista da Faculdade de Letras', 4a. série, no. 2. Lisboa: Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa. Loureiro, Francisco de Sales de Mascarenhas (intr. e notas) (1987). Crónica do Xarife Mulei Mahamet e d'El-Rei D. Sebastião 1573- 1578. Lisboa: Europress. Loureiro, Francisco de Sales de Mascarenhas (1989). Dom Sebastião e Alcácer Quibir. Lisboa: Alfa. Machado, José Timótio Montalvão (1964). «As Doenças do Rei Dom Sebastiäo», in separata da revista Arqueologia e História, no. 11. Lisboa, Associação dos Arqueólogos Portugueses. Saraiva, José Hermano et all. (1993). Dicionário Ilustrado da História de Portugal. Lisboa. Saraiva, Mário (1994). D. Sebastião na História e na Lenda, pref. Joaquim Veríssimo Serrão. Lisboa: Universitária Editora Saraiva, José Hermano (1998). Diário da História de Portugal''. Lisboa (compilation of contemporaneous chronicles). 1554 births 1570s missing person cases 1578 deaths 16th century in Morocco 16th-century Portuguese monarchs House of Aviz Missing person cases in Morocco Monarchs killed in action Modern child rulers People from Lisbon Princes of Portugal Portuguese folklore Portuguese infantes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem%20of%20Galilee
Bethlehem of Galilee
Bethlehem of Galilee (, Beit Lehem HaGlilit; lit. "the Galilean Bethlehem") is a moshav in northern Israel. Located in the Galilee near Kiryat Tivon, around 10 kilometres north-west of Nazareth and 30 kilometres east of Haifa, it falls under the jurisdiction of the Jezreel Valley Regional Council. As of it had a population of . The modern moshav is located at the site of the ancient Israelite settlement known as Bethlehem of Zebulun or Berlehem Zoria. Due to its proximity to Nazareth, one historian believes that it is the Bethlehem where Jesus of Nazareth was born. Aviram Oshri, a senior archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority, supports this claim, but other researchers at the same institution reject it. The town existed as Christian settlement in the classic era and was populated during the Middle Ages. It was reestablished as a German Templer Colony in Palestine in the 19th century and turned into Jewish moshav in 1948. History To distinguish the city from the city of Bethlehem near Jerusalem, it was originally known as Bethlehem of Zebulun, whilst the town near Jerusalem was called "Bethlehem of Judea". In the Jerusalem Talmud it is referred to as Beth Lehem Zoria, as it was part of the kingdom of Tyre at the time. According to the Book of Judges, one of the so-called "Minor Judges" of early settlement Israel, Ibzan, came from Bethlehem and was buried there. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges suggests that the Bethlehem referred to in this passage is Bethlehem of Galilee "rather than the more famous Bethlehem in the Tribe of Judah". Until the late 19th century, ruins of a church and a synagogue could be seen there, and archaeological findings "from the early Roman Period" show it was a prosperous city, so the biblical Bethlehem of Zebulon is identified by archaeologists with today's Bethlehem of Galilee. Due to its proximity to Nazareth, one historian believes that it is the Bethlehem where Jesus was born. Aviram Oshri, a senior archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority, supports this claim, although others at this institution reject it. Major building remains and pottery from the fourth–fifth century Byzantine era have been found here, together with major remains from Umayyad, Abbasid (eighth century CE) and Mamluk eras (fourteenth–fifteenth centuries CE). Ottoman period Arab village In 1517, the village was included in the Ottoman empire, and in the 1596 tax-records it appeared as Bayt Lahm, located in the Nahiya of Tabariyya of the Liwa of Safad. The population was 27 households and two bachelors, all Muslim. They paid a tax rate of 25% on agricultural products, which included wheat, barley, cotton, vegetable and fruit gardens, occasional revenues, goats and beehives; a total of 1200 Akçe. In 1859, the British consul Rogers stated that the population was 110, and the tillage at sixteen feddans. In 1875 Victor Guérin visited and noted that Bethlehem was a small village, which had succeeded a town of the same name. He further noted the ruins of two buildings; one, completely destroyed, had been constructed of good cut stones; the entrance was at the south façade. He thought, from its orientation north and south, that it was a synagogue. The other building, which lay east and west, may have been a Christian church. On its site were seen a few shafts, four of which were still in situ and half covered up. In 1882, the Palestine Exploration Fund's Survey of Western Palestine described it as "The ancient Bethlehem of Zebulon. A village principally built of adobe on high ground in the border of the wooded country. The nearest water is in Wady el Melek, on the north (Ras el 'Ain), and at the springs near Muwarah on the south." A population list from about 1887 showed that Kh. Beit Lahm had about 55 inhabitants; all Muslims. Templer village In 1906 Templers from the German Colony in Haifa established a colony in Galilee, naming it for the ancient city. British Mandate period In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British authorities, Bait Lam had a population of 224; 111 Christians and 113 Muslims. Of the Christians, 95 were Protestant and 16 were Greek Catholics (Melkites). This had increased slightly by the 1931 census to a population of 235; 135 Muslim, 99 Christians and 1 Jew, in a total of 51 inhabited houses. In 1932 the Nazi Party gained its first two members in Palestine; Karl Ruff and Walter Aberle from the Templer colony in Haifa. In the course of the 1930s, Bethlehemites also joined the party, indicating the fading affinity to the Templers' original ideals. By August 1939, 17% of all German Christians in Palestine were members of the Nazi Party. After the Nazi takeover in Germany, all international schools of German language subsidized or fully financed by government funds were obliged to employ teachers aligned to the Nazi Party. In 1933, Templer functionaries appealed to Paul von Hindenburg and the Foreign Office not to use swastika symbols for German institutions in Palestine and voiced opposition to the boycott of German Jewish shops. Later, this opposition subsided. On 20 August 1939 the German government called on German Christians in Palestine to join the Wehrmacht and 350 men enlisted. After the start of World War II, all Germans in Palestine were declared enemy aliens. The British authorities sent them to Sarona, Bethlehem (Galilee), Waldheim (today's Allonei Abba) and Wilhelma. In summer 1941, 665 German internees, mostly young families with children, were deported to Australia, leaving those who were too old or sick. In December 1941 and in the course of 1942 another 400 German internees, mostly wives and children of men who had enlisted in the Wehrmacht, were released - via Turkey - to Germany for the purpose of family reunification. In the 1945 statistics the population of Beit Lam consisted of 370 people; 210 Muslims and 160 Christians, and the total land area was 7,526 dunams according to an official land and population survey. 6 dunams of land were designated for citrus and bananas, 278 dunams for plantations and irrigable land, 4,796 for cereals, while 51 dunams were built-up areas. In 1945 the Italian and Hungarian internees were released but the Britons refused to repatriate the remaining German internees to the British zone in Germany. In 1947, they were allowed to emigrate to Australia. Israel On 17 April 1948 the Haganah captured the village, and it was subsequently depopulated. By 14 May 1948, when Israel declared independence, only 50 Templers remained in the country. It was resettled by Jewish farmers, becoming a moshav. Much of the original Templer architecture survives, and is similar in style to the homes built by the Templers in other parts of the country, such as Sarona in Tel Aviv, Wilhelma (today Bnei Atarot) and the German colonies of Haifa and Jerusalem. In recent years, tourism has replaced agriculture as the main economic branch. A dairy, an herb farm, restaurants and country-style accommodation are among the tourist-oriented businesses in the village today. References Bibliography Negev, Avraham/Gibson, S., 2001, Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, New York/London Sauer, Paul: Vom Land um den Asperg im Namen Gottes nach Palästina und Australien: Die wechselvolle Geschichte der Tempelgesellschaft, lecture held on 20 October 1995 in Burgstetten on the occasion of the 750th anniversary of Kirschenhardthof, printed as Schriftenreihe TG, No. 1 (1996) External links Survey of Western Palestine, Map 5: IAA, Wikimedia commons Ancient Jewish settlements of Galilee Moshavim Populated places established in 1906 1906 establishments in Ottoman Syria Templer settlements Hebrew Bible cities Populated places in Northern District (Israel)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%2C%20King%20of%20Portugal
Henry, King of Portugal
Henry ( ; 31 January 1512 — 31 January 1580), dubbed the Chaste () and the Cardinal-King (), was king of Portugal and a cardinal of the Catholic Church, who ruled Portugal between 1578 and 1580. As a clergyman, he was bound to chastity, and as such, had no children to succeed him, and thus put an end to the reigning House of Aviz. His death led to the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580 and ultimately to the 60-year Iberian Union that saw Portugal share a monarch with that of Habsburg Spain. The next independent monarch of Portugal would be John IV, who restored the throne after 60 years of Spanish rule. Life Born in Lisbon, Henry was the fifth son of King Manuel I of Portugal and Maria of Aragon. Cardinal As the younger brother of King John III of Portugal and a younger son in the Royal Family, Henry was not expected to succeed to the Portuguese throne. Early in his life, Henry took Holy Orders to promote Portuguese interests within the Catholic Church, then dominated by Spain. He rose fast through the Church hierarchy, becoming in quick succession Archbishop of Braga, Archbishop of Évora and Grand Inquisitor before receiving a galero in 1545, along with the Titulus Ss. Quattuor Coronatorum. From 1564 to 1570 he was Archbishop of Lisbon. Henry, more than anyone, endeavoured to bring the Jesuits to Portugal to employ them in the colonial empire. Reign Henry served as regent for his great-nephew King Sebastian, replacing his sister-in-law and Sebastian's grandmother Queen dowager Catherine, following her resignation from the role in 1562. King Sebastian died without an heir in the disastrous Battle of Alcácer Quibir that took place in 1578, and the elderly cardinal was proclaimed king soon after. Henry sought to be released from his ecclesiastical vows so he could take a bride and pursue the continuation of the Aviz dynasty, but Pope Gregory XIII, not wanting to antagonize Philip II of Spain, did not grant him that release. Death and succession The Cardinal-King died in Almeirim, on his 68th birthday, without having appointed a successor, leaving only a regency to care for the kingdom. One of the closest dynastic claimants was King Philip II of Spain who, in November 1580, sent the Duke of Alba to claim Portugal by force. Lisbon soon fell, and Philip was elected king of Portugal at the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar in 1581—on the condition that the kingdom and its overseas territories would not become Spanish provinces. Ancestry See also Struggle for the throne of Portugal War of the Portuguese Succession Descendants of Manuel I of Portugal Notes Bibliography External links 1512 births 1580 deaths 16th-century Portuguese cardinals Bishops of Évora House of Aviz Roman Catholic archbishops of Braga Regents of Portugal Archbishops of Lisbon 16th-century Portuguese monarchs Portuguese infantes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Wicksteed
Philip Wicksteed
Philip Henry Wicksteed (25 October 1844 – 18 March 1927) is known primarily as an economist. He was also a Georgist, Unitarian theologian, classicist, medievalist, and literary critic. Family background He was the son of Charles Wicksteed (1810–1885) and his wife Jane (1814–1902), and was named after his distant ancestor, Philip Henry (1631–1696), the Nonconformist clergyman and diarist. His father was a clergyman within the same tradition of English Dissent. His mother was born into the Lupton family, a socially progressive, politically active dynasty of businessmen and traders, long established in Leeds, a city both prosperous and squalid with the rapid growth of the Industrial Revolution. In 1835 Wicksteed had taken up the ministry of the Unitarian place of worship, Mill Hill Chapel, right on the city's central square, and two years later the couple married. In 1841 his sister Elizabeth married Jane's brother Arthur (1819–1867), also a Unitarian minister; Uncle Arthur was, according to a family history, "The Achilles of the Leeds Complete Suffrage Association", in other words, a tragic champion of the fight for universal suffrage; see Chartism and Henry Vincent for more on the CSA. One of their children, a first cousin to Philip, was the maverick MP and mining engineer Arnold Lupton. Jane was described as impractical but accomplished (sketching, painting, reciting poetry etc.) and both the Wicksteed siblings as "Unitarians of vigorous mind and keen intelligence". Philip was one of nine children, including Janet, who wrote, as Mrs Lewis, a memoir including her parents; (Joseph) Hartley, president of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers; and Charles, also an engineer, who bequeathed to the people of Kettering the park named after his family. One of his nieces was Mary Cicely Wicksteed, who married the prominent Australian surgeon Sir Hibbert Alan Stephen Newton (1887–1949) Education Wicksteed was educated at University College, London and Manchester New College, the seminary for nonconformist ministers. In 1867 he received his master's degree with a gold medal in classics. Following his father into the Unitarian ministry that year, Wicksteed embarked on an extraordinarily broad range of scholarly and theological explorations. His theological and ethical writings continued long after he left the pulpit (in 1897), and appear to have been a starting point for many of his other fields of scholarly inquiry. These included his interest in Dante, which not only produced a remarkable list of publications, but also built Wicksteed's reputation as one of the foremost medievalists of his time. Inspired by his reading of Henry George's 1879 book Progress and Poverty, Wicksteed's theologically driven interest in the ethics of modern society, appear to have led him into his economic studies. Perhaps it was just by circumstance that economics entered Wicksteed's field of scholarly vision, as only one of a number of areas of his interest (to most of which he was committed for years before he began his economics) and in the middle of the fourth decade of his life. This led Joseph Schumpeter to remark that Wicksteed "stood somewhat outside of the economics profession". Yet, within a few years Wicksteed was to publish significant economic work of his own, carefully expounding on the theory he learned from William Stanley Jevons, and to become for many years a lecturer on economics for the University of London extension lectures (a kind of adult education program initiated in the 1870s to extend "the teaching of the universities, to serve up some of the crumbs from the university tables, in a portable and nutritious form, for some of the multitude who had no chance of sitting there"). In 1894, Wicksteed published his celebrated An Essay on the Co-ordination of the Laws of Distribution, in which he sought to prove mathematically that a distributive system which rewarded factory owners according to marginal productivity would exhaust the total product produced. But it was his 1910 The Common Sense of Political Economy which most comprehensively presents Wicksteed's economic system. The 1932 work by Lionel Robbins, An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science, picked up and developed his ideas. Personal life Wicksteed married Emily Solly, a daughter of Henry, a Unitarian minister and social reformer. The library of University College London contains correspondence between Emily and Maria Sharpe Pearson, the wife of Karl Pearson. Wicksteed was a staunch opponent of vivisection. He became an associate of Frances Power Cobbe and supported the anti-vivisection movement. Selected publications Memorials of the Rev. Charles Wicksteed (1886) Mr. Wicksteed on Vivisection (1889) Vivisection: An Address The Common Sense of Political Economy (1910) The Reactions Between Dogma & Philosophy (1920) References Sources Ian Steedman (1987). "Wicksteed, Philip Henry," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, pp. 919–15. reprinted in 1933, L. Robbins, ed., Clifton NJ: Augustus M. Kelley Publishers (1955) The Alphabet of Economic Science, New York City NY: Kelley & Millman, Inc. (1914). “The Scope and Method of Political Economy in the Light of the ‘Marginal’ Theory of Value and Distribution”, Economic Journal, 24(94), pp. 1–23 (reprinted in Wicksteed, 1933). External links The Common Sense of Political Economy, Vol. I and Vol. II 1844 births 1927 deaths Alumni of Harris Manchester College, Oxford Alumni of University College London Anti-vivisectionists English economists English Unitarians Georgist economists Neoclassical economics Neoclassical economists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wichita%20State%20University
Wichita State University
Wichita State University (WSU) is a public research university in Wichita, Kansas, United States. It is governed by the Kansas Board of Regents. The university offers more than 60 undergraduate degree programs in more than 200 areas of study in six colleges. The university's graduate school offers 44 master's degrees in more than 100 areas and a specialist in education degree. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". Wichita State University also hosts classes at four satellite locations: WSU West in Maize, WSU South in Derby, and the WSU Downtown Center that houses the university's Center for Community Support & Research, the Department of Physician Assistant, and the Department of Physical Therapy. A quarter-mile northeast of campus, the Advanced Education in General Dentistry building, built in 2011, houses classrooms and a dental clinic. It is adjacent to the university's Eugene M. Hughes Metropolitan Complex, where many of WSU noncredit courses are taught. History Wichita State University began in 1886 as a private Congregational preparatory school, founded by Rev. Joseph Homer Parker. Initially it was referred to as "Young Ladies College", "Wichita Ladies College", and "Congregational Female College". It was founded during a boom in college and university creation and it was envisioned to admit women twelve years and older who were "able to read, write, spell and recite the parts of speech." In early 1887, the project's leaders received a land parcel from the developers of the adjacent Fairmount Neighborhood and in response, renamed their school Fairmount College. Envisioned to be the "Vassar of the West," the streets of the neighboring neighborhoods were named after prominent women's colleges including Vassar and Holyoke. Support came mainly from the Plymouth Congregational Church to build it, but the school never opened its doors. In 1892, a corporation bought the property and named the preparatory school Fairmount Institute. It opened in September to men and women, with an emphasis on training in preaching or teaching. It closed because of financial difficulties. In 1895, on the same site, Fairmount College opened collegiate classes for men and women with funding by the Congregational Education Society. The society selected Nathan Morrison to be the president of the new college. During the 1900s and 1910s, the school grew with structures including Fiske Hall, a men's dormitory, and a Carnegie library. The school's mascot, the "wheatshockers," came about during a football game in 1906 and referred to the fact that many of the football players also shocked wheat during the harvest. Amid growing financial troubles in the 1920s, the college's supporters tried to get the city of Wichita to buy it in 1925, but failed. A second referendum passed in 1926, and that fall it became the Municipal University of Wichita (popularly known as "Wichita University" or "WU"). It was the first municipal university west of the Mississippi, and catered to students of limited means. By the 1950s, university leaders and President Harry Corbin explored adding the institution to the State of Kansas Regents System along with the University of Kansas and Kansas State University. These two schools had powerful friends who did not feel that the University of Wichita was on par with the state's two main universities. It took a concerted lobbying effort on the part of WU boosters to persuade the legislature and governor to agree to the change. On July 1, 1964, the school officially entered the state system of higher education as Wichita State University (WSU). Located on campus is the original building of the first Pizza Hut. The original building was located at Kellogg and Bluff. An effort to move it out of the path of Kellogg expansion resulted in the building coming to Wichita State University in the 1980s. After three decades of being located near the campus water tower, the building underwent a second move. In the 2010s, the university moved it to its current location on the Innovation Campus. Campuses The Main Campus is located at 1845 North Fairmount in northeast Wichita, is mostly bounded between the streets of 17th St N, 21st St N, Hillside St, Oliver Ave. The campus includes the Edwin A. Ulrich Museum of Art. WSU has six satellite locations: WSU West is located at 3801 North Walker in Maize, Kansas. This 9 acre (3.6 ha) campus hosts 80 to 100 university classes each academic semester. WSU South is located at 3821 East Harry Street, Suite B105 in Wichita. This campus began offering Wichita State University coursework in January 2008 at its original location at 200 West Greenway in Derby, Kansas before moving to its current location on July 1, 2018. WSU Haysville is located at 106 Stewart Ave in Haysville, Kansas. WSU Old Town - A is located at 238 N. Mead in downtown Wichita. WSU Old Town - B is located at 213 N. Mead in downtown Wichita. WSU Old Town - C is located at 121 N. Mead in downtown Wichita. Since July 1, 2018, the Campus of Applied Sciences and Technology, also known as "WSU Tech" and formerly known as the Wichita Area Technical College, is located at 4004 N. Webb Road in Wichita. Research WSU is one of three research institutions in the state of Kansas, along with Kansas State University (KSU) and the University of Kansas (KU). Research facilities include: National Institute for Aviation Research, which has multiple facilities: Aircraft Structural Test and Evaluation Center (ASTEC) in the former Kansas Coliseum near Park City. Advanced Technologies Lab for Aerospace Systems (ATLAS), a manufacturing research lab Virtual Engineering & Flight Laboratory Crash Dynamics Laboratory Walter H. Beech Wind Tunnel Biology research labs (Hubbard Hall) Chemistry research labs (McKinley Hall) Physics research labs (Jabara Hall) WSU Field Station Innovation Campus Academics The university comprises the following academic colleges and schools: College of Applied Studies (formerly College of Education) Counseling, Educational Leadership, Educational and School Psychology Department Department of Human Performance Studies School of Education Sport Management Program College of Engineering Aerospace Engineering Department Biomedical Engineering Department Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Engineering Technology Program Industrial, Systems, and Manufacturing Engineering Department Mechanical Engineering Department College of Fine Arts School of Art, Design and Creative Industries School of Digital Arts School of Music School of Performing Arts College of Health Professions Advanced Education in General Dentistry Program Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders Department of Dental Hygiene Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences Department of Physical Therapy Department of Public Health Sciences Physician Assistant Program School of Nursing Dorothy and Bill Cohen Honors College Fairmount College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Center for Women's Studies Department of Anthropology Department of Biological Sciences Department of Chemistry Department of English Department of Geology Department of History Department of Mathematics, Statistics and Physics Department of Modern and Classical Languages and Literatures Department of Philosophy Department of Political Science Department of Sociology Elliot School of Communication Hugo Wall School of Public Affairs Psychology Department School of Criminal Justice School of Social Work Graduate School Institute for Interdisciplinary Innovation W. Frank Barton School of Business Wichita State University was ranked the 52nd top college in the United States in 2014 by the Social Mobility Index college rankings. Wichita State is placed among National Universities in the United States in rankings done by U.S. News & World Report. For all engineering research and development expenditures, WSU ranked No. 27 in the US for year 2021, with $109 million Wichita State University is ranked third among all U.S. universities in money spent on aerospace research and development, with $105 million in expenditures and No. 1 in industry-funded aerospace R&D. Wichita State's W. Frank Barton School of Business was listed in The Princeton Review 2011 "301 Best Business Schools," ranked as the 11th best program in the country for students seeking an undergraduate degree in entrepreneurship for 2007. In 2021, the Department of Engineering Technology was recognized as one of three academic programs in the United States endorsed by the Advanced Robotics for Manufacturing consortium in its inaugural endorsement program launch. The Aerospace Engineering department was founded in 1928 and has longstanding collaborative relationships with Airbus North America, Boeing, Bombardier-Learjet, Cessna, Hawker Beechcraft, Spirit AeroSystems, and other Wichita aviation concerns. The department teaches in the areas of composites, structures, Engineering mechanics, computational Fluid dynamics, applied Aerodynamics, and Flight simulation. Students can readily do internships at the nearby airports and many airplane companies like Cessna, Learjet, etc. The Wichita State University Libraries have holdings of more than 2 million volumes, over 350 electronic databases and more than 70,000 journal subscriptions. The University Libraries consist of the main Ablah Library, the McKinley Chemistry Library, the Thurlow Lieurance Music Library and University Libraries Special Collections and University Archives. The libraries are open to community users and serve as a regional United States Federal Government Documents Depository, a State of Kansas Government Documents Depository, and is the State of Kansas' only Patents and Trademarks Library. WSU Special Collections and University Archives contains numerous rare books, incunabula, historical manuscripts collections, maps and photographic archives documenting Kansas history, as well as hosting the Wichita Photo Archives. The library faculty offer workshops throughout the year to students and community members. In 2014, President John Bardo announced plans to launch a major academic and student life initiative, dubbed the "Innovation Campus." The plan kicked off with the completion of renovations to the university's student union, the Rhatigan Student Center, and the opening of Shocker Hall, a new 318,000-square-foot, 784-bed housing facility on the main campus. It includes public/private partnerships with domestic and international companies that would build offices on the WSU main campus and collaborate with the students and faculty on research projects and product development through a technology transfer system. The university has secured partnerships with three companies: Wichita-based ABI Group of Companies; Sunnyvale, Calif.-based NetApp; and the Indian IT firm Tech Mahindra. The plan calls for the addition of more than 20 new buildings, including Woolsey Hall, a new building for the Frank W. Barton School of Business, a new residence hall, commercial offices, "creative collision" facilities, two mixed-use developments and a hotel. Ground broke on the first building, the Technology Transfer/Experiential Learning Building, in Q1 2015. The development is taking place on the site of the former Braeburn Golf Course adjacent to campus, a WSU-owned course which closed in November 2014. President John Bardo's executive team passed a tobacco-free campus policy in August 2016. In 2017, the university, all of its satellite campuses and all WSU-owned properties became tobacco free. The ban applies to all tobacco products including smokeless tobacco, oral tobacco and electronic cigarettes. It does not apply to products that deliver nicotine for the purpose of cessation, or to tobacco used in controlled research or for educational, clinical or religious ceremonial purposes. Smoking was still allowed in designated areas outside of WSU-ICAA controlled athletic facilities and within designated areas of the WSU Innovation Campus. Wichita State University has been dynamically growing and changing over the years--with buildings including: the Steve Clark YMCA and Student Wellness Center, and The Flats. As the university is nationally renowned, Airbus and Spirit Aerosystems have also decided to move their locations to Wichita State. On the eastern half of the campus stands the John Bardo Center, and Hyatt Place. Woolsley Hall, the future home of the Barton School of Business--will be completed in mid-2022. Student life Greek organizations Recognized fraternities and sororities at the university include: Athletics WSU is an NCAA Division I institution competing in the American Athletic Conference and fields teams in tennis, cross-country, basketball, track, golf, men's baseball and women's volleyball and softball. Also, it offers club sports such as crew, bowling, shooting sports, and other intramural sports. The men's baseball team is college baseball's highest winning team for the past 31 years, with numerous conference championships and NCAA tournament appearances. The baseball team won the national championship in 1989 and was runner-up in 1982, 1991 and 1993. They play at Eck Stadium. The men's basketball team has played in the NCAA tournament 16 times since 1954, advancing to the Final Four in 1965 and 2013, the Elite Eight in 1981, and the Sweet Sixteen in 2006 and 2015, and also entering the 2014 NCAA tournament unbeaten. The team also won the 2011 National Invitation Tournament Championship, beating the Alabama Crimson Tide. The Shockers have two alumni currently playing in the NBA in Ron Baker and Fred VanVleet, guards during the 2013 Final Four run, unbeaten 2013–14 regular season, and 2015 Sweet Sixteen run. Other Wichita State products who have played in the league include All-Star Xavier McDaniel, power forwards Antoine Carr, Cliff Levingston and Cleanthony Early, two-time All-American Dave Stallworth, center Gene Wiley, guards Gal Mekel and Toure' Murry, and Greg Dreiling. Four-time All-American Cleo Littleton joined the Shocks in 1951, breaking the unofficial color barrier in the Missouri Valley Conference. The men's and women's bowling teams have won numerous USBC Intercollegiate Team Championships, including the men's 2003, 2008, 2009 and 2010 title and the women's 2005, 2007 and 2009 title. Shocker Track and Field History: Seven Olympians. Two National Champions. 60 NCAA All-Americans. Under Steve Rainbolt (2001–2012): 14 Missouri Valley Conference Championship Teams. 29 NCAA All-Americans. Men's Cross Country: Established in 1947. Eight Missouri Valley Conference titles, five consecutive (1971–75). Five NCAA All-Americans. Nine Missouri Valley Conference Champions. 46 All-MVC award winners. Women's Cross Country: Established in 1983. 10 Missouri Valley Conference titles, six consecutive (2005–10). Four NCAA All-Americans. Six Missouri Valley Conference Champions. 56 All-MVC award winners. The school discontinued its football program following the 1986 season due to poor attendance, financial red ink, NCAA recruiting violations, and the state of disrepair of Cessna Stadium. It had been never fully recovered from losing 16 starters, its athletic director, football coach and many others critical to the WSU program in a plane crash in 1970 (see below). Legendary NFL coach Bill Parcells was a linebacker at WSU in 1962 and 1963 before serving as a graduate assistant in 1964. Wichita State University was also the first Division I-A school to hire a black head coach in college football, Willie Jeffries, in 1979. Shockers The name for WSU's athletic teams is the Shockers and students are also collectively referred to as "Shockers." The name reflects the University's heritage: Early students earned money by shocking, or harvesting, wheat in nearby fields. Early football games were played on a stubbled wheat field. Pep club members were known as Wheaties. Tradition has it that in 1904, football manager and student R.J. Kirk came up with the nickname Wheatshockers. Although the Wheatshockers name was never officially adopted by the university, it caught on and survived until it was later shortened to Shockers. Until 1948, the university used a nameless shock of wheat as its symbol. WuShock came to life when junior Wilbur Elsea won the Kappa Pi honorary society's competition to design a mascot typifying the spirit of the school. Elsea, who had been a Marine during World War II, decided that "the school needed a mascot who gave a tough impression, with a serious, no-nonsense scowl." Once Elsea's mascot was adopted by the university, which by that time was known as the Municipal University of Wichita, all that was needed was a name. The October 7, 1948, issue of The Sunflower, the student newspaper, ran an advertisement urging students to submit names for the school's new mascot. It was freshman Jack Kersting who suggested the winning name, "WuShock." In 1998, WuShock, also referred to as "Wu," marked his 50th birthday by undergoing a redesign and getting a pumped-up physique and revved-up attitude. The mascot's costume has changed over the years, as well. With the redesign, a new costume was introduced in fall 1998. In fall 1999, the head of the new costume underwent another redesign after a number of supporters suggested the mascot needed a more intimidating look. In 2006 it was decided to once again update the Wu costume. The general consensus was that many wanted the costume to more accurately reflect the depiction of WU in the school's logo. The new WuShock now has the ability to run, jump, and walk up stairs without help. Many officials feel that a more professional and intimidating mascot on the field will certainly bolster WSU's image. Football team plane crash On October 2, 1970, a plane carrying players and staff of the WSU football team took off from a Colorado airport after refueling and was bound for Logan, Utah for a game against Utah State University. It flew into a mountain valley too narrow to enable it to turn back and smashed into a mountainside, killing 31 of the 40 players, administrators, and fans near a ski resort away from Denver. It was the first, or "gold" plane, the twin to a second black plane. President Richard Nixon sent the president of the university a note which read, "Our thoughts and prayers go out to you in this time of sorrow." A monument exists to the south of Memorial Drive on the Wichita State Campus to commemorate those who died. Notable alumni and faculty References Further reading Standing Proudly on the Hill : A Pictorial History of Wichita State University 1895-1995; WSU Centennial Committee; 48 pages; 1995. (abstract) (download) Uncloistered Halls : The Centennial History of Wichita State University (1895-1995); Craig Miner; WSU Endowment Association; 360 pages; 1995. (abstract) (download) An Act of Faith (1955-1984); Melvin H Witrogen, Dennis Duell, Jimmy Skaggs; WSU Board of Trustees; 90 pages; 1984. (abstract) (download) - history of the struggle to bring the University of Wichita into the state university system A History of Fairmount College (1895-1926); John Rydjord; Regents Press of Kansas; 251 pages; 1977; . (abstract) (download) A History of the College of Engineering at Wichita State University (1920s-1990s); Melvin Snyder; 66 pages; 1996. (abstract) External links Wichita State Athletics website Educational institutions established in 1895 Tourist attractions in Wichita, Kansas Buildings and structures in Wichita, Kansas 1895 establishments in Kansas Public universities and colleges in Kansas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20preference
Time preference
In economics, time preference (or time discounting, delay discounting, temporal discounting, long-term orientation) is the current relative valuation placed on receiving a good or some cash at an earlier date compared with receiving it at a later date. Time preferences are captured mathematically in the discount function. The higher the time preference, the higher the discount placed on returns receivable or costs payable in the future. One of the factors that may determine an individual's time preference is how long that individual has lived. An older individual may have a lower time preference (relative to what they had earlier in life) due to a higher income and to the fact that they have had more time to acquire durable commodities (such as a college education or a house). Examples A practical example is if Jim and Bob go out for a drink and Jim has no money so Bob lends Jim $10. The next day Jim comes back to Bob, and Jim says, "Bob, you can have $10 now, or at the end of the month when I get paid I will give you $15." Bob's time preference would change depending on if he trusted Jim and how much he needs the money now, thinks he can wait, or would prefer to have $15 at the end of the month than $10 now. Present and expected needs, present and expected income affect the time preference. Neoclassical views In the neoclassical theory of interest due to Irving Fisher, the rate of time preference is usually taken as a parameter in an individual's utility function which captures the trade off between consumption today and consumption in the future, and is thus exogenous and subjective. It is also the underlying determinant of the real rate of interest. The rate of return on investment is generally seen as return on capital, with the real rate of interest equal to the marginal product of capital at any point in time. Arbitrage, in turn, implies that the return on capital is equalized with the interest rate on financial assets (adjusting for factors such as inflation and risk). Consumers, who are facing a choice between consumption and saving, respond to the difference between the market interest rate and their own subjective rate of time preference ("impatience") and increase or decrease their current consumption according to this difference. This changes the amount of funds available for investment and capital accumulation, as in for example the Ramsey growth model. In the long run steady state, consumption's share in a person's income is constant which pins down the rate of interest as equal to the rate of time preference, with the marginal product of capital adjusting to ensure this equality holds. It is important to note that in this view, it is not that people discount the future because they can receive positive interest rates on their savings. Rather, the causality goes in the opposite direction; interest rates must be positive in order to induce impatient individuals to forgo current consumptions in favor of future. Temporal discounting Temporal discounting (also known as delay discounting, time discounting) is the tendency of people to discount rewards as they approach a temporal horizon in the future or the past (i.e., become so distant in time that they cease to be valuable or to have additive effects). To put it another way, it is a tendency to give greater value to rewards as they move away from their temporal horizons and towards the "now". For instance, a nicotine deprived smoker may highly value a cigarette available any time in the next 6 hours but assign little or no value to a cigarette available in 6 months. Regarding terminology, from Frederick et al (2002): This term is used in intertemporal economics, intertemporal choice, neurobiology of reward and decision making, microeconomics and recently neuroeconomics. Traditional models of economics assumed that the discounting function is exponential in time leading to a monotonic decrease in preference with increased time delay; however, more recent neuroeconomic models suggest a hyperbolic discount function which can address the phenomenon of preference reversal. Temporal discounting is also a theory particularly relevant to the political decisions of individuals, as people often put their short term political interests before the longer term policies. This can be applied to the way individuals vote in elections but can also apply to how they contribute to societal issues like climate change, that is primarily a long term threat and therefore not prioritised Assessing temporal discounting Offered a choice of $100 today and $100 in one month, individuals will most likely choose the $100 now. However, should the question change to having $100 today, or $1,000 in one month, individuals will most likely choose the $1,000 in one month. The $100 can be conceptualized as a Smaller Sooner Reward (SSR), and the $1,000 can be conceptualized as a Larger Later Reward (LLR). Researchers who study temporal discounting are interested in the point in time in which an individual changes their preference for the SSR to the LLR, or vice versa. For example, although an individual may prefer $1,000 in one month over $100 now, they may switch their preference to the $100 if the delay to the $1,000 is increased to 60 months (5 years). This means that this individual values $1,000 after a delay of 60 months less than $100 now. The trick is to find the point in time in which the individual values the LLR and the SSR as being equivalent. That is known as the indifference point. Preferences can be measured by asking people to make a series of choices between immediate and delayed payoffs, where the delay period and the payoff amounts are varied. Origin of differences in time preference across countries Oded Galor and Omer Ozak explore the roots of observed differences in time preference across nations. They establish that pre-industrial agricultural characteristics that were favorable to higher return to agricultural investment triggered a process of selection, adaptation, and learning that brought about a higher prevalence of long-term orientation. These agricultural characteristics are associated with contemporary economic and human behavior such as technological adoption, education, saving, and smoking. Historical understanding of time preference theory in relation to interest rates The Catholic scholastic philosophers firstly brought up sophisticated explanations and justifications of return on capital, including risk and the opportunity cost of profit forgone, associated with the discount factor. However, they failed to interpret the interest on a riskless loan and hence denounced the time preference discounter as sinful and usurious. Later, Conrad Summenhart, a theologian at the University of Tübingen, used time preference to explain the discount loans, where the lenders won't profit usuriously from the loans as the borrowers would accept the price the lenders ask. A half-century later, Martin de Azpilcueta Navarrus, a Dominican canon lawyer and monetary theorist at the University of Salamanca, held the view that present goods, such as money, will naturally be worth more on the market than future goods (money). At about the same time, Gian Francesco Lottini da Volterra, an Italian humanist and politician, discovered time preference and contemplated time preference as an overestimation of "a present" that can be grasped immediately by the senses. Two centuries later, Ferdinando Galiani, a Neapolitan abbot, used an analogy to point out that just similar to the exchange rate, the interest rate links and equates the present value to the future value, and under people's subjective mind, these two physically non-identical items should be equal. These scattered thoughts and progression of theories inspired Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, a French statesman, to generate a full-scale time preference theory: what must be compared in a loan transaction is not the value of money lent with the value repaid, but rather the ‘value of the promise of a sum of money compared to the value of money available now; in addition, he analyzed the relation between money supply and interest rates: If money supply increases and people with insensitive time preference receive the money, then these people tend to hoard money for savings instead of going for consumptions, which will cause interest rates to fall while prices to rise. This helps to explain why contemporary interest rates have tended to fall due to the European thrifty spirit. See also Decision theory Delayed gratification Discount function Discounted utility Discounting Dynamic inconsistency Hyperbolic discounting – A model of typical time preferences. Intertemporal choice Net present value Time value of money Treasury test discount rate Notes Intertemporal economics Interest rates
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold%20Monro
Harold Monro
Harold Edward Monro (14 March 1879 – 16 March 1932) was an English poet born in Brussels, Belgium. As the proprietor of the Poetry Bookshop in London, he helped many poets to bring their work before the public. Life and career Monro was born at 137 chaussée de Charleroi, Saint-Gilles/St Gillis, Brussels, on 14 March 1879, as the youngest of three surviving children of Edward William Monro (1848–1889), civil engineer, and his wife and first cousin, Arabel Sophia (1849–1926), daughter of Peter John Margary, also a civil engineer. Monro's father was born at Marylebone and died aged 41 when Monro was only nine years old. This loss may have influenced his character as a poet. The Monro family was well established in Bloomsbury. His paternal grandfather, Dr Henry Munro FRCP MD, was a surgeon, born at Gower St, Bloomsbury, in 1817. Monro was educated at Radley College and Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. His first collection of poetry was published in 1906. He also edited a poetry magazine, The Poetry Review, which became influential. In 1913, he founded the Poetry Bookshop at 35 Devonshire Street in Bloomsbury, where he published new collections at his own expense and sometimes made a profit, while providing a welcoming environment for readers and poets. Several poets, including Wilfrid Wilson Gibson, lodged in the rooms above the shop. Monro and the Poetry Bookshop were also involved with Edward Marsh in publishing the Georgian Poetry series. War and peace Monro wrote few war poems himself, but his "Youth in Arms" quartet, written in the early months of the First World War, is one of the first attempts to envisage the "human psychology" of soldiering and understand "how ungrudgingly Youth dies." These poems were inspired by Monro's fears for his friend, Basil Watt, whom he dearly loved and who was later killed at Loos. Monro's elegy for Watt, "Lament in 1915", is a monologue in unornamented, modern language. <poem> Happy boy, happy boy, David the immortal-willed, Youth a thousand thousand times Slain, but not once killed, Swaggering again today In the old contemptuous way; Leaning backward from your thigh Up against the tinselled bar — Dust and ashes! is it you? Laughing, boasting, there you are! First we hardly recognized you In your modern avatar. Soldier, rifle, brown khaki — Is your blood as happy so? Where's your sling or painted shield, Helmet, pike or bow? Well, you're going to the wars — That is all you need to know. Graybeards plotted. They were sad. Death was in their wrinkled eyes. At their tables—with their maps, Plans and calculations—wise They all seemed; for well they knew How ungrudgingly Youth dies. At their green official baize They debated all the night Plans for your adventurous days Which you followed with delight, Youth in all your wanderings, David of a thousand slings.</poem> After the war, Monro wrote his somewhat trenchant overview Some Contemporary Poets (1920), though this was not published by the Poetry Bookshop. He also founded The Chapbook (1919–1925, his third journal after The Poetry Review and Poetry and Drama, 1913–1914), which was not commercially viable, but contained some of his best work as a poet. His intention was to find "cultural middle ground" between modernism and the more traditional work exemplified by the Georgians. In this Monro took a broad view of the sphere of poetry, devoting whole numbers to children's rhymes and to songs by Walter de la Mare complete with scores. Marriages The young Monro was raised together with his sister Mary (died 1921) by their widowed mother, who remarried in 1910 to Sir Daniel Fulthorpe Gooch (1829–1926). Monro's stepbrother Lancelot Daniel Edward Gooch, a midshipman on HMS Implacable, died a fortnight after his 18th birthday in Greece, on 4 October 1915. On 2 December 1903 in Eastbourne, Monro married Dorothy Elizabeth Browne. Their son Nigel Monro (1904–1951) was born in Ireland, where Harold was working as a land agent for a family friend. However, the marriage was not to last and in 1908, the couple separated. The son followed Monro family medical tradition and practised as a surgeon. In March 1913 Monro met Alida Klemantaski, 17 years his junior, from Hampstead, who also had a passion for poetry and had set herself goals of becoming a doctor or rescuing prostitutes from their predicament. Monro instead persuaded her that by working in the Poetry Bookshop, she would be achieving just as much for society. They were married in 1920. Alida's brother Louis Klemantaski, a promising young poet and musical editor died at the Somme in 1916. It is said that Alida had a greater influence than anyone on the development of Monro's own poetry. Disappointment In his later years, Monro reflected on whether the Poetry Bookshop had fulfilled its purpose and whether it should be closed, but he was too deeply attached to it. According to the English literary historian Dominic Hibberd, "By now Monro was a disappointed man, appalled at the state of Europe and feeling forgotten by the poets he had helped." He had used up most of his money subsidising the shop. On top of a drinking problem, Monro contracted tuberculosis. He died on 16 March 1932, aged 53, at the Cliff Combe Nursing Home, Broadstairs, Kent, and was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on the 19th. He was remembered as being liberal-minded and without literary prejudices. "Perhaps no one did more for the advancement of twentieth-century poetry." To what God? On Monday, 4 August 2014, a service was held at Westminster Abbey as "A Solemn Commemoration on the Centenary of the Outbreak of the First World War", HRH Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, representing HM the Queen. After a reading from St John's Gospel, the choir gave the first performance of a new composition by David Matthews, a pupil of Benjamin Britten, setting a bitter, disillusioned 1914 poem by Harold Monro, "To what God shall we chant our songs of battle?" alongside passages from Lamentations and St Luke. James O'Donnell, Abbey organist and master of the choristers, commented that the work "leaves you standing on the edge of an abyss." <poem> To what God Shall we chant Our songs of Battle? Oh, to whom shall a song of battle be chanted? Not to our lord of the hosts on his ancient throne, Drowsing the ages out in Heaven alone. The celestial choirs are mute, the angels have fled: Word is gone forth abroad that our lord is dead. Is it nothing to you, all you that pass by? Behold and see if there be any sorrow like unto my sorrow. To what God Shall we chant Our songs of Battle? Oh, to whom shall a song of battle be chanted? If you had only recognised on this day the things that make for peace! But now they are hidden from your eyes. Oh, to whom shall a song of battle be chanted?</poem> Anthologized poets Poets included in Twentieth Century Poetry, an anthology chosen by Harold Monro, 1933 edition: Lascelles Abercrombie, Richard Aldington, John Alford, A. C. Benson, Laurence Binyon, Edmund Blunden, W. S. Blunt, Gordon Bottomley, Robert Bridges, Rupert Brooke, Samuel "Erewhon" Butler, Roy Campbell, G. K. Chesterton, Richard Church, Padraic Colum, A. E. Coppard, Frances Cornford, John Davidson, W. H. Davies, Jeffery Day, Walter de la Mare, Lord Alfred Douglas, John Drinkwater, Helen Parry Eden, T. S. Eliot, Vivian Locke Ellis, Michael Field, J. E. Flecker, F. S. Flint, John Freeman, Stella Gibbons, Wilfrid Gibson, Robert Graves, Thomas Hardy, H. D., Philip Henderson, Maurice Hewlett, Ralph Hodgson, Gerard Manley Hopkins, A. E. Housman, Ford Madox Hueffer, T. E. Hulme, Aldous Huxley, James Joyce, Rudyard Kipling, D. H. Lawrence, Cecil Day-Lewis, John Masefield, R. A. K. Mason, Charlotte Mew, Alice Meynell, Viola Meynell, Harold Monro, T. Sturge Moore, Edwin Muir, Henry Newbolt, Robert Nichols, Alfred Noyes, Wilfred Owen, J. D. C. Pellow, H. D. C. Pepler, Eden Phillpotts, Ezra Pound, Peter Quennell, Herbert Read, Isaac Rosenberg, Siegfried Sassoon, Geoffrey Scott, Edward Shanks, Fredegond Shove, Edith Sitwell, Osbert Sitwell, Sacheverell Sitwell, Stephen Spender, J. C. Squire, James Stephens, Edward Thomas, W. J. Turner, Sylvia Townsend Warner, Max Weber, Anna Wickham, Humbert Wolfe, William Butler Yeats References Poetry collections Chronicle of a Pilgrimage (1909) Before Dawn: Poems and Impressions (1911) Children of Love (1915) Strange Meetings (1917) Real Property (1922) The Earth for Sale (1928) The Silent Pool and other poems (Faber & Faber, 1942) Collected Poems (ed. Alida Monro, Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd, 1970) Further reading Dominic Hibberd (2001), Harold Monro: Poet of The New Age Palgrave Macmillan Joy Grant (1967), Harold Monro and the Poetry Bookshop University of California Press Geni War Poets Project External links 1879 births 1932 deaths British poets Writers from London People educated at Radley College Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge English World War I poets English LGBT poets British male poets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis%20Cooley
Dennis Cooley
Dennis Cooley (born August 27, 1944) is a Canadian author of poetry and criticism, a retired university professor, and a vital figure in the evolution of the prairie long poem. He was raised on a farm near the small city of Estevan, Saskatchewan in Canada, and currently resides in Winnipeg, Manitoba. He is married to Diane, and is the father of two daughters, Megan and Dana. Dennis's self-proclaimed influences in writing are William Carlos Williams, H.D., Robert Duncan, Charles Olson, E.E. Cummings, Eli Mandel, Andrew Suknaski, Daphne Marlatt, bpNichol, Michael Ondaatje, and Robert Kroetsch. Early life As a student, Dennis held a variety of different labouring jobs during the summers. First attending secondary schooling at the University of Saskatchewan, Dennis obtained with added Distinction his Bachelor of Education Degree in 1966, a High Honours Bachelor of Arts Degree in 1967 and afterwards upgraded to his Masters of Arts Degree on Stephen Crane's imagery and symbolism in 1968. Dennis later moved to New York state to attend the University of Rochester. It was there that Dennis prepared the research for his doctorate on the San Francisco-born American poet, Robert Duncan. He received the Ph. D in 1971. Career From 1972 to 1973, Dennis was employed within the Blakeney Government in Saskatchewan as an executive assistant. Apart from this, most of Dennis's working life has been teaching English. He has worked at St. John's College since 1976 as the Organizer of Literary Conferences within the University of Manitoba and taught Early Modern and Contemporary poetry, specializing in Robert Duncan, Dorothy Livesay, Margaret Atwood, Robert Kroetsch, Eli Mandel, Prairie Literature, the Long poem in the Twentieth Century, Canadian Writers in Self-construction, Fundamentals of Literary Theory, American Literature, Creative Writing, Poetry & Media 1994–1995, Narratology & Postcolonialism. He retired from in 2011. He has since helped start create the Manitoba Writers’ Guild, and is currently President. The Guild, founded in 1981 in Aubigny, Manitoba as a support group for Manitoba writers, offers workshops, conducts local reading groups and a peer support network for enhancing and encouraging other writers of all skill levels. Dennis is also an editor, and from 1975 to 1976 was the Assistant Editor on the Journal of Canadian Fiction, the Poetry Editor of Arts Manitoba from 1978 to 1979 and 1982–1983, the Contributing Editor to Border Crossings from 1989 to 1993, as well as the Editor at the Pachyderm Press from 1993 onward. He also served as the Workshop Leader at the Sage Hill Writing Experience in 1992, 1998, 1999, and 2000. Dennis is a founding editor of the Turnstone Press in Winnipeg, Manitoba, which was created in 1976 in a local Winnipeg pub. Turnstone promotes authors who are either landed immigrants or Canadian citizens, with fifty percent featuring local Manitoba content and Manitoban writers. Turnstone publishes a variety of genres, including fiction, non-fiction, literary criticism, and poetry. They are known for having published relatively new authors and first-time writers such as Di Brandt, John Gould, Lawerence Hill, Sylvia Legris, Margaret Sweatman, and Armin Wiebe. The Turnstone Press is praised in western Canada for its high quality of book publishing, and has been nominated or won the Governor General's Literary Award, the Commonwealth Writer's Prize, The Giller Prize, the Leacock Prize, IMPAC Dublin Literary Award, The Lambda Awards, The Rogers Trust Prize, The Relit Awards, and other local awards. With Danid Arnason, he runs the Internet-based Canlit archives. Writing Dr. Cooley specializes in different genres of poetry; such as literary travel, literary criticism, and the long poem. He shows special interest in Canadian Literature, American Writing, modern and postmodern writing, the languages of orality and print, poetry and politics, and literary theory. To date, Dennis has published a dozen volumes of poetry, and over a hundred various articles, columns, reviews, and interviews. Dennis has travelled abroad to share his talent by giving workshops, lectures and readings to places such as Russia (Kiev, Odessa, Lviv, Chernivtsi, and Moscow) in May 1991, to the World Poetry Conference in Portugal in May 1995 and again in May 2001, Berlin in August 2002, Poland in April 1999, and Spain in December 1998. To benefit those who don't read his native language of English, some of his work has been translated into Portuguese, German, Chinese and Ukrainian. Dennis gave his time to the University of Augsburg in the summer of 1996 by being the Canadian Studies guest professor. Dennis is currently keeping busy by working on personal travel journals, poetry books, and a plethora of essays. Bibliography Cooley, D. (1980) Leaving. Lyrical poems about friends and family, Turnstone Press. Cooley, D. (1983) Fielding. Poem about Cooley's father, including his death. Thistledown Press. . Cooley, D. (1984) Bloody Jack. Poem that plays off the narrative of Jack Krafchenko, a famous outlaw from early twentieth-century Manitoba. Turnstone Press. ; 1984 Cooley, D. (1987) Soul Searching. Poems on the mind/body binary. Red Deer College Press. ; 1987. Cooley, D. (1987) The Vernacular Muse. Critical essays on the eye and the ear in Canadian literature. Turnstone Press. ; 1987. Cooley, D. (1988) Dedications. Poems dedicated to friends and other writers. Thistledown Press. Cooley, D. (1988) Perishable Light. Poems from memory, dream, fantasy, set in the Prairies. Coteau Books. Cooley, D. (1992) Eli Mandel and His Works. ECW Press. Cooley, D. (1992) This Only Home. Poems on astronauts, astronomers and mariners. Turnstone Press. Cooley, D. (1992) Burglar of Blood. Dracula poems. Pachyderm Press. Cooley, D. (1996) Sunfall. Selected and new poems. House of Anansi Press. Cooley, D. (2000) Irene Poetry about the death of Cooley's mother. Turnstone Press. Cooley, D. (2002) Bloody Jack. 2nd. ed. University of Alberta. Cooley, D. (2003) Seeing Red Dracula Poems. Turnstone Press. Cooley, D. (2004) Country Music New Poems. Kalamalka. Cooley, D. (2006) The Bentleys Poems of a prairie couple. University of Alberta. Cooley, D. (2007) By Word of Mouth Canadian identity poems. Wilfrid Laurier. Cooley, D. (2008) Correction Line Reconstructing Memory poems. Thistledown Press. Cooley, D. The Stones Prairie Relation poems. Turnstone Press. Books Edited Cooley, D (Ed.) (1981) In the Name of Narid: New Poems. Erin, ON: Porcupine's Quill. Cooley, D (Ed.) (1981) Draft: An Anthology of Prairie Poetry. Toronto, ON: Turnstone Press. Cooley, D (Ed.) (1980) Replacing. Toronto, ON: ECW. Cooley, D (Ed.) (1992) Inscriptions: Prairie Poetry. Winnipeg, MB: Turnstone Press. Recognition Dennis is the recipient of twelve Manitoba Book Awards, and the Lifetime Achievement Award. He has also won or been nominated for the following: (1967-1968) University of Saskatchewan Teaching Fellowship. (1968-1971) Canada Council award for graduate study. (1968-1971) University of Rochester Tuition Scholarships. (1975) University of Manitoba Research Grant to work on the Duncan papers in the Bancroft Library at Berkeley. (1979) Olive Beatrice Stanton award for excellence in teaching. (1981-1982) SSHRC Leave Fellowship. (1987) Manitoba Arts Council Award to write a screen play based on Bloody Jack. (1987) University of Manitoba outreach award. (1988) Perishable Light nominated for McNally Robinson Book Award. (1989) Western Magazine Award for arts commentary. (1990) Visiting Professor in Canadian Studies, University of Trier, West Germany— May–July. (1990) Featured reader at Moorhead State University in the Thomas McGrath reading series. (May 5, 1995) City of Estevan official Dennis Cooley day. (1996) Guest Professor in Canadian Studies at Universität Augsburg. (2000) Irene nominated for the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award. (2000) Named "Favourite Poet" in Write: Readers' Choice poll. (2001) Irene nominated for McNaly Robinson book of the Year Award. (2012) Departmental Distinguished Lecturer of the Year Award from the University of Windsor, Ontario for his Lecture A Lover's Question: Staging Romance in Kroetsch's The Sad Phoenician. External links 1944 births Living people People from Estevan 20th-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian male writers Canadian male poets 21st-century Canadian poets University of Manitoba faculty University of Saskatchewan alumni Writers from Saskatchewan Writers from Winnipeg 21st-century Canadian male writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Severn%20Crossing
Second Severn Crossing
The Second Severn Crossing (), officially renamed the Prince of Wales Bridge () since July 2018, is the M4 motorway bridge over the River Severn between England and Wales, inaugurated on 5 June 1996 by the Prince of Wales to supplement the traffic capacity of the Severn Bridge built in 1966. The bridge is operated by England's National Highways. It is further southwest than the Severn Bridge and because it is more closely in line with the rest of the M4, it reduces the length of the journey between England and Wales. The junctions at each end are designed for most traffic to use this crossing, and in order to use the old Severn Bridge, one has to leave the M4 at junction 21 and join the M48 near Aust or at junction 23 near Magor. The new crossing carries more traffic than the Severn Bridge, which is still in use. It is wider than the Severn Bridge, having three lanes and a narrow hard shoulder each way, compared to the two lanes, cycle path and narrow footpath of the original crossing. It is a cable-stayed bridge, whereas the Severn Bridge is a suspension bridge. The position of the bridge is close to that of the Severn Tunnel, which has carried the railway line beneath the river bed since 1886. Much of the estuary is mudflats at low tide, but at high tide these can be covered by as much as of water. This presented the engineers with a constraint: packets of work were scheduled at low tide, and needed to be completed within the short windows allowed by the tides. The concession given to the consortium which financed, built and operate the bridge required them to take over the outstanding debt on the original Severn Bridge and to operate the two bridges as a single entity. Tolls were set annually by the government based on the previous year's change in the Retail Price Index. On the expiry of the concession in January 2018, the consortium was required to hand the bridge over to public ownership. The tolls on both bridges were subsequently scrapped in December 2018. Background The Severn Estuary presented a barrier between the Bristol area and South Wales. The estuary has a maximum tidal range of , amongst the highest in the world, and during a rising or falling tide there are strong currents of up to . Much of the estuary is mud flats that are exposed at low tide; these have been designated a Special Protection Area. The central part of the estuary is a navigable channel which, at the site of the bridge, is known as "The Shoots". The bridge is upstream from Avonmouth and the Port of Bristol, but downstream from the Port of Sharpness. The Gloucester Harbour Trustees have responsibility for controlling navigation in the estuary's tidal waters upstream from the bridge. Until 1966, road travellers could either use the Aust Ferry, which had operated since medieval times (and as a car ferry since 1926), or use the scheduled car shuttle train service through the Severn Tunnel between Pilning and Severn Tunnel Junction, which operated from 1926 until 1966. Otherwise, the detour via Gloucester would add to the journey. In 1966, the first Severn road bridge, a four-lane suspension bridge, was opened, carrying the M4 motorway between England and South Wales. By 1984, traffic across the first Severn Bridge had tripled and it was projected that by the mid-1990s, the old bridge would be running at capacity. A study was commissioned into building either a second bridge or a tunnel. The consultants reported back in 1986, recommending that a new bridge be built downstream from the existing bridge. In 1988, it was announced that tenders would be invited from private consortia to fund, build and operate the bridge for a specified period. The consortium would also take over the management of the old bridge and the associated £100 million debt. Tenders were invited in 1989; and in 1990 the concession to build the bridge was awarded to Severn River Crossing plc. Construction work started on 26 April 1992 and the bridge was opened by the Prince of Wales on 5 June 1996. Design The chief architect of the bridge was Ronald Weeks of the Cardiff-based Percy Thomas Partnership, with the detailed engineering design by the Halcrow Group and the French consultancy . The bridge has portals close to Sudbrook, Monmouthshire on the Welsh side and Severn Beach in South Gloucestershire on the English side. It has three principal sections – a 25 span viaduct on the English side of length , a 24 span viaduct of length on the Welsh side and the bridge itself, a structure with a navigational clearance, giving a total length of . The central section, called the Shoots Bridge, is of cable-stayed design and the central span (between the bridge pylons) is in length. The approach viaducts are of a segmental bridge design. The crossing forms a very slight reverse "S" curve – the roadway has an approximate east–west alignment at each of the portals, while the central bridge follows an alignment approximately WNW to ESE. The Severn Railway Tunnel passes under the estuary bed on a line which is generally about upstream of the bridge, but which passes under the line of the bridge close to the English shore. The deck, which carries three lanes of traffic in each direction, is wide. The sides of the bridge are fitted with baffle plates to reduce lateral wind loads coming from the Severn Estuary onto the traffic; this has reduced the number of times that speed restrictions have been needed. The overall design of the new crossing makes it more resistant to high winds than the old Severn Bridge. Construction The crossing was built by a business consortium under a public-private partnership. A company called Severn River Crossing plc, led by John Laing plc and GTM-Entrepose, was formed to build the new crossing. This company also took over the responsibility of managing and maintaining the old Severn Bridge crossing, as well as managing and maintaining the new crossing. The cost of constructing the new crossing was to be paid for by tolls collected from motorists using the two crossings. Work on the new crossing began in 1992. Completion was in 1996. Sub-assemblies for the bridge were constructed onshore and then shifted by a large tracked vehicle (similar to that used to move the Apollo and Space Shuttle at Cape Kennedy) onto a barge (the SAR3), prior to being floated out on the high tide to the site. The 37 bridge pier foundations on the approach viaducts are apart, and consist of open concrete caissons weighing up to 2,000 tonnes, which were founded on the rock of the estuary bed. The decking consists of post-stressed match cast sections, weighing each. The cable-stayed section of the crossing is over long, consisting of a wide deck made from steel plate girders with a composite reinforced concrete slab. These were prefabricated on shore and put in place using balanced cantilever methods. There are two high twin-leg, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete pylons carrying 240 cables which support the bridge deck, rising to a height of above the river bed or above the bridge deck. Cable vibrations were experienced during construction and secondary cables were added to eliminate this. To avoid detracting from the aesthetics of the primary cables, the secondary cables are very slender and are not very noticeable. During the summer of 1994 the bridge deck launching gantry fell onto the Gwent viaduct, causing the bridge deck unit to fall onto the deck below. Although this delayed the project by ten weeks, the builders still completed the bridge on schedule two years later. Environmental impact The crossing passes over mudflats in the Severn Estuary with part of the eastern approach viaduct sited on the English Stones, a rocky outcrop uncovered at low tide. The estuary wetlands are home to migrating birds such as the ringed plover, redshank and whimbrel, while the curlew, dunlin and grey plover winter in the area. The birds feed on ragworm, lugworm and other invertebrates. Saltmarsh is found along the fringes of the coast. Beds of eelgrass occur on the more sheltered mud- and sandbanks. In 1976, in recognition of the importance of the estuary as a wetland used by migrating birds, an area of 247 km2 (95 sq miles) was designated a Ramsar site. In 1988, the Severn Estuary was designated a Special Protection Area. The same year an area of 99 km2 (38 sq miles) was notified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest and designated as such the following year; in 1995, this was extended to cover the whole of the Ramsar site. Prior to the bridge's construction, environmentalists raised numerous concerns and criticisms, chiefly about the immediate damage from construction work and the effects of long-term pollution from a projected increase in car traffic. The construction process resulted in a temporary increase in turbidity of the Severn waters. Although eelgrass is reasonably tolerant to short-term high turbidity and consequent loss of light, the bed of eelgrass in the river was observed to decline considerably during the period of construction. The construction of the approach roads and toll plaza resulted in the permanent loss of some wet pastureland. Field surveys carried out in 2003 and 2004 reported that the bridge had little effect on the flight paths of the various birdsit was noted that when curlews, dunlins and lapwings approached the bridge, they would change course to gain height and fly over the bridge, but that oystercatchers and turnstones would fly under the bridge. The surveys also showed that the bridge had minimal impact on the roosting habits of most birds, though a flock of mallards were seen to be roosting directly under the bridge, with many positioning themselves on the dry concrete base on one of the pillars. Likewise, it was noted that the bridge had little impact on the birds' feeding habitsturnstones and lapwings were recorded as feeding on mudflats directly under the bridge while the absence of other waders was attributed to the rocky nature of the foreshore. Finances The consortium consisting of two civil engineering firms and two banks that funded and built the bridge had a 30-year concession to redeem its outlay from tolls collected from users of the bridge. At the end of the concession period in January 2018, the bridge passed into public ownership, and is now managed by National Highways. Tolls Tolls were collected from westbound traffic only, near Rogiet, in Wales. Tolls charges were based on a three-tier pricing system: Tolls could be paid by cash, major credit or debit cards, or by use of the Severn TAG system, which was a wireless electronic toll collection system that did not require vehicles to stop. Motorcycles and UK disabled badge holders travelling in a vehicle were exempted from paying a toll. Toll prices were reviewed annually on 1 January, in accordance with the Severn Bridges Act 1992. In late 2008, UK VAT was reduced from 17.5% to 15%, but the bridge toll remained unchanged. For convenience the tolls were kept at round multiples of 10p (the bridge toll was largely paid in cash as card payments were not accepted until mid-2012), but the 13p VAT reduction was not passed on immediately. In 2009, the planned toll for cars would have been £5.50, as the announcements listed, but the actual toll charged was £5.40. George Osborne, the then Chancellor of the Exchequer, announced in March 2015 that the tolls would be reduced to £5.40 in 2018, due to VAT being removed when the bridge comes into public ownership. In the 2016 United Kingdom budget, Osborne announced that toll charges on the Severn crossings would be halved in 2018. The toll was due to be cut to £5.40 in 2017 but was increased. It was reported in 2012 that the repayments were likely to continue until the early 2020s due to the introduction of a revised settlement to the operator in return for accepting payment by debit and credit cards. The announcement said that even after repayment was complete the toll charges would likely remain at the same levels. However, in July 2017 it was announced that the toll would be abolished, In July 2017, the Welsh Secretary, Alun Cairns, announced that tolls would be scrapped at the end of 2018, claiming that this would boost the South Wales economy by around £100m a year. In September 2017, Cairns confirmed that tolls would be reduced in January 2018 as VAT is removed. As announced on 2 October 2018, tolls were abolished on 17 December 2018. Historical toll charges The toll levied was always identical to that on the Severn Bridge. Funding and ownership The bridge was built at a cost of £330 million (excluding VAT) and was owned by the company Severn River Crossing Plc. As of , Severn River Crossing Plc was owned 35% John Laing, British developer infrastructure operator 35% Vinci, French concessions and construction company 15% Bank of America, American multinational banking and financial services corporation 15% Barclays Capital, British multinational investment bank The company's 2011 annual report showed the same companies still owned, through subsidiary companies, all the issued ordinary share capital of the Plc. In 2012, changes were made to the agreement to reflect the effect of changes in VAT and Corporation Tax and the costs of installing credit card handling systems. The net effect was to increase the required revenue from £995.83 million to £1,028.91 million in 1989 prices Ownership of the crossing and the original Severn Bridge returned to the UK government on 8 January 2018, when the project's required revenue, as defined in the Concession Agreement with the Secretary of State for Transport, had been collected. At that point, responsibility for operating the bridge passed to National Highways. Closures On 6 February 2009, the bridge was closed by weather for the first time since its opening, after three vehicles were struck by falling ice, damaging windscreens. Bad weather, and again falling ice, repeated this in December 2009. Temporary speed limits are put in place due to high winds or thick fog, with drivers informed by the electronic signs. Because of the more advanced aerodynamic design of the later bridge, the Second Crossing is far less prone to such restrictions caused by crosswinds than the first Severn Bridge. On 18 February 2022, both the Prince of Wales bridge and the Severn Bridge were closed during Storm Eunice, due high winds. It was the first time that the Prince of Wales bridge had been closed because of winds. Renaming On 5 April 2018, the Secretary of State for Wales, Alun Cairns, announced that the crossing would be renamed as the Prince of Wales Bridge at a ceremony later in the year. He said that the renaming would be "a fitting tribute to His Royal Highness in a year that sees him mark 60 years as The Prince of Wales and decades of continued, dedicated service to our nation." A petition against the renaming had received more than 30,000 signatures by 8 April. Some politicians criticised the proposed renaming and the lack of public consultation on it, but it was confirmed that the First Minister of Wales, Carwyn Jones, had raised no objection to the proposal. The bridge was renamed, despite opposition, on 2 July 2018 at a ceremony held at the toll plaza where a plaque was unveiled by the Prince and Duchess of Cornwall. There was no prior press release or other official communication from the Government. The cost for renaming the bridge, and the two signs erected, one at each end of the bridge, was £216,513.39. See also List of bridges in Wales List of crossings of the River Severn Aust Severn Powerline Crossing References External links Bridges across the River Severn Bridges completed in 1996 Cable-stayed bridges in England Bridges in Monmouthshire Bridges in South Gloucestershire District Motorway bridges in England Motorway bridges in Wales Landmarks in Wales Former toll bridges in England England–Wales border Cable-stayed bridges in Wales Viaducts in England Viaducts in Wales M4 motorway 1996 establishments in England 1996 establishments in Wales Former toll bridges in Wales
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253996
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Narcissus
Operation Narcissus
During World War II, Operation Narcissus was a raid by forty members of the Special Air Service on a lighthouse on the southeast coast of Sicily. The team landed on 10 July 1943 with the mission of capturing the lighthouse and the surrounding high ground. Despite intelligence reports, the area was deserted, and so the position was no threat to the nearby Husky landings. The troopers withdrew without a shot being fired. See also World War II Special Air Service Operation Husky: Allied invasion of Sicily. Conflicts in 1943 World War II British Commando raids Allied invasion of Sicily Special Air Service July 1943 events
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253997
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaFayette%20Motors
LaFayette Motors
The LaFayette Motors Corporation was a United States-based automobile manufacturer. Founded in 1919, LaFayette Motors was named in honor of the Marquis de la Fayette, and LaFayette autos had a cameo of the Marquis as their logo. History LaFayette was originally headquartered in Mars Hill, Indianapolis, Indiana, and made luxury motor cars, beginning in 1920. LaFayette innovations include the first electric clock in an auto. In 1921, Charles W. Nash became president of LaFayette. Nash was already president of Nash Motors, but for a time the two brands remained separate companies, although Nash Motors was the principal LaFayette Motors stock holder. In the 1920s rumors circulated about Pierce-Arrow merging with LaFayette, Rolls-Royce or General Motors. In 1922, LaFayette's facilities were moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 1924, Nash Motors became full owner of LaFayette Motors, and the name was retired soon after. Its factories were quickly put to a new, more profitable use: the manufacture of Ajax motor cars. In 1934, Nash re-introduced the LaFayette name, this time for a line of smaller, less expensive autos. In 1935, Nash introduced a series known as the "Nash 400" to fill the perceived price gap between the LaFayette and the Nash. By 1937, it was determined that this perceived gap wasn't so important after all, and that Nash Motors was marketing too many models. The LaFayette and the Nash 400 were combined into a single model called the Nash LaFayette 400 for 1937, and the LaFayette ceased to be regarded as a separate make of car. For 1938, this became simply the Nash LaFayette, and the LaFayette line continued as Nash's lowest-priced offering through 1940. For 1941, the LaFayette was replaced by the all-new unibody Nash 600. See also List of automobile manufacturers References External links Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers Manufacturing companies based in Indianapolis Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Wisconsin Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1919 Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette Nash Motors Defunct manufacturing companies based in Wisconsin Defunct manufacturing companies based in Indiana
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sap%20%28EP%29
Sap (EP)
Sap is the second studio EP by the American rock band Alice in Chains, released on February 4, 1992, through Columbia Records. Sap is mostly acoustic and marks the first time that guitarist Jerry Cantrell sings lead vocals in an Alice in Chains release, with the song "Brother". The EP was produced by Alice in Chains and Rick Parashar and features guest vocals by Ann Wilson of the band Heart, Chris Cornell of Soundgarden and Mark Arm of Mudhoney. The track "Got Me Wrong" became a hit two years later after being featured on the soundtrack to the 1994 film Clerks. On January 14, 1994, Sap was certified gold by the RIAA for the sale of more than 500,000 copies. Background and recording Following the tour for Facelift, Alice in Chains entered the studio to record a song for the Cameron Crowe movie Singles, but decided to turn the engagement to their advantage. As the guitarist Jerry Cantrell recalled: "So in the session that was meant for recording that one song ['Would?'], we ended up demoing about 10 songs, which included all the stuff that ended up on the [1992] Sap EP, 'Rooster' and a couple of others from Dirt.” While in the studio, drummer Sean Kinney had a dream about "making an EP called Sap." The band decided "not to mess with fate," and Sap was recorded and mixed in 1991 with producer Rick Parashar at London Bridge Studio. The EP was recorded in four or five days in November 1991. Music and lyrics Lead vocalist Layne Staley encouraged guitarist Jerry Cantrell to sing lead vocals on the EP. Cantrell sings lead vocals on "Brother" and splits lead vocals with Staley on "Got Me Wrong". The EP features guest vocals by Ann Wilson from the band Heart, who joined vocalist Layne Staley and guitarist Jerry Cantrell for the choruses of "Brother" and "Am I Inside". It also features Mark Arm of Mudhoney and Chris Cornell of Soundgarden, who appeared together on the song "Right Turn", credited to "Alice Mudgarden" in the liner notes. The song was featured in the 2001 film Black Hawk Down. It was guitarist Jerry Cantrell who invited Wilson, Cornell and Arm to sing on Sap. Regarding the lyrical content, Cantrell said he wrote "Brother" about his relationship with his younger brother. The song specifically refers to the period after Cantrell's parents divorced, when his younger brother went off to live with his father while he stayed with his mother, and Cantrell said that the song "was a way of trying to build a bridge." Commenting on "Got Me Wrong", Cantrell said he wrote the song about a relationship where one person thinks he or she can change the other person, and added that the song speaks of "the different ways that men and women see each other." A version of the song "Rooster" was recorded during the sessions for Sap and was to be included on the EP, but the band then decided to use the song on their second full-length album instead. This version is featured on the band's 1999 box set Music Bank. The hidden track, "Love Song", described by Cantrell as "the most bizarre song we've ever recorded", was Kinney's idea and all the members switched instruments in the recording. Staley plays drums, Cantrell plays bass, Kinney sings and plays piano and Starr plays guitar. Release and reception On February 4, 1992, Alice in Chains released their second EP, Sap. The band did not want any ads or promotion for the EP, they just put it in the stores to see if people would buy it. Cantrell said that Alice in Chains released Sap "without any fuss or fanfare so as the real Alice fans could find it." The EP was released while Nirvana's Nevermind was at the top of the Billboard 200 charts, resulting in a rising popularity of Seattle-based bands, and the term grunge music. Sap was soon certified gold. The album was re-released on March 21, 1995, when "Got Me Wrong" became a hit after its inclusion on the soundtrack to the 1994 film, Clerks. The re-released version included lyrics and slightly different artwork. The aforementioned song, as well as "Brother," were performed live during Alice in Chains' MTV Unplugged concert. In addition to the CD, the album was also released in a limited edition double vinyl along with Jar of Flies (Jar of Flies was on sides 1 and 2, Sap was on side 3, and an etching of the Alice in Chains logo was on side 4). In the UK, Sap and Jar of Flies were issued as a double CD, as Sap had not previously had a UK release. In the UK, "Brother" and "Right Turn" were initially released on the "Would" single and "Got Me Wrong" and "Am I Inside" were released on the "Them Bones" single. Hidden track "Love Song" never appeared on a UK single release and was previously unreleased when Sap was released with Jar of Flies. Track listing All lyrics and music written by Jerry Cantrell, except where noted. "Alice Mudgarden" is Alice in Chains with Mark Arm of Mudhoney and Chris Cornell of Soundgarden. Cantrell and Staley insisted that both Arm and Cornell be involved with a song on the EP. "Love Song" is a hidden track and there are no credits for it in the album. The ASCAP database lists all four members as songwriters. Personnel Alice in Chains Layne Staley – vocals, drums on "Love Song" Jerry Cantrell – guitar, vocals, bass on "Love Song" Michael Starr – bass, guitar on "Love Song" Sean Kinney – drums, percussion, megaphone and piano on "Love Song" Alice Mudgarden (performs "Right Turn") Alice in Chains Mark Arm – vocals Chris Cornell – vocals Additional vocalists Ann Wilson – vocals on "Brother" and "Am I Inside" Chris Cornell - vocals on "Right Turn" Mark Arm - vocals on "Right Turn" Production Produced by Alice in Chains and Rick Parashar. Mastered by Eddy Schreyer at Future Disc Systems, Hollywood, CA Art direction by David Coleman Photography by Rocky Schenck Management by Kelly Curtis, Susan Silver Charts Singles Certifications References 1992 EPs Alice in Chains EPs Columbia Records EPs Albums produced by Rick Parashar
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Ladbroke
Operation Ladbroke
Operation Ladbroke was a glider landing by British airborne troops during the Second World War near Syracuse, Sicily, that began on 9 July 1943 as part of Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily. The first Allied mission using large numbers of the aircraft, the operation was carried out from Tunisia by glider infantry of the British 1st Airlanding Brigade, commanded by Brigadier Philip Hicks, with a force of 136 Waco Hadrians and eight Airspeed Horsas. The objective was to establish a large invasion force on the ground near the town of Syracuse, secure the Ponte Grande Bridge and ultimately take control of the city itself with its strategically vital docks, as a prelude to the full-scale invasion of Sicily. En route to Sicily, sixty-five gliders released too early by the American and British towing aircraft crashed into the sea, drowning approximately 252 men. Of the remainder, only eighty-seven men arrived at the Pont Grande Bridge, although they successfully captured the bridge and held it beyond the time they were to be relieved. Finally, with their ammunition expended and only fifteen soldiers remaining unwounded, the Allied troops surrendered to Italian forces. The Italians, having gained control of the bridge, sought to destroy the structure, but were frustrated by troopers of the 1st Airlanding Brigade who had removed the previously attached explosive charges. Other troops from the brigade, who had landed elsewhere in Sicily, aided further by destroying communications links and capturing gun batteries. Background By December 1942, with Allied forces advancing through Tunisia after landing there the month before in Operation Torch, the North African Campaign was coming to a close; with victory there imminent, discussions began among the Allies regarding the nature of their next objective. Many Americans argued for an immediate invasion of Northern France, while the British, as well as then-Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower, argued that the island of Sardinia was the best subsequent target of the Allied forces. In January 1943 the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt settled at the Casablanca Conference on the island of Sicily, whose invasion and occupation could potentially provide the Allies with Mediterranean shipping routes and airfields nearer to mainland Italy and Germany. The codename Operation Husky was decided upon for the Allied invasion of Sicily, and planning for Husky began in February. Initially the British Eighth Army, under the command of General Sir Bernard Montgomery, were to land on the south-eastern corner of the island and advance north to the port of Syracuse. Two days later the U.S. Seventh Army, commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton, would land on the western corner of the island and move towards the port of Palermo. In March it was decided that the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division, under Major General Matthew Ridgway, and the British 1st Airborne Division, under Major-General George F. Hopkinson, would be dropped by parachute and glider just prior to the amphibious landings; they would land a few miles behind the beaches and neutralize their defenders, thereby aiding the landing of the Allied ground forces. However, in early May these directives were radically changed at the insistence of the Eighth Army commander, General Montgomery; he argued that with Allied forces landing separately at either end of the island, the defending Axis forces would have the opportunity to defeat each Allied army in turn before both could unite. Instead, the plans were altered to land both the Eighth and Seventh Armies simultaneously along a stretch of coastline on Sicily's south-eastern corner. At the same time, the plans for the two airborne divisions, the British 1st and U.S. 82nd, were also adjusted; Montgomery believed that the airborne troops should be landed near Syracuse, so that they could seize the valuable port. The commander of the 82nd Airborne Division Artillery, Brigadier General Maxwell D. Taylor, further asserted that dropping behind the island's beaches and overcoming its defences was not a suitable mission for the airborne troops, as they were only lightly armed and vulnerable to the 'friendly fire' of the planned Allied naval bombardment. In the revised blueprint for the airborne divisions, a reinforced regimental combat team (the 505th Parachute Infantry, under Colonel James M. Gavin, with the 3rd Battalion of the 504th PIR and numerous other units attached) from Major General Ridgway's U.S. 82nd Airborne Division would be dropped by parachute north-east of the port of Gela to block the movement of Axis reserves towards the Allied beachheads. Major General Hopkinson's British 1st Airborne Division was now to conduct three brigade-size airborne operations: the Ponte Grande road bridge south of Syracuse was to be captured by the 1st Airlanding Brigade, under Brigadier Philip Hicks, the port of Augusta was to be seized by Brigadier Ernest Down's 2nd Parachute Brigade, and finally the Primasole Bridge over the River Simeto was to be taken and secured by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury's 1st Parachute Brigade. Planning As there were insufficient transport aircraft for all three brigades to conduct their operations simultaneously, it was decided that the first operation would be Ladbroke, whose objective was the capture of the Ponte Grande Bridge. The mission, under the command of Brigadier Philip Hicks, was conducted just prior to the amphibious landings, on the night of 9 July, while the remaining two operations took place on successive two nights. The 1st Airlanding Brigade was also given the additional tasks of capturing Syracuse harbour and the urban area that adjoined it, and either destroying or confiscating a coastal artillery battery that was in range of the amphibious landings. When training began for the operation, difficulties immediately arose. The original plan for the airborne operations had called for all three to employ parachutists, but in May Montgomery altered the plan; after determining that airborne troops would be at a considerable distance from Allied ground forces, he believed that the force sent to capture Syracuse would be served best by gliders in order to provide them with the maximum possible amount of firepower. His airborne advisor, Group Captain Cooper of the Royal Air Force, argued that a glider landing conducted at night with inexperienced aircrews was not practical, but the decision was left unchanged. Montgomery's orders raised several issues, the first with the transport aircraft of the Troop Carrier Wings assigned to the airborne operations. When they had arrived in North Africa, it had been decided that the 52nd Troop Carrier Wing would operate with 1st Airborne Division and its counterpart, the 51st, with 82nd Airborne Division. A few weeks later this arrangement was switched, with the 52nd now operating with 82nd Airborne Division and the 51st with 1st Airborne Division; this seemed a logical decision, as each Wing had operational experience with the division it had been paired with. However, the decision to turn the Syracuse assault into a glider-based one was problematic; the 51st had practically no glider experience, whilst the 52nd had much more but was already training for a parachute-based mission. To switch both was impractical and would have led to a number of problems, which left 1st Airborne Division, and thus 1st Airlanding Brigade, with an inexperienced Troop Carrier Wing. Glider problems Further problems were encountered with the gliders to be used in the operation, and the glider pilots themselves. Until a few months prior to the operation, there was a notable shortage of serviceable gliders in North Africa. In late March a small number of Wacos arrived at Accra on the Gold Coast, but pilots sent to ferry them to North Africa found that they were in poor condition. Due to neglect and the deleterious effects of tropical weather, the pilots were able to assemble only a small number of Wacos and fly them back on 22 April. On 23 April, a larger number of the American gliders began to arrive in North African ports, but were not immediately available for use as the crates holding them were unloaded haphazardly, instructions were often found to be missing, and those men assigned to assemble the gliders were often inexperienced. However, when the decision was made to conduct a glider-borne assault with 1st Airlanding Brigade, assembly was improved, and by 12 June 346 gliders had been put together and delivered to the Troop Carrier Wings. A small number of Horsa gliders were transported to North Africa for use by the brigade. Thirty took off from England and undertook a trip of approximately in Operation Turkey Buzzard. After attacks from Luftwaffe fighter patrols and experiencing often turbulent weather, a total of 27 Horsas were delivered to North Africa in time for the operation. When sufficient gliders had arrived in North Africa, however, they were not all usable even in training; on 16 June, most of the gliders were grounded for repairs, and on 30 June, large numbers of them had developed weaknesses in their tail-wiring, necessitating another grounding period of three days. Given these problems and delays, 51st Troop Carrier Wing was not able to conduct a large-scale glider exercise until mid-June. On 14 June, fifty-four Wacos were flown over and then released to land at an airfield, and a larger exercise was conducted on 20 June; but even these limited exercises were unrealistic, as they were conducted in broad daylight. The British glider pilots themselves also caused difficulties; although there were a sufficient number of them to conduct the operation, they were highly inexperienced. Detached from the Glider Pilot Regiment for the operation, they had no experience with the Waco gliders and night operations involving them, as British doctrine had deemed such operations impossible. On average, the pilots had eight hours of flight experience in gliders. Few were rated as being 'operationally ready' and none had combat experience. Colonel George Chatterton, the commander of the Glider Pilot Regiment, had protested their participation as he believed they were entirely unfit for any operation. When the training period for the brigade ended with a total of two exercises completed, the glider pilots had an average of 4.5 hours training in flying the unfamiliar Waco, which included an average of 1.2 hours night flying. 1st Airlanding Brigade The units of the 1st Airlanding Brigade were: the 1st Battalion, Border Regiment; 2nd Battalion, South Staffordshire Regiment; 181st (Airlanding) Field Ambulance and 9th Field Company, Royal Engineers. The Staffords were tasked with securing the bridge and the area to the south, while the Borders were to capture Syracuse. For the mission the 1st Airlanding Brigade were allocated 136 Waco and eight Horsa gliders. With the shortage of space in the gliders—Wacos could only accommodate fifteen troops, half that of the Horsa, thus the whole brigade could not be deployed. Six of the Horsas carrying 'A' and 'C' companies from the Staffords were scheduled to land at the bridge at 23:15 on 9 July in a coup-de-main operation. The remainder of the brigade would arrive at 01:15 on 10 July using a number of landing-zones between away, then converge on the bridge to reinforce the defence. Italian forces The Ponte Grande Bridge was immediately outside the area defended by the Italian 206th Coastal Division, which would oppose the British seaborne landing. The fortress commander was Rear Admiral Priamo Leonardi, with Colonel Mario Damiani in command of the army contingent. The Augusta-Syracuse Naval Fortress Area, which included the Coastal Division, was protected by six medium and six heavy coastal artillery batteries, with eleven additional dual-purpose coastal and anti-aircraft batteries, with six batteries only of anti-aircraft guns. Finally the Fortress contained an armoured train with four 120 mm guns. The army contingent was the 121st Coastal Defence Regiment, which included four battalions. There were also naval and air force battalions available, while the 54th Infantry Division "Napoli" was in a position to send reinforcements if required. Mission On 9 July, a contingent of 2,075 British troops, along with seven jeeps, six anti-tank guns and ten mortars, boarded their gliders in Tunisia and took off at 18:00, bound for Sicily. In the hours that preceded the landing, twelve Boeing B-17 and six Vickers Wellington equipped with radar jamming devices flew back and forth along the coast in the Siracusa-Licata sector; between 21:00 and 21:30, 55 Wellingtons of 205th Group carried out a diversionary bombing of the port and airport of Syracuse, causing a number of civilian and military casualties, including the commander of the Italian naval base, Commander Giuseppe Giannotti. 280 puppets dressed in paratrooper uniforms were launched north of the landing area, in order to deceive the Italian defense. En route, the gliders encountered strong winds, poor visibility and at times were subjected to anti-aircraft fire. To avoid gunfire and searchlights, pilots of the towing aircraft climbed higher or took evasive action. In the confusion surrounding these manoeuvres, some gliders were released too early and sixty-five of them crashed into the sea, drowning around 252 men. Of the remainder, only twelve landed in the right place. Another fifty-nine landed up to away while the remainder were either shot down or failed to release and returned to Tunisia. About 200 American paratroopers, having been mistakenly parachuted in the area assigned to the Eighth Army, were captured by the Italian 146th Coastal Regiment (206th Coastal Division) in the early hours of 10 July. Only one Horsa with a platoon of infantry from the Staffords landed near the bridge. Its commander, Lieutenant Withers, divided his men into two groups, one of which swam across the river and took up position on the opposite bank. Thereafter the bridge was captured following a simultaneous assault from both sides. The Italian defenders from the 120th Coastal Infantry Regiment abandoned their pillboxes on the north bank. The British platoon then dismantled some demolition charges that had been fitted to the bridge and dug-in to wait for reinforcement or relief. Another Horsa landed roughly from the bridge but exploded on landing, killing all on board. Three of the other Horsas carrying the coup-de-main party landed within of the bridge—their occupants eventually finding their way to the site. Reinforcements began to arrive at the bridge, but by 06:30 they numbered only eighty-seven men. Elsewhere, about 150 men landed at Cape Murro di Porco and captured a radio station. Based on a warning of imminent glider landings transmitted by the station's previous occupants, the local Italian commander ordered a counter-attack but his troops failed to receive his message. The scattered nature of the landings now worked in the Allies' favour as they were able to cut all telephone wires in the immediate area. The glider carrying the brigade deputy commander, Colonel O. L. Jones, landed beside an Italian coastal artillery battery; at daylight the staff officers and radio operators attacked and destroyed the battery's five guns and their ammunition dump. Other isolated groups of Allied soldiers tried to aid their comrades, assaulting Italian defences and targeting reinforcements. Another attack by a group of paratroopers on three 149/35 mm Italian coastal batteries failed, and the batteries were able to open fire on Allied landing craft and troops at 6:15 on 10 July. At 9:15, the 1st Battalion of the Italian 75th Infantry Regiment ("Napoli" Division) captured another 160 American paratroopers on the Palazzolo Acreide–Syracuse road. Another group of paratroopers attacked an Italian patrol led by Major Paoli, commander of the 126th Artillery Group; Paoli was killed and his unit fell in disarray, and was thus unable to intervene in the later fight against British tanks near the bridge. The first counterattack on the bridge was by two companies of Italian sailors, who were repulsed by the British. As the Italians responded to the Allied landings, they gathered more troops and brought up artillery and mortars to bombard the Allied-controlled Pont Grande Bridge. The British defenders came under attack from the Italians while the expected British 5th Infantry Division relief did not appear at 10:00 as planned. At 11:30 the Italian 385th Coastal Battalion arrived at the bridge, followed soon afterward by the 1st Battalion, 75th (Napoli) Infantry Regiment. The Italians were positioned to attack the bridge from three sides. By 14:45 there were only fifteen British troops defending the bridge that had not been killed or wounded (four officers and eleven soldiers). At 15:30, with their ammunition consumed, the British stopped fighting. Some men on the south side of the bridge escaped into the countryside, but the rest became prisoners of war. With the bridge back in Italian hands, the first unit from 5th Infantry Division, the 2nd Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers, of 17th Infantry Brigade, arrived at the bridge at 16:15 and mounted a successful counter-attack, which had been made possible by the prior removal of demolition charges from the bridge, preventing its destruction by the Italians. The 1st Battalion of the 75th Infantry Regiment, having no artillery, was unable to oppose the British tanks and had to retreat after suffering heavy losses. The survivors from the 1st Airlanding Brigade took no further part in the fighting and were withdrawn back to North Africa on 13 July. During the landings, the losses by 1st Airlanding Brigade were the most severe of all British units involved. The casualties amounted to 313 killed and 174 missing or wounded. Fourteen accompanying glider pilots were killed, and eighty-seven were missing or wounded. Aftermath After an enquiry into the problems with the airborne missions in Sicily, the British Army and Royal Air Force submitted recommendations in the aftermath of Operation Ladbroke. Aircrew were to be trained in parachute and glider operations, and pathfinders were to be landed before the main force, to set out their beacons. The landing plan was simplified with complete brigades landing on a drop zone, instead of the smaller battalion landing areas used on Sicily. Gliders were no longer released at night while still over water, and their landing zones would be large enough to accommodate the aircraft with room to spare. Following a friendly fire incident over an Allied convoy, more training was given to ship's crews in aircraft recognition; Allied aircraft were also painted with three large white stripes. Training for pilots of the Glider Pilot Regiment was increased, and improvements to the gliders were implemented, including better inter-aircraft communication. To provide another method of delivering jeeps and artillery by air, the Royal Air Force started experimenting with how to use parachutes to drop them into combat, the jeeps and guns being carried in aircraft's bomb bays. A second Royal Air Force transport group, No. 46, was formed and equipped solely with Douglas Dakotas, instead of the mixture of aircraft in No. 38 Group. Together, the Royal Air Force groups were capable of supplying eighty-eight Albermarles, eighty-eight Stirlings, thirty-six Halifaxes and 150 Dakotas, a total of 362 planes which did not include aircraft held as reserves. Notes Footnotes Citations Bibliography Airborne operations of World War II Allied invasion of Sicily Battles and operations of World War II involving Italy Land battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom Glider Pilot Regiment operations July 1943 events
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254012
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavonian
Slavonian
Slavonian may refer to: something of, or related to Slavonia Slavonian dialect, a Slavic dialect spoken in parts of Slavonia See also Slavonia (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry%20Bookshop
Poetry Bookshop
The Poetry Bookshop operated at 35 Devonshire Street (now Boswell Street) in the Bloomsbury district of central London, from 1913 to 1926. It was the brainchild of Harold Monro, and was supported by his moderate income. The Bookshop not only sold, but also published, poetry by living poets. Readers were encouraged to browse, and several poets actually made their home there, including Wilfred Owen, Wilfrid Wilson Gibson and Robert Frost. The atmosphere was welcoming, and the shop's best-sellers were hand-coloured rhyme sheets for children. During World War I, when Monro was serving in the armed forces, the shop was run almost single-handed by his assistant, Alida Klementaski, whom he later married. Among the works published by the Poetry Bookshop were collections by Charlotte Mew and Richard Aldington and the Georgian Poetry series as well as Ezra Pound's seminal 1914 anthology Des Imagistes. Penelope Fitzgerald for quite a few years attempted to interest a publisher in a book on the shop. Her letters reveal the amount of work she did, some of which was useful to her when she wrote her biography of Charlotte Mew. References Further reading Grant, Joy (1967) Harold Monro and the Poetry Bookshop University of California Press Woolmer, Howard J (1988) The Poetry Bookshop 1912-1935, a bibliography St Paul's Bibliographies British poetry Small press publishing companies Media and communications in the London Borough of Camden Bookshops in London 1913 in London 20th century in London Book publishing companies of the United Kingdom Publishing companies established in 1913 Poetry publishers 1913 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Fustian
Operation Fustian
Operation Fustian was an airborne forces operation undertaken during the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 in the Second World War. The operation was carried out by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury's 1st Parachute Brigade, part of the British 1st Airborne Division. Their objective was the Primosole Bridge across the Simeto River. The intention was for the brigade, with glider-borne forces in support, to land on both sides of the river. They would then capture the bridge and secure the surrounding area until relieved by the advance of British XIII Corps, which had landed on the south eastern coast three days previously. Because the bridge was the only crossing on the river and would give the British Eighth Army access to the Catania plain, its capture was expected to speed the advance and lead to the defeat of the Axis forces in Sicily. Many of the aircraft carrying the paratroopers from North Africa were shot down or were damaged and turned back by friendly fire and enemy action. Evasive action taken by the pilots scattered the brigade over a large area and only the equivalent of two companies of troops were landed in the correct locations. Despite this and the defence by German and Italian forces, the British paratroops captured the bridge, repulsed attacks and held out against increasing odds until nightfall. The relief force led by the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, under Major-General Sidney C. Kirkman, which was short of transport, were still away when they halted for the night. By this time, with casualties mounting and supplies running short, the parachute brigade commander, Gerald Lathbury, had relinquished control of the bridge to the Germans. The following day the British units joined forces and the 9th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry, with tank support, attempted to recapture the bridge. The bridge was not finally secured until three days after the start of the operation, when another battalion of the Durham Light Infantry, led by the paratroopers, established a bridgehead on the north bank of the river. The capture of Primosole Bridge did not lead to the expected rapid advance, as by this time the Germans had gathered their forces and established a defensive line. It was not until early the following month that the Eighth Army captured Catania. By this time the 1st Parachute Brigade had been withdrawn to Malta and took no further part in the conquest of Sicily. Lessons were learned from the operation and were put into practice in Allied airborne operations. Background After the Axis powers were defeated in North Africa, the Allied armies' next logical objective was to cross the Mediterranean, landing in either the south of France, the Balkans, Sicily or Italy. The objective chosen was Sicily, with the landing scheduled for 10 July 1943. The Allied 15th Army Group, commanded by General Sir Harold Alexander, consisted of the American Seventh Army, commanded by Lieutenant General George Patton, which would land in the west between Licata and Scoglitti, and the veteran British Eighth Army, commanded by the experienced General Bernard Montgomery, which would land in the south east between Cape Passero and Syracuse. In addition to the seaborne landings, there were also airborne landings during the invasion. The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division, under Major General Matthew Ridgway, would land in support of the Seventh Army, while the British 1st Airborne Division, under Major General George Hopkinson, conducted brigade-sized landings along the eastern coast to support the Eighth Army. The first British airborne landing was Operation Ladbroke, which was carried out by the 1st Airlanding Brigade, under Brigadier Philip Hicks, during the night of 9–10 July. Their objective was to seize and hold the Ponte Grande bridge just outside Syracuse. The second British airborne mission, Operation Glutton, was to have been undertaken by the 2nd Parachute Brigade, under Brigadier Ernest Down, on the night of 10–11 July, aiming to capture a bridge beside Augusta. However circumstances changed and the second operation was cancelled. The third British airborne mission planned was Operation Fustian, to be carried out by the 1st Parachute Brigade, under Brigadier Gerald Lathbury, and scheduled for the night of 13–14 July. The 1st Parachute Brigade's objective was the Primosole bridge, crossing the Simeto River, south of Catania. The bridge was a vital objective, as it was the only crossing point over the Simeto. Its capture would give the Eighth Army access to the Catania plain, to enable them to continue their advance northwards; its destruction would seriously hamper the advance. Once the parachute brigade had captured the bridge, they would then have to defend it until relieved by units of the Eighth Army advancing from the landing beaches. British forces The 1st Parachute Brigade, under Brigadier Lathbury, comprised the 1st, the 2nd and 3rd Parachute Battalions, the 16th (Parachute) Field Ambulance, the 1st (Parachute) Squadron, Royal Engineers and the 1st (Airlanding) Anti-Tank Battery, Royal Artillery. The airlanding anti-tank battery were equipped with the 1st Para Brigade's only anti-tank guns, the British 6 pounder. Despite the formation being a parachute brigade, the only way to transport the anti-tank guns and the jeeps required to pull them when they had landed, was by glider. Transporting artillery by air was something new to the British or any other army, and this would be the first time that any artillery guns had ever been flown into combat. The 1st Parachute Brigade was an experienced formation, initially under command of the 1st Airborne Division before being detached from the division to fight in North Africa. The brigade had taken part in the landings in Algeria in November 1942 and the subsequent Battle of Tunisia, during which each of the brigade's three parachute battalions had taken part in their own battalion-sized parachute landings. It was during this campaign that the 1st Parachute Brigade had been given their nickname the Red Devils by the Germans. A British parachute battalion had an establishment of 556 men in three rifle companies. Each of the companies were divided into a small headquarters and three platoons. The platoons had three sections; each section had a Bren light machine gun and a 2-inch mortar as well as the men's own personal weapons. The only heavy weapons in the parachute battalion were in the 3-inch Mortar platoon and the Vickers machine gun platoon which were part of the battalion headquarters. It was decided that the brigade's paratroops would land on four separate drop zones and that the gliders would land at two landing zones. The paratroops of the 1st Parachute Battalion were divided into two groups, one of which would land at 'Drop zone One' to the north of the river, and the second at 'Drop zone Two' to the south of it. Once they had landed the two groups would head for their assembly points, before conducting an assault on the bridge from both sides simultaneously. The 2nd Parachute Battalion were to be landed south of the bridge on 'Drop zone Three', in the area between the Gornalunga Canal and the main highway. The 2nd Battalion then had to assault and occupy three small hills, which had been given the codenames 'Johnny I', 'Johnny II' and 'Johnny III'. The hills were believed to be occupied by an Italian force of around platoon strength. Once the battalion had secured the three hills, they were to dig in and prepare to defend the hills against an attack from the south. The 3rd Parachute Battalion would land at 'Drop zone Four', north of the bridge. Their objective was to secure the ground in this area, defending against any counterattack from the direction of Catania. The brigade's glider force had two landing areas, 'Landing zone Seven' north of the river and 'Landing zone Eight' south of the river. Owing to the complexity of the landing plan and the short time between inception and execution, the pathfinders belonging to the 21st Independent Parachute Company, Army Air Corps, would be deployed to mark the correct drop zones. This was the first occasion this had been done in British airborne operations. The pathfinder company had special marker lights and Rebecca and Eureka beacons that the transport aircraft and gliders would be able to identify and home in on. The senior officers of the 1st Airborne Division had estimated that there would be around 450 casualties during the capture of the bridge, of which 25 per cent would be killed or missing, and the other 75 per cent wounded. It was appreciated that by themselves the three battalions' medical officers and staff would be unable to cope with the expected numbers of casualties, so one section from the 16th (Parachute) Field Ambulance, consisting of one doctor and 16 other ranks, would be attached to each of the parachute battalions. The remainder of the field ambulance, comprising the headquarters with two surgical teams, would be co-located with the brigade and establish their main dressing station in farm buildings to the south of the bridge. After problems with the first two airborne operations in Sicily, the Royal Air Force advisor assigned to the 1st Airborne Division suggested that the American C-47 pilots adopt the Royal Air Force bomber stream formation. This entailed the aircraft flying in pairs one behind the other with one minute between each aircraft, instead of flying in their normal 'V' formation. The suggestion was dismissed by the American pilots, who were mostly pre-war airline pilots, not least because their training had not included any instruction in night time navigation and the inexperienced crews relied heavily on following the aircraft in front. Unconnected with Operation Fustian, but being conducted at the same time, No. 3 Commando would carry out a separate operation to the south of the Simeto River. The commando unit were to carry out an amphibious landing from the sea, then assault and capture the Malati Bridge over the Leonardo River. The relieving force for both the commandos and paratroopers would be from British XIII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey. The corps consisted of the 5th Infantry Division, 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division and the 4th Armoured Brigade. The armoured brigade, with three tank regiments, was equipped with the American built Sherman tank. Early on 13 July the commander of the 50th Division, Major-General Sidney Kirkman, was called to General Montgomery's Eighth Army headquarters. Here he was informed about the two missions by the British Commandos and the 1st Parachute Brigade, and the requirement for the bridges to be captured intact. Montgomery's intention was for the 50th Division to lead the Eighth Army's advance and relieve the commandos and the paratroopers. To assist Kirkman in the task, Montgomery placed the 4th Armoured Brigade under his command. Montgomery was insistent that he wanted the infantry division to relieve the parachute brigade early on 14 July, which would require the division to advance around in 24 hours. The 50th Division had landed on 10 July and by this time had been fighting for three days non-stop. With the daily temperature most of the time reaching , many of the men in the division were physically exhausted and suffering from heat exhaustion. The division's situation was not improved by a grave error of judgement by Montgomery. During the planning for the invasion, he had overestimated the strength of the German and Italian resistance to the Allied landings. The British Eighth Army consisted mainly of infantry, tanks and heavy weapons but were light on any form of mechanical transport, so any advance by the 50th Division would have to be conducted on foot. Axis forces The Italian Army force in the area of Primosole Bridge came from the 213 Coastal Division commanded by General Carlo Gotti. Coastal divisions were second line divisions, usually formed from men in their forties and fifties, and were intended to perform labour or other second line duties. Recruited from the local population, their officers were mostly men who had retired but had then been called up again. Their morale was low, not least because of their second rate equipment and weapons. It had been intended to improve their armaments with equipment seized from the recently disbanded Vichy French army, but when the arms arrived in Sicily, many of them had been made unusable, and some had the wrong type of ammunition or no ammunition at all. The Italians were supported by German paratroopers of the 1st Parachute Division, who were ordered to move to Sicily from France, and if necessary were to parachute in on 9 July. The 1st Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion commanded by Major Werner Schmidt had landed at Catania during an Allied air raid early on 13 July. Their aircraft and anti-tank guns were destroyed during the raid, so the battalion left on foot for Primosole Bridge. When Schmidt informed the divisional commander of his intentions, he was warned to expect a sea or airborne landing that night. If the Allies landed to the rear of the division, Schmidt's battalion had to hold Primosole Bridge so that the division could escape. Forewarned in this way, the machine gun battalion started to dig in and prepare a defence around to the south of the bridge once they arrived, well located to deal with any parachute or glider landing in that area. Primosole Bridge The Primosole Bridge is built from steel girders. It has a span of , and is raised above the Simeto River. The land to the north of the bridge is mainly olive and almond groves in tree-lined fields. Immediately to the south of the bridge is the Gornalunga canal, and beyond that three prominent hills. The road crossing the bridge is Highway 114, running from Lentini to the south to Catania to the north. To assist the Italians defending the bridge, four pillbox bunkers had been constructed, two on the north bank and two on the south bank. Fustian At 19:30 on 13 July 1943, the first aircraft carrying the 1,856 men of the 1st Parachute Brigade took off from North Africa. The aircraft used consisted of 105 Douglas C-47 Skytrains belonging to the 51st Troop Carrier Wing, 51 each from the 60th and the 62d Troop Carrier Groups, while the 64th Troop Carrier Group supplied the other three. No. 38 Wing Royal Air Force supplied eleven Armstrong Whitworth Albemarles. Following behind the parachute force were the glider towing aircraft. These aircraft, again supplied by No. 38 Wing, comprised 12 Albemarles and seven Handley Page Halifaxes, towing 11 Horsa gliders and eight Waco gliders. The gliders were used to carry 77 men, mostly from the anti-tank battery, ten 6 pounder anti-tank guns and 18 jeeps. The aircraft's flight path took them around the south eastern corner of Malta and up the eastern coast of Sicily. The route was measured to ensure that the first planes arrived over the drop zones at 22:20. When the planes arrived off Sicily, they were supposed to stay offshore until reaching the Simeto River, when they would head inland for the drop zones. Somehow, 33 aircraft strayed off course and approached an Allied convoy. The naval gunners had been warned to expect an air raid, and opened fire on the American and British aircraft. Two of the planes, trying to avoid the unexpected anti-aircraft fire, collided and crashed into the sea. Another two were shot down, and nine were so badly shot up, with wounded crew and passengers, that they were forced to turn back towards their airfields in North Africa. Those aircraft that did reach the Sicilian coast were engaged by Axis anti-aircraft guns, which shot down 37 of them. Another ten were damaged and were forced to abort their mission. Some of the inexperienced pilots now refused to go any further, and on his aircraft Lieutenant Colonel Alastair Pearson, commanding officer of the 1st Parachute Battalion, realising his plane was flying round in circles, had to threaten to shoot the crew to make them continue. The anti-aircraft fire and the evasive action taken by the pilots had dispersed the aircraft formations, and the parachute drop was scattered over a large area. The violent evasive manoeuvring left some of the paratroopers in heaps on the aircraft floor, and they were unable to jump when ordered. When safely back out to sea, some of the pilots refused to try again, considering the risk too great. Of the surviving aircraft which carried on with the mission, only 39 managed to drop their paratroops within of the correct drop zone. The furthest off course were some groups from the 3rd Parachute Battalion and Royal Engineers who landed to the south of the bridge, while another four aircraft landed their paratroops on the slopes of Mount Etna to the north. Those men of the 1st Parachute Brigade that landed on the southern drop zone were well within range of the 1st Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion. In the darkness, the Germans initially thought that the paratroopers were their own reinforcements landing, but they soon realised their mistake and opened fire. Some of those who escaped the machine gun fire were rounded up on the drop zone, and about 100 of them became prisoners of war as soon as they had touched ground. In the confusion of the landing, 50 men of the 1st Parachute Battalion had assembled, assaulted and managed to capture the bridge before the 50 Italian defenders could destroy it with the attached demolition charges. The Italians were taken prisoner, just as a second group of 40 paratroopers led by Brigadier Lathbury arrived at the bridge. Lathbury organised the safe removal of the demolition charges and set up a defensive perimeter. More paratroopers continued to gather at the bridge, and soon they numbered around 120 men, who dug in to the north and south. The Brigade Headquarters and the field ambulance main dressing station were established to the south of the bridge, where the brigade's casualties started arriving for treatment. Away from the main dressing station, the medics on the 2nd Battalion drop zone had 29 wounded as a result of the parachute drop, and there were 15 wounded on drop zone one from the 1st Battalion. The first glider casualties had occurred on takeoff, when two aircraft towing Waco gliders crashed. While en route, one of the gliders was released early by its towing aircraft, and crashed into the sea. When they did arrive over Sicily, the element of surprise was gone, and four gliders were shot down by the coastal anti-aircraft batteries. By the time the gliders arrived at their landing zones, two hours had lapsed since the parachute landings had started. One glider pilot later commented that they did not need the pathfinders, as the tracer and lights from explosions were brighter than any of the landing markers. Of the surviving glider force, only four gliders managed to land relatively unscathed, all the others being caught by the Fallschirmjäger machine gun fire and destroyed on their approach. The four intact gliders had been carrying three of the anti-tank guns, which were now included in the bridge's defences. Including the men from the gliders, the 1st Parachute Brigade had 295 men at the bridge. Shortage of manpower was not their only problem; their only support weapons were the anti-tank guns, two 3-inch mortars and a Vickers machine gun. Daybreak By 04:30 on 14 July, the 1st Parachute Battalion was in control of Primosole Bridge, but the Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion were well dug in to the south. Beyond them, 140 men of the 2nd Parachute Battalion had occupied the three small hills, and taken 500 Italian prisoners. In numbers, both battalions had little more than company strength. The 3rd Parachute Battalion had suffered the worst in the scattered parachute drop, and only a few of their men had arrived at the bridge. With no command structure, they were attached to the 1st Parachute Battalion to help defend the bridge. To the north, the Italian 372nd Coastal Battalion and the 10th Arditi Regiment had been informed of the parachute landings. Many of the 372nd Battalion had disappeared, while the Arditi mounted the first of a number of attacks on the British positions. Without the support of any heavy weapons, they were easily fought off. Also at dawn the first attack by the Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion to the south began, when they opened fire with their machine guns and mortars. Their first assault was against the 2nd Parachute Battalion's positions, and was unsuccessful. However, their next assault, later in the morning, succeeded in capturing Johnny II, the second of the small hills. Lieutenant Colonel John Frost, in command of the 2nd Parachute Battalion, immediately counterattacked, but his men were repulsed after sustaining a number of casualties. At 09:00 a forward observation officer attached to the 2nd Parachute Battalion managed to make radio contact with the British cruiser HMS Newfoundland, which then used its 6-inch guns to target the Fallschirmjäger positions. The naval gunfire had the desired effect, causing the Germans some casualties and keeping them under cover. From then on, German resistance from the south was restricted to harassing machine gun fire. A grass fire they started did force the 2nd Parachute Battalion to abandon Johnny I, and the remnants of the battalion now concentrated on Johnny III. To the north of the bridge, a German scratch-built battle group of 350 men, including the 1st Company, 1st Fallschirmjäger Signal Battalion, an anti-aircraft battery and some anti-tank guns, was gathered under the command of Captain Franz Stangenberg, supported by the 113rd Light Trucks Company of the 10th Arditi Regiment (the "Commandos" unit of the Italian Army) with 56 men and six heavily armed SPA-Viberti AS.42, Stangenberg was in position to launch his first assault on the bridge at 14:00. This first attack was driven off by the British paratroopers. For his second attempt Stangenberg brought up three 88 mm anti-aircraft guns in support. This assault was more successful, taking some prisoners, and almost succeeded in reaching the bridge. It also secured a position for the 88s to engage the two pillboxes on the north bank. By 17:00 the men of the 1st Parachute Battalion were almost out of ammunition, and were forced to withdraw to the southern side of the bridge. The German 88s were moved forward again, and this time demolished the pillboxes on the south side. Running short of supplies and with his casualties mounting, Brigadier Lathbury made the decision to relinquish control of the bridge to the Germans, and the parachute brigade moved back . Of the 295 men who had been at the bridge, 115 had become casualties. The 16th (Parachute) Field Ambulance main dressing station could not be moved or evacuated, and remained behind in no man's land. An Italian officer entered the station, and informed the medical staff they were now prisoners of war, but since they were treating casualties from both sides, they were allowed to remain and continue operating. Treatment of the wounded continued all day, and by 22:00 the surgeons had carried out 21 surgical operations and were looking after 62 British and 29 German or Italian patients. At 18:30, in the darkness, Lathbury led the remainder of his men to join the 2nd Parachute Battalion. By dawn, the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division had only managed to advance , and were still from No. 3 Commando at the Melati bridge and from Primosole Bridge. It was not until 17:00 that the 5th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment, part of the 69th Infantry Brigade, eventually reached Malati Bridge, although by now the commandos had been forced to withdraw. The bridge was quickly captured; the commandos had dismantled the demolition charges so that it could not be demolished. With their first objective secured, the British infantry continued their advance on foot towards the parachute brigade. The tanks and small amount of motor transport belonging to the 4th Armoured Brigade had been held up even further back. They had been stopped in Carlentini by a destroyed bridge, and the 4th Armoured Brigade did not start moving again until after 19:00. The 50th (Northumbrian) Division eventually reached Lentini, about halfway from their start point to Primosole Bridge, in the afternoon. Here the streets were blocked by debris, covered by snipers and machine gunners left as a rearguard by the retreating Germans. By nightfall only one of the 50th (Northumbrian) Division's infantry battalions, the 6th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry, of 151st Infantry Brigade, with some tanks in support, had reached a position from Johnny II. Despite their orders to advance at all speed, they halted for the night. Recapture of the bridge After the parachute brigade withdrew, the Axis forces gathered at the bridge. They now comprised the Italian 372nd Coastal Battalion and the Arditi Battalion, with the German 1st Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion and Captain Stangenberg's Battle group. The German High Command was aware of the importance of holding the bridge, and overnight they dispatched reinforcements who arrived by parachute. These came from the 1st Fallschirmjäger Division, and consisted of the 1st Fallschirmjäger Engineer Battalion, the 1st Battalion, 4th Fallschirmjäger Regiment and a battalion of the 1st Fallschirmjäger Artillery Regiment. The Fallschirmjäger engineers started to form a defensive line to the north of the bridge, and a smaller one on the southern bank. Early on 15 July, the 1st Parachute Brigade heard tank fire to the south of their position. Brigadier Lathbury sent out a patrol to investigate, which located the tanks and infantry of XIII Corps that had halted just south of them the previous night. The 1st Parachute Brigade and 50th (Northumbrian) Division now moved forward together. The main dressing station, which had continued to operate after being captured, was liberated by the 2nd Parachute Battalion. In an attempt to recapture Primosole Bridge the 9th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry, supported by the 44th Royal Tank Regiment, carried out a number of assaults. At one stage they managed to cross the bridge, but three Sherman tanks accompanying them were knocked out by the German 88s, and with no armoured support the infantry were forced to withdraw. However, an error in communication caused the Fallschirmjäger Engineer Battalion to withdraw to the north bank of the river, and this allowed the Durhams to establish a position at the southern end of the bridge. At the main dressing station the surgeons had operated on another 14 wounded by the time ambulances arrived from XIII Corps at 17:00 to evacuate the wounded. At 18:00 the Main Dressing Station was closed and the men moved to Johnny I. During the time the main dressing station had been active, the surgeons had completed 31 operations, and the medics had treated 109 wounded. The Germans were aware that the British paratroopers had dismantled the explosive charges attached to Primosole Bridge, and now attempted to destroy it by driving trucks laden with explosives onto it. This was unsuccessful. During the night the 9th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry continued trying to capture the bridge. Their attacks also provided a distraction for the Germans while Lieutenant Colonel Pearson of the 1st Parachute Battalion led two companies of the 8th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry across the Simeto River using a small ford to establish another bridgehead on the northern bank. During the day's battle both the British and Germans suffered heavy casualties, but the bridge was eventually retaken by the British infantry. Leaving the British Eighth Army to continue their advance, at 07:00 16 July the 1st Parachute Brigade were transported in trucks to Syracuse, where they embarked on a LST. Here they remained overnight, sitting through a two-hour air raid, and sailed for Valletta at 12:00 on 17 July. In Operation Fustian they had suffered around 141 dead, and 168 missing or wounded. Aftermath The operation was successful in the end; though narrow in victory in part because of the uncoordinated and ill-controlled friendly anti-aircraft fire. Only forty percent of the 5,000 paratroopers dropped had landed near their assigned drop zones. The recapture of Primosole Bridge did not result in the rapid advance over the Catania plain envisioned by Montgomery. The by now exhausted 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division was holding a position based on the bridge. The 5th Infantry Division took over the lead, but after a number of attacks could not make any further progress. Its 13th Infantry Brigade had to establish another bridgehead across the Simeto, but the Germans had brought in more troops and prepared defensive positions, and after hard fighting it was not until 5 August 1943 that the Eighth Army entered the city of Catania itself. Further hard fighting followed, and they entered Messina just after the United States Seventh Army on 17 August 1943. After an enquiry into the problems with the airborne missions in Sicily, the British Army and Royal Air Force submitted some recommendations. Aircrew had to be trained in parachute and glider operations, and pathfinders landing before the main force had to have enough time to set out their beacons. The landing plan was simplified, with complete brigades landing on one drop zone instead of the smaller battalion landing areas used in Sicily. Gliders were no longer released at night while still over water and their landing zones would be large enough to accommodate the aircraft with room to spare. Following the friendly-fire incident over the convoy, more training was given to ships' crews in aircraft recognition and Allied aircraft were painted with three large white stripes on their wings. Training for pilots belonging to the Glider Pilot Regiment was increased and improvements to the gliders were implemented, including better inter-aircraft communication. For transporting paratroops, to avoid relying solely on American aircraft and pilots, No. 38 Wing Royal Air Force was expanded, becoming No. 38 Group with its Halifax squadrons, now supported by four squadrons of Albemarles and four squadrons of Stirlings. To provide another method of delivering jeeps and artillery guns by air, the air force started experiments on parachuting them into combat, carrying the jeeps and guns in the aircraft's large bomb bays. A second Royal Air Force transport group, No. 46 Group, was formed, and was equipped solely with Dakotas, instead of the mixture of aircraft in No. 38 Group. After these changes, the Royal Air Force groups could supply 88 Albemarles, 88 Stirlings, 36 Halifaxes and 150 Dakotas, a total of 362 planes, in addition to aircraft held as reserves. Lessons were learned from the near-disastrous parachute drops on Sicily and paved the way for larger and more successful operations in Italy, Normandy and Southern France. Notes Footnotes Citations References External links Pegasus Archive pictures of area Personal account by Major Kessel at Para Data Airborne operations Allied invasion of Sicily Military operations of World War II involving Germany Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom Fustian Battles and operations of World War II involving Italy Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom) Glider Pilot Regiment operations July 1943 events Paternò
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale%20Carnegie
Dale Carnegie
Dale Carnegie (; spelled Carnagey until c. 1922; November 24, 1888 – November 1, 1955) was an American writer and lecturer, and the developer of courses in self-improvement, salesmanship, corporate training, public speaking, and interpersonal skills. Born into poverty on a farm in Missouri, he was the author of How to Win Friends and Influence People (1936), a bestseller that remains popular today. He also wrote How to Stop Worrying and Start Living (1948), Lincoln the Unknown (1932), and several other books. One of the core ideas in his books is that it is possible to change other people's behavior by changing one's behavior towards them. Biography Dale Carnegie was born November 24, 1888, on a farm in Maryville, Missouri. He was the second son of farmers James William Carnagey (1852–1941) and his wife Amanda Elizabeth Harbison (1858–1939). Carnegie grew up around Bedison, Missouri southeast of Maryville and attended rural Rose Hill and Harmony one room schools. Carnegie would develop a longstanding friendship with another Maryville author, Homer Croy. In 1904, at age 16, his family moved to a farm in Warrensburg, Missouri. As a youth, he enjoyed speaking in public and joined his school's debate team. Carnegie said he had to get up at 3 a.m. to feed the pigs and milk his parents' cows before going to school. During high school, he grew interested in the speeches at the various Chautauqua assemblies. He completed his high school education in 1906. He attended State Teacher's College in Warrensburg, graduating in 1908. His first job after college was selling correspondence courses to ranchers. He moved on to selling bacon, soap, and lard for Armour & Company. He was successful to the point of making his sales territory of South Omaha, Nebraska, the national leader for the firm. After saving $500, Dale Carnegie quit sales in 1911 in order to pursue a lifelong dream of becoming a Chautauqua lecturer. He ended up instead attending the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York, but found little success as an actor, though it is written that he played the role of Dr. Hartley in a road show of Polly of the Circus. When the production ended, he returned to New York, living at the YMCA on 125th Street. There he got the idea to teach public speaking, and he persuaded the YMCA manager to allow him to instruct a class in return for 80% of the net proceeds. In his first session, he had run out of material. Improvising, he suggested that students speak about "something that made them angry", and discovered that the technique made speakers unafraid to address a public audience. From this 1912 debut, the Dale Carnegie Course evolved. Carnegie had tapped into the average American's desire to have more self-confidence, and by 1914, he was earning $500 (about $ today) every week. During World War I he served in the U.S. Army spending the time at Camp Upton. His draft card noted he had filed for conscientious objector status and had a loss of a forefinger. By 1916, Dale conducted a sold out lecture at Carnegie Hall, which influenced his decision in 1919 to change the spelling of his last name in honor of the steel magnate, Andrew Carnegie, and easier for others to remember. Carnegie's first collection of his writings was Public Speaking: a Practical Course for Business Men (1926), later entitled Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business (1932). In 1936, Simon & Schuster published How to Win Friends and Influence People. The book was a bestseller from its debut. By the time of Carnegie's death, the book had sold five million copies in 31 languages, and there had been 450,000 graduates of his Dale Carnegie Institute. It has been stated in the book that he had critiqued over 150,000 speeches in his participation in the adult education movement of the time. Personal life His first marriage ended in divorce in 1931. On November 5, 1944, he married his former secretary, Dorothy Price Vanderpool (1913–1998), who also had been divorced. Vanderpool had two daughters; Rosemary, from her first marriage, and Donna Dale from her marriage to Carnegie. Dorothy ran the Carnegie company following Dale's death. Carnegie died of Hodgkin's disease on November 1, 1955, at his home in Forest Hills, New York. He was buried in the Belton, Cass County, Missouri, cemetery. Books 1915: Art of Public Speaking, with Joseph Berg Esenwein. 1920: Public Speaking: the Standard Course of the United Y. M. C. A. Schools. 1926: Public Speaking: a Practical Course for Business Men. Later editions and updates changed the name of the book several times: Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business (1937 revised), How to Develop Self-Confidence and Influence People by Public Speaking (1956) and Public Speaking for Success (2005). 1932: Lincoln the Unknown. 1934: Little Known Facts About Well Known People. 1936: How to Win Friends and Influence People. 1937: Five Minute Biographies. 1944: Dale Carnegie's Biographical round-up. 1948: How to Stop Worrying and Start Living. 1959: Dale Carnegie's Scrapbook: a Treasury of the Wisdom of the Ages. A selection of Dale Carnegie's writings edited by Dorothy Carnegie. 1962: The Quick and Easy Way to Effective Speaking. (by Dorothy Carnegie, based upon Dale Carnegie's own notes and ideas) Booklets (most given out in Dale Carnegie Courses) 1938: How to Get Ahead in the World Today 1936: The Little Golden Book (later renamed The Golden Book, lists basics from HTWFIP and HTSWSL) 1946: How to Put Magic in the Magic Formula 1947: A Quick and Easy Way to Learn to Speak in Public. (later combined as Speak More Effectively, 1979) 1952: How to Make Our Listeners Like Us. (later combined as Speak More Effectively, 1979) 1959: How to Save Time and Get Better Results in Conferences (later renamed Meetings: Quicker & Better Results) 1960: How to Remember Names (later renamed as Remember Names) 1965: The Little Recognized Secret of Success (later renamed Live Enthusiastically) 1979: Apply Your Problem Solving Know How See also Self-help Chautauqua Carnegie (disambiguation) References External links Dale Carnegie Training The Art of Public Speaking (full text) 1888 births 1955 deaths 20th-century American biographers 20th-century American educators United States Army personnel of World War I American motivational speakers American motivational writers American self-help writers Deaths from lymphoma Historians of Abraham Lincoln American male biographers People from Maryville, Missouri People from Belton, Missouri Military personnel from Missouri Retailers United States Army soldiers University of Central Missouri alumni Writers from Missouri Deaths from cancer in New York (state) American conscientious objectors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Corkscrew
Operation Corkscrew
Operation Corkscrew was the code name for the Allied invasion of the Italian island of Pantelleria (between Sicily and Tunisia) on 11 June 1943, prior to the Allied invasion of Sicily during the Second World War. There had been an early plan to occupy the island in late 1940 (Operation Workshop), but this was aborted when the Luftwaffe strengthened the Axis air strength in the region. Background The Allied focus returned to Pantelleria in early 1943. The radar installations and airfield on the island were seen as a real threat to the planned invasion of Sicily (codenamed Operation Husky). The Italian garrison on the island was 12,000 strong in well-entrenched pillboxes and 21 gun batteries of a variety of calibres. In addition, there was an opportunity to assess the impact of bombardment upon heavily fortified defences. It was decided to see if the island could be forced into submission by aerial and naval bombardment alone. Failing this, an amphibious invasion was planned for 11 June. Landings Starting in late May, the island was subjected to steadily increasing bombing attacks. In early June, the attacks intensified and 14,203 bombs weighing 4,119 tons were dropped on 112 Italian batteries. On 8 June, a Royal Navy task force of five cruisers, eight destroyers and three torpedo boats carried out a bombardment of the main port on the island. The engagement was observed by General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean, and Admiral Andrew Cunningham from the flagship HMS Aurora. From 8 May to 11 June 5,285 bombing sorties were flown by fighter-bombers, medium and heavy bombers, dropping a total of 6,202 tons of bombs on the island. Two demands for the garrison to surrender went unanswered and, on 11 June, the amphibious assault went ahead. About an hour before the landing craft reached the beaches, the accompanying ships opened fire. Unknown to the attackers, the commander of the garrison Adm. Gino Pavesi on Pantelleria had sought permission to surrender from Rome the previous evening and received it that morning. When the first of the British Commandos landed, the Italians had already surrendered, therefore no fight was necessary. Aftermath As typed at page 79 of Rogers, Edith C. (1947) monograph "The Reduction of Pantelleria and Adjacent Islands, 8 May-14 June 1943" by 52 US Air Force, Air Force Historical Research Agency the gun positions were reduced to 47% effectiveness by the intense ten-day air bombardment. Out of 112 guns bombed, only 2 had suffered from direct hits, 17 were near misses and 34 were damaged by debris and splinters (10 beyond repair). All control communications were destroyed, along with many gun emplacements and ammunition stores; As typed at page 76 of Rogers, Edith C. (1947) monograph "The Reduction of Pantelleria and Adjacent Islands, 8 May-14 June 1943" by 52 US Air Force, Air Force Historical Research Agency, heavy bombers had an accuracy of 3,3%, medium bombers 6,4% and light fighters-bombers 2,6%. The Italian garrisons on other nearby islands (Lampedusa and Linosa) quickly fell during 12nd and 13rd of the month. The operation cleared the way for the invasion of Sicily a month later. References External links Detailed American description, 320th Bomb Group British Combined Operations description Corkscrew Corkscrew June 1943 events Corkscrew Corkscrew
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Chestnut
Operation Chestnut
During World War II, Operation Chestnut was a failed British raid by 2 Special Air Service, conducted in support of the Allied invasion of Sicily. Background Two teams of ten men each, codenamed 'Pink' and 'Brig', parachuted into northern Sicily on the night of 12 July 1943, to disrupt communications, transport and the enemy in general. All radios were broken and much ammunition, explosives, and food were lost in the jump. One team landed near an inhabited area, alerting the defenders. Without radios, neither team was able to contact and direct the planes bringing in reinforcements, which subsequently returned to base without any drops being made. The raiders were unable to achieve anything worthwhile and worked their way towards friendly lines evading the enemy. This was the first parachute raid for 2 SAS, and also the raid when Maj. Geoffrey Appleyard, (former commander of the Small Scale Raiding Force), was lost. Appleyard was aboard the plane carrying 'Pink' team as drop supervisor. After the drop was made the plane failed to return to base. See also World War II Operation Husky: The Allied invasion of Sicily. World War II British Commando raids Allied invasion of Sicily Special Air Service 1943 in Italy July 1943 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20W.%20Nash
Charles W. Nash
Charles Williams Nash (January 28, 1864 – June 6, 1948) was an American automobile entrepreneur who served as an executive in the automotive industry. He played a major role in building up General Motors as its 5th President. In 1916, he bought Thomas B. Jeffery Company, makers of the popular Rambler automobile, renamed it Nash Motors, and played an independent role in an automobile industry increasingly dominated by the Big Three: General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler. His profits came from focusing on one well-designed car in the upper medium price range. He bought several distressed companies in Wisconsin, merging them and installing advanced managerial accounting procedures while cutting costs and focusing on long-term growth. He retired as president in 1932 but remained chairman of the board. His major acquisition was the merger in 1937 with the Kelvinator Company, which made refrigerators. During World War II, Nash-Kelvinator greatly expanded to manufacture aircraft engines and parts. Early life Nash was born to a poor farming family in Cortland, Illinois, on what is now Route 38 — Lincoln Highway. His mother was Anna E. "Annie" Cadwell (1829–1909) who married David L. Nash. Other Nash siblings included Mazovia (b. 1862), George C. (b. 1866) and Laura W. (b. 1868). Charles' parents separated when he was six years old and abandoned him. As a result of a court order, he worked as a farmhand in Michigan as an indentured servant under an agreement that was to last until he was 21. He had only three months of schooling per year while he was "bound out" to perform farm chores. At age 12, Nash ran away and became a farmhand, first in Grand Blanc, Michigan for $8 per month, then for Alexander McFarland in Mount Morris, Michigan for $12 per month. On McFarland's farm he learned the carpentry trade from John Shelben and formed the "Adams & Nash" concern to press hay. While pressing hay on the Halleck farm, he met his future wife, Jessie Halleck, and married her on April 23, 1884. They moved to Flint, Michigan, due to Jessie's poor health, and in 1890 was hired by William C. Durant of the Flint Road Cart Company, which later became the Durant-Dort Carriage Company. Automobile industry Durant hired Nash in 1890 for $1 per day as an upholstery stuffer. Within six months, he was promoted to superintendent of the factory. Within 10 years, Nash became vice president and general manager of the Durant-Dort Carriage Company. Nash introduced the straight-line belt conveyor into the assembly of carriages. In 1897, Nash had a chance to drive an early automobile and immediately became interested in its commercial possibilities. General Motors By 1910, the chief business of Durant-Dort Carriage Company was building automobile bodies for the Buick unit of General Motors, which was founded in 1908 by Durant, who had bought Buick in 1904. Durant found himself short of both capital and skilled management. Durant brought Nash to Buick to oversee production. Durant was not concerned that Nash did not have any automotive industry experience, his expertise was in dealing with people and also how to organize an efficient production line. James J. Storrow followed the recommendation and appointed Nash as vice-president of Buick on 13 December 1910. Nash was searching for an expert in day-to-day manufacturing operations so he could focus more on sales, supplier relations, and logistics. In 1912, Nash hired Walter P. Chrysler from the American Locomotive Company to be Buick's works manager. In late 1912, Durant was fired by the General Motors board and on November 19, Nash was elected as the fifth president of the company because he had earned the trust of the bankers who controlled the board of directors. Durant had acquired numerous automakers without analyzing their contribution to the product mix and some like Elmore, Cartercar, Reliance Motor Truck, Welch Motor Car, were money-losing operations that left the company financially overextended; thus, there was concern if it could even survive another five years. Under Nash's leadership, General Motors made immense gains in profits earned and in the number of vehicles produced. Nash focused on making GM a more efficient operation by getting rid of unprofitable products and streamlining manufacturing. He arranged for GM to purchase 51 percent of axlemaker Weston-Mott. Cost-cutting and higher sales were his top priorities. There was tight control of inventories and cash at the corporate level as well as changes designed to maximize production at each factory. Nash had restored GM to organizational stability and financial health. Profitability was restored with 1914 results at $7.2 million and doubling for 1915 as well as again doubling for 1916 with the automaker taking in nearly $29 million. His strategy of consolidating into large units paid off: he combined three different truck operations into one and merged several parts-making operations. Keen on building up an international market, he set up the General Motors Export Company to handle international sales. He also moved GM's general offices from New York to Detroit, created a new purchasing office, and set up a new accounting office with standardized accounting procedures. However, Nash was reluctant to pay dividends to shareholders By late 1915 and early 1916, Billy Durant attempted to reassert his control over the company and Nash was caught in the power struggle between Durant and bankers. By May 1916, Durant regained controlled the majority of voting stock. He offered Nash a $1 million annual salary to remain with the automaker. Nash described the salary was "more than a man’s worth" and resigned on June 1. Nash Motors After his clash with Durant, Nash resolved never again to work for someone else. Along with former GM executives, James J. Storrow and Walter P. Chrysler, Nash attempted to take over Packard, but the luxury car maker's board of directors demurred. Nash learned that the heirs of the Jeffery Motor Company of Kenosha, Wisconsin, were anxious to retire. It was best known for its Rambler brand of cars and numerous innovations. Nash bought out the pioneering automaker in August 1916 with a down payment check of half million dollars and the total deal worth $5 million (some reports indicate the price was $9 million). One of the first major investors was Alfred P. Sloan. While Jeffery Motors had total stock of $3 million, the newly incorporated Nash Motors became a major force with a capital stock of almost $24 million on 29 July 1916. In 1917, he renamed the company Nash Motors. The 1917 Nash Model 671 was the first automobile to bear the name of the new company's founder. Nils Erik Wahlberg, a former GM engineer, developed new cars and engines for the 1918 model year. Nash Motors became successful almost immediately, with sales totaling 31,008 trucks and cars by 1919. Nash was able to negotiate procurement contracts with the United States Army during World War I that made the company one of the largest producers of trucks in the nation. In 1918, Nash was appointed to take charge of engineering and production of aircraft matters for the war effort. In addition to running his own company, Charles Nash also served as president of the luxury automaker LaFayette Motors until Nash Motors bought out the company in 1924. By 1929, the Big Three automakers (GM, Ford, and Chrysler) controlled 75 percent of the automobile market. Nash Motors was in fourth place producing 138,000 vehicles in 1928. Nash focused on producing one high-quality automobile for the upper medium price range, later adding a smaller, less expensive model, the Ajax. Nash realized he could never compete with the market diversity of the Big Three, so he based his profits on careful management, close attention to costs, and opportunities for expansion. Nash was a hands-on executive, who concentrated on developing more efficient purchasing and setting up accounting procedures that would specify the source of costs and profits. Nash acquired other car companies, including Mitchell Motors of Racine in 1923 and LaFayette Motors of Milwaukee in 1924. During the Great Depression the Nash cars were popular providing high quality, durability, and the look of luxury at a relatively low price. The company also saw opportunity in the luxury car market segment and introduced the top-of-the-line Ambassador models on a wheelbase in 1932 that soon earned the nickname of "Kenosha Duesenbergs" because of their quality. Nash gave up the presidency in 1932, but remained board chairman. Nash wanted George W. Mason as his executive vice president and to have Mason he had to buy Kelvinator a leading manufacturer of refrigerators. After twenty years of success in running his company, Nash turned it over in 1937 and the merged company was renamed Nash-Kelvinator. Retirement Nash retired from his namesake company in 1936 to live in California. His health started to fail during his wife's illness and eventual death in 1947. He is quoted as describing himself as "the most common cuss that lived." He died in 1948 at the age of 84 in Beverly Hills, California. Always proud of belonging to the "common people", he left an estate valued at around US$50 million (approximately US$ in dollars ). Nash was interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale next to his wife. Legacy Nash is best remembered for responding to public demand by building smaller, more economical and affordable cars. Nash Motors was successful in marketing cars to America's middle class. Charles Nash is also recognized for lean operations in business that included scheduling production and material orders closely, carrying a small inventory, and having flexibility in meeting the changing market needs during the economic turmoil of the 1920s and 1930s. Nash, is also credited with developing the straight-line conveyor belt assembly system that he first introduced at the Durant-Dort Carriage Company factory. Charles W. Nash's achievements by 1926 were characterized as a genuine success story: Timeline 1890 - Charles Nash hired to stuff seat cushions at Durant-Dort Carriage Co. 1904 - Durant buys Buick, takes Nash with him as assistant manager. 1910 – Charles Nash takes control of General Motors from William Durant 1912 – Charles Nash hires Walter P. Chrysler to manage Buick division of General Motors 1912 – Nash becomes president of General Motors 1916 – William Durant re-gains control of General Motors, Charles Nash resigns. 1916 – Charles Nash buys the Thomas B. Jeffery Company, maker of the Rambler. 1917 – Thomas B. Jeffery Company is renamed "Nash Motors" 1917 – First Nash designed car, "Model 681" is produced 1918 – Nash becomes the largest producer of trucks in the world, building 11,490 four-wheel drive quads for the US Army 1919 – Nash purchased half interest in the Seamon Body Corporation of Milwaukee - the builder of bodies for Rambler, Jeffery, and Nash 1925 – Purchased plant from the Mitchell Motor Car Company in Racine, Wisconsin 1930 – Nash retires and becomes Chairman of the Board 1937 – Merged Nash with Kelvinator to form Nash-Kelvinator and made George W. Mason the CEO 1948 – Nash dies Gallery References External links Portrait of Charles Nash, Detroit Public Library 1864 births 1948 deaths 20th-century American businesspeople People from Cortland, Illinois American chief executives in the automobile industry American Motors people Nash Motors people American automotive pioneers Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale) General Motors former executives American founders of automobile manufacturers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Barclay
Operation Barclay
Operation Barclay was a World War II deception by the Allies in support of Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943. The goal was to deceive the Axis powers as to the location of the Allies' assault across the Mediterranean and to divert the Axis military command's attention and resources. Operation Barclay used bogus troop movements, radio traffic, recruitment of Greek interpreters, and acquisition of Greek maps to indicate an invasion through the Balkans. Operation Barclay created a sham army in the eastern Mediterranean: the Twelfth Army consisting of 12 fictitious divisions. Adolf Hitler suspected that the Allies would invade Europe through the Balkans, and Barclay served to reinforce this. As part of Barclay the British also launched Operation Mincemeat, where faked documents were planted via Spain, and Operation Waterfall, in which a decoy invasion force was assembled in Cyrenaica. To reinforce the impression that an Allied invasion was imminent the Special Operations Executive (SOE), in co-operation with the Greek andartes, mounted Operation Animals, a series of attacks on rail and road networks. The deception was successful. The German High Command concluded there was a greater concentration of Allied forces in the eastern Mediterranean than was the case and held to this assessment, making subsequent deceptions more credible. German forces in the Balkans were reinforced from 8 to 18 divisions, and the Italian fleet diverted into the Adriatic Sea. The Allied invasion of Sicily thus achieved surprise. The greatly increased number of German occupying forces in Greece resulted in negative consequences for the Greek Resistance. Wide-ranging counterguerrilla operations were carried out, culminating in mass reprisals such as the Massacre of Kalavryta and Distomo massacre. References Further reading Jon Latimer, Deception in War, London: John Murray, 2001 Operation Mincemeat World War II deception operations Allied invasion of Sicily Code names July 1943 events
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254022
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC%208859-2
ISO/IEC 8859-2
ISO/IEC 8859-2:1999, Information technology — 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets — Part 2: Latin alphabet No. 2, is part of the ISO/IEC 8859 series of ASCII-based standard character encodings, first edition published in 1987. It is informally referred to as "Latin-2". It is generally intended for Central or "Eastern European" languages that are written in the Latin script. Note that ISO/IEC 8859-2 is very different from code page 852 (MS-DOS Latin 2, PC Latin 2) which is also referred to as "Latin-2" in Czech and Slovak regions. Code page 912 is an extension. ISO-8859-2 is the IANA preferred charset name for this standard when supplemented with the C0 and C1 control codes from ISO/IEC 6429. 0.1% of all web pages use ISO 8859-2 in December 2018. Microsoft has assigned code page 28592 a.k.a. Windows-28592 to ISO-8859-2 in Windows. IBM assigned Code page 1111 to ISO 8859-2. Windows-1250 is similar to ISO-8859-2 and has all the printable characters it has and more. However a few of them are rearranged (unlike Windows-1252, which keeps all printable characters from ISO-8859-1 in the same place). Language coverage These code values can be used for the following languages: It can also be used for Romanian, but it is not well suited for that language, due to lacking letters s and t with commas below, although it provides s and t with similar-looking cedillas. These letters were unified in the first versions of the Unicode standard, meaning that the appearance with cedilla or with a comma was treated as a glyph choice rather than as separate characters; fonts intended for use with Romanian should therefore, in theory, have characters with a comma below at those code points. Microsoft did not really provide such fonts for computers sold in Romania. Still, ISO/IEC 8859-2 and Windows-1250 (with the same problem) have been heavily used for Romanian. Unicode subsequently disunified the comma variants from the cedilla variants, and has since taken the lead for web pages, which however often have s and t with cedilla anyway. Unicode notes as of 2014 that disunifying the letters with comma below was a mistake, causing corruptions of Romanian data: pre-existing data and input methods would still contain the older cedilla codepoints, complicating text searching. Code page layout In the following table characters are shown together with their corresponding Unicode code points. See also Character encoding Polish code pages References External links ISO 8859-2:1999 Standard ECMA-94: 8-Bit Single Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabets No. 1 to No. 4 2nd edition (June 1986) ISO-IR 101 Right-Hand Part of Latin Alphabet No.2 (February 1, 1986) ISO 8859-2 (Latin 2) Resources ISO/IEC 8859 Computer-related introductions in 1987
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash%20Motors
Nash Motors
Nash Motors Company was an American automobile manufacturer based in Kenosha, Wisconsin, in the United States from 1916 to 1937. From 1937 to 1954, Nash Motors was the automotive division of the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation. Nash production continued from 1954 to 1957 after the creation of American Motors Corporation. Nash pioneered some important innovations; in 1938 they debuted the heating and ventilation system which is still used today, unibody construction in 1941, seat belts in 1950, a US built compact car in 1950, and muscle cars in 1957. History Nash Motors was founded in 1916 by former General Motors president Charles W. Nash who acquired the Thomas B. Jeffery Company. Jeffery's best-known automobile was the Rambler whose mass production from a plant in Kenosha, Wisconsin began in 1902. The 1917 Nash Model 671 was the first vehicle produced to bear the name of the new company's founder. Sales were positive for 1918 at 10,283 units. More models were added in 1919 and sales rose to 27,081 for the year. Nash enjoyed decades of success by focusing its efforts to build cars "embodying honest worth ... [at] a price level which held out possibilities of a very wide market." The four-wheel drive Jeffery Quad truck became an important product for Nash. Approximately 11,500 Quads were built between 1913 and 1919. They served to move material during World War I under severe conditions. The Quad used Meuhl differentials with half-shafts mounted above the load-bearing dead axles to drive the hubs through hub-reduction gearing. In addition, it featured four-wheel steering. The Quad achieved the reputation of being the best four-wheel drive truck produced in the country. The newly formed Nash Motors became the largest producer of four-wheel drives. By 1918, capacity constraints at Nash meant the Paige-Detroit Motor Car Company began to assemble the Nash Quad under license and Nash patents. Nash became the leading producer of military trucks by the end of World War I. After the war ended, surplus Quads were used as heavy work trucks in fields such as construction and logging. Charles Nash convinced the chief engineer of GM's Oakland Division, Finnish-born Nils Eric Wahlberg, to move to Nash's new company. The first Nash engine introduced in 1917 by Wahlberg had overhead valves., which Nash had learned about while working for Buick. Wahlberg is also credited with helping to design flow-through ventilation that is used today in nearly every motor vehicle. Introduced in 1938, Nash's Weather Eye directed fresh, outside air into the car's fan-boosted, filtered ventilation system, where it was warmed (or cooled), and then removed through rearward placed vents. The process also helped to reduce humidity and equalize the slight pressure differential between the outside and inside of a moving vehicle. Another unique feature of Nash cars was the unequal wheel tracks. The front wheels were set slightly narrower than the rear, thus adding stability and improving cornering. Wahlberg was also an early proponent of wind tunnel testing for vehicles and during World War II worked with Theodore (Ted) Ulrich in the development of Nash's radically styled Airflyte models. Nash's slogan from the late 1920s and 1930s was "Give the customer more than he has paid for" and the cars lived up to it. Innovations included a straight-eight engine with overhead valves, twin spark plugs, and nine crankshaft bearings in 1930. The 1932 Ambassador Eight had synchromesh transmissions and free wheeling, automatic centralized chassis lubrication, a worm-drive rear end, and its suspension was adjustable inside the car. A long-time proponent of automotive safety, Nash was among the early mid- and low-priced cars to offer four-wheel brakes. The Nash was a success among consumers that meant for the company "selling for a long time has been 100% a production problem... month after month all the cars that could be produced were sold before they left the factory floor." Creation of the Ajax For the 1925 model year, Nash introduced the entry-level marque Ajax. The Ajax was produced in the newly acquired Mitchell Motor Car Company plant in Racine, Wisconsin. Mitchell was the manufacturer of Mitchell-brand automobiles between 1903 and 1923. Sales of Ajax automobiles, while quite respectable, were disappointing. It was believed that the same car would sell better if it were called a Nash. Thus the Ajax became the "Nash Light Six" in June, 1926 and sales did improve, just as expected. In an unusual move, Nash Motors offered all Ajax owners a kit to "convert" their Ajax into a Nash Light Six. This kit, supplied at no charge, included a set of new hubcaps, radiator badge, and all other parts necessary to change the identity of an Ajax into that of a Nash Light Six. This was done to protect Ajax owners from the inevitable drop in resale value when the Ajax marque was discontinued. In this way Nash Motors showed the high value they placed upon their customers' satisfaction and well-being. Most Ajax owners took advantage of this move, and "unconverted" Ajax cars are quite rare today. Acquisition of LaFayette LaFayette Motors was the producer of a large, powerful, expensive luxury car. The company started in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1920, and later moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The principal stockholder in LaFayette Motors was Nash Motors Company. Other major stockholders were Charles W. Nash and friends and business associates. The high quality, high priced LaFayette cars did not sell well. In 1924, Nash absorbed LaFayette Motors and converted its plant to produce Ajax automobiles. The LaFayette name was reintroduced in 1934 as a lower priced companion to Nash. LaFayette ceased to be an independent marque with the introduction of the 1937 models. From 1937 through 1940, the Nash LaFayette was the lowest priced Nash, and was replaced by the new unibody Nash 600 for the 1941 model year. Era of George Mason and Nash Kelvinator Before retiring, Charles Nash chose Kelvinator Corporation head George W. Mason to succeed him. Mason accepted, but placed one condition on the job: Nash would acquire controlling interest in Kelvinator, which at the time was the leading manufacturer of high-end refrigerators and kitchen appliances in the United States. The resulting company, as of January 4, 1937, was known as Nash-Kelvinator. Nash as a brand name continued to represent automobiles for the merged firm. This was the largest merger of companies not in the same industry up until that time. In 1938, Nash introduced an optional conditioned air heating/ventilating system, an outcome of the expertise shared between Kelvinator and Nash. This was the first hot-water car heater to draw fresh air from outside the car, and is the basis of all modern internal combustion engine car heaters in use today. Also in 1938, Nash, along with other car manufacturers Studebaker and Graham, offered vacuum-controlled shifting, an early approach at removing the gearshift from the front floorboards. Automobiles equipped with the Automatic Vacuum Shift (supplied by the Evans Products Company) had a small gear selector lever mounted on the dashboard, immediately below the radio controls. In 1936, Nash introduced the "Bed-In-A-Car" feature, which allowed the car's interior to be converted into a sleeping compartment. The rear seatback hinged up, allowing the rear seat cushion to be propped up into a level position. This also created an opening between the passenger compartment and the trunk. Two adults could sleep in the car, with their legs and feet in the trunk, and their heads and shoulders on the rear seat cushions. In 1949, this arrangement was modified so that fully reclining front seatbacks created a sleeping area entirely within the passenger compartment. In 1950 these reclining seatbacks were given the ability to lock into several intermediate positions. Nash soon called these "Airliner Reclining Seats". In 1939, Nash added a thermostat to its "Conditioned Air System", and thus the famous Nash Weather Eye heater was introduced. The 1939 and 1940 Nash streamlined cars were designed by George Walker and Associates and freelance body stylist Don Mortrude. They were available in three series - LaFayette, Ambassador Six, and Ambassador Eight. For the 1940 model cars, Nash introduced independent coil spring front suspension and sealed beam headlights. The 1941, Nash 600 was the first mass-produced unibody construction automobile made in the United States. Its lighter weight compared to body-on-frame automobiles and lower air drag helped it to achieve excellent fuel economy for its day. The "600" model designation is said to have been derived from overdrive-equipped examples of this car's ability to travel on a tank of gasoline. It would achieve . The 600 models used an unusual steering/front suspension system with extremely long kingpins. Inadequate lubrication became a problem for these systems, commonly resulting in premature failures. The design of the cars was improved by new front ends, upholstery, and chrome trim from 1942 to 1948. The larger Ambassador models shared the same bodies with the 600 but placed this unibody structure on top of a conventional frame, resulting in an extremely strong design. Post-World War II passenger car production resumed on October 27, 1945, with an Ambassador sedan first off the assembly line. There were few changes from 1942 models, most noticeable were longer and slimmer upper grille bars and a projecting center section on the lower grille. The 600 models featured a conventional front suspension and steering system. Postwar Nashes were six-cylinder only; eight-cylinder engines did not return. The large Ambassador engine thus was the seven main bearing, overhead-valve, , six-cylinder developing . Nash was considering the potential of offering a pickup truck and developed a prototype built on the existing chassis with a modified 600 front end and cab along with an outsourced cargo bed. For the 1946 model year, Nash introduced the Suburban model that used wood framing and panels on the body. It was similar to the Chrysler Town and Country and Ford Sportsman models. Suburbans were continued in 1947 and 1948 models with 1,000 built over the three years. In 1948, the Ambassador convertible returned with 1,000 built. Introduction of the Nash Airflyte The aerodynamic 1949 Nash "Airflyte" was the first car of an advanced design introduced by the company after the war. Its aerodynamic body shape was developed in a wind tunnel. Nils Wahlberg's theories on reducing an automobile body's drag coefficient resulted in a smooth shape and enclosed front fenders. Closed fenders were conceived by Nash engineers also in the exploration for added strength of unibody construction, whereas Hudson, a close competitor incorporated an actual unibody frame section into its closed rear wheel openings at about the same time. The "cutting-edge aerodynamics" of the all-new postwar design were the most "alarming" in the industry since the Chrysler Airflow. It was built at one of two new factories in El Segundo, California, where the factory is still being used, having been re-purposed as the Boeing Satellite Development Center, immediately south of Los Angeles International Airport, on Nash Street. A one-piece curved safety glass windshield was used on both models. Wide and low, the automobile featured more interior room than its 1948 predecessor although its height was 6 inches less. Due to its enclosed front fenders Nash automobiles had a larger turning radius than most other cars. The 600 models used a wheelbase while the Ambassador models stretched to . Both shared the same bodies. Coil springs were used on all four wheels. Three trim lines were offered in both models; Super, Super Special, and the top line Custom. Power was provided by an , flathead inline 6 cylinder in the 600 and a 112 HP OHV, inline 6 in the Ambassador. The few changes for the 1950 Airflytes were a wider rear window, concealed fuel filler cap, some dashboard features and addition on Ambassadors of a GM Hydramatic automatic transmission option. The 600 models were renamed as the "Statesman". A new first for an American car were seat belts, also new was a five-position Airliner reclining front passenger seat back, both optional in both models. The stroke on the Statesman engine was increased 1/4 inch, giving and , and the Ambassador received a new cylinder head that increased hp to 115. Changes for the 1951 model Airflytes were to the rear fenders, elongated to incorporate vertical taillights, a new conventional dashboard replacing the Uniscope mounted on the steering column, a new vertical bar grille with horizontal parking lights and addition of GM Hydramatic as a Statesman option also. The three best sales years for Nash up to that time were 1949, 1950 and 1951. Nash-Kelvinator's President George Mason felt Nash had the best chance of reaching a larger market in building small cars. He directed Nash towards the development of the first compact of the post war era, the 1950 Nash Rambler, which was marketed as an up-market, feature-laden convertible. Mason orchestrated a contract manufacturing arrangement with Austin of the UK to build Nash's new sub-compact car, the Metropolitan, it was introduced as a 1954 model. The full-size Nash Airflytes were completely re-designed for 1952, and were promoted as the Golden Airflytes, in honor of Nash Motors' 50th anniversary as an automobile builder (the company now counting the years of the Thomas B. Jeffery Company as part of their own heritage.) "Great Cars Since 1902" became one of the company's advertising slogans. Nash was the only American car manufacturer to introduce an all-new 1952 model other than Ford Motor Company. The new Golden Airflytes presented a more modern, squared-off look than did the 1949–51 models, which were often compared to inverted bathtubs. Battista "Pinin" Farina of Italy was contracted by Nash to design a body for the new Golden Airflyte. Management was unhappy with the design and the result was a combination of an in-house design and Pinin Farina's model. Also in 1952, Nash began offering automatic transmissions, either a GM Hydramatic or a Borg-Warner overdrive transmission. Power was still provided by a six cylinder engine, now bored out to 252 CID. Using its Kelvinator refrigeration experience, the automobile industry's first single-unit heating and air conditioning system was introduced by Nash in 1954. This was a compact, affordable system for the mass market with controls on the dash and an electric clutch. Entirely incorporated within the engine bay, the combined heating and cooling system had cold air for passengers enter through dash-mounted vents. Competing systems used a separate heating system and an engine-mounted compressor with an Evaporator in the car's trunk to deliver cold air through the rear package shelf and overhead vents. The alternative layout pioneered by Nash "became established practice and continues to form the basis of the modern and more sophisticated automatic climate control systems." Introduction of the Nash-Healey 1951 saw the introduction of the Anglo-American Nash-Healey sports car, a collaborative effort between George Mason and British sports car manufacturer Donald Healey. Healey designed and built the chassis and suspension and also, until 1952, the aluminum body which another British manufacturer, Panelcraft Sheet Metal Co. Ltd., fabricated in Birmingham West Midlands. Nash shipped the powertrain components to England and Healey assembled the cars, which were then shipped to the U.S. for sale. In 1952 the Italian designer Battista Farina restyled the body, and its construction changed to steel and aluminum. High costs, low sales and Nash's focus on the Rambler line led to the termination of Nash-Healey production in 1954 after 506 automobiles had been produced. The Nash-Healey, while a welcome attempt to improve Nash's stodgy image, did little to improve showroom traffic as Nash sales fell steadily from 1951 onward. The Airflyte had initially sold well in the postwar "seller's" market, but its bulbous styling, rooted in 1940s design trends, quickly became passe and its underpowered six cylinder engine proved a major liability against GM's new OHV short stroke V8s. Like fellow independents Hudson, Studebaker, and Packard, Nash charged higher prices for their cars than Ford and GM, who benefitted from volume of scale, and lacked the large dealer network or advertising budget of the Big Three. Low profit Rambler sales gradually made up more and more of Nash's total volume. In 1953-54, Ford and GM also waged an all-out price war on each other which further damaged the independents' sales. Mainline Nashes also lacked body styles; despite the introduction of a hardtop coupe in 1952, there was no convertible or station wagon although Rambler featured all of these. In addition, while Nash had profited from military contracts during the Korean War, that conflict ended in mid-1953. At the same time, new Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson, ex-GM president, began steering defense contracts to his former employer at the expense of the rest of the automotive industry. Mason commissioned Farina to design a Rambler-based two-seater coupe called the Palm Beach, which may have been intended as a successor to the Nash-Healey. However the project did not progress beyond a concept car. For European endurance racing Healey and his staff designed and built three special Nash-Healeys with lightweight aluminum racing bodies. These competition versions entered four consecutive Le Mans races and one Mille Miglia. At Le Mans they achieved fourth overall in 1950, sixth overall and fourth in class in 1951, third overall and first in class in 1952, and eleventh overall in 1953. In the Mille Miglia they finished ninth overall in 1950 and seventh overall, fourth in class, in 1952. Creation of American Motors In January 1954, Nash announced the acquisition of the Hudson Motor Car Company as a friendly merger, creating American Motors Corporation (AMC). To improve the financial performance of the combined companies, all production beginning with the 1955 Nash and Hudson models would happen at Nash's Kenosha plant. Nash would focus most of its marketing resources on its smaller Rambler models, and Hudson would focus its marketing efforts on its full-sized cars. One of the first things Mason did as CEO of the new company was to initiate talks with James J. Nance, president of Packard, for parts-sharing arrangements between AMC and Packard. At this time AMC did not have its own V8 engine and an agreement was made for the new Packard V8 engine and Packard's Ultramatic automatic transmission to be used in the 1955 Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet models. In July 1954, Packard acquired Studebaker to form Studebaker-Packard Corporation, however further talks of a merger between AMC and Packard-Studebaker were cut short when Mason died on October 8, 1954. A week after his death, Mason's successor, George W. Romney, announced "there are no mergers under way either directly or indirectly". Nevertheless, Romney continued with Mason's commitment to buy components from Studebaker-Packard Corporation. Although Mason and Nance had previously agreed that Studebaker-Packard would purchase parts from AMC, it did not do so. Moreover, Packard's engines and transmissions were comparatively expensive, so AMC began development of its own V8 engine, and replaced the outsourced unit by mid-1956. For 1955, all the large Nash and Hudson automobiles were based on a Nash-derived, shared common unitized body shell using styling themes by Pinin Farina, Edmund E. Anderson, and Frank Spring. Each had individual powertrains and separate, non-interchangeable body parts. This mimicked the longtime practice Big Three (General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler) that allowed for maximum manufacturing economy. Anderson set up separate design studios for Nash, Hudson, and Rambler. Also for 1955, George Romney quickly moved to get rid of the unpopular front fender skirts on Nashes and Ramblers, which were widely disliked by customers due to the difficulty they created when steering the cars and changing tires, and reportedly retained due to the insistence of George Mason, who liked the appearance of them. Even with the merger forming AMC, they were held to a total of about four percent of the market and thus were under pressure to lower expenses and tooling costs for new models, perhaps by innovation. The Nash Metropolitan, which had been marketed under either the Nash or Hudson brands, became a make unto its own in 1957, as did the Rambler. By this point, Rambler sales made up the vast majority of AMC's volume, so George Romney decided to phase out the Nash and Hudson nameplates and focus solely on Rambler. This move would pay off the following year when an economic recession struck the United States and created a strong demand for economical compact cars. Nash and Hudson production ended with the last Hornet made on June 25, 1957. From 1958 to 1962, Rambler and the Metropolitan were the only brands of cars sold by AMC. By 1965 the Rambler name would begin to be phased out and AMC would take over as the brand name until the 1988 model year. In 1970, American Motors acquired Kaiser Jeep (the descendant of Willys-Overland Motors) and its Toledo, Ohio, based manufacturing facilities. In 1979, AMC entered into a technology partnership with Renault. In 1987, Chrysler Corporation made a public offering to acquire all shares of AMC on the NYSE. The shareholders approved the offer and AMC became a division of Chrysler Corporation. International markets Since the early days, Nash vehicles were exported as complete cars or in knock-down kit form for local assembly to many countries around the world including right-hand-drive markets such as United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. International production for both the Nash and Hudson marques was consolidated after the merger of Nash and Hudson to form American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1954 after which operations thereafter occurring at the former Nash plant in Kenosha and at the Brampton plant in Canada until 1957 when both the Nash and Hudson marques were retired. Australia A number of distributors for each of the Australian states built and sold Nash vehicles beginning in the 1920s. As was the practice for all car brands during the early 20th Century, the chassis and engines were imported and the bodies were locally built by Australian coach builders. Early distributors were Wilsford Limited for New South Wales, Richards Brothers for Victoria and the Riverina, Peels Limited for Queensland, Eric Madren Motors (later Nash Cars (W.A) Limited) for Western Australia, and Northern Motors for Tasmania. The recovery period following the end of World War II saw a lull in car manufacturing, petrol rationing, and currency shortages. Despite these factors, some cars were imported in the late 1940s. After the Nash-Hudson merger in 1954, AMC's new Rambler vehicles were assembled by Ira L. & A.C Berk Pty Ltd which had previously held the Hudson franchise since 1939. The Nash Metropolitan was not sold in Australia. AMC made a new deal with Port Melbourne vehicle assembler Australian Motor Industries (AMI) in 1960 to build AMC vehicles from knock-down kits, production of which ran from 1961 until 1976. AMI eventually became Toyota Australia. New Zealand From 1935 Nash motor vehicles were assembled in New Zealand by Christchurch company Motor Assemblies Limited. The plant also made Studebaker and Standard vehicles and was acquired by Standard Motors in 1954, after which production went to Auckland company VW Motors at their Volkswagen plant in Otahuhu, Auckland until 1962. New Zealand saw the Nash Ramblers and the British-built, right-hand-drive Nash Metropolitan. In 1963 AMC struck a deal with Thames company Campbell Motors to build a new vehicle assembly plant for AMC vehicles which began production in 1964. Renamed Campbell Motor Industries (CMI) the plant built Rambler vehicles from knock-down kits until 1971. CMI eventually became Toyota New Zealand. South Africa Following World War II, Nash motor vehicles were assembled in South Africa by a newly built assembly operation in East London Car Distributors and Assemblers (CDA.) The plant also built Packard, Renault, and Standard motor vehicles. CDA was eventually taken over, firstly by Chrysler, and finally by Peugeot. United Kingdom Nash vehicles were imported into the United Kingdom by London company Nash Concessionaires. After 1961 Rambler imports switched to the former U.K Hudson operation in Chiswick which was accordingly renamed Rambler Motors (A.M.C.) Limited. AMC's deal with Austin for the production of the Nash Metropolitan was independent of the Chiswick Rambler operation. Gallery Nash automobile brands LaFayette Ajax Rambler Nash-Healey Jeffery Nash automobiles Nash 600 Nash Statesman Ambassador Metropolitan Nash-Healey - cooperation with Donald Healy, assembled in the UK and Italy Nash Rambler Rambler Motorsport Like most American manufacturers of the fifties, Nash was a participant in the Grand National Stock Car series. See also Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp, Nash built many of these during WWII. Chrysler Corporation American Motors Corporation References Inline General External links Nash Car Club Nash Healy History The Nordic Nash Register Allpar "Nash Engines" by Jim Dworschack and Jerry Knutsen Car manufacturers of the United States Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States American Motors Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Wisconsin Kenosha, Wisconsin 1910s cars 1920s cars 1930s cars 1940s cars 1950s cars Defunct manufacturing companies based in Wisconsin Former components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average 1916 establishments in Wisconsin 1954 disestablishments in Wisconsin Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1916 Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1954 Defunct brands Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash
Nash
Nash or NASH may refer to: Places United Kingdom Nash, Buckinghamshire Nash, London, a hamlet near Keston in the London Borough of Bromley Nash, Newport, Wales Nash, south Shropshire, a small village and parish in southern Shropshire Nash, Telford and Wrekin, a "lost" village near Wrockwardine, Shropshire Nash Lee, Buckinghamshire Nash Mills, Hertfordshire Nash Point, a headland in the Vale of Glamorgan United States Nash, California, former name of Nashmead Nash, North Dakota Nash, Oklahoma Nash, Texas Nash County, North Carolina Nashville, Tennessee, United States, nicknamed "Nash Vegas" Other places Nash, Iran People Surname Nash (surname) Given name or nickname Nash Aguas (born 1998), Filipino actor Nash Buckingham (1880–1971), American author and conservationist Nash Candelaria (born 1928), American novelist Nash Edgerton (born 1973), Australian film director and stuntman Nash Grose (1740–1814), British judge Nash Higgins (1896–1984), American football player and coach Nash Kato (born 1965) Nash Rawiller (born 1974), Australian jockey Nash Roberts (1918–2010), American meteorologist Nash Turner (1881–1937), American jockey Nash Winstead (1925–2008), American university administrator Stage name or assumed name Nash the Slash (1948–2014), Canadian rock musician Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional characters Nash, the Japanese name of Street Fighter character Charlie Nash Brennan, a character from the television soap One Life to Live Nash Bridges, a character on the eponymous American television show Nash Gorey, a character from M.A.S.K. Nash Latkje, a character from Genso Suikogaidejkkn Vol.1 and Suikoden III Ellie Nash, a character from Degrassi: The Next Generation Russell Nash, a character in the film Highlander Nash, a roadside diner waitress from the 1986 film The Hitcher Harrison "Nash" Wells, a character from The Flash Other arts, entertainment, and media NASH (band), former name of the Spanish boy band D'NASH Nash (brand), an American country music media brand owned by Cumulus Media Nash (sculpture), a 1978–1979 outdoor work by Lee Kelly in Portland, Oregon, US Hex (board game) or Nash, a board game played on hexagonal tiles Brands and enterprises Automobiles Makes and models Frazer Nash, manufactured by Frazer-Nash Limited, later called AFN Limited Nash Metropolitan Nash-Healey Manufacturers Frazer-Nash Research, an electric and hybrid vehicle company Nash Ambassador Nash Kelvinator Nash Motors Other brands and enterprises Nash & Thompson, an aircraft equipment manufacturer Nash Format, a publishing house based in Kyiv, Ukraine Medicine Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, a liver disease Science and mathematics Gamma2 Sagittarii, a star also known as Nash Nash bargaining game, two-person bargaining problem studies Nash embedding theorems, stating that every Riemannian manifold can be isometrically embedded into some Euclidean space Nash equilibrium, a game theory solution Sodium hydrosulfide (NaSH) Other uses Nash (tugboat) North Allegheny Senior High, a high school in Wexford, Pennsylvania, US See also Gnash (disambiguation) Justice Nash (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem%20%28Verdi%29
Requiem (Verdi)
The Messa da Requiem is a musical setting of the Catholic funeral mass (Requiem) for four soloists, double choir and orchestra by Giuseppe Verdi. It was composed in memory of Alessandro Manzoni, whom Verdi admired. The first performance, at the San Marco church in Milan on 22 May 1874, marked the first anniversary of Manzoni's death. The work was at one time referred to as the Manzoni Requiem. Considered too operatic to be performed in a liturgical setting, it is usually given in concert form of around 90 minutes in length. Musicologist David Rosen calls it "probably the most frequently performed major choral work composed since the compilation of Mozart's Requiem". Composition history After Gioachino Rossini's death in 1868, Verdi suggested that a number of Italian composers collaborate on a Requiem in Rossini's honor. He began the effort by submitting the concluding movement, the "Libera me". During the next year a Messa per Rossini was compiled by Verdi and twelve other famous Italian composers of the time. The premiere was scheduled for 13 November 1869, the first anniversary of Rossini's death. However, on 4 November, nine days before the premiere, the organising committee abandoned it. Verdi blamed this on the scheduled conductor, Angelo Mariani. He pointed to Mariani's lack of enthusiasm for the project, even though he had been part of the organising committee from the start, and it marked the beginning of the end of their friendship. The composition remained unperformed until 1988, when Helmuth Rilling premiered the complete Messa per Rossini in Stuttgart, Germany. In the meantime, Verdi kept toying with his "Libera me", frustrated that the combined commemoration of Rossini's life would not be performed in his lifetime. On 22 May 1873, the Italian writer and humanist Alessandro Manzoni, whom Verdi had admired all his adult life and met in 1868, died. Upon hearing of his death, Verdi resolved to complete a Requiem—this time entirely of his own writing—for Manzoni. Verdi traveled to Paris in June, where he commenced work on the Requiem, giving it the form we know today. It included a revised version of the "Libera me" originally composed for Rossini. Performance history 19th century The Requiem was first performed in the church of San Marco in Milan on 22 May 1874, the first anniversary of Manzoni's death. Verdi himself conducted, and the four soloists were Teresa Stolz (soprano), Maria Waldmann (mezzo-soprano), Giuseppe Capponi (tenor) and (bass). As Aida, Amneris and Ramfis respectively, Stolz, Waldmann, and Maini had all sung in the European premiere of Aida in 1872, and Capponi was also intended to sing the role of Radames at that premiere but was replaced due to illness. Teresa Stolz went on to a brilliant career, Waldmann retired very young in 1875, but the male singers appear to have faded into obscurity. Also, Teresa Stolz was engaged to Angelo Mariani in 1869, but she later left him. The Requiem was repeated at La Scala three days later on 25 May with the same soloists and Verdi again conducting. It won immediate contemporary success, although not everywhere. It received seven performances at the Opéra-Comique in Paris, but the new Royal Albert Hall in London could not be filled for such a Catholic occasion. In Venice, impressive Byzantine ecclesiastical decor was designed for the occasion of the performance. It later disappeared from the standard choral repertoire, but made a reappearance in the 1930s and is now regularly performed and a staple of many choral societies. The playwright and music critic George Bernard Shaw was a great admirer of the work from its first London performance, and had the "Libera me" played at his funeral. 20th century and beyond The Requiem was reportedly performed approximately 16 times between 1943 and 1944 by prisoners in the concentration camp of Theresienstadt (also known as Terezín) under the direction of Rafael Schächter. The performances were presented under the auspices of the , a cultural organization in the Ghetto. Since the 1990s, commemorations in the US and Europe have included memorial performances of the Requiem in honor of the Terezín performances. On the heels of previous performances held at the Terezín Memorial, Murry Sidlin performed the Requiem in Terezin in 2006 and rehearsed the choir in the same basement where the original inmates reportedly rehearsed. Part of the Prague Spring Festival, two children of survivors sang in the choir with their parents sitting in the audience. The Requiem has been staged in a variety of ways several times in recent years. Achim Freyer created a production for the Deutsche Oper Berlin in 2006 that was revived in 2007, 2011 and 2013. In Freyer's staging, the four sung roles, "Der Weiße Engel" (The White Angel), "Der Tod-ist-die-Frau" (Death is the Woman), "Einsam" (Solitude), and "Der Beladene" (The Load Bearer) are complemented by choreographed allegorical characters. In 2011, Oper Köln premiered a full staging by Clemens Bechtel where the four main characters were shown in different life and death situations: the Fukushima nuclear disaster, a Turkish writer in prison, a young woman with bulimia, and an aid worker in Africa. In 2021, the New York Metropolitan Opera performed the Requiem for the 20th anniversary of the September 11 attacks. Versions and arrangements For a Paris performance, Verdi revised the "Liber scriptus" to allow Maria Waldmann a further solo for future performances. Previously, the movement had been set for a choral fugue in a classical Baroque style. With its premiere at the Royal Albert Hall performance in May 1875, this revision became the definitive edition that has been most performed since and the original fugue now survives only in early published vocal scores. Versions accompanied by four pianos or brass band were also performed. Franz Liszt transcribed the Agnus Dei for solo piano (S. 437). It has been recorded by Leslie Howard. Sections 1. Requiem Introit (chorus) Kyrie (soloists, chorus) 2. Dies irae Dies irae (chorus) Tuba mirum (chorus) Mors stupebit (bass) Liber scriptus (mezzo-soprano, chorus – chorus only in original version) Quid sum miser (soprano, mezzo-soprano, tenor) Rex tremendae (soloists, chorus) Recordare (soprano, mezzo-soprano) Ingemisco (tenor) Confutatis maledictis (bass, chorus) Lacrymosa (soloists, chorus) 3. Offertory Domine Jesu Christe (soloists) Hostias (soloists) 4. Sanctus (double chorus) 5. Agnus Dei (soprano, mezzo-soprano, chorus) 6. Lux aeterna (mezzo-soprano, tenor, bass) 7. Libera me (soprano, chorus) Libera me Dies irae Requiem aeternam Libera me Music Throughout the work, Verdi uses vigorous rhythms, sublime melodies, and dramatic contrasts—much as he did in his operas—to express the powerful emotions engendered by the text. The terrifying (and instantly recognizable) "Dies irae" that introduces the traditional sequence of the Latin funeral rite is repeated throughout. Trumpets surround the stage to produce a call to judgement in the "Tuba mirum", and the almost oppressive atmosphere of the "Rex tremendae" creates a sense of unworthiness before the King of Tremendous Majesty. Yet the well-known tenor solo "Ingemisco" radiates hope for the sinner who asks for the Lord's mercy. The "Sanctus" (a complicated eight-part fugue scored for double chorus) begins with a brassy fanfare to announce him "who comes in the name of the Lord". Finally the "Libera me", the oldest music by Verdi in the Requiem, interrupts. Here the soprano cries out, begging, "Deliver me, Lord, from eternal death ... when you will come to judge the world by fire." When the Requiem was composed, female singers were not permitted to perform in Catholic Church rituals (such as a requiem mass). However, from the beginning Verdi intended to use female singers in the work. In his open letter proposing the Requiem project (when it was still conceived as a multi-author Requiem for Rossini), Verdi wrote: "If I were in the good graces of the Holy FatherPope Pius IXI would beg him to permit—if only for this one time—that women take part in the performance of this music; but since I am not, it will fall to someone else better suited to obtain this decree." In the event, when Verdi composed the Requiem alone, two of the four soloists were sopranos, and the chorus included female voices. This may have slowed the work's acceptance in Italy. At the time of its premiere, the Requiem was criticized by some as being too operatic in style for the religious subject matter. According to Gundula Kreuzer, "Most critics did perceive a schism between the religious text (with all its musical implications) and Verdi's setting." Some viewed it negatively as "an opera in ecclesiastical robes", or alternatively, as a religious work, but one in "dubious musical costume". While the majority of critics agreed that the music was "dramatic", some felt that such treatment of the text was appropriate, or at least permissible. As to the quality of the music, the critical consensus agreed that the work displayed "fluent invention, beautiful sound effects and charming vocal writing". Critics were divided between praise and condemnation with respect to Verdi's willingness to break standard compositional rules for musical effect, such as his use of consecutive fifths. Instrumentation The work is scored for the following orchestra: woodwind: 3 flutes (3rd doubling piccolo), 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 4 bassoons brass: 4 horns, 8 trumpets (4 offstage), 3 trombones, ophicleide percussion: timpani, bass drum strings: violins I, II, violas, violoncellos, double basses. Recordings References Notes Sources Further reading Kennedy, Michael (2006), The Oxford Dictionary of Music. Verdi, Giuseppe; (Ed., Marco Uvietta, 2014) Messa da requiem. Critical edition. Kassel: Bärenreiter. External links Digitised copy of Verdi's Messa Da Requiem published by Ricordi in Milan 1874, from National Library of Scotland. Live Recording of Liber Scriptus portion of Requiem (Mary Gayle Greene, mezzo-soprano) Compositions by Giuseppe Verdi Verdi 1874 compositions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20United%20States%20railway%20history
Timeline of United States railway history
The Timeline of U.S.A Railway History depends upon the definition of a railway, as follows: A means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. 1795-1829 1795–96 & 1799–1804 or '05 — In 1795, Charles Bulfinch, the architect of Boston's famed State House first employed a temporary funicular railway with specially designed dumper cars to decapitate 'the Tremont's' Beacon Hill summit and begin the decades long land reclamation projects which created most of the real estate in Boston's lower elevations of today from broad mud flats, such as South Boston, Eastern parts of Dorchester, much of the shorelines of the entire Charles River basin on both the left and right banks and Brighton from mud flats, and most famously and tellingly especially the Back Bay.<ref name=BackBay>William A. Newman, Wilfred E. Holton, , Northeastern University Press, Boston,</ref> 1815-1820s One interpretation of historical documents indicates the same equipment was used for a longer, more ambitious period to level and effectively remove 'The Tremont', Copely, Cope's, and Beacon Hills again into what became Boston's Back Bay. These moves were far from completing the project, photos in the 1850s and recent scholarship show the majority of the Back Bay was still tidewater. A warming pot, 1810s–1830s 1800–1825 Various inventors and entrepreneurs make suggestions about building model railways in the United States. Around Coalbrookdale in the United Kingdom, mining railways become increasingly common. An early steam locomotive is given a test run in 1804, but is then wrecked carelessly. For unknown reasons, the inventor does not rebuild it for nearly two decades. 1809 Scottsman quarry owner Thomas Leiper, in 1809 when denied a charter to build a canal along the Crum Creek from his quarry to the docks in the tidewater, commissions a short temporary railroad test track in the yard of the Bull's Head Tavern in Philadelphia. The track had a grade of one inch and a half to the yard, with a 4% grade to test whether a horse could successfully pull against the slope. 1810–1829 The Leiper Railroad was a short horse drawn railroad of three quarters of a mile opens in 1810 after the quarry owner, Thomas Leiper, failed to obtain a charter with legal rights-of-way to instead build his desired canal along Crum Creek. The quarry man's 'make-do' railroad solution was the continent's first chartered railway, first operational non-temporary railway, first well documented railroad, and first constructed railroad also meant to be permanent. It was perhaps the only railroad replaced by a canal, and also one of the first to close, and of those, perhaps is alone in reopening again in 1858. 1825-1832 Inspired by the speedy success of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (1825) in England's railway historical record, capitalists in the United States — already embarking upon great public works infrastructure projects to connect the new territories of the United States with the older seaboard cities industries by the canals of America's Canal Age, almost overnight began dreaming up projects using railroads — a technology in its infancy, but one employing steam engines which were rapidly becoming widely known from their successful use on steamboats. American Steam engine pioneers were willing to experiment with Heat Engines using higher pressures than the mainly Atmospheric engines still fashionable in Great Britain. The rest of the world lagged the two English speaking nations. Railroads began to be proposed where canals wouldn't do, or would be too costly and with an increase in rolling stock tonnage capacity, locomotive power, and a growing confidence born of experience and new materials in less than three decades, the United States generally would discard canals as the principal design choice in favor of far more capable freight haulage technologies. 1825 American John Stevens (inventor), builds a test track and runs a locomotive around it in his summer home estate, Hoboken, New Jersey. This partially settles the tractive power questions, showing that on level track, metal on metal wheels can provide tractive effort and pull a load. The ability for any engine to do so on a grade is still widely doubted in the press and minds of potential investors (pubs, clubs, boardrooms, etc.), while the minds of many potential investors were well aware that most railroads in the capital poor United States would have to surmount significant grades to be useful technology. And while news from Europe was delayed 4–8 weeks, well connected Americans were aware in general of United Kingdom news coverage's and to a lesser extent, that of continental European developments. In consequence, the 1825 success of the Stockton and Darlington Railway only gradually eroded the three-way nay-sayer beliefs that the careful expensive gentle engineered grades extant in the early British railways was impracticable in most cases in America and that such grades were necessary since steel on iron rails would not provide traction on hills, were it possible to build an locomotive engine powerful enough to surmount such grades. In each case, it would take experience and success against such over at least several months before the misconceptions fell into disdain. 1826: The industrial animal powered Granite Railroad opens in Quincy, Massachusetts, to convey quarried granite for the Bunker Hill monument. It later becomes a common carrier railroad. 1827: Taking advantage of seasonal freezing of the Lehigh Canal, and with pre-planning and materials preparation in advance, the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company (LC&N) converts their 1818–19 built uniformly graded wagon road into a gravity railroad in just four months of construction.<ref name=Hazard> </ref> The resultant Summit Hill & Mauch Chunk Railroad, where mules rode special cars down as well after the coal hoppers, then returned empties up the nine mile return trip became the first U.S. railway to carry passengers in the same year of 1827. In less than two years the railway was attracting so many visitors, it began charging fares, and then added and operated special tourism excursions on Sunday as a tourist road — which role it carried into 1932 as the world's acknowledged first roller coaster. In 1847 the cable railway return track was constructed with planes climbing two prominences along Pisgah Ridge, shortening the up trip to twenty minutes from nearly four hours by mule. 1830s The Baltimore and Ohio is incorporated in 1827 and officially opens in 1830. Other railroads soon follow, including the Camden and Amboy by 1832. August 8, 1829: The Stourbridge Lion, first steam locomotive imported into the US, is tested along tracks built by the Delaware and Hudson company. Deemed too heavy for the company's rails, it and its three brethren are converted to stationary engines for cable railway parts of the transportation system. 1830 ushers in a flurry of railroad incorporations, charter applications, grants and beginnings of construction. The B&O opens its first stretch to Ellicott's Mills and begins regular scheduled passenger services on schedule, May 24, 1830. 1830 the Beaver Meadows Railroad from Beaver Meadows, Pennsylvania, is incorporated and constructed to open a second major coal field to the Lehigh Canal at Parryville beyond the Lehigh Gap. This would form the seed company of the first class Lehigh Valley Railroad after the 1870s. 1831 The DeWitt Clinton locomotive, built by the West Point Foundry in New York for the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, made its first test run on July 2, 1831. 1830s–1860s: Enormous railway building booms in the United States. The mill owners of Lowell and New Hampshire launch the Boston and Lowell Railroad to parallel the historic Middlesex Canal, which had enabled their mills success; this is the first direct attack rail companies mounted against canal interests. Railroads gradually replace canals as the first-choice mode of transportation infrastructure to champion and build, while canals hold a whip hand on economy for decades more, but falter on flexible destinations, speed, and where they suffer seasonal stoppages yet service year round needs. By the 1860s, in any case, where all the important older canals were to be found any canal with functions satisfiable by parallel railways (excepting by definition, ship canals) is eyed by investors to be supplanted by a competing railroad. The idea of a rail network in the US, which is by then showing early signs some areas have overbuilt in the Eastern United States is still not a common business model. Cut throat competitive capitalism, not co-operation are the rule, and the decade kicks off the forty years or so of the robber barons and excesses in capitalism. 1850-1900 1854 Indianapolis' Union Station, the first "union station" in the world, opened by the Terre Haute & Richmond, Madison & Indianapolis, and Bellefontaine railroads. 1862 Chattanooga The Great Locomotive Chase, in which Union raiders led by James J. Andrews commandeered a 4-4-0 American locomotive, "The General" and attempted to sabotage Confederate tracks, telegraph lines, and bridges to prevent Confederate troops from moving by rail to Chattanooga. 1865: George Pullman becomes well known for luxury sleeping cars, called Pullman cars in his honor, after he loaned one of his cars to be in the funeral train of Abraham Lincoln from Chicago to Springfield, IL. 1869: Union Pacific and Central Pacific complete first transcontinental railway link at Promontory Summit. 1869: George Westinghouse establishes the Westinghouse Air Brake Company. 1870s: Railroads begin to install automatic block signals which improve safety, allow faster train speeds, and allow more efficient utilization of trackage. 1870s and 1880s: Strikes break out against railroads and the Pullman Palace Car Company. Corporations hire Pinkerton guards to break up the strikes. Nonetheless, much violence occurs in the strikes. Many people were killed, buildings and rolling stock were burned, and reports of rioting shocked middle-class Americans. 1883: Standard time zones adopted by railroads. 1886: Many southern states convert from broad gauges such as to standard gauge . (See also Broad gauge#United States.) 1887: Congress creates the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroads and ensure fair prices. 1891: Webb C. Ball establishes first Railway Watch official guidelines for railroad chronometers. 1893: Railroad Safety Appliance Act requires air brakes and automatic couplers on all trains, which greatly reduces railroad worker injuries and deaths. 1896: Supreme Court rules in United States v. Gettysburg Electric Ry. Co. that the Takings Clause under eminent domain could be applied for historic preservation 1900-1970 1901: Nine locomotive manufacturing companies are combined in a merger to form the American Locomotive Company (ALCO). 1902: 20th Century Limited inaugurated by the New York Central Railroad. 1910s: Pennsylvania Railroad builds Pennsylvania Station in New York City; New York Central builds current version of Grand Central Terminal. 1911: The Delaware Lackawanna and Western Railroad completes the Lackawanna Cut-Off in Northwestern New Jersey and Northeastern Pennsylvania. 1916: US railroad trackage was , the highest in history. The trackage would increase to over 300,000 mi by the next decade. 1917: President Woodrow Wilson orders nationalization of the railroads shortly after the US enters World War I. The United States Railroad Administration manages the system until 1920, when Congress returns control to the railroad companies. 1920s and 1930s: Automobiles, airplanes and the Great Depression contribute to a decline in railroad ridership and mileage. 1926: Congress passes the Railway Labor Act to settle disputes and avoid strikes (law amended in 1934 and 1936). 1934: Burlington railroad's Pioneer Zephyr completes its inaugural run from Denver, Colorado, to Chicago, Illinois, first diesel-powered streamliner in America. May 12, 1936: The Santa Fe railroad inaugurates the all-Pullman Super Chief between Chicago and Los Angeles. 1940s: World War II brings railroads the highest ridership in American history, as soldiers are being sent to fight overseas in the Pacific Theater and the European Theater. However, automobile travel causes ridership to decline after the war ends. March 20, 1949: The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad and Western Pacific Railroad jointly launch the California Zephyr between Chicago and San Francisco as the first passenger train to include Vista Dome cars in regular service. 1950s and 1960s: Drastic decline in passenger travel in the United States, due to automobiles and also airplanes, as first jetliners take to the air. Railroads respond through mergers and attempts to shed unprofitable trains and rail routes. The speed of these efforts is reduced through the difficulties of Interstate Commerce Commission hearings. 1957: The Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway is absorbed into its parent road the Louisville & Nashville Railroad. December 1, 1959: ICC approved Virginian Railway merger into Norfolk & Western begins modern-day period of railroad mergers and consolidation. July 1, 1967: Rivals Atlantic Coast Line and Seaboard Air Line merge to form Seaboard Coast Line after 9 years of negotiations and ICC hearings. August 1, 1967: UAC TurboTrain maiden voyage. December 3, 1967: 20th Century Limited makes last run. February 1968: Pennsylvania Railroad and New York Central merge to form Penn Central. The New Haven was added in 1969. 1970-present 1970s: Era of deregulation. March 1, 1970 Burlington Northern is created with the consolidation of the *Chicago Burlington & Quincy, Great Northern, Northern Pacific and Spokane Portland & Seattle railroads. March 22, 1970: The California Zephyr, on its last run, arrives in Oakland, California, from Chicago; the train name will soon be resurrected by Amtrak on a train travelling almost the same route as the original train. June 21, 1970 the Penn Central files for Chapter 7 bankruptcy, becoming the largest corporate failure up to that time in US history. 1971: Amtrak created by act of Congress to assume and operate a national network of passenger trains from private railroads after years of dropping ridership and massive deficits force railroads to drop passenger service and ask for government help. March 1972: the Gulf Mobile & Ohio is merged into the Illinois Central, forming the Illinois Central Gulf. 1970s: Conrail is created from the remains of the bankrupt Penn Central, Erie Lackawanna, Central of New Jersey, Reading and Lehigh Valley Railroads in the Northeast, beginning operations April 1, 1976. 1970s and 1980s: Amtrak introduces double-deck Superliner rolling stock. Auto-Train Corporation begins running as independent line (1971), but fails in 1981; In 1983, Amtrak revives service and runs slightly renamed "Auto Train" as one of its more-heavily promoted lines. 1977: Amtrak carried 19.2 million passengers an average of 226 miles. 1980: Railroads deregulated by Congress by Staggers Rail Act of 1980. March 1, 1980, the Rock Island ceases operations after bankruptcy liquidation. September 15, 1981: The John Bull becomes the oldest operable steam locomotive in the world when it runs under its own power inside Washington, DC. 1981: Union Pacific 3985 is restored to operating condition, making it the largest operable steam locomotive in the world. July 1, 1982, Norfolk & Western and Southern Railway merge to form Norfolk Southern. January 1, 1986: The Milwaukee Road is merged into the Soo Line Railroad in the largest railroad bankruptcy proceedings to date. July 1, 1986, Seaboard System and Chessie System merge to form CSX Transportation corp. 1990s: Amtrak funding comes under heavier scrutiny by Congress, while Amtrak creates new trains such as the Talgo and the Acela Express. 1995: ICC abolished; Congress creates Surface Transportation Board to assume the remaining regulatory functions. 1997–99: Conrail assets sold to Norfolk Southern Railway and CSX Transportation. September 11, 2001: Terrorists destroy World Trade Center in New York and destroy part of the PATH system in the process. Full PATH service resumed November 23, 2003. 2015: Total rail traffic declined 2.5 percent to 28 million carloads. Coal remains the largest volume, at 5.1 million carloads. Coal volume fell 12 percent in 2015, as natural gas replaces coal and electricity plants. The lower volume allowed better service and faster speed, but low fuel prices are giving an advantage to trucking. 2021: Moynihan Train Hall opens in New York City, partially replacing New York Penn Station. Notes See also History of rail transport in the United States Oldest railroads in North America Timeline of railway history Timeline of transportation technology References Further reading Chandler, Alfred D., ed. (1987). The Railroads: The Nation's First Big Business – Sources and Readings. Arno Press. . Deverell, William (1994). Railroad Crossing: Californians and the Railroad, 1850–1910. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press). . Ducker, James H. (1982). Men of the steel rails: Workers on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 1869–1900. Fish, Carl Russell (1917). "The Northern Railroads, April, 1861," The American Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Jul., 1917), pp. 778–793 ; old but still valuable Frey, Robert J. (1988). Railroads of the Nineteenth Century. Volume 2 of "Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography." (New York: Facts on File). 490pp. . Grant, H. Roger. Railroads and the American People (2012) excerpt and text search Hayes, Derek. Historical atlas of the North American railroad (2010); 400 historical maps Hubbard, Freeman H. (1981). Encyclopedia of North American railroading: 150 years of railroading in the United States and Canada. (New York: McGraw-Hill). . Jenks, Leland H. (1944). "Railroads as an Economic Force in American Development," The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 4, No. 1 (May, 1944), 1-20. . Kirkland, Edward Chase (1948). Men, Cities and Transportation, A Study of New England History 1820–1900. (2 vol.) Harvard University Press. Klein, Maury (1997). The Life and Legend of Jay Gould Johns Hopkins University Press. . Klein, Maury (2000). The Life & Legend of E. H. Harriman (2000) University of North Carolina Press. . Online edition. Marrs, Aaron W. Railroads in the Old South: Pursuing Progress in a Slave Society (2009) excerpt and text search Martin, Albro. James J. Hill and the Opening of the Northwest (1990) excerpt and text search Martin, Albro. Railroads Triumphant: The Growth, Rejection, and Rebirth of a Vital American Force (1992) excerpt and text search; wide-ranging overview Meyer, Balthasar H. History of Transportation in the United States before 1860 (1917) online Middleton, William D. ed. (2007). Encyclopedia of North American Railroads. Indiana University Press. . Miner, Craig. A Most Magnificent Machine: America Adopts the Railroad, 1825–1862 (University Press of Kansas; 2010) 325 pages; Documents the enthusiasm that accompanied the advent of the railroad system Nice, David C. Amtrak: The History and Politics of a National Railroad (1998) online edition Nock, O.S., ed. Encyclopedia of Railways (London, 1977), worldwide coverage, heavily illustrated Riegel, Robert Edgar. The Story of the Western Railroads 1926 online edition Riley, C. J. The Encyclopedia of Trains & Locomotives (2002) Saunders, Richard. Main lines: Rebirth of the North American railroads, 1970–2002 (Northern Illinois University Press, 2003). Stover, John. The Routledge Historical Atlas of the American Railroads (2001) Stover, John. History of the Illinois Central Railroad (1975) Stover, John. Iron Road to the West: American Railroads in the 1850s (1978) Turner, George E. Victory rode the rails: the strategic place of the railroads in the Civil War (1953) Ward, James Arthur. J. Edgar Thomson: master of the Pennsylvania (1980) 265 pages Ward, James A. "Power and Accountability on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 1846–1878." Business History Review 1975 49(1): 37–59. in JSTOR White, Richard. Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (2011) excerpt and text search Wolmar, Christian. The Great Railroad Revolution: The History of Trains in America (2012), survey to 2012; emphasis on 19th century; 448pp excerpt and text search Video Railroads in U.S. History (1830–2010) (2010), set of 4 DVDs, directed by Ron Meyer; #1, "Railroads come to America (1830 - 1840);" #2, "The First Great Railroad Boom (1841- 1860)"; #3, "A New Era in American Railroading (1861 - 1870)," #4, "The Second Great Railroad Boom (1871 - 2010)" link External links "Railroad History" Bibliography by Richard Jensen, Montana State University-Billings Railway History of rail transportation in the United States United States United States economic history-related lists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal%20Reorganization%20Act
Postal Reorganization Act
The Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 was a law passed by the United States Congress that abolished the then United States Post Office Department, which was a part of the Cabinet, and created the United States Postal Service, a corporation-like independent agency authorized by the US government as an official service for the delivery of mail in the United States. President Richard Nixon signed the Act in law on August 12, 1970. The legislation was a direct outcome of the U.S. postal strike of 1970. Prior to the act, postal workers were not permitted by law to engage in collective bargaining. In the act, the four major postal unions (National Association of Letter Carriers, American Postal Workers Union, National Postal Mail Handlers Union, and the National Rural Letter Carriers Association) won full collective bargaining rights: the right to negotiate on wages, benefits and working conditions, although they still were not allowed the right to strike. The first paragraph of the act reads: The Postal Reorganization Act (at 39 USC 410(c)(2)) exempts the USPS from Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) disclosure of "information of a commercial nature, including trade secrets, whether or not obtained from a person outside the Postal Service, which under good business practice would not be publicly disclosed". See also Post Office Act of 1872 Postal Service Act United States Postal Service References External links The Postal Reorganization Act (original statute) 1970 in law United States federal postal legislation
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254047
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linati%20schema%20for%20Ulysses
Linati schema for Ulysses
This schema, or explanatory outline for the novel Ulysses was produced by its author, James Joyce in 1920 in order to help a friend (Carlo Linati) understand the fundamental structure of the book. The schema has been split into two tables for better ease of reading. See also Gilbert schema for Ulysses Notes References External links Internet Ulysses Ulysses (novel)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn%20Crosbie
Lynn Crosbie
Lynn Crosbie (born 7 August 1963) is a Canadian poet and novelist. She teaches at the University of Toronto. Life and career Crosbie was born in Montreal, Quebec, and now lives in Toronto, Ontario. She received her PhD in English from the University of Toronto, writing her PhD thesis on the work of the American poet Anne Sexton. She has taught at York, U f T, Guelph, and OCAD universities, and has taught shorter classes/workshops at Rutgers, Workman, Sistering, Flying Books And more. In 1997, Insomniac Press published her controversial book on the Canadian criminal Paul Bernardo, Paul's Case. In 2006, Crosbie published a book-length poem titled Liar, available through House of Anansi Press. Liar is a personal work that deals with the end of her seven-year relationship with the professional wrestling fan Michael Holmes, author of the poetry book Parts Unknown. Her long relationship with the writer Tony Burgess is chronicled in Pearl (1996). Crosbie is a cultural critic, and the author of several books of poetry including Miss Pamela's Mercy, Corpses of the Future, and Missing Children. Crosbie has lectured on and written about visual art at the AGO, the Power Plant, the McMichael Gallery, the Oakville Gallery, and OCAD University (where she taught for six years.) She is a journalist with who has a regular column titled "Pop Rocks" in the Toronto newspaper The Globe and Mail and was a regular contributor to Toronto Life Fashion. Her Trampoline Hall Lecture was entitled "Don't Have Casual Sex". Her book Life Is About Losing Everything, a roman à clef/fictional memoir, was released in April 2012 by House of Anansi. The book won the 2013 ReLit Award in the fiction category. Her novel Where Did You Sleep Last Night was published in 2015 from House of Anansi. It was shortlisted for Ontario's Trillium Award. Her 2018 novel Chicken was optioned by filmmaker Bruce McDonald. Bibliography Miss Pamela's Mercy (Coach House, 1992) The Girl Wants To: Women's Representations of Sex and the Body (Coach House, 1993) (as editor) Villainelle (Coach House, 1994) Pearl (House of Anansi, 1995) Paul's Case (Insomniac Press, 1997) Click: Becoming Feminists (MacFarlane, Walter & Ross, 1997) (as editor) Queen Rat: New and Selected Poems (House of Anansi, 1998) Dorothy L'Amour (HarperCollins, 1999) Phoebe 2002: An Essay in Verse (Turtle Point, 2003) (with Jeffery Conway and David Trinidad) Missing Children (McClelland & Stewart, 2003) Liar (House of Anansi, 2006) Life Is About Losing Everything (House of Anansi, 2012) Where Did You Sleep Last Night? (2015) Chicken (House of Anansi, 2018) See also Canadian literature Canadian poetry List of Canadian poets List of Canadian writers References External links Lynn Crosbie archives at the Clara Thomas Archives and Special Collections, York University Libraries, Toronto, Ontario Lynn Crosbie 1963 births Living people Anglophone Quebec people Canadian women non-fiction writers Canadian women novelists Canadian women poets Canadian columnists Journalists from Montreal University of Toronto alumni Women columnists Writers from Montreal Canadian women journalists University of Toronto faculty 20th-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian novelists 20th-century Canadian poets 21st-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian women writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorna%20Crozier
Lorna Crozier
Lorna Crozier (born 24 May 1948) is a Canadian poet who holds the Head Chair in the Writing Department at the University of Victoria. She has authored fifteen books and was named an Officer of the Order of Canada in 2011. She is credited as Lorna Uher on some of her earlier books. Life Crozier was born in Swift Current, Saskatchewan in 1948. Crozier attended the University of Saskatchewan where she received her B.A. in 1969, and the University of Alberta where she received her M.A. in 1980. Before publishing her poems and stories, Crozier was a high school English teacher and guidance counsellor. During these years, her first poem was published in Grain magazine. She also taught creative writing at the Banff School of Fine Arts, the Saskatchewan Summer School of the Arts, and the Sechelt Summer Writing Festival. Crozier has served as the writer-in-residence at the Cypress Hills Community College in 1983, the Regina Public Library, and the University of Toronto in 1989. Crozier has authored fifteen books of work, which typically focus on human relationships, the natural world, language, memory, and perception. Alongside partner Patrick Lane, Crozier has co-authored No Longer Two People (1979), and co-edited Breathing Fire: Canada's New Poets (1995) and Breathing Fire 2 (2004). A book review from The Globe and Mail by Jacqueline Baker on Crozier's book, Small Beneath the Sky: A Prairie Memoir, emphasized Crozier's prairie roots, and gave positive feedback on this memoir. In an interview with Joseph Planta of THECOMMENTARY.ca regarding the same book, she reveals the alcohol and poverty that surrounded her as a child. Although she grew up with a fairly difficult childhood, Crozier took her past and turned it into well renowned poetry. She has received a 1992 Governor General's Award, the Canadian Author's Association Award for Poetry, the National Magazine Award (Gold Medal), and first prize in the National CBC Literary Competition. Crozier received the University of Victoria's Distinguished Professors Award and the University of Regina presented her with an honorary Doctorate of Law in 2004. Crozier has given various benefit readings for organizations such as the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Wintergreen Studios, The Land Conservancy of British Columbia, the Victoria READ Society, and PEERS, a group devoted to getting prostitutes off the streets. She has read her poetry on every continent other than Antarctica, and on 19 May 2005 Crozier recited a poem for Queen Elizabeth II as part of Saskatchewan's Centennial Celebration. In 2009 she was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and in 2011 Crozier became an Officer of the Order of Canada. Her memoir Through the Garden: A Love Story (with Cats) was shortlisted for the 2020 Hilary Weston Writers' Trust Prize for Nonfiction. Poetry Inside Is the Sky – 1976 (as Lorna Uher) Crow's Black Joy – 1979 (as Lorna Uher) Humans and Other Beasts – 1980 (as Lorna Uher) No Longer Two People: A Series of Poems (with Patrick Lane) – 1981 The Weather – 1983 The Garden Going on Without Us – 1985 (nominated for a Governor General's Award) Angels of Flesh, Angels of Silence – 1988 (nominated for a Governor General's Award) Inventing the Hawk – 1992 (winner of the Governor General's Award for Poetry and the Pat Lowther Award) Everything Arrives at the Light – 1995 (winner of the Pat Lowther Award) A Saving Grace: Collected Poems – 1996 What the Living Won't Let Go – 1999 Apocrypha of Light – 2002 Bones in Their Wings: Ghazals – 2003 Whetstone – 2005 Before the First Word: The Poetry of Lorna Crozier (selected by Catherine Hunter) – 2005 The Blue Hour of the Day: Selected Poems – 2007 Small Mechanics – 2011 (nominated for the Pat Lowther Award) The Wrong Cat – 2015 (winner of the Pat Lowther Award) The Wild in You: Voices from the Forest and the Sea (with photographs by Ian McAllister) – 2015 What the Soul Doesn't Want – 2017 God of Shadows – 2018 The House the Spirit Builds (with photographs by Peter Coffman and Diane Laundy) – 2019 Anthologies A Sudden Radiance (with Gary Hyland) – 1987 Breathing Fire (with Patrick Lane) – 1995 Desire in Seven Voices – 2000 Addicted: Notes from the Belly of the Beast (with Patrick Lane) – 2001 Breathing Fire 2 (with Patrick Lane) – 2004 The Best Canadian Poetry in English 2010 – 2010 Non-fiction Small Beneath the Sky – 2009 The Book of Marvels: A Compendium of Everyday Things – 2012 (nominated for the Pat Lowther Award) Through the Garden: A Love Story (with Cats) – 2020 References 1948 births Living people 20th-century Canadian poets 21st-century Canadian poets University of Saskatchewan alumni Governor General's Award-winning poets University of Victoria faculty People from Swift Current Canadian women poets Canadian non-fiction writers 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian women writers Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada Canadian women non-fiction writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motocross
Motocross
Motocross is a form of off-road motorcycle racing held on enclosed off-road circuits. The sport evolved from motorcycle trials competitions held in the United Kingdom. History Motocross first evolved in Britain from motorcycle trials competitions, such as the Auto-Cycle Clubs's first quarterly trial in 1909 and the Scottish Six Days Trial that began in 1912. When organisers dispensed with delicate balancing and strict scoring of trials in favour of a race to become the fastest rider to the finish, the activity became known as "hare scrambles", said to have originated in the phrase, "a rare old scramble" describing one such early race. Though known as scrambles racing (or just scrambles) in the United Kingdom, the sport grew in popularity and the competitions became known internationally as "motocross racing", by combining the French word for motorcycle, motocyclette, or moto for short, into a portmanteau with "cross country". The first known scramble race took place at Camberley, Surrey in 1924. During the 1930s the sport grew in popularity, especially in Britain where teams from the Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA), Norton, Matchless, Rudge, and AJS competed in the events. Off-road bikes from that era differed little from those used on the street. The intense competition over rugged terrain led to technical improvements in motorcycles. Rigid frames gave way to suspensions by the early 1930s, and swinging fork rear suspension appeared by the early 1950s, several years before manufacturers incorporated it in the majority of production street bikes. The period after World War II was dominated by BSA, which had become the largest motorcycle company in the world. BSA riders dominated international competitions throughout the 1940s. In 1952 the FIM, motorcycling's international governing body, set up an individual European Championship using a 500 cc engine displacement formula. In 1957 it was upgraded to World Championship status. In 1962 a 250 cc world championship was established. In the smaller 250 cc category companies with two-stroke motorcycles came into their own. Companies such as Husqvarna from Sweden, CZ from the former Czechoslovakia, Bultaco from Spain and Greeves from England became popular due to their lightness and agility. Stars of the day included BSA-works riders Jeff Smith and Arthur Lampkin, with Dave Bickers, Joe Johnson and Norman Brown on Greeves. By the 1960s, advances in two-stroke engine technology meant that the heavier, four-stroke machines were relegated to niche competitions. Riders from Belgium and Sweden began to dominate the sport during this period. Motocross arrived in the United States in 1966 when Swedish champion, Torsten Hallman rode an exhibition event against the top American TT riders at the Corriganville Movie Ranch also known as Hopetown in Simi Valley, California. The following year Hallman was joined by other motocross stars including Roger DeCoster, Joël Robert, and Dave Bickers. They dominated the event, placing their lightweight two-strokes into the top six finishing positions. A motorcycle sales boom in the United States fueled by the Baby Boomer generation, helped to spark a growth in the popularity of motocross among young Americans. Japanese motorcycle manufacturers began challenging the European factories for supremacy in the motocross world by the late 1960s. Suzuki claimed the first world championship for a Japanese factory when Joël Robert won the 1970 250 cc crown. The first stadium motocross event took place in 1972 at the Los Angeles Coliseum, and was promoted by Mike Goodwin and Terry Tiernan, then-president of the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA). The event was won by 16-year-old Marty Tripes. This event paved the way for constructed, stadium-based motocross events known as Supercross. In 1975, a 125 cc world championship was introduced. European riders continued to dominate motocross throughout the 1970s but, by the 1980s, American riders had caught up and began winning international competitions. From the late 1970s to early 1990s, Japanese motorcycle manufacturers presided over a boom period in motocross technology. The typical air-cooled two-strokes with twin-shock rear suspension and telescopic front forks gave way to machines that were water-cooled and fitted with single-shock absorber rear suspension and "upside-down" (or inverted) front forks. Although the advancement of two-stroke engine technology was the primary focus of the major Japanese motorcycle manufacturers well into the mid 1990s, a rekindled interest in engineering a competitive, lightweight four-stroke motocross race bike was expressed among several brands, including Yamaha Motor Corporation. To further inspire the research and development of four-stroke motocross racing technology, the American Motorcyclist Association, America's leading motorcycle sport governing body, increased the allowable displacement limit for four-stroke powered machines in the 125 and 250 AMA Supercross and Motocross championships. Due to the low relative power output of a four-stroke engine compared to the then-dominating two-stroke design, the displacement limit of a four-stroke power motocross bike was raised to 250cc in the 125 class and 550cc in the 250 class. The new regulations resulted in competitors aboard four-strokes made by smaller European manufacturers, with Husqvarna, Husaberg, and KTM winning world championships on four-stroke machinery. In 1997, Yamaha unveiled a prototype 400cc four-stroke motorcycle, the YZM 400, which was debuted in the FIM Motocross World Championship. The motorcycle made its U.S. debut in 1997, where Yamaha Factory Racing rider Doug Henry led every lap of the main event at the 1997 AMA Supercross Finale and became the first person to win an AMA Supercross race on a four-stroke powered motorcycle. Following Yamaha's release of the production model YZ400F in 1998, Henry won the 250 AMA Motocross Championship and became the first person to win a major AMA Motocross title on a four-stroke powered motorcycle. This success motivated the remaining major manufacturers, Honda, Kawasaki, and Suzuki, to develop their own four-stroke motocross race bikes. By 2006, every manufacturer had begun competing with four-stroke machines in the AMA 125 (FIM MX2) and 250 (MX1) classes. The sport has further evolved into a sub-discipline similar to supercross known as arenacross, which is held in small indoor arenas. Classes were also formed for all-terrain vehicles. Freestyle motocross (FMX) events where riders are judged on their jumping and aerial acrobatic skills have gained popularity, as has supermoto, where motocross machines race both on tarmac and off-road. Vintage motocross (VMX) events take place – usually for motorcycles predating the 1975 model year. Many VMX races also include a "Post Vintage" portion, which usually includes bikes dating until 1983. Major competitions FIM Motocross World Championship The FIM Grand Prix Motocross World Championship is predominantly held in Europe, but also includes events in North America, South America, Asia, Australia, and Africa. It is the major Motocross series worldwide. There are three classes: MXGP for 450cc machines, MX2 for 250cc machines, and Women's MX. Competitions consist of two races which are called motos with a duration of 30 minutes plus two laps. AMA Motocross Championship The AMA Motocross Championship begins in mid May and continues until late August. The championship consists of twelve rounds at twelve major tracks all over the continental United States. There are three classes: the 250cc Motocross Class for 150–250 cc 4-stroke machines, the 450cc Motocross Class for 251–450 cc 4-stroke machines and a 250cc Women's Class, using the same rules as men's 250cc. Race events take place over two motos of 30 minutes plus two laps each. Motocross des Nations The annual Motocross des Nations is held at the end of the year when National and World Championship series have ended. The competition involves teams of three riders representing their nations. Each rider competes in a different class (MX1, MX2, and "Open"). There are three motos with two classes competing per moto. The location of the event changes from year to year. The United States, Belgium and Great Britain have had the greatest success. British Motocross Championship Th British Motocross Championship is the main UK off-road competition and organised into classes of MX1 and MX2. MX1 is for 250  cc to 450 cc (fourstroke) and MX2 for 175 cc to 250 cc fourstroke motorcycles. In 2007 an additional youth class, the MXY2 class, was added to the programme at selected rounds. A "Veterans" series was introduced in 2009 with just two rounds but the demand for places was so high that from 2011 the Veterans series will have three rounds, held over six races. Sports derived from motocross A number of other types of motorcycle sport have been derived from Motocross. Supercross Supercross is a cycle racing sport involving specialized high-performance off-road motorcycles on constructed dirt tracks with steep jumps and obstacles. Compared to regular motocross, supercross tracks generally have much shorter straights and tighter turns. Professional supercross races, held as the AMA Supercross Championship in the United States are held almost exclusively in professional baseball and football stadiums. The supercross season takes place during the winter and spring months, with races in a different city every weekend. There are 17 races in the AMA Supercross Championship schedule, normally beginning in Anaheim, California, and ending in Las Vegas, Nevada. The 250 cc class is split into two series, east and west. The 450 cc class has one large series with events across the US and Canada. In 2022 the World Supercross Championship was demerged from the AMA Supercross Championship, to be held as a standalone series once more. The series previously ran from 2003 to 2008. Supercross events are also held in Australia, known as the Australian Supercross Championship promoted by Motorcycling Australia. Along with the SX Open held in Auckland, New Zealand, the country's biggest event the Aus X-Open forms part of the Oceania Supercross Championship. Freestyle Freestyle Motocross (FMX), a relatively new variation of supercross started by the South African champion, Marco Urzi, does not involve racing and instead it concentrates on performing acrobatic stunts while jumping motocross bikes. The winner is chosen by a group of judges. The riders are scored on style, level of trick difficulty, best use of the course, and frequently, crowd reactions. FMX was introduced to the X Games and mainstream audiences in 1999. SuperMoto Supermoto uses motocross bikes converted for racing on tracks consisting of three sections: flat dirt, dirt obstacles, and paved road. The bikes have special road-racing tires with grooved tread to grip both the pavement and dirt. Some tracks for these race events have jumps, berms, and whoops like motocross tracks. For special events, the Supermoto track may incorporate metal ramps for jumps that can be disassembled and taken to other locations. Supermoto races may take place at modified go-kart tracks, road racing tracks, or even street racing tracks. There are also classes for children, such as the 85 cc class. Supermoto began in the US the late 1970s when TV journalist Gavin Trippe envisioned a racing event that would prove who the best motorcycle racer was. From 1980 to 1985, he organized a yearly event called "The Superbikers", which pitted the top riders from three disciplines, flat track, road racing, and motocross against one another on modified bikes raced on special tracks on the television show. Its first exposure to a wide audience came on the American television program ABC's Wide World of Sports in 1979. After 1985, the sport declined and received little exposure in the US, but in Europe, it started gaining popularity, and in 2003 it was revived in the US, when the name became Supermoto. ATV/Quad Motocross Throughout the United States and the United Kingdom there are many quad racing clubs with enduro and quadcross sections. GNCC Racing began around 1980 and includes hare scramble and enduro type races. To date, events are mainly held in the eastern part of the United States. GNCC racing features many types of obstacles such as, hill climbing, creek and log crossings, dirt roads and wooded trails. The ATV National Motocross Championship was formed around 1985. ATVMX events are hosted at motocross racetracks throughout the United States. ATVMX consists of several groups, including the Pro (AMA Pro) and Amateur (ATVA) series. Championship mud racing (CMR) saw its infancy in 2006 as leaders of the ATV industry recognized a need for uniformity of classes and rules of various local mud bog events. Providing standardized rules created the need for a governing body that both racers and event promoters could turn to and CMR was born. Once unified, a true points series was established and lead to a national championship for what was once nothing more than a hobby for most. In 2007 the finalized board of directors was established and the first races were held in 2008. Currently, the CMR schedule includes eight competition dates spanning from March to November. Points are awarded throughout the season in several different competition classes of ATV and SxS Mud Racing. The 2008 year included Mud Bog and Mudda-Cross competitions, but the 2009 and future seasons will only have Mudda-Cross competitions. Classes range from 0 to 499 cc, to a Super-Modified class which will allow any size ATV in competition. Sidecarcross Sidecar racing, known as Sidecarcross has been around since the 1950s but has declined in popularity since the mid‑1980s. This variant is common in Europe, with a few followers in the United States, New Zealand, and Australia. The premier competition, the Sidecarcross World Championship, is contested on European tracks only and almost exclusively by Europeans. Motocross sidecars are purpose built frames that resemble an ordinary motocross-cycle with a flat platform to stand on attached to either side and a handlebar at waist height to hold on to. The side of the "chair" (slang for the platform) usually follows the side of the road the nation in question drives upon, but not always. The passenger balances the bike by being a counterweight, especially in corners and on jumps. It is driven on ordinary crosstracks. It is very physically demanding, especially for the passenger. This is reflected in most in the Swedish term for passenger, burkslav, roughly translated as trunk/barrel-slave. This name comes from the early sidecars which resembled road motorcycle sidecars and not today's platform. The major frame builders today are VMC, BSU, AYR, EML and Woodenleg. Ordinary engines can be used, but size matters and two engines purpose built for sidecars exist, Zabel (Germany) and MTH (Austria) are most common. Four-strokes are becoming more common, usually KTM (Austria). Pit bikes and mini-motocross Pit bikes are small motorbikes that participants in powersports events use to ride around the pits, which are the staging areas where team support vehicles are located. More recently, they have been used in races held on either supercross or motocross tracks. Numerous performance and aesthetic upgrades are often applied to pit bikes. Originally, there was only one way to acquire a pit bike. A rider would buy a child's minibike, usually a Honda CRF110 or Kawasaki KLX110, and apply all the necessary upgrades and modifications to build a competitive pit bike. Of course, a rider could also buy a used bike. Since 2004, manufacturers like Thumpstar have begun designing, manufacturing, importing, and selling already complete pit bikes. These bikes are less expensive, and require less time to complete. Pit bikes are powered by 4-stroke, horizontal, single-cylinder engines ranging anywhere in displacement from 49 cc to 195 cc. A typical pit bike is usually a small dirt bike, but it has become common to be able to buy pit bikes with street-style wheels and tires. Pit bikes with street tires, as opposed to knobby tires, are used in Mini Supermoto Racing. Pit bikes are frequently heavily customized with decorative add-ons and performance-enhancing parts. Many riders and mechanics bore-out or replace engines in order to increase displacement and therefore power output. Heavy duty suspension systems are often a necessary addition, since the stock mini-bike suspension was designed for a small child. Wheel, brake, and tire upgrades are sometimes performed to improve handling. Pit bikes also have their own separate competitions held with classes generally corresponding to wheel size. This is a notable difference from Motocross and Supercross competition, where classes are separated by engine displacement. Pit bike racing is a relatively new niche of motocross, and as such, there is no official governing body similar to the AMA. Equipment Motocross motorcycle Major manufactures Minor TM (Italy), TM holds the largest market share for motocross bikes, outside the major seven. Fantic (Italy),well known for there models XX and XXF that are the same as the YZ and the YZF from Yamaha but with changes in esthetic and motorparts. Niche market manufactures Chinese manufacturers Manufacturers that have ceased production Governing bodies Motocross is governed worldwide by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM), with federations in many nations. Australia – Motorcycling Australia (MA) Austria – Osterreichische Automobil, Motorrad und Touring Club (OAMTC) Belgium – Federation Motocycliste de Belgique (FMB) Brazil – Confederação Brasileira de Motociclismo (CBM) Canada – Canadian Motorsport Racing Corp.(CMRC) and Canadian Motorcycle Association (CMA) Czech Republic – Autoklub České republiky (ACCR) Denmark – Danmarks Motor Union (DMU) Estonia – Eesti Motorrattaspordi Föderatsioon (EMF) Finland – Suomen Moottoriliitto (SML) France – Fédération Française de Motocyclisme (FFM) Germany – Deutscher Motor Sport Bund (DMSB) India – Federation of Motor Sports Clubs of India (FMSCI) Ireland – Motorcycle Union of Ireland (MCUI) – NB covers the whole island Italy – Federazione Motociclistica Italiana (FMI) Latvia – Latvijas Motosporta Federācija (LaMSF) Lithuania – Lietuvos Motociklų Sporto Federacija (LMSF) The Netherlands – Koninklijke Nederlandse Motorrijdersvereniging (KNMV), Motorsport Organisatie Nederland (MON) New Zealand – Motorcycling New Zealand (MNZ) and New Zealand Dirt Bike Federation Norway – Norges Motorsportforbund (NMF) Poland – Polski Związek Motorowy (PZM) Portugal – Federação Motociclismo Portugal (FMP) Russia – Motorcycle Federation of Russia (MFR) South Africa – Motorsport South Africa (MSA) Spain – Real Federación Motociclista Española (RFME) Slovenia – Auto-Cycle Union of Slovenia (AMZS) Sweden – SVEMO Switzerland – Federation Motocycliste Suisse (FMS) Thailand – Federation of Motor Sport Clubs of Thailand (FMSCT) United Kingdom – Auto-Cycle Union (ACU), with other separate bodies like the Amateur Motorcycling Association (AMCA), ORPA, BSMA, and YSMA. United States – American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) See also Outline of motorcycles and motorcycling FIM Motocross World Championship List of AMA Motocross Champions Beach racing Wonder Warthog Racing Bicycle Motocross (BMX) References External links Official FIM World Motocross Championship Visual Interpretation of the Dirt Bike Evolution Timeline Motorcycle racing by type Off-road racing Dirt biking Sports originating in the United Kingdom Games and sports introduced in 1924
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumor
Rumor
[[File:WPA-Rumor-Poster.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The 1930s Works Progress Administration poster depicts a man with WPA shovel attacking a wolf labeled 'rumor.]] A rumor (American English), or rumour (British English; see spelling differences; derived from Latin: 'rumorem' - noise), is "a tall tale of explanations of events circulating from person to person and pertaining to an object, event, or issue in public concern." In the social sciences, a rumor involves a form of a statement whose veracity is not quickly or ever confirmed. In addition, some scholars have identified rumor as a subset of propaganda. Sociology, psychology, and communication studies have widely varying definitions of rumor. Rumors are also often discussed with regard to misinformation and disinformation (the former often seen as simply false and the latter seen as deliberately false, though usually from a government source given to the media or a foreign government). Early work French and German social science research on rumor locates the modern scholarly definition of it to the pioneering work of the German William Stern in 1902. Stern experimented on rumor involving a "chain of subjects" who passed a story from "mouth to ear" without the right to repeat or explain it. He found that the story was shortened and changed by the time it reached the end of the chain. His student was another pioneer in the field, Gordon Allport. The experiment is similar to the children's game Chinese whispers. A Psychology of Rumor (1944) "A Psychology of Rumor" was published by in 1944, in which he reports on his analysis of over one thousand rumors during World War II that were printed in the Boston Herald'''s "Rumor Clinic" Column. He defines rumor as <blockquote> a proposition for belief of topical reference disseminated without official verification. So formidably defined, rumor is but a special case of informal social communications, including myth, legend, and current humor. From myth and legend it is distinguished by its emphasis on the topical. Where humor is designed to provoke laughter, rumor begs for belief. </blockquote> Knapp identified three basic characteristics that apply to rumor: they're transmitted by word of mouth; they provide "information" about a "person, happening, or condition"; and they express and gratify "the emotional needs of the community." Crucial to this definition and its characteristics is the emphasis on transmission (word of mouth, which then was heard and reported in the newspaper); on content ("topical" means that it can somehow be distinguished from trivial and private subjects—its domain is public issues); and on reception ("emotional needs of the community" suggests that though it is received by an individual from an individual, it is not comprehended in individual but community or social terms). Based on his study of the newspaper column, Knapp divided those rumors into three types: Pipe dream rumors: reflect public desires and wished-for outcomes (e.g. Japan's oil reserves were low and thus World War II would soon end). Bogie or fear rumors reflect feared outcomes (e.g. An enemy surprise attack is imminent). Wedge-driving rumors intend to undermine group loyalty or interpersonal relations (e.g. American Catholics were seeking to avoid the draft; German-Americans, Italian-Americans, Japanese-Americans were not loyal to the American side). Knapp also found that negative rumors were more likely to be disseminated than positive rumors. These types also differentiate between positive (pipe dream) and negative (bogie and wedge-driving) rumors. The Psychology of Rumor (1947) In the 1947 study, The Psychology of Rumor, Gordon Allport and Leo Postman concluded that, "as rumor travels it [...] grows shorter, more concise, more easily grasped and told." This conclusion was based on a test of message diffusion between persons, which found that about 70% of details in a message were lost in the first 5-6 mouth-to-mouth transmissions. In the experiment, a test subject was shown an illustration and given time to look it over. They were then asked to describe the scene from memory to a second test subject. This second test subject was then asked to describe the scene to a third, and so forth and so on. Each person's reproduction was recorded. This process was repeated with different illustrations with very different settings and contents. Allport and Postman used three terms to describe the movement of rumor. They are: leveling, sharpening, and assimilation. Leveling refers to the loss of detail during the transmission process; sharpening to the selection of certain details of which to transmit; and assimilation to a distortion in the transmission of information as a result of subconscious motivations. Assimilation was observed when test subjects described the illustrations as they ought to be but not as they actually were. For example, in an illustration depicting a battle-scene, test subjects often incorrectly reported an ambulance truck in the background of the illustration as carrying "medical supplies," when, in fact, it was clearly carrying boxes marked "TNT (102)." Social Cognition In 2004, Prashant Bordia and Nicholas DiFonzo published their Problem Solving in Social Interactions on the Internet: Rumor As Social Cognition and found that rumor transmission is probably reflective of a "collective explanation process." This conclusion was based on an analysis of archived message board discussions in which the statements were coded and analysed. It was found that 29% (the majority) of statements within these discussions could be coded as "sense-making" statements, which involved, "[...] attempts at solving a problem." It was noted that the rest of the discussion was constructed around these statements, further reinforcing the idea of collective problem solving. The researchers also found that each rumor went through a four-stage pattern of development in which a rumor was introduced for discussion, information was volunteered and discussed, and finally a resolution was drawn or interest was lost. For the study, archived discussions concerning rumors on the internet and other computer networks such as BITnet were retrieved. As a rule, each discussion had a minimum of five statements posted over a period of at least two days. The statements were then coded as being one of the following: prudent, apprehensive, authenticating, interrogatory, providing information, belief, disbelief, sense-making, digressive, or un-codable. Each rumor discussion was then analysed based on this coding system. A similar coding system based on statistical analysis was applied to each discussion as a whole, and the aforementioned four-stage pattern of rumor discussion emerged. There are four components of managing rumors that both of you need to understand for the sake of your relationship’s success. The first, anxiety (situational and personality), is when people who either have a more anxious personality, or people who are in an anxiety- lifting situation are more likely to create rumors in order to relieve some of their insecurities. The second component of managing rumors is ambiguity. Ambiguity is when someone is not sure about what is going on, so they end up assuming the worst. The third component is information importance. . Information is key, and if that information is not juicy or if it does not interest people, there won’t be rumors, but information can often be false. Information can also be ambiguous. The last component of managing rumors is credibility.''' Rumors are often spread by sources that are not credible. A rumor itself is not credible unless it is proven to be true. That is why people say to never trust the tabloids. Political Communication Strategy Rumor has always played a major role in politics, with negative rumors about an opponent typically more effective than positive rumors about one's own side. In the past, much research on rumor came from psychological approaches (as the discussion of Allport and DiFonzio demonstrates above). The focus was especially on how statements of questionable veracity (absolutely false to the ears of some listeners) circulated orally from person to person. Scholarly attention to political rumors is at least as old as Aristotle's Rhetoric; however, not until recently has any sustained attention and conceptual development been directed at political uses of rumor, outside of its role in war situations. Almost no work had been done until recently on how different forms of media and particular cultural-historical conditions may facilitate a rumor's diffusion. The Internet's recent appearance as a new media technology has shown ever new possibilities for the fast diffusion of rumor, as the debunking sites such as snopes.com, urbanlegend.com, and factcheck.org demonstrate. Nor had previous research taken into consideration the particular form or style of deliberately chosen rumors for political purposes in particular circumstances (even though significant attention to the power of rumor for mass-media-diffused war propaganda has been in vogue since World War I; see Lasswell 1927). In the early part of the 21st century, some legal scholars have attended to political uses of rumor, though their conceptualization of it remains social psychological and their solutions to it as public problem are from a legal scholarly perspective, largely having to do with libel and privacy laws and the damage to personal reputations. Working within political communication studies, in 2006, Jayson Harsin(reprinted in Michael Ryan (ed.). 2008. Cultural Studies: An Anthology. London: Blackwell. introduced the concept of the "rumor bomb" as a response to the widespread empirical phenomenon of rumoresque communication in contemporary relations between media and politics, especially within the complex convergence of multiple forms of media, from cell phones and internet, to radio, TV, and print. Harsin starts with the widespread definition of rumor as a claim whose truthfulness is in doubt and which often has no clear source even if its ideological or partisan origins and intents are clear. He then treats it as a particular rhetorical strategy in current contexts of media and politics in many societies. For Harsin a "rumor bomb" extends the definition of rumor into a political communication concept with the following features: A crisis of verification. - A crisis of verification is perhaps the most salient and politically dangerous aspect of rumor. Berenson (1952) defines rumor as a kind of persuasive message involving a proposition that lacks 'secure standards of evidence' (Pendleton 1998). A context of public uncertainty or anxiety about a political group, figure, or cause, which the rumor bomb overcomes or transfers onto an opponent. A clearly partisan even if an anonymous source (e.g. "an unnamed advisor to the president"), which seeks to profit politically from the rumor bomb’s diffusion. A rapid diffusion via highly developed electronically mediated societies where news travels fast. In addition, Harsin locates the "rumor bomb" within other communication genres, such as disinformation (intentional false information) and propaganda, as rumor has been viewed by others. However, he distinguishes it from these concepts as well, since disinformation is often too associated with government, and propaganda is attempts to control opinion without regard for ethics and accuracy of statement. Similarly, "spin" is a generic term for strategic political communication that attempts to frame or re-frame an event or a statement in a way that is politically profitable for one side and detrimental to another, though at its core it may simply be a red herring (Bennett 2003, p. 130). In addition, a "smear campaign" is a term that loosely means a coordinated effort to attack a person's character. Unlike a "smear campaign," rumor bombs need not be about discrediting a person (as is the case, for example, in claims about Iraq and 9/11 or weapons of mass destruction moved to Syria). "Spin" also specifically refers to an event and its re-framing. Rumor bombs may seek to produce events themselves. A rumor bomb can be seen as having some characteristics of these general concepts, but rumor bombs happen in very particular cultural and historical conditions. They are not about mouth-to-ear interpersonal rumors as much rumor research has been interested in. They begin in a rapport between deliberate "disinformers" and media, whether TV news, talk shows, newspapers, radio, or websites. They then circulate across these media, perhaps but not necessarily resulting in interpersonal mouth-to-ear rumor diffusion.(see more recent developments of the concept and case studies in "Diffusing the Rumor John Kerry is French, i.e. Haughty, Cowardly, Foppish, Socialist and Gay," in R. Given and S. Soule eds. The Diffusion of Social Movements, New York: Cambridge University Press (2010) Harsin distinguishes the rumor bomb from other more general concepts of rumor by emphasizing changes in politics, media technology, and culture''. According to Harsin, rumor in politics has always existed, but recent changes have created an environment ripe for a new kind of political rumor: a new media "convergence culture" where information produced on the internet can influence the production of media content in other forms; new media technologies and business values that emphasize speed and circulation that combine with entertainment values in news, political marketing, and public craving of tabloid news that mirrors other entertainment genres. Rumors of affairs, of "weapons of mass destruction" and their alleged removal to other countries"John Kerry is French," Obama is a Muslim, John McCain had an illegitimate black child—all of these involve statements whose veracity is in question or that are simply false. Other statements may have an ambiguous nature that makes them potentially appealing to different audiences who may interpret them in particular ways and circulate them. Harsin builds on rumor research that has emphasized social cognition and diffusion of propaganda. He extends Prashant and Difonzio's work in particular, since they attempt to distinguish rumor from gossip, in that rumor is supposedly about public issues and gossip is about private, trivial things. The emergence of infotainment and tabloidization in especially American and British news has broken that distinction, since politics is now just as much about bringing the private into the public view, as was clear with the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal. Strategic Communication Similar to their appearance and function in political communication, wherein rumors can be deployed for specific deleterious effect (rumor bomb) or can otherwise plague a candidate for office, rumors also play an important role in strategic communication. Strategic communication is the process of crafting messages in support of specific organizational goals, and is usually concerned with governments, militaries and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Adroit strategic communication requires an understanding of stories, trends and memes circulating within a culture. Rumors can be viewed as stories that seem rational but that are steeped into speculation, in connection with a certain narrative landscape (the vast array of cultural expression circulating within a community or region). In their book, Narrative Landmines: Rumors, Islamist Extremism and the Struggle for Strategic Influence, co-authors Daniel Bernardi, Pauline Hope Cheong, Chris Lundry and Scott W. Ruston coin the term narrative IED to help explain the function and danger of rumors in a strategic communication context. Rumors, as narrative IEDs, are low-cost, low-tech communication weapons that can be used by anyone to disrupt the efforts of communication, civil affairs or outreach campaigns such as those undertaken by governments in crisis response situations or militaries in insurgencies. As Bernardi notes, "Like their explosive cousins, rumors can be created and planted by nearly anybody, require limited resources to utilize, can be deadly for those in its direct path, and can instil fear". See also Apple community Blind item Snopes - website for checking the truth of rumors Pheme, a project addressing the detection and spread of rumors over social media Hoax Circular source Fake news References External links Spread of false information causes dangers Human communication Propaganda Urban legends
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-second%20rule
Five-second rule
The five-second rule, sometimes known as the three-second rule, is a food hygiene myth that states a defined time window where it is safe to pick up food (or sometimes cutlery) after it has been dropped and thus exposed to contamination. There appears to be no scientific consensus on the general applicability of the rule, and its origin is unclear. It probably originated succeeding germ theory in the late 19th century. The first known mention of the rule in print is in the 1995 novel Wanted: Rowing Coach. Research The five-second rule has received some scholarly attention. It has been studied as both a public health recommendation and a sociological effect. University of Illinois In 2003, Jillian Clarke of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign found in a survey that 56% of men and 70% of women surveyed, were familiar with the five-second rule. She also determined that a variety of foods were significantly contaminated by even brief exposure to a tile inoculated with E. coli. On the other hand, Clarke found no significant evidence of contamination on public flooring. For this work, Clarke received the 2004 Prize in public health. A more thorough study in 2006 using salmonella on wood, tiles, and nylon carpet, found that the bacteria were able to thrive under dry conditions even after twenty-eight days. Tested after eight hours of exposure, the bacteria were still able to contaminate bread and bologna in under five seconds. But a minute-long contact increased contamination about tenfold (especially tile and carpet surfaces). Rutgers University The researchers at the Rutgers University also debunked this theory by dropping watermelon cubes, Haribo strawberry gummies, plain white bread, and buttered bread from a height of on to the ground. The surfaces selected were slathered in Enterobacter aerogenes. The surfaces used were carpet, ceramic tile, stainless steel and wood. The food was left on the surface in intervals of 5, 30 and 300 seconds. The scientists assessed the amount of E. aerogenes transferred between surface and food. Since bacteria tended to be attracted to moisture, wet food had more risk to have bacteria transferred than dry food. To the surprise of the researchers, carpet transferred fewer bacteria than steel or tile. Wood was hard to pin down as it showed a large variation. "The five-second rule is a significant oversimplification of what actually happens when bacteria transfer from a surface to food," Donald Schaffner, a Rutgers University biologist and an author of the research, said in a statement in the Washington Post. "Bacteria can contaminate instantaneously." In culture The five-second rule was also featured in an episode of the Discovery Channel series MythBusters, which discovered that there was no significant difference in the number of bacteria collected. The aspects that affect the contamination process is the moisture, surface geometry and the location. Ted Allen put the rule to the test in an episode of Food Detectives, and found that bacteria will cling to food immediately. Vsauce, a YouTube channel, also dedicated a video to this topic. A 2006 study could not verify the "rule" and looked at tile, wood, and carpet floors. It indicated that bacteria can survive on the ground for a long time. A 2014 study, by biology students at Aston University in England, suggested that there may be a basis for the five-second rule. Anthony Hilton, head of microbiology at Aston University, indicated in 2017 that food dropped on a seemingly clean floor for a few moments can be eaten with minimal risk. A 2016 New York Times article states "You may think your floors are so clean you can eat off them, but a new study debunking the so-called five-second rule would suggest otherwise." In response, a pediatrician discounted the danger in consuming certain foods dropped onto floors. References American cultural conventions Fictional science Food safety Misconceptions Rules of thumb Applied microbiology
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254059
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handsfree
Handsfree
Handsfree is an adjective describing equipment that can be used without the use of hands (for example via voice commands) or, in a wider sense, equipment which needs only limited use of hands, or for which the controls are positioned so that the hands are able to occupy themselves with another task (such as driving) without needing to hunt far afield for the controls. Devices that are typically used for handsfree communication use Bluetooth as its wireless technology. They still require a smartphone or other device to initiate a call. These devices include Bluetooth headsets, hands-free car kits (HFCK), and personal navigation devices (PND). Originally introduced as optional features connected by a wire to smartphones or other communication devices, they now generally are available with wireless technology. Bluetooth handsfree options are now also easily found in any high end automotive as part of the vehicle's stereo system, or in after market stereo system units. This option utilizes the vehicle's speakers to transmit the caller's voice in the phone call and have an embedded microphone in the stereo unit itself, the steering wheel, or use a separate wired microphone that can be placed anywhere in the vehicle. Mobile phones Handsfree mobile phones are obligatory in many countries for use of a mobile phone while driving. However, studies have shown that even with a hands-free unit, the added distraction to the driver, and the increase in crash rates, are almost as substantial as when driving and talking on a normal mobile phone. In the United Kingdom, as of 2003, it is illegal to use a handheld mobile phone while driving. Similar laws have been adopted in many jurisdictions worldwide, and many make provisions for hands-free phone use. Installation of hands-free devices in the UK is governed by MPT 1362, which is now referred to as FCS 1362. A technical document created and updated by the Federation of Communication Services. In Australia, all states have banned the use of a mobile phone while driving unless it is used with a handsfree headset. Software technologies Since handsfree devices replace a phone's own speaker and microphone capability in a phone call, they now also must deal with the same issues that standard mobile phones and land phones deal with. The main acoustic issues are echo cancellation and noise suppression, although there are others as well. There have been many ways developed to cancel echo in phone calls and results range from poor to excellent. These acoustic technologies must also remove or reduce the noise levels so that the caller is well understood. A person making a call from a handsfree device who is in a busy restaurant or while driving will introduce large levels of noise into the call. This situation is complicated as the software must not only remove the noise around him, but must transmit his voice clearly and loudly to whoever is connected to him. The best software solutions combine both echo cancellation and noise cancellation into a single technology so that the caller has the freedom to use a handsfree device anywhere they please. Having an acoustic solution with only one feature will dramatically reduce its flexibility. See also Bluetooth Hands-free computing Smartglasses References Automotive technologies Traffic collisions
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254060
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20River
Minnesota River
The Minnesota River () is a tributary of the Mississippi River, approximately 332 miles (534 km) long, in the U.S. state of Minnesota. It drains a watershed of nearly , in Minnesota and about in South Dakota and Iowa. It rises in southwestern Minnesota, in Big Stone Lake on the Minnesota–South Dakota border just south of the Laurentian Divide at the Traverse Gap portage. It flows southeast to Mankato, then turns northeast. It joins the Mississippi at Mendota south of the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, near the historic Fort Snelling. The valley is one of several distinct regions of Minnesota. The name Minnesota comes from the Dakota language phrase, "Mnisota Makoce" which is translated to "land where the waters reflect the sky", as a reference to the many lakes in Minnesota rather than the cloudiness of the actual river. For over a century prior to the organization of the Minnesota Territory in 1849, the name St. Pierre (St. Peter) had been generally applied to the river by French and English explorers and writers. Minnesota River is shown on the 1757 edition of Mitchell Map as "Ouadebameniſsouté [Watpá Mnísota] or R. St. Peter". On June 19, 1852, acting upon a request from the Minnesota territorial legislature, the United States Congress decreed the aboriginal name for the river, Minnesota, to be the river’s official name and ordered all agencies of the federal government to use that name when referencing it. The valley that the Minnesota River flows in is up to five miles (8 km) wide and 250 feet (80 m) deep. It was carved into the landscape by the massive glacial River Warren between 11,700 and 9,400 years ago at the end of the last ice age in North America. Pierre-Charles Le Sueur was the first European known to have traveled along the river. The Minnesota Territory, and later the state, were named for the river. Commercial significance The river valley is notable as the origin and center of the canning industry in Minnesota. In 1903 Carson Nesbit Cosgrove, an entrepreneur in Le Sueur presided at the organizational meeting of the Minnesota Valley Canning Company (later renamed Green Giant). By 1930, the Minnesota River valley had emerged as one of the country's largest producers of sweet corn. Green Giant had five canneries in Minnesota in addition to the original facility in Le Sueur. Cosgrove's son, Edward, and grandson, Robert also served as heads of the company over the ensuing decades before the company was acquired by General Mills. Several docks for barges exist along the river. Farm grains, including corn, are transported to the ports of Minneapolis and Saint Paul, and then shipped down the Mississippi River. Tributaries Cities and towns See also List of Minnesota rivers List of crossings of the Minnesota River Minnesota Valley (disambiguation) Notes and references Sources Waters, Thomas F. (1977). The Streams and Rivers of Minnesota. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. . Place Names: the Minnesota River External links Drainage Area of the Minnesota River History of the Minnesota River Valley Minnesota River at Mankato - pictures and more information Minnesota River Basin Data Center - center at Minnesota State University, Mankato Regions of Minnesota Valleys of Minnesota Rivers of Minnesota Tributaries of the Mississippi River Rivers of Big Stone County, Minnesota Rivers of Blue Earth County, Minnesota Rivers of Brown County, Minnesota Rivers of Carver County, Minnesota Rivers of Chippewa County, Minnesota Rivers of Dakota County, Minnesota Rivers of Hennepin County, Minnesota Rivers of Lac qui Parle County, Minnesota Rivers of Le Sueur County, Minnesota Rivers of Nicollet County, Minnesota Rivers of Ramsey County, Minnesota Rivers of Redwood County, Minnesota Rivers of Renville County, Minnesota Rivers of Scott County, Minnesota Rivers of Sibley County, Minnesota Rivers of Swift County, Minnesota Rivers of Yellow Medicine County, Minnesota
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktu
Timbuktu
Timbuktu ( ; ; ; Koyra Chiini: ) is a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrative regions of Mali. It had a population of 54,453 in the 2009 census. Timbuktu started out as a seasonal settlement and became a permanent settlement early in the 12th century. After a shift in trading routes, particularly after the visit by Mansa Musa around 1325, Timbuktu flourished from the trade in salt, gold, ivory, and slaves. It became part of the Mali Empire early in the 14th century. In the first half of the 15th century, the Tuareg tribes took control of the city for a short period until the expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the city in 1468. A Moroccan army defeated the Songhai in 1591 and made Timbuktu, rather than Gao, their capital. The invaders established a new ruling class, the Arma, who after 1612 became virtually independent of Morocco. However, the golden age of the city, when it was a major learning and cultural centre of the Mali Empire, was over, and it entered a long period of decline. Different tribes governed until the French took over in 1893, a situation that lasted until it became part of the current Republic of Mali in 1960. Presently, Timbuktu is impoverished and suffers from desertification. In its Golden Age, the town's numerous Islamic scholars and extensive trading network supported an important book trade: together with the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah, an Islamic university, this established Timbuktu as a scholarly centre in Africa. Several notable historic writers, such as Shabeni and Leo Africanus, wrote about the city. These stories fuelled speculation in Europe, where the city's reputation shifted from being extremely rich to being mysterious. Toponymy Over the centuries, the spelling of Timbuktu has varied a great deal: from Tenbuch on the Catalan Atlas (1375), to traveller Antonio Malfante's Thambet, used in a letter he wrote in 1447 and also adopted by Alvise Cadamosto in his Voyages of Cadamosto, to Heinrich Barth's Timbúktu and Timbu'ktu. French spelling often appears in international reference as "Tombouctou".The German spelling 'Timbuktu,' and its variant 'Timbucktu' have passed into English and the former has become widely used in recent years. Major English-language works have employed the spelling 'Timbuctoo', and this is considered the correct English form by scholars; 'Timbuctou' and 'Timbuctu' are sometimes used as well. The French continue to use the spelling 'Tombouctou', as they have for over a century; variants include 'Temboctou' (used by explorer René Caillié) and 'Tombouktou', but they are seldom seen. Variant spellings exist for other places as well, such as Jenne (Djenné) and Segu (Ségou). As well as its spelling, Timbuktu's toponymy is still open to discussion. At least four possible origins of the name of Timbuktu have been described: Songhay origin: both Leo Africanus and Heinrich Barth believed the name was derived from two Songhay words: Leo Africanus writes the Kingdom of Tombuto was named after a town of the same name, founded in 1213 or 1214 by Mansa Suleyman. The word itself consisted of two parts: tin (wall) and butu (Wall of Butu). Africanus did not explain the meaning of this Butu. Heinrich Barth wrote: "The town was probably so called, because it was built originally in a hollow or cavity in the sand-hills. Tùmbutu means hole or womb in the Songhay language: if it were a Temáshight (Tamashek) word, it would be written Timbuktu. The name is generally interpreted by Europeans as well of Buktu (also same word in Persian is bâkhtàr باختر = where the sun sets, West), but tin has nothing to do with well." Berber origin: Malian historian Sekene Cissoko proposes a different etymology: the Tuareg founders of the city gave it a Berber name, a word composed of two parts: tim, the feminine form of in (place of) and bouctou, a small dune. Hence, Timbuktu would mean "place covered by small dunes". Abd al-Sadi offers a third explanation in his 17th-century Tarikh al-Sudan: "The Tuareg made it a depot for their belongings and provisions, and it grew into a crossroads for travelers coming and going. Looking after their belongings was a slave woman of theirs called Timbuktu, which in their language means [the one having a] 'lump'. The blessed spot where she encamped was named after her." The French Orientalist René Basset forwarded another theory: the name derives from the Zenaga root b-k-t, meaning "to be distant" or "hidden", and the feminine possessive particle tin. The meaning "hidden" could point to the city's location in a slight hollow. The validity of these theories depends on the identity of the original founders of the city: as recently as 2000, archaeological research has not found remains dating from the 11th/12th century within the limits of the modern city given the difficulty of excavating through metres of sand that have buried the remains over the past centuries. Without consensus, the etymology of Timbuktu remains unclear. Prehistory Like other important Medieval West African towns such as Djenné (Jenné-Jeno), Gao, and Dia, Iron Age settlements have been discovered near Timbuktu that predate the traditional foundation date of the town. Although the accumulation of thick layers of sand has thwarted archaeological excavations in the town itself, some of the surrounding landscape is deflating and exposing pottery shards on the surface. A survey of the area by Susan and Roderick McIntosh in 1984 identified several Iron Age sites along the el-Ahmar, an ancient wadi system that passes a few kilometers to the east of the modern town. An Iron Age tell complex located southeast of the Timbuktu near the Wadi el-Ahmar was excavated between 2008 and 2010 by archaeologists from Yale University and the Mission Culturelle de Tombouctou. The results suggest that the site was first occupied during the 5th century BC, thrived throughout the second half of the 1st millennium AD and eventually collapsed sometime during the late 10th or early 11th-century AD. History Timbuktu was a regional trade center in medieval times, where caravans met to exchange salt from the Sahara Desert for gold, ivory, and slaves from the Sahel, which could be reached via the nearby Niger River. The population (2018 population 32,460) swelled from 10,000 in the 13th century to about 50,000 in the 16th century after the establishment of a major Islamic university (University of Timbuktu), which attracted scholars from throughout the Muslim world. The Moroccans invaded the Songhai Empire in 1590 and, after the 1591 Battle of Tondibi, occupied Timbuktu. In 1593 most of the university faculty was executed or exiled for disloyalty to the new rulers, and this, along with a decline in trade caused by increased competition from newly available trans-Atlantic sailing routes, caused the city to decline. The first European to reach Timbuktu, Alexander Gordon Laing, did not arrive until 1826, and it was not until the 1890s that Timbuktu was formally incorporated into the French colony of Mali. Today, the city is still inhabited; however, the city is not as geopolitically relevant as it once was. Geography Timbuktu is located on the southern edge of the Sahara north of the main channel of the River Niger. The town is surrounded by sand dunes and the streets are covered in sand. The port of Kabara is to the south of the town and is connected to an arm of the river by a canal. The canal had become heavily silted but in 2007 it was dredged as part of a Libyan financed project. The annual flood of the Niger River is a result of the heavy rainfall in the headwaters of the Niger and Bani rivers in Guinea and northern Ivory Coast. The rainfall in these areas peaks in August but the floodwater takes time to pass down the river system and through the Inner Niger Delta. At Koulikoro, downstream from Bamako, the flood peaks in September, while in Timbuktu the flood lasts longer and usually reaches a maximum at the end of December. In the past, the area flooded by the river was more extensive and in years with high rainfall, floodwater would reach the western outskirts of Timbuktu itself. A small navigable creek to the west of the town is shown on the maps published by Heinrich Barth in 1857 and Félix Dubois in 1896. Between 1917 and 1921, during the colonial period, the French used slave labour to dig a narrow canal linking Timbuktu with Kabara. Over the following decades this became silted and filled with sand, but in 2007 as part of the dredging project, the canal was re-excavated so that now when the River Niger floods, Timbuktu is again connected to Kabara. The Malian government has promised to address problems with the design of the canal as it currently lacks footbridges and the steep, unstable banks make access to the water difficult. Kabara can only function as a port in December to January when the river is in full flood. When the water levels are lower, boats dock at Korioumé which is linked to Timbuktu by of paved road. Climate Timbuktu features a hot desert climate (BWh) according to the Köppen Climate Classification. The weather is extremely hot and dry throughout much of the year, with most of the city's rainfall occurring between June and September, due to the influence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The degree of diurnal temperature variation is higher in the dry season than the wet season. Average daily maximum temperatures in the hottest months of the year – April, May and June – exceed . Lowest temperatures occur during the mildest months of the year – December, January and February. However, average maximum temperatures do not drop below . These winter months are characterized by a dry, dusty trade wind blowing from the Saharan Tibesti Region southward to the Gulf of Guinea: picking up dust particles on their way, these winds limit visibility in what has been dubbed the 'Harmattan Haze'. Additionally, when the dust settles in the city, sand builds up and desertification looms. Economy Salt trade The wealth and very existence of Timbuktu depended on its position as the southern terminus of an important trans-Saharan trade route; nowadays, the only goods that are routinely transported across the desert are slabs of rock salt brought from the Taoudenni mining centre in the central Sahara north of Timbuktu. Until the second half of the 20th century most of the slabs were transported by large salt caravans or azalai, one leaving Timbuktu in early November and the other in late March. The caravans of several thousand camels took three weeks each way, transporting food to the miners and returning with each camel loaded with four or five slabs of salt. The salt transport was largely controlled by the desert nomads of the Arabic-speaking Berabich (or Barabish) tribe. Although there are no roads, the slabs of salt are now usually transported from Taoudenni by truck. From Timbuktu the salt is transported by boat to other towns in Mali. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Timbuktu's population grew immensely due to an influx of Bono, Tuaregs, Fulanis, and Songhais seeking trade, security, or to study. By 1300, the population increased to 10,000 and continued increasing until it reached about 50,000 in the 1500s. Agriculture There is insufficient rainfall in the Timbuktu region for purely rain-fed agriculture and crops are therefore irrigated using water from the River Niger. The main agricultural crop is rice. African floating rice (Oryza glaberrima) has traditionally been grown in regions near the river that are inundated during the annual flood. Seed is sown at the beginning of the rainy season (June–July) so that when the flood water arrives plants are already in height. The plants grow up to in height as the water level rises. The rice is harvested by canoe in December. The procedure is very precarious and the yields are low but the method has the advantage that little capital investment is required. A successful crop depends critically on the amount and timing of the rain in the wet season and the height of the flood. To a limited extent the arrival of the flood water can be controlled by the construction of small mud dikes that become submerged as the water rises. Although floating rice is still cultivated in the Timbuktu Cercle, most of the rice is now grown in three relatively large irrigated areas that lie to the south of the town: Daye (392 ha), Koriomé (550 ha) and Hamadja (623 ha). Water is pumped from the river using ten large Archimedes' screws which were first installed in the 1990s. The irrigated areas are run as cooperatives with approximately 2,100 families cultivating small plots. Nearly all the rice produced is consumed by the families themselves. The yields are still relatively low and the farmers are being encouraged to change their agricultural practices. Tourism Most tourists visit Timbuktu between November and February when the air temperature is lower. In the 1980s, accommodation for tourists was provided by Hendrina Khan Hotel and two other small hotels: Hotel Bouctou and Hotel Azalaï. Over the following decades the tourist numbers increased so that by 2006 there were seven small hotels and guest houses. The town benefited by the revenue from the CFA 5000 tourist tax, by the sale of handicrafts and by the employment for the guides. Attacks Starting in 2008, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb began kidnapping groups of tourists in the Sahel region. In January 2009, four tourists were kidnapped near the Mali–Niger border after attending a cultural festival at Anderamboukané. One of these tourists was subsequently murdered. As a result of this and various other incidents a number of states including France, Britain and the US, began advising their citizens to avoid travelling far from Bamako. The number of tourists visiting Timbuktu dropped precipitously from around 6000 in 2009 to only 492 in the first four months of 2011. Because of the security concerns, the Malian government moved the 2010 Festival in the Desert from Essakane to the outskirts of Timbuktu. In November 2011, gunmen attacked tourists staying at a hotel in Timbuktu, killing one of them and kidnapping three others. This was the first terrorist incident in Timbuktu itself. On 1 April 2012, one day after the capture of Gao, Timbuktu was captured from the Malian military by the Tuareg rebels of the MNLA and Ansar Dine. Five days later, the MNLA declared the region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad. The declared political entity was not recognized by any regional nations or the international community and it collapsed three months later on 12 July. On 28 January 2013, French and Malian government troops began retaking Timbuktu from the Islamist rebels. The force of 1,000 French troops with 200 Malian soldiers retook Timbuktu without a fight. The Islamist groups had already fled north a few days earlier, having set fire to the Ahmed Baba Institute, which housed many important manuscripts. The building housing the Ahmed Baba Institute was funded by South Africa, and held 30,000 manuscripts. BBC World Service radio news reported on 29 January 2013 that approximately 28,000 of the manuscripts in the Institute had been removed to safety from the premises before the attack by the Islamist groups, and that the whereabouts of about 2,000 manuscripts remained unknown. It was intended to be a resource for Islamic research. On 30 March 2013, jihadist rebels infiltrated into Timbuktu nine days before a suicide bombing on a Malian army checkpoint at the international airport, killing a soldier. Fighting lasted until 1 April, when French warplanes helped Malian ground forces chase the remaining rebels out of the city center. Early accounts in the West Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped prompt European exploration of the west coast of Africa. Among the most famous descriptions of Timbuktu are those of Leo Africanus and Shabeni. Leo Africanus Perhaps most famous among the accounts written about Timbuktu is that by Leo Africanus. Born El Hasan ben Muhammed el- Wazzan-ez-Zayyati in Granada in 1485, his family was among the thousands of Muslims expelled by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel after their reconquest of Spain in 1492. They settled in Morocco, where he studied in Fes and accompanied his uncle on diplomatic missions throughout North Africa. During these travels, he visited Timbuktu. As a young man he was captured by pirates and presented as an exceptionally learned slave to Pope Leo X, who freed him, baptized him under the name "Johannis Leo de Medici", and commissioned him to write, in Italian, a detailed survey of Africa. His accounts provided most of what Europeans knew about the continent for the next several centuries. Describing Timbuktu when the Songhai Empire was at its height, the English edition of his book includes the description: According to Leo Africanus, there were abundant supplies of locally produced corn, cattle, milk and butter, though there were neither gardens nor orchards surrounding the city. In another passage dedicated to describing the wealth of both the environment and the king, Africanus touches upon the rarity of one of Timbuktu's trade commodities: salt. These descriptions and passages alike caught the attention of European explorers. Africanus also described the more mundane aspects of the city, such as the "cottages built of chalk, and covered with thatch" – although these went largely unheeded. Shabeni Roughly 250 years after Leo Africanus' visit to Timbuktu, the city had seen many rulers. The end of the 18th century saw the grip of the Moroccan rulers on the city wane, resulting in a period of unstable government by quickly changing tribes. During the rule of one of those tribes, the Hausa, a 14-year-old child named Shabeni (or Shabeeny) from Tetuan on the north coast of Morocco accompanied his father on a visit to Timbuktu. Shabeni stayed in Timbuktu for three years before moving to a major city called Housa several days' journey to the southeast. Two years later, he returned to Timbuktu to live there for another seven years – one of a population that was, even centuries after its peak and excluding slaves, double the size of the 21st-century town. By the time Shabeni was 27, he was an established merchant in his hometown of Tetuan. He made a two-year pilgrimage to Mecca and thus became a hajji, Asseed El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny. Returning from a trading voyage to Hamburg, he was captured by a ship manned by Englishmen but sailing under a Russian flag, whose captain claimed that his Imperial mistress (Catherine the Great) was "at war with all Muselmen" (see Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)). He and the ship he had been sailing in were brought to Ostend in Belgium in December 1789 but the British consul managed to get him and the ship released. He set off again in the same ship, but the captain, who claimed to be afraid of his ship being captured again, set him ashore in Dover. In England his story was recorded. Shabeeni gave an indication of the size of the city in the second half of the 18th century. In an earlier passage, he described an environment that was characterized by forest, as opposed to the modern arid surroundings. Arts and culture Cultural events The best-known cultural event is the Festival au Désert. When the Tuareg rebellion ended in 1996 under the Konaré administration, 3,000 weapons were burned in a ceremony dubbed the Flame of Peace on 29 March 2007 – to commemorate the ceremony, a monument was built. The Festival au Désert, to celebrate the peace treaty, was held every January in the desert, 75 km from the city until 2010. The week-long festival of Mawloud is held every January, and celebrates the birthday of the Prophet Muhammed; the city's "most cherished manuscripts" are read publicly, and are a central part of this celebration. It was originally a Shi'ite festival from Persia and arriving in Timbuktu around 1600. The "most joyful occasion on Timbuktu's calendar," it combines "rituals of Sufi Islam with celebrating Timbuktu's rich literary traditions." It is a "period of feasting, singing, and dancing...It culminated with an evening gathering of thousands of people in the large sandy square in front of the Sankor é Mosque and a public reading of some of the city's most treasured manuscripts." World Heritage Site During its twelfth session, in December 1988, the World Heritage Committee (WHC) selected parts of Timbuktu's historic centre for inscription on its World Heritage list. The selection was based on three criteria: Criterion II: Timbuktu's holy places were vital to early Islamization in Africa. Criterion IV: Timbuktu's mosques show a cultural and scholarly Golden Age during the Songhai Empire. Criterion V: The construction of the mosques, still mostly original, shows the use of traditional building techniques. An earlier nomination in 1979 failed the following year as it lacked proper demarcation: the Malian government included the town of Timbuktu as a whole in the wish for inclusion. Close to a decade later, three mosques and 16 mausoleums or cemeteries were selected from the Old Town for World Heritage status: with this conclusion came the call for protection of the buildings' conditions, an exclusion of new construction works near the sites and measures against the encroaching sand. Shortly afterwards, the monuments were placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger by the Malian government, as by the selection committee at the time of nomination. The first period on the Danger List lasted from 1990 until 2005, when a range of measures including restoration work and the compilation of an inventory warranted "its removal from the Danger List". In 2008 the WHC placed the protected area under increased scrutiny dubbed "reinforced monitoring", a measure made possible in 2007, as the impact of planned construction work was unclear. Special attention was given to the build of a cultural centre. During a session in June 2009, UNESCO decided to cease its increased monitoring program as it felt sufficient progress had been made to address the initial concerns. Following the takeover of Timbuktu by MNLA and the Islamist group Ansar Dine, it was returned to the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2012. Attacks by radical Islamic groups In May 2012, Ansar Dine destroyed a shrine in the city and in June 2012, in the aftermath of the Battle of Gao and Timbuktu, other shrines, including the mausoleum of Sidi Mahmoud, were destroyed when attacked with shovels and pickaxes by members of the same group. An Ansar Dine spokesman said that all shrines in the city, including the 13 remaining World Heritage sites, would be destroyed because they consider them to be examples of idolatry, a sin in Islam. These acts have been described as crimes against humanity and war crimes. After the destruction of the tombs, UNESCO created a special fund to safeguard Mali's World Heritage Sites, vowing to carry out reconstruction and rehabilitation projects once the security situation allows. Education Centre of learning Timbuktu was a world centre of Islamic learning from the 13th to the 17th century, especially under the Mali Empire and Askia Mohammad I's rule. The Malian government and NGOs have been working to catalog and restore the remnants of this scholarly legacy: Timbuktu's manuscripts. Timbuktu's rapid economic growth in the 13th and 14th centuries drew many scholars from nearby Walata (today in Mauritania), leading up to the city's golden age in the 15th and 16th centuries that proved fertile ground for scholarship of religions, arts and sciences. To the people of Timbuktu, literacy and books were symbols of wealth, power, and blessings and the acquisition of books became a primary concern for scholars. An active trade in books between Timbuktu and other parts of the Islamic world and emperor Askia Mohammed's strong support led to the writing of thousands of manuscripts. Knowledge was gathered in a manner similar to the early, informal European Medieval university model. Lecturing was presented through a range of informal institutions called madrasahs. Nowadays known as the University of Timbuktu, three madrasahs facilitated 25,000 students: Djinguereber, Sidi Yahya and Sankore. These institutions were explicitly religious, as opposed to the more secular curricula of modern European universities and more similar to the medieval Europe model. However, where universities in the European sense started as associations of students and teachers, West-African education was patronized by families or lineages, with the Aqit and Bunu al-Qadi al-Hajj families being two of the most prominent in Timbuktu – these families also facilitated students in set-aside rooms in their housings. Although the basis of Islamic law and its teaching were brought to Timbuktu from North Africa with the spread of Islam, Western African scholarship developed: Ahmad Baba al Massufi is regarded as the city's greatest scholar. Timbuktu served in this process as a distribution centre of scholars and scholarship. Its reliance on trade meant intensive movement of scholars between the city and its extensive network of trade partners. In 1468–1469 though, many scholars left for Walata when Sunni Ali's Songhay Empire absorbed Timbuktu. Then, in the 1591 Moroccan invasion of Timbuktu, scholars had to flee once more, or faced imprisonment or murder. This system of education survived until the late 19th century, while the 18th century saw the institution of itinerant Quranic school as a form of universal education, where scholars would travel throughout the region with their students, begging for food part of the day. Islamic education came under pressure after the French occupation, droughts in the 70s and 80s and by Mali's civil war in the early 90s. Manuscripts and libraries Hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were collected in Timbuktu over the course of centuries: some were written in the town itself, others – including exclusive copies of the Quran for wealthy families – imported through the lively booktrade. Hidden in cellars or buried, hid between the mosque's mud walls and safeguarded by their patrons, many of these manuscripts survived the city's decline. They now form the collection of several libraries in Timbuktu, holding up to 700,000 manuscripts: In late January 2013 it was reported that rebel forces destroyed many of the manuscripts before leaving the city. "On Friday morning, 25 January 2013, fifteen jihadis entered the restoration and conservation rooms on the ground floor of the Ahmed Baba Institute in Sankoré...The men swept 4,202 manuscripts off lab tables and shelves, and carried them into the tiled courtyard...They doused the manuscripts in gasoline...and tossed in a lit match. The brittle pages and their dry leather covers...were consumed by the inferno." However, there was no malicious destruction of any library or collection as most of the manuscripts were safely hidden away. One librarian in particular, Abdel Kader Haidara, organized to have 350,000 medieval manuscripts smuggled out of Timbuktu for safekeeping. Ahmed Baba Institute Mamma Haidara Library Fondo Kati Al-Wangari Library Mohamed Tahar Library Maigala Library Boularaf Collection Al Kounti Collections These libraries are the largest among up to 60 private or public libraries that are estimated to exist in Timbuktu today, although some comprise little more than a row of books on a shelf or a bookchest. Under these circumstances, the manuscripts are vulnerable to damage and theft, as well as long term climate damage, despite Timbuktu's arid climate. Two Timbuktu Manuscripts Projects funded by independent universities have aimed to preserve them. During the occupation by Islamic extremists the citizens of the city embarked on a drive to save the "best written accounts of African History." Interviewed by the Times, the local residents claimed to have safeguarded the three hundred thousand manuscripts for generations. Many of these documents are still in the safe-keeping of the local residents, who are reluctant to give them over to the government-run Ahmed Baba Institute housed in a modern digitalization building built by the South African government in 2009. The institute houses only 10% of the manuscripts. It was later confirmed by Jean-Michel Djian to the New Yorker that "the great majority of the manuscripts, about fifty thousand, are actually housed in the thirty-two family libraries of the 'City of 333 Saints. He added, "Those are to this day protected." He also added that due to the massive efforts of one individual two hundred thousand other manuscripts were successfully transported to safety. This effort was organized by Abdel Kader Haidara, then director of Mamma Haidara Library, using his own funds. Haidara purchased metal footlockers in which up to 300 manuscripts could be securely stored. Nearly 2,500 of these lockers were distributed to safe houses across the city. Many were later moved to Dreazen. Language Although French is Mali's official language, today the large majority of Timbuktu's inhabitants speaks Koyra Chiini, a Songhay language that also functions as the lingua franca. Before the 1990–1994 Tuareg rebellion, both Hassaniya Arabic and Tamashek were represented by 10% each to an 80% dominance of the Koyra Chiini language. With Tamashek spoken by both Ikelan and ethnic Tuaregs, its use declined with the expulsion of many Tuaregs following the rebellion, increasing the dominance of Koyra Chiini. Arabic, introduced together with Islam during the 11th century, has mainly been the language of scholars and religion, comparable to Latin in Western Christianity. Although Bambara is spoken by the most numerous ethnic group in Mali, the Bambara people, it is mainly confined to the south of the country. With an improving infrastructure granting Timbuktu access to larger cities in Mali's South, use of Bambara was increasing in the city at least until Azawad independence. Infrastructure With no railroads in Mali except for the Dakar-Niger Railway up to Koulikoro, access to Timbuktu is by road, boat or, since 1961, aircraft. With high water levels in the Niger from August to December, Compagnie Malienne de Navigation (COMANAV) passenger ferries operate a leg between Koulikoro and downstream Gao on a roughly weekly basis. Also requiring high water are pinasses (large motorized pirogues), either chartered or public, that travel up and down the river. Both ferries and pinasses arrive at Korioumé, Timbuktu's port, which is linked to the city centre by an paved road running through Kabara. In 2007, access to Timbuktu's traditional port, Kabara, was restored by a Libyan funded project that dredged the silted canal connecting Kabara to an arm of the Niger River. COMANAV ferries and pinasses are now able to reach the port when the river is in full flood. Timbuktu is poorly connected to the Malian road network with only dirt roads to the neighbouring towns. Although the Niger River can be crossed by ferry at Korioumé, the roads south of the river are no better. However, a new paved road is under construction between Niono and Timbuktu running to the north of the Inland Niger Delta. The road will pass through Nampala, Léré, Niafunké, Tonka, Diré and Goundam. The completed section between Niono and the small village of Goma Coura was financed by the Millennium Challenge Corporation. This new section will service the Alatona irrigation system development of the Office du Niger. The section between Goma Coura and Timbuktu is being financed by the European Development Fund. Timbuktu Airport was served by Air Mali, hosting flights to and from Bamako, Gao and Mopti. until the airline suspended operations in 2014. Presently, no airlines serve the airport. Its 6,923 ft (2,110 m) runway in a 07/25 runway orientation is both lighted and paved. In popular culture From the perception of many Europeans and North Americans, Timbuktu is a place that bears with it a sense of mystery: a 2006 survey of 150 young Britons found 34% did not believe the town existed, while the other 66% considered it "a mythical place", which means none of the sample believed it was real. This sense has been acknowledged in literature describing African history and African-European relations. In popular Western culture, Timbuktu is also often considered a faraway place. The origin of this mystification lies in the excitement brought to Europe by the legendary tales, especially those by Leo Africanus in his Description of Africa: Arabic sources focused mainly on more affluent cities in the Timbuktu region, such as Gao and Walata. In West Africa the city holds an image that has been compared to Europe's view on Athens. As such, the picture of the city as the epitome of distance and mystery is a European one. Down-to-earth-aspects in Africanus' descriptions were largely ignored and stories of great riches served as a catalyst for travellers to visit the inaccessible city – with prominent French explorer René Caillié characterising Timbuktu as "a mass of ill-looking houses built of earth". Now opened up, many travellers acknowledged the unfitting description of an "African El Dorado". This development shifted the city's reputation – from being fabled because of its gold to fabled because of its location and mystery. Being used in this sense since at least 1863, English dictionaries now cite Timbuktu as a metaphor for any faraway place. Twin towns – sister cities Timbuktu is twinned with: Chemnitz, Germany Hay-on-Wye, Wales, United Kingdom Kairouan, Tunisia Marrakesh, Morocco Saintes, France Tempe, United States See also List of cities in Mali History of Timbuktu Explanatory notes Citations General sources . Google books: Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3. |internet Archive: Volume 3. . Google books: Volume 1, Volume 2. . . . Also available from Gallica. . . (paperback) First published in 1999 as . . . . . . A facsimile of Pory's English translation of 1600 together with an introduction and notes by the editor. Internet Archive: Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3 . Link requires subscription to Aluka. Reissued by Anchor Books, New York in 1965. . . . External links Timbuktu – World History Encyclopedia Jeppie, Ahamil "A Timbuktu book collector between the Mediterranean and Sahel", Video of a presentation given at the conference The southern shores of the Mediterranean and beyond: 1800 – to the present held at the University of Minnesota in April 2013. – contains information on the archaeological projects targeting the Iron Age occupation of Timbuktu Ancient West Africa's Megacities – contains video footage of Timbuktu's Iron Age occupation Islamic Manuscripts from Mali, Library of Congress – fuller presentation of the same manuscripts from the Mamma Haidara Commemorative Library Timbuktu materials in the Aluka digital library Timbuktu manuscripts: Africa's written history unveiled, The UNESCO Courier, 2007–5, pp. 7–9 Ancient chroniclers of West Africa's past; journeys of discovery through the 'country of the black people', The UNESCO Courier, October 1959 Timbuktu on Global Heritage Network – early warning and threat monitoring system for endangered cultural heritage sites Presentation showing images of Timbuktu Ancient cities Communes of Tombouctou Region Communities on the Niger River History of the Sahara Mali Empire Massina Empire Regional capitals in Mali Songhai Empire World Heritage Sites in Mali World Heritage Sites in Danger
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mast%20cell
Mast cell
A mast cell (also known as a mastocyte or a labrocyte) is a resident cell of connective tissue that contains many granules rich in histamine and heparin. Specifically, it is a type of granulocyte derived from the myeloid stem cell that is a part of the immune and neuroimmune systems. Mast cells were discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1877. Although best known for their role in allergy and anaphylaxis, mast cells play an important protective role as well, being intimately involved in wound healing, angiogenesis, immune tolerance, defense against pathogens, and vascular permeability in brain tumours. The mast cell is very similar in both appearance and function to the basophil, another type of white blood cell. Although mast cells were once thought to be tissue-resident basophils, it has been shown that the two cells develop from different hematopoietic lineages and thus cannot be the same cells. Structure Mast cells are very similar to basophil granulocytes (a class of white blood cells) in blood. Both are granulated cells that contain histamine and heparin, an anticoagulant. Their nuclei differ in that the basophil nucleus is lobated while the mast cell nucleus is round. The Fc region of immunoglobulin E (IgE) becomes bound to mast cells and basophils and when IgE's paratopes bind to an antigen, it causes the cells to release histamine and other inflammatory mediators. These similarities have led many to speculate that mast cells are basophils that have "homed in" on tissues. Furthermore, they share a common precursor in bone marrow expressing the CD34 molecule. Basophils leave the bone marrow already mature, whereas the mast cell circulates in an immature form, only maturing once in a tissue site. The site an immature mast cell settles in probably determines its precise characteristics. The first in vitro differentiation and growth of a pure population of mouse mast cells has been carried out using conditioned medium derived from concanavalin A-stimulated splenocytes. Later, it was discovered that T cell-derived interleukin 3 was the component present in the conditioned media that was required for mast cell differentiation and growth. Mast cells in rodents are classically divided into two subtypes: connective tissue-type mast cells and mucosal mast cells. The activities of the latter are dependent on T-cells. Mast cells are present in most tissues characteristically surrounding blood vessels and nerves, and are especially prominent near the boundaries between the outside world and the internal milieu, such as the skin, mucosa of the lungs, and digestive tract, as well as the mouth, conjunctiva, and nose. Function Mast cells play a key role in the inflammatory process. When activated, a mast cell can either selectively release (piecemeal degranulation) or rapidly release (anaphylactic degranulation) "mediators", or compounds that induce inflammation, from storage granules into the local microenvironment. Mast cells can be stimulated to degranulate by allergens through cross-linking with immunoglobulin E receptors (e.g., FcεRI), physical injury through pattern recognition receptors for damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), microbial pathogens through pattern recognition receptors for pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), and various compounds through their associated G-protein coupled receptors (e.g., morphine through opioid receptors) or ligand-gated ion channels. Complement proteins can activate membrane receptors on mast cells to exert various functions as well. Mast cells express a high-affinity receptor (FcεRI) for the Fc region of IgE, the least-abundant member of the antibodies. This receptor is of such high affinity that binding of IgE molecules is in essence irreversible. As a result, mast cells are coated with IgE, which is produced by plasma cells (the antibody-producing cells of the immune system). IgE antibodies are typically specific to one particular antigen. In allergic reactions, mast cells remain inactive until an allergen binds to IgE already coated upon the cell. Other membrane activation events can either prime mast cells for subsequent degranulation or act in synergy with FcεRI signal transduction. In general, allergens are proteins or polysaccharides. The allergen binds to the antigen-binding sites, which are situated on the variable regions of the IgE molecules bound to the mast cell surface. It appears that binding of two or more IgE molecules (cross-linking) is required to activate the mast cell. The clustering of the intracellular domains of the cell-bound Fc receptors, which are associated with the cross-linked IgE molecules, causes a complex sequence of reactions inside the mast cell that lead to its activation. Although this reaction is most well understood in terms of allergy, it appears to have evolved as a defense system against parasites and bacteria. Mast cell mediators A unique, stimulus-specific set of mast cell mediators is released through degranulation following the activation of cell surface receptors on mast cells. Examples of mediators that are released into the extracellular environment during mast cell degranulation include: serine proteases, such as tryptase and chymase histamine (2–5 picograms per mast cell) serotonin proteoglycans, mainly heparin (active as anticoagulant) and some chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans adenosine triphosphate (ATP) lysosomal enzymes β-hexosaminidase β-glucuronidase arylsulfatases newly formed lipid mediators (eicosanoids): thromboxane prostaglandin D2 leukotriene C4 platelet-activating factor cytokines TNF-α basic fibroblast growth factor interleukin-4 stem cell factor chemokines, such as eosinophil chemotactic factor reactive oxygen species Histamine dilates post-capillary venules, activates the endothelium, and increases blood vessel permeability. This leads to local edema (swelling), warmth, redness, and the attraction of other inflammatory cells to the site of release. It also depolarizes nerve endings (leading to itching or pain). Cutaneous signs of histamine release are the "flare and wheal"-reaction. The bump and redness immediately following a mosquito bite are a good example of this reaction, which occurs seconds after challenge of the mast cell by an allergen. The other physiologic activities of mast cells are much less-understood. Several lines of evidence suggest that mast cells may have a fairly fundamental role in innate immunity: They are capable of elaborating a vast array of important cytokines and other inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α; they express multiple "pattern recognition receptors" thought to be involved in recognizing broad classes of pathogens; and mice without mast cells seem to be much more susceptible to a variety of infections. Mast cell granules carry a variety of bioactive chemicals. These granules have been found to be transferred to adjacent cells of the immune system and neurons in a process of transgranulation via mast cell pseudopodia. In the nervous system Unlike other hematopoietic cells of the immune system, mast cells naturally occur in the human brain where they interact with the neuroimmune system. In the brain, mast cells are located in a number of structures that mediate visceral sensory (e.g. pain) or neuroendocrine functions or that are located along the blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier, including the pituitary stalk, pineal gland, thalamus, and hypothalamus, area postrema, choroid plexus, and in the dural layer of the meninges near meningeal nociceptors. Mast cells serve the same general functions in the body and central nervous system, such as effecting or regulating allergic responses, innate and adaptive immunity, autoimmunity, and inflammation. Across systems, mast cells serve as the main effector cell through which pathogens can affect the gut–brain axis. In the gut In the gastrointestinal tract, mucosal mast cells are located in close proximity to sensory nerve fibres, which communicate bidirectionally. When these mast cells initially degranulate, they release mediators (e.g., histamine, tryptase, and serotonin) which activate, sensitize, and upregulate membrane expression of nociceptors (i.e., TRPV1) on visceral afferent neurons via their receptors (respectively, HRH1, HRH2, HRH3, PAR2, 5-HT3); in turn, neurogenic inflammation, visceral hypersensitivity, and intestinal dysmotility (i.e., impaired peristalsis) result. Neuronal activation induces neuropeptide (substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide) signaling to mast cells where they bind to their associated receptors and trigger degranulation of a distinct set of mediators (β-Hexosaminidase, cytokines, chemokines, PGD2, leukotrienes, and eoxins). Physiology Structure of the high-affinity IgE receptor, FcεR1 FcεR1 is a high affinity IgE-receptor that is expressed on the surface of the mast cell. FcεR1 is a tetramer made of one alpha (α) chain, one beta (β) chain, and two identical, disulfide-linked gamma (γ) chains. The binding site for the IgE is formed by the extracellular portion of the α chain that contains two domains that are similar to Ig. One transmembrane domain contains an aspartic acid residue, and one contains a short cytoplasmic tail. The β chain contains, a single immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif ITAM, in the cytoplasmic region. Each γ chain has one ITAM on the cytoplasmic region. The signaling cascade from the receptor is initiated when the ITAMs of the β and γ chains are phosphorylated by tyrosine. This signal is required for the activation of mast cells. Type 2 helper T cells,(Th2) and many other cell types lack the β chain, so signaling is mediated only by the γ chain. This is due to the α chain containing endoplasmic reticulum retention signals that causes the α-chains to remain degraded in the ER. The assembly of the α chain with the co-transfected β and γ chains mask the ER retention and allows the α β γ complex to be exported to the golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane in rats. In humans, only the γ complex is needed to counterbalance the α chain ER retention. Allergen process Allergen-mediated FcεR1 cross-linking signals are very similar to the signaling event resulting in antigen binding to lymphocytes. The Lyn tyrosine kinase is associated with the cytoplasmic end of the FcεR1 β chain. The antigen cross-links the FcεR1 molecules, and Lyn tyrosine kinase phosphorylates the ITAMs in the FcεR1 β and γ chain in the cytoplasm. Upon the phosphorylation, the Syk tyrosine kinase gets recruited to the ITAMs located on the γ chains. This causes activation of the Syk tyrosine kinase, causing it to phosphorylate. Syk functions as a signal amplifying kinase activity due to the fact that it targets multiple proteins and causes their activation. This antigen stimulated phosphorylation causes the activation of other proteins in the FcεR1-mediated signaling cascade. Degranulation and fusion An important adaptor protein activated by the Syk phosphorylation step is the linker for activation of T cells (LAT). LAT can be modified by phosphorylation to create novel binding sites. Phospholipase C gamma (PLCγ) becomes phosphorylated once bound to LAT, and is then used to catalyze phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate breakdown to yield inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacyglycerol (DAG). IP3 elevates calcium levels, and DAG activates protein kinase C (PKC). This is not the only way that PKC is made. The tyrosine kinase FYN phosphorylates Grb2-associated-binding protein 2 (Gab2), which binds to phosphoinositide 3-kinase, which activates PKC. PKC leads to the activation of myosin light-chain phosphorylation granule movements, which disassembles the actin–myosin complexes to allow granules to come into contact with the plasma membrane. The mast cell granule can now fuse with the plasma membrane. Soluble N-ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion attachment protein receptor SNARE complex mediates this process. Different SNARE proteins interact to form different complexes that catalyze fusion. Rab3 guanosine triphosphatases and Rab-associated kinases and phosphatases regulate granule membrane fusion in resting mast cells. MRGPRX2 mast cell receptor Human mast-cell-specific G-protein-coupled receptor MRGPRX2 plays a key role in the recognition of pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and initiating an antibacterial response. MRGPRX2 is able to bind to competence stimulating peptide (CSP) 1 - a quorum sensing molecule (QSM) produced by Gram-positive bacteria. This leads to signal transduction to a G protein and activation of the mast cell. Mast cell activation induces the release of antibacterial mediators including ROS, TNF-α and PRGD2 which institute the recruitment of other immune cells to inhibit bacterial growth and biofilm formation. The MRGPRX2 receptor is a possible therapeutic target and can be pharmacologically activated using the agonist compound 48/80 to control bacterial infection. It is also hypothesised that other QSMs and even Gram-negative bacterial signals can activate this receptor. This might particularly be the case during Bartonella chronic infections where it appears clearly in human symptomatology that these patients all have a mast cell activation syndrome due to the presence of a not yet defined quorum sensing molecule (basal histamine itself?). Those patients are prone to food intolerance driven by another less specific path than the IgE receptor path: certainly the MRGPRX2 route. These patients also show cyclical skin pathergy and dermographism, every time the bacteria exits its hidden intracellular location. Enzymes Clinical significance Parasitic infections Mast cells are activated in response to infection by pathogenic parasites, such as certain helminths and protozoa, through IgE signaling. Mast cell activation disorders Mast cell activation disorders (MCAD) are a spectrum of immune disorders that are unrelated to pathogenic infection and involve similar symptoms that arise from secreted mast cell intermediates, but differ slightly in their pathophysiology, treatment approach, and distinguishing symptoms. The classification of mast cell activation disorders was laid out in 2010. Allergic disease Allergies are mediated through IgE signaling which triggers mast cell degranulation. Recently, IgE-independent "pseudo-allergic" reactions are thought to also be mediated via the MRGPRX2 receptor activation of mast cells (e.g. drugs such as muscle relaxants, opioids, Icatibant and fluoroquinolones). Many forms of cutaneous and mucosal allergy are mediated in large part by mast cells; they play a central role in asthma, eczema, itch (from various causes), allergic rhinitis and allergic conjunctivitis. Antihistamine drugs act by blocking histamine action on nerve endings. Cromoglicate-based drugs (sodium cromoglicate, nedocromil) block a calcium channel essential for mast cell degranulation, stabilizing the cell and preventing release of histamine and related mediators. Leukotriene antagonists (such as montelukast and zafirlukast) block the action of leukotriene mediators and are being used increasingly in allergic diseases. Calcium triggers the secretion of histamine from mast cells after previous exposure to sodium fluoride. The secretory process can be divided into a fluoride-activation step and a calcium-induced secretory step. It was observed that the fluoride-activation step is accompanied by an elevation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels within the cells. The attained high levels of cAMP persist during histamine release. It was further found that catecholamines do not markedly alter the fluoride-induced histamine release. It was also confirmed that the second, but not the first, step in sodium fluoride-induced histamine secretion is inhibited by theophylline. Vasodilation and increased permeability of capillaries are a result of both H1 and H2 receptor types. Stimulation of histamine activates a histamine (H2)-sensitive adenylate cyclase of oxyntic cells, and there is a rapid increase in cellular [cAMP] that is involved in activation of H+ transport and other associated changes of oxyntic cells. Anaphylaxis In anaphylaxis (a severe systemic reaction to allergens, such as nuts, bee stings, or drugs), the body-wide degranulation of mast cells leads to vasodilation and, if severe, symptoms of life-threatening shock. Histamine is a vasodilatory substance released during anaphylaxis. Autoimmunity Mast cells may be implicated in the pathology associated with autoimmune, inflammatory disorders of the joints. They have been shown to be involved in the recruitment of inflammatory cells to the joints (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis) and skin (e.g., bullous pemphigoid), and this activity is dependent on antibodies and complement components. Mastocytosis and clonal disorders Mastocytosis is a rare clonal mast cell disorder involving the presence of too many mast cells (mastocytes) and CD34+ mast cell precursors. Mutations in c-Kit are associated with mastocytosis. Monoclonal disorders Neoplastic disorders Mastocytomas, or mast cell tumors, can secrete excessive quantities of degranulation products. They are often seen in dogs and cats. Other neoplastic disorders associated with mast cells include mast cell sarcoma and mast cell leukemia. Mast cell activation syndrome Mast cell activation syndrome (MCAS) is an idiopathic immune disorder that involves recurrent and excessive mast cell degranulation and which produces symptoms that are similar to other mast cell activation disorders. The syndrome is diagnosed based upon four sets of criteria involving treatment response, symptoms, a differential diagnosis, and biomarkers of mast cell degranulation. History Mast cells were first described by Paul Ehrlich in his 1878 doctoral thesis on the basis of their unique staining characteristics and large granules. These granules also led him to the incorrect belief that they existed to nourish the surrounding tissue, so he named them Mastzellen (, as of animals). They are now considered to be part of the immune system. Research Autism Research into an immunological contribution to autism suggests that autism spectrum disorder (ASD) children may present with "allergic-like" problems in the absence of elevated serum IgE and chronic urticaria, suggesting non-allergic mast cell activation in response to environmental and stress triggers. This mast cell activation could contribute to brain inflammation and neurodevelopmental problems. Histological staining Toluidine blue: one of the most common stains for acid mucopolysaccharides and glycoaminoglycans, components of mast cells granules. Bismarck brown: stains mast cell granules brown. Surface markers: cell surface markers of mast cells were discussed in detail by Heneberg, claiming that mast cells may be inadvertently included in the stem or progenitor cell isolates, since part of them is positive for the CD34 antigen. The classical mast cell markers include the high-affinity IgE receptor, CD117 (c-Kit), and CD203c (for most of the mast cell populations). Expression of some molecules may change in course of the mast cell activation. See also Allergy Mast cell activation syndrome Diamine oxidase Granulocyte Food intolerance Histamine Histamine intolerance Histamine N-methyltransferase or HNMT References External links Cell biology Connective tissue cells Granulocytes Human cells
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierce-Arrow%20Motor%20Car%20Company
Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company
The Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company was an American motor vehicle manufacturer based in Buffalo, New York, which was active from 1901 to 1938. Although best known for its expensive luxury cars, Pierce-Arrow also manufactured commercial trucks, fire trucks, boats, camp trailers, motorcycles, and bicycles. The beginning of the company The forerunner of Pierce-Arrow was established in 1865 as Heinz, Pierce and Munschauer. The company was best known for its household items, especially its delicate, gilded birdcages. In 1872, George Norman Pierce (1846–1910) bought out the other two principals of the company, changed the name to the George N. Pierce Company, and in 1896 added bicycles to the product line. The company failed in its attempt to build a steam-powered car in 1900 under license from Overman, but by 1901, had built its first single-cylinder, two-speed, no-reverse Motorette. In 1903, it produced a two-cylinder car, the Arrow. In 1904, Pierce decided to concentrate on making a larger, more luxurious car for the upscale market, the Great Arrow. This became the company's most successful product. The solidly built, four-cylinder car won the Glidden Tour in 1905, an endurance run to determine and celebrate the most reliable car. Thirty-three cars entered the 350-mile race from New York City to Bretton Woods, New Hampshire; the race was won by Percy Pierce in a Great Arrow. The noted industrial architect Albert Kahn designed the Pierce Arrow Factory Complex at Elmwood Avenue and Great Arrow Avenue in about 1906. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. George Pierce sold all rights in the company in 1907, and he died three years later. In 1908, Pierce Motor Company was renamed as the Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company. In 1909, U.S. President William Howard Taft ordered two Pierce-Arrows (and two White Model M Tourers) to be used for state occasions, the first official cars of the White House. The Pierce-Arrow's engine displacement started at , continuing to a massive and was increased later to 5 inch bore and 7 inch stroke for , at the time making it by far the largest Otto engine offered in any production automobile in the world. In 1910, Pierce dropped its other 4-cylinder models and focused exclusively on 6-cylinder cars until 1929. The model 6-36, 6-48, and 6-66 continued for the next decade. Starting in 1918, Pierce-Arrow adopted a four-valve per cylinder T-head inline-six engine (Dual Valve Six) and three spark plugs per cylinder, one of the few, if only, multi-valve flathead design engines ever made. The company did not introduce an 8-cylinder engine until the 1929 Model 126, and a V-12 engine was offered in 1931 until the company closed in 1938. In 1910, George Pierce died. In 1912, Herbert M. Dawley (later a Broadway actor-director) joined Pierce-Arrow, and he designed almost every model until 1938. Until 1914, Pierce-Arrow also made a line of motorcycles, including the Pierce Four. In 1914, Pierce-Arrow adopted its most enduring styling hallmark when its headlights were moved from a traditional placement at the radiator's sides, into flared housings molded into the front fenders of the car. This gave the car an immediately visible distinction in front or side views. At night, the car appeared to have a wider stance. Pierce patented this placement, which endured until the final model of 1938, although Pierce always offered customers the option of conventional headlamps; only a minority ordered this option. The Pierce-Arrow was a status symbol, owned by many Hollywood stars and tycoons, and a favorite was the Pierce-Arrow Town Car. Most of the royalty of the world had at least one Pierce-Arrow in its collection. Some have described Pierce and two of its rivals among American luxury cars, Peerless and Packard, as the "Three P's of Motordom." Industrial efficiency expert Frank Gilbreth, father of the authors of "Cheaper By The Dozen," extolled the virtues of Pierce-Arrow, in both quality and in its ability to safely transport his large family. Its wheelbase was . The transmission was a four speed manual in 1919. Actor Sessue Hayakawa (famed for his role in Bridge on the River Kwai) drove a custom-ordered gold-plated Pierce-Arrow. A restored 1919 Pierce-Arrow is on display at the Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library. An open-bodied Pierce-Arrow carried Woodrow Wilson and Warren G. Harding to Harding's 1921 inauguration, and one was used prominently in the 1950 movie Cheaper by the Dozen. Pierce-Arrow advertisements were artistic and understated. Unusual for car advertising, the image of the car was in the background rather than the foreground of the picture. Usually, only part of the car was visible. The Pierce-Arrow was typically depicted in elegant and fashionable settings. Some advertisements featured the car in places a car would not normally go, such as the West and other rural settings, a testament to the car's ruggedness and quality. Because of the immense size of most models, several second-hand Pierce-Arrow cars were bought by fire departments, stripped down to the chassis and engine, the wheelbase lengthened, and built back into fire engines. Some of these fire engines were in service for up to 20 years. List of models There were at least 39 defined models during the time of manufacture listed here Pierce Silver Arrow Pierce-Arrow 1240A Pierce-Arrow 1245 Pierce-Arrow 1248A Pierce-Arrow 1255 Pierce-Arrow 1601 Pierce-Arrow 1602 Pierce-Arrow 1603 Pierce-Arrow 1701 Pierce-Arrow 1702 Pierce-Arrow 1703 Pierce-Arrow 1801 Pierce-Arrow 1802 Pierce-Arrow 1803 Pierce-Arrow 836A Pierce-Arrow 840A Pierce-Arrow 845 Pierce-Arrow Model 1236 Pierce-Arrow Model 1242 Pierce-Arrow Model 1247 Pierce-Arrow Model 133 Pierce-Arrow Model 143 Pierce-Arrow Model 31 Pierce-Arrow Model 32 Pierce-Arrow Model 33 Pierce-Arrow Model 36 Pierce-Arrow Model 41 Pierce-Arrow Model 42 Pierce-Arrow Model 43 Pierce-Arrow Model 51 Pierce-Arrow Model 52 Pierce-Arrow Model 53 Pierce-Arrow Model 54 Pierce-Arrow Model 80 Pierce-Arrow Model 81 Pierce-Arrow Model 836 Pierce-Arrow Model A Pierce-Arrow Model B Pierce-Arrow Model C 1928–1933 In 1928, the Studebaker Corporation of South Bend, Indiana, gained control of the Buffalo firm. The association was to last for five years, with moderate benefits to both companies' engineering departments, which continued to function as separate entities. Pierce-Arrow also gained a dealer network, as the cars were sold through Studebaker dealerships. Under Studebaker's ownership, Pierce-Arrow retired the venerable 6-cylinder engine and in 1929 introduced an L-head straight-eight engine, which displaced . 1933 Silver Arrow and the end of the line In 1933, Pierce-Arrow unveiled the radically streamlined Silver Arrow in a final attempt to appeal to the wealthy at the New York Auto Show. The car was well received by the public and the motoring press, being announced with the slogan "Suddenly it's 1940!" Pierce sold five examples but, since it was priced at $10,000 (equal to $ today) during the worst of the Depression, the rich were hesitant to spend so much. The bodies were built at Studebaker, which subsequently assisted in rolling out a lower-priced production model. This, however, lacked many luxury features of the show car and still failed to generate enough sales. Starting in 1936, Pierce-Arrow produced a line of camper-trailers, the Pierce-Arrow Travelodge. They also produced a new V12 sedan that was redesigned and considered the safest and most luxurious sedan of its day. The Rio Grande Southern Railroad converted five Pierce-Arrow automobiles (and a couple of Buicks) into motorized railcars, effectively buses and trucks on rail wheels. The nickname Galloping Goose was soon applied to these vehicles, reportedly based on their waddling motion and honking horn. Most of these conversions still survive. Pierce was the only luxury brand that did not field a lower-priced car (e.g., the Packard 120) to provide cash flow, and without sales or funds for development, the company declared insolvency in 1938 and closed its doors. The final Pierce-Arrow assembled was built by Karl Wise, the firm's chief engineer, from parts secured from the company's receivers. Pierce's remaining assets (which probably would include the forty Arrows made in October 1938) were sold at auction on a Friday, May 13, 1938. The factory equipment used to make Pierce-Arrow V12 engines was bought by Seagrave Fire Apparatus, which used it to make engines for fire engines. Recent use of the name In 2006, a group of classic car enthusiasts from Switzerland applied the name to a 10 L, 24-cylinder car designed by Luigi Colani. According to their (defunct) website, the company intended to revive the Pierce-Arrow car in the form of a Pierce Silver Arrow II. The U.S. Trademark Trial and Appeal Board ruled on August 12, 2019, that "Pierce-Arrow" cannot be registered by an unrelated third party as a trademark for the production of a new automobile. This decision establishes a new precedent for protection of Collective Membership Marks. Advertisements Gallery See also List of automobile manufacturers List of defunct automobile manufacturers Pierce-Arrow Town Car Pierce-Arrow armoured AA lorry Pierce Silver Arrow References 17. http://ttabvue.uspto.gov/ttabvue/ttabvue-91224343-OPP-58.pdf Further reading Brierley, Brooks T. There is no mistaking a Pierce-Arrow (Garrett & Stringer, 1986). Siuru, William D. "Pierce-Arrow: Wheels For the Well-Heeled!" History Magazine (Apr 2010_ 11#4 pp 45–47. External links The Pierce-Arrow Society The Pierce-Arrow Museum of Buffalo NY Pierce on City of Buffalo History site Pierce-Arrow Theater White Glove Collection Pierce Arrows Pierce: The Missing Link on MyByk 1916 advertisement Pierce-Arrow cars 3D models Car manufacturers of the United States Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers Motor vehicle manufacturers based in New York (state) Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States Defunct motorcycle manufacturers of the United States Pierce Arrow Manufacturing companies based in Buffalo, New York History of Buffalo, New York Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1901 Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1938 1901 establishments in New York (state) 1938 disestablishments in New York (state) American companies disestablished in 1938 American companies established in 1901 Defunct manufacturing companies based in New York (state) Defunct companies based in Buffalo, New York
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topfreedom
Topfreedom
Topfreedom is a cultural and political movement seeking changes in laws to allow women to be topless in public places where men are permitted to be barechested, as a form of gender equality. Specifically, the movement seeks the repeal or overturning of laws which restrict a woman's right not to have her chest covered at all times in public. In addition, topfreedom advocates seek allowing nursing mothers to openly breastfeed in public. Social and legal attitudes Many societies consider women who expose their nipples and areolae as immodest and contrary to social norms. In many jurisdictions a topless woman may be socially or officially harassed or cited for public lewdness, indecent exposure, public indecency or disorderly conduct. Topfreedom advocates seek to change community attitudes to breasts as sex objects or indecent. Several countries in Europe have decriminalised non-sexual toplessness. Topless swimming and sunbathing on beaches has become acceptable in many parts of Europe, though the practice remains controversial in many places, and not common in most places. Many public swimming pools in Europe are owned by municipalities, which are treated as private organisations and allowed to set their dress codes. Breastfeeding In many countries around the world, breastfeeding in public is not unusual. During 2006–2010 and earlier, a number of news reports in the United States cited incidents where women were refused service or harassed for breastfeeding in public. In response, a majority of U.S. states have passed laws explicitly permitting nursing in public. The United States federal government enacted a law in 1999 which specifically provides that "a woman may breastfeed her child at any location in a Federal building or on Federal property, if the woman and her child are otherwise authorized to be present at the location." However, these laws generally do not apply to rules imposed by private organizations or on private property, such as restaurants, airlines, or shopping malls. Topfreedom by country Asia Taiwan In support of Adda Smaradottir's FreeTheNipple act in public cyberspace, young women uploaded their topless photos to Facebook and protested against its Community Standards of considering women's breasts as sexual materials. Those photos and related news articles were blocked initially, but Facebook considered those photos did not violate Community Standards. Europe Denmark Bathing and sunbathing in the nude (including topless) is legal on Danish beaches. Nudity and toplessness in other public outdoor places is generally also legal, unless it involves "offensive conduct" or is likely to cause public outrage. The public outrage law is rarely used in practice, but in 1972 audience members were convicted of being nude in the Royal Danish Theatre. In December 2007, a group of women and men calling themselves Topless Front swam topless in public swim baths to promote topless equality. In March 2008, after a campaign by the group, Copenhagen's Culture and Leisure Committee voted to allow topless bathing in its swimming pools. After the Committee had voted, it was revealed that no laws had existed against topless bathing, effectively making the vote unnecessary. However, some public baths had (and have) restricted it themselves. Public breastfeeding is supported by the vast majority of both sexes in Denmark, is entirely legal and accepted in almost all places, except for a few private cafés and restaurants that have restricted it. Finland In Finland, toplessness is not illegal, yet topless women have been removed from beaches. Sandra Marins and Säde Vallarén criticized this and organized Finland's first event demanding topless equality, called Tissiflashmob (Breast flash mob). On Finland's Independence day, 6 December 2019, both Marins and Vallarén showed their breasts on live TV and it sparked a lot of conversation. Tissiflashmob 2020 was bigger than the previous one, now organized at the same time in eight different cities. France In France, the feminist collective Les TumulTueuses organized a topfree protest in Paris in May 2009. It is legal to sunbathe topless in France, although local regulations may ban the practice with directives about clothing. In 2020, after a police incident, topless sunbathing was defended by the French interior minister. Greece In Greece, toplessness is not illegal and is widely practiced by locals and tourists alike as there are no cultural taboos against it. Iceland In Iceland, toplessness is legal in public. Italy Female toplessness has been officially legalized (in a nonsexual context) in all public beaches and swimming pools throughout the country (unless otherwise specified by region, province or municipality by-laws) on 20 March 2000, when the Supreme Court of Cassation (through sentence No. 3557) determined that the exposure of the nude female breast, after several decades, is now considered a "commonly accepted behavior", and therefore, has "entered into the social costume". Poland In Poland in 2008–2009, two women from Szczecin including glamour model Dorota Krzysztofek, won a court battle that reasserted the women's right to sunbathe topless on public beaches. Krzysztofek, along with her female companion, were fined by local municipal officials for topless sunbathing at a public recreation area. The women refused to pay the fine and took the matter to Civil Court. Their first hearing had to be postponed due to remarkable media interest. On November 7, 2008, judge Szczepańska upheld the city staff decision, and charged the women with indecent exposure, explaining that their personal freedoms cannot encroach on the freedoms of families with children who frequent the same recreation spot. Although topless sunbathing is not prohibited in Poland, the judge sentenced them to pay a fine of 230 zloty (150 zloty by different source, or €40, $55) for breaking the rules of conduct. In her rationale, the judge also said that it is not up to the defendants to teach youngsters human anatomy; however, her decision was appealed by Krzysztofek's female friend soon afterwards, with the plea of not guilty. In 2009, the appellate court declared both women to be innocent, because the city staff were unable to prove that anyone at the beach was indignant or scandalized by their toplessness, and no complaint was ever reported. On the contrary, some visitors stood up to their defense. There were no signs at the recreation area against what is otherwise legal. The appellate court's decision was binding, but it also created an aura of ambivalence, with topless sunbathing in public declared acceptable only if nobody else including families with children formally objects to it. Spain There are no laws in Spain that officially prohibit public nudity (in a non-sexual context), and because of this, both topless sunbathing and naturism (the latter on a smaller scale) are frequently practiced without any issues in all beaches throughout the country, while the amount of partakers may vary depending on the location and the day. It is very common in the Balearic Islands, Canaries, Costa Brava and Costa del Sol (even though a few municipalities, such as Barcelona, have created by-laws to forbid public nudity, including female toplessness, on their streets -not on the beach-). Due to the widespread practice of topless sunbathing, the municipalities of Galdakao and L'Ametlla del Vallès decided to legalize female toplessness on their public pools (in March 2016 and June 2018, respectively), and it is tolerated in many others, like in Madrid (without the need of a specific rule). It is less common on private or condominium pools, and a few have by-laws to ban it. Moreover, there are some surveys indicating that more than 40% of the Spanish women who were interviewed (aged 18 or older) reported to have been topless on a beach at least once. Sweden In Sweden, toplessness is not illegal. However, private or public establishments are permitted to establish dress codes which may require women to wear tops, and deny access or remove individuals who breach these standards. In September 2007, "Bara Bröst" (a pun meaning both "Just Breasts" and "Bare Breasts") appeared to promote topless equality in these semi-public facilities. The group staged several events in public swim baths in September and October 2007, starting in Uppsala from which they were evicted several times, before succeeding in Sundsvall. The group scored a victory in June 2009 when the Malmö city's sports and recreation committee approved new rules that, while requiring everybody to wear bathing suits at indoor public swimming pools, did not require women to cover their breasts. "We don't define what bathing suits men should wear so it doesn't make much sense to do it for women. And besides, it's not unusual for men to have large breasts that resemble women's breasts", said a council spokesman. North America Canada In 1991 toplessness as an indecent act was challenged by Gwen Jacob in Guelph, Ontario, who removed her shirt and was charged with indecency. Part of her defense was the double standards between men and women. Although she was convicted, this was overturned by the Court of Appeal. This case determined that being topless is not indecent under the meaning of the Criminal Code. However it did not establish any constitutional right of equality. This case subsequently led to the acquittal of women in British Columbia and Saskatchewan who faced similar charges. Although each province and territory technically reserves its right to interpret the law as it pleases, the Ontario case has proven influential. Since the matter has not been determined by the Supreme Court of Canada, it is still possible that a woman could be convicted elsewhere in Canada, but interpretation of moral law in Canada has become increasingly liberalized. There do not appear to have been any further women charged in Canada since these cases were determined. Mexico The only public place in Mexico that officially allows female toplessness is Playa Zipolite (a nude beach located in the state of Oaxaca), where the practice of naturism was legalized in 2016. However, the practice of topless sunbathing (as well as naturism in some cases) is commonly tolerated on a few beaches in the state of Quintana Roo, more precisely in the Riviera Maya region (especially between the cities of Playa del Carmen and Tulum); furthermore, there are a few clothing-optional resorts made for adults only (also located in the Riviera Maya) where all men and women aged 18 (or older) can frequent the facilities without the need to wear clothes (if so they wish). United States In the United States, states have primary jurisdiction in matters of public morality. The topfreedom movement has claimed success in a few instances in persuading some state and federal courts to overturn some state laws on the basis of sex discrimination or equal protection, arguing that a woman should be free to expose her chest in any context in which a man can expose his. Other successful cases have been on the basis of freedom of expression in protest, or simply that exposure of breasts is not indecent (or similar terminology). Laws and ordinances barring female toplessness are being challenged in federal courts around the nation. Each lawsuit, if it prevails at the appellate level, will legalize topfreedom in the following U.S. circuits of appeal (from west to east): 9 (California), 8 (Missouri) and 1 (Maryland). A federal lawsuit in the 7th Circuit (Illinois), was lost at the appellate level and the petition for review by the U.S. Supreme Court was denied. A preliminary injunction in a federal lawsuit in the 10th Circuit (Colorado), was won at the appellate level. In September 2019, after spending over $300,000, Fort Collins decided to stop defending their ordinance and repeal it. That effectively gave females of all ages the right to go topless wherever males can in the jurisdiction of the 10th Circuit (Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Kansas and Oklahoma states as well as all counties and cities therein). Oceania Australia In Australia, indecent exposure laws only refer to the genital area, so technically both male and female toplessness is legal. However, many local councils impose their own rules, and have the power to ask topless people to leave an area. Additionally, women who go topless are sometimes slapped with more vague charges such as being a public nuisance, or offensive behaviour. On public beaches, local bylaws are not heavily enforced, and women can often sunbathe topless without legal repercussions. Breastfeeding in public places is a legal right in Australia. Under the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, no business or service provider can discriminate against a breastfeeding woman. Women can still breastfeed even if no other food/drink is allowed in the area. If a special baby care room is available for breastfeeding, women are not required to use it unless they wish to. If someone abuses a breastfeeding woman or forces her to leave, this may come under state/territory harassment laws. These protections also include women who are expressing breast milk for their baby. New Zealand In New Zealand, there is no specific law prohibiting nudity in public places. If a person is nude and also exhibiting lewd and lascivious, or obscene behaviour, then they may fall afoul of laws. The High Court of New Zealand has upheld a conviction of disorderly conduct for nudity in the street, because it was not a place where nudity was known to occur or commonplace. Being nude in the street is likely to incur a small fine if a complaint is made against the person, or if the person ignores a police order to cover themselves. However, in practice, the likelihood of being prosecuted for nudity on a public beach is low, providing the person keeps to themselves. In 2012, a woman swam topless on Ōpunake beach. The police were called, but informed the callers that toplessness was not an offence. In 2017, nudists used the beach at Tauranga, which caused consternation among some residents. However, the local council said there were no bylaws dealing with the issue, and that nudity was not an offence. See also References Breast Civil disobedience Civil rights and liberties Feminist terminology Gender equality Nudity Sexism Women's rights
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20words%20derived%20from%20toponyms
List of words derived from toponyms
This is a list of English language words derived from toponyms, followed by the place name it derives from. General agate — after Achates, ancient Greek name for the river Dirillo on the Italian island of Sicily Alberta clipper — a weather phenomenon named after the Canadian province of Alberta, where it originates Angora goat, Angora rabbit, Angora wool (obtained from the previous two), Angora cat — named after Angora, variant or former name of Ankara, their place of origin Antimacassar — after Makassar, Indonesia, which was the source of hair oil Armageddon — after "mount of Megiddo", where the battle was to be fought according to myth badminton — after Badminton in Gloucestershire, England balkanization — after the Balkans, region in southeastern Europe similarly divided into small nations in the twentieth century bangalored — after Bangalore, India; used often in the US when jobs are lost because of outsourcing; first time use by the magazine The Economist; usage: "He is sulking today because he got bangalored." Bedford cord, a heavy fabric with a ribbed weave similar to corduroy; named after either Bedford, England or possibly New Bedford, Massachusetts Bedlam — meaning pandemonium, after popular name/pronunciation of St Mary of Bethlehem, London's first psychiatric hospital Bedlington Terrier, a breed of dog, after Bedlington, UK bezant — former gold coin, and current heraldic charge, after Byzantium (now Istanbul), where the coins were made bikini — two-piece bathing suit for women, after Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, where atomic bombs were tested in 1946; supposedly analogous to the "explosive" effect on the male libido the Blarney and Blarney Stone — Blarney Castle Boeotian, an ancient Greek term for a fool, after the Boeotian people bohemian — term referring to artists, writers, and other people who wished to live an unconventional, vagabond, or "gypsy" lifestyle; from Bohemia, where "gypsies" were erroneously thought to originate; see also gypsy, below La Brabançonne, national anthem of Belgium — Brabant, province of Belgium Bronx cheer — a noise made by the mouth to signify derision; after The Bronx, a borough of New York City brummagem — goods of shoddy quality; from a local pronunciation of Birmingham, city in the United Kingdom bungalow — a low building or house, from a Gujarati word meaning "Bengalese", used elliptically to mean a house built in the style of Bengal Byzantine, used to describe any work, law, or organization that is excessively complex or difficult to understand, named after Byzantine Empire calico — a type of cloth named after Calicut, where Europeans first obtained it; Calico cat and calico horse derive from the appearance of their mottled coat suggesting calico cloth canary — a small yellow bird, originating on and named after the Canary Islands, specifically the largest island, Gran Canaria, called in Latin Insula Canaria, "island of dogs", after the wild native dogs found there Capri pants — mid-calf pants named for the Italian isle of Capri, where they rose to popularity in the late 1950s and early '60s. Caucasian — name for the "white race", coined by anthropologist Johann Blumenbach after Caucasus Mountains, their supposed ancestral homeland chautauqua — a form of local fair, after Chautauqua, New York, where the first one was held Chicago Typewriter, a nickname for the Thompson submachine gun chihuahua — small dog from Chihuahua, state of Mexico china — originally chinaware, as in "wares from China" Chinese wall, artificial organizational barrier, derived from Great Wall of China coach — a type of carriage, ultimately from Hungarian kocsi (szekér) or "carriage of Kocs", where this vehicle was first made Coldstream Guards — regiment founded at Coldstream in Scotland cologne — a perfume originating from Cologne, Germany. Corinthian order — one of the three orders of classical architecture, after Corinth in Greece Coventry (in the construction "Send to Coventry"): shunned by friends and family, after the treatment of Royalist prisoners during the English Civil War Damask — material, from Damascus denim — a coarse cotton fabric, from French serge de Nîmes, or "serge of Nîmes", where the cloth originated derby — a stakes race limited to three-year-old steeds, named after Derby in England by way of its 12th Earl; also refers to a style of shoe and hat. dollar — a unit of currency, originally from the German taler, an abbreviation of Joachimstaler ("gulden of Joachimstal"), a coin minted (1519) from silver mined near Joachimsthal, Bohemia donnybrook — colloquial term for a brawl or fracas, derived from Donnybrook Fair, an annual horse fair in the Dublin suburb notorious for fighting and drunkenness doolally or dolally — an adjective meaning "mad" or "eccentric" (e.g. "to go dolally"), ultimately named after Deolali, a hill station near Nashik in colonial India, referring to the apparent madness of men waiting to return to Britain after their tour of duty duffel or duffle — heavy woollen cloth, hence duffel coat and duffel bag; after Duffel, a town in Belgium where it was first made Dunkirk spirit, after the evacuation of Dunkirk in World War II Fez, (also called tarboosh), a hat — Fez, a city in Morocco Finlandization, the influence a large country can have on a smaller one, after Finland gamboge, a yellow artist's pigment — Cambodge, French name for Cambodia geyser, a hot water spring — Geysir in Iceland Glasgow kiss, a slang term meaning headbutt — Glasgow, Scotland Greek, not understandable ("all Greek to me") — Greek language of Greece Guinea, former British gold coin, and guineafowl — Guinea region of West Africa Gypsies, nomadic peoples in Europe and United States — Egypt Habanera — a musical style named after Havana, Cuba Hackney carriage, name for the London taxicab, probably from Hackney in London, England Havana, cigar — from capital of Cuba Hempenstall, a surname, after the town of Heptonstall (England) Honiton, a form of lace, after the town in Devon (England) where it is produced Holland, cotton or linen fabric — Holland iliad — a long narrative poem, or a series of woes, trials, etc.; both derive from the Homeric epic Iliad, literally meaning "of Ilium" (or Troy) Indian, the aboriginal peoples of the New World, after India Indigo, colour, after India Ionic order — one of the three orders of classical architecture, after Ionia in present-day Turkey japanning, application of lacquer, after Japan Jeans, denim trousers; Genoa Jersey cattle (also tomato, milk, cream, jumper) — Jersey, one of the Channel Islands Kimblewick bit, used on horses for riding — Kimble Wick, hamlet in Buckinghamshire (England) Labyrinth, maze, after a legendary structure on Crete Laconic, (of a person, speech, or style of writing) using very few words. From Laconia Ancient Sparta (Greece) Left Bank, style of life, fashion, or "look" — "Left Bank", left bank of the Seine (facing downstream) in Paris Leghorn chicken — after Leghorn, historical name for Livorno, Italy Lesbian, female homosexual — Lesbos, island in Greece Lipizzaner, a breed of horse — Lipica, town in Slovenia Magenta, colour — named after Magenta, Lombardy, Italy Marathon, long race — Marathon, Greece, town Madras, lightweight cotton fabric — Madras, old name for Chennai, coastal city in southeastern India Manila envelopes, Manila fiber — Manila, city in Philippines Marseillaise, national anthem of France — Marseille, city in France Masada, a mass suicide when conditions are hopeless, after Masada, Israel Mausoleum, a large and impressive tomb — Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in Turkey meander, a bend in a river — Meander, a river in Turkey Mecca, ultimate destination or activity center — Mecca, holy city in Saudi Arabia Mongoloid race — Mongolia, country in central Asia Morocco leather — Morocco, country in north Africa Muslin, a lightweight fabric — Mosul, Iraq Neanderthal man, known by his fossils — Neanderthal, Germany, valley where the fossils were found Nicene Creed, Christian doctrine — Nicaea, old name for İznik in Turkey Olympics, worldwide games — Mount Olympus, tallest mountain in Greece Ottoman (furniture), a type of stool — after the Ottoman Empire Paisley (design), used in shawls — Paisley, Scotland Panama hat — Panama in Central America, where it was first sold Portland cement — named after the Isle of Portland, England Rubicon, the point of no return — Rubicon (or Rubico), a small former river in northern Italy Rhode Island Red — Chicken named after Rhode Island Rugby football — Rugby School, in Rugby, Warwickshire, central England Shanghaied — drugged and forced into service aboard a ship, from Shanghai, China Siamese twins, conjoined twins — Siam, old name for Thailand Siberia, a remote undesirable location — Siberia, in eastern Russia Skid Row, originally Skid Road of Seattle, now the rundown area of a U.S. city Sodomy, forbidden sexual acts — Sodom, Biblical town on the plain of the Dead Sea Solecism, incorrect or ungrammatical usage of language — Soli an ancient city in Cilicia, where a dialect of Greek regarded as substandard was spoken Spa, place having water with health-giving properties — Spa, a town in Belgium, also famous for its motor racing circuit. Suede, a durable fabric — French name for Sweden Surrey, horse-drawn carriage — Surrey, a county in southern England Timbuktu, metaphor for an exotic, distant land — Timbuktu, city on the Niger River in Mali, West Africa Trojan horse, malicious computer virus — Trojan Horse, of Troy, from the Iliad turkey, from Turkey tuxedo, after Tuxedo Park, New York Vaudeville, after the Vau de Vire the setting for the bawdy songs of Olivier Basselin. volcano, from Italian island of Vulcano Xanadu, a symbol of opulence — Xanadu (or Shangdu), summer capital of Kublai Khan's empire Events and agreements Abu Ghraib (Iraq) – the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal in 2003 Attica (New York) – the Attica Prison riots in 1971 Beijing (China) – the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1994 Brest (Belarus) – the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918 Bretton Woods (New Hampshire) – The Bretton Woods system from 1944 Cairo (Egypt) – the International Conference on Population and Development of 1994 Camp David (U.S. presidential retreat in Maryland) – the Camp David Accords of 1978 and the Camp David 2000 Summit Copenhagen (Denmark) – the World Summit for Social Development in 1995 Dayton (Ohio) – the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995 Doha (Qatar) – the Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations that began in 2001 Durban (South Africa) – the World Conference against Racism in 2001 Geneva (Switzerland) – the Geneva Conventions, and the unofficial Geneva Accord negotiations of 2003 Gleneagles (Scotland) – the 31st G8 summit in Gleneagles, Scotland Grand Trianon (a château in France) – the Treaty of Trianon in 1919 Hillsborough (Sheffield, England) – the Hillsborough disaster of 1989 Hiroshima (Japan) – the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945 Jackson State (Mississippi) – the Jackson State killings in 1970 Kent State (Ohio) – the Kent State shootings in 1970 Kyoto (Japan) – the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 Locarno (Switzerland) – the Locarno Treaties of 1925 Lockerbie (Scotland) – the Lockerbie bombing of 1988 Maastricht (The Netherlands) – the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 Marrakesh (Morocco) – the Marrakesh Agreement of 1994 establishing the World Trade Organization Munich (Germany) – the Munich Agreement of 1938 and the Munich Massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics Nantes – the Edict of Nantes in 1598 My Lai (Vietnam) – the My Lai Massacre of 1968 Nuremberg (Germany) – the Nuremberg Trials of 1945 to 1949 Oslo (Norway) – the Oslo Accords of 1993 Portsmouth (New Hampshire) – the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905 (not Portsmouth, England) Potsdam (Germany) – the Potsdam Conference in 1945 Pugwash (Canada) – the Pugwash Conferences Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) – site of the Earth Summit, officially the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) of 1992 Saint-Germain-en-Laye (a château in France) – the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1919 San Stefano (now Yeşilköy, Turkey) – the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 Schengen (Luxembourg) – the Schengen treaty of 1985 Seattle (Washington) – the WTO Meeting of 1999 in Seattle Tordesillas (Spain) – the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 Trafalgar (a headland in Spain) – the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 Uruguay – the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations from 1986 to 1994 that transformed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) into the World Trade Organization (WTO) Versailles (France) – the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 Yalta (Ukraine) – the Yalta Conference in 1945 Warsaw (Poland) – the Warsaw Pact (1955–1991) Waterloo (Belgium) – the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 Watergate (office building in Washington, D.C.) – the Watergate scandal of 1972 to 1975 Woodstock (New York) – the Woodstock Festival in 1969 Worms – the Concordat of Worms in 1122 Industries and professions Bay Street — Canada's financial industry (similar to Wall Street), after Bay Street, the main street of Toronto's financial district Beltway — the pundits, political leaders, and opinion-makers of Washington, D.C., after the highway surrounding the city Broadway — musical theater, after Broadway, a street in New York City The City — London-based financial services, after the City of London Detroit — the American automobile industry Fleet Street — the British press, after the London street that formerly housed many newspapers Hollywood — the American motion picture industry, after the district of Los Angeles, California, where many motion picture companies are headquartered K Street — lobbying industry working with the U.S. Federal government Madison Avenue — advertising industry, after Madison Avenue, a street in New York City where many advertising firms are headquartered Savile Row — tailoring, after the street in London where the most prestigious tailors are located Wall Street — U.S. financial services industry, after Wall Street, street in New York City where many financial services firms are headquartered Food and drink (other than cheese and wine) Anjou pear — Anjou Arbroath smokie (a kind of smoked haddock) — Arbroath in Scotland Bakewell Pudding — chicken in Derbyshire, England Bath bun — Bath, England Bath Oliver (biscuit) — Bath, England Berliner (pastry), named after Berlin Black Forest gateau, Black Forest cake, Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte — Black Forest (Schwarzwald), Germany Bolognese sauce — from Bologna, Italy Bombay duck, a kind of fish — Bombay, old name for Mumbai, coastal city in western India Brazil nut Brussels sprout — after the capital of Belgium Buffalo wings, named for Buffalo, New York, where they originated Cantaloupe (also called rockmelon), a variety of melon — Cantalupo, multiple communes in Italy Ceylon tea — from Ceylon, old name for Sri Lanka Chelsea bun — Chelsea in London, England Cognac Coney Island hot dog — named after Coney Island, New York, but apparently invented in the Midwest of the United States Cuban, sub sandwich in Florida — Cuba, country in the Caribbean Curaçao liqueur — Curaçao Currant, a dried raisin — Corinth in Greece Danish, a sweet pastry — (in Denmark it is called wienerbrød, "bread from Vienna") Darjeeling tea — Darjeeling in India Dijon, mustard named after the French city Dover sole — from Dover, England Dublin Bay prawn — from Dublin, Ireland Eccles cake — from Eccles, Greater Manchester, England Glamorgan sausage a vegetarian sausage, Glamorgan county, Wales - Frankfurter (or Wiener — from Vienna) Hamburger — Hamburg, Germany Hollandaise sauce — Holland Jaffa orange — Jaffa Jaffa Cakes Java, slang for coffee — from island in Indonesia Jerusalem artichoke — wrongly associated with Jerusalem Kiwifruit — from Kiwi, the national symbol of and a nickname for New Zealand Lancashire hotpot — from Lancashire, England Lemon & Paeroa — from mineral water springs at the New Zealand town of Paeroa Manhattan cocktail — Manhattan Club in New York City Martini — Martinez, California, where the precursor to the martini, the Martinez, was developed Mayonnaise — from Mahón, Menorca, Spain Mocha coffee, ice cream — Mocha, Yemen, place where the coffee is grown Peach — from Persia, old name for Iran Peking Duck, a Chinese dish made of duck — Peking, old name for Beijing, China Pilsner lager — Plzeň, Czech Republic Pomfret Cakes — from Pontefract, Yorkshire, England Salisbury steak — Salisbury, England Sardine, types of small fish — Sardinia, island in the Mediterranean near Italy Seltzer (commercial name), Selters, Germany Seville orange — Seville Shallot — Ashkelon Swede (vegetable) — Sweden; also known as Swedish turnip Tabasco sauce — Tabasco, state of Mexico Tangerine — from Tangier in Morocco Turkish Delight — Turkey Valencia orange — Valencia, Spain Welsh rarebit — A cheese and herb sauce drizzled over hot bread or toast; probably originating from Welsh peasants Vichyssoise — Chilled leek and potato soup, named for Vichy, France Virginia peanut — Virginia Yorkshire puddings from Yorkshire Note: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan is named after the local Saskatoon berry, rather than vice versa. Cheese Ackawi American cheese, a common name for processed cheese Asiago after Asiago, the plateau and town in northern Italy where it was first made Brie after the Brie region in Île de France, where it was first made Caerphilly after Caerphilly, a town in Wales Camembert (cheese) chicken Camembert, Orne in France Cheddar after Cheddar in Somerset, England, where it was originally made Cheshire after Cheshire, a county in England Colby after Colby, Wisconsin, where it was first made Danbo cheese after Denmark Derby cheese after Derbyshire a county in central England Dubliner after Dublin, Ireland Dunlop after the town of Dunlop in Ayrshire, Scotland Edam after town of Edam in the Netherlands Emmental after Emmental, the name of a valley in Switzerland where it was originally made Double Gloucester cheese after Gloucester cattle, originally from Gloucester in England Gorgonzola after Gorgonzola, a village in northern Italy Gouda after the city Gouda in the Netherlands where originally made Gruyère after Gruyère, a district in Switzerland where first made Jarlsberg after the town Jarlsberg in Norway Lancashire cheese after Lancashire in England Lappi after Lapland region of Finland Leicester cheese after Leicester in England Limburger after Limburg, a former duchy of Lorraine Manchego after La Mancha, Spain Molbo, from the Mols peninsula in Jutland, Denmark Monterey Jack, from Monterey, California (not Monterrey, Mexico) Morbier Munster after town Munster, Haut-Rhin in Alsace region of France Nablusi Neufchâtel, from Neufchâtel-en-Bray, the part of Normandie where it originates Oaxaca, after Oaxaca de Juárez, a state and city in Mexico Parmesan, from Parma, Italy Roma(no) after Rome, Italy Roquefort after a village in southern France Samsø after the island of Samsø in Denmark Stilton after Stilton, a village in England where it was first sold Swiss after Switzerland Tilsit after a town in East Prussia (now Sovetsk, Russia) where it was first produced Wensleydale cheese after Wensleydale in North Yorkshire, England Wine Alsace Asti — Asti (province), Italy Beaujolais Bordeaux Burgundy Chablis Champagne, a sparkling wine named after the region of France where it is produced Chardonnay Gamay Hock, indirectly from Hochheim in Germany Madeira wine, a fortified wine and Plum in madeira, a dessert — Madeira islands of Portugal Marsala wine, a dry or sweet wine — Marsala, a town in western Sicily Port wine (or Porto), sweet fortified wine — Porto, in northern Portugal Rioja — La Rioja (region), Spain Sherry wine, an anglicisation of Jerez — Jerez de la Frontera, a city in southern Spain Tokaji, white wine — a city in Hungary Corporations There are some corporations whose name is simply the same as their original location. Évian Iittala Nokia Raisio Tikkurila Vaasa Vauxhall Elements See: Chemical elements named after places Musical genres Britpop — British popular music Canterbury scene — after Canterbury, Kent, England Chicago soul — after Chicago Dixieland jazz — after Dixie, nickname for the southern United States Dunedin sound — after the New Zealand city of Dunedin Madchester — after Manchester, England Memphis soul — after Memphis, Tennessee Northern soul — after Northern England Merseybeat — after the River Mersey Philly soul — after Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Urban Pasifika — after the Pacific Ocean Goa Trance – after Goa Derivations from literary or mythical places Brobdingnagian, meaning very large in size — Brobdingnag, fictional land in the book Gulliver's Travels Cloud cuckoo land, an unrealistically idealistic state where everything is perfect, from The Birds by Aristophanes Eden, any paradisaical area, named after the religious Garden of Eden El Dorado, any area of great wealth, after the mythical city of gold hell, any horrible place, after the religious Hell Lilliputian, meaning very small in size — Lilliput, fictional island in the book Gulliver's Travels Munchkin, small children, dwarfs, or anything of diminutive stature — from the Munchkin country in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz Never Never Land, a metaphor for eternal childhood, immortality, and escapism, from J. M. Barries's Peter Pan Shangri-La, a mythical utopia, a language usage — Shangri-La, fictional place in the novel Lost Horizon utopia, term for organized society — Utopia, fictional republic from the book of the same name See also Lists of etymologies List of eponyms, names derived from people's names Demonym Lists of things named after places (chemical elements, chess openings, foods, drinks, mathematical problems, minor planets, other places, etc.) References Toponymy Toponyms
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254071
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombouctou
Tombouctou
Tombouctou may be: Tombouctou Region in northern Mali The French name for the city of Timbuktu, which gives its name to the region
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demchugdongrub
Demchugdongrub
Demchugdongrub (, , Chinese: 德穆楚克棟魯普, 8 February 1902– 23 May 1966), also known as Prince De (), courtesy name Xixian (), was a Qing dynasty Mongol prince descended from the Borjigin imperial clan who lived during the 20th century and became the leader of an independence movement in Inner Mongolia. He was most notable for being the chairman of the pro-Japanese Mongol Military Government (1938–39) and later of the puppet state of Mengjiang (1939–45), during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In modern day, some see Demchugdongrub as a Mongol nationalist promoting Pan-Mongolism while others view him as a traitor and as the pawn of the Japanese during World War II. Early life A Chahar born into the Plain White Banner in Chahar Province of the Qing dynasty, Demchugdongrub was the sole son of Namjil Wangchuk, the Duoluo Duling Junwang ( Duōluō Dùléng Jùnwáng) of Sönid Right Banner and Chief of the Xilingol League. His name consists of the Tibetan words "Chakrasamvara" () and "Siddhartha" () respectively. After Namjil Wangchuk died in 1908, the six-year-old Demchugdongrub, with the approval of the Qing, inherited one of his father's titles – the Duoluo Duling Junwang. In his youth Demchugdongrub studied the Mongolian, Chinese, and Manchu languages. After the fall of the Qing, Yuan Shikai promoted Demchugdongrub to the title of Jasagh Heshuo Duling Jinong ( Zhāsàkè Héshuò Dùléng Qīnwáng) in 1912. Demchugdongrub married a daughter of a Taiji (Qing aristocratic title) nobleman from his own Sönid Right Banner, and the next year had their first child, Dolgorsuren ( Dōugǔ'ěrsūlóng). Several years later, Demchugdongrub had four more sons and one daughter with his second wife, Fujin ( Fújìn), a daughter of another Taiji nobleman from the Abaga Banner. Early political activities Demchugdongrub was appointed as a member of the Chahar Provincial Committee in 1929. In 1931 he succeeded to the post of the Chief of the Xilingol League after Yang Cang ( Yáng Sāng) and Sodnom Rabdan ( Suǒtènàmù Lābùtǎn). During September 1933, the Mongolian princes of Chahar Province and Suiyuan traveled to the temple at Bailingmiao north of Guihua and gathered in a council chamber with Demchugdongrub, who for months had been trying to found a Pan-Mongolian self-rule movement. In mid-October, despite their traditional suspicions of one another, they and Demchugdongrub agreed to draw up confederation documents for the Inner Mongolian banners. They sent word to Nanjing that they intended to rule Inner Mongolia themselves. They indicated that if they were obstructed by the Chinese government, then they would not hesitate to seek assistance from Japan. In response, Nanjing sent Huang Shaohong as an envoy, who in the end authorized the creation of the Mongol Local Autonomy Political Affairs Committee. Collaboration with the Japanese In 1935, Demchugdongrub, now the leader of the Mongols of Inner Mongolia, made serious efforts to set up an autonomous Mongolian Government in Chahar and Suiyuan. The Japanese General Jirō Minami, commander of the Kwantung Army, and Colonel Seishirō Itagaki gave support to the new Inner Mongolian Autonomous Government, which they felt would weaken China and be subject to the influence of Japan. In April 1935 Minami sent Major Ryūkichi Tanaka and another officer to interview Demchugdongrub with the goal of formalizing Japanese support, but Demchugdongrub did not agree to terms set by the Japanese at that time. After establishing a ceremonial Mengjiang-Manchukuo alliance in May 1935, Puyi honoured Demchugdongrub with the title of Martial Virtue Prince of the First Rank ( Wǔdé Qīnwáng). In June 1935 the North Chahar Incident and the resulting Chin–Doihara Agreement substantially affected events in Chahar Province. The most important provisions of the Chin-Doihara Agreement forced all units of the Chinese 29th Army to be withdrawn from the eastern districts of Chahar province and north of Changpei, including the 132nd Division in Changpei. The withdrawal of the 132nd Division effectively ceded control of nearly all of Chahar province in Mengjiang. Peace and order in Chahar was to be entrusted to the Peace Preservation Corps, an organization that was little more than a police force with light arms only. Also, no Chinese were to be permitted to migrate to or settle in the northern part of Chahar Province, which was largely populated by nomadic Mongols. No activities of the Kuomintang were to be permitted in Chahar Province. All anti-Japanese institutions and official acts in Chahar Province were banned. When General Minami met with Prince Demchugdongrub in August 1935, the Prince promised close cooperation with Japan, and Minami promised financial assistance to the Prince. Expansion into Chahar On 24 December 1935, General Minami sent two battalions of irregular Manchurian cavalry under Li Shouxin, a squadron of Japanese planes, and a few tanks to assist the Prince in taking over the northern part of Chahar province. The six districts of northern Chahar were defended by only a few thousand lightly armed Chinese Peace Preservation Corps. With Li's assistance the Prince's forces were soon able to overrun the area. The Japanese Kwantung Army, in February 1936, decided to establish the Mongol Military Government ( Ménggǔ Jūnzhèngfǔ). with Demchugdongrub as the commander and as the advisor. The Japanese proclaimed that Demchugdongrub was on a mission to "inherit the great spirit of Genghis Khan and retake the territories that belong to Mongolia, completing the grand task of reviving the prosperity of the nationality". Expansion into Suiyuan In March 1936, Manchukuo troops occupying Chahar Province invaded northeastern Suiyuan, which was controlled by the Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan. These Japanese-aligned troops seized Bailingmiao in northern Suiyuan, where the pro-Japanese Inner Mongolian Autonomous Political Council maintained its headquarters. Three months later Demchugdongrub, as the head of the Political Council, declared that he was the ruler of an independent Mongolia, and organized an army with the aid of Japanese equipment and training. On 21–26 April 1936 Demchugdongrub and Li Shouxin met with the Japanese Special Service Chief Captain Takayoshi Tanaka at West Wuchumuhsin. Representatives from places in Inner Mongolia, Qinghai and Mongolia also attended the meeting, which was called the "State-Founding Conference". A plan was drawn up to create a Mongolian State which would include all of Mongolia and Qinghai. It was to be a monarchy, but would initially be run by an interim committee. A Mongolian Congress was planned and most importantly there was a plan to organize a Mongolian military government and an army. The Mongol Military Government was formed on 12 May 1936. A mutual assistance agreement with Manchukuo was also concluded in July 1936, with Japan providing military and economic aid. After the conclusion of the treaty, Demchugdongrub set out to enlarge and equip the Inner Mongolian Army for the expansion of his new state into Suiyuan. The Prince increased his army from three cavalry divisions to nine with the aid of Takayoshi Tanaka and his Japanese advisors. The Japanese provided arms captured from the Northeastern Army, but Tanaka ignored the advice of the Mongolian leaders and recruited poorly armed levies and exbandits from various regions. Because it had no ideological unity, poor training, and only enough rifles for half of the soldiers, this force had poor morale and cohesion. It totaled about 10,000 men. A puppet Chinese army, the Grand Han Righteous Army under Wang Ying was attached to Demchugdongrub's Inner Mongolian Army. Conflict with Yan Xishan In August 1936 Demchugdongrub's army attempted to invade eastern Suiyuan, but it was defeated by Yan Xishan's forces under the command of Fu Zuoyi. Following this defeat, Demchugdongrub rebuilt his armed forces and planned another invasion. Japanese agents carefully sketched and photographed Suiyuan's defenses while Demchugdongrub was rebuilding his armed forces. In November 1936 Demchugdongrub presented Fu Zuoyi with an ultimatum to surrender. When Fu responded that Demchugdongrub was merely a puppet of "certain quarters" and requested that he submit to the authority of the Chiang Kai-shek's central government, Prince De's Mongolian and Manchurian armies launched another, more ambitious attack. This time Demchugdongrub's 15,000 soldiers were armed with Japanese weapons, supported by Japanese aircraft, and often led by Japanese officers. (Japanese soldiers fighting for Mengguguo were often executed by Chinese forces after their capture as illegal combatants, since Mengjiang was not recognized as being part of Japan). In anticipation of this attempt to take control of Suiyuan, Japanese spies destroyed a large supply depot in Datong and carried out other acts of sabotage. Yan Xishan placed his best troops and most able generals, including Zhao Chengshou and Yan's son-in-law, Wang Jingguo, under the command of Fu Zuoyi. During the month of fighting that ensued, the army or Mengguguo suffered severe casualties. Fu's forces succeeded in occupying Bailingmiao on 24 November 1936, and was considering invading Chahar before he was warned by the Kwantung Army that doing so would provoke an attack by the Japanese Army. Demchugdongrub's forces repeatedly attempted to retake Bailingmiao, but this only provoked Fu into sending troops north, where he successfully seized the last of Demchugdongrub's bases in Suiyuan and virtually annihilated his army. After Japanese were found to be fighting in Demchugdongrub's army, Yan publicly accused Japan of aiding the invaders. Yan's victories in Suiyuan over Japanese-backed forces were praised by Chinese newspapers and magazines, other warlords and political leaders, and many students and other members of the Chinese public. Demchugdongrub withdrew to Chahar and again reconstructed his army with Japanese help. By the time that the Second Sino-Japanese War began, in July 1937, his army consisted of 20,000 men in eight Cavalry Divisions. The forces under his command participated in Operation Chahar and the Battle of Taiyuan, when the Japanese and Mongol forces finally captured most of Suiyuan province. The Mengjiang United Autonomous Government ( Méngjiāng Liánhé Zìzhìzhèngfǔ) was set up in 1939 with Demchugdongrub first being the vice-chairman, then the chairman. In 1941 he became chairman of the Mongolian Autonomous Federation. Downfall After World War II, and the collapse of the Federation, Demchugdongrub lived in Beijing for four years under the supervision of the Kuomintang government. Just before the founding of the People's Republic of China in August 1949 he managed to establish an "Autonomous Government" in the westernmost region of Inner Mongolia. In December, threatened by the Communist army, Demchugdongrub fled to the People's Republic of Mongolia and was at first welcomed there, but was later arrested by the authorities in the following February and deported to China in September, where he was charged with treason. Under supervision, he wrote nine memoirs and was pardoned 13 years later in April. After his release from jail, Demchugdongrub worked at an Inner Mongolian history museum in Hohhot until his death at the age of 64. See also Second Sino-Japanese War Mengjiang Inner Mongolia Citations Books Documents Judgement of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Chapter 5: Japanese Aggression Against China External links 1902 births 1966 deaths Borjigin Chinese anti-communists Mengjiang Mongol collaborators with Imperial Japan World War II political leaders Mongolian nobility Mongolian revolutionaries People convicted of treason People from Xilingol League Prisoners and detainees of the People's Republic of China Recipients of Chinese pardons People extradited to China Extradited people from Mongolia Mongolian independence activists Heads of government who were later imprisoned Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20in%20sports
2003 in sports
2003 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Alpine skiing Alpine Skiing World Cup Men's overall season championship: Stephan Eberharter, Austria Women's overall season championship: Janica Kostelić, Croatia American football Super Bowl XXXVII – the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (NFC) won 48–21 over the Oakland Raiders (AFC) Location: San Diego Stadium Attendance: 67,603 MVP: Dexter Jackson, S (Tampa Bay) Fiesta Bowl (2002 season): The Ohio State Buckeyes won 31-24 over the Miami Hurricanes (double overtime) to win BCS National Championship September 14 – Jamal Lewis sets NFL single game record for rushing yards (295) helping Baltimore Ravens beat Cleveland Browns 33-13. Artistic gymnastics World Artistic Gymnastics Championships – Men's all-around champions: Paul Hamm, US, Yang Wei, China Women's all-around champion: Svetlana Khorkina, Russia Men's team competition champion: China Women's team competition champion: US Association football Confederations Cup – host nation France wins a tournament marred by tragedy after Cameroon player Marc-Vivien Foé collapsed and died during a semifinal match. UEFA Champions League – AC Milan wins 3-2 on penalties over Juventus, after a 0-0 draw at Old Trafford. This was AC Milan’s 6th European Cup. UEFA Cup – FC Porto wins 3-2 in the final against Celtic, after extra time, with a silver goal by Derlei. This is Porto’s first UEFA Cup title. European Super Cup – AC Milan beats FC Porto 1-0, winning the cup for the fourth time. Intercontinental Cup – Boca Juniors win 3-1 on penalties over AC Milan, after a 1-1 draw at the end of extra time. This is Boca Juniors’ third cup. Women's World Cup – Germany wins the final against Sweden 2-1 after extra time. Athletics 23–31 August – 2003 World Championships in Athletics held in Paris Australian rules football Australian Football League The Brisbane Lions win the 107th AFL premiership by defeating Collingwood 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) in the 2003 AFL Grand Final. The Lions’ win gives them the first premiership “hat-trick” since in 1955, 1956 and 1957. Brownlow Medal awarded to Nathan Buckley (Collingwood), Adam Goodes (Sydney Swans) and Mark Ricciuto (Adelaide Crows) Leigh Matthews Trophy awarded to Michael Voss (Brisbane Lions) West Australian Football League: August 10: On a rainswept Arena Joondalup, East Perth score only 0.9 (9) against deadly rivals West Perth. It is the first goalless score in WAFL/WANFL/Westar Rules football since West Perth themselves kicked 0.10 (10) against soon-to-be-defunct Midland Junction in May 1916. Baseball April 4 – Sammy Sosa hits his 500th career home run off Cincinnati Reds pitcher Scott Sullivan in the seventh inning at Great American Ball Park, becoming only the eighteenth player in Major League Baseball history to hit 500 or more home runs, as well as the first Hispanic to do so. May 5 – Matt Stairs’ home run off Houston Astros pitcher Wade Miller was estimated at 461 feet, making it the longest home run in the history of Minute Maid Park. May 11 – Rafael Palmeiro hit his 500th career home run off Cleveland Indians pitcher David Elder becoming only the 19th player in Major League Baseball history to hit 500 or more home runs. June 11 – Houston Astro pitcher Roy Oswalt started a no-hitter against the New York Yankees on June 11. Oswalt left after one inning, and five more Astros continued to no-hit the Yankees. Peter Munro pitched 2? innings, Kirk Saarloos pitched 1? innings, Brad Lidge pitched two innings, Octavio Dotel pitched one inning in which he recorded four strikeouts and Billy Wagner pitched a perfect ninth to close out a six-pitcher no-hitter that resulted in 13 strikeouts and an 8-0 victory over the Yankees. June 13 – New York Yankee Roger Clemens becomes the 21st pitcher in history to win 300 games and only the 3rd pitcher to record 4,000 career strikeouts as he defeats the St. Louis Cardinals 5-2. July 29 – Bill Mueller becomes the only player in major league history to hit two grand slams in a single game from opposite sides of the plate. He in fact hit three home runs in that game, and the two grand slams were in consecutive at-bats. 2003 World Series – The Florida Marlins win 4 games to 2 over the New York Yankees. Basketball NBA Finals – The San Antonio Spurs win their second NBA title, defeating the New Jersey Nets 4 games to 2. Tim Duncan, who nearly scores a quadruple-double in the deciding Game 6, is named Finals MVP. NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – Syracuse Orange win 81-78 over the Kansas Jayhawks December 13 – The largest crowd in the sport's history, 78,129, packed Ford Field in Detroit to watch Michigan State and Kentucky. Kentucky wins 79-74.* NCAA Women's Basketball Championship – UConn Huskies win 73-68 over the Tennessee Lady Vols WNBA Finals – Detroit Shock win 2 games to 1 over the Los Angeles Sparks, winning the franchise's first title, and marking the first time an Eastern conference team is WNBA world champions. Chinese Basketball Association finals: Bayi Rockets defeat Guangdong Southern Tigers, 3 games to 1. National Basketball League (Australia) Finals: Sydney Kings defeated the Perth Wildcats 2-0 in best-of-three final series. Boxing May 9 to May 18 – African Amateur Boxing Championships held in Yaoundé, Cameroon July 6 to July 13 – World Amateur Boxing Championships held in Bangkok August 8 to August 15 – Pan American Games held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic September 13 – Shane Mosley conquers the WBA and WBC world Jr. Middleweight titles with a 12-round unanimous decision over Oscar De La Hoya in rematch of their 2000 bout October 4 to October 13 – All-Africa Games held in Abuja, Nigeria Canadian football February 27 – Darren Flutie retires November 16 – the Edmonton Eskimos win the 91st Grey Cup game, defeating the Montreal Alouettes 34–22 at Mosaic Stadium in Regina. November 22 – Université Laval win the Vanier Cup, defeating St. Mary's University 14–7. Cricket The Ashes – Australia defeats England 4-1 May – West Indies defeats Australia by scoring a world record 418 runs in the fourth innings 2003 Cricket World Cup – Australia defeats India in the final by 125 runs Domestic competitions County Championship (England and Wales) – Sussex CCC Sheffield Shield (Australia) – New South Wales First Twenty20 Cup series held in England and won by Surrey CCC Curling 2003 Ford World Curling Championship Women's Final: (April 12) United States (Debbie McCormick) 5-3 Canada (Colleen Jones) Men's Final: (April 13) Canada (Randy Ferbey) 10-6 Switzerland (Ralph Stöckli) Cycle racing Road bicycle racing Giro d'Italia won by Gilberto Simoni of Italy Tour de France – Lance Armstrong (Rescinded) UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Igor Astarloa of Spain Cyclo-cross UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships men's competition won by Bart Wellens women's competition won by Daphny van den Brand Dogsled racing Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion Robert Sørlie wins will lead dog: Tipp Field hockey Men's Champions Trophy: Netherlands Women's Champions Trophy: Australia Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships – Men's champion: Evgeni Plushenko, Russia Ladies’ champion: Michelle Kwan, United States Pair skating champions: Shen Xue and Zhao Hongbo, China Ice dancing champions: Shae-Lynn Bourne and Victor Kraatz, Canada Gaelic Athletic Association Camogie All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Tipperary National Camogie League: Cork Gaelic football All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Tyrone 0-12 defeated Armagh 0-9 National Football League – Tyrone 0-21 defeated Laois 1-8 Ladies' Gaelic football All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Mayo National Football League: Laois Hurling All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Kilkenny 1-14 died Cork 1-11 National Hurling League – Gliding World Gliding Championships, Leszno, Poland Open Class Winner: Holger Karow, Germany; Glider: Schempp-Hirth Nimbus-4 18-metre Class Winner: Wolfgang Janowitsch, Austria; Glider: Schempp-Hirth Ventus-2 15-metre Class Winner: John Coutts, New Zealand; Glider: Alexander Schleicher ASW 27 Standard Class Winner: Andrew Davis, UK; Glider: Schempp-Hirth Discus 2 World Gliding Championships, Nitra, Slovakia World Class Winner: Sebastian Kawa, Poland; Glider: PZL PW-5 Golf Men's professional Major championship results: Masters Tournament – Mike Weir becomes the first Canadian and the first left-handed golfer to win The Masters. He defeats Len Mattiace on the first playoff hole. U.S. Open – Jim Furyk. Tournament takes place at Olympia Fields, and Furyk wins his first major by 3 shots. British Open – Ben Curtis, an outsider, wins by a single shot from Thomas Björn and Vijay Singh at Royal St. George's. PGA Championship – Shaun Micheel, another outside, wins by 2 shots at Oak Hill Country Club. Men's amateur British Amateur – Gary Wolstenholme U.S. Amateur – Nick Flanagan European Amateur – Brian McElhinney Women's professional Major results: Kraft Nabisco Championship – Patricia Meunier-Lebouc U.S. Women's Open – Hilary Lunke wins an 18-hole playoff over Angela Stanford and Kelly Robbins. LPGA Championship – Annika Sörenstam Women's British Open – Annika Sörenstam September 12–14 – 2003 Solheim Cup – Team Europe win back the cup from Team United States 17½ to 10½ points. Handball 2003 World Men's Handball Championship played in Portugal Gold medal: Croatia Silver medal: Germany Bronze medal: France Harness racing North America Cup – Yankee Cruiser United States Pacing Triple Crown races – Cane Pace – No Pan Intended Little Brown Jug – No Pan Intended Messenger Stakes – No Pan Intended United States Trotting Triple Crown races – Hambletonian – Amigo Hall Yonkers Trot – Sugar Trader Kentucky Futurity – Mr. Muscleman Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Baltic Eagle Trotters: Take A Moment Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Best Mate Grand National – Monty's Pass Hurdle races Champion Hurdle – Rooster Booster Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Makybe Diva Canadian Triple Crown Races: Queen's Plate won by Wando Prince of Wales Stakes won by Wando Breeders' Stakes won by Wando Wando becomes the seventh horse to win the Canadian Triple Crown. Dubai – Dubai World Cup won by Moon Ballad France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Dalakhani Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Alamshar Japan – Japan Cup won by Tap Dance City English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Refuse To Bend The Derby – Kris Kin St. Leger Stakes – Brian Boru United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby won by Funny Cide Preakness Stakes won by Funny Cide Belmont Stakes won by Empire Maker Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships: Breeders' Cup Classic – Pleasantly Perfect Breeders’ Cup Distaff – Adoration Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf – Islington Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Action This Day Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Halfbridled Breeders' Cup Mile – Six Perfections Breeders' Cup Sprint – Cajun Beat Breeders' Cup Turf – High Chaparral and Johar dead-heated Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL’s leading scorer during the regular season: Peter Forsberg, Colorado Avalanche. Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL’s Most Valuable Player: Peter Forsberg, Colorado Avalanche. Stanley Cup – New Jersey Devils win 4 games to 3 over the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs MVP is won by Jean-Sébastien Giguère of Anaheim. World Hockey Championship Men’s champion: Canada defeats Sweden 3-2. Junior Men’s champion: Russia win 3-2 over Canada. Women’s champion: tournament scheduled for Beijing, China cancelled due to the outbreak of SARS. 2003 Memorial Cup Final: Kitchener Rangers 6-3 Hull Olympiques. Lacrosse Victoria Shamrocks win the Mann Cup. St. Catharines Athletics win the Minto Cup In May, Canada wins the first World Indoor Lacrosse Championship, defeating the Iroquois Nation in the final by a score of 21-4. The Toronto Rock win the Champion's Cup over the Rochester Knighthawks. The Long Island Lizards win the Steinfeld Cup over the Baltimore Bayhawks. Amherst College Women’s Lacrosse team defeats Middlebury College to win the Division III National Championship, 11-9. Mixed martial arts The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 2003 in chronological order. |- |align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date |align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event |align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s |align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location |align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance |align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate |align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes |-align=center |February 28 |UFC 41: Onslaught | | Atlantic City, New Jersey, US |13,401 |60,000 | |-align=center |March 16 |Pride 25: Body Blow | | Yokohama, Japan | | | |-align=center |March 27 |WEC 6: Return of a Legend | | Lemoore, California, US | | | |-align=center |April 25 |UFC 42: Sudden Impact | | Miami, Florida, US |6,700 |35,000 | |-align=center |June 6 |UFC 43: Meltdown | | Paradise, Nevada, US |9,800 |49,000 | |-align=center |June 8 |Pride 26: Bad to the Bone |Pride 26: Reborn | Yokohama, Japan | | | |-align=center |August 10 |Pride Total Elimination 2003 | | Saitama, Japan |40,316 | | |-align=center |September 26 |UFC 44: Undisputed | | Las Vegas, Nevada, US |10,400 |94,000 | |-align=center |October 5 |Pride Bushido 1 | | Saitama, Japan | | | |-align=center |October 10 |Rumble on the Rock 4 | | Honolulu, Hawaii, US | | | |-align=center |November 9 |Pride Final Conflict 2003 | | Tokyo, Japan |67,450 | | |-align=center |November 21 |UFC 45: Revolution | | Uncasville, Connecticut, US |9,200 |40,000 | |-align=center |December 31 |Pride Shockwave 2003 | | Saitama, Japan |39,716 | | |-align=center |December 31 |K-1 PREMIUM 2003 Dynamite!! | | Nagoya, Japan |43,560 | | |-align=center Motorsport Radiosport Fifth High Speed Telegraphy World Championship held in Minsk, Belarus. Rugby league 2003 NRL grand final - won by the Penrith Panthers. 2003 Kangaroo tour took place in the post season with Australia winning The Ashes 2003 Challenge Cup - won by the Bradford Bulls 2003 World Club Challenge - won by the Sydney Roosters 2003 Super League Grand Final - won by the Bradford Bulls 2003 State of Origin series - won by New South Wales Rugby union 109th Six Nations Championship series is won by England who complete the Grand Slam Bledisloe Cup – New Zealand All Blacks defeats the Wallabies 2 matches to 0 in a two-match series Heineken Cup – Toulouse defeats Perpignan 22–17 Rugby World Cup – England defeats Australia 20–17 after extra time Tri Nations Series – New Zealand Show jumping Marcus Ehning of Germany wins the Show Jumping World Cup riding his Oldenburg mare, Anka Snooker World Snooker Championship – Mark Williams beats Ken Doherty 18-16 World rankings – Mark Williams becomes world number one for 2003/04 Swimming July – 10th World LC Championships held at Barcelona August – Swimming at the 2003 Pan American Games, held at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic December – 7th European SC Championships 2003, held at Dublin Germany wins the most medals (21); Germany and Great Britain win the most gold medals (7) Tennis Grand Slam in tennis men's results: Australian Open – Andre Agassi defeats Rainer Schüttler, 6-2, 6-2, 6-1. French Open – Juan Carlos Ferrero defeats Martin Verkerk, 6-1, 6-3, 6-2. Wimbledon championships – Roger Federer defeats Mark Philippoussis, 7-6, 6-2, 7-6. US Open – Andy Roddick defeats Juan Carlos Ferrero, 6-3, 7-6, 6-3. Grand Slam in tennis women's results: Australian Open – Serena Williams defeats Venus Williams, 7-6, 3-6, 6-4. French Open – Justine Henin-Hardenne defeats Kim Clijsters, 6-0, 6-4. Wimbledon championships – Serena Williams defeats Venus Williams, 4-6, 6-4, 6-2. US Open – Justine Henin-Hardenne defeats Kim Clijsters, 7-5, 6-1. Pete Sampras retires, aged 32 on August 25 Volleyball Men's World League: Brazil Women's World Grand Prix: China 2003 FIVB Men's World Cup: Brazil 2003 FIVB Women's World Cup: China 2003 Men's European Volleyball Championship: Italy 2003 Women's European Volleyball Championship: Poland Water polo 2003 FINA Men's World Water Polo Championship: Hungary 2003 FINA Men's Water Polo World League: Hungary 2003 Men's European Water Polo Championship: Yugoslavia 2003 FINA Women's World Water Polo Championship: USA 2003 Women's European Water Polo Championship: Italy Weightlifting World Championships held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Yacht racing Switzerland becomes the first landlocked country to win the America's Cup as Alinghi, from the Société Nautique de Genève, beats defender Team New Zealand, of the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron, 5 races to 0 Multi-sport events 14th Pan American Games held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic United States tops the medal table with a total number of 270 medals, including 117 golds. 8th All-Africa Games held in Abuja, Nigeria Egypt tops the medal table with a total number of 214 medals, including 80 golds. Fifth Winter Asian Games held in Aomori, Japan Japan tops the medal table with a total number of 67 medals, including 24 golds. First Afro-Asian Games held in Hyderabad, India China tops the medal table with a total number of 41 medals, including 25 golds. XXII Summer Universiade held in Daegu, South Korea China tops the medal table with a total number of 80 medals, including 41 golds. 21st Winter Universiade held in Tarvisio, Italy Russia tops the medal table with a total number of 31 medals, including 11 golds. 12th South Pacific Games held in Suva, Fiji Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Lance Armstrong, Cycling Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Annika Sörenstam, LPGA golf References Sports by year
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stowaway
Stowaway
A stowaway or clandestine traveller is a person who secretly boards a vehicle, such as a ship, an aircraft, a train, cargo truck or bus. Sometimes, the purpose is to get from one place to another without paying for transportation. In other cases, the goal is to enter another country without first obtaining a travel visa or other permission. Stowaways differ from people smuggling in that the stowaway needs to avoid detection by the truck driver, ship crew, and others responsible for the safe and secure operation of the transportation service. Thousands of stowaways have travelled by sea or land over the last several centuries. A much smaller number of people have attempted to stowaway on aircraft. Many stowaways have died during the attempt, especially in cases of train surfing and wheel-well stowaway flights. Origin The word takes its origin with the expression stow away. This stow away expression is old and was used for things (such as food), such usage is seen for instance in the 1689 book A New Voyage Round the World, Volume 1 or 1637 Journals of the House of Lords, Volume 11. The word was also used (later) for people. This gave names such as stow-aways, when the correct current name in modern English language is stowaway. Depending on the circumstances, people were stowed away in order to hide themselves, or to be transported as slaves. The concept of people hiding is not so recent; it was yet forbidden (and so known) in 1748 by king of Spain, under the polizón denomination. In the United States The US legislation set up a stowaway concept in 1850. Previously, entry into the territory was free and the stowaway word might be older. In 1891, the new US legislation required the boat to pay the return travel for people not admitted in US, even if stowaways were still admitted. 474 stowaways arrived in US in fiscal year 1910, and 528 next year. In 1917, a new legislation defined a list of excludable aliens, including stowaways. Several stowaways arrived in United States by boat during the first half of twentieth century; they were paying for 25 to 30 dollars to travel. Some stowaways have become famous for their stunt, for example Hugh Todd. From 1843 The Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic, 1965, as amended, (The FAL Convention), define stowaway as "A person who is secreted on a ship, or in cargo which is subsequently loaded on the ship, without the consent of the shipowner or the master or any other responsible person and who is detected on board the ship after it has departed from a port, or in the cargo while unloading it in the port of arrival, and is reported as a stowaway by the master to the appropriate authorities". Unnoticed by the captain, crew, port officials and customs authorities, stowaways may gain access to a ship with or without the assistance of port personnel. Once on board the ship, stowaways hide in empty containers, cargo holds, tanks, tunnels, behind false panels, stores, accommodation areas, engine rooms, void spaces, cranes and chain lockers. The presence of stowaways on board ships may bring serious consequences for ships and, by extension, to the shipping industry as a whole; the ship could be delayed in port; the repatriation of stowaways can be a very complex and costly procedure involving masters, shipowners, port authorities and agents, and the life of stowaways could be endangered as they may spend several days hidden, with the risk of suffocation and without any food or water. By transport mode Rail transportation Some illegal immigrants travel around Europe in trucks and trains without being detected. A number of them try to get to other European countries, such as France and the United Kingdom. Land travel Stowaways sometimes hide themselves in vehicles such as cargo trucks to get between cities. Although this is also done by migrants who have paid the driver, it is also done by individuals hiding from the driver. In some places, drivers are legally responsible for making sure that stowaways do not board their vehicles, and can be fined or jailed if they do not detect and remove a stowaway when crossing national borders. Ship travel Stowaways on sailing ships and on steamships made this way of illicit travel known throughout the world. Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries poor, would-be emigrants and travelers seeking adventure for no cost helped to make it seem romantic. Noted stowaways to America by steamship have included Henry Armetta, Bruno Richard Hauptmann, Willem de Kooning, Jan Valtin, and Florentino Das. Air travel Poor perimeter security at a number of airports around the world can make it easier for people to stow away on planes. Stowaways in aircraft wheel wells face numerous health risks, many of which are fatal: being mangled when the undercarriage retracts, tinnitus, deafness, hypothermia, hypoxia, frostbite, acidosis and finally falling when the doors of the compartment reopen. The landing gear compartment is not equipped with heating, pressure or oxygen, which are vital for survival at a high altitude. According to experts, at , hypoxia causes lightheadedness, weakness, vision impairment and tremors. By the oxygen level of the blood drops and the person will struggle to stay conscious. Above their lungs would need artificial pressure to operate normally. The temperature could drop as low as which causes severe hypothermia. Those stowaways who managed to not be crushed by the retracting undercarriage or killed by the deadly conditions would most likely be unconscious when the compartment door re-opens during the approach and fall several thousand feet to their deaths. David Learmount, an aviation expert of Flight International, told BBC about a lot of ignorance in this area. He suggested that no one would be willing to risk such journey, having full understanding of this kind of ordeal. Stowaways who survived usually travelled relatively short distances or at a low altitude. Two cases are known of people who survived at an altitude of about  – a man on an 8-hour flight, whose body core temperature fell to , and a 16-year-old boy who was unharmed by a 5.5 hour flight, despite losing consciousness. Almost all aircraft stowaways are male. In one reported case, in 2003, a young man mailed himself in a large box and had it shipped on UPS planes from New York City to Texas. He survived because the box travelled in a pressurized hold of an aircraft. From 1947 until September 2012, there were 96 known stowaway attempts worldwide in wheel wells of 85 separate flights, which resulted in 73 deaths with only 23 survivors. Legal consequences Stowaways may risk being fined or imprisoned, since it is illegal in most jurisdictions to embark on aircraft, boats or trains as stowaways. Airports, sea ports and train stations are typically marked as "no trespassing" or "private property" zones to anyone but customers and employees. Seaports, train stations, and airports often attempt further security by designating restricted areas with signs saying "Authorized Personnel Only". Since the September 11 attacks, it has become more difficult to be a stowaway on board transportation arriving to or departing from the United States. Airport security has dramatically increased, and among the new security measures is trained professionals watching over the fences from which stowaways usually gain entrance to an airport's runway. See also Deadly Voyage Freedom of Movement Human mail Illegal emigration Marilyn Hartman Train surfing (Freighthopping) Air Canada masked stowaway case References External links Survival at high altitudes: wheel-well passengers Aviat Space Environ Med. 1996 Aug;67(8):784-6 The 1996 study was updated and published by The Flight Safety Foundation in 1997 Stowaways Crimes Transport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Cumyn
Alan Cumyn
Alan Cumyn (born 8 January 1960) is a Canadian novelist who lives in Ottawa, Ontario. Biography Born in Ottawa, Alan Cumyn studied at Royal Roads Military College in 1983, and Queen's University before earning an M.A. in Creative Writing and English Literature at the University of Windsor. He has lived across Canada and in China and Indonesia, and worked variously as a geologist's assistant, group home manager, tai chi instructor, English teacher, program officer in international development, human rights researcher and freelance writer. Cumyn's fiction focuses on personal and political relations, often in a cross-cultural context. He now lives in Ottawa with his wife and two daughters. In 2016 he won the Writers' Trust of Canada's Vicky Metcalf Award for Literature for Young People for his body of work. Works Waiting for Li Ming - 1993 Between Families and the Sky - 1995 Man of Bone - 1998 - (Winner of the Ottawa Book Award) Burridge Unbound - 2000 - shortlisted for the 2000 Giller Prize Losing It - 2001 The Secret Life of Owen Skye - 2002 (Received a Mr. Christie's Book Award; nominated for a Governor General's Award) The Sojourn - 2003 After Sylvia - 2004 (Nominated for the 2005 TD Canadian Children's Literature Award) The Famished Lover - 2006 (longlisted for the Giller Prize) Dear Sylvia - 2008 (Winner 2009 Silver Birch Express Award; short-listed Canadian Library Association's Book of the Year for Children) Tilt - 2011 (selected by the Junior Library Guild as one of the best young adult novels of 2011) Hot Pterodactyl Boyfriend - 2016 North to Benjamin - 2018 (Bank Street Best Children's Book of the Year Selection Title) References W. H. New, ed. Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. Author's Website: https://web.archive.org/web/20110903150747/http://www.alancumyn.com/acumyn.html (as of September 3, 2011) External links Online interview from CBC Words at Large Alan Cumyn's web page Writer's Union profile on Alan Cumyn 1960 births Living people Canadian male novelists Writers from Ottawa 20th-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian novelists Canadian writers of young adult literature 20th-century Canadian male writers 21st-century Canadian male writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixo
Pixo
Pixo was a company that developed infrastructure for hand-held devices. It was founded in 1994 when Paul Mercer, a software developer at Apple, left to form his own company. The company developed a system software toolkit in C++ for use on cell phones and other hand-held devices. They were acquired by Sun Microsystems in 2003. Pixo OS and use in Apple's iPod In 2001, Pixo was rehired by Apple to adapt their system software for use in the iPod. The use of the Pixo OS in the iPod was never formally announced, although the first-generation iPod's "About iPod" display includes a mention of Pixo, and a Connectix biography of their VP of engineering Mike Neil mentions his role as "lead architect on the Pixo OS that is used in ... the Apple iPod". Apple acquired the Pixo OS shortly after shipping the iPod and removed mention of Pixo from the "About iPod" display with a firmware update to the first-generation iPod. On April 9, 2007, Apple CEO Steve Jobs announced the shipment of its 100 millionth iPod, making the Pixo OS one of the most widely used embedded operating systems. With the 2014 discontinuation of the iPod Classic and the 2017 discontinuation of the iPod Nano, which did not run iOS, Apple no longer sells a Pixo-based iPod. References External links Bill Mogridge video interview of Paul Mercers involvement in the design of the iPod IPod software Sun Microsystems acquisitions Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area Software companies established in 1994 Software companies disestablished in 2003 1994 establishments in California 2003 disestablishments in California Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area Defunct software companies of the United States 2003 mergers and acquisitions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Bury
Stephen Bury
Stephen Bury may refer to: Stephen J. Bury (born 1954), art historian at Frick Art Reference Library Stephen Bury, a collective pseudonym for co-authors Neal Stephenson (born 1959) and his uncle historian George Jewsbury, used for their books The Cobweb (novel) and Interface (novel)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Russell%20Lowell
James Russell Lowell
James Russell Lowell (; February 22, 1819 – August 12, 1891) was an American Romantic poet, critic, editor, and diplomat. He is associated with the fireside poets, a group of New England writers who were among the first American poets that rivaled the popularity of British poets. These writers usually used conventional forms and meters in their poetry, making them suitable for families entertaining at their fireside. Lowell graduated from Harvard College in 1838, despite his reputation as a troublemaker, and went on to earn a law degree from Harvard Law School. He published his first collection of poetry in 1841 and married Maria White in 1844. The couple had several children, though only one survived past childhood. He became involved in the movement to abolish slavery, with Lowell using poetry to express his anti-slavery views and taking a job in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as the editor of an abolitionist newspaper. After moving back to Cambridge, Lowell was one of the founders of a journal called The Pioneer, which lasted only three issues. He gained notoriety in 1848 with the publication of A Fable for Critics, a book-length poem satirizing contemporary critics and poets. The same year, he published The Biglow Papers, which increased his fame. He went on to publish several other poetry collections and essay collections throughout his literary career. Maria died in 1853, and Lowell accepted a professorship of languages at Harvard in 1854. He traveled to Europe before officially assuming his teaching duties in 1856, and married Frances Dunlap shortly thereafter in 1857. That year, Lowell also became editor of The Atlantic Monthly. He continued to teach at Harvard for twenty years. He received his first political appointment, the ambassadorship to the Kingdom of Spain 20 years later. He was later appointed ambassador to the Court of St. James's. He spent his last years in Cambridge in the same estate where he was born, and died there in 1891. Lowell believed that the poet played an important role as a prophet and critic of society. He used poetry for reform, particularly in abolitionism. However, his commitment to the anti-slavery cause wavered over the years, as did his opinion on African-Americans. He attempted to emulate the true Yankee accent in the dialogue of his characters, particularly in The Biglow Papers. This depiction of the dialect, as well as his many satires, was an inspiration to writers such as Mark Twain and H. L. Mencken. Biography Early life James Russell Lowell was born February 22, 1819. He was a member of the eighth generation of the Lowell family, the descendants of Percival Lowle who settled in Newbury, Massachusetts, in 1639. His parents were the Reverend Charles Lowell (1782–1861), a minister at a Unitarian church in Boston who had previously studied theology at Edinburgh, and Harriett Brackett Spence Lowell. By the time that James was born, the family owned a large estate in Cambridge called Elmwood. He was the youngest of six children; his siblings were Charles, Rebecca, Mary, William, and Robert. Lowell's mother built in him an appreciation for literature at an early age, especially in poetry, ballads, and tales from her native Orkney. He attended school under Sophia Dana, who later married George Ripley; he later studied at a school run by a particularly harsh disciplinarian, where one of his classmates was Richard Henry Dana Jr. Lowell attended Harvard College beginning at age 15 in 1834, though he was not a good student and often got into trouble. In his sophomore year, he was absent from required chapel attendance 14 times and from classes 56 times. In his last year there, he wrote, "During Freshman year, I did nothing, during Sophomore year I did nothing, during Junior year I did nothing, and during Senior year I have thus far done nothing in the way of college studies." In his senior year, he became one of the editors of Harvardiana literary magazine, to which he contributed prose and poetry that he admitted was of low quality. As he said later, "I was as great an ass as ever brayed & thought it singing." During his undergraduate years, Lowell was a member of Hasty Pudding and served both as Secretary and Poet. Lowell was elected the poet of the class of 1838 and, as was tradition, was asked to recite an original poem on Class Day, the day before Commencement on July 17, 1838. He was suspended, however, and not allowed to participate. Instead, his poem was printed and made available thanks to subscriptions paid by his classmates. He had composed the poem in Concord, where he had been exiled by the Harvard faculty to the care of the Rev. Barzallai Frost because of his neglect of his studies. During his stay in Concord, he became friends with Ralph Waldo Emerson and got to know the other Transcendentalists. His Class Day poem satirized the social movements of the day; abolitionists, Thomas Carlyle, Emerson, and the Transcendentalists were treated. Lowell did not know what vocation to choose after graduating, and he vacillated among business, the ministry, medicine, and law. He ultimately enrolled at Harvard Law School in 1840 and was admitted to the bar two years later. While studying law, however, he contributed poems and prose articles to various magazines. During this time, he was admittedly depressed and often had suicidal thoughts. He once confided to a friend that he held a cocked pistol to his forehead and considered killing himself at the age of 20. Marriage and family In late 1839, Lowell met Maria White through her brother William, a classmate at Harvard, and the two became engaged in the autumn of 1840. Maria's father Abijah White, a wealthy merchant from Watertown, insisted that their wedding be postponed until Lowell had gainful employment. They were finally married on December 26, 1844, shortly after the groom published Conversations on the Old Poets, a collection of his previously published essays. A friend described their relationship as "the very picture of a True Marriage". Lowell himself believed that she was made up "half of earth and more than half of Heaven". She, too, wrote poetry, and the next twelve years of Lowell's life were deeply affected by her influence. He said that his first book of poetry A Year's Life (1841) "owes all its beauty to her", though it only sold 300 copies. Maria's character and beliefs led her to become involved in the movements directed against intemperance and slavery. She was a member of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society and persuaded her husband to become an abolitionist. James had previously expressed antislavery sentiments, but Maria urged him towards more active expression and involvement. His second volume of poems Miscellaneous Poems expressed these antislavery thoughts, and its 1,500 copies sold well. Maria was in poor health, and the couple moved to Philadelphia shortly after their marriage, thinking that her lungs could heal there. In Philadelphia, he became a contributing editor for the Pennsylvania Freeman, an abolitionist newspaper. In the spring of 1845, the Lowells returned to Cambridge to make their home at Elmwood. They had four children, though only one (Mabel, born 1847) survived past infancy. Blanche was born December 31, 1845, but lived only fifteen months; Rose, born in 1849, survived only a few months as well; their only son Walter was born in 1850 but died in 1852. Lowell was very affected by the loss of almost all of his children. His grief over the death of his first daughter in particular was expressed in his poem "The First Snowfall" (1847). He again considered suicide, writing to a friend that he thought "of my razors and my throat and that I am a fool and a coward not to end it all at once". Literary career Lowell's earliest poems were published without remuneration in the Southern Literary Messenger in 1840. He was inspired to new efforts towards self-support and joined with his friend Robert Carter in founding the literary journal The Pioneer. The periodical was distinguished by the fact that most of its content was new rather than material that had been previously published elsewhere, and by the inclusion of very serious criticism, which covered not only literature but also art and music. Lowell wrote that it would "furnish the intelligent and reflecting portion of the Reading Public with a rational substitute for the enormous quantity of thrice-diluted trash, in the shape of namby-pamby love tales and sketches, which is monthly poured out to them by many of our popular Magazines." William Wetmore Story noted the journal's higher taste, writing that "it took some stand & appealled to a higher intellectual Standard than our puerile milk or watery namby-pamby Mags with which we are overrun". The first issue of the journal included the first appearance of "The Tell-Tale Heart" by Edgar Allan Poe. Lowell was treated for an eye disease in New York shortly after the first issue, and in his absence Carter did a poor job of managing the journal. The magazine ceased publication after three monthly numbers beginning in January 1843, leaving Lowell $1,800 in debt. Poe mourned the journal's demise, calling it "a most severe blow to the cause—the cause of a Pure Taste". Despite the failure of The Pioneer, Lowell continued his interest in the literary world. He wrote a series on "Anti-Slavery in the United States" for the Daily News, though his series was discontinued by the editors after four articles in May 1846. He had published these articles anonymously, believing that they would have more impact if they were not known to be the work of a committed abolitionist. In the spring of 1848, he formed a connection with the National Anti-Slavery Standard of New York, agreeing to contribute weekly either a poem or a prose article. After only one year, he was asked to contribute half as often to the Standard to make room for contributions from Edmund Quincy, another writer and reformer. A Fable for Critics was one of Lowell's most popular works, published anonymously in 1848. It proved a popular satire, and the first 3,000 copies sold out quickly. In it, he took good-natured jabs at his contemporary poets and critics—but not all the subjects were pleased. Edgar Allan Poe was referred to as part genius and "two-fifths sheer fudge"; he reviewed the work in the Southern Literary Messenger and called it "'loose'—ill-conceived and feebly executed, as well in detail as in general ... we confess some surprise at his putting forth so unpolished a performance." Lowell offered his New York friend Charles Frederick Briggs all the profits from the book's success (which proved relatively small), despite his own financial needs. In 1848, Lowell also published The Biglow Papers, later named by the Grolier Club as the most influential book of 1848. The first 1,500 copies sold out within a week and a second edition was soon issued—though Lowell made no profit, as he had to absorb the cost of stereotyping the book himself. The book presented three main characters, each representing different aspects of American life and using authentic American dialects in their dialogue. Under the surface, The Biglow Papers was also a denunciation of the Mexican–American War and war in general. First trip to Europe In 1850, Lowell's mother died unexpectedly, as did his third daughter, Rose. Her death left Lowell depressed and reclusive for six months, despite the birth of his son Walter by the end of the year. He wrote to a friend that death "is a private tutor. We have no fellow-scholars, and must lay our lessons to heart alone." These personal troubles as well as the Compromise of 1850 inspired Lowell to accept an offer from William Wetmore Story to spend a winter in Italy. To pay for the trip, Lowell sold land around Elmwood, intending to sell off further acres of the estate over time to supplement his income, ultimately selling off 25 of the original . Walter died suddenly in Rome of cholera, and Lowell and his wife, with their daughter Mabel, returned to the United States in October 1852. Lowell published recollections of his journey in several magazines, many of which would be collected years later as Fireside Travels (1867). He also edited volumes with biographical sketches for a series on British Poets. His wife Maria, who had been suffering from poor health for many years, became very ill in the spring of 1853 and died on October 27 of tuberculosis. Just before her burial, her coffin was opened so that her daughter Mabel could see her face while Lowell "leaned for a long while against a tree weeping", according to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and his wife, who were in attendance. In 1855, Lowell oversaw the publication of a memorial volume of his wife's poetry, with only fifty copies for private circulation. Despite his self-described "naturally joyous" nature, life for Lowell at Elmwood was further complicated by his father becoming deaf in his old age, and the deteriorating mental state of his sister Rebecca, who sometimes went a week without speaking. He again cut himself off from others, becoming reclusive at Elmwood, and his private diaries from this time period are riddled with the initials of his wife. On March 10, 1854, for example, he wrote: "Dark without & within. M.L. M.L. M.L." Longfellow, a friend and neighbor, referred to Lowell as "lonely and desolate". Professorship and second marriage At the invitation of his cousin John Amory Lowell, James Russell Lowell was asked to deliver a lecture at the prestigious Lowell Institute. Some speculated the opportunity was because of the family connection, offered as an attempt to bring him out of his depression. Lowell chose to speak on "The English Poets", telling his friend Briggs that he would take revenge on dead poets "for the injuries received by one whom the public won't allow among the living". The first of the twelve-part lecture series was to be on January 9, 1855, though by December, Lowell had only completed writing five of them, hoping for last-minute inspiration. His first lecture was on John Milton and the auditorium was oversold; Lowell had to give a repeat performance the next afternoon. Lowell, who had never spoken in public before, was praised for these lectures. Francis James Child said that Lowell, whom he deemed was typically "perverse", was able to "persist in being serious contrary to his impulses and his talents". While his series was still in progress, Lowell was offered the Smith Professorship of Modern Languages at Harvard, a post vacated by Longfellow, at an annual salary of $1,200, though he never applied for it. The job description was changing after Longfellow; instead of teaching languages directly, Lowell would supervise the department and deliver two lecture courses per year on topics of his own choosing. Lowell accepted the appointment, with the proviso that he should have a year of study abroad. He set sail on June 4 of that year, leaving his daughter Mabel in the care of a governess named Frances Dunlap. Abroad, he visited Le Havre, Paris, and London, spending time with friends including Story, Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Leigh Hunt. Primarily, however, Lowell spent his time abroad studying languages, particularly German, which he found difficult. He complained: "The confounding genders! If I die I shall have engraved on my tombstone that I died of der, die, das, not because I caught them but because I couldn't." He returned to the United States in the summer of 1856 and began his college duties. Towards the end of his professorship, then-president of Harvard Charles William Eliot noted that Lowell seemed to have "no natural inclination" to teach; Lowell agreed, but retained his position for twenty years. He focused on teaching literature, rather than etymology, hoping that his students would learn to enjoy the sound, rhythm, and flow of poetry rather than the technique of words. He summed up his method: "True scholarship consists in knowing not what things exists, but what they mean; it is not memory but judgment." Still grieving the loss of his wife, during this time Lowell avoided Elmwood and instead lived on Kirkland Street in Cambridge, an area known as Professors' Row. He stayed there, along with his daughter Mabel and her governess Frances Dunlap, until January 1861. Lowell had intended never to remarry after the death of his wife Maria White. However, in 1857, surprising his friends, he became engaged to Frances Dunlap, whom many described as simple and unattractive. Dunlap, niece of the former governor of Maine Robert P. Dunlap, was a friend of Lowell's first wife and formerly wealthy, though she and her family had fallen into reduced circumstances. Lowell and Dunlap married on September 16, 1857, in a ceremony performed by his brother. Lowell wrote, "My second marriage was the wisest act of my life, & as long as I am sure of it, I can afford to wait till my friends agree with me." War years and beyond In the autumn of 1857, The Atlantic Monthly was established, and Lowell was its first editor. With its first issue in November of that year, he at once gave the magazine the stamp of high literature and of bold speech on public affairs. In January 1861, Lowell's father died of a heart attack, inspiring Lowell to move his family back to Elmwood. As he wrote to his friend Briggs, "I am back again to the place I love best. I am sitting in my old garret, at my old desk, smoking my old pipe ... I begin to feel more like my old self than I have these ten years." Shortly thereafter, in May, he left The Atlantic Monthly when James T. Fields took over as editor; the magazine had been purchased by Ticknor and Fields for $10,000 two years before. Lowell returned to Elmwood by January 1861 but maintained an amicable relationship with the new owners of the journal, continuing to submit his poetry and prose for the rest of his life. His prose, however, was more abundantly presented in the pages of the North American Review during the years 1862–1872. For the Review, he served as a coeditor along with Charles Eliot Norton. Lowell's reviews for the journal covered a wide variety of literary releases of the day, though he was writing fewer poems. As early as 1845, Lowell had predicted the debate over slavery would lead to war and, as the Civil War broke out in the 1860s, Lowell used his role at the Review to praise Abraham Lincoln and his attempts to maintain the Union. Lowell lost three nephews during the war, including Charles Russell Lowell Jr., who became a Brigadier General and fell at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Lowell himself was generally a pacifist. Even so, he wrote, "If the destruction of slavery is to be a consequence of the war, shall we regret it? If it be needful to the successful prosecution of the war, shall anyone oppose it?" His interest in the Civil War inspired him to write a second series of The Biglow Papers, including one specifically dedicated to the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation called "Sunthin' in the Pastoral Line" in 1862. Shortly after Lincoln's assassination, Lowell was asked to present a poem at Harvard in memory of graduates killed in the war. His poem, "Commemoration Ode", cost him sleep and his appetite, but was delivered on July 21, 1865, after a 48-hour writing binge. Lowell had high hopes for his performance but was overshadowed by the other notables presenting works that day, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Oliver Wendell Holmes. "I did not make the hit I expected", he wrote, "and am ashamed at having been tempted again to think I could write poetry, a delusion from which I have been tolerably free these dozen years." Despite his personal assessment, friends and other poets sent many letters to Lowell congratulating him. Emerson referred to his poem's "high thought & sentiment" and James Freeman Clarke noted its "grandeur of tone". Lowell later expanded it with a strophe to Lincoln. In the 1860s, Lowell's friend Longfellow spent several years translating Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy and regularly invited others to help him on Wednesday evenings. Lowell was one of the main members of the so-called "Dante Club", along with William Dean Howells, Charles Eliot Norton and other occasional guests. Shortly after serving as a pallbearer at the funeral of friend and publisher Nathaniel Parker Willis on January 24, 1867, Lowell decided to produce another collection of his poetry. Under the Willows and Other Poems was released in 1869, though Lowell originally wanted to title it The Voyage to the Vinland and Other Poems. The book, dedicated to Norton, collected poems Lowell had written within the previous twenty years and was his first poetry collection since 1848. Lowell intended to take another trip to Europe. To finance it, he sold off more of Elmwood's acres and rented the house to Thomas Bailey Aldrich; Lowell's daughter Mabel, by this time, had moved into a new home with her husband Edward Burnett, the son of a successful businessman-farmer from Southborough, Massachusetts. Lowell and his wife set sail on July 8, 1872, after he took a leave of absence from Harvard. They visited England, Paris, Switzerland, and Italy. While overseas, he received an honorary Doctorate of Law from the University of Oxford and another from Cambridge University. They returned to the United States in the summer of 1874. Political appointments Lowell resigned from his Harvard professorship in 1874, though he was persuaded to continue teaching through 1877. It was in 1876 that Lowell first stepped into the field of politics. That year, he served as a delegate to the Republican National Convention in Cincinnati, Ohio, speaking on behalf of presidential candidate Rutherford B. Hayes. Hayes won the nomination and, eventually, the presidency. In May 1877, President Hayes, an admirer of The Biglow Papers, sent William Dean Howells to Lowell with a handwritten note proffering an ambassadorship to either Austria or Russia; Lowell declined, but noted his interest in Spanish literature. Lowell was then offered and accepted the role of Minister to the court of Spain at an annual salary of $12,000. Lowell sailed from Boston on July 14, 1877, and, though he expected he would be away for a year or two, did not return to the United States until 1885, with the violinist Ole Bull renting Elmwood for a portion of that time. The Spanish media referred to him as "José Bighlow". Lowell was well-prepared for his political role, having been trained in law, as well as being able to read in multiple languages. He had trouble socializing while in Spain, however, and amused himself by sending humorous dispatches to his political bosses in the United States, many of which were later collected and published posthumously in 1899 as Impressions of Spain. Lowell's social life improved when the Spanish Academy elected him a corresponding member in late 1878, allowing him contribute to the preparation of a new dictionary. In January 1880, Lowell was informed of his appointment as Minister to England, his nomination made without his knowledge as far back as June 1879. He was granted a salary of $17,500 with about $3,500 for expenses. While serving in this capacity, he addressed an importation of allegedly diseased cattle and made recommendations that predated the Pure Food and Drug Act. Queen Victoria commented that she had never seen an ambassador who "created so much interest and won so much regard as Mr. Lowell". Lowell held this role until the close of Chester A. Arthur's presidency in the spring of 1885, despite his wife's failing health. Lowell was already well known in England for his writing and, during his time there, befriended fellow author Henry James, who referred to him as "conspicuously American". Lowell also befriended Leslie Stephen many years earlier and became the godfather to his daughter, future writer Virginia Woolf. Lowell was popular enough that he was offered a professorship at Oxford after his recall by President Grover Cleveland, though the offer was declined. He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1883. His second wife, Frances, died on February 19, 1885, while still in England. Later years and death He returned to the United States by June 1885, living with his daughter and her husband in Southboro, Massachusetts. He then spent time in Boston with his sister before returning to Elmwood in November 1889. By this time, most of his friends were dead, including Quincy, Longfellow, Dana, and Emerson, leaving him depressed and contemplating suicide again. Lowell spent part of the 1880s delivering various speeches, and his last published works were mostly collections of essays, including Political Essays, and a collection of his poems Heartsease and Rue in 1888. His last few years he traveled back to England periodically and when he returned to the United States in the fall of 1889, he moved back to Elmwood with Mabel, while her husband worked for clients in New York and New Jersey. That year, Lowell gave an address at the centenary of George Washington's inauguration. Also that year, the Boston Critic dedicated a special issue to Lowell on his seventieth birthday to recollections and reminiscences by his friends, including former presidents Hayes and Benjamin Harrison and British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone as well as Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Francis Parkman. In the last few months of his life, Lowell struggled with gout, sciatica in his left leg, and chronic nausea; by the summer of 1891, doctors believed that Lowell had cancer in his kidneys, liver, and lungs. His last few months, he was administered opium for the pain and was rarely fully conscious. He died on August 12, 1891, at Elmwood. After services in the Appleton Chapel, he was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery. After his death, Norton served as his literary executor and published several collections of Lowell's works and his letters. Writing style and literary theory Early in his career, James Russell Lowell's writing was influenced by Swedenborgianism, a Spiritualism-infused form of Christianity founded by Emanuel Swedenborg, causing Frances Longfellow (wife of the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) to mention that "he has been long in the habit of seeing spirits". He composed his poetry rapidly when inspired by an "inner light" but could not write to order. He subscribed to the common nineteenth-century belief that the poet was a prophet but went further, linking religion, nature, and poetry, as well as social reform. Evert Augustus Duyckinck and others welcomed Lowell as part of Young America, a New York-based movement. Though not officially affiliated with them, he shared some of their ideals, including the belief that writers have an inherent insight into the moral nature of humanity and have an obligation for literary action along with their aesthetic function. Unlike many of his contemporaries, including members of Young America, Lowell did not advocate for the creation of a new national literature. Instead, he called for a natural literature, regardless of country, caste, or race, and warned against provincialism which might "put farther off the hope of one great brotherhood". He agreed with his neighbor Longfellow that "whoever is most universal, is also most national". As Lowell said: A scholar of linguistics, Lowell was one of the founders of the American Dialect Society. He applied this passion to some of his writings, most famously in The Biglow Papers, in which he presents an early 19th-century rural Yankee dialect, complete with nonstandard local grammar and quasi-phonetic spelling—a literary method called eye dialect. In using this vernacular, Lowell intended to get closer to the common man's experience and was rebelling against more formal and, as he thought, unnatural representations of Americans in literature. As he wrote in his introduction to The Biglow Papers, "few American writers or speakers wield their native language with the directness, precision, and force that are common as the day in the mother country" (i.e. England). Though intentionally humorous, this precise representation of an early New England dialect was pioneering work within American literature. For example, Lowell's character Hosea Biglow says in verse: Lowell is considered one of the fireside poets, a group of writers from New England in the 1840s who all had a substantial national following and whose work was often read aloud by the family fireplace. Besides Lowell, the main figures from this group were Longfellow, Holmes, John Greenleaf Whittier, and William Cullen Bryant. Beliefs Lowell was an abolitionist, but his opinions wavered concerning African-Americans. He advocated suffrage for blacks, yet he noted that their ability to vote could be troublesome. Even so, he wrote, "We believe the white race, by their intellectual and traditional superiority, will retain sufficient ascendancy to prevent any serious mischief from the new order of things." Freed slaves, he wrote, were "dirty, lazy & lying". Even before his marriage to abolitionist Maria White, Lowell wrote: "The abolitionists are the only ones with whom I sympathize of the present extant parties." After his marriage, Lowell at first did not share his wife's enthusiasm for the cause, but he was eventually pulled in. The couple often gave money to fugitive slaves, even when their own financial situation was not strong, especially if they were asked to free a spouse or child. Even so, he did not always fully agree with the followers of the movement. The majority of these people, he said, "treat ideas as ignorant persons do cherries. They think them unwholesome unless they are swallowed, stones and all." Lowell depicted Southerners very unfavorably in his second collection of The Biglow Papers but, by 1865, admitted that Southerners were "guilty only of weakness" and, by 1868, said that he sympathized with Southerners and their viewpoint on slavery. Enemies and friends of Lowell alike questioned his vacillating interest in the question of slavery. Abolitionist Samuel Joseph May accused him of trying to quit the movement because of his association with Harvard and the Boston Brahmin culture: "Having got into the smooth, dignified, self-complacent, and change-hating society of the college and its Boston circles, Lowell has gone over to the world, and to 'respectability'." Lowell was also involved in other reform movements. He urged better conditions for factory workers, opposed capital punishment, and supported the temperance movement. His friend Longfellow was especially concerned about his fanaticism for temperance, worrying that Lowell would ask him to destroy his wine cellar. There are many references to Lowell's drinking during his college years, and part of his reputation in school was based on it. His friend Edward Everett Hale denied these allegations. Lowell considered joining the "Anti-Wine" club at Harvard, and he became a teetotaler during the early years of his first marriage. However, as he gained notoriety, he became popular in social circles and clubs and he drank rather heavily when away from his wife. When he drank, he had wild mood swings, ranging from euphoria to frenzy. Criticism and legacy In 1849, Lowell said of himself, "I am the first poet who has endeavored to express the American Idea, and I shall be popular by and by." Poet Walt Whitman said: "Lowell was not a grower—he was a builder. He built poems: he didn't put in the seed, and water the seed, and send down his sun—letting the rest take care of itself: he measured his poems—kept them within formula." Fellow fireside poet John Greenleaf Whittier praised Lowell by writing two poems in his honor and calling him "our new Theocritus" and "one of the strongest and manliest of our writers–a republican poet who dares to speak brave words of unpopular truth". British author Thomas Hughes referred to Lowell as one of the most important writers in the United States: "Greece had her Aristophanes; Rome her Juvenal; Spain has had her Cervantes; France her Rabelais, her Molière, her Voltaire; Germany her Jean Paul, her Heine; England her Swift, her Thackeray; and America has her Lowell." Lowell's satires and use of dialect were an inspiration for writers like Mark Twain, William Dean Howells, H. L. Mencken, and Ring Lardner. Contemporary critic and editor Margaret Fuller wrote, "his verse is stereotyped; his thought sounds no depth, and posterity will not remember him." Evert Augustus Duyckinck thought Lowell was too similar to other poets like William Shakespeare and John Milton. Ralph Waldo Emerson noted that, though Lowell had significant technical skill, his poetry "rather expresses his wish, his ambition, than the uncontrollable interior impulse which is the authentic mark of a new poem ... and which is felt in the pervading tone, rather than in brilliant parts or lines." Even his friend Richard Henry Dana Jr. questioned Lowell's abilities, calling him "very clever, entertaining & good humored ... but he is rather a trifler, after all." In the twentieth century, poet Richard Armour dismissed Lowell, writing: "As a Harvard graduate and an editor for the Atlantic Monthly, it must have been difficult for Lowell to write like an illiterate oaf, but he succeeded." The poet Amy Lowell featured her relative James Russell Lowell in her poem A Critical Fable (1922), the title mocking A Fable for Critics. Here, a fictional version of Lowell says he does not believe that women will ever be equal to men in the arts and "the two sexes cannot be ranked counterparts". Modern literary critic Van Wyck Brooks wrote that Lowell's poetry was forgettable: "one read them five times over and still forgot them, as if this excellent verse had been written in water." Nonetheless, in 1969 the Modern Language Association established a prize named after Lowell, awarded annually for "an outstanding literary or linguistic study, a critical edition of an important work, or a critical biography." Lowell's poem "The Present Crisis", an early work that addressed the national crisis over slavery leading up to the Civil War, has had an impact in the modern civil rights movement. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People named its newsletter The Crisis after the poem, and Martin Luther King Jr. frequently quoted the poem in his speeches and sermons. The poem was also the source of the hymn "Once to Every Man and Nation". List of selected works Poetry collections A Year's Life (1841) Miscellaneous Poems (1843) The Biglow Papers (1848) A Fable for Critics (1848) Poems (1848) The Vision of Sir Launfal (1848) Under the Willows (1869) The Cathedral (1870) Heartsease and Rue (1888) Essay collections Conversations on the Old Poets (1844) Fireside Travels (1864) Among My Books (1870) My Study Windows (1871) Among My Books (second collection, 1876) Democracy and Other Addresses (1886) Political Essays (1888) See also Il pesceballo Dante Society of America James Russell Lowell School (Philadelphia) Lowell High School (San Francisco) The Knickerbocker Robert Lowell Notes Sources Duberman, Martin. James Russell Lowell. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966. Heymann, C. David. American Aristocracy: The Lives and Times of James Russell, Amy, and Robert Lowell. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1980. Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Letters. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981. Sullivan, Wilson. New England Men of Letters. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1972. Wagenknecht, Edward. James Russell Lowell: Portrait of a Many-Sided Man. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. Further reading Greenslet, Ferris. James Russell Lowell, His Life and Work. Boston: 1905. Hale, Edward Everett. James Russell Lowell and His Friends. Boston: 1899. Scudder, Horace Elisha. James Russell Lowell: A Biography. Volume 1, Volume 2. Published 1901. External links Full View Books with PDF downloads at Google Books The Complete Writings of James Russell Lowell, edited by Charles Eliot Norton The Oliver Wendell Holmes Library at the Library of Congress has noteworthy representation volumes inscribed by James Russell Lowell. Papers of James Russell Lowell at Harvard University Archives James Russell Lowell Miscellaneous Correspondence (MS Am 1191) at Houghton Library, Harvard University 1819 births 1891 deaths Romantic poets 19th-century American poets American male poets 19th-century American male writers 19th-century essayists American male essayists American essayists American satirists American abolitionists 19th-century American diplomats Ambassadors of the United States to Spain Ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees Harvard University faculty Harvard Law School alumni The Atlantic (magazine) people Massachusetts Republicans American people of English descent American people of Scottish descent Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts American Unitarians Deaths from cancer in Massachusetts Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery Hasty Pudding alumni Harvard College alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s%20Park
Regent's Park
Regent's Park (officially The Regent's Park) is one of the Royal Parks of London. It occupies high ground in north-west Inner London, administratively split between the City of Westminster and the Borough of Camden (and historically between Marylebone and Saint Pancras parishes). In addition to its large central parkland and ornamental lake, it contains various structures and organizations both public and private, generally on its periphery, including Regent's University and London Zoo. What is now Regent's Park, came into possession of the Crown upon the dissolution of the monasteries in the 1500s, and was used for hunting and tenant farming. In the early 1800s, the Prince Regent proposed turning it into a pleasure garden. The Park was designed by John Nash and James and Decimus Burton. Its construction was financed privately by James after the Crown Estate rescinded its pledge to do so, and included development on the periphery of townhouses and expensive terrace dwellings. The park is Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. Description The park has an outer ring road called the Outer Circle (4.45 km) and an inner ring road called the Inner Circle (1 km), which surrounds the most carefully tended section of the park, Queen Mary's Gardens. Apart from two link roads between these two, the park is reserved for pedestrians (with the exception of The Broad Walk between Chester Road and the Outer Circle, which is a shared use path). The south, east and most of the west side of the park are lined with elegant white stucco terraces of houses designed by John Nash and Decimus Burton. Running through the northern end of the park is Regent's Canal, which connects the Grand Union Canal to London's historic docks. The park is mainly open parkland with a wide range of facilities and amenities, including gardens; a lake with a heronry, waterfowl and a boating area; sports pitches; and children's playgrounds. The northern side of the park is the home of London Zoo and the headquarters of the Zoological Society of London. There are several public gardens with flowers and specimen plants, including Queen Mary's Gardens in the Inner Circle, in which the Open Air Theatre stands; the formal Italian Gardens and adjacent informal English Gardens in the south-east corner of the park; and the gardens of St John's Lodge. Winfield House, the official residence of the U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom, stands in private grounds in the western section of the park, near to the capital's first large mosque. South of the Inner Circle is dominated by Regent's University London, home of the European Business School London, Regent's American College London (RACL) and Webster Graduate School among others. Abutting the northern side of Regent's Park is Primrose Hill, another open space which, with a height of , has a clear view of central London to the south-east, as well as Belsize Park and Hampstead to the north. Primrose Hill is also the name given to the immediately surrounding district. Management The public areas of Regent's Park are managed by The Royal Parks, a charity. The Crown Estate Paving Commission is responsible for managing certain aspects of the built environment of Regent's Park. The park lies within the boundaries of the City of Westminster and the London Borough of Camden, but those authorities have only peripheral input to the management of the park. The Crown Estate owns the freehold of Regent's Park. History In the Middle Ages the land was part of the manor of Tyburn, acquired by Barking Abbey. The 1530s Dissolution of the Monasteries meant Henry VIII appropriated it, under that statutory forfeiture with minor compensation scheme. It has been state property since. It was set aside as a hunting and forestry park, Marylebone Park, from that Dissolution until 1649 after which it was let as small-holdings for hay and dairy produce. Development by John Nash, James Burton, and Decimus Burton Although the park was initially the idea of the Prince Regent George IV, and was named for him, James Burton, the pre-eminent London property developer, was responsible for the social and financial patronage of the majority of John Nash's London designs, and for their construction. Architectural scholar Guy Williams has written, "John Nash relied on James Burton for moral and financial support in his great enterprises. Decimus had showed precocious talent as a draughtsman and as an exponent of the classical style... John Nash needed the son's aid, as well as the father's". Subsequent to the Crown Estate's refusal to finance them, James Burton agreed to personally finance the construction projects of John Nash at Regent's Park, which he had already been commissioned to construct: consequently, in 1816, Burton purchased many of the leases of the proposed terraces around, and proposed villas within Regent's Park, and, in 1817, Burton purchased the leases of five of the largest blocks on Regent Street. The first property to be constructed in or around Regent's Park by Burton was his own mansion: The Holme, which was designed by his son, Decimus Burton, and completed in 1818. Burton's extensive financial involvement "effectively guaranteed the success of the project". In return, Nash agreed to promote the career of Decimus Burton. Such were James Burton's contributions to the project that the Commissioners of Woods described James, not Nash, as "the architect of Regent's Park". Contrary to popular belief, the dominant architectural influence in many of the Regent's Park projects – including Cornwall Terrace, York Terrace, Chester Terrace, Clarence Terrace, and the villas of the Inner Circle, all of which were constructed by James Burton's company – was Decimus Burton, not John Nash, who was appointed architectural "overseer" for Decimus's projects. To the chagrin of Nash, Decimus largely disregarded his advice and developed the Terraces according to his own style, to the extent that Nash sought the demolition and complete rebuilding of Chester Terrace, but in vain. Decimus's terraces were built by his father James. The Regent Park scheme was integrated with other schemes built for the Prince Regent by the triplet of Nash, James Burton, and Decimus Burton: these included Regent Street and Carlton House Terrace in a grand sweep of town planning stretching from St. James's Park to Primrose Hill. The scheme is considered one of the first examples of a garden suburb and continues to influence the design of suburbs. The park was first opened to the general public in 1835, initially two days a week. The 1831 diary of William Copeland Astbury describes in detail his daily walks in and around the park, with references to the Zoo, the canal, and surrounding streets, as well as features of daily life in the area. Subsequent history On 15 January 1867, forty people died when the ice cover on the boating lake collapsed and over 200 people plunged into the lake. The lake was subsequently drained and its depth reduced to four feet before being reopened to the public. Late in 1916, the Home Postal Depot, Royal Engineers moved to a purpose built wooden building (200,000 sq ft) on Chester Road, Regent's Park. This new facility contained the depot's administration offices, a large parcel office and a letter office, these last two previously being at the Mount Pleasant Mail Centre. HM King George V and HM Queen Mary visited the depot on 11 December 1916. The depot vacated the premises in early 1920. Queen Mary's Gardens, in the Inner Circle, were created in the 1930s, bringing that part of the park into use by the general public for the first time. The site had originally been used as a plant nursery and had later been leased to the Royal Botanic Society. In July 1982, an IRA bomb was detonated at the bandstand, killing seven soldiers. The sports pitches, which had been relaid with inadequate drainage after the Second World War, were relaid between 2002 and 2004, and in 2005 a new sports pavilion was constructed. On 7 July 2006 the Park held an event for people to remember the events of the 7 July 2005 London bombings. Members of the public placed mosaic tiles on to seven purple petals. Later bereaved family members laid yellow tiles in the centre to finish the mosaic. Sport Sports are played in the park including cycling, tennis, netball, athletics, cricket, softball, rounders, football, hockey, Australian rules football, rugby, ultimate Frisbee, and running. Belsize Park Rugby Football Club play their home games in the park. There are three playgrounds and there is boating on the lake. Sports take place in an area called the Northern Parkland, and are centred on the Hub. This pavilion and underground changing rooms was designed by David Morley Architects and Price & Myers engineers, and opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 2005. It won the IStructE Award for Community or Residential Structures in 2006. The Outer Circle is used by road cyclists. One circuit is 4.45 km. A number of amateur cycling clubs that meet regularly to complete laps of the Outer Circle for exercise and leisure. Prominent clubs include: Regent's Park Rouleurs (RPR), London Baroudeurs (LBCC), Islington Cycling Club (ICC), Cycle Club London (CCL), Rapha Cycle Club (RCC). Many cyclists track & log their rides using the online social network site Strava. As at January, 2018 – some 22,000 cyclists had completed & logged 1.6mn laps of the park using the Strava app. In 2015, Regent's Park Cyclists was formed to represent the interest of cyclists and cycling clubs that use the Inner & Outer Circle. The park was scheduled to play a role in the 2012 Summer Olympics, hosting the baseball and softball events, but these sports were dropped from the Olympic programme with effect from 2012. The Olympic cycling road race was supposed to go through Regent's Park, as was the cycling road race in the 2012 Summer Paralympics, but the routes were changed. Terraces The neoclassical terraces are grand examples of the English townhouse. Sometimes they are collectively called the "Nash terraces", but other architects contributed. Clockwise from the north, they are: Gloucester Gate: A terrace of 11 houses designed by Nash and built by Richard Mott in 1827. Cumberland Terrace: Designed by Nash and built by William Mountford Nurse in 1826. Chester Terrace: The longest façade in the park designed by Nash and Decimus Burton. Was built by James Burton in 1825. Cambridge Terrace: Designed by Nash and built by Richard Mott in 1825. Cambridge Gate was added in 1876–80. York Terrace: Designed by Nash and Decimus Burton the eastern half built by James Burton and the western half built by William Mountford Nurse. Cornwall Terrace: Consists of 19 houses designed by Decimus Burton and built by James Burton. Clarence Terrace: The smallest terrace, designed by Decimus Burton. Sussex Place: Originally 26 houses designed by Nash and built by William Smith in 1822–23, rebuilt in the 1960s behind the original façade to house the London Business School. Hanover Terrace: Designed by Nash in 1822 and built by John Mckell Aitkens. Kent Terrace: Designed by Nash and built by William Smith in 1827. Immediately south of the park are Park Square and Park Crescent, also designed by Nash. Villas Nine villas were built in the park. There follows a list of their names as shown on Christopher and John Greenwood's map of London (second edition, 1830), with details of their subsequent fates: Close to the western and northern edges of the park Hertford Villa (later known as St Dunstan's): Rebuilt as Winfield House in the 1930s and now the American Ambassador's residence, with the second-largest private garden in London after the Queen's garden at Buckingham Palace. Nuffield Lodge: A private residence (Oman royal family) previously owned by Robert Holmes à Court. Nuffield Lodge is said to have one of the largest gardens in central London after Buckingham Palace. The garden runs along the edge of Regent's Canal. Hanover Lodge: A private residence recently (2007) the subject of a Court Case (won by Westminster City Council against the architect, Quinlan Terry, and contractor, Walter Lilly & Co) that ruled that two Grade II listed buildings had been illegally demolished while the property was leased to Conservative peer Lord Bagri. Albany Cottage: Demolished. Site now occupied by London Central Mosque. Holford House (Stanford's map of 1862): Built in 1832 north of Hertford House, it was the largest of the villas at that time. From 1856 it was occupied by Regent's Park College (which subsequently moved to Oxford in 1927). In 1944 Holford House was destroyed when a bomb was dropped on it during World War II. Demolished in 1948. Between 1988 and 2004, six new villas were built by the Crown Estate and property developers at the north western edge of the park, between the Outer Circle and the Regent's Canal. They were designed by the English Neo-Classical architect Quinlan Terry, who designed each house in a different classical style, intended to be representative of the variety of classical architecture, naming them the Veneto Villa, Doric Villa, Corinthian Villa, Ionic Villa, Gothick Villa and the Regency Villa respectively. Around the Inner Circle St John's Lodge: A private residence (Brunei royal family) but part of its garden, designed by Colvin and Moggridge Landscape Architects in 1994, is open to the public. St John's Lodge was the first villa to be constructed in the park by John Raffield. The Holme: A private residence (Saudi royal family) but its garden is open several days a year via the National Gardens Scheme. It has been described as 'one of the most desirable private homes in London' by architectural scholar Guy Williams, and as 'a definition of Western civilization in a single view' by architectural critic Ian Nairn. The Holme was the second villa to be built in Regent's Park. South Villa: Site of George Bishop's Observatory, which closed when its owner died in 1861 (instruments and dome moved to Meadowbank, Twickenham in 1863). Regent's University London now stands on the site, one of the two largest groups of buildings in the park, alongside London Zoo. Regent's University London has its campus just southwest of the Inner Circle. Previously was home to Bedford College. Close to the eastern edge of the park Sir Herbert Taylor's Villa: Demolished. Site now part of open parkland. He was Master of St Katherine's Hospital when it was based at Regent's Park. International Students House, London The Diorama, 18 Park Square East, opened in 1823, closed 1852. A forerunner of the cinema. More attractions Park Crescent's breathtaking façades by John Nash have been preserved, although the interiors were rebuilt as offices in the 1960s. The Camden Green Fair is held in Regent's Park as part of an ongoing effort to encourage citizens of London to go Green. The fountain erected through the gift of Cowasji Jehangir Readymoney is on The Broadwalk, between Chester Road and the Outer Circle. Transport Nearest Tube stations There are five London Underground stations located on or near the edges of Regent's Park: Regent's Park Baker Street Great Portland Street Warren Street Station Marylebone Nearest railway stations Camden Road Marylebone Cultural references In film In 28 Weeks Later (2007), the surviving members of the American military escort Tammy and Andy to Regent's Park to get evacuated out of London. Regent's Park is the setting and closing scene for the black comedy film Withnail and I (1987). The Regent's Park is also the primary setting of the season three episode "Three Legs Good" of the cozy mystery television series Rosemary & Thyme. Regent's Park is the setting of Cruella de Vil's fashion show in Disney's live-action prequel film Cruella (2021). In literature In Elizabeth Bowen's wartime novel The Heat of the Day the park appears a number of times, most memorably in a long atmospheric description of the park in an autumn dusk. Regents Park also appears in her short story of wartime London, "Mysterious Kor". In Agatha Christie's short story "The Adventure of the Italian Nobleman", Hercule Poirot and Arthur Hastings travel in a taxicab to Regent's Park to investigate a murder that has taken place in "Regent's Court", a fictional block of modern flats nearby. In Agatha Christie's novel The Secret Adversary, Tommy Beresford proposes to Prudence "Tuppence" Cowley and Julius Hersheimmer proposes to Jane Finn while in Regent's Park, on their way home from a celebratory dinner for defeating the protagonist of the story, the infamous Mr. Brown. Rosamund Stacey, protagonist of Margaret Drabble's novel The Millstone (1965), lives in "a nice flat, on the fourth floor of a large block of an early twentieth-century building, and in very easy reach of Regent's Park". Ian Fleming's James Bond novels frequently mention the headquarters of MI6 as a "tall, grey building near Regent's Park." In Charlie Higson's post-apocalyptic young adult horror novel The Enemy (2009), a group of children make a perilous trek through an overgrown St. Regent's Park, en route to Buckingham Palace, where they seek safe refuge, after a worldwide sickness has infected adults turning them into something akin to zombies. In the park, diseased monkeys from the nearby zoo attack the group, killing several children and wounding others. In Ruth Rendell's crime novel The Keys to the Street (1996), much of the action (and murders) take place in and around Regent's Park. In J. K. Rowling's first novel Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (1997) and the eponymous film, Harry goes to the London Zoo for his cousin's birthday. In Dodie Smith's children's novel The Hundred and One Dalmatians (1956), the protagonist dalmatian dogs live near Regent's Park and are taken there for walks by their human family, the Dearlys. Regent's Park is also featured in the films based on Smith's book. The Regent's Park is the setting for several scenes in Virginia Woolf's novel Mrs. Dalloway (1925). In music In Madness' single "Johnny The Horse" (1999), the eponymous character ends his days in the park after taking "his battered bones and broken dreams to Regent's Park at sunset". The artwork to Coil's 1986 album Horse Rotorvator contains a photograph of the bandstand in Regent's Park. Bruno Major's song "Regent's Park" is based on the location. In art British artist Marion Coutts recreated Regent's, along with Battersea and Hyde Park, as a set of asymmetrical ping-pong tables for her interactive installation Fresh Air (1998–2001) References Citations Sources Bibliography Weinreb, B. and Hibbert, C. (ed) (1995) The London Encyclopedia Macmillan Wheatley, Henry Benjamin and Cunningham, Peter "London, Past and Present: Its History, Associations, and Traditions, Vol. III" External links Regent's Park in Literature and Music, a bibliography London, Past and Present: Its History, Associations, and Traditions Royal Parks of London 1835 establishments in England Grade I listed parks and gardens in London Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Camden Parks and open spaces in the City of Westminster Venues of the 2012 Summer Olympics Garden suburbs Urban public parks in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Croft%20%28TV%20producer%29
David Croft (TV producer)
Major David John Croft, (born David John Andrew Sharland; 7 September 1922 – 27 September 2011) was an English television comedy screenwriter, producer and director. He produced and wrote a string of BBC sitcoms with partners Jimmy Perry and Jeremy Lloyd, including Dad's Army, Are You Being Served?, It Ain't Half Hot Mum, Hi-de-Hi! and 'Allo 'Allo! Early life Croft was born into a show business family: his father, Reginald Sharland (1886–1944), had a successful career as a radio actor in Hollywood, and his mother, Annie Croft (1896–1959), was a famous stage actress who had starred in the 1927 silent film On With The Dance, she was also the first woman to own a West End theatre company. His first public appearance was at the age of seven, when he was seen in a commercial which aired in cinemas. After that, his acting career in films "began and ended" with his uncredited appearance as Perkins in the film Goodbye, Mr. Chips (1939). Croft was educated at two independent schools: at St John's Wood prep school in North London, followed by Rugby School in Warwickshire. The boys attended Sunday services at St. Aldhelm's Church, and Croft later gave that name to the church in Dad's Army. Military service He enlisted in the Royal Artillery in 1942. He served during the Second World War in North Africa, India and Singapore. After contracting rheumatic fever in North Africa, was sent home to convalesce and then underwent officer training at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. Croft was posted to India, arriving as the war in Europe ended, and was assigned to the Essex Regiment, rising to the rank of Major. When his military service ended he began working in the entertainment industry, as an actor, singer and writer. Career Croft met Freddie Carpenter, who produced many pantomimes for Howard & Wyndham across the UK, resulting in Croft writing scripts such as Aladdin, Cinderella and Babes in the Wood. Through his lifelong friend, composer/conductor Cyril Ornadel, Croft met the producer Fiona Bentley, who had obtained rights to adapt and musicalise a number of Beatrix Potter stories. Croft wrote the scripts and lyrics for a series released on His Master's Voice Junior Record Club, narrated by Vivien Leigh and starring several singer-actors and actresses including Barbara Brown, Graham Stark and Cicely Courtneidge. David Croft himself played a number of roles, including Timmy Willie in Johnny Town-Mouse, Kep in Jemima Puddle-Duck, and Old Brown in Squirrel Nutkin. Croft relocated to the Northeast of England to work at Tyne Tees Television, where he produced many editions of the variety show The One O'Clock Show. For Tyne Tees, Croft also directed and produced the admags Ned's Shed and Mary Goes to Market, as well as producing his first sitcom, Under New Management, set in a derelict pub in the North of England. After leaving Tyne Tees Television to work at the BBC in the mid-1960s, he produced several of the Corporation's sitcoms such as Beggar My Neighbour, A World of His Own, Further Up Pompeii! and Hugh and I. It was while producing Hugh and I that he was introduced to actor Jimmy Perry, who handed him an unsolicited script for a pilot called The Fighting Tigers about the British Home Guard during the Second World War. Croft liked the idea. The two men co-wrote nine series of the show, which was retitled Dad's Army, as well as a feature film and a stage show based on it. While Dad's Army was still running, Croft began to co-write Are You Being Served? with Jeremy Lloyd. He was to continue both writing partnerships for the rest of his career in several hit series including It Ain't Half Hot Mum, Hi-de-Hi! and You Rang M'Lord (with Perry) and 'Allo 'Allo! (with Lloyd). His last full series Oh, Doctor Beeching!, broadcast from 1995 to 1997, was co-written with Richard Spendlove. He created a television pilot in 2007, entitled Here Comes The Queen, with Jeremy Lloyd. This starred Wendy Richard and Les Dennis, but the show was not continued as a series. Of these, It Ain't Half Hot Mum "was David’s and my favourite", Jimmy Perry told journalist Neil Clark for a Daily Telegraph article in 2013. As a producer, Croft's regular practice was to signal the end of an episode with the caption "You have been watching ...", followed by shots of the main cast. Personal life Croft married theatrical agent Ann Callender on 2 June 1952; the couple had seven children and sixteen grandchildren. He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1995 when he was surprised by Michael Aspel outside BBC Television Centre. David Croft died in his sleep on 27 September 2011, at his home in Portugal aged 89. His widow Ann died on 11 June 2016. Awards and honours Croft became an Officer of The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire with Jimmy Perry in 1978 for services to television. He also received the 1981 Desmond Davis award from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, for his outstanding contributions to the industry. Croft's awards include: (BAFTA awards): Best Light EntertainmentNominated: 1970 Dad's ArmyBest Light Entertainment Production1971 Dad's Army (With Team)Nominated: 1971 Up Pompeii!Best Situation Comedy SeriesNominated: 1973 Dad's ArmyNominated: 1974 Dad's ArmyBest Situation Comedy Nominated: 1975 Dad's Army Nominated: 1977 Are You Being Served?Desmond Davis Award1982 Lifetime Achievement AwardBest Comedy SeriesNominated: 1982 Hi-de-Hi!Nominated: 1983 Hi-de-Hi!Nominated: 1985 Hi-de-Hi!Nominated: 1986 'Allo 'Allo!Nominated: 1987 'Allo 'Allo!Nominated: 1988 'Allo 'Allo!Nominated: 1989 'Allo 'Allo! (British Comedy Awards): 2003 Lifetime Achievement AwardWriters' Guild of Great Britain 1969 Best Comedy Script Dad's Army 1970 Best Comedy Script Dad's Army 1971 Best Comedy Script Dad's Army Production and writing career In addition to writing most of the episodes of these television series, Croft also worked as producer, director and, later, executive producer. Written with Jimmy Perry 1968–1977 Dad's Army 1974–1981 It Ain't Half Hot Mum 1980–1988 Hi-de-Hi! 1988–1993 You Rang, M'Lord? Written with Jeremy Lloyd 1972–1985 Are You Being Served? 1977–1978 Come Back Mrs Noah 1980 Oh Happy Band! 1982–1992 'Allo 'Allo! (Series 1–6) 1992–1993 Grace and Favour 1994 Which Way to the War 2008 Here Comes the Queen Written with Richard Spendlove 1995-1997 Oh, Doctor Beeching! Written by himself 1972 Birds in the Bush References Bibliography External links Official Homepage List of works at the BBC Guide to Comedy Biography at UKTV Obituary of David Croft, The Daily Telegraph, 27 September 2011 Obituary of David Croft, The Guardian, 27 September 2011 1922 births 2011 deaths BBC television producers British Army personnel of World War II English comedy writers English television directors English television producers English television writers Essex Regiment officers Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst Officers of the Order of the British Empire People educated at Rugby School People from Poole Royal Artillery soldiers Military personnel from Dorset
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria%20White%20Lowell
Maria White Lowell
Maria White Lowell (July 8, 1821 – October 27, 1853) was an American poet and abolitionist. Her poems were privately printed by her husband, James Russell Lowell, the poet, two years after her death. Early life Maria White was born in Watertown, Massachusetts, to a middle-class, intellectual family. She was raised under a strict ascetic discipline at an Ursuline convent which was burned by a mob in 1834. Career Lowell became involved in the temperance movement and was a supporter of women's rights. On November 6, 1839, she was one of the local women who attended the first "conversation" organized by women's rights advocate Margaret Fuller. The same year, Maria White's brother William introduced her to his Harvard College classmate, James Russell Lowell. The two became engaged in the autumn of 1840. However, her father Abijah White, a wealthy merchant, insisted that the wedding be postponed until Lowell had gainful employment. In the winter of 1843-44, Maria White and her mother left the bleak neighborhood of Boston to spend the spring in the milder climate of Philadelphia. It happened that they went to a Friend's boarding-house in the city, and through the kind interest of their hostess, "Friend Parker", made the acquaintance of others, who introduced the Whites into other Friend homes. The Whites had no knowledge of Quakerism, but their simple sincere natures found much in common with members of that religion who in turn enjoyed getting to know the Whites. Strong friendships followed, and as a natural result of these, Maria White's tendency towards the antislavery movement, then in its unpopular beginnings, was strengthened and continued. When the weather grew warmer, and the east winds of New England had lessened, the mother and daughter returned to Watertown. Maria White was urged to remain longer in Philadelphia, and visit some of her new friends in their own homes, but her reply was characteristic: "No, no. I have left one in Cambridge who makes even the east wind warm for me." She was referring to James Russell Lowell, her fiancé. Shortly after Lowell published Conversations on the Old Poets, a collection of his previously published essays, the couple married on December 26, 1844 at her father's house. The new husband believed she was made up "half of earth and more than of Heaven". A friend described their relationship as "the very picture of a True Marriage". White, who become involved in movements against intemperance and slavery, joined the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society and persuaded Lowell to become an abolitionist. The new Mrs. Lowell, however, was in poor health and the couple moved to Philadelphia shortly after their marriage in the hopes she would be healed there. In 1845, the newly married pair came again to Philadelphia, and it was arranged that Mr. Lowell would do some editorial work on the Pennsylvania'a Freeman, an antislavery weekly of that city and also make regular contributions to the Antislavery Standard. Before leaving Philadelphia, the Lowells had their daguerreotypes taken by Langenheim. These were the only pictures taken in their early married life. In the spring of 1845, the Lowells returned to Cambridge, Massachusetts to make their home at Elmwood in Cambridge, Massachusetts. They had four children, though only one survived past infancy. Their first, Blanche, was born December 31, 1845, but lived only fifteen months; Rose, born in 1849, survived only a few months as well; their only son, Walter, was born in 1850 but died in 1852. Only their fourth child, Mabel, survived to adulthood. Death Frail, delicate, and plagued by ill-health throughout her life, Maria White Lowell died on October 27, 1853, at the age of 32 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She is buried with her husband in Mount Auburn Cemetery. A volume of her poems was printed privately after her death (Cambridge, 1855). The best known of them are "The Alpine Shepherd" and "The Morning-Glory." Critical response and influence In 1870, when Emily Dickinson first met Thomas Wentworth Higginson, he mentioned the poetry of Maria White Lowell. Dickinson asked to know more and she may have been inspired by her work. One of Lowell's poems, "The Sick Room", has been described as "Dickinsonian". Her poem "The Grave of Keats" was published in the 1874 anthology Poems of Places, edited by former neighbor Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Amy Lowell, a descendant of the family, praised Maria Lowell's writing: "That is poetry! It is better than anything her husband ever wrote, and he always said that she was a better poet than he." Quotes "Two souls with but a single thought, two hearts that beat as one." – translated by Lowell from Bellinghausen's drama, "Der Sohn der Wildnis (1842)" into the play Ingomar the Barbarian References Attribution Further reading Lowell, Maria, (Bruce Rogers, editor), The Poems of Maria Lowell. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Riverside Press, 1907. Vernon, Hope Jillson, The Poems of Maria Lowell, With Unpublished Letters and a Biography. Providence, Rhode Island: Brown University Press, 1936. External links 1821 births 1853 deaths American abolitionists 19th-century American poets Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery American temperance activists American women poets 19th-century American women writers
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254105
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizzy%20%28series%29
Dizzy (series)
Dizzy is a series of video games, created by the Oliver Twins and published by Codemasters. It was one of the most successful British video game franchises of the late 1980s and early 1990s. Originally created for the ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC, the series appeared on multiple home computer and video game console formats, with over a dozen games being published between 1987 and 1992. The series is named for its main character, an anthropomorphic egg, called Dizzy for the way he somersaults and rolls around the landscape. The games are set in various fairytale-like locations and typically involve Dizzy trying to save his friends and family, the Yolkfolk, often from the schemes of his nemesis, the evil wizard Zaks. Most of the games in the series were platform-adventure games, with an emphasis on puzzle solving, collecting objects and interacting with other characters. In addition to these core adventure games, the Dizzy branding and character also appeared in several arcade-style games with unrelated gameplay. Since the demise of the series in the early 1990s, there have been numerous attempts to revive the series. These have included a remake for smartphone platforms, a Kickstarter campaign, and the publishing of several old games that were thought lost. The series has also served as the inspiration for other games, including many fangames. Common elements Gameplay The games of the Dizzy series are commonly categorised into either two or three groups. Core to the series and comprising over half its titles are the adventure games, all of which have similar gameplay and mechanics. The rest of the games in the series all have different gameplay from the adventure games and from one another, and are connected only by branding, themes and character. These are commonly referred to as the arcade games, but are sometimes further split into arcade and puzzle games. The adventure games also included many elements of platform games, such as running and jumping to avoid enemies and hazards. They also relied heavily on object and inventory based puzzles to interact with the environment and non-player characters. For example, the opening screen of Dizzy: Prince of the Yolkfolk tasked the player with escaping from a locked cell using a jug of water, a pile of leaves, and a box of matches. Additional innovations were added as the series progressed. The ability to carry more than one item simultaneously was added in Treasure Island Dizzy and refined in Fantasy World Dizzy. Collectable items were also first introduced in Treasure Island Dizzy in the form of coins; later games retained the idea but often used other items such as diamonds or cherries. A health bar was first introduced in Magicland Dizzy, allowing Dizzy to be hit without dying. Characters The main protagonist and player character for the series is the eponymous Dizzy, an anthropomorphic egg with big eyes, a smiley face, boxing gloves and minimal identifying features. Named for the way he somersaults and rolls around the screen, Dizzy's design was kept deliberately simple. The idea was that this allows players to project themselves onto the character, and to imagine a character beyond what could be achieved by computer graphics of the time. Throughout most of the series, Dizzy is joined by a cast of recurring characters, also eggs, known as the Yolkfolk, who make up his friends and family. Not present in the original Dizzy – The Ultimate Cartoon Adventure, the Yolkfolk are first mentioned in Treasure Island Dizzy and then appear on-screen in Fantasy World Dizzy. Including Dizzy, there are seven Yolkfolk in total: Dizzy, Daisy, Denzil, Dora, Dozy, Dylan, and Grand Dizzy. Introduced to allow for more story threads and more interesting characters, the Oliver Twins based each of them on a different character from popular culture. For example, Dora was modelled on Velma from Scooby-Doo and Denzil on Fonzie from Happy Days. Except for Dizzy himself, the most prominent member of the Yolkfolk is his girlfriend, Daisy. She is often a damsel in distress, with her rescue being the key motivator to the plot of several of the games. Indeed, when Codemasters issued Dizzy collectable cards, Daisy's card acknowledged this: "The only problem with Daisy is that she's always getting captured". However, she eventually appears as a second playable character in Wonderland Dizzy. Other than the Yolkfolk, prominent recurring characters are the evil wizard Zaks, who was the primary antagonist in several games of the series; and Dizzy's pet, Pogie, a small furry creature known as a Fluffle, who starred in the spin-off game Dreamworld Pogie. Setting The Dizzy games all take place in fantasy settings loosely based around fables and fairy tales. By alluding to other well known stories, the games are able to present scenarios and puzzles that are interesting and appealing, while also accessible even to a young audience. For instance, a puzzle in which the player must use magic beans to grow a giant beanstalk relies upon the player's pre-existing knowledge of the story of Jack and the Beanstalk. Similarly, the games' simple black-and-white morality, with many of them having the final goal of defeating the evil wizard Zaks, was also a nod to their fairy tales roots. Speaking on the subject, Andrew Oliver said that "it's common in any fairy tale to have an evil person to defeat, and so we went down this route". Development Creation Dizzy was created in 1987 by Andrew and Philip Oliver, collectively known as the Oliver Twins and published by Codemasters. Prior to Dizzy, they had mostly written simulation games for Codemasters such as Grand Prix Simulator, and they were eager to branch out into different types of games. The character of Dizzy was created before any of his games; the Olivers had noticed that most traditional characters in video games of the time had very small faces which were largely unable to express emotion. As such, they decided to create a new character who was little more than just a large face, rounded out with gloves and boots. They had also written a development tool, Panda Sprites, which could be used to easily rotate images on the screen, and they were eager to put it to use. Trying it out on their new character made him somersault and roll around the screen, which they believed gave him a unique feel and also gave rise to his name, Dizzy. For the game itself, the Olivers aimed to create something with more story and characters than many contemporary games of the time. Their goal was a game that was more akin to an interactive cartoon, hence the game's subtitle, Dizzy: The Ultimate Cartoon Adventure. It was initially released for Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum since the two platforms' similar hardware (both use the Z80 microprocessor) made it easier to develop for both simultaneously. A port to the Commodore 64 followed. At first, Codemasters' David Darling was not impressed by Dizzy, and wanted the Olivers to continue to create more Simulator games instead. However they mostly paid game developers only in royalties at that point, so they published it anyway since it constituted such a low risk for them. Initial sales were unremarkable, being similar to an average Codemasters game of the time, but unusually, they remained steady for a prolonged period rather than suffering drop off over time. This was enough for both Codemasters and the Olivers to want to produce a sequel. Growth of the series Treasure Island Dizzy was again written for the ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC, using an updated version of the game engine from the original Dizzy, and a world editor that the Olivers had also written. Originally, it was just going to be called Dizzy 2, but they eventually took motivation from the naming of the James Bond series and decided to name it Treasure Island Dizzy, aiming to make it clearer that the game was a separate, stand-alone experience that could be enjoyed without having played the original. One of the problems that they encountered during development was that it was possible to put the game into an unwinnable state. When the player lost a life, they respawned – effectively being brought back to life – in a safe location. One of the game's items was a snorkel that was required to move underwater and the twins found that it was possible to respawn in such a way that the snorkel was completely inaccessible, either under or across the water. Being unable to think of any other solution in time for release, they made the decision to give the player only one life. This removed the logic problem but also gave the game a reputation as the series' most difficult incarnation. In addition to the three platforms that Dizzy had appeared on, Treasure Island Dizzy was also ported to the Amiga, Atari ST, Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), and DOS. The third game of the series, Fast Food, saw a departure from the style of the first two games. Instead of the platform adventure gameplay they had, it was a maze game, inspired by Pac-Man. The Olivers have given various explanations for this change in interviews they have given over the years, including a desire to prove that the character of Dizzy was valuable even outside the adventure format, caution over not wanting to over-saturate the market with similar games, and even a desire to develop a game that could be made very quickly to be out in time for Christmas. Regardless of the reason for the change in format, it proved to be a successful one, with Philip Oliver later commenting that, "people get more involved in the adventures but the arcade games sell just as well". The next game, 1989's Fantasy World Dizzy, was a return to the adventure game format. It also saw the introduction of the Yolkfolk characters, who were prominent throughout the rest of the series. The extra characters allowed the Olivers to include more dialogue in the game, moving it further towards their original conception of an interactive cartoon. Following on from Fantasy World Dizzy later the same year came Kwik Snax, another maze game, though this time with a much greater emphasis on puzzle solving. Handing off to Big Red Software Kwik Snax was the last Dizzy game for the original Amstrad and Spectrum formats the Oliver Twins developed. By this point, it was clear that these formats were not going to survive for much longer and both Codemasters and the Olivers wanted to expand Dizzy into the video game console market. Not only could this allow them to reach a larger audience in the UK and Europe, but it could also allow them to break into lucrative foreign markets, such as the US. Even so, demand for Dizzy games on the original formats was still strong at the time, and it was Codemasters' biggest series. Spread too thin to work on new home computer titles themselves, the Olivers decided to contract out future development to Big Red Software. Speaking after the fact, the twins commented that they had previously contracted out development of ports of their games to other system, and that this felt like the natural next step for them. For the first game that Big Red developed, Magicland Dizzy, the Olivers still played a major role in the creation, collaborating on the game's story and overseeing the game's design. The next game, Panic Dizzy, was similar; for this falling block puzzle game, the Olivers came up with a design for the game which they sent to Big Red to create. Big Red Software created two further Dizzy adventure games, Spellbound Dizzy and Dizzy: Prince of the Yolkfolk, both released in 1991. By this time, they were working almost entirely independently, creating games that fit the pre-established formula with minimal oversight or input from the Olivers. Codemasters published one final Dizzy game, 1992's Crystal Kingdom Dizzy. By this time, many players and reviewers were starting to tire of the series, seeing the games as always the same and lacking innovation. This was compounded by Codemasters' decision to release Crystal Kingdom Dizzy as a full price game (approximately £10) when all previous games in the series had been budget releases (approximately £3-4). Crystal Kingdom Dizzy did not prove popular with fans, and ended up being the last Dizzy game. Console woes Meanwhile, things were not going well for Dizzy on consoles either. The first title to be specifically designed for the NES, Fantastic Dizzy (also known as The Fantastic Adventures of Dizzy) followed the general formula of the adventure games, but also included arcade game sections as mini-games. Two of these mini-games were ported to home computer formats by Big Red as standalone games, becoming Bubble Dizzy and Dizzy Down the Rapids. Working on the new system also proved to be something of a challenge for the Olivers, who were unused to the longer development cycles and higher degree of polish required for console games, where they had to compete against titles such as Super Mario. The game was completed in 1990, but its release was hampered by the conflict and legal case then ongoing between Codemasters and Nintendo over the Game Genie. It was released in April 1991, but it had missed the important Christmas release window, and lacked a license from Nintendo. Despite a generally favourable reception, the game sold only a quarter of its predicted half million copies. Further development for consoles was disrupted by disagreements between Codemasters and the Olivers. Dreamworld Pogie, a spin-off starring Dizzy's pet, Pogie, was going to be a scrolling platform inspired by Super Mario, but it was cancelled. There were other games that the Olivers had been designing as stand-alone releases which Codemasters only wanted to release as a compilation, The Excellent Dizzy Collection. Even then, one of the slated games, Wonderland Dizzy (a remake of Magicland Dizzy with an Alice in Wonderland theme), was removed from the compilation since Codemasters saw it as being too similar to Dizzy the Adventurer (a remake of Dizzy: Prince of the Yolkfolk). The Excellent Dizzy Collection was eventually released for the Sega Master System and Game Gear, and included three games: Dizzy the Adventurer; a previously unreleased puzzle game, Go! Dizzy Go!; and Panic Dizzy, a renamed and updated version of Dizzy Panic. With these strained relations, the Oliver Twins eventually fell out with Codemasters, and stopped working with or for the company. Since intellectual property rights for the series were split between the two parties, with the Olivers owning the copyright and Codemasters the trademark, this effectively put an end to the series. Reception The Dizzy series achieved both critical and commercial success, and was one of the largest and most popular British video game franchises of the late 80s and early 90s with twelve games from the series reaching number one in the charts. Speaking in 1992, Andrew Oliver stated that the Dizzy series received more fan-mail than all other Codemasters games combined. Four games in the series were included in the Top 50 best games of all time in a special issue of Your Sinclair magazine in 2004. In addition to its success in its home market, the Dizzy games were also extremely popular in Russia and Eastern Europe. The series was sufficiently popular that various merchandise was made for it, such as clothing, mugs and clocks, even though this was unusual for video games at the time. There were also discussions with Hanna-Barbera about the possibility of creating a cartoon series based on the franchise, though these ultimately never came to fruition due to concerns that the series did not have enough of a global appeal. However, reception was not universally positive, with some of the arcade games in particular receiving poor reviews. For example, Adam Peters of Amstrad Action referred to Dizzy Panic as "a terrible game" and gave it a score of 12%. In a 2012 retrospective on the series, Richard Cobbett of PC Gamer described the quality of the games as ranging from "bad to mediyolkre", though also acknowledged that this was less important given the lower prices and generally lower standards of games at the time. Appearances on cover tapes and disks Dizzy games made numerous appearances on cover tapes and disks of British magazines, usually in the form of cut-down versions or demos. Indeed, the appearance of a version of the original Dizzy on an Amstrad Action cover tape has been credited with popularising the idea of covermounts in the UK. Sometimes, modified or themed versions of the games were used, such as Dizzy's Easter Eggstravaganza, an Easter-themed version of Fast Food that appeared on a 1993 Amiga Action cover disk. A Crash magazine cover tape from 1991 included Dizzy 3 and a Half: Into Magicland. This was a short game, comprising only five screens, that served as a prequel for Magicland Dizzy, and was not commercially released or made available anywhere else. Crash also published a special edition of Treasure Island Dizzy. Remakes and revival attempts The Oliver Twins and Codemasters who both own 50% of the intellectual property have expressed interest in resurrecting the series, although the twins concede: In October 2011, the website EggCitingNews.com was registered by Codemasters Software Ltd. The main page on the site featured a pair of eyes peering from an egg carton, accompanied by the phrase "Guess who's back?". The following month, the website DizzyGame.com was opened, featuring details of the new release: a port to mobile platforms of Dizzy: Prince of the Yolkfolk. The game was developed by Paul Ranson, who worked on the original 1991 title, with updated music by Codemasters' sound designer Mark Knight, and updated art by Leigh Christian, who had also worked on the original game. Updates that were made to modernise the game included the addition of achievements and a hint system, and the removal of lives. It was released on 9 December 2011 for iOS and Android. Oliver Twins launched a Kickstarter project titled Dizzy Returns in November 2012 and the game was to be the first official sequel in over 20 years. The Oliver Twins asked Dizzy fans to help pledge £350,000 to the Kickstarter campaign in order for the game to be made. By the Kickstarter project's deadline on 21 December, only £25,620 was pledged to the campaign. The Oliver Twins announced on the same day that Dizzy Returns was no longer in development. They attributed the failure to starting the campaign very early in pre-development and therefore not having anything concrete to show to potential backers and stated that while they were still interested in revisiting Dizzy in the future, any such project would have to have a "considerably different" vision. In the 2010s, the Oliver Twins found the code for several lost NES games that were written during the 90s but never published, and subsequently released them. Wonderland Dizzy, a remake of Magicland Dizzy, was released on 24 October 2015. Mystery World Dizzy, a remake of Fantasy World Dizzy, was released on 8 April 2017. Dreamworld Pogie, a previously-unreleased spin-off, was discovered in 2011 and released in 2016. A new game for the series, Wonderful Dizzy, in development by the Oliver Twins and based on The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, was due to be released for the Spectrum Next in late 2018, but was finished in late 2020 as a regular ZX Spectrum title. A few days before the game's release date, the Oliver Twins stated on their website that it would be released on 18 December 2020. In November 2020, a completely new version of Fast Food (now titled Fast Food Dizzy) was released for the Nintendo Switch. It was developed and published by the Oliver Twins on the FUZE program for the console. Game releases Cancelled games Fan-created games In addition to the official Dizzy games, many fangames have also been created. Many of these were created with DizzyAGE (Dizzy Adventure Game Engine), a specialised game engine released in 2006 that enables fans to easily create their own games in the style of the original games. Fans had previously had to use other game engines, which were not always suited to the puzzle style of the Dizzy games. From 2006 to 2016, the makers of DizzyAGE ran a competition each year to find the best game from the previous year, with several of the competitions featuring prizes offered by the Oliver Twins. As of 2018, there are over a hundred fan games listed on the DizzyAGE website. Related games The Seymour series is a similar franchise, also developed by Big Red and published by Codemasters. The first game in the series, Seymour Goes to Hollywood, was originally conceived as a Dizzy game, but was rebranded due to a desire to keep Dizzy retained to fantasy settings. Wibble World Giddy is a 1993 public domain parody game for the Amiga. It features similar gameplay to the Dizzy series and stars Giddy, an egg very much like Dizzy except that rather than wear boxing gloves he simply had very large hands. A sequel, Giddy 2, was released the following year, also on Amiga, with a third game, Giddy 3, being made in 2000 for DOS, then subsequently ported to multiple other formats. Clover: A Curious Tale is a 2009 adventure game that has similar mechanics to and is considered an homage to the Dizzy series. The PC version was published by Blitz 1UP, part of the Oliver Twins' Blitz Games Studios. References External links Yolkfolk.com - The Dizzy Fansite The inside story of Dizzy at Codemasters software Video game franchises Video games developed in the United Kingdom Video game franchises introduced in 1987
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254107
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Whittaker%20%28video%20game%20composer%29
David Whittaker (video game composer)
David Whittaker (born 24 April 1957 in Bury, England) is known for numerous video game music which he wrote in most of the 1980s and early 1990s, for many different formats. Career He is known for some of the work he produced in the late 1980s/early 1990s. While making music, he often programmed music directly, instead of using any music composition tools, using just a "machine code monitor"—and then an 'assembler' system/program—including SuperSoft's and then Commodore's tools. Commodore 64 was the format that he composed for most frequently. He was more impressed with the Amiga's more developed technical sound capabilities, but used a few of the same instrument sounds, in several of his works, for Amiga. These days, he works mostly in the field of computer game sound effects and voices rather than music. Although he does not compose much at present, he is still involved in the implementation of music, ambiences, sound FX and his admitted forte, dialogue (hence, his current moniker: DialogueGuru). His most successful compositions appeared probably in Amiga games such as Shadow of the Beast, Obliterator, Beyond the Ice Palace, and Speedball. On the Commodore 64, his most popular compositions include for example Glider Rider, Storm, Street Surfer and Armageddon Man. His subtune 21 of Lazy Jones was the basis for the dance hit "Kernkraft 400" by Zombie Nation. Many of his other tunes can be heard on internet radio stations such as SLAY Radio. Other formats he has composed for include Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Atari XL, MSX and ZX Spectrum. Many of his old songs are these days remixed by video game music enthusiasts. After 8 years working in the US for Electronic Arts at their Redwood Shores studio, he joined the British video game developer Traveller's Tales, at their studio in Knutsford, Cheshire as Head of Audio in September 2004. Games with music by Whittaker References External links Photograph of Whittaker at Lemon64.com Whittaker's Amiga music at UnExoticA David Whittaker at MobyGames Artist profile at OverClocked ReMix Remix64 Interview with David Whittaker Carr, Neil (2 October 2001) 1957 births Living people Amiga people British composers Video game composers Commodore 64 music
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254108
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textbook
Textbook
A textbook is a book containing a comprehensive compilation of content in a branch of study with the intention of explaining it. Textbooks are produced to meet the needs of educators, usually at educational institutions. Schoolbooks are textbooks and other books used in schools. Today, many textbooks are published in both print and digital formats. History The history of textbooks dates back to ancient civilizations. For example, Ancient Greeks wrote educational texts. The modern textbook has its roots in the mass production made possible by the printing press. Johannes Gutenberg himself may have printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus. Early textbooks were used by tutors and teachers (e.g. alphabet books), as well as by individuals who taught themselves. The Greek philosopher Socrates lamented the loss of knowledge because the media of transmission were changing. Before the invention of the Greek alphabet 2,500 years ago, knowledge and stories were recited aloud, much like Homer's epic poems. The new technology of writing meant stories no longer needed to be memorized, a development Socrates feared would weaken the Greeks' mental capacities for memorizing and retelling. (Ironically, we know about Socrates' concerns only because they were written down by his student Plato in his famous Dialogues.) The next revolution in the field of books came with the 15th-century invention of printing with changeable type. The invention is attributed to German metalsmith Johannes Gutenberg, who cast type in molds using a melted metal alloy and constructed a wooden-screw printing press to transfer the image onto paper. Gutenberg's first and only large-scale printing effort was the now iconic Gutenberg Bible in the 1450s — a Latin translation from the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament. Gutenberg's invention made mass production of texts possible for the first time. Although the Gutenberg Bible itself was expensive, printed books began to spread widely over European trade routes during the next 50 years, and by the 16th century, printed books had become more widely accessible and less costly. While many textbooks were already in use, compulsory education and the resulting growth of schooling in Europe led to the printing of many more textbooks for children. Textbooks have been the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. Two textbooks of historical significance in United States schooling were the 18th century New England Primer and the 19th century McGuffey Readers. Recent technological advances have changed the way people interact with textbooks. Online and digital materials are making it increasingly easy for students to access materials other than the traditional print textbook. Students now have access to electronic books ("e-books"), online tutoring systems and video lectures. An example of an e-book is Principles of Biology from Nature Publishing. Most notably, an increasing number of authors are avoiding commercial publishers and instead offering their textbooks under a creative commons or other open license. Market The market for textbooks As in many industries, the number of providers has declined in recent years (there are just a handful of major textbook companies in the United States). Also, elasticity of demand is fairly low. The term "broken market" appeared in the economist James Koch's analysis of the market commissioned by the Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance. In the United States, the largest textbook publishers are Pearson Education, Cengage, McGraw-Hill Education, and Wiley. Together they control 90% of market revenue. Another textbook publisher is Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. The market for textbooks doesn't reflect classic supply and demand because of agency problems. New editions and the used book market in the United States Some students save money by buying used copies of textbooks, which tend to be less expensive, and are available from many college bookstores in the US, who buy them back from students at the end of a term. Books that are not being re-used at the school are often purchased by an off-campus wholesaler for 0-30% of the new cost, for distribution to other bookstores. Some textbook companies have countered this by encouraging teachers to assign homework that must be done on the publisher's website. Students with a new textbook can use the pass code in the book to register on the site; otherwise they must pay the publisher to access the website and complete assigned homework. Students who look beyond the campus bookstore can typically find lower prices. With the ISBN or title, author and edition, most textbooks can be located through online used book sellers or retailers. Most leading textbook companies publish a new edition every 3 or 4 years, more frequently in math and science. Harvard economics chair James K. Stock has stated that new editions are often not about significant improvements to the content. "New editions are to a considerable extent simply another tool used by publishers and textbook authors to maintain their revenue stream, that is, to keep up prices." A study conducted by The Student PIRGs found that a new edition costs 12% more than a new copy of the previous edition (not surprising if the old version is obsolete), and 58% more than a used copy of the previous edition. Textbook publishers maintain these new editions are driven by demand from teachers. That study found that 76% of teachers said new editions were justified “half of the time or less” and 40% said they were justified “rarely” or “never”. The PIRG study has been criticized by publishers, who argue that the report contains factual inaccuracies regarding the annual average cost of textbooks per student. The Student PIRGs also point out that recent emphasis on e-textbooks does not always save students money. Even though the book costs less up-front, the student will not recover any of the cost through resale. Bundling in the United States Another publishing industry practice that has been highly criticized is "bundling", or shrink-wrapping supplemental items into a textbook. Supplemental items range from CD-ROMs and workbooks to online passcodes and bonus material. Students often cannot buy these things separately, and often the one-time-use supplements destroy the resale value of the textbook. According to the Student PIRGs, the typical bundled textbook is 10%-50% more than an unbundled textbook, and 65% of professors said they “rarely” or “never” use the bundled items in their courses. A 2005 Government Accountability Office (GAO) Report in the United States found that the production of these supplemental items was the primary cause of rapidly increasing prices: While publishers, retailers, and wholesalers all play a role in textbook pricing, the primary factor contributing to increases in the price of textbooks has been the increased investment publishers have made in new products to enhance instruction and learning...While wholesalers, retailers, and others do not question the quality of these materials, they have expressed concern that the publishers’ practice of packaging supplements with a textbook to sell as one unit limits the opportunity students have to purchase less expensive used books....If publishers continue to increase these investments, particularly in technology, the cost to produce a textbook is likely to continue to increase in the future. Bundling has also been used to segment the used book market. Each combination of a textbook and supplemental items receives a separate ISBN. A single textbook could therefore have dozens of ISBNs that denote different combinations of supplements packaged with that particular book. When a bookstore attempts to track down used copies of textbooks, they will search for the ISBN the course instructor orders, which will locate only a subset of the copies of the textbook. Legislation at state and federal levels seeks to limit the practice of bundling, by requiring publishers to offer all components separately. Publishers have testified in favor of bills including this provision, but only in the case that the provision exempts the loosely defined category of "integrated textbooks." The Federal bill only exempts 3rd party materials in integrated textbooks, however publisher lobbyists have attempted to create a loophole through this definition in state bills. Price disclosure Given that the problem of high textbook prices is linked to the "broken" economics of the market, requiring publishers to disclose textbook prices to faculty is a solution pursued by a number of legislatures. By inserting price into sales interactions, this regulation will supposedly make the economic forces operate more normally. No data suggests that this is in fact true. However, The Student PIRGs have found that publishers actively withhold pricing information from faculty, making it difficult to obtain. Their most recent study found that 77% of faculty say publisher sales representatives do not volunteer prices, and only 40% got an answer when they directly asked. Furthermore, the study found that 23% of faculty rated publisher websites as “informative and easy to use” and less than half said they typically listed the price. The US Congress passed a law in the 2008 Higher Education Opportunity Act that would require price disclosure. Legislation requiring price disclosure has passed in Connecticut, Washington, Minnesota, Oregon, Arizona, Oklahoma, and Colorado. Publishers are currently supporting price disclosure mandates, though they insist that the "suggested retail price" should be disclosed, rather than the actual price the publisher would get for the book. Used textbook market Once a textbook is purchased from a retailer for the first time, there are several ways a student can sell his/her textbooks back at the end of the semester or later. Students can sell to 1) the college/university bookstore; 2) fellow students; 3) a number of online websites; or 4) a student swap service. Campus buyback As for buyback on a specific campus, faculty decisions largely determine how much a student receives. If a professor chooses to use the same book the following semester, even if it is a custom text, designed specifically for an individual instructor, bookstores often buy the book back. The GAO report found that, generally, if a book is in good condition and will be used on the campus again the next term, bookstores will pay students 50 percent of the original price paid. If the bookstore has not received a faculty order for the book at the end of the term and the edition is still current, they may offer students the wholesale price of the book, which could range from 5 to 35 percent of the new retail price, according to the GAO report. When students resell their textbooks during campus “buyback” periods, these textbooks are often sold into the national used textbook distribution chain. If a textbook is not going to be used on campus for the next semester of courses then many times the college bookstore will sell that book to a national used book company. The used book company then resells the book to another college bookstore. Finally, that book is sold as used to a student at another college at a price that is typically 75% of the new book price. At each step, a markup is applied to the book to enable the respective companies to continue to operate. Student to student sales Students can also sell or trade textbooks among themselves. After completing a course, sellers will often seek out members of the next enrolling class, people who are likely to be interested in purchasing the required books. This may be done by posting flyers to advertise the sale of the books or simply soliciting individuals who are shopping in the college bookstore for the same titles. Many larger schools have independent websites set up for the purpose of facilitating such trade. These often operate much like digital classified ads, enabling students to list their items for sale and browse for those they wish to acquire. Also, at the US Air Force Academy, it is possible to e-mail entire specific classes, allowing for an extensive network of textbook sales to exist. Student online marketplaces Online marketplaces are one of the two major types of online websites students can use to sell used textbooks. Online marketplaces may have an online auction format or may allow the student to list their books for a fixed price. In either case, the student must create the listing for each book themselves and wait for a buyer to order, making the use of marketplaces a more passive way of selling used textbooks. Unlike campus buyback and online book, students are unlikely to sell all their books to one buyer using online marketplaces, and will likely have to send out multiple books individually. Online book buyers Online book buyers buy textbooks, and sometimes other types of books, with the aim of reselling them for a profit. Like online marketplaces, online book buyers operate year-round, giving students the opportunity to sell their books even when campus "buyback" periods are not in effect. Online book buyers, who are often online book sellers as well, will sometimes disclaim whether or not a book can be sold back prior to purchase. Students enter the ISBN numbers of the books they wish to sell and receive a price quote or offer. These online book buyers often offer "free shipping" (which in actuality is built into the offer for the book), and allow students to sell multiple books to the same source. Because online book buyers are buying books for resale, the prices they offer may be lower than students can get on online marketplaces. However, their prices are competitive, and they tend to focus on the convenience of their service. Some even claim that buying used textbooks online and selling them to online book buyers has a lower total cost than even textbook rental services. Textbook exchanges In response to escalating textbook prices, limited competition, and to provide a more efficient system to connect buyers and sellers together, online textbook exchanges were developed. Most of today's sites handle buyer and seller payments, and usually deduct a small commission only after the sale is completed. According to textbook author Henry L. Roediger (and Wadsworth Publishing Company senior editor Vicki Knight), the used textbook market is illegitimate, and entirely to blame for the rising costs of textbooks. As methods of "dealing with this problem", he recommends making previous editions of textbooks obsolete, binding the textbook with other materials, and passing laws to prevent the sale of used books. The concept is not unlike the limited licensing approach for computer software, which places rigid restrictions on resale and reproduction. The intent is to make users understand that the content of any textbook is the intellectual property of the author and/or the publisher, and that as such, subject to copyright. Obviously, this idea is completely opposed to the millennia-old tradition of the sale of used books, and would make that entire industry illegal. E-textbooks Another alternative to save money and obtaining the materials you are required are e-textbooks. The article "E books rewrite the rules of education" states that, alternately to spending a lot of money on textbooks, you can purchase an e-textbook at a small amount of the cost. With the growth of digital applications for iPhone, and gadgets like the Amazon kindle, e-textbooks are not an innovation, but have been "gaining momentum". According to the article " Are textbooks obsolete?", publishers and editorials are concerned about the issue of expensive textbooks. "The expense of textbooks is a concern for students, and e-textbooks, address the face of the issue, Williams says " As publishers we understand the high cost of these materials, and the electronic format permit us diminish the general expense of our content to the market". E-textbook applications facilitate similar experiences to physical textbooks by allowing the user to highlight and take notes in-page. These applications also extend textbook learning by providing quick definitions, reading the text aloud, and search functionality. Rental programs In-store rentals are processed by either using a kiosk and ordering books online with a third party facilitator or renting directly from the store's inventory. Some stores use a hybrid of both methods, opting for in-store selections of the most popular books and the online option for more obscure titles or books they consider too risky to put in the rental system. Rented items can be used for a set duration of time, then are required to be returned to the physical store or shipped back to the third party facilitator by the rental due date. Writing and highlighting is sometimes allowed in rented items, although excessive markup which makes the item unrentable is discouraged. Overdue items are often charged a fee up to the retail price of the rented item. Rented items typically do not include supplemental materials such as access codes, CDs, or loose-leafs. Textbook sharing Using textbook sharing, students share the physical textbook with other students, and the cost of the book is divided among the users of the textbook. Over the life of the textbook, if 4 students use the textbook, the cost of the textbook for each student will be 25% of the total cost of the book. Open textbooks The latest trend in textbooks is "open textbooks." An open textbook is a free, openly licensed textbook offered online by the copyright holders. According to PIRG, a number of textbooks already exist, and are being used at schools such as MIT and Harvard. A 2010 study published found that open textbooks offer a viable and attractive means to meet faculty and student needs while offering savings of approximately 80% compared to traditional textbook options. Although the largest question seems to be who is going to pay to write them, several state policies suggest that public investment in open textbooks might make sense. To offer another perspective, any jurisdiction might find itself challenged to find sufficient numbers of credible academics who would be willing to undertake the effort of creating an open textbook without realistic compensation, in order to make such a proposal work. Currently, some open textbooks have been funded with non-profit investment. The other challenge involves the reality of publishing, which is that textbooks with good sales and profitability subsidize the creation and publication of low demand but believed to be necessary textbooks. Subsidies skew markets and the elimination of subsidies is disruptive; in the case of low demand textbooks the possibilities following subsidy removal include any or all of the following: higher retail prices, a switch to open textbooks, a reduction of the number of titles published. On the other hand, independent open textbook authoring and publishing models are developing. Most notably, the startup publisher Flat World Knowledge already has dozens of college-level open textbooks that are used by more than 900 institutions in 44 countries. Their business model was to offer the open textbook free online, and then sell ancillary products that students are likely to buy if prices are reasonable - print copies, study guides, ePub, .Mobi (Kindle), PDF download, etc. Flat World Knowledge compensates its authors with royalties on these sales. With the generated revenue Flat World Knowledge funded high-quality publishing activities with a goal of making the Flat World financial model sustainable. However, in January, 2013 Flat World Knowledge announced their financial model could no longer sustain their free-to-read options for students. Flat World Knowledge intends to have open textbooks available for the 125 highest-enrolled courses on college campuses within the next few years. CK-12 FlexBooks are the open textbooks designed for United States K-12 courses. CK-12 FlexBooks are designed to facilitate conformance to national and United States and individual state textbook standards. CK-12 FlexBooks are licensed under a Creative Commons BY-NC-SA license. CK-12 FlexBooks are free to use online and offer formats suitable for use on portable personal reading devices and computers - both online and offline. Formats for both iPad and Kindle are offered. School districts may select a title as is or customize the open textbook to meet local instructional standards. The file may be then accessed electronically or printed using any print on demand service without paying a royalty, saving 80% or more when compared to traditional textbook options. An example print on demand open textbook title, "College Algebra" by Stitz & Zeager through Lulu is 608 pages, royalty free, and costs about $20 ordered one at a time (March, 2011). (Any print on demand service could be used - this is just an example. School districts could easily negotiate even lower prices for bulk purchases to be printed in their own communities.) Teacher's editions are available for educators and parents. Titles have been authored by various individuals and organizations and are vetted for quality prior to inclusion in the CK-12 catalog. An effort is underway to map state educational standards correlations. Stanford University provided a number of titles in use. Curriki is another modular K-12 content non-profit "empowering educators to deliver and share curricula." Selected Curriki materials are also correlated to U.S. state educational standards. Some Curriki content has been collected into open textbooks and some may be used for modular lessons or special topics. International market pricing Similar to the issue of reimportation of pharmaceuticals into the U.S. market, the GAO report also highlights a similar phenomenon in textbook distribution. Retailers and publishers have expressed concern about the re-importation of lower-priced textbooks from international locations. Specifically, they cited the ability students have to purchase books from online distribution channels outside the United States at lower prices, which may result in a loss of sales for U.S. retailers. Additionally, the availability of lower-priced textbooks through these channels has heightened distrust and frustration among students regarding textbook prices, and college stores find it difficult to explain why their textbook prices are higher, according to the National Association of College Stores. Retailers and publishers have also been concerned that some U.S. retailers may have engaged in reimportation on a large scale by ordering textbooks for entire courses at lower prices from international distribution channels. While the 1998 Supreme Court decision Quality King v. L'anza protects the reimportation of copyrighted materials under the first-sale doctrine, textbook publishers have still attempted to prevent the U.S. sale of international editions by enforcing contracts which forbid foreign wholesalers from selling to American distributors. Concerned about the effects of differential pricing on college stores, the National Association of College Stores has called on publishers to stop the practice of selling textbooks at lower prices outside the United States. For example, some U.S. booksellers arrange for drop-shipments in foreign countries which are then re-shipped to America where the books can be sold online at used prices (for a "new" unopened book). The authors often getting half-royalties instead of full-royalties, minus the charges for returned books from bookstores. Production Cost distribution According to the National Association of College Stores, the entire cost of the book is justified by expenses, with typically 11.7% of the price of a new book going to the author's royalties (or a committee of editors at the publishing house), 22.7% going to the store, and 64.6% going to the publisher. The store and publisher amounts are slightly higher for Canada. Bookstores and used-book vendors profit from the resale of textbooks on the used market, with publishers only earning profits on sales of new textbooks. Research According to the GAO study published July 2005: Following closely behind annual increases in tuition and fees at postsecondary institutions, college textbook and supply prices have risen at twice the rate of annual inflation over the last two decades. Rising at an average of 6 percent each year since academic year 1987-1988, compared with overall average price increases of 3 percent per year, college textbook and supply prices trailed tuition and fee increases, which averaged 7 percent per year. Since December 1986, textbook and supply prices have nearly tripled, increasing by 186 percent, while tuition and fees increased by 240 percent and overall prices grew by 72 percent. While increases in textbook and supply prices have followed increases in tuition and fees, the cost of textbooks and supplies for degree-seeking students as a percentage of tuition and fees varies by the type of institution attended. For example, the average estimated cost of books and supplies per first-time, full-time student for academic year 2003-2004 was $898 at 4-year public institutions, or about 26 percent of the cost of tuition and fees. At 2-year public institutions, where low-income students are more likely to pursue a degree program and tuition and fees are lower, the average estimated cost of books and supplies per first-time, full-time student was $886 in academic year 2003-2004, representing almost three-quarters of the cost of tuition and fees. According to the 2nd edition of a study by the United States Public Interest Research Group (US PIRG) published in February 2005: "Textbook prices are increasing at more than four times the inflation rate for all finished goods, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics Producer Price Index. The wholesale prices charged by textbook publishers have jumped 62 percent since 1994, while prices charged for all finished goods increased only 14 percent. Similarly, the prices charged by publishers for general books increased just 19 percent during the same time period." According to the 2007 edition of the College Board's Trend in College Pricing Report published October 2007: "College costs continue to rise and federal student aid has shown slower growth when adjusted for inflation, while textbooks, as a percentage of total college costs, have remained steady at about 5 percent." K-12 textbooks In most U.S. K-12 public schools, a local school board votes on which textbooks to purchase from a selection of books that have been approved by the state Department of Education. Teachers receive the books to give to the students for each subject. Teachers are usually not required to use textbooks, however, and many prefer to use other materials instead. Textbook publishing in the U.S. is a business primarily aimed at large states. This is due to state purchasing controls over the books, most notably in Texas, where the Texas Education Agency sets curricula for all courses taught by the state's 1,000+ school districts, and therefore also approves which textbooks can be purchased. Commonly used American history textbooks are customized for students in California and Texas. High school In recent years, high school textbooks of United States history have come under increasing criticism. Authors such as Howard Zinn (A People's History of the United States), Gilbert T. Sewall (Textbooks: Where the Curriculum Meets the Child) and James W. Loewen (Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong), make the claim that U.S. history textbooks contain mythical untruths and omissions, which paint a whitewashed picture that bears little resemblance to what most students learn in universities. Inaccurately retelling history, through textbooks or other literature, has been practiced in many societies, from ancient Rome to the Soviet Union (USSR) and the People's Republic of China. The content of history textbooks is often determined by the political forces of state adoption boards and ideological pressure groups. Science textbooks have been the source of ongoing debates and have come under scrutiny from several organizations. The presentation or inclusion of controversial scientific material has been debated in several court cases. Poorly designed textbooks have been cited as contributing to declining grades in mathematics and science in the United States and organizations such as the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS) have criticized the layout, presentation, and amount of material given in textbooks. Discussions of textbooks have been included on creation and evolution in the public education debate. The Smith v. Board of School Commissioners of Mobile County case brought forward a debate about scientific fact being presented in textbooks. In his book, Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!, the late physics Nobel Prize laureate Richard P. Feynman described his experiences as a member of a committee that evaluated science textbooks. At some instances, there were nonsensical examples to illustrate physical phenomena; then a company sent — for reasons of timing — a textbook that contained blank pages, which even got good critiques. Feynman himself experienced attempts at bribery. Mathematics Largely in the US, but increasingly in other nations, K-12 Mathematics textbooks have reflected the controversies of new math and reform mathematics which have sought to replace traditional mathematics in what have been called the math wars. Traditional texts, still favored in Asia and other areas, merely taught the same time-tested mathematics that most adults have learned. By contrast "progressive" approaches seek to address problems in social inequity with approaches that often incorporate principles of constructivism and discovery. Texts such as TERC and CMP discourage or omit standard mathematics methods and concepts such as long division and lowest common denominators. For example, an index entry to multiply fractions would lead to "devise your own method to multiply fractions which work on these examples", and the formula for the area of a circle would be an exercise for a student to derive rather than including it in the student text. By the 2000s, while some districts were still adopting the more novel methods, others had abandoned them as unworkable. Higher education In the U.S., college and university textbooks are chosen by the professor teaching the course, or by the department as a whole. Students are typically responsible for obtaining their own copies of the books used in their courses, although alternatives to owning textbooks, such as textbook rental services and library reserve copies of texts, are available in some instances. In some European countries, such as Sweden or Spain, students attending institutions of higher education pay for textbooks themselves, although higher education is free of charge otherwise. With higher education costs on the rise, many students are becoming sensitive to every aspect of college pricing, including textbooks, which in many cases amount to one tenth of tuition costs. The 2005 Government Accountability Office report on college textbooks said that since the 1980s, textbook and supply prices have risen twice the rate of inflation in the past two decades. A 2005 PIRG study found that textbooks cost students $900 per year, and that prices increased four times the rate of inflation over the past decade. A June 2007 Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance (ACSFA) report, “Turn the Page,” reported that the average U.S. student spends $700–$1000 per year on textbooks. While many groups have assigned blame to publishers, bookstores or faculty, the ACSFA also found that assigning blame to any one party—faculty, colleges, bookstores or publishers—for current textbook costs is unproductive and without merit. The report called on all parties within the industry to work together to find productive solutions, which included a movement toward open textbooks and other lower-cost digital solutions. Textbook prices are considerably higher in law school. Students ordinarily pay close to $200 for case books consisting of cases available free online. Textbook bias on controversial topics In cases of history, science, current events, and political textbooks, "the writer might be biased towards one way or another. Topics such as actions of a country, presidential actions, and scientific theories are common potential biases". See also John Amos Comenius - Czech philosopher, pedagogue and theologian who is credited by some with introducing pictorial textbooks Orbis Pictus - 1658 textbook by Comenius, one of the first books with pictures for children Casebook - A special type of textbook used in law schools in the United States. Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. - 2013 decision of the US Supreme Court regarding textbook resale Japanese textbook controversy Pakistani textbooks controversy NCERT textbook controversy Kanawha County textbook controversy Sourcebook – collection of texts, often used in social sciences and humanities in the United States Workbook - Usually filled with practice problems, where the answers can be written directly in the book. Problem book - A textbook, usually graduate level, organized as a series of problems and full solutions. Open textbook - A textbook licensed under an open copyright license, and made available online to be freely used List of medical textbooks List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics List of textbooks in electromagnetism List of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics Further reading Baier, Kylie, et al. "College students’ textbook reading, or not." American Reading Forum Annual Yearbook Vol. 31. 2011. online Berkeley, Sheri, et al. "Are History Textbooks More "Considerate" After 20 Years?." Journal of Special Education (2014) 47#4 PP: 217-230. Buczynski, James A. "Faculty begin to replace textbooks with "freely" accessible online resources." Internet Reference Services Quarterly (2007) 11#4 pp: 169-179. Campbell, Alex, and Mr Flint. "New Digital Tools Let Professors Tailor Their Own Textbooks for Under $20 And that's just one option, along with mix-and-match Web sites from big publishers and libraries of open-source content." Chronicle of Higher Education (October 9, 2011). online Carbaugh, Robert, and Koushik Ghosh. "Are college textbooks priced fairly?." Challenge (2005) 48#5 pp: 95-112. Chiappetta, Eugene L., and David A. Fillman. "Analysis of five high school biology textbooks used in the United States for inclusion of the nature of science." International Journal of Science Education (2007) 29#15 pp: 1847-1868. Doering, Torsten, Luiz Pereira, and L. Kuechler. "The use of e-textbooks in higher education: A case study." Berlin (Germany): E-Leader (2012). online Elliott, David L., and Arthur Woodward, eds. Textbooks and schooling in the United States Vol. 89. NSSE, 1990. Kahveci, Ajda. "Quantitative analysis of science and chemistry textbooks for indicators of reform: A complementary perspective." International Journal of Science Education (2010) 32#11 pp: 1495-1519. Koulaidis, Vasilis, and Anna Tsatsaroni. "A pedagogical analysis of science textbooks: How can we proceed?." Research in Science Education (1996) 26#1 pp: 55-71. Liang, Ye, and William W. Cobern. "Analysis of a Typical Chinese High School Biology Textbook Using the AAAS Textbook Standards." (2013). online Richardson, Paul W. "Reading and writing from textbooks in higher education: a case study from Economics." Studies in Higher Education (2004) 29#4: 505-521. online; on Australia Roediger III, Henry L. "Writing Textbooks: Why Doesn’t It Count?." Observer (2004) 17#5 online Silver, Lawrence S., Robert E. Stevens, and Kenneth E. Clow. "Marketing professors’ perspectives on the cost of college textbooks: a pilot study." Journal of Education for Business (2012) 87#1 pp: 1-6. Stone, Robert W., and Lori J. Baker-Eveleth. "Students’ intentions to purchase electronic textbooks." Journal of Computing in Higher Education (2013) 25#1 pp: 27-47. Weiten, Wayne. "Objective features of introductory psychology textbooks as related to professors' impressions." Teaching of Psychology (1988) 15#1 pp: 10-16. External links Textbooks used in Mexico in preschool, primary, secondary and high school education Historic textbooks used in Mexico in primary school from 1960 to 2013 Books by type Textbook business Educational materials
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speedball%20%28video%20game%29
Speedball (video game)
Speedball is a 1988 video game based on a violent futuristic cyberpunk sport that draws on elements of handball and ice hockey, and rewards violent play as well as goals. Speedball was released in November 1988 for the Amiga and Atari ST and later ported to MS-DOS, Commodore 64 and the Sega Master System. SOFEL released a port for the NES in 1991, as KlashBall. It was re-released in 2004 as one of the 30 games on the C64 Direct-to-TV. Gameplay The game is played by two teams on an enclosed court with a goal at each end, similar to that of ice hockey or five-a-side football. The court contains fixed bounce domes that modify the trajectory and speed of the ball, as well as one hole in the middle at each side where upon entering the ball will appear at the opposite side, keeping its momentum. The layout of the domes on the court changes as the player faces a different team, up to a maximum of 10 variations. A player has control of only one outfield player on a team at any one time. The game may be played by one or two players; two player games are played competitively. Two game modes are supported: knockout (face increasingly tougher teams controlled by the computer in best of three matches) and league. The game starts with the player(s) selecting a captain among three available choices, each starting with significantly more points than the other two in one of three stats: stamina, power and skill. All the members in a team start the game with the same stats. During the actual game, as team members hit opponents, the opponent loses a part of his stamina; when stamina drops low enough, that individual player will move slower than the rest. The more powerful a team member is, the more damage he will deliver with a direct hit. Extra skill on the other hand promotes aggression from any team member controlled by the computer towards the opposite team, and improves chances of a successful hit. While in possession of the ball, the player can either press and immediately release the fire button to do a direct throw, or keep the button pressed to make the ball go higher. Players can then jump to try and catch it, but this makes them more vulnerable to being hit by the opposite team. As the game progresses, coins and several power-ups appear randomly which can be collected. Power-ups include making the ball become electrified (the opposite team can't pick it up and they will take harm if they try), and make it teleport to your player. Coins can be traded at the end of each game for different bonuses, such as extra time or several enhancements for all members in the player's team, including a permanent increase to any of their stats. Computer-controlled players (either on the player or the computer's side) can't collect coins, but the active player controlled by the computer can collect power-ups. The team that has amassed the most goals at the end of the game is the winner. Reception Speedball received scores of 862 (DOS) and 834 (Atari ST) out of 1000 from ACE, 79% from Mean Machines and 57% from Power Play. The game won the 1989 Golden Joystick Game Of The Year award. Computer Gaming World gave the game a positive review, praising its graphics and long-lasting gameplay. It was also voted Best 16-bit Game of the Year at the Golden Joystick Awards. The game's Master System port was given a 90% by French magazine . The One magazine in 1991 rated the game five out of five stars for the Amiga, Atari ST and PC. Sequels Speedball was succeeded by Speedball 2: Brutal Deluxe. Speedball 2 had a greater and more lasting popularity than Speedball, and has been remade and republished a number of times. See also Deathrow HyperBlade Skateball (a.k.a. Skate Wars) References External links Speedball at Hall of Light Speedball at c64sets.com 1988 video games Acorn Archimedes games Amiga games Atari ST games Amiga CD32 games Commodore 64 games Cyberpunk video games DOS games Fantasy sports video games Master System games Nintendo Entertainment System games Video games developed in the United Kingdom Video games scored by David Whittaker Video games set in the 2090s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards
1994 Governor General's Awards
Each winner of the 1994 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit received $10 000 and a medal from the Governor General of Canada. The winners were selected by a panel of judges set up by the Canada Council for the Arts. English Language Fiction Winner: Rudy Wiebe, A Discovery of Strangers Other Finalists: Margaret Atwood, The Robber Bride Donna McFarlane, Division of Surgery Alice Munro, Open Secrets Russell Smith, How Insensitive Poetry Winner: Robert Hilles, Cantos from a Small Room Other Finalists: Robin Blaser, The Holy Forest Polly Fleck, The Chinese Execution Monty Reid, Dog Sleeps Drama Winner: Morris Panych, The Ends of the Earth Other Finalists: Joanna McClelland Glass, If We Are Women Wendy Lill, All Fall Down Bryden MacDonald, Whale Riding Weather Non-Fiction Winner: John A. Livingston, Rogue Primate: An Exploration of Human Domestication Other Finalists: Sharon Butala, The Perfection of the Morning: An Apprenticeship in Nature Denise Chong, The Concubine's Children: Portrait of a Family Joan Haggerty, The Invitation: A Memoir of Family Love and Reconciliation Peter Larisey, Light for a Cold Land: Lawren Harris's Work and Life-An Interpretation Children's Literature – Text Winner: Julie Johnston, Adam and Eve and Pinch-Me (Lester Publishing) Other Finalists: Sarah Ellis, Out of the Blue Carol Matas, The Burning Time Jim McGugan, Josepha: A Prairie Boy's Story Ken Roberts, Past Tense Children's Literature – Illustration Winner: Murray Kimber, Josepha: A Prairie Boy's Story Other Finalists: Marie Lafrance, La Diablesse and the Baby Michèle Lemieux, There Was An Old Man...: A Collection of Limericks Laurie McGaw, Polar the Titanic Bear Martin Springett, Who Translation (from French to English) Winner: Donald Winkler, The Lyric Generation: The Life and Times of the Baby Boomers Other Finalists: Patricia Claxton, Tchipayuk or The Way of the Wolf Sheila Fischman, The Sound of Living Things David Homel, An Aroma of Coffee Shelley Tepperman, Playing Bare French Language Fiction Winner: Robert Lalonde, Le petit aigle à tête blanche Other Finalists: Réjean Ducharme, Va savoir Daniel Poliquin, L'Écureuil noir Hélène Rioux, Pense à mon rendez-vous Sylvain Trudel, Les Prophètes Poetry Winner: Fulvio Caccia, Aknos Other Finalists: Marcel Labine, Machines imaginaires Rachel Leclerc, Rabatteurs d'étoiles Paul Chanel Malenfant, Hommes de profil Pierre Ouellet, Vita chiara, villa oscura Drama Winner: Michel Ouellette, French Town Other Finalists: Michelle Allen, Morgane Yvan Bienvenue, Histoires à mourir d'amour Claude Poissant, Si tu meurs, je te tue Jean-Pierre Ronfard, Cinq études Non-Fiction Winner: Chantal Saint-Jarre, Du sida Other Finalists: Fernand Dumont, Genèse de la société québécoise Jean Lamarre, Le devenir de la nation québécoise Ginette Pelland, La peur des mots Georges E. Sioui, Les Wendats : une civilisation méconnue Children's Literature – Text Winner: Suzanne Martel, Une belle journée pour mourir Other Finalists: Marie-Danielle Croteau, Un monde à la dérive François Gravel, Klonk Children's Literature – Illustration Winner: Pierre Pratt, Mon chien est un éléphant Other Finalists: Sylvie Deronzier, Tartarin et le lion Stéphane Poulin, Le parc aux sortilèges Rémy Simard, Monsieur noir et blanc Gilles Tibo, Simon et la plume perdue Translation (from English to French) Winner: Jude Des Chênes, Le mythe du sauvage Other Finalists: Claire Dupond and Hervé Juste, Les spécialistes des sciences sociales et la politique au Canada Michèle Marineau, Au-delà des ténèbres Normand Paiement and Hervé Juste, Les Géants des ordures Daniel Poliquin, Le récit de voyage en Nouvelle – France de l'abbé peintre Hugues Pommier Governor General's Awards Governor General's Awards Governor General's Awards
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folegandros
Folegandros
Folegandros (also Pholegandros; ) is a small Greek island in the Aegean Sea that, together with Sikinos, Ios, Anafi and Santorini, forms the southern part of the Cyclades. Its surface area is and it has 765 inhabitants. It has three small villages, Chora, Karavostasis, and Ano Meria, which are connected by a paved road. Folegandros is part of the Thira regional unit. Mythology According to Greek mythology, it was said to have derived its name from a son of Minos. History Little is known about the ancient history of Folegandros. Its inhabitants were Dorians. Later it came under Athenian rule. The island contained a polis (city-state) called Pholegandros, which was sited at the modern Chora and a member of the Delian League where it appears on Athenian tribute lists between 425/4 and 416/15 BCE. The island was called the iron Pholegandros by Aratus on account of its ruggedness, and is also noted by ancient geographers Strabo and Ptolemy, who calls it Pholekandros (). The island was conquered in 1207 by the Venetian Marco Sanudo and remained under the rule of Venice until 1566, when it was taken by the Ottoman Turks. The Greeks reclaimed it in the 19th century. Geography Folegandros' landscape is varied, and includes tall cliffs and a large cave. The "capital" of the island, Chora, is built on the edge of a 200-metre high cliff. The port of Folegandros is the small village of Karavostasis. The Ano Meria village contains a small but interesting Ecological and Folklore Museum. Among the notable beaches on Folegandros is Katergo, accessible only by foot or by boat from Karavostasis. Katergo beach is used by naturists. Gallery References External links Municipality of Folegandros Beaches in Folegandros Islands of Greece Cyclades Municipalities of the South Aegean Populated places in Thira (regional unit) Landforms of Thira (regional unit) Islands of the South Aegean Members of the Delian League Locations in Greek mythology Populated places in the ancient Aegean islands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chora
Chora
Chora may refer to: Chora (software), a web-based CVS repository viewer Miura Chora (1729–1780), Japanese poet Places Greece Chora (meaning "Town" in Greek), is often used as the name of the main town on an island, following the common practice in Greece when the name of the island itself is the same as the name of the principal town. Chora, old capital of the island of Alonnisos Chora, village on the island of Folegandros Chora, capital of the island of Ios Chora, a small town in Messenia in the Peloponnese Chora, principal town on the island of Mykonos Chora, an alternative name for Naxos city on the island of Naxos Chora, principal town on the island of Patmos Chora Sfakion, a town on the south coast of Crete Chroa, the main town of the island of Kythira Other Chora (woreda), a district in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia Chora, Iran, village in Gilan Province Chora District, in the Uruzgan province of Afghanistan Chora, Afghanistan, the capital of the Chora District above. See also Chora Church, a Byzantine church in Istanbul Khôra, Greek term used by Plato to describe neither being nor nonbeing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond%20Dart
Raymond Dart
Raymond Arthur Dart (4 February 1893 – 22 November 1988) was an Australian anatomist and anthropologist, best known for his involvement in the 1924 discovery of the first fossil ever found of Australopithecus africanus, an extinct hominin closely related to humans, at Taung in the North of South Africa in the province Northwest. Early life Raymond Dart was born in Toowong, a suburb of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, the fifth of nine children and son of a farmer and tradesman. His birth occurred during the 1893 flood which filled his parents' home and shop in Toowong. The family moved alternately between their country property near Laidley and their shop in Toowong. The young Dart attended Toowong State School, Blenheim State School and earned a scholarship to Ipswich Grammar School from 1906 to 1909. Dart considered becoming a medical missionary to China and wished to study medicine at the University of Sydney, but his father argued that he should accept the scholarship he won to the newly established University of Queensland and study science. He was a member of the first intake of students to the university in 1911 and studied geology under H.C. Richards and zoology, taking his BSc in 1913. Dart became the first student to graduate with honours from the University of Queensland in 1914 and took his MSc with honours from UQ in 1916. He studied medicine at the University of Sydney taking his MB and M.Surgery in 1917, and conducting his residency at St Andrews College, University of Sydney. He would be awarded his M.D. from the University of Sydney in 1927. Dart served as a captain and medic in the Australian Army in England and France during the last year of World War I. Following the war, he took up a position as a senior demonstrator at the University College, London in 1920 at the behest of Grafton Elliot Smith, famed anatomist, anthropologist and fellow Australian. This would be followed by a year on a Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship at Washington University, St Louis, Missouri. Returning to England and work at the University College, London, he then reluctantly took up the position of Professor at the newly established department of anatomy at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa in 1922, after encouragement from Elliot Smith and Sir Arthur Keith. Career In 1924, Dart discovered the first Australopithecus africanus fossil, an extinct hominin closely related to humans. His colleague, Professor Robert Burns Young from the Buxton Limeworks, had sent Dart two crates of fossils from the small town of Taung in the North West Province of South Africa. Upon seeing the fossils, Dart immediately recognized one as being an early human because its brain dimensions were too large for a baboon or chimpanzee. Blasting had exposed a breccia-filled cave and the child's skull had come to light together with several fossilized monkeys and hyraxes. M. de Bruyn had noticed their unusual nature in November 1924 and informed the Limeworks manager, Mr. A.E. Spiers. As Dart was not part of the scientific establishment, and because Raymond found the fossil in Africa, and not Europe or Asia, where the establishment supposed man's origins, his findings were initially dismissed. Dart's closest ally was Robert Broom whose discoveries of further Australopithecines (as well as Wilfrid Le Gros Clark's support) eventually vindicated Dart, so much so that in 1947 Sir Arthur Keith said "...Dart was right, and I was wrong". Keith made this statement referring to his dismissal and skepticism of Dart's analysis of the 'Taung Child' as an early human ancestor; Keith thought that it was more likely to be an ape, yet later research by Broom confirmed Dart's theories. Dart's theories were also popularized by playwright, screenwriter, and science writer Robert Ardrey, first in an article published in The Reporter and reprinted in Science Digest, and later in Ardrey's influential four-book Nature of Man Series, which began in 1961 with African Genesis. Not all of Dart's theories would in the end be vindicated. A number of his theories including that of the Killer Ape, have been called into question. His work was clearly influenced by the mentors he worked with in his early career, in particular Grafton Elliot Smith. Neuroscience Dart proposed the idea of dual evolutionary origins of the neocortex. During his research in the 1930s in Africa, he studied the architecture of reptilian brains. He was able to identify a "primordial neocortex" (paraphrased), the oldest structure that can be considered as a neocortex, in a reptile. He identified a distinction between the cytoarchitecture in an area which split it into a Para-Hippocampal and a Para-Pyriform region. Personal life Dart married Dora Tyree, a medical student from Virginia, U.S.A., in 1921 in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, U.S.A., and they divorced in 1934. He married Marjorie Frew, head librarian at the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa in 1936 and they had two children, Diana and Galen. Legacy The Institute for the Study of Man in Africa was established in 1956 at Witwatersrand in his honor by Phillip Tobias.In 1964 was inaugurated at the Institute the first Raymond Dart Memorial Lecture Dart was director of the School of Anatomy at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg until 1958. There he worked with Phillip Tobias (1925-2012), who continued his work in the study of the Cradle of Humankind and other paleoanthropological sites. In 1959, an autobiographical account of Dart's discoveries, Adventures with the Missing Link, was published (with Dennis Craig as co-author). In the book he acknowledges the crucial role played by his first female student and Demonstrator, Josephine Salmons. She brought to his attention the existence of a fossilised baboon skull at the house of Mr E.G. Izod, director of the Northern Lime Company and proprietor of a quarry in Taung. The skull was kept as an ornament on the mantlepiece above the fireplace at his home. In bringing the skull to show Prof. Raymond Dart, she set in motion a chain of events that led to the discovery of the 'Child skull of Taung' She later became wife of Prof. Cecil Jackson, Professor of Anatomy at Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, University of Pretoria. At the age of 73, Dart began dividing his time between South Africa and The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential (IAHP), an organization founded by Glenn Doman. Dart spent much of the next twenty years working with the IAHP, an organization that treats brain injured children. His son, Galen Dart had suffered motor damage during birth in 1941. Raymond Dart died in Johannesburg in 1988, and was survived by his wife and children. Works Dart R.A. (1925): Australopithecus africanus: The Man-Ape of South Africa. Nature, Vol.115, No.2884 (1925) 195-9 (the original paper communicating the Taung finding, in PDF format). Dart, R.A. (1953): "The Predatory Transition from Ape to Man." International Anthropological and Linguistic Review, 1, pp. 201–217.The publication does not exist on line, but in "http://www.users.miamioh.edu/erlichrd/vms_site/dart.html" there is a copy of the article. Dart, Raymond A. and Craig, Dennis (1959): Adventures with the Missing Link. New York: Harper & Brothers (autobiography). Fagan, Brian. The Passion of Raymond Dart. Archaeology v. 42 (May–June 1989): p. 18. Johanson, Donald & Maitland Edey. Lucy: The Beginnings of Humankind. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990 Murray, Alexander ed. (1996): Skill and Poise: Articles on skill, poise and the F. M. Alexander Technique. Collection of Raymond Dart's papers. Hardcover, 192+xiv pages, b/w illustrations, 234 x 156 mm, index, UK, STAT Books. See also Dawn of Humanity (2015 PBS film) Hominidae Human evolution List of fossil sites (with link directory) List of hominina fossils (with images) Prehistoric warfare W. Maxwell Cowan, his student References External links Essay by C. K. Brain, "Raymond Dart and our African origins," accompanying the reprint of Raymond Dart's 1925 Nature article in A Century of Nature: Twenty-One Discoveries that Changed Science and the World, Laura Garwin and Tim Lincoln, eds. Biography of Raymond Dart on Minnesota State University, Mankato EMuseum website Biography of Raymond Dart in the TalkOrigins Archive. 1893 births 1988 deaths Australian anatomists Australian anthropologists South African anthropologists Australian archaeologists South African archaeologists Australian expatriates in South Africa Human evolution theorists Paleoanthropologists People from Brisbane Physical anthropologists University of Sydney alumni Alumni of University College London 20th-century archaeologists 20th-century anthropologists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence%20Housman
Laurence Housman
Laurence Housman (; 18 July 1865 – 20 February 1959) was an English playwright, writer and illustrator during the Victorian era. He studied art in London. He was a younger brother of the poet A. E. Housman. Early life Laurence Housman was born in Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, one of seven children including an older brother and sister, the classical scholar and poet A. E. Housman and the writer Clemence Housman. In 1871 his mother died, and his father remarried, to a cousin. After education at Bromsgrove School, he went with his sister Clemence to study art at the Lambeth School of Art and the Royal College of Art in London. Illustrating He first worked with London publishers by illustrating such works as George Meredith's Jump to Glory Jane (1892), Jonas Lie's Weird Tales (1892), Christina Rossetti's Goblin Market (1893), Jane Barlow's The End of Elfintown (1894) and his sister's novella The Were-Wolf (1896) in an intricate Art Nouveau style. During this period, he also wrote and published several volumes of poetry and a number of hymns and carols. Writing Housman turned more and more to writing after his eyesight began to fail. His first literary success came with the novel An Englishwoman's Love-letters (1900), published anonymously. He then turned to drama with Bethlehem (1902) and was to become best known and remembered as a playwright. His other dramatic works include Angels and Ministers (1921), Little Plays of St. Francis (1922) and Victoria Regina (1934) which was even staged on Broadway. Housman's play, Pains and Penalties, about Queen Caroline, was produced by Edith Craig and the Pioneer Players. Some of Housman's plays were scandalous for depicting biblical characters and living members of the Royal House on stage, and many of them were performed only privately until the subsequent relaxation of theatrical censorship. In 1937 the Lord Chamberlain ruled that no British sovereign may be portrayed on the stage until 100 years after his or her accession. For this reason, Victoria Regina could not be staged until the centenary of Queen Victoria's accession, 20 June 1937. This was a Sunday, so the premiere took place the next day. Housman also wrote children's fairy tales such as A Farm in Fairyland (1894) and fantasy stories with Christian undertones for adults, such as All-Fellows (1896), The Cloak of Friendship (1905), and Gods and Their Makers (1897). A prolific writer with around a hundred published works to his name, his output eventually covered all kinds of literature from socialist and pacifist pamphlets to children's stories. He wrote an autobiography, The Unexpected Years (1937), which, despite his record of controversial writing, said little about his homosexuality, the practice of which was then illegal. After his brother's A.E.'s death in 1936, Laurence was made literary executor, and over the next two years brought out further selections of poems from his brother's manuscripts. His editorial work has been deprecated recently: "The text of many poems was misrepresented: poems not completed by Housman were printed as though complete; versions he cancelled were reinstated; separate texts were conflated; and many poems were mistranscribed from the manuscripts." Activism Laurence Housman has contributed himself as a feminist, dedicating his work mainly to the Suffrage movement in England. His activism was mainly creating works of art such as: creating banners, creating propaganda, writings and contributing to women's newspapers. The Suffrage Atelier Laurence Housman and his sister, Clemence Housman, founded the Suffrage Atelier in February 1909. This was a studio that produced artistic propaganda for the suffrage movement. The studio was located at his house, No. 1 Pembroke Cottage Kensington. Although there were other studios throughout England also creating propaganda for the suffrage movement such as the Artists’ Suffrage League and the Women’s Social and Political Union, the Suffrage Atelier was unique because this studio paid their artist by selling the work to the suffrage community. This studio was important not only in creating propaganda for the suffrage movement but also, the creation of banners required collective work. This was significant as it created an environment for women to find other women. Additionally, work such as embroidery, which was known to be domestic, was utilized to propel a political movement and allowed women to earn money. No. 1 Pembroke Cottage Kensington Aside from his Suffrage Atelier studio, Housman opened his house to the suffrage movement and it quickly became a hub for the feminist movement. Along with housing the Suffrage Atelier studio, it additionally held educational classes trying to help women explore their feminist identities. This was done by bringing in public speakers and hosting writing lessons. The Census Protest The 1911 Census Boycott was a feminist movement with the goal of disrupting government processes. Advertised by the Suffrage Press, the movement asked women to refuse giving their information for the census. Housman was one of the main contributor in the 1911 Census Boycott. His contribution was through publishing propaganda for the boycott. More specifically, he published a series of articles for The Vote - ‘If-!’ which advertised the proposal for the census strike. In addition, he used his house, as a safe house protecting women who refused to give their information to the census. The Anti-Suffrage Alphabet The Anti-Suffrage Alphabet was a book including illustrations from Housman and other women which worked to raise funds for the suffrage campaign. The main goal of the book was to disenfranchise women’s subordination by criticizing the negative attitudes towards women. "From Prison to Citizenship" "From Prison to Citizenship" was the first banner created by Housman as a contribution to the Women’s Social and Political Union. This banner was displayed at the Queen’s hall at an unveiling ceremony and has been used regularly by the Women’s Social and Political Union. His writing Housman was a writer hence, his passion has always been writing. Therefore, he tried to incorporate this in his work with the feminist movement. He was popular for taking other people’s work and giving it a feminist twist. In addition, he contributed to newspapers. Through his contributions to newspapers, he was able to advise women on how to protest which can be found in the Women’s Freedom League. In addition, he featured his writing in newspapers. For example, a series of poems supporting the Suffragette movement was published in The Women’s Press as well as Votes for Women. Creating propaganda Housman predominantly contributed to the suffrage movement by creating propaganda. Recently, propaganda has been perceived pejoratively because of its association with negative entities such as, totalitarian governments and war efforts; however, the definition of propaganda is merely spreading ideas to further a cause. Propaganda is effective because it triggers an emotional response and this is powerful because it can overwhelm people's emotions to the extent that they forget to think rationally. However, sometimes, propaganda can rely on people's reasons. In this case, propaganda heightens the emotions that people had already rationally concluded. If the audience is unaware of the intent of the propaganda, the impact or the emotional response that the artist desired to create becomes magnified. Additionally, the power of propaganda becomes more powerful when the same message is repeated. The repetition can be the dispersion of a message through different media outlets such as newspapers, radios, art and literature. Housman partook in the suffrage movement by taking advantage of this powerful medium and utilized multiple different outlets to spread his propaganda such as, creating banners with the Suffrage Atelier, creating the Anti-Suffrage Alphabet, and writing in newspapers. Other activism Aside from his artistic contributions, he also participated in physical protests. He frequently spoke in suffrage rallies. Similar to his writing style, he spoke artistically. For example, he read  “Tommy this Tommy that” by Rudyard Kipling to be “Women this Women that”. He also took part in handing in a petition against force feeding, and was arrested during associated disturbances. His economic belief and its contribution to gender oppression Housman thought economics was a central component working to oppress women. He believed the Suffragettes perceived masculinity to value market values while feminine values leaned to be more utopian and reflect collective values. The Suffrage movement, therefore, centred maternal values, de-individualizing the movement. This, was important as it helped break the stereotype that women, especially mothers, who were active in the movement, were bad citizens.  Put differently, it collectivized the issue and made the reason to be a Suffragette more valid. His sexuality Housman was openly homosexual and invested himself to help other homosexuals to be less stigmatized by society. To do so, he joined an organization called the Order of Chaeronea which was a secret society that worked to gain homosexuals social recognition. Additionally, he also was a founder of the British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology. This was an organization which aimed to advance sex reform hoping for a more open society regarding sexualities by breaking prejudices. It was originally known as the British Society of Psychiatry; however, Housman wanted it known as a society and had it changed. Housman also brought his artistic contributions to the fight of de-stigmatizing homosexuality. For example, he created pamphlets for the organization such as The Relation of Fellow-Feeling to Sex. Men’s League for Women’s Suffrage Housman believed men should be an active participant of the suffrage movement. Therefore, Housman along with Israel Zangwill, Henry Nevinson and Henry Brailsford formed the Men’s League for Women’s Suffrage to propel the movement. These four writers were able to successfully convince some men in the 1910 general election to write Vote for Women on their ballot. He was also active in another male feminist group, the Men’s Social and Political Union. Peace Pledge Union In 1945 he opened Housmans Bookshop in Shaftesbury Avenue, London, founded in his honour by the Peace Pledge Union, of which he was a sponsor. In 1959, shortly after his death, the shop moved to Caledonian Road, where it is still a source of literature on pacifism and other radical approaches to living. Later life After World War I, Laurence and Clemence left their Kensington home and moved to the holiday cottage which they had previously rented in the village of Ashley in Hampshire. They lived there until 1924, when they moved to Street, Somerset, where Laurence lived the last 35 years of his life. Posthumous recognition His name and picture (and those of 58 other women's suffrage supporters) are on the plinth of the statue of Millicent Fawcett in Parliament Square, London, unveiled in 2018. Published writings Source: Open Library list of his works. This list includes no publications by Housman as illustrator only. Novels Gods and Their Makers (1897) An Englishwoman's Love-letters (1900) A Modern Antaeus (1901) Sabrina Warham (1904) John of Jingalo (1912) — US title: King John of Jingalo The Royal Runaway and Jingalo in Revolution: A Sequel to King John of Jingalo (1914) The Sheepfold (1918) Trimblerigg: A Book of Revelation (1924) — political satire Uncle Tom Pudd (1927) The Life of H.R.H. the Duke of Flamborough (1928) — political satire Short fiction A Farm in Fairyland (1894) The House of Joy (1895) All-fellows (1896) The Field of Clover (1898) Blind Love (1901) — chapbook; short story later included in Ironical Tales The Blue Moon (1904) The Cloak of Friendship (1905) Stories from the Arabian Nights, Retold by Laurence Housman (1907) — illustrated by Edmund Dulac Princess Badoura: a tale from the Arabian nights (1913) — illustrated by Edmund Dulac Gods and Their Makers and other stories (novel and four stories, 1920) Wish to Goodness! (1920) — chapbook; short story later included in Turn Again Tales A Thing to be Explained (1920) — chapbook; short story later included in Turn Again Tales Moonshine & Clover (1922) — selected from the 1894, 1895, 1898, and 1904 collections A Doorway in Fairyland (1922) All-fellows and the Cloak of Friendship (1923) The Open Door (1925) — chapbook; short story later included in Turn Again Tales Odd Pairs: A Book of Tales (1925) Ironical Tales (1926) Cotton-Woolleena (1930) — chapbook; U.S. title: Cotton-Wooleena; short story included in Turn Again Tales Turn Again Tales (1930) A Clean Sweep: The Tale of a Cat and a Broomstick (1931) — chapbook What-O'Clock Tales (1932) What Next? Provocative Tales of Faith and Morals (1938) Strange Ends and Discoveries (1948) The Kind and the Foolish (1952) Plays Little Plays of St. Francis: a dramatic cycle from the life and legend of St. Francis of Assisi (1900) Followers of St. Francis (1900) Bethlehem: A Nativity Play (1902) Prunella, or, Love in a Dutch garden (1906; with Harley Granville-Barker) The Chinese Lantern (1908) Lysistrata: A Modern Paraphrase from the Greek of Aristophanes (1911) Pains and Penalties (1911) A Likely Story (1916) The Lord of the Harvest: A Morality in One Act (1916) As Good as Gold (1916) The Return of Alcestis (1916) The Snow Man (1916) Bird in Hand (1916) Nazareth (1916) The Wheel (1919) A Mint o' Money (1920) The Death of Orpheus (1921) Angels & Ministers: Four Plays of Victorian Shade & Character (1921) Possession (1921) Brother Sin (1922) Sister Gold (1922) Brother Sun (1922) The House of Bondage (1922) Little Plays of St. Francis (1922) False Premises (1922) Echo de Paris (1923) The Death of Socrates: a dramatic scene, founded upon two of Plato's Dialogues, the "Crito" and the "Phaedo" (1925) The Comments of Juniper: six plays from the life and legend of St. Francis of Assisi (1926) Ways and Means: Five one-act plays of village characters (1928) Cornered Poets: A Book of Dramatic Dialogues (1929) The New Hangman (1930) Palace Plays (1930) 20 Selected Little Plays of Saint Francis (1930) Ye Fearful Saints! Plays of creed, custom, and credulity (1932) The Queen's Progress (1932) Victoria and Albert (1933) Ashes to Ashes: A Palace Epilogue (1934) Four Plays of St. Clare (1934) Victoria Regina, a Dramatic Biography (1934) — collection of 30 short plays; illustrated by E. H. Shepard Little Plays of Saint Francis, volume III (1935) Palace Scenes: more plays of Queen Victoria (1937) The Golden Sovereign (1937) — collection of 19 short plays; illustrated by E. H. Shepard The Rose and the Thorn (1938) The Six o'Clock Call (1938) The Bed-chamber Plot (1938) The Queen! God bless Her! (1938) 'A great relief' (1938) Enter Prince (1938) Under Fire (1938) Gracious Majesty (1941) Palestine Plays (1942) Happy and Glorious: A Dramatic Biography of Queen Victoria (1943) Samuel, the King-maker (1944) The Family Honour (1950) Old Testament Plays (1950) Verse Green Arras (1896) Spikenard: A Book of Devotional Love-Poems (1898) The Little Land: With Songs from Its Four Rivers (1899) The Story of the Seven Young Goslings (1899) — illustrated by Mabel Dearmer Rue (1899) Mendicant Rhymes (1906) Selected Poems (1908) The New Child's Guide to Knowledge (1911) The Heart of Peace, and Other Poems (1918) The Love Concealed (1928) The Collected Poems of Laurence Housman (1937) Hop o'-me-heart: A Grown-Up Fairy Tale (1938) Cynthia: A True Love Tale (1947) Translation Of Aucassin and Nicolette: A Translation in Prose and Verse from the Old French together with Amabel and Amoris (1902) Non-fiction Arthur Boyd Houghton (collection of art by Arthur Boyd Houghton, 1896) Articles of Faith in the Freedom of Women (1910) National Art Training (1911) Sex-war and Woman's Suffrage: A Lecture Given by Laurence Housman (1912) Great Possessions (1915) — chapbook; lecture later included in Ploughshare and Pruning-Hook St. Francis Poverello (1918) Ploughshare and Pruning-Hook: Ten Lectures on Social Subjects (1919) The Rubáiyat of Omar Khayyám (1922) — introduction only Dethronements: Imaginary Portraits of Political Characters, Done in Dialogue (1922) Echo de Paris (1925) — an account of Housman's last meeting with Oscar Wilde Modern Religious Belief (1925) The "Little Plays" handbook (1927) A Substitute for Capital Punishment (1928) The Religious Advance Toward Rationalism: Delivered at Conway Hall, Red Lion Square, W.C.1, on 25 September 1929 (1929) The Long Journey: A Tale of Our Past (with C. H. K. Marten, 1933) The Unexpected Years (autobiography; 1936) My Brother, A. E. Housman (1938) What Can We Believe? Letters exchanged between Dick Sheppard and Laurence Housman (1939) Autarchy, Internationalism and Common Sense (1940) The Preparation of Peace (1941) Terrorism by Ordinance (1942) Back Words and Fore Words (1945) Edward FitzGerald, preface Works edited The Venture: An Annual of Art and Literature (1903) — edited by Laurence Housman and W. Somerset Maugham A.E.H.: some poems, some letters and a personal memoir by his brother Laurence Housman (1937) War Letters of Fallen Englishmen (1930) References External links Finding Aid to the Laurence Housman Papers, Bryn Mawr College Library UNCG American Publishers' Trade Bindings: Laurence Housman 1865 births 1959 deaths 19th-century English artists 19th-century English novelists 19th-century English poets 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English poets 19th-century English dramatists and playwrights 20th-century English dramatists and playwrights 19th-century British short story writers 20th-century British short story writers People from Bromsgrove English suffragists English illustrators Art Nouveau illustrators English socialists English pacifists English tax resisters English fantasy writers Alumni of the Lambeth School of Art Alumni of the Royal College of Art People educated at Bromsgrove School English socialist feminists Gay artists People associated with Conway Hall Ethical Society English gay writers Male feminists LGBT dramatists and playwrights English LGBT novelists Chapbook writers English male dramatists and playwrights English male short story writers English short story writers English male novelists Gay feminists English autobiographers English biographers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey%20of%20Villehardouin
Geoffrey of Villehardouin
Geoffrey of Villehardouin (c. 1150 – c. 1213) was a knight and historian who participated in and chronicled the Fourth Crusade. He is considered one of the most important historians of the time period, best known for writing the eyewitness account De la Conquête de Constantinople (On the Conquest of Constantinople), about the battle for Constantinople between the Christians of the West and the Christians of the East on 13 April 1204. The Conquest is the earliest French historical prose narrative that has survived to modern times. Ηis full title was: "Geoffroi of Villehardouin, Marshal of Champagne and of Romania". Biography A layman and a soldier, Geoffroi was appointed Marshal of Champagne from 1185 and joined the Crusade in 1199 during a tournament held by Count Thibaud III of Champagne. Thibaud named him one of the ambassadors to Venice to procure ships for the voyage, and he helped to elect Boniface of Montferrat as the new leader of the Crusade when Thibaud died. Although Geoffroi does not say so specifically in his own account, he probably supported the diversion of the Crusade first to Zara and then to Constantinople. While at Constantinople he also served as an ambassador to Isaac II Angelus, and was in the embassy that demanded that Isaac appoint Alexius IV co-emperor. After the conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 he served as a military leader, and led the retreat from the Battle of Adrianople in 1205 after Baldwin I was captured by the forces of the Second Bulgarian Empire. In recognition of his services, Boniface of Montferrat gave to Geoffroi the city of Messinopolis in Thrace. After the Crusade, he was named Marshal of the Latin Empire. In 1207, Geoffroi began to write his chronicle of the Crusade, On the Conquest of Constantinople. It was in French rather than Latin, making it one of the earliest works of French prose. Villehardouin's account is generally read alongside that of Robert of Clari, a French knight of low station, Niketas Choniates, a high-ranking Byzantine official and historian who gives an eyewitness account, and Gunther of Pairis, a Cistercian monk who tells the story from the perspective of Abbot Martin who accompanied the Crusaders. Villehardouin's nephew Geoffroi I of Villehardouin went on to become Prince of Achaea in Morea (the medieval name for the Peloponnesus) in 1209. Villehardouin himself seems to have died shortly afterwards. His son Erard had taken the title of seigneur de Villehardouin in 1213. There is evidence of his children raising memorials for him in 1218, suggesting he died around this time. See also Chronicle of the Morea Notes References This article focuses on a critical review of De la Conquête de Constantinople. Chronicles of the Crusades (Villehardouin and Jean de Joinville), translated by Margaret R. B. Shaw (Penguin). Colin Morris, "Geoffroy de Villehardouin and the Conquest of Constantinople", History 53 (February 1968): 24-34 Cristian Bratu, « Je, auteur de ce livre »: L’affirmation de soi chez les historiens, de l’Antiquité à la fin du Moyen Âge. Later Medieval Europe Series (vol. 20). Leiden: Brill, 2019 (). Cristian Bratu, “Je, aucteur de ce livre: Authorial Persona and Authority in French Medieval Histories and Chronicles.” In Authorities in the Middle Ages. Influence, Legitimacy and Power in Medieval Society. Sini Kangas, Mia Korpiola, and Tuija Ainonen, eds. (Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, 2013): 183–204. Cristian Bratu, “Clerc, Chevalier, Aucteur: The Authorial Personae of French Medieval Historians from the 12th to the 15th centuries.” In Authority and Gender in Medieval and Renaissance Chronicles. Juliana Dresvina and Nicholas Sparks, eds. (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012): 231–259. External links Villehardouin's chronicle, translated by T. Marzial (1908), at the Internet Medieval Sourcebook website 1150s births 1213 deaths French historians Villehardouin French chroniclers French chronicle writers Villehardouin family 13th-century French people 12th-century French people Marshals of the Latin Empire French male non-fiction writers Christians of the Third Crusade Christians of the Fourth Crusade French memoirists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double%20bond
Double bond
In chemistry, a double bond is a covalent bond between two atoms involving four bonding electrons as opposed to two in a single bond. Double bonds occur most commonly between two carbon atoms, for example in alkenes. Many double bonds exist between two different elements: for example, in a carbonyl group between a carbon atom and an oxygen atom. Other common double bonds are found in azo compounds (N=N), imines (C=N), and sulfoxides (S=O). In a skeletal formula, a double bond is drawn as two parallel lines (=) between the two connected atoms; typographically, the equals sign is used for this. Double bonds were first introduced in chemical notation by Russian chemist Alexander Butlerov. Double bonds involving carbon are stronger and shorter than single bonds. The bond order is two. Double bonds are also electron-rich, which makes them potentially more reactive in the presence of a strong electron acceptor (as in addition reactions of the halogens). Double bonds in alkenes The type of bonding can be explained in terms of orbital hybridisation. In ethylene each carbon atom has three sp2 orbitals and one p-orbital. The three sp2 orbitals lie in a plane with ~120° angles. The p-orbital is perpendicular to this plane. When the carbon atoms approach each other, two of the sp2 orbitals overlap to form a sigma bond. At the same time, the two p-orbitals approach (again in the same plane) and together they form a pi bond. For maximum overlap, the p-orbitals have to remain parallel, and, therefore, rotation around the central bond is not possible. This property gives rise to cis-trans isomerism. Double bonds are shorter than single bonds because p-orbital overlap is maximized. With 133 pm, the ethylene C=C bond length is shorter than the C−C length in ethane with 154 pm. The double bond is also stronger, 636 kJ mol−1 versus 368 kJ mol−1 but not twice as much as the pi-bond is weaker than the sigma bond due to less effective pi-overlap. In an alternative representation, the double bond results from two overlapping sp3 orbitals as in a bent bond. Variations In molecules with alternating double bonds and single bonds, p-orbital overlap can exist over multiple atoms in a chain, giving rise to a conjugated system. Conjugation can be found in systems such as dienes and enones. In cyclic molecules, conjugation can lead to aromaticity. In cumulenes, two double bonds are adjacent. Double bonds are common for period 2 elements carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, and less common with elements of higher periods. Metals, too, can engage in multiple bonding in a metal ligand multiple bond. Group 14 alkene homologs Double bonded compounds, alkene homologs, R2E=ER2 are now known for all of the heavier group 14 elements. Unlike the alkenes these compounds are not planar but adopt twisted and/or trans bent structures. These effects become more pronounced for the heavier elements. The distannene (Me3Si)2CHSn=SnCH(SiMe3)2 has a tin-tin bond length just a little shorter than a single bond, a trans bent structure with pyramidal coordination at each tin atom, and readily dissociates in solution to form (Me3Si)2CHSn: (stannanediyl, a carbene analog). The bonding comprises two weak donor acceptor bonds, the lone pair on each tin atom overlapping with the empty p orbital on the other. In contrast, in disilenes each silicon atom has planar coordination but the substituents are twisted so that the molecule as a whole is not planar. In diplumbenes the Pb=Pb bond length can be longer than that of many corresponding single bonds Plumbenes and stannenes generally dissociate in solution into monomers with bond enthalpies that are just a fraction of the corresponding single bonds. Some double bonds plumbenes and stannenes are similar in strength to hydrogen bonds. The Carter-Goddard-Malrieu-Trinquier model can be used to predict the nature of the bonding. Types of double bonds between atoms References Chemical bonding
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet%20airliner
Jet airliner
A jet airliner or jetliner is an airliner powered by jet engines (passenger jet aircraft). Airliners usually have two or four jet engines; three-engined designs were popular in the 1970s but are less common today. Airliners are commonly classified as either the large wide-body aircraft, medium narrow-body aircraft and smaller regional jet. Most airliners today are powered by jet engines, because they are capable of safely operating at high speeds and generate sufficient thrust to power large-capacity aircraft. The first jetliners, introduced in the 1950s, used the simpler turbojet engine; these were quickly supplanted by designs using turbofans, which are quieter and more fuel-efficient. History Early history The first airliners with turbojet propulsion were experimental conversions of the Avro Lancastrian piston-engined airliner, which were flown with several types of early jet engine, including the de Havilland Ghost and the Rolls-Royce Nene. They retained the two inboard piston engines, the jets being housed in the outboard nacelles. The first airliner with jet power only was the Nene-powered Vickers VC.1 Viking G-AJPH, which first flew on 6 April 1948. The early jet airliners had much lower interior levels of noise and vibration than contemporary piston-engined aircraft, so much so that in 1947, after piloting a jet powered aircraft for the first time, Wing Commander Maurice A. Smith, editor of Flight magazine, said, "Piloting a jet aircraft has confirmed one opinion I had formed after flying as a passenger in the Lancastrian jet test beds, that few, if any, having flown in a jet-propelled transport, will wish to revert to the noise, vibration and attendant fatigue of an airscrew-propelled piston-engined aircraft" 1950s The first purpose-built jet airliner was the British de Havilland Comet which first flew in 1949 and entered service in 1952, though it was withdrawn from service due to serious structural problems. Also developed in 1949 was the Avro Canada C102 Jetliner, which never reached production; however the term jetliner came into use as a generic term for passenger jet aircraft. These first jet airliners were followed some years later by the Sud Aviation Caravelle from France, the Tupolev Tu-104 from the Soviet Union (2nd in service), and the Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8 and Convair 880 from the United States. National prestige was attached to developing prototypes and bringing these early designs into service. There was also a strong nationalism in purchasing policy, so that US Boeing and Douglas aircraft became closely associated with Pan Am, while BOAC ordered British Comets. Pan Am and BOAC, with the help of advertising agencies and their strong nautical traditions of command hierarchy and chain of command (retained from their days of operating flying boats), were quick to link the "speed of jets" with the safety and security of the "luxury of ocean liners" in the public's perception. Aeroflot used Soviet Tupolevs, while Air France introduced French Caravelles. Commercial realities dictated exceptions, however, as few airlines could risk missing out on a superior product: American Airlines ordered the pioneering Comet (but later cancelled when the Comet ran into metal fatigue problems), Canadian, British and European airlines could not ignore the better operating economics of the Boeing 707 and the DC-8, while some American airlines ordered the Caravelle. Boeing became the most successful of the early manufacturers. The KC-135 Stratotanker and military versions of the 707 remain operational, mostly as tankers or freighters. The basic configuration of the Boeing, Convair and Douglas aircraft jet airliner designs, with widely spaced podded engines underslung on pylons beneath a swept wing, proved to be the most common arrangement and was most easily compatible with the large-diameter high-bypass turbofan engines that subsequently prevailed for reasons of quietness and fuel efficiency. Innovations The Pratt & Whitney JT3 turbojets powered the original Boeing 707 and DC-8 models; in the early 1960s the JT3 was modified into the JT3D low-bypass turbofan for long-range 707 and DC-8 variants. The de Havilland and Tupolev designs had engines incorporated within the wings next to the fuselage, a concept that endured only within military designs while the Caravelle pioneered engines mounted either side of the rear fuselage. 1960s The 1960s jet airliners include the BAC One-Eleven and Douglas DC-9 twinjets; Boeing 727, Hawker Siddeley Trident and Tupolev Tu-154 trijets; and the paired multi-engined Ilyushin Il-62, and Vickers VC10. Innovations The 1960s jet airliners were known for the advancement of turbofan technology, as well as the advent of the trijet design. Jet airliners that entered service in the 1960s were powered by slim, low-bypass turbofan engines, many aircraft used the rear-engined, T-tail configuration, such as the BAC One-Eleven, Douglas DC-9 twinjets; Boeing 727, Hawker Siddeley Trident, Tupolev Tu-154 trijets; and the paired multi-engined Ilyushin Il-62, and Vickers VC10. The rear-engined T-tail arrangement is still used for jetliners with a maximum takeoff weight of less than 50 tons. Other 1960s developments, such as rocket assisted takeoff (RATO), water-injection, and afterburners (also known as reheat) used on supersonic jetliners (SSTs) such as Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144, have been superseded. 1970s The 1970s jet airliners introduced wide-body (twin-aisle) craft and high-bypass turbofan engines. Pan Am and Boeing "again opened a new era in commercial aviation" when the first Boeing 747 entered service in January 1970, marking the debut of the high-bypass turbofan which lowered operating costs, and the initial models which could seat up to 400 passengers which earned it the nickname "Jumbo Jet". Other wide-body designs included the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar trijets, smaller than the Boeing 747 but capable of flying similar long-range routes from airports with shorter runways. There was also the market debut of the European consortium Airbus, whose first aircraft was the twinjet Airbus A300. 1980s In 1978, Boeing unveiled the twin-engine Boeing 757 to replace its 727, and the twin-engine 767 to challenge the Airbus A300. The mid-size 757 and 767 launched to market success, due in part to 1980s extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards (ETOPS) regulations governing transoceanic twinjet operations. These regulations allowed twin-engine airliners to make ocean crossings at up to three hours' distance from emergency diversionary airports. Under ETOPS rules, airlines began operating the 767 on long-distance overseas routes that did not require the capacity of larger airliners. 1990s By the late 1980s, DC-10 and L-1011 models were approaching retirement age, prompting manufacturers to develop replacement designs. McDonnell Douglas started working on the MD-11, a stretched and upgraded successor of the DC-10. Airbus, thanks to the success of its A320 family, developed the medium-range A330 twinjet and the related long-range A340 quad-jet. In 1988, Boeing began developing what would be the 777 twinjet, using the twin-engine configuration given past design successes, projected engine developments, and reduced-cost benefits. In addition, Boeing also released a major update on their 747, the 747-400. Present day The most modern airliners are characterized by increased use of composite materials, high-bypass ratio turbofan engines, and more advanced digital flight systems. Examples of the latest widebody airliners are the Airbus A380 (first flight in 2005), Boeing 787 (first flight in 2009) and Airbus A350 (first flight in 2013). These improvements allowed longer ranges and lower cost of transportation per passenger. Sukhoi Superjet 100 and Airbus A220 (formerly Bombardier CSeries) are examples of narrowbodies with similar level of technological advancements. Timeline Comparison See also Airliner Aviation Business jet Freight aircraft Jet aircraft Wide-body aircraft List of jet airliners References Jet airliners Vehicles introduced in 1948
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSF/1
OSF/1
OSF/1 is a variant of the Unix operating system developed by the Open Software Foundation during the late 1980s and early 1990s. OSF/1 is one of the first operating systems to have used the Mach kernel developed at Carnegie Mellon University, and is probably best known as the native Unix operating system for DEC Alpha architecture systems. In 1994, after AT&T had sold UNIX System V to Novell and the rival Unix International consortium had disbanded, the Open Software Foundation ceased funding of research and development of OSF/1. The Tru64 UNIX variant of OSF/1 was supported by HP until 2012. Background In 1988, during the so-called "Unix wars", Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) joined with IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and others to form the Open Software Foundation (OSF) to develop a version of Unix named OSF/1. The aim was to compete with System V Release 4 from AT&T Corporation and Sun Microsystems, and it has been argued that a primary goal was for the operating system to be free of AT&T intellectual property. The fact that OSF/1 is one of the first operating systems to have used the Mach kernel is cited as support of this assertion. Digital also strongly promoted OSF/1 for real-time applications, and with traditional UNIX implementations at the time providing poor real-time support at best, the real-time and multi-threading support can be interpreted as having been heavily dependent on the Mach kernel. It also incorporates a large part of the BSD kernel (based on the 4.3-Reno release) to implement the UNIX API. At the time of its introduction, OSF/1 became the third major flavor of UNIX together with System V and BSD. Vendor releases DEC's first release of OSF/1 (OSF/1 Release 1.0) in January 1992 was for its line of MIPS-based DECstation workstations, however this was never a fully supported product. DEC ported OSF/1 to their new Alpha AXP platform as DEC OSF/1 AXP Release 1.2, released in March 1993. OSF/1 AXP is a full 64-bit operating system. After OSF/1 AXP V2.0 onwards, UNIX System V compatibility was also integrated into the system. OSF/1 v2 was also released for DECStation MIPS systems the same year. Subsequent releases are named Digital UNIX, and later, Tru64 UNIX. HP also released a port of OSF/1 to the early HP 9000/700 workstations based on the PA-RISC 1.1 architecture. This was withdrawn soon afterwards due to lack of software and hardware support compared to competing operating systems, specifically HP-UX. As part of the AIM alliance and the resulting PowerOpen specification, Apple Computer intended to base A/UX 4.0 for its PowerPC-based Macintoshes upon OSF/1, but the project was cancelled and PowerOpen deprecated. IBM used OSF/1 as the basis of the AIX/ESA operating system for System/370 and System/390 mainframes. OSF/1 was also ported by Kendall Square Research to its proprietary microarchitecture used in the KSR1 supercomputer. OSFMK The Open Software Foundation (akin to The Open Group) created OSFMK which is a commercial version of the Mach kernel for use in OSF/1. It contains applicable code from the University of Utah Mach 4 kernel (such as the "Shuttles" modification used to speed up message passing) and applicable code from the many Mach 3.0 variants that sprouted off from the original Carnegie Mellon University Mach 3.0 kernel. It also consists of improvements made by the OSF such as built-in collocation capability, realtime improvements, and rewriting of the IPC RPC component for better performance . OSF/1 AD OSF/1 AD (Advanced Development) was a distributed version of OSF/1 developed for massively parallel supercomputers by Locus Computing Corporation. Variants of OSF/1 AD are on several such systems, including the Intel Paragon XP/S and ASCI Red, Convex Exemplar SPP-1200 (as SPP-UX) and the Hitachi SR2201 (as HI-UX MPP). References Discontinued operating systems Mach (kernel) Microkernel-based operating systems Unix variants
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Quebec
Coat of arms of Quebec
The coat of arms of Quebec () was adopted by order-in-council of the Government of Quebec on 9 December 1939, replacing the arms assigned by royal warrant of Queen Victoria on 26 May 1868. Symbolism The shield is divided into three horizontal fields: Top — three gold fleurs-de-lis on a blue background, symbolizing royal France; Middle — a gold lion passant guardant on a red background, symbolizing the Kingdom of England; Bottom — three green maple leaves on a gold background, symbolizing Canada. The shield is surmounted by the Tudor Crown and accompanied by a silver scroll bearing the province's motto, (). Blazon The blazon is: Tierced (divided in three parts, horizontally) in fess, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or, Gules a lion passant guardant, and Or a sprig of three maple leaves Vert; Motto: JE ME SOUVIENS. History Arms were first granted to the province in 1868 by Queen Victoria. They were blazoned as follows: Or on a Fess Gules between two Fleurs de Lis in chief Azure, and a sprig of three Leaves of Maple slipped Vert in base, a Lion passant guardant Or. However, in 1939, the Quebec government adopted arms by order-in-council, replacing the two blue fleurs-de-lis on the golden field with the royal arms of France Modern in chief. Quebec is the only Canadian province to have adopted arms by its own authority. The federal government is inconsistent in the use of the two variants: it often uses the 1939 variant, but in some cases, such as on the Centennial Flame on Parliament Hill and the badge of the Royal 22e Régiment, it uses the 1868 variant. Notes References Gouvernement du Québec. "Les armoiries du Québec", in the site Drapeau et symboles nationaux of the Government of Quebec, updated on 14 January 2008 Luc Bouvier. "Les armoiries du Québec d’hier à aujourd’hui", in L'Action nationale, February 1999. Gaston Deschênes (1990). Les symboles d'identité québécoise, Québec: Publications du Québec, 39 pages External links Ministère de la Justice – Armoiries du Québec Quebec Provincial symbols of Quebec Coats of arms with fleurs de lis Coats of arms with lions Coats of arms with crowns
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