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254469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20de%20la%20Mare | Walter de la Mare | Walter John de la Mare (; 25 April 1873 – 22 June 1956) was an English poet, short story writer, and novelist. He is probably best remembered for his works for children, for his poem "The Listeners", and for a highly acclaimed selection of subtle psychological horror stories, amongst them "Seaton's Aunt" and "All Hallows".
In 1921, his novel Memoirs of a Midget won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction, and his post-war Collected Stories for Children won the 1947 Carnegie Medal for British children's books.
Life
De la Mare was born in Kent at 83, Maryon Road, Charlton (now part of the Royal Borough of Greenwich), partly descended from a family of French Huguenot silk merchants, and was educated at St Paul's Cathedral School. He was born to James Edward de la Mare (1811–1877), a principal at the Bank of England, and James's second wife Lucy Sophia (1838–1920), daughter of Scottish naval surgeon and author Dr Colin Arrott Browning. The suggestion that Lucy was related to poet Robert Browning has been found to be incorrect. He had two brothers, Francis Arthur Edward and James Herbert, and four sisters Florence Mary, Constance Eliza, Ethel (who died in infancy), and Ada Mary. De la Mare preferred to be known as 'Jack' by his family and friends as he disliked the name Walter.
He worked from 1890 in the statistics department of the London office of Standard Oil for eighteen years to support his family, but nevertheless found time to write. In 1908, through the efforts of Sir Henry Newbolt he received a Civil List pension which enabled him to concentrate on writing.
In 1892, de la Mare joined the Esperanza Amateur Dramatics Club, where he met and fell in love with (Constance) Elfrida Ingpen, the leading lady, who was ten years older than he. Her father, William Alfred Ingpen, was clerk to the insolvent debtors' court and clerk of the rules. They were married on 4 August 1899, and they went on to have four children: Richard Herbert Ingpen, Colin, Florence and Lucy Elfrida de la Mare. The new family lived in Beckenham and Anerley from 1899 till 1924. It was in Beckenham at Mackenzie Road that the children were born; his first book of poems, Songs of Childhood, published (under the name Walter Ramal); and Henry Brocken written. Their house at Anerley in south London was the scene of many parties, notable for imaginative games of charades.
In 1940, his wife Elfrida was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease and spent the rest of her life as an invalid, eventually dying in 1943. From 1940 until his death, de la Mare lived in South End House, Montpelier Row, Twickenham, the same street on which Alfred, Lord Tennyson, had lived a century earlier. For the Collected Stories for Children (Faber and Faber, 1947), he won the annual Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book by a British subject. It was the first collection to win the award.
De la Mare suffered from a coronary thrombosis in 1947 and died of another in 1956. He spent his final year mostly bed-ridden, being cared for by a nurse whom he loved but never had a physical relationship with. His ashes are buried in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, where he had once been a choirboy.
The imagination
De la Mare described two distinct "types" of imagination – although "aspects" might be a better term: the childlike and the boylike. It was at the border between the two that Shakespeare, Dante, and the rest of the great poets lay.
De la Mare claimed that all children fall into the category of having a childlike imagination at first, which is usually replaced at some point in their lives. He explained in the lecture "Rupert Brooke and the Intellectual Imagination" that children "are not bound in by their groping senses. Facts to them are the liveliest of chameleons. ... They are contemplatives, solitaries, fakirs, who sink again and again out of the noise and fever of existence and into a waking vision." His biographer Doris Ross McCrosson summarises this passage, "Children are, in short, visionaries." This visionary view of life can be seen as either vital creativity and ingenuity, or fatal disconnection from reality (or, in a limited sense, both).
The increasing intrusions of the external world upon the mind, however, frighten the childlike imagination, which "retires like a shocked snail into its shell". From then onward the boyish imagination flourishes, the "intellectual, analytical type".
By adulthood (de la Mare proposed), the childlike imagination has either retreated for ever or grown bold enough to face the real world. Thus emerge the two extremes of the spectrum of adult minds: the mind moulded by the boylike is "logical" and "deductive". That shaped by the childlike becomes "intuitive, inductive". For de la Mare, "The one knows that beauty is truth, the other reveals that truth is beauty." Yet another way he puts it is that the visionary's source of poetry is within, while the intellectual's sources are without – external – in "action, knowledge of things, and experience" (McCrosson's terms). De la Mare hastens to add that this does not make the intellectual's poetry any less good, but it is clear where his own preference lies.
Come Hither
Come Hither was an anthology, edited by de la Mare, mostly of poetry with some prose. It has a frame story, and can be read on several levels. It was first published in 1923, and was a success; further editions followed. Alongside children's literature it includes a selection of the leading Georgian poets (from de la Mare's perspective).
Supernaturalism
De la Mare was a notable writer of ghost stories. His collections Eight Tales, The Riddle and Other Stories, The Connoisseur and Other Stories, On the Edge and The Wind Blows Over contain several ghost stories each.
De la Mare's supernatural horror writings were a favourite of H. P. Lovecraft, who in his classic study Supernatural Horror in Literature remarked that "he is able to put into his occasional fear-studies a keen potency which only a rare master can achieve", especially praising his short stories "Seaton's Aunt", "The Tree", "Out of the Deep", "Mr Kempe", "A Recluse" and "All Hallows", along with his novel The Return. Gary William Crawford has described de la Mare's supernatural fiction for adults as being "among the finest to appear in the first half of this century", whilst noting the disparity between the high quality and low quantity of de la Mare's mature horror stories. Other notable de la Mare ghost/horror stories are "A:B:O", "Crewe", "The Green Room" and "Winter".
Several later writers of supernatural fiction, including Robert Aickman, Ramsey Campbell, David A. McIntee and Reggie Oliver, have cited de la Mare's ghost stories as highly inspirational. The horror scholar S. T. Joshi has said that de la Mare's supernatural fiction "should always have an audience that will shudder apprehensively at its horror and be moved to somber reflection by its pensive philosophy".
For children, de la Mare wrote the fairy tale The Three Mulla Mulgars (1910, AKA The Three Royal Monkeys), praised by the literary historian Julia Briggs as a "neglected masterpiece" and by the critic Brian Stableford as a "classic animal fantasy". Richard Adams said it was his favourite novel.
Writer Joan Aiken cited some of his short stories, such as "The Almond Tree" and "Sambo and the Snow Mountains", for their sometimes unexplained quality, which she also employed in her own work.
De la Mare wrote two supernatural novels, Henry Brocken (1904) and The Return (1910). His poem "The Ghost Chase" appeared in Punch for 26 March 1941 and was illustrated by Rowland Emett.
Works
Novels
Henry Brocken (1904)
The Three Mulla Mulgars (1910) (edition illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop [1919]), also published as The Three Royal Monkeys (children's novel)
The Return (1910; revised edition 1922; second revised edition 1945)
Memoirs of a Midget (1921)
Mr. Bumps and His Monkey (1942) (illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop)
Short story collections
The Riddle and Other Stories (1923): "The Almond Tree", "The Count's Courtship", "The Looking-Glass", "Miss Duveen", "Selina's Parable", "Seaton's Aunt", "The Bird of Travel", "The Bowl", "The Three Friends", "Lispet", "Lispet and Vaine", "The Tree", "Out of the Deep", "The Creatures", "The Riddle", "The Vats"
Ding Dong Bell (1924): "Lichen", "Benighted", "Strangers and Pilgrims", "Winter"
Broomsticks and Other Tales (1925): "Pigtails, Ltd.", "The Dutch Cheese", "Miss Jemima", "The Thief", "Broomsticks", "Lucy", "A Nose", "The Three Sleeping Boys of Warwickshire", "The Lovely Myfanwy", "Maria-Fly", "Visitors"
The Connoisseur and Other Stories (1926): "Mr Kempe", "Missing", "The Connoisseur". "Disillusioned", "The Nap", "Pretty Poll", "All Hallows", "The Wharf", "The Lost Track"
On the Edge (1930): "A Recluse", "Willows", "Crewe", "At First Sight", "The Green Room", "The Orgy", "An Idyll", "The Picnic", "An Ideal Craftsman"
The Dutch Cheese (1931) (editions illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop [1931] and Irene Hawkins [1947]) (children's stories)
The Lord Fish (1933), illustrated by Rex Whistler (children's stories)
The Walter de la Mare Omnibus (1933)
The Wind Blows Over (1936): "What Dreams May Come", "Cape Race", "Physic", "The Talisman", "In the Forest", "A Froward Child", "Miss Miller", "The House", "A Revenant", "A Nest of Singing-Birds", "The Trumpet"
The Nap and Other Stories (1936)
Stories, Essays and Poems (1938)
The Best Stories of Walter de la Mare (1942)
The Scarecrow and Other Stories (1945)
Collected Stories for Children (1947) (editions illustrated by Irene Hawkins [1947] and Robin Jacques [1957])
A Beginning and Other Stories (1955): "Odd Shop", "Music", "The Stranger", "Neighbours", "The Princess", "The Guardian", "The Face", "The Cartouche", "The Picture", "The Quincunx", "An Anniversary", "Bad Company", "A Beginning"
Eight Tales (1971)
Walter de la Mare, Short Stories 1895–1926 (1996): Collection comprising the contents of The Riddle and Other Stories, Ding Dong Bell and The Connoisseur and Other Stories, as well as "Kismet", "The Hangman Luck", "A Mote", "The Village of Old Age", "The Moon's Miracle", "The Giant", "De Mortuis", "The Rejection of the Rector", "The Match-Maker", "The Budget", "The Pear-Tree", "Leap Year", "Promise at Dusk", "Two Days in Town"
Walter de la Mare, Short Stories 1927–1956 (2000): Collection comprising the contents of On the Edge, The Wind Blows Over and A Beginning and Other Stories, as well as "The Lynx", "A Sort of Interview", "The Miller's Tale", "A:B:O.", "The Orgy: An Idyll, Part II", "Late", "Pig", "Dr Iggatt"
Walter de la Mare, Short Stories for Children (2006)
Poetry collections
Songs of Childhood (1902)
Poems (1906)
The Listeners (1912)
Peacock Pie (1913) (editions illustrated by W. Heath Robinson [1916], Claud Lovat Fraser [1924], Rowland Emett [1941] and Edward Ardizzone [1946])
The Sunken Garden and Other Poems (1917)
Motley and Other Poems (1918)
The Veil and Other Poems (1921)
Down-Adown-Derry: A Book of Fairy Poems (1922) (illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop)
A Child's Day: A Book of Rhymes (1924) (illustrated by Winifred Bromhall)
Selected Poems by Walter de la Mare (1927, 1931)
Stuff and Nonsense and So On (1927) (editions illustrated by Bold [1927] and Margaret Wolpe [1946])
This Year: Next Year (1937) (illustrated by Harold Jones)
Bells and Grass (1941) (editions illustrated by Rowland Emett [1941] and Dorothy P. Lathrop [1942])
Time Passes and Other Poems (1942)
Inward Companion (1950)
O Lovely England (1952)
Walter de la Mare: The Complete Poems, ed. Giles de la Mare (1969)
Ariel Poems
Six poems were published by Faber and Faber as part of the Ariel Poems, for both series. They were the following:
Alone (1927)
Self to Self (1928)
The Snowdrop (1929)
News (1930)
To Lucy (1931)
The Winnowing Dream (1954)
Plays
Crossings: A Fairy Play (1921) (edition illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop (1923))
Nonfiction
Some Women Novelists of the 'Seventies (1929)
Desert Islands and Robinson Crusoe (1930)
Lewis Carroll (1930)
The Early Novels of Wilkie Collins (1932)
Anthologies edited
Come Hither (1923; new and revised edition, 1928; third edition, reset and printed from new plates, 1957)
Tom Tiddler's Ground (1931; named after the children's game)
Early One Morning, in the Spring: Chapters on Children and on Childhood As It Is Revealed in Particular in Early Memories and in Early Writings (1935)
Behold, This Dreamer!: Of Reverie, Night, Sleep, Dream, Love-Dreams, Nightmare, Death, the Unconscious, the Imagination, Divination, the Artist, and Kindred Subjects (1939)
Love (1943)
Legacy
References in books
C. K. Scott Moncrieff, in translating Marcel Proust's seven-volume work Remembrance of Things Past, used the last line of de la Mare's poem "The Ghost" as the title of the sixth volume, The Sweet Cheat Gone (French: Albertine Disparu and La Fugitive).
In 1944, Faber and Faber and one of de la Mare's friends, a certain Dr. Bett, originated the idea to secretly produce a tribute for his 75th birthday. This publication was a collaborative effort between many admirers of Walter de la Mare's work, and included individual pieces by a variety of authors, including V. Sackville-West, J. B. Priestly, T. S. Eliot, Siegfried Sassoon, Lord Dunsany, and Henry Williamson.
Richard Adams' debut book Watership Down (1972) uses several of de la Mare's poems for epigraphs.
De la Mare's play Crossings has an important role in Robertson Davies' novel The Manticore. In 1944, when the protagonist David Staunton is sixteen, de la Mare's play is produced by the pupils of his sister's school in Toronto, Canada. Staunton falls deeply in love with the girl playing the main role – a first love which would have a profound effect on the rest of his life.
Symposium by Muriel Spark references Walter de la Mare's poem "Fare Well", quoting: "Look thy last on all things lovely/Every hour.".
References in music
The composer Benjamin Britten set several of de la Mare's verses to music: de la Mare's version of the traditional song Levy-Dew in 1934, and five others, which were then collected in Tit for Tat.
The American composer Theodore Chanler used texts from de la Mare's story "Benighted" for his song cycle 8 Epitaphs.
See also
List of horror fiction authors
The Queen's Book of the Red Cross
Notes
References
Bibliography
McCrosson, Doris Ross (1966). Walter de la Mare. Twayne.
Whistler, Theresa (1993). Imagination of the Heart:The Life of Walter de la Mare.
Edward Wagenknecht, "Walter de la Mare", in Wagenknecht, Seven Masters of Supernatural Fiction. New York: Greenwood, 1991. .
Jack Adrian, "De la Mare, Walter", in David Pringle (ed), St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost and Gothic Writers. London: St. James Press, 1998.
Works by de la Mare
External links
Walter de la Mare Society Website
Walter de la Mare: A Database – a secondary bibliography
"de La Mare, Walter" in The Encyclopedia of Fantasy
— the famous poem recorded as a song (2009)
1873 births
1956 deaths
English children's writers
20th-century English poets
20th-century English novelists
English short story writers
English fantasy writers
English horror writers
Carnegie Medal in Literature winners
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Members of the Order of Merit
British World War I poets
20th-century English male writers
English people of Scottish descent
Deaths from coronary thrombosis
Ghost story writers
People from Charlton, London
People educated at St. Paul's Cathedral School
Burials at St Paul's Cathedral
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
English male poets
English male short story writers
English male novelists
Children's poets
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254470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Compa%C3%B1a | Santa Compaña | The Santa Compaña ("Holy Company") is a deep-rooted mythical belief in rural northwest of Iberia: Galicia, Asturias (Spain) and Northern Portugal. It is the Iberian version of the pan-European mythical motif known as the Wild Hunt.
It is also known under the names of "Estadea", "Estantiga'" (estantigua in Spanish, from Latin hostis antiquus, meaning "ancient host"), "Rolda", "As da nuite" (The Night Ones), "Pantalla", "Avisóns", "Pantaruxada"; all of which are terms that denote the presence of the dead in the world of the living. In Asturias it's prominently well-known as Güestia, which is related to the Asturian word "güeste" (host in English language).
Description
Although many different versions of the Santa Compaña can be found, the common belief is that of a procession of the dead (or a procession of souls that are in torment) that wander through the village paths of a parish beginning at midnight wearing white, hooded cloaks.
The procession is led by a living person (usually a parishioner of a particular church) carrying a cross or a cauldron of holy water (sometimes they carry both), followed by several of the souls of the dead holding lit candles. Although these souls are not always seen, it is said that the scent of melted wax can be detected on the breeze which appears as they pass to warn of their presence. The living leader of the procession is compelled by a supernatural force (in this case, a mysterious curse) to go out every night and walk by towns, villages and forests; but having no recollection of it the following day. By the same token, because the living person is unaware of what she/he is doing, there is no chance that they will renounce his duty in leading the Santa Compaña as the curse that forces them to lead the procession puts them into a trance every midnight. The procession ends before daybreak and the living leader of the procession returns to her/his bed with no memory of what occurred the next morning but feeling very tired and weary as though they did not get adequate rest. She/He can only be freed of the curse if they manage to come across another person during the procession to carry the cross or the cauldron (or both), as the curse will be passed onto that person. It is said that if the curse leader does not pass the curse onto another person in a matter of weeks, she/he will eventually grow pale, thin and sickly and eventually die and the curse will be passed onto another parishioner that will unknowingly receive the curse.
To avoid receiving the curse, the person who sees the Santa Compaña pass by must quickly draw "Solomon's Circle" on the ground using chalk (a circle with Seal of Solomon inside a six-pointed star, which can be changed into a cross) and enter it, or they can also lie face-down until the procession passes. Another way to evade the Santa Compaña is to tie a black cat in the middle of the Santa Compaña's path and run away quickly from it, or to perform diverse warding symbols with both hands such as the horn gesture (extending the index and little fingers and to contract the rest of fingers) or the fig sign (which consists of closing the fist and putting the thumb between the index and middle fingers). The person leading the procession can be a man or a woman—this depends on whether the patron saint of the parish is male or female. The Santa Compaña's purpose is to announce death and its primary mission is to visit the homes where death is due.
According to popular belief, apart from the living procession leader, the Santa Compaña can't be seen but can be felt, eliciting a shiver or shudder as it passes, accompanied with a sensation of intense danger. It is also believed that those who can see the Santa Compaña are people who, when baptised by the priest of their parish, were mistakenly anointed with holy oil for the sick instead of chrism. In other versions, it is believed that they are people with special sensibilities who are able to see hidden things. Some people are unable to see the souls in the procession but can see the light of their candles, floating in the air like ignis fatuus or will-o'-the-wisp (similar to the "spook lights" in the rural USA or "jack o'lantern" in the rural UK) as they move along their path.
Origins
It may be related to Odin's Wild Hunt, or the Welsh Hounds of Annwn and the Breton Celtic westward processions of the dead to the End of the World. It is equivalent to the Irish Banshee and Breton Ankou.
See also
Banshee
Madam Koi Koi
Ankou
Wild Hunt
Nightmarchers
References
Bibliography
J. Cuveiro Piñol, Diccionario Gallego, Barcelona, 1876: Compaña: entre o vulgo, creída hoste ou procesión de bruxas que andan de noite alumeadas con osos de mortos, chamando ás portas para que as acompañen, aos que desexan que morran axiña…
Elisardo Becoña Iglesias, "La Santa Compaña, El Urco y Los Muertos", A Coruña, 1980
Paula Cristobo, La Santa Compaña. Entre el mito, la realidad y la superstición. Revista Investigación, 2002
Santiago Compostela Website
Christian folklore
Galician mythology
Asturian mythology
Portuguese legendary creatures
Spanish ghosts
Ghosts | [
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254486 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imad%20al-Din%20Zengi | Imad al-Din Zengi | Imad al-Din Zengi (; – 14 September 1146), also romanized as Zangi, Zengui, Zenki, and Zanki, was a Turkmen atabeg who ruled Mosul, Aleppo, Hama, and, later, Edessa. He was the namesake of the Zengid dynasty.
Early life
Zengi's father, Aq Sunqur al-Hajib, governor of Aleppo under Malik-Shah I, was beheaded by Tutush I for treason in 1094. At the time, Zengi was about 10 years old and brought up by Kerbogha, the governor of Mosul.
Zengi against Damascus
Following the death in 1128 of Toghtekin, atabeg of Damascus, a power vacuum threatened to open Syria to renewed Crusader aggression. Zengi became atabeg of Mosul in 1127 and of Aleppo in 1128, uniting the two cities under his personal rule, and was formally invested as their ruler by the Sultan Mahmud II. Zengi had supported the young sultan against his rival, the caliph al-Mustarshid.
In 1130 Zengi allied with Taj al-Mulk Buri of Damascus against the Crusaders, but this was only a ruse to extend his power; he had Buri's son taken prisoner and seized Hama from him. Zengi also besieged Homs, the governor of which was accompanying him at the time, but could not capture it, so he returned to Mosul, where Buri's son and the other prisoners from Damascus were ransomed for 50,000 dinars. The next year, Zengi agreed to return the 50,000 dinars if Buri would deliver to him Dubais ibn Sadaqa, emir of al-Hilla in Iraq, who had fled to Damascus to escape al-Mustarshid. When an ambassador from the caliph arrived to bring Dubais back, Zengi attacked him and killed some of his retinue; the ambassador returned to Baghdad without Dubais.
Mahmud II died in 1131, setting off a war for the succession. As the Seljuk princes were occupied fighting one another in Persia, Zengi marched on Baghdad to add it to his dominions. He was defeated by the caliph's troops, however, and only escaped thanks to the help of the governor of Tikrit, Najm ad-Din Ayyub, future father of Saladin. Several years later, Zengi would reward the governor with a position in his army, paving the way for Saladin's brilliant career.
In 1134 Zengi became involved in Artuqid affairs, allying with the emir Timurtash (son of Ilghazi) against Timurtash's cousin Da'ud. Zengi's real desires, however, lay to the south, in Damascus. In 1135 Zengi received an appeal for help from Shams-ul-Mulk Isma'il, who had succeeded his father Buri as emir of Damascus, and who was in fear for his life from his own citizenry, who considered him a cruel tyrant. Ismail was willing to surrender the city to Zengi in order to restore peace. None of Ismail's family or advisors wanted this, however, and Isma'il was murdered by his own mother, Zumurrud, to prevent him from turning over the city to Zengi's control. Isma'il was succeeded by his brother Shihab al-Din Mahmud.
Zengi was not discouraged by this turn of events and arrived at Damascus anyway, still intending to seize it. The siege lasted for some time with no success on Zengi's part, so a truce was made and Shahib al-Din's brother Bahram-Shah was given as a hostage. At the same time, news of the siege had reached the caliph and Baghdad, and a messenger was sent with orders for Zengi to leave Damascus and take control of the governance of Iraq. The messenger was ignored, but Zengi gave up the siege, as per the terms of the truce with Shahib al-Din. On the way back to Aleppo, Zengi besieged Homs, whose governor had angered him, and Shahib al-Din responded to the city's call for help by sending Mu'in al-Din Unur to govern it.
Conflict with the Crusaders and Byzantines
In 1137 Zengi besieged Homs again, but Mu'in al-Din successfully defended it. In response, Damascus allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem against him. That year, Zengi laid siege to a Crusader fortress during the battle of Ba'rin and quickly crushed the army of Jerusalem. King Fulk of Jerusalem agreed to surrender and was allowed to flee with his surviving troops. Zengi, realizing that this new expedition against Damascus was bound to fail, made peace with Shahib al-Din, just in time to be confronted at Aleppo by an army sent by the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus. The Emperor had recently brought the Crusader Principality of Antioch under Byzantine control, and had allied himself with Joscelin II of Edessa and Raymond of Antioch. Facing a combined Byzantine/crusader threat, Zengi mobilized his forces and recruited assistance from other Muslim leaders. In April 1138 the armies of the Byzantine emperor and the crusader princes laid siege to Shaizar, but they were turned back by Zengi's forces a month later.
In May 1138 Zengi came to an agreement with Damascus. He married Zumurrud Khatun, the same woman who had murdered her son Ismail, and received Homs as her dowry. In July 1139 Zumurrud's surviving son, Shihab al-Din, was assassinated, and Zengi marched on Damascus to take possession of the city. The Damascenes, united under Mu'in al-Din Unur, acting as regent for Shihab al-Din's successor Jamal al-Din, once again allied with Jerusalem to repel Zengi. Zengi also besieged Jamal al-Din's former possession of Baalbek, and Mu'in al-Din was in charge of its defenses as well. Zengi obtained its surrender in response to a promise of safe passage; he did not honor it. He granted the territory to his lieutenant Najm al-Din Ayyub, father of Saladin. After Zengi abandoned his siege of Damascus, Jamal al-Din died of a disease and was succeeded by his son Mujir al-Din, with Mu'in al-Din remaining as regent.
Mu'in al-Din signed a new peace treaty with Jerusalem for their mutual protection against Zengi. While Mu'in al-Din and the crusaders joined together to besiege Banias in 1140, Zengi once more laid siege to Damascus, but quickly abandoned it again. There were no major engagements between the crusaders, Damascus, and Zengi for the next few years, but Zengi in the meantime campaigned in the north and captured Ashib and the Armenian fortress of Hizan.
In 1144, Zengi began the siege of Edessa against the crusader County of Edessa, the weakest and least Latinized crusader state, and captured it on December 24, 1144, after a siege of four months. This event led to the Second Crusade, and later Muslim chroniclers noted it as the start of the jihad against the Crusader states.
Death and legacy
Zengi continued his attempts to take Damascus in 1145, but he was assassinated by a Frankish slave named Yarankash in September 1146, after the atabeg drunkenly threatened him with punishment for drinking from his goblet. Zengi was the founder of the eponymous Zengid dynasty. In Mosul he was succeeded by his eldest son Sayf al-Din Ghazi I, and in Aleppo he was succeeded by his second son Nur al-Din. When Sayf died in 1149, he was succeeded in Mosul by a third son Qutb al-Din Mawdud.
According to Crusader legend, Zengi's mother was Ida of Austria (mother of Leopold III of Austria), who had supposedly been captured during the Crusade of 1101 and placed in a harem. She was 46 in 1101, Zengi was born in 1085, and his father died in 1094 so this is not possible.
Zengi was courageous, strong in leadership and a very skilled warrior according to all of the Muslim chroniclers of his day.
Unlike Saladin at Jerusalem in 1187, Zengi did not keep his word to protect his captives at Baalbek in 1139. According to Ibn al-‘Adim, Zengi "had sworn to the people of the citadel with strong oaths and on the Qur’an and divorcing (his wives). When they came down from the citadel he betrayed them, flayed its governor and hanged the rest.”
According to Ibn 'al-Adim:
References
Sources
.
Amin Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, 1985
Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press, 1952.
The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi. H.A.R. Gibb, 1932 (reprint, Dover Publications, 2002).
William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey. Columbia University Press, 1943.
An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades; Memoirs of Usamah ibn-Munqidh (Kitab al i'tibar), trans. Philip K. Hitti. New York, 1929.
The Second Crusade Scope and Consequences Edited by Jonathan Phillips & Martin Hoch, 2001.
The Chronicle of Michael the Syrian - (Khtobo D-Makethbonuth Zabne) (finished 1193-1195)
Taef El-Azhari, Zengi and the Muslim Response to the Crusades, Routledge, Abington, UK, 2006.
Zengid rulers
1080s births
1146 deaths
People of medieval Syria
Syrian people of Turkish descent
Iraqi people of Turkish descent
Muslims of the Second Crusade
Medieval Iraqi people
Turkic rulers
Atabegs
12th-century Turkic people
Seljuk Empire
12th-century monarchs in the Middle East
Zengid emirs of Mosul | [
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254493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Grand%20Old%20Duke%20of%20York | The Grand Old Duke of York | "The Grand Old Duke of York" (also sung as The Noble Duke of York) is an English children's nursery rhyme, often performed as an action song. The eponymous duke has been argued to be a number of the bearers of that title, particularly Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany (1763–1827) and its lyrics have become proverbial for futile action. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 742.
Words
A modern version is:
Oh, the grand old Duke of York,
He had ten thousand men;
He marched them up to the top of the hill,
And he marched them down again.
When they were up, they were up,
And when they were down, they were down,
And when they were only halfway up,
They were neither up nor down.
Origins
Like many popular nursery rhymes the origins of the song have been much debated and remain unclear. Unusually the rhyme clearly refers to an historical person and debates have tended to circulate around identifying which Duke is being referred to in the lyrics. The lyrics were not printed in their modern form until relatively recently, in Arthur Rackham's Mother Goose in 1913. Prior to that a number of alternatives have been found including a note that in Warwickshire in 1892 the song was sung of both the Duke of York and the King of France; from 1894 that it was sung of Napoleon. The oldest version of the song that survives is from 1642, under the title 'Old Tarlton's song', attributed to the stage clown Richard Tarlton (1530–1588) with the lyrics:
The King of France with forty thousand men,
Came up a hill and so came downe againe.
As a result, the argument has been made that it may have been a common satirical verse that was adapted as appropriate and, because it was recorded in roughly the modern form, has become fixed on the Duke of York. Candidates for the duke in question include:
Richard, Duke of York (1411–1460), who was defeated at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460. Richard's army, some 8,000 strong, was awaiting reinforcements at Sandal Castle in Wakefield (the castle was built on top of a Norman motte). He was surrounded by Lancastrian forces some three times that number, but chose to sally forth to fight. Richard died in a pitched battle at Wakefield Green, together with between one third and one half of his army.
James II (1633–1701), formerly Duke of York, who in 1688 marched his troops to Salisbury Plain to resist the invasion from his son-in-law William of Orange, only to retreat and disperse them as his support began to evaporate.
The most common attribution is to Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany (1763–1827), the second son of King George III and Commander-in-Chief of the British Army during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. His most significant field command was during the Flanders Campaign of 1793–94. Despite the British troops having some success against the French, in the summer of 1794 the Duke was obliged to retreat into the Netherlands and he was subsequently recalled to England. Flanders having something of a reputation for being flat, the specific location of the "hill" in the nursery rhyme has been suggested to be the town of Cassel which is built on a hill which rises 176 metres (about 570 feet) above the flat lands of French Flanders in northern France. Apart from the ducal title in the song and the events of their lives there is no external evidence to link the rhyme to any of these candidates.
Song
"The Grand Old Duke of York" is also sung to the tune of "A-Hunting We Will Go".
Dutch version
A Dutch adaptation of the song replaces the Duke of York with Maurice, Prince of Orange (1567–1625), whose practice of training mercenaries (completely new, and mocked at first) became famous following his success in war. It is not known when the British song crossed the North Sea, but nowadays it is well-known within the Dutch scouting movement.
References
Singing games
English nursery rhymes
English folk songs
English children's songs
Traditional children's songs
Works of unknown authorship
Songs about England
Year of song unknown
Songwriter unknown
Action songs | [
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254496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20Mac%20G5 | Power Mac G5 | The Power Mac G5 is a series of personal computers designed, manufactured, and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. from 2003 to 2006 as part of the Power Mac series. When introduced, it was the most powerful computer in Apple's Macintosh lineup, and was marketed by the company as the world's first 64-bit desktop computer. It was also the first desktop computer from Apple to use an anodized aluminum alloy enclosure, and one of only three computers in Apple's lineup to utilize the PowerPC 970 CPU, the others being the iMac G5 and the Xserve G5.
Three generations of Power Mac G5 were released before it was discontinued as part of the Mac transition to Intel processors, making way for its replacement, the Mac Pro. The Mac Pro retained a variation of the G5's enclosure design for seven more years, making it among the longest-lived designs in Apple's history.
Introduction
Officially launched as part of Steve Jobs' keynote presentation at the Worldwide Developers Conference in June 2003, the Power Mac G5 was introduced with three models, sharing the same physical case, but differing in features and performance. Although somewhat larger than the G4 tower it replaced, the necessity for a complex cooling system meant that the G5 tower had room inside for only one optical drive and two hard drives.
Steve Jobs stated during his keynote presentation that the Power Mac G5 would reach 3 GHz "within 12 months." This would never come to pass; after three years, the G5 only reached 2.7 GHz before it was replaced by the Intel Xeon-based Mac Pro, which debuted with processors running at speeds of up to 3 GHz.
During the presentation, Apple also showed Virginia Tech's Mac OS X computer cluster supercomputer (a.k.a. supercluster) known as System X, consisting of 1100 Power Mac G5 towers operating as processing nodes. The supercomputer managed to become one of the top five supercomputers that year. The computer was soon dismantled and replaced with a new cluster made of an equal number of Xserve G5 rack-mounted servers, which also used the G5 chip running at 2.3 GHz.
PowerPC G5 and the IBM partnership
The PowerPC G5 (called the PowerPC 970 by its manufacturer, IBM) is based upon IBM's 64-bit POWER4 microprocessor. At the Power Mac G5's introduction, Apple announced a partnership with IBM in which IBM would continue to produce PowerPC variants of their POWER processors. According to IBM's Dr. John E. Kelly, "The goal of this partnership is for Apple and IBM to come together so that Apple customers get the best of both worlds, the tremendous creativity from the Apple corporation and the tremendous technology from the IBM corporation. IBM invested over $3 billion US dollars in a new lab to produce these large, 300 mm wafers." This lab was a completely automated facility located in East Fishkill, New York, and figured heavily in IBM's larger microelectronics strategy.
The original PowerPC 970 had 50 million transistors and was manufactured using IBM CMOS 9S at 130 nm fabrication process. CMOS 9S is the combination of SOI, low-k dielectric insulation, and copper interconnect technology, which were invented at IBM research in the mid-1990s. Subsequent revisions of the "G5" processor have included IBM's PowerPC 970FX (same basic design on a 90 nm process), and the PowerPC 970MP (essentially two 970FX cores on one die). Apple refers to the dual-core PowerPC 970MP processors as either the "G5 Dual" (for single-socket, dual-core configurations), or Power Mac G5 Quad (for dual-socket, four-core configurations).
Architecture
The Power Mac G5 line in 2006 consisted of three, dual-core PowerPC G5 configurations, which can communicate through its HyperTransport at half its internal clock speed. Each processor in the Power Mac G5 has two unidirectional 32-bit pathways: one leading to the processor and the other from the processor. These result in a total bandwidth of up to 20 GB/s. The processor at the heart of the Power Mac G5 has a "superscalar, superpipelined" execution core that can handle up to 216 in-flight instructions, and uses a 128-bit, 162-instruction SIMD unit (AltiVec).
All modern 32-bit x86 processors since the Pentium Pro have the Physical Address Extension (PAE) feature, which permits them to use a 36-bit physical memory address to address a maximum of 236 bytes (64 gigabytes) of physical memory, while the PowerPC 970 processor is capable of addressing 242 bytes (4 terabytes) of physical memory and 264 bytes (16 exabytes) of virtual memory. Due to its 64-bit processor (and 42-bit MMU), the final revision of the Power Mac G5 can hold 16 GB of Dual-Channel DDR2 PC4200 RAM using eight memory slots, with support for ECC memory.
Product revision history
Unless specified, all are single-core and single-processor.
2003 June: Initial release at speeds of SP 1.6, SP 1.8, DP 2.0 GHz.
2003 November: DP 1.8 replaces SP 1.8 GHz; price reduction on SP 1.6 GHz.
2004 June: 90 nm DP 1.8, DP 2.0 and DP 2.5 GHz replace all previous models. The 2.5 GHz model is notable as the first major PC with liquid cooling included as stock.
2004 October: A new SP 1.8 reintroduced, with a slower, 600 MHz HyperTransport, PCI bus, based upon the iMac G5's architecture (U3lite and Shasta chips). Apple's official name for this machine is "Power Mac G5 (Late 2004)".
2005 April: CPU speed increased: DP 2.5 GHz → DP 2.7 GHz (PCI-X, LC), DP 2.0 GHz → DP 2.3 GHz (PCI-X), DP 1.8 GHz → DP 2 GHz (PCI). Newly introduced features were the 16x dual-layer SuperDrives across the line and increased storage, up to 800 GB for the higher-end models. The 1.8 GHz SP was not modified.
2005 June–July: The SP 1.8 model was discontinued in the United States and Europe.
2005 October: Shift to dual-core processors: DP 2.0 GHz → DC 2.0 GHz, DP 2.3 GHz → DC 2.3 GHz, DP 2.7 GHz → DP DC 2.5 GHz (termed a Quad Power Mac G5, with four CPU execution cores and more reliable liquid cooling), all with DDR2 memory, and PCI Express expansion in place of PCI-X. The older PCI-X, DP 2.7 GHz model remained available for a while, but the slower speed single-core models were discontinued immediately.
2006 August: The Power Mac is replaced by its Intel successor, the Mac Pro.
Defects
Early versions of dual processor G5 computers have noise problems. The first one is ground loop-based interference, which sometimes causes noise leaks into the analog audio outputs. This bug was fixed in Rev. B G5.
The second noise problem came from the 'chirping' sound, which can be triggered by fluctuations in power draw. For example, using Exposé causes a brief chirp. A widely circulated work-around is to disable the CPUs' "nap" feature using Apple's CHUD Tools, but this was not recommended by Apple. This noise problem was not fixed until the dual core generation of G5s was produced, however it did not affect the "Late 2004" model (at least there have never been any reports). The power draw fluctuation was later attributed to the lack of power management features in the single-core processors. Apple eventually posted the chirping bug information on its support site.
Although the noise problems did not prevent the affected computers from working, they were problematic for audio professionals and enthusiasts, especially for the liquid-cooled models, which had been expressly designed as mechanically quiet for discerning listeners.
A common problem among single processor G5s was that the plate of metal soldered to the Logic Board connecting all eight of the RAM slots would, over time, expand and contract in such a way that the computer could not boot properly, as it would not detect any RAM. The only way known to fix this problem is for someone to re-solder the plate themselves or expose the other side of the Logic Board to heat from a heat gun. The latter of these two options is far easier, as to access the plate of metal one would have to completely remove the Logic Board from the computer, whereas all one has to do to expose the other side is remove a fan.
All 2.5 GHz dual processor and all 2.7 GHz dual-processor and the 2.5 GHz quad-processor variant had a liquid cooling system that consisted of a radiator, coolant pump, and heat exchangers bolted to the processors. The cooling system was made by Delphi Automotive, a former Harrison Radiator Division of General Motors. This was a bold step for Apple, and should have allowed the use of very fast processors, giving Apple an advantage in both the performance and reliability race, but the system turned out to be subject to coolant leakage, made worse by the system's use of GMDexcool coolant, which is more corrosive than regular automotive coolant. If not caught in time, the leakage could destroy the processors, logic board, and even corrode the aluminium casing itself. While leakage was sometimes detectable by drops of green coolant in or beneath the machine, in many machines the seepage is so slight that it was almost impossible to detect without dismantling the entire computer. Later models (only the 2.7GHz) were equipped with a Panasonic liquid cooling system which was much more reliable.
The liquid cooling system fits into the case where the heat sinks would normally go, so there is no easy way to distinguish the liquid-cooled versions from the air-cooled, although most, but not all, of the liquid-cooled machines have a sticker inside warning about the possibility of leakage.
P.A. Semi's G5 derivative
When P.A. Semi announced the preliminary pre-production plan of PWRficient processor, there had been persistent rumors that Apple would prepare for its use in its professional line of personal computers.
In 2006, The Register reported that P.A. Semi had formed a tight relationship with Apple, which would result in P.A. Semi promptly delivering processor chips for Apple's personal computer notebook line and possibly desktops. Even in 2006, Apple did not have a laptop version of the G5 processor. The processor that would run the personal computers was P.A. Semi's preliminarily proposed processor, PWRficient 1682M (PA6T-1682M). The version that would be sampled for pre-production at third quarter of 2006 was a 2 GHz, dual-core CPU with two DDR2 memory controllers, 2 MB of L2 cache, and support for 8 PCI Express lanes. The sampled chip also has lower heat intensity than Intel's Core Duo, which gives off 9–31 W under normal load.
According to The Register article, P.A. Semi executives believed that they were all but assured of winning Apple's contract, and CEO Dan Dobberpuhl thought that Apple's hints of moving to Intel were just a persuading tactic. At the time, the companies were working for PWRficient software.
Despite the advantages of more compatible architecture, Apple moved to the Intel architecture officially for 'performance-per-watt' reasons. However, P.A. Semi would not be able to ship its low-power multicore product in volume until 2007, which, combined with P.A. Semi's status as a start-up company, seems to have been the final blow to the development of Power Mac computers. However, it was also speculated that Apple switched to Intel processor because Apple could no longer abide the constant delays in performance ramp up, desired native Windows compatibility, or it was Apple's strategy to shift its business focus away from desktop computing to iPod (and subsequently iOS) development.
Apple acquired P.A. Semi in 2008, using P.A. Semi's engineering resources to develop ARM CPUs for their iPhone, iPod Touch, iPad, and Apple TV product lines; and would go on to eventually come full circle with these designs replacing Intel chips in Macs in 2020.
The PA6T-1682M processor would later be used by the AmigaOne X1000 personal computer.
Notes
External links
Ars Technica: Inside the PowerPC 970
Ars Technica: A Brief Look at the PowerPC 970
Ars Technica Review: Power Mac G5 Dual 2.5 GHz
Forevermac.com: The Power Mac G5 Quad Core 2.5 GHz
Macintosh towers
G5
PowerPC Macintosh computers
Macintosh case designs
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254498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Potter%20and%20the%20Prisoner%20of%20Azkaban | Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban | Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is a fantasy novel written by British author J. K. Rowling and is the third in the Harry Potter series. The book follows Harry Potter, a young wizard, in his third year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Along with friends Ronald Weasley and Hermione Granger, Harry investigates Sirius Black, an escaped prisoner from Azkaban, the wizard prison, believed to be one of Lord Voldemort's old allies.
The book was published in the United Kingdom on 8 July 1999 by Bloomsbury and in the United States on 8 September 1999 by Scholastic, Inc. Rowling found the book easy to write, finishing it just a year after she began writing it. The book sold 68,000 copies in just three days after its release in the United Kingdom and since has sold over three million in the country. The book won the 1999 Whitbread Children's Book Award, the Bram Stoker Award, and the 2000 Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel and was short-listed for other awards, including the Hugo.
The film adaptation of the novel was released in 2004, grossing more than $796 million and earning critical acclaim. Video games loosely based on Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban were also released for several platforms, and most obtained favourable reviews.
Plot
Thirteen-year-old Harry Potter spends another unhappy summer at the Dursleys. After Aunt Marge insults Harry and his deceased parents, an angry Harry accidentally inflates her. Fearing expulsion from Hogwarts, he runs away. On a dark street, a large black dog watches Harry. Startled, Harry stumbles backward, causing his wand to emit sparks. The Knight Bus, a vehicle that rescues stranded wizards, suddenly arrives. Harry goes to the Leaky Cauldron in Diagon Alley where Cornelius Fudge, the Minister for Magic, is waiting. Harry is not expelled but is asked to remain in Diagon Alley until school starts. While there, Harry reunites with best friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. Mr Weasley warns Harry about the wizard Sirius Black, a convicted murderer who escaped Azkaban prison and is believed to be hunting down Harry.
Dementors, the hideous guards of Azkaban, board the Hogwarts Express train. As one approaches Harry, he relives his parents' deaths, then faints. The new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Remus Lupin wards off the creature with a Patronus charm. At Hogwarts, Professor Albus Dumbledore announces that dementors are patrolling the school grounds, hunting Black.
In Divination class, Professor Sybill Trelawney says the dog-shaped form in Harry's tea leaves is the Grim, a spectral death omen. She later predicts that Voldemort's servant will soon return. During a Quidditch match, Harry spots a black dog near the pitch, then faints and falls off his broomstick when dementors approach. Harry is uninjured but the Whomping Willow destroys his broom. Afterwards, Professor Lupin teaches Harry the Patronus charm to repel dementors.
Fred and George Weasley give Harry their Marauder's Map, a magical document created by four former Hogwarts students known only as, "Moony," "Padfoot," "Wormtail," and "Prongs." The map shows every person at Hogwarts and seven secret tunnels. Harry, who lacks guardian permission for school outings, sneaks into Hogsmeade. He overhears a conversation there that Sirius Black betrayed the Potters to Voldemort and killed their friend Peter Pettigrew. Also, Black is Harry's godfather. Black later breaks into Hogwarts twice, though Harry is unharmed.
Meanwhile, Ron accuses Hermione's cat, Crookshanks, of killing his missing pet rat Scabbers, straining their friendship. When Harry receives an expensive Firebolt broomstick as an anonymous gift, Hermione, fearing Black sent it, gets it confiscated for testing. Ron and Harry are furious at Hermione, who is already stressed after having taken too many classes. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Magic has ordered Hagrid's hippogriff Buckbeak to be executed for injuring Draco Malfoy, who deliberately provoked the animal. Harry, Ron, and Hermione seemingly hear Buckbeak's execution as they exit Hagrid's hut. While there, Hermione discovered Scabbers hiding inside. Scabbers escapes Ron, who gives chase.
The black dog appears and drags Ron into a tunnel under the Whomping Willow. Harry and Hermione pursue them into the haunted Shrieking Shack. The dog is Sirius Black, an unregistered animagus. Lupin unexpectedly enters. He saw Pettigrew's name on the Marauder's Map and realised that he, not Black, betrayed the Potters. Hermione claims Lupin is a werewolf, which he admits. As students, Lupin (Moony), Black (Padfoot), Pettigrew (Wormtail), and Harry's father, James Potter (Prongs), created the Marauder's Map. The latter three secretly became animagi to tame Lupin during his werewolf transformations. Scabbers is Pettigrew in his rat form. He is Voldemort's servant and faked his death, framing Black. Black escaped Azkaban after discovering Pettigrew was alive.
Severus Snape arrives to apprehend Black. His deeply-rooted grudge against Sirius Black and James Potter for bullying him in school has biased him. Harry, Ron, and Hermione simultaneously stun Snape unconscious. Lupin and Black are about to execute Pettigrew but Harry wants him sent to Azkaban. As the full moon rises, Lupin transforms into a werewolf. He has forgotten his Wolfsbane potion, which now allows a werewolf to remain sane during transformations. Black, in his dog form, fights him off. Pettigrew escapes as dementors descend upon Harry, Hermione, and Black. A distant figure casts a powerful Patronus, scattering the dementors.
Dementors are about to suck out the captured Black's soul. Dumbledore instructs Harry and Hermione to save Black and Buckbeak by going back in time with Hermione's Time-Turner, a Ministry device she uses to attend multiple classes. They rescue Buckbeak and see dementors attacking their earlier selves. Harry casts a stag-shaped Patronus, scattering the dementors. Harry and Hermione ride Buckbeak to the tower and release Black, who escapes on Buckbeak.
Snape, enraged over Black's escape, intentionally lets slip that Lupin is a werewolf, forcing his resignation. Black writes Harry saying he sent the Firebolt and, as his legal guardian, gives Harry permission for school excursions.
Publication and reception
Pre-release history
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is the third book in the Harry Potter series. The first, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was published by Bloomsbury on 26 June 1997 and the second, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was published on 2 July 1998. Rowling started to write the Prisoner of Azkaban the day after she finished The Chamber of Secrets.
Rowling's favorite aspect of this book was introducing the character Remus Lupin, Rowling additionally said in 2004 that Prisoner of Azkaban was "the best writing experience I ever had...I was in a very comfortable place writing (number) three. Immediate financial worries were over, and press attention wasn't yet by any means excessive".
Critical reception
Gregory Maguire wrote a review in The New York Times for Prisoner of Azkaban: in it he said, "So far, in terms of plot, the books do nothing new, but they do it brilliantly...so far, so good." In a newspaper review in The New York Times, it was said that "'The Prisoner of Azkaban' may be the best 'Harry Potter' book yet". A reviewer for KidsReads said, "This crisply-paced fantasy will leave you hungry for the four additional Harry books that J.K. Rowling is working on. Harry's third year is a charm. Don't miss it." Kirkus Reviews did not give a starred review but said, "a properly pulse-pounding climax...The main characters and the continuing story both come along so smartly...that the book seems shorter than its page count: have readers clear their calendars if they are fans, or get out of the way if they are not." Martha V. Parravano also gave a positive review for The Horn Book Magazine, calling it "quite a good book." In addition, a Publishers Weekly review said, "Rowling's wit never flags, whether constructing the workings of the wizard world...or tossing off quick jokes...The Potter spell is holding strong.
However, Anthony Holden, who was one of the judges against Prisoner of Azkaban for the Whitbread Award, was negative about the book, saying that the characters are "all black-and-white", and the "story-lines are predictable, the suspense minimal, the sentimentality cloying every page".
In 2012 it was ranked number 12 on a list of the top 100 children's novels published by School Library Journal.
Awards
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban won several awards, including the 1999 Booklist Editors' Choice Award, the 1999 Bram Stoker Award for Best Work for Young Readers, the 1999 FCBG Children's Book Award, the 1999 Whitbread Book of the Year for children's books, and the 2000 Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel. It was also nominated for the 2000 Hugo Award for Best Novel, the first in the series nominated, but lost to A Deepness in the Sky. Prisoner of Azkaban additionally won the 2004 Indian Paintbrush Book Award and the 2004 Colorado Blue Spruce Young Adult Book Award. Additionally, it was named an American Library Association Notable Children's Book in 2000 as well as one of their Best Books for Young Adults. As with the previous two books in the series, Prisoner of Azkaban won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize Gold Medal for children aged 9–11 and made the top of the New York Times Best Seller list. In both cases, it was the last in the series to do so. However, in the latter case, a Children's Best Sellers list was created just before the release of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire in July 2000 in order to free up more room on the original list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 24 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.
Sales
Prisoner of Azkaban sold more than 68,000 copies in the UK within three days of publication, which made it the fastest selling British book of the time. The sales total by 2012 is said by The Guardian to be 3,377,906.
Editions
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released in hardcover in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September. The British paperback edition was released on 1 April 2000, while the US paperback was released 1 October 2001.
Bloomsbury additionally released an adult edition with a different cover design to the original, in paperback on 10 July 2004 and in hardcover on October 2004. A hardcover special edition, featuring a green border and signature, was released on 8 July 1999. In May 2004, Bloomsbury released a Celebratory Edition, with a blue and purple border. On 1 November 2010, they released the 10th anniversary Signature edition illustrated by Clare Mellinsky and in July 2013 a new adult cover illustrated by Andrew Davidson, both these editions were designed by Webb & Webb Design Limited.
Beginning on 27 August 2013, Scholastic will release new covers for the paperback editions of Harry Potter in the United States to celebrate 15 years of the series. The covers were designed by the author and illustrator Kazu Kibuishi.
An illustrated version of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released on 3 October 2017, and was illustrated by Jim Kay who illustrates the previous two instalments. This includes over 115 new illustrations and will be followed by Illustrated editions of the following 4 novels in the future.
Adaptations
Film
The film version of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released in 2004 and was directed by Alfonso Cuarón from a screenplay by Steve Kloves. The film débuted at number one at the box office and held that position for two weeks. It made a total of $796.7 million worldwide, which made it the second highest-grossing film of 2004 behind Shrek 2. However, among all eight entries in the Harry Potter franchise, Prisoner of Azkaban grossed the lowest; yet among critics and fans, the film is often cited as the best in the franchise – in large part due to Cuarón's stylistic influence. The film ranks at number 471 in Empire magazine's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.
Video games
Three unique video games by different developers were released in 2004 by Electronic Arts, loosely based on the book:
References
External links
1999 children's books
1999 British novels
1999 fantasy novels
BILBY Award-winning works
Bloomsbury Publishing books
Bram Stoker Award for Best Work for Young Readers winners
British novels adapted into films
Costa Book Award-winning works
Fiction about shapeshifting
Fiction about size change
Fiction about prison escapes
Wrongful convictions in fiction
Fiction set in 1993
Fiction set in 1994
03
Novels about revenge
Novels about time travel
Scholastic Corporation books
Sequel novels
Werewolf novels
Children's fantasy novels | [
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254500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.%20F.%20Korn | M. F. Korn | Michael F. Korn is an American author who writes horror and science fiction. He has written eleven novels and his stories have appeared in over 220 magazines worldwide. He lives in Louisiana.
Bibliography
All the Mutant Trash in All the Galaxies (TBA)
The White Trash Witches' Coven / Pavane For a Scream Queen. (2004)
Confessions of a Ghoul and Other Stories (2001)
Aliens, Minibikes and Other Staples of Suburbia (2001)
Skimming the Gumbo Nuclear (2001)
Rachmaninoff's Ghost (1985)
External links
M. F. Korn's homepage
Bibliography at SciFan
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
21st-century American novelists
American horror writers
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Novelists from Louisiana
American male short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
21st-century American male writers | [
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254502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMB | OMB | OMB may refer to:
East Ambae language (ISO 639-3 code: omb), an Oceanic language spoken on Ambae, Vanuatu
Office of Management and Budget, the largest office within the Executive Office of the President of the United States
Olympiade Mathématique Belge, a mathematical competition for students in grades 7 to 12
OMB, a graphic design studio founded by Oscar Mariné
Ontario Municipal Board, an independent administrative board in the province of Ontario, Canada
Optical Media Board, a national agency under the Office of the President of the Philippines
Oregon Marching Band, the marching band of the University of Oregon
Oregon Medical Board, state agency responsible for establishing the rules and regulations for medicine | [
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254507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy%20Grainger | Percy Grainger | Percy Aldridge Grainger (born George Percy Grainger; 8 July 188220 February 1961) was an Australian-born composer, arranger and pianist who lived in the United States from 1914 and became an American citizen in 1918. In the course of a long and innovative career he played a prominent role in the revival of interest in British folk music in the early years of the 20th century. Although much of his work was experimental and unusual, the piece with which he is most generally associated is his piano arrangement of the folk-dance tune "Country Gardens".
Grainger left Australia at the age of 13 to attend the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt. Between 1901 and 1914 he was based in London, where he established himself first as a society pianist and later as a concert performer, composer and collector of original folk melodies. As his reputation grew he met many of the significant figures in European music, forming important friendships with Frederick Delius and Edvard Grieg. He became a champion of Nordic music and culture, his enthusiasm for which he often expressed in private letters, sometimes in crudely racial or anti-Semitic terms.
In 1914, Grainger moved to the United States, where he lived for the rest of his life, though he travelled widely in Europe and Australia. He served briefly as a bandsman in the United States Army during the First World War through 1917–18, and took American citizenship in 1918. After his mother's suicide in 1922, he became increasingly involved in educational work. He also experimented with music machines, which he hoped would supersede human interpretation. In the 1930s he set up the Grainger Museum in Melbourne, his birthplace, as a monument to his life and works, and as a future research archive. As he grew older, he continued to give concerts and to revise and rearrange his own compositions, while writing little new music. After the Second World War, ill health reduced his levels of activity. He considered his career a failure. He gave his last concert in 1960, less than a year before his death.
Early life
Family background
Grainger was born on 8 July 1882 in Brighton, south-east of Melbourne, Australia. His father, John Grainger, an English-born architect who had emigrated to Australia in 1877, won recognition for his design of the Princes Bridge across the Yarra River in Melbourne; His mother Rose Annie Aldridge was the daughter of Adelaide hotelier George Aldridge.
John Grainger was an accomplished artist, with broad cultural interests and a wide circle of friends. These included David Mitchell, whose daughter Helen later gained worldwide fame as an operatic soprano under the name Nellie Melba. John's claims to have "discovered" her are unfounded, although he may have offered her encouragement. John was a heavy drinker and a womaniser who, Rose learned after the marriage, had fathered a child in England before coming to Australia. His promiscuity placed deep strains upon the relationship. Rose discovered shortly after Percy's birth that she had contracted a form of syphilis from her husband. Despite this, the Graingers stayed together until 1890, when John went to England for medical treatment. After his return to Australia, they lived apart. Rose took over the work of raising Percy, while John pursued his career as chief architect to the Western Australian Department of Public Works. He had some private work, designing Nellie Melba's home, Coombe Cottage, at Coldstream.
Childhood
Except for three months' formal schooling as a 12-year-old, during which he was bullied and ridiculed by his classmates, Percy was educated at home. Rose, an autodidact with a dominating presence, supervised his music and literature studies and engaged other tutors for languages, art and drama. From his earliest lessons, Percy developed a lifelong fascination with Nordic culture; writing late in life, he said that the Icelandic Saga of Grettir the Strong was "the strongest single artistic influence on my life". As well as showing precocious musical talents, he displayed considerable early gifts as an artist, to the extent that his tutors thought his future might lie in art rather than music. At the age of 10 he began studying piano under Louis Pabst, a German immigrant then considered to be Melbourne's leading piano teacher. Grainger's first known composition, "A Birthday Gift to Mother", is dated 1893. Pabst arranged Grainger's first public concert appearances, at Melbourne's Masonic Hall in July and September 1894. The boy played works by Bach, Beethoven, Schumann and Scarlatti, and was warmly complimented in the Melbourne press.
After Pabst returned to Europe in the autumn of 1894, Grainger's new piano tutor, Adelaide Burkitt, arranged for his appearances at a series of concerts in October 1894, at Melbourne's Royal Exhibition Building. The size of this enormous venue horrified the young pianist; nevertheless, his performance delighted the Melbourne critics, who dubbed him "the flaxen-haired phenomenon who plays like a master". This public acclaim helped Rose to decide that her son should continue his studies at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt, Germany, an institution recommended by William Laver, head of piano studies at Melbourne's Conservatorium of music. Financial assistance was secured through a fund-raising benefit concert in Melbourne and a final recital in Adelaide, after which mother and son left Australia for Europe on 29 May 1895. Although Grainger never returned permanently to Australia, he maintained considerable patriotic feelings for his native land, and was proud of his Australian heritage.
Frankfurt
In Frankfurt, Rose established herself as a teacher of English; her earnings were supplemented by contributions from John Grainger, who had settled in Perth. The Hoch Conservatory's reputation for piano teaching had been enhanced by the tenure, until 1892, of Clara Schumann as head of piano studies. Grainger's piano tutor was James Kwast, who developed his young pupil's skills to the extent that, within a year, Grainger was being lauded as a prodigy. Grainger had difficult relations with his original composition teacher, Iwan Knorr; he withdrew from Knorr's classes to study composition privately with Karl Klimsch, an amateur composer and folk-music enthusiast, whom he would later honour as "my only composition teacher".
Together with a group of slightly older British students – Roger Quilter, Balfour Gardiner, Cyril Scott and Norman O'Neill, all of whom became his friends – Grainger helped form the Frankfurt Group. Their long-term objective was to rescue British and Scandinavian music from what they considered the negative influences of central European music. Encouraged by Klimsch, Grainger turned away from composing classical pastiches reminiscent of Handel, Haydn and Mozart, and developed a personal compositional style, the originality and maturity of which quickly impressed and astonished his friends. At this time Grainger discovered the poetry of Rudyard Kipling and began setting it to music; according to Scott, "No poet and composer have been so suitably wedded since Heine and Schumann."
After accompanying her son on an extended European tour in the summer of 1900, Rose, whose health had been poor for some time, suffered a nervous collapse and could no longer work. To replace lost income, Grainger began giving piano lessons and public performances; his first solo recital was in Frankfurt on 6 December 1900. Meanwhile, he continued his studies with Kwast, and increased his repertoire until he was confident he could support himself and his mother as a concert pianist. Having chosen London as his future base, in May 1901 Grainger abandoned his studies. With Rose, he left Frankfurt for the UK.
Before leaving Frankfurt, Grainger had fallen in love with Kwast's daughter Mimi. In an autobiographical essay dated 1947, he says that he was "already sex-crazy" at this time, when he was 19. John Bird, Grainger's biographer, records that during his Frankfurt years, Grainger began to develop sexual appetites that were "distinctly abnormal"; by the age of 16 he had started to experiment in flagellation and other sado-masochistic practices, which he continued to pursue through most of his adult life. Bird surmises that Grainger's fascination with themes of punishment and pain derived from the harsh discipline to which Rose had subjected him as a child.
London years
Concert pianist
In London, Grainger's charm, good looks and talent (with some assistance from the local Australian community) ensured that he was quickly taken up as a pianist by wealthy patrons. He was soon performing in concerts in private homes. The Times critic reported after one such appearance that Grainger's playing "revealed rare intelligence and a good deal of artistic insight". In 1902 he was presented by the socialite Lillith Lowrey to Queen Alexandra, who thereafter frequently attended his London recitals. Lowrey, 20 years Grainger's senior, traded patronage and contacts for sexual favours – he termed the relationship a "love-serve job". She was the first woman with whom he had sex; he later wrote of this initial encounter that he had experienced "an overpowering landslide" of feeling, and that "I thought I was about to die. If I remember correctly, I only experienced fear of death. I don't think that any joy entered into it".
In February 1902 Grainger made his first appearance as a piano soloist with an orchestra, playing Tchaikovsky's first piano concerto with the Bath Pump Room Orchestra. In October of that year he toured Britain in a concert party with Adelina Patti, the Italian-born opera singer. Patti was greatly taken by the young pianist and prophesied a glorious career for him. The following year he met the German-Italian composer and pianist Ferruccio Busoni. Initially the two men were on cordial terms (Busoni offered to give Grainger lessons free of charge) and, as a result, Grainger spent part of the 1903 summer in Berlin as Busoni's pupil. However, the visit was not a success; as Bird notes, Busoni had expected "a willing slave and adoring disciple", a role Grainger was not willing to fulfil. Grainger returned to London in July 1903; almost immediately he departed with Rose on a 10-month tour of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, as a member of a party organised by the Australian contralto Ada Crossley.
Emergent composer
Before going to London Grainger had composed numerous Kipling settings, and his first mature orchestral pieces. In London, when he found time he continued to compose; a letter to Balfour Gardiner dated 21 July 1901 indicates that he was working on his Marching Song of Democracy (a Walt Whitman setting), and had made good progress with the experimental works Train Music and Charging Irishrey. In his early London years he also composed Hill Song Number 1 (1902), an instrumental piece much admired by Busoni.
In 1905, inspired by a lecture given by the pioneer folk-song historian Lucy Broadwood, Grainger began to collect original folk songs. Starting at Brigg in Lincolnshire, over the next five years he gathered and transcribed more than 300 songs from all over the country, including much material that had never been written down before. From 1906 Grainger used a phonograph, one of the first collectors to do so, and by this means he assembled more than 200 Edison cylinder recordings of native folk singers. These activities coincided with what Bird calls "the halcyon days of the 'First English Folksong Revival'".
As his stature in the music world increased, Grainger became acquainted with many of its leading figures, including Vaughan Williams, Elgar, Richard Strauss and Debussy. In 1907 he met Frederick Delius, with whom he achieved an immediate rapport – the two musicians had similar ideas about composition and harmony, and shared a dislike for the classical German masters. Both were inspired by folk music; Grainger gave Delius his setting of the folk song Brigg Fair, which the older composer developed into his well-known orchestral rhapsody, dedicated to Grainger. The two remained close friends until Delius's death in 1934.
Grainger first met Edvard Grieg at the home of the London financier Sir Edgar Speyer, in May 1906. As a student, Grainger had learned to appreciate the Norwegian's harmonic originality, and by 1906 had several Grieg pieces in his concert repertoire, including the piano concerto. Grieg was greatly impressed with Grainger's playing, and wrote: "I have written Norwegian Peasant Dances that no one in my country can play, and here comes this Australian who plays them as they ought to be played! He is a genius that we Scandinavians cannot do other than love." During 1906–07 the two maintained a mutually complimentary correspondence, which culminated in Grainger's ten-day visit in July 1907 to the composer's Norwegian home, "Troldhaugen" near Bergen. Here the two spent much time revising and rehearsing the piano concerto in preparation for that year's Leeds Festival. Plans for a long-term working relationship were ended by Grieg's sudden death in September 1907; nevertheless, this relatively brief acquaintance had a considerable impact on Grainger, and he championed Grieg's music for the rest of his life.
After fulfilling a hectic schedule of concert engagements in Britain and continental Europe, in August 1908 Grainger accompanied Ada Crossley on a second Australasian tour, during which he added several cylinders of Maori and Polynesian music to his collection of recordings. He had resolved to establish himself as a top-ranking pianist before promoting himself as a composer, though he continued to compose both original works and folk-song settings. Some of his most successful and most characteristic pieces, such as "Mock Morris", "Handel in the Strand", "Shepherd's Hey" and "Molly on the Shore" date from this period. In 1908 he obtained the tune of "Country Gardens" from the folk music specialist Cecil Sharp, though he did not fashion it into a performable piece for another ten years.
In 1911 Grainger finally felt confident enough of his standing as a pianist to begin large-scale publishing of his compositions. At the same time, he adopted the professional name of "Percy Aldridge Grainger" for his published compositions and concert appearances. In a series of concerts arranged by Balfour Gardiner at London's Queen's Hall in March 1912, five of Grainger's works were performed to great public acclaim; the band of thirty guitars and mandolins for the performance of "Fathers and Daughters" created a particular impression. On 21 May 1912 Grainger presented the first concert devoted entirely to his own compositions, at the Aeolian Hall, London; the concert was, he reported, "a sensational success". A similarly enthusiastic reception was given to Grainger's music at a second series of Gardiner concerts the following year.
In 1905 Grainger began a close friendship with Karen Holten, a Danish music student who had been recommended to him as a piano pupil. She became an important confidante; the relationship persisted for eight years, largely through correspondence. After her marriage in 1916 she and Grainger continued to correspond and occasionally met until her death in 1953. Grainger was briefly engaged in 1913 to another pupil, Margot Harrison, but the relationship foundered through a mixture of Rose's over-possessiveness and Grainger's indecision.
Career maturity
Departure for America
In April 1914 Grainger gave his first performance of Delius's piano concerto, at a music festival in Torquay. Thomas Beecham, who was one of the festival's guest conductors, reported to Delius that "Percy was good in the forte passages, but made far too much noise in the quieter bits". Grainger was receiving increasing recognition as a composer; leading musicians and orchestras were adding his works to their repertoires. His decision to leave England for America in early September 1914, after the outbreak of the First World War, damaged his reputation among his patriotically minded British friends. Grainger wrote that the reason for this abrupt departure was "to give mother a change" – she had been unwell for years. However, according to Bird, Grainger often explained that his reason for leaving London was that "he wanted to emerge as Australia's first composer of worth, and to have laid himself open to the possibility of being killed would have rendered his goal unattainable". The Daily Telegraph music critic Robin Legge accused him of cowardice, and told him not to expect a welcome in England after the war, words that hurt Grainger deeply.
Grainger's first American tour began on 11 February 1915 with a recital at New York's Aeolian Hall. He played works by Bach, Brahms, Handel and Chopin alongside two of his own compositions: "Colonial Song" and "Mock Morris". In July 1915 Grainger formally registered his intention to apply for US citizenship. Over the next two years his engagements included concerts with Melba in Boston and Pittsburgh and a command performance before President Woodrow Wilson. In addition to his concert performances, Grainger secured a contract with Duo-Art for making pianola rolls, and signed a recording contract with Columbia Records.
In April 1917 Grainger received news of his father's death in Perth. On 9 June 1917, after America's entry into the war, he enlisted as a bandsman in the U.S. Army with the 15th Coastal Artillery Corps Band in New York City. He had joined as a saxophonist, though he records learning the oboe: "I long for the time when I can blow my oboe well enough to play in the band". In his 18 months' service, Grainger made frequent appearances as a pianist at Red Cross and Liberty bond concerts. As a regular encore he began to play a piano setting of the tune "Country Gardens". The piece became instantly popular; sheet music sales quickly broke many publishing records. The work was to become synonymous with Grainger's name through the rest of his life, though he came in time to detest it. On 3 June 1918 he became a naturalised American citizen.
Career zenith
After leaving the army in January 1919, Grainger refused an offer to become conductor of the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra and resumed his career as a concert pianist. He was soon performing around 120 concerts a year, generally to great critical acclaim, and in April 1921 reached a wider audience by performing in a cinema, New York's Capitol Theatre. Grainger commented that the huge audiences at these cinema concerts often showed greater appreciation for his playing than those at established concert venues such as Carnegie Hall and the Aeolian. In the summer of 1919 he led a course in piano technique at Chicago Musical College, the first of many such educational duties he would undertake in later years.
Amid his concert and teaching duties, Grainger found time to re-score many of his works (a habit he continued throughout his life) and also to compose new pieces: his Children's March: Over the Hills and Far Away, and the orchestral version of The Power of Rome and the Christian Heart both originated in this period. He also began to develop the technique of elastic scoring, a form of flexible orchestration which enabled works to be performed by different numbers of players and instrument types, from small chamber groups up to full orchestral strength.
In April 1921 Grainger moved with his mother to a large house in White Plains, New York in what is now known as the Percy Grainger Home and Studio. This was his home for the remainder of his life. From the beginning of 1922 Rose's health deteriorated sharply; she was suffering from delusions and nightmares, and became fearful that her illness would harm her son's career. Because of the closeness of the bond between the two, there had long been rumours that their relationship was incestuous; in April 1922 Rose was directly challenged over this issue by her friend Lotta Hough. From her last letter to Grainger, dated 29 April, it seems that this confrontation unbalanced Rose; on 30 April, while Grainger was touring on the West Coast, she jumped to her death from an office window on the 18th floor of the Aeolian Building in New York City. The letter, which began "I am out of my mind and cannot think properly", asked Grainger if he had ever spoken to Lotta of "improper love". She signed the letter: "Your poor insane mother".
Inter-war years
Traveller
After Rose's funeral, Grainger sought solace in a return to work. In autumn 1922 he left for a year-long trip to Europe, where he collected and recorded Danish folk songs before a concert tour that took him to Norway, the Netherlands, Germany and England. In Norway he stayed with Delius at the latter's summer home. Delius was by now almost blind; Grainger helped fulfill his friend's wish to see a Norwegian sunset by carrying him (with some assistance) to the top of a nearby mountain peak. He returned to White Plains in August 1923.
Although now less committed to a year-round schedule of concerts, Grainger remained a very popular performer. His eccentricities, often exaggerated for publicity reasons, reportedly included running into auditoriums in gym kit and leaping over the piano to create a grand entrance. In 1924, Grainger became a vegetarian, although he hated vegetables; his diet comprised primarily dairy, pastry, fruit, and nuts.
While he continued to revise and re-score his compositions, he increasingly worked on arrangements of music by other composers, in particular works by Bach, Brahms, Fauré and Delius. Away from music, Grainger's preoccupation with Nordic culture led him to develop a form of English which, he maintained, reflected the character of the language before the Norman conquest. Words of Norman or Latin origin were replaced by supposedly Nordic word-forms, such as "blend-band" (orchestra), "forthspeaker" (lecturer) and "writ-piece" (article). He called this "blue-eyed" English. His convictions of Nordic superiority eventually led Grainger, in letters to friends, to express his views in crudely racial and anti-Semitic terms; the music historian David Pear describes Grainger as, "at root, a racial bigot of no small order".
Grainger made further trips to Europe in 1925 and 1927, collecting more Danish folk music with the aid of the octogenarian ethnologist Evald Tang Kristensen; this work formed the basis of the Suite on Danish Folksongs of 1928–30. He also visited Australia and New Zealand, in 1924 and again in 1926. In November 1926, while returning to America, he met Ella Ström, a Swedish-born artist with whom he developed a close friendship. On arrival in America the pair separated, but were reunited in England the following autumn after Grainger's final folk-song expedition to Denmark. In October 1927 the couple agreed to marry. Ella had a daughter, Elsie, who had been born out of wedlock in 1909. Grainger always acknowledged her as a family member, and developed a warm personal relationship with her.
Although Bird asserts that before her marriage, Ella knew nothing of Grainger's sado-masochistic interests, in a letter dated 23 April 1928 (four months before the wedding) Grainger writes to her: "As far as my taste goes, blows [with the whip] are most thrilling on breasts, bottom, inner thighs, sexparts." He later adds, "I shall thoroly thoroly understand if you cannot in any way see yr way to follow up this hot wish of mine." The couple were married on 9 August 1928 at the Hollywood Bowl, at the end of a concert which, in honour of the bride, had included the first performance of Grainger's bridal song "To a Nordic Princess".
Educator
From the late 1920s and early 1930s Grainger became involved increasingly with educational work in schools and colleges, and in late 1931 accepted a year's appointment for 1932–33 as professor of music at New York University (NYU). In this role he delivered a series of lectures under the heading "A General Study of the Manifold Nature of Music", which introduced his students to a wide range of ancient and modern works. On 25 October 1932 his lecture was illustrated by Duke Ellington and his band, who appeared in person; Grainger admired Ellington's music, seeing harmonic similarities with Delius. On the whole, however, Grainger did not enjoy his tenure at NYU; he disliked the institutional formality, and found the university generally unreceptive to his ideas. Despite many offers he never accepted another formal academic appointment, and refused all offers of honorary degrees. His New York lectures became the basis for a series of radio talks which he gave for the Australian Broadcasting Commission in 1934–35; these were later summarised and published as Music: A Commonsense View of All Types. In 1937 Grainger began an association with the Interlochen National Music Camp, and taught regularly at its summer schools until 1944.
Innovator
The idea of establishing a Grainger Museum in Australia had first occurred to Grainger in 1932. He began collecting and recovering from friends letters and artifacts, even those demonstrating the most private aspects of his life, such as whips, bloodstained shirts and revealing photographs. In September 1933 he and Ella went to Australia to begin supervising the building work. To finance the project, Grainger embarked on a series of concerts and broadcasts, in which he subjected his audiences to a vast range of the world's music in accordance with his "universalist" view. Controversially, he argued for the superior achievements of Nordic composers over traditionally recognised masters such as Mozart and Beethoven.
Among various new ideas, Grainger introduced his so-called "free-music" theories. He believed that conformity with the traditional rules of set scales, rhythms and harmonic procedures amounted to "absurd goose-stepping", from which music should be set free. He demonstrated two experimental compositions of free music, performed initially by a string quartet and later by the use of electronic theremins. He believed that ideally, free music required non-human performance, and spent much of his later life developing machines to realize this vision.
While the building of the museum proceeded, the Graingers visited England for several months in 1936, during which Grainger made his first BBC broadcast. In this, he conducted "Love Verses from The Song of Solomon" in which the tenor soloist was the then unknown Peter Pears. After spending 1937 in America, Grainger returned to Melbourne in 1938 for the official opening of the Museum; among those present at the ceremony was his old piano teacher Adelaide Burkitt. The museum did not open to the general public during Grainger's lifetime, but was available to scholars for research.
In the late 1930s Grainger spent much time arranging his works in settings for wind bands. He wrote Lincolnshire Posy for the March 1937 convention of the American Band Masters' Association in Milwaukee, and in 1939, on his last visit to England before the Second World War, he composed "The Duke of Marlborough's Fanfare", giving it the subtitle "British War Mood Grows".
Later career
Second World War
The outbreak of war in Europe in September 1939 curtailed Grainger's overseas travelling. In the autumn of 1940, alarmed that the war might precipitate an invasion of the United States eastern seaboard, he and Ella moved to Springfield, Missouri, in the centre of the continent. From 1940 Grainger played regularly in charity concerts, especially after the attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the war in December 1941; the historian Robert Simon calculates that Grainger made a total of 274 charity appearances during the war years, many of them at Army and Air Force camps. In 1942 a collection of his Kipling settings, the Jungle Book cycle, was performed in eight cities by the band of the Gustavus Adolphus College from St. Peter, Minnesota.
Postwar decline
Exhausted from his wartime concerts routine, Grainger spent much of 1946 on holiday in Europe. He was suffering a sense of career failure; in 1947, when refusing the Chair of Music at Adelaide University, he wrote: "If I were 40 years younger, and not so crushed by defeat in every branch of music I have essayed, I am sure I would have welcomed such a chance". In January 1948 he conducted the premiere of his wind band setting of The Power of Rome and the Christian Heart, written for the Goldman Band to celebrate the 70th birthday of its founder. Afterward, Grainger denigrated his own music as "commonplace" while praising Darius Milhaud's Suite Française, with which it had shared the programme.
On 10 August 1948, Grainger appeared at the London Proms, playing the piano part in his Suite on Danish Folksongs with the London Symphony Orchestra under Basil Cameron. On 18 September he attended the Last Night of the Proms, standing in the promenade section for Delius's Brigg Fair. Over the next few years several friends died: Gardiner in 1950, Quilter and Karen Holten in 1953. In October 1953 Grainger was operated on for abdominal cancer; his fight against this disease would last for the rest of his life. He continued to appear at concerts, often performed in church halls and educational establishments rather than major concert venues.
In 1954, after his last Carnegie Hall appearance, Grainger's long promotion of Grieg's music was recognised when he was awarded the St. Olav Medal by King Haakon of Norway. But he expressed a growing bitterness in his writings and correspondence; in a letter to the Danish composer Herman Sandby, a lifelong friend, he bemoaned the continuing ascendency in music of the "German form", and asserted that "all my compositional life I have been a leader without followers".
After 1950 Grainger virtually ceased to compose. His principal creative activity in the last decade of his life was his work with Burnett Cross, a young physics teacher, on free music machines. The first of these was a relatively simple device controlled by an adapted pianola. Next was the "Estey-reed tone-tool", a form of giant harmonica which, Grainger expectantly informed his stepdaughter Elsie in April 1951, would be ready to play free music "in a few weeks". A third machine, the "Cross-Grainger Kangaroo-pouch", was completed by 1952. Developments in transistor technology encouraged Grainger and Cross to begin work on a fourth, entirely electronic machine, which was incomplete when Grainger died.
In September 1955 Grainger made his final visit to Australia, where he spent nine months organising and arranging exhibits for the Grainger Museum. He refused to consider a "Grainger Festival", as suggested by the Australian Broadcasting Commission, because he felt that his homeland had rejected him and his music. Before leaving Melbourne, he deposited in a bank a parcel that contained an essay and photographs related to his sex life, not to be opened until 10 years after his death.
Last years
By 1957 Grainger's physical health had markedly declined, as had his powers of concentration. Nevertheless, he continued to visit Britain regularly; in May of that year he made his only television appearance, in a BBC "Concert Hour" programme when he played "Handel in the Strand" on the piano. Back home, after further surgery he recovered sufficiently to undertake a modest winter concerts season. On his 1958 visit to England he met Benjamin Britten, the two having previously maintained a mutually complimentary correspondence. He agreed to visit Britten's Aldeburgh Festival in 1959, but was prevented by illness. Sensing that death was drawing near, he made a new will, bequeathing his skeleton "for preservation and possible display in the Grainger Museum". This wish was not carried out.
Through the winter of 1959–60 Grainger continued to perform his own music, often covering long distances by bus or train; he would not travel by air. On 29 April 1960 he gave his last public concert, at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire, although by now his illness was affecting his concentration. On this occasion his morning recital went well, but his conducting in the afternoon was, in his own words, "a fiasco". Subsequently confined to his home, he continued to revise his music and arrange that of others; in August he informed Elsie that he was working on an adaptation of one of Cyril Scott's early songs. His last letters, written from hospital in December 1960 and January 1961, record attempts to work, despite failing eyesight and hallucinations: "I have been trying to write score for several days. But I have not succeeded yet."
Grainger died in the White Plains hospital on 20 February 1961, at the age of 78. His remains were buried in the Aldridge family vault in the West Terrace Cemetery, alongside Rose's ashes. Ella survived him by 18 years; in 1972, aged 83, she married a young archivist, Stewart Manville. She died at White Plains on 17 July 1979.
Music
Grainger's own works fall into two categories: original compositions and folk music arrangements. Besides these, he wrote many settings of other composers' works. Despite his conservatory training, he rebelled against the disciplines of the central European tradition, largely rejecting conventional forms such as symphony, sonata, concerto, and opera. With few exceptions, his original compositions are miniatures, lasting between two and eight minutes. Only a few of his works originated as piano pieces, though in due course almost all of them were, in his phrase, "dished up" in piano versions.
The conductor John Eliot Gardiner describes Grainger as "a true original in terms of orchestration and imaginative instrumentation", whose terseness of expression is reminiscent in style both of the 20th-century Second Viennese School and the Italian madrigalists of the 16th and 17th centuries. Malcolm Gillies, a Grainger scholar, writes of Grainger's style that "you know it is 'Grainger' when you have heard about one second of a piece". The music's most individual characteristic, Gillies argues, is its texture – "the weft of the fabric", according to Grainger. Different textures are defined by Grainger as "smooth", "grained" and "prickly".
Grainger was a musical democrat; he believed that in a performance each player's role should be of equal importance. His elastic scoring technique was developed to enable groups of all sizes and combinations of instruments to give effective performances of his music. Experimentation is evident in Grainger's earliest works; irregular rhythms based on rapid changes of time signature were employed in Love Verses from "The Song of Solomon" (1899), and Train Music (1901), long before Stravinsky adopted this practice. In search of specific sounds Grainger employed unconventional instruments and techniques: solovoxes, theremins, marimbas, musical glasses, harmoniums, banjos, and ukuleles. In one early concert of folk music, Quilter and Scott were conscripted as performers, to whistle various parts. In "Random Round" (1912–14), inspired by the communal music-making he had heard in the Pacific Islands on his second Australasian tour, Grainger introduced an element of chance into performances; individual vocalists and instrumentalists could make random choices from a menu of variations. This experiment in aleatoric composition presaged by many decades the use of similar procedures by avant-garde composers such as Berio and Stockhausen.
The brief "Sea Song" of 1907 was an early attempt by Grainger to write "beatless" music. This work, initially set over 14 irregular bars and occupying about 15 seconds of performing time, was a forerunner of Grainger's free-music experiments of the 1930s. Grainger wrote: "It seems to me absurd to live in an age of flying, and yet not be able to execute tonal glides and curves." The idea of tonal freedom, he said, had been in his head since as a boy of eleven or twelve he had observed the wave-movements in the sea. "Out in nature we hear all kinds of lovely and touching "free" (non-harmonic) combinations of tones; yet we are unable to take up these beauties… into the art of music because of our archaic notions of harmony." In a 1941 letter to Scott, Grainger acknowledged that he had failed to produce any large-scale works in the manner of a Bach oratorio, a Wagner opera, or a Brahms symphony, but excused this failure on the grounds that all his works before the mid-1930s had been mere preparations for his free music.
As a student, Grainger had learned to appreciate the music of Grieg and came to regard the Norwegian as a paragon of Nordic beauty and greatness. Grieg in turn described Grainger as a new way forward for English composition, "quite different from Elgar, very original". After a lifetime interpreting Grieg's works, in 1944 Grainger began adapting the Norwegian's E minor Piano Sonata, Op. 7 as a "Grieg-Grainger Symphony", but abandoned the project after writing 16 bars of music. By this time, Grainger acknowledged that he had not fulfilled Grieg's high expectations of him, either as a composer or as a pianist. He also reflected on whether it would have been better, from the point of view of his development as a composer, had he never met the Grieg's, "sweet and dear though they were to me".
Grainger was known for his musical experimentation and did not hesitate to exploit the capabilities of the orchestra. One early ambitious work was The Warriors (1913), an 18-minute orchestral piece, subtitled "Music to an Imaginary Ballet", which he dedicated to Delius. The music, which mixes elements of other Grainger works with references to Arnold Bax, Arnold Schoenberg and Richard Strauss, requires a huge orchestral ensemble alongside at least three pianos – in one performance, Grainger used nineteen pianos with thirty pianists – to be played by "exceptionally strong vigorous players". Critics were undecided as to whether the work was "magnificent", or merely "a magnificent failure".
Legacy
Grainger considered himself an Australian composer who, he said, wrote music "in the hopes of bringing honor and fame to my native land". However, much of Grainger's working life was spent elsewhere, and the extent to which he influenced Australian music, within his lifetime and thereafter, is debatable. His efforts to educate the Australian musical public in the mid-1930s were indifferently received, and did not attract disciples; writing in 2010, the academic and critic Roger Covell identifies only one significant contemporary Australian musician – the English-born horn player, pianist and conductor David Stanhope – working in the Grainger idiom. In 1956, the suggestion by the composer Keith Humble that Grainger be invited to write music for the opening of the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne was rejected by the organisers of the Games. A "Percy Grainger Festival" was held in London in 1970, organised by Australian expatriates Bryan Fairfax and William McKie and supported financially by the Australian government.
Grainger was a life-long atheist and believed he would only endure in the body of work he left behind.
To assist that survival he established the Grainger Museum in Melbourne, which was given little attention before the mid-1970s; it was initially regarded as evidence either of an over-large ego or of extreme eccentricity. Since then the University of Melbourne's commitment to the museum has, Covell asserts, "rescued [it] permanently from academic denigration and belittlement". Its vast quantities of materials have been used to investigate not only Grainger's life and works, but those of contemporaries whom Grainger had known: Grieg, Delius, Scott, and others. The Grainger home at 7 Cromwell Place, White Plains, New York, is now the Percy Grainger Library and is a further repository of memorabilia and historic performance material, open to researchers and visitors.
In Britain, Grainger's main legacy is the revival of interest in folk music. His pioneering work in the recording and setting of folk songs greatly influenced the following generation of English composers; Benjamin Britten acknowledged the Australian as his master in this respect. After hearing a broadcast of some Grainger settings, Britten declared that these "[knocked] all the Vaughan Williams and R. O. Morris arrangements into a cocked hat". In the United States, Grainger left a strong educational legacy through his involvement, over 40 years, with high school, summer school and college students. Likewise, his innovative approaches to instrumentation and scoring have left their mark on modern American band music; Timothy Reynish, a conductor and teacher of band music in Europe and America, has described him as "the only composer of stature to consider military bands the equal, if not the superior, in expressive potential to symphony orchestras." Grainger's attempts to produce "free music" by mechanical and later electronic means, which he considered his most important work, produced no follow-up; they were quickly overtaken and nullified by new technological advances. Covell nevertheless remarks that in this endeavour, Grainger's dogged resourcefulness and ingenious use of available materials demonstrate a particularly Australian aspect of the composer's character – one of which Grainger would have been proud.
Assessment
In 1945 Grainger devised an informal ratings system for composers and musical styles, based on criteria that included originality, complexity and beauty. Of forty composers and styles, he ranked himself equal ninth – behind Wagner and
Delius, but well ahead of Grieg and Tchaikovsky. Nevertheless, in his later years he frequently denigrated his career, for example writing to Scott: "I have never been a true musician or true artist". His failure to be recognised as a composer for anything beyond his popular folk-song arrangements was a source of frustration and disappointment; for years after his death the bulk of his output remained largely unperformed. From the 1990s an increase in the number of Grainger recordings has brought a revival of interest in his works, and has enhanced his reputation as a composer. An unsigned tribute published on the Gramophone website in February 2011 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Grainger's death opined that "though he would never be put on a pedestal to join the pantheon of immortals, he is unorthodox, original and deserves better than to be dismissed by the more snooty arbiters of musical taste".
Of Grainger the pianist, The New York Times critic Harold C. Schonberg wrote that his unique style was expressed with "amazing skill, personality and vigor". The early enthusiasm which had greeted his concert appearances became muted in later years, and reviews of his performances during the final ten years of his life were often harsh. However, Britten regarded Grainger's late recording of the Grieg concerto, from a live performance at Aarhus in 1957, as "one of the noblest ever committed to record" – despite the suppression of the disc for many years, because of the proliferation of wrong notes and other faults. Brian Allison from the Grainger Museum, referring to Grainger's early displays of artistic skills, has speculated that had John Grainger's influence not been removed, "Percy Aldridge Grainger may today be remembered as one of Australia's leading painters and designers, who just happened to have a latent talent as a pianist and composer". The ethnomusicologist John Blacking, while acknowledging Grainger's contribution to social and cultural aspects of music, nevertheless writes that if the continental foundation of Grainger's musical education had not been "undermined by dilettantism and the disastrous influence of his mother, I am sure that his ultimate contribution to the world of music would have been much greater".
Recordings
Between 1908 and 1957 Grainger made numerous recordings, usually as pianist or conductor, of his own and other composers' music. His first recordings, for The Gramophone Company Ltd (later HMV), included the cadenza to Grieg's piano concerto; he did not record a complete version of this work on disc until 1945. Much of his recording work was done between 1917 and 1931, under contract with Columbia. At other times he recorded for Decca (1944–45 and 1957), and Vanguard (1957). Of his own compositions and arrangements, "Country Gardens", "Shepherd's Hey" and "Molly on the Shore" and "Lincolnshire Posy" were recorded most frequently; in recordings of other composers, piano works by Bach, Brahms, Chopin, Grieg, Liszt and Schumann figure most often. Grainger's complete 78 rpm solo piano recordings are now available on compact disc as a CD box set.
During his association with the Duo-Art company between 1915 and 1932, Grainger made around 80 piano rolls of his own and others' music using a wooden robot designed to play a concert grand piano via an array of precision mechanical fingers and feet; replayings of many of these rolls have subsequently been recorded on to compact disc. This reproduction system allowed Grainger to make a posthumous appearance in the Albert Hall, London, during the 1988 last night of the Proms as soloist with the BBC Symphony Orchestra in Grieg's Piano Concerto.
Since Grainger's death, recordings of his works have been undertaken by many artists and issued under many different labels. In 1995 Chandos Records began to compile a complete recorded edition of Grainger's original compositions and folk settings. Of 25 anticipated volumes, 19 had been completed as of 2010; these were issued as a CD boxed set in 2011, to mark the 50th anniversary of the composer's death. A reissue of this along with 2 extra CDs was released in January 2021 to mark the 60th anniversary of the composer's death.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Percy Grainger Society
Percy Grainger Bardic Edition
Grainger Museum University of Melbourne, Australia
Grainger Studies University of Melbourne
Rainer Linz: The Free Music Machines of Percy Grainger
"Country Gardens": Performance by Grainger on pianola, 1919
The Percy Granger archive collection compiled by John Bird, held at the University of Birmingham
1882 births
1961 deaths
20th-century classical composers
Australian people of English descent
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254510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanic%20cell | Galvanic cell | A galvanic cell or voltaic cell, named after the scientists Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta, respectively, is an electrochemical cell in which an electric current is generated from spontaneous Oxidation-Reduction reactions. A common apparatus generally consists of two different metals, each immersed in separate beakers containing their respective metal ions in solution that are connected by a salt bridge or separated by a porous membrane.
Volta was the inventor of the voltaic pile, the first electrical battery. In common usage, the word "battery" has come to include a single galvanic cell, but a battery properly consists of multiple cells.
History
In 1780, Luigi Galvani discovered that when two different metals (e.g., copper and zinc) are in contact and then both are touched at the same time to two different parts of a muscle of a frog leg, to close the circuit, the frog's leg contracts. He called this "animal electricity". The frog's leg, as well as being a detector of electrical current, was also the electrolyte (to use the language of modern chemistry).
A year after Galvani published his work (1790), Alessandro Volta showed that the frog was not necessary, using instead a force-based detector and brine-soaked paper (as electrolyte). (Earlier Volta had established the law of capacitance with force-based detectors). In 1799 Volta invented the voltaic pile, which is a stack of galvanic cells each consisting of a metal disk, an electrolyte layer, and a disk of a different metal. He built it entirely out of non-biological material to challenge Galvani's (and the later experimenter Leopoldo Nobili)'s animal electricity theory in favor of his own metal-metal contact electricity theory. Carlo Matteucci in his turn constructed a battery entirely out of biological material in answer to Volta. Volta's contact electricity view characterized each electrode with a number that we would now call the work function of the electrode. This view ignored the chemical reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interfaces, which include H2 formation on the more noble metal in Volta's pile.
Although Volta did not understand the operation of the battery or the galvanic cell, these discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries; Volta's cell was named an IEEE Milestone in 1999.
Some forty years later, Faraday (see Faraday's laws of electrolysis) showed that the galvanic cell—now often called a voltaic cell—was chemical in nature. Faraday introduced new terminology to the language of chemistry: electrode (cathode and anode), electrolyte, and ion (cation and anion). Thus Galvani incorrectly thought the source of electricity (or source of electromotive force (emf), or seat of emf) was in the animal, Volta incorrectly thought it was in the physical properties of the isolated electrodes, but Faraday correctly identified the source of emf as the chemical reactions at the two electrode-electrolyte interfaces. The authoritative work on the intellectual history of the voltaic cell remains that by Ostwald.
It was suggested by Wilhelm König in 1940 that the object known as the Baghdad battery might represent galvanic cell technology from ancient Parthia. Replicas filled with citric acid or grape juice have been shown to produce a voltage. However, it is far from certain that this was its purpose—other scholars have pointed out that it is very similar to vessels known to have been used for storing parchment scrolls.
Principles
Galvanic cells are extensions of spontaneous redox reactions, but have been merely designed to harness the energy produced from said reaction. For example, when one immerses a strip of zinc metal (Zn) in an aqueous solution of copper sulfate (CuSO4), dark-colored solid deposits will collect on the surface of the zinc metal and the blue color characteristic of the Cu2+ ion disappears from the solution. The depositions on the surface of the zinc metal consist of copper metal, and the solution now contains zinc ions. This reaction is represented by
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
In this redox reaction, Zn is oxidized to Zn2+ and Cu2+ is reduced to Cu. When electrons are transferred directly from Zn to Cu2+ , the enthalpy of reaction is lost to the surroundings as heat. However, the same reaction can be carried out in a galvanic cell, allowing some of the chemical energy released to be converted into electrical energy. In its simplest form, a half-cell consists of a solid metal (called an electrode) that is submerged in a solution; the solution contains cations (+) of the electrode metal and anions (−) to balance the charge of the cations. The full cell consists of two half-cells, usually connected by a semi-permeable membrane or by a salt bridge that prevents the ions of the more noble metal from plating out at the other electrode.
A specific example is the Daniell cell (see figure), with a zinc (Zn) half-cell containing a solution of ZnSO4 (zinc sulfate) and a copper (Cu) half-cell containing a solution of CuSO4 (copper sulfate). A salt bridge is used here to complete the electric circuit.
If an external electrical conductor connects the copper and zinc electrodes, zinc from the zinc electrode dissolves into the solution as Zn2+ ions (oxidation), releasing electrons that enter the external conductor. To compensate for the increased zinc ion concentration, via the salt bridge zinc ions leave and anions enter the zinc half-cell. In the copper half-cell, the copper ions plate onto the copper electrode (reduction), taking up electrons that leave the external conductor. Since the Cu2+ ions (cations) plate onto the copper electrode, the latter is called the cathode. Correspondingly the zinc electrode is the anode. The electrochemical reaction is
Zn(s) + Cu^{2+}(aq) -> Zn^{2+}(aq) + Cu(s)
This is the same reaction as given in the previous example. In addition, electrons flow through the external conductor, which is the primary application of the galvanic cell.
As discussed under cell voltage, the electromotive force of the cell is the difference of the half-cell potentials, a measure of the relative ease of dissolution of the two electrodes into the electrolyte. The emf depends on both the electrodes and on the electrolyte, an indication that the emf is chemical in nature.
Electrochemical thermodynamics
The electrochemical processes in a galvanic cell occur because reactants of high free energy (e.g. metallic Zn and hydrated Cu2+ in the Daniell cell) are converted to lower-energy products (metallic Cu and hydrated Zn2+ in this example). The difference in the lattice cohesive energies of the electrode metals is sometimes the dominant energetic driver of the reaction, specifically in the Daniell cell. Metallic Zn, Cd, Li, and Na, which are not stabilized by d-orbital bonding, have higher cohesive energies (i.e. they are more weakly bonded) than all transition metals, including Cu, and are therefore useful as high-energy anode metals.
The difference between the metals' ionization energies in water is the other energetic contribution that can drive the reaction in a galvanic cell; it is not important in the Daniell cell because the energies of hydrated Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions happen to be similar. Both atom transfer, e.g. of zinc from the metal electrode into the solution, and electron transfer, from metal atoms or to metal ions, play important roles in a galvanic cell. Concentration cells, whose electrodes and ions are made of the same metal and which are driven by an entropy increase and free-energy decrease as ion concentrations equalize, show that the electronegativity difference of the metals is not the driving force of electrochemical processes.
Galvanic cells and batteries are typically used as a source of electrical power. The energy derives from a high-cohesive-energy metal dissolving while to a lower-energy metal is deposited, and/or from high-energy metal ions plating out while lower-energy ions go into solution.
Quantitatively, the electrical energy produced by a galvanic cell is approximately equal to the standard free-energy difference of the reactants and products, denoted as ΔrGo. In the Daniell cell, most of the electrical energy of ΔrGo = -213 kJ/mol can be attributed to the -207 kJ/mol difference between Zn and Cu lattice cohesive energies.
Half reactions and conventions
A half-cell contains a metal in two oxidation states. Inside an isolated half-cell, there is an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction that is in chemical equilibrium, a condition written symbolically as follows (here, "M" represents a metal cation, an atom that has a charge imbalance due to the loss of "n" electrons):
Mn+ (oxidized species) + ne− M (reduced species)
A galvanic cell consists of two half-cells, such that the electrode of one half-cell is composed of metal A, and the electrode of the other half-cell is composed of metal B; the redox reactions for the two separate half-cells are thus:
An+ + ne− A
Bm+ + me− B
The overall balanced reaction is:
m A + n Bm+ n B + m An+
In other words, the metal atoms of one half-cell are oxidized while the metal cations of the other half-cell are reduced. By separating the metals in two half-cells, their reaction can be controlled in a way that forces transfer of electrons through the external circuit where they can do useful work.
The electrodes are connected with a metal wire in order to conduct the electrons that participate in the reaction.
In one half-cell, dissolved metal-B cations combine with the free electrons that are available at the interface between the solution and the metal-B electrode; these cations are thereby neutralized, causing them to precipitate from solution as deposits on the metal-B electrode, a process known as plating.
This reduction reaction causes the free electrons throughout the metal-B electrode, the wire, and the metal-A electrode to be pulled into the metal-B electrode. Consequently, electrons are wrestled away from some of the atoms of the metal-A electrode, as though the metal-B cations were reacting directly with them; those metal-A atoms become cations that dissolve into the surrounding solution.
As this reaction continues, the half-cell with the metal-A electrode develops a positively charged solution (because the metal-A cations dissolve into it), while the other half-cell develops a negatively charged solution (because the metal-B cations precipitate out of it, leaving behind the anions); unabated, this imbalance in charge would stop the reaction. The solutions of the half-cells are connected by a salt bridge or a porous plate that allows ions to pass from one solution to the other, which balances the charges of the solutions and allows the reaction to continue.
By definition:
The anode is the electrode where oxidation (loss of electrons) takes place (metal-A electrode); in a galvanic cell, it is the negative electrode, because when oxidation occurs, electrons are left behind on the electrode. These electrons then flow through the external circuit to the cathode (positive electrode) (while in electrolysis, an electric current drives electron flow in the opposite direction and the anode is the positive electrode).
The cathode is the electrode where reduction (gain of electrons) takes place (metal-B electrode); in a galvanic cell, it is the positive electrode, as ions get reduced by taking up electrons from the electrode and plate out (while in electrolysis, the cathode is the negative terminal and attracts positive ions from the solution). In both cases, the statement 'the cathode attracts cations' is true.
Galvanic cells, by their nature, produce direct current. The Weston cell has an anode composed of cadmium mercury amalgam, and a cathode composed of pure mercury. The electrolyte is a (saturated) solution of cadmium sulfate. The depolarizer is a paste of mercurous sulfate. When the electrolyte solution is saturated, the voltage of the cell is very reproducible; hence, in 1911, it was adopted as an international standard for voltage.
A battery is a set of galvanic cells that are connected together to form a single source of voltage. For instance, a typical 12V lead–acid battery has six galvanic cells connected in series with the anodes composed of lead and cathodes composed of lead dioxide, both immersed in sulfuric acid. Large battery rooms, for instance in a telephone exchange providing central office power to user's telephones, may have cells connected in both series and parallel.
Cell voltage
The voltage (electromotive force Eo) produced by a galvanic cell can be estimated from the standard Gibbs free energy change in the electrochemical reaction according to:
where νe is the number of electrons transferred in the balanced half reactions, and F is Faraday's constant. However, it can be determined more conveniently by the use of a standard potential table for the two half cells involved. The first step is to identify the two metals and their ions reacting in the cell. Then one looks up the standard electrode potential, Eo, in volts, for each of the two half reactions. The standard potential of the cell is equal to the more positive Eo value minus the more negative Eo value.
For example, in the figure above the solutions are CuSO4 and ZnSO4. Each solution has a corresponding metal strip in it, and a salt bridge or porous disk connecting the two solutions and allowing ions to flow freely between the copper and zinc solutions. To calculate the standard potential one looks up copper and zinc's half reactions and finds:
Cu2+ + 2 Cu Eo = +0.34 V
Zn2+ + 2 Zn Eo = −0.76 V
Thus the overall reaction is:
Cu2+ + Zn Cu + Zn2+
The standard potential for the reaction is then +0.34 V − (−0.76 V) = 1.10 V. The polarity of the cell is determined as follows. Zinc metal is more strongly reducing than copper metal because the standard (reduction) potential for zinc is more negative than that of copper. Thus, zinc metal will lose electrons to copper ions and develop a positive electrical charge. The equilibrium constant, K, for the cell is given by:
where F is the Faraday constant, R is the gas constant and T is the temperature in kelvins. For the Daniell cell K is approximately equal to . Thus, at equilibrium, a few electrons are transferred, enough to cause the electrodes to be charged.
Actual half-cell potentials must be calculated by using the Nernst equation as the solutes are unlikely to be in their standard states:
where Q is the reaction quotient. When the charges of the ions in the reaction are equal, this simplifies to:
where {Mn+} is the activity of the metal ion in solution. In practice concentration in mol/L is used in place of activity. The metal electrode is in its standard state so by definition has unit activity. The potential of the whole cell is obtained as the difference between the potentials for the two half-cells, so it depends on the concentrations of both dissolved metal ions. If the concentrations are the same, and the Nernst equation is not needed under the conditions assumed here.
The value of 2.303 is , so at 25 °C (298.15 K) the half-cell potential will change by only 0.05918 V/νe if the concentration of a metal ion is increased or decreased by a factor of 10.
These calculations are based on the assumption that all chemical reactions are in equilibrium. When a current flows in the circuit, equilibrium conditions are not achieved and the cell voltage will usually be reduced by various mechanisms, such as the development of overpotentials. Also, since chemical reactions occur when the cell is producing power, the electrolyte concentrations change and the cell voltage is reduced. A consequence of the temperature dependency of standard potentials is that the voltage produced by a galvanic cell is also temperature dependent.
Galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion is the electrochemical erosion of metals. Corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other in the presence of an electrolyte, such as salt water. This forms a galvanic cell, with hydrogen gas forming on the more noble (less active) metal. The resulting electrochemical potential then develops an electric current that electrolytically dissolves the less noble material. A concentration cell can be formed if the same metal is exposed to two different concentrations of electrolyte.
Types
Concentration cell
Electrolytic cell
Electrochemical cell
Lemon battery
Thermogalvanic cell
See also
Bioelectrochemical reactor
Resting potential
Bio-nano generator
Cell notation
Desulfation
Electrochemical engineering
Electrode potential
Electrohydrogenesis
Electrosynthesis
Enzymatic biofuel cell
Galvanic series
Isotope electrochemistry
List of battery types
Sacrificial anode
References
External links
How to build a galvanic cell battery from MiniScience.com
Galvanic Cell, an animation
Interactive animation of Galvanic Cell. Chemical Education Research Group, Iowa State University.
Electron transfer reactions and redox potentials in GALVANIc cells - what happens to the ions at the phase boundary (NERNST, FARADAY) (Video by SciFox on TIB AV-Portal)
Corrosion | [
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254514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMC | OMC | OMC may refer to:
Business
Oil marketing company
Organizations
OMC Shipping pte. ltd., a large bulk carrier, container and PCTC shipping company based in Singapore
Omnicom Group (stock symbol)
Outboard Marine Corporation
Olifant Manufacturing Company of South Africa, now known as Land Systems OMC
Acronym for the World Trade Organization in French, Portuguese and Spanish
Osaka Medical College
Oxfordshire Museums Council
The Oxford Mindfulness Centre (within the Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford)
Places
Ormoc Airport in Ormoc City, Leyte, the Philippines
Musical groups
OMC (band), a New Zealand music group formerly known as Otara Millionaires Club
Old Man's Child, a Norwegian Black metal band
Technology
Operations and Maintenance Centre, a controlling equipment for telecom networks
Orange Monte Carlo, Android phone
Other
Octyl methoxycinnamate, the active ingredient in sunscreens
Open Method of Coordination, a means of governance in the European Union
Ontario Medal for Good Citizenship
Order of Cultural Merit
"Ordinary muon capture"
Outlaw motorcycle club | [
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254515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villain | Villain | A villain (also known as a "black hat" or "bad guy"; the feminine form is villainess) is a stock character, whether based on a historical narrative or one of literary fiction. Random House Unabridged Dictionary defines such a character as "a cruelly malicious person who is involved in or devoted to wickedness or crime; scoundrel; or a character in a play, novel, or the like, who constitutes an important evil agency in the plot". The antonym of a villain is a hero.
The villain's structural purpose is to serve as the opposition of the hero character and their motives or evil actions drive a plot along. In contrast to the hero, who is defined by feats of ingenuity and bravery and the pursuit of justice and the greater good, a villain is often defined by their acts of selfishness, evilness, arrogance, cruelty, and cunning, displaying immoral behavior that can oppose or pervert justice.
Etymology
The term villain first came into English from the Anglo-French and Old French vilain, which is further derived from the Late Latin word villanus, which referred to those bound to the soil of the Villa and worked on an equivalent of a plantation in Late Antiquity, in Italy or Gaul.
Vilain later shifted to villein, which referred to a person of a less than knightly status, implying a lack of chivalry and politeness. All actions that were unchivalrous or evil (such as treachery or rape) eventually fell under the identity of belonging to a villain in the modern sense of the word. Additionally, villein became used as a term of abuse and eventually took on its modern meaning.
The landed aristocracy of Middle Age Europe used politically and linguistically the Middle English descendant of villanus meaning "villager" (styled as vilain or vilein) with the meaning "a person of uncouth mind and manners." As the common equating of manners with morals gained in strength and currency, the connotations worsened, so that the modern word villain is no unpolished villager, but is instead (among other things) a deliberate scoundrel or criminal.
At the very same time the medieval expression "vilein" or "vilain" is closely influenced by the word ´vile´, referring to something wicked or worthless.
From late XIII Century Vile meant "morally repugnant; morally flawed, corrupt, wicked; of no value; of inferior quality; disgusting, foul, ugly; degrading, humiliating; of low estate, without worldly honor or esteem," from Anglo-French ville, Old French vil " from Latin vilis "cheap, worthless, of low value,"
Although the relation of these terms became intertwined at some later in time, it is unknown when this happened.
Classical literature
In classical literature, the villain character is not always the same as those that appear in modern and postmodern incarnations, as the lines of morality are often blurred to imply a sense of ambiguity or affected by historical context and cultural ideas. Often the delineation of heroes and villains in this literature is left unclear.
William Shakespeare modelled the villain archetype to be three-dimensional in characteristics and gave way to the complex nature that villains showcase in modern literature. However, Shakespeare's incarnations of historical figures were influenced by the propaganda pieces coming from Tudor sources, and his works often showed this bias and discredited their reputation. For example, Shakespeare famously portrayed Richard III as a hideous monster who destroyed his family out of spite.
Folk and fairy tales
Russian fairy tales
In an analysis of Russian fairy tales, Vladimir Propp concluded that the majority of stories had only eight "dramatis personae", one being the villain. This analysis has been widely applied to non-Russian tales. The actions that fell into a villain's sphere were:
a story-initiating villainy, where the villain caused harm to the hero or his family
a conflict between the hero and the villain, either a fight or other competition
pursuing the hero after he has succeeded in winning the fight or obtaining something from the villain
When a character displays these traits, it is not necessarily tropes specific to the fairy tale genre, but it does imply that the one who performs certain acts to be the villain. The villain, therefore, can appear twice in a story to fulfill certain roles: once in the opening of the story, and a second time as the person sought out by the hero.
When a character has only performed actions or displayed traits that coincide with Vladimir Propp's analysis, that character can be identified as a pure villain. Folklore and fairy tale villains can also play a myriad of roles that can influence or drive a story forward. In fairy tales villains can perform an influential role; for example, a witch who fought the hero and ran away, and who lets the hero follow her, is also performing the task of "guidance" and thus acting as a helper.
Propp also proposed another two archetypes of the villain's role within the narrative, in which they can portray themselves as villainous in a more general sense. The first is the false hero: This character is always villainous, presenting a false claim to be the hero that must be rebutted for the happy ending. Examples of characters who display this trait, and interfere with the success of a tale's hero, are the Ugly Stepsisters in Cinderella who chopped off parts of their feet to fit in the shoe.
Another role for the villain would be the dispatcher, who sends the hero on their quest. At the beginning of the story, their request may appear benevolent or innocent, but the dispatcher's real intentions might be to send the hero on a journey in the hopes of being rid of them.
The roles and influences that villains can have over a narrative can also be transferred over to other characters – to continue their role in the narrative through another character. The legacy of the villain is often transferred through that of bloodlines (family) or a devoted follower. For example, if a dragon played the role of a villain but was killed by the hero, another character (such as the dragon's sister) might take on the legacy of the previous villain and pursue the hero out of revenge.
Villain archetypes
The fairy tale genre utilises villains as key components to push the narrative forward and influence the hero's journey. These, while not as rounded as those that appear in other forms of literature, are what is known as archetypes. The archetypal villain is a common occurrence within the genre and come under different categories that have different influences on the protagonist and the narrative.
False donor
The false donor is a villain who utilises trickery to achieve their ends. Often the false donor will pose as a benevolent figure or influence on the protagonist (or those associated with them) to present them with a deal. The deal will present a short-term solution or benefit for whoever accepts it and, in return, benefit the villain in the long term. During the story's climax, the hero often has to find a way to rectify the agreement in order to defeat the villain or achieve the happy ending.
Similarly, the devil archetype is one that also makes an offer to the protagonist (or someone associated with them) and appeals to their needs and desires. However, the devil archetype does not hide their intentions from the protagonist. The subsequent story often follows the protagonist's journey to try and annul the agreement before any damage can be done.
Beast
The beast is a character who relies on their instincts and ability to cause destruction to achieve their ends. The evil intentions of their actions are often easily identified, as they act without concern for others (or their wellbeing) or subtlety. The rampaging villain can take the form of a very powerful individual or a rampaging beast but is still one of the more dangerous villain archetypes due to their affinity for destruction.
Authority figure
The authority figure is one that has already attained a level of command and power but always craves more. They are often driven by their desire for material wealth, distinguished stature or great power and appear as a monarch, corporate climber or other powerful individual. Their end goal is often the total domination of their corporation, nation, or world through mystical means or political manipulation. Often this villain is defeated by their own greed, pride, or arrogance.
Traitor
The traitor is a villain who emphasizes the traits of trickery, manipulation and deception to achieve their goals, which is often to offer or supply information to the protagonist's opposition to halt them on their journey; often in exchange for their own freedom or safety. The traitor's goals are not always evil but the actions they commit to reach their goal can be considered inherently evil.
Villainous foil
Villains in fiction commonly function in the dual role of adversary and foil to a story's heroes. In their role as an adversary, the villain serves as an obstacle the hero must struggle to overcome. In their role as a foil, they exemplify characteristics that are diametrically opposed to those of the hero, creating a contrast distinguishing heroic traits from villainous ones.
Other have pointed out that many acts of villains have a hint of wish-fulfillment, which makes some readers or viewers identify with them as characters more strongly than with the heroes. Because of this, a convincing villain must be given a characterization that provides a motive for doing wrong, as well as being a worthy adversary to the hero. As put by film critic Roger Ebert: "Each film is only as good as its villain. Since the heroes and the gimmicks tend to repeat from film to film, only a great villain can transform a good try into a triumph."
Portraying and employing villains in fiction
The actor Tod Slaughter typically portrayed villainous characters on both stage and screen in a melodramatic manner, with mustache-twirling, eye-rolling, leering, cackling, and hand-rubbing.
Female villain
The term villain is the universal term for characters who pose as catalysts for certain ideals that readers or observers find immoral, but the term "villainess" is often used to highlight specific traits that come with their female identity—separating them, in some aspects, from their male counterparts. The use of the female villain (or villainess) is often to highlight the traits that come specifically with the character and the abilities they possess that are exclusive to them. For example, one of the female villain's greatest weapons is her alluring beauty. The perversion of inherently female traits in storytelling also alludes to the demonic display of the succubus and their affinity for utilising their beauty as a weapon—a trait utilised by many female villains throughout modern fiction and mythology.
Use of the term "villain" to describe historical figures and real-life people
The ethical dimension of history poses the problem of judging those that acted in the past. It, at times, tempts us scholars and historians to construct a world of black and white: in which the terms of hero and villain are used arbitrary and with the pass of time become interchangeble. These binaries of course are reflected to varying degrees in endless movies, novels, and other fictional and non-fictional narratives.
As processes of globalization connect the world, cultures with different historical trajectories and political traditions will need to find ways to work together not only economically, but also politically. In this evolving framework of globalization, tradition, according to political theorists like Edmund Burke
Through the embellishment of history into tradition, historical figures perceived and evaluated as either positive or negative become embodiments of national political cultures that may collude or collide against one another.
The usage of villain to describe a historical figure dates back to Tudor propaganda, pieces of which ended up influencing William Shakespeare's portrayal of Richard III as a spiteful and hunchback dictator.
Sympathetic villain
The sympathetic villain or anti-villain is one with the typical traits of a villainous character but differs in their motivations. Their intentions to cause chaos or commit evil actions is driven by an ambiguous motivation or is not driven by an intent to cause evil. Their intentions may coincide with the ideals of a greater good, or even a desire to make the world a better place, but their actions are inherently evil in nature. An anti-villain is the opposite of an anti-hero. While the anti-hero often fights on the side of good, but with questionable or selfish motives, the anti-villain plays a villain's game, but for a noble cause in a way that the audience or other characters can sympathize with. They may be more noble or heroic than an anti-hero, but the means to achieve their ends are often considered exploitative, immoral, unjust, or simply evil. Characters who fall into this category are often created with the intention of humanizing them, making them more relatable to the reader/viewer by posing the "how" and "why" behind their motivations rather than simply creating a one-dimensional character. Because of their motives, many of these types of villains are commonly nicknamed as "anti-villains".
American writer Brad Warner has argued that "only cartoon villains cackle with glee while rubbing their hands together and dream of ruling the world in the name of all that is wicked and bad". American writer Ben Bova recommends to writers that their works not contain villains. He states, in his Tips for writers:"In the real world there are no villains. No one actually sets out to do evil ... Fiction mirrors life. Or, more accurately, fiction serves as a lens to focus on what they know in life and bring its realities into sharper, clearer understanding for us. There are no villains cackling and rubbing their hands in glee as they contemplate their evil deeds. There are only people with problems, struggling to solve them."
Following up on Bova's point, American writer David Lubar adds: "This is a brilliant observation that has served me well in all my writing. ... The bad guy isn't doing bad stuff so he can rub his hands together and snarl. He may be driven by greed, neuroses, or the conviction that his cause is just, but he's driven by something, not unlike the things that drive a hero."
Some examples of anti-villains: Daenerys Targaryen, Eren Yeager, Itachi Uchiha, Killmonger, Lelouch Vi Britannia, Magneto, Doctor Octopus, Sandman, Severus Snape, Thanos.
See also
Adversary
Antihero
Archnemesis
Archenemy
Criminal
Enemy
Evil laughter
Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role Since 1991, Bollywood has recognized the best actors portraying a villain.
List of soap opera villains
Lovable rogue
Nemesis (mythology)
Rival (disambiguation)
Supervillain
Tyrant
References
External links
Good and evil
Fantasy tropes
Literary archetypes
Mythological archetypes
Mythological characters
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254516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moriarty | Moriarty | Moriarty is an Irish surname. It may also refer to:
Places
Moriarty, New Mexico, United States, a city
Moriarty Air Force Station, a closed United States Air Force radar station
Mount Moriarty, British Columbia, Canada
Moriarty, Tasmania, a locality in Tasmania, Australia
Moriarty Rocks, Tasmania, Australia
5048 Moriarty, a main-belt asteroid
Arts and entertainment
Fictional characters
Professor Moriarty, Sherlock Holmes' nemesis
Jim Moriarty, one of the main antagonists in the British TV series Sherlock
Jamie Moriarty, aka Irene Adler, in the TV series Elementary
Jack Moriarty, in the Holmes-inspired television series House
Count Jim Moriarty, character in The Goon Show
Moriarty, from In Error in Rudyard Kipling's Plain Tales from the Hills
Dean Moriarty, in the novel On the Road by Jack Kerouac
Moriarty, in the 1970 film Kelly's Heroes
Colin Moriarty, crime boss and owner of Moriarty's Saloon in the video game Fallout 3
Mark Moriarty, in the 1993 DOS game Eagle Eye Mysteries
Other
Moriarty (band), a French-American group
Moriarty (novel), by Anthony Horowitz
People
Moriarty (name), a surname | [
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254518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZaSu%20Pitts | ZaSu Pitts | ZaSu Pitts (; January 3, 1894 – June 7, 1963) was an American actress who starred in many silent dramas, including Erich von Stroheim's epic 1924 silent film Greed, and comedies, transitioning successfully to mostly comedy films with the advent of sound films. She also appeared on numerous radio shows. Her career as an entertainer spanned nearly 50 years, and she was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960.
Early life
ZaSu Pitts was born in Parsons, Kansas, to Rulandus and Nelly (née Shay) Pitts; she was the third of four children. Her father, who had lost a leg while serving in the 76th New York Infantry in the Civil War, had settled the family in Kansas by the time ZaSu was born.
The names of her father's sisters, Eliza and Susan, were purportedly the basis for the name "ZaSu", i.e., to satisfy competing family interests. It has been (incorrectly) spelled as Zazu Pitts in some film credits and news articles. Although the name is commonly mispronounced or , or , in her 1963 book Candy Hits (pg. 15), published the year of her death, the actress gave the correct pronunciation as "Say Zoo" , recounting that Mary Pickford had predicted "many will mispronounce it", and adding, "How right she was." However, when introducing herself on the September 4, 1952 episode of I've Got a Secret, she herself pronounced it as Zay-zoo.
In 1903, when Pitts was nine years old, her family moved to Santa Cruz, California, to seek a warmer climate and better job opportunities. Her childhood home at 208 Lincoln Street still stands. She attended Santa Cruz High School, where she participated in school theatricals.
Career
Pitts made her stage debut in 1914–15 doing school and local community theater in Santa Cruz. Going to Los Angeles in 1916, at the age of 22, she spent many months seeking work as a film extra. Finally, she was discovered for substantive roles in films by screenwriter Frances Marion, who cast Pitts as an orphaned slavey (child of work) in the silent film A Little Princess (1917), starring Pickford.
Pitts's popularity grew following a series of Universal one-reeler comedies, and earned her first feature-length lead in King Vidor's Better Times (1919). The following year she married her first husband, Tom Gallery, with whom she was paired in several films, including Heart of Twenty (1920), Bright Eyes, Patsy (both 1921) and A Daughter of Luxury (1922).
Pitts enjoyed her greatest fame in the early 1930s, often starring in B movies and comedy short films, teamed with Thelma Todd. She played secondary parts in many films. Her stock persona (a fretful, flustered, worried spinster) made her instantly recognizable and was often imitated in cartoons and other films. She starred in a number of Hal Roach short films and features, often in partnership with Thelma Todd as two trouble-prone working girls. At Universal she co-starred in a series of feature-length comedies with Slim Summerville. Switching between comedy short films and features, by the advent of sound, she became a specialist in comedy roles.
Dramatic potential
ZaSu Pitts had hidden talents as a dramatic actress. She was given the greatest tragic role of her career in Erich von Stroheim's -hour epic Greed (1924). The surprise casting initially shocked Hollywood, but showed that Pitts could draw tears with her doleful demeanor, as well as laughs. Having been extensively edited prior to release — the final theatrical cut ran just over two hours — the movie failed initially at the box office, but has since been restored to over four hours and is considered one of the greatest films ever made. Based on her performance, von Stroheim labeled ZaSu Pitts "the greatest dramatic actress." He also featured her in his films The Honeymoon (1928), The Wedding March (1928), and Walking Down Broadway. Pitts's performance in Walking Down Broadway was dramatic, with her character showing a repressed romantic interest in her girlfriend; the studio reshot these scenes with Pitts, now playing the girl's companion for laughs, and von Stroheim's directorial credit was removed from the film. The film was finally released in 1933, much changed, as Hello, Sister!.
ZaSu Pitts was so recognizable in comedies that the public didn't take her dramatic efforts seriously. In the classic war drama All Quiet on the Western Front (1930), Pitts was cast as the distraught mother of young soldier Lew Ayres, but at preview screenings her intense performance drew unintentional laughs. Her scenes were refilmed with Beryl Mercer. In 1936 RKO needed a replacement actress for its Hildegarde Withers series of murder mysteries; Edna May Oliver had left the studio and Helen Broderick succeeded Oliver in the role. Pitts was chosen to succeed Broderick. In theory, it was a good idea: Pitts seemed to fit the role of a prim, spinster schoolmistress. However, mystery fans couldn't accept the fluttery Pitts as a brainy sleuth who matched wits with the police, and after her two Withers films the series was abandoned.
Radio and stage
Beginning in the 1930s, Pitts found work in radio. She appeared several times in the earliest Fibber McGee and Molly shows, playing a dizzy dame constantly looking for a husband. When Marian Jordan temporarily withdrew from Fibber McGee and Molly due to illness, Pitts made guest appearances opposite Jim Jordan as Fibber. Pitts also guested on variety shows, trading banter with Bing Crosby, Al Jolson, W.C. Fields, and Rudy Vallee, among others. She played Miss Mamie Wayne in the soap opera Big Sister., and was heard as Miss Pitts on The New Lum and Abner Show.
In 1944, Pitts tackled Broadway, making her debut in the mystery Ramshackle Inn. The play, written expressly for her, did well, and she took the show on the road in later years. She was also a familiar attraction in summer-stock theaters, playing annually in the Norma Mitchell play Post Road.
Postwar movies and television
Postwar films continued to give her the chance to play comic snoops and flighty relatives in such fare as Life with Father (1947), but in the 1950s, she started focusing on television. This culminated in her best-known series role, playing second banana to Gale Storm in CBS's The Gale Storm Show (1956) (also known as Oh, Susanna), in the role of Elvira Nugent ("Nugie"), the shipboard beautician. In 1961, Pitts was cast opposite Earle Hodgins in the episode "Lonesome's Gal" of the ABC sitcom Guestward, Ho!, set on a dude ranch in New Mexico. In 1962, she appeared in an episode of CBS's Perry Mason, "The Case of the Absent Artist". Her final role was as Gertie, the switchboard operator in the Stanley Kramer comedy epic It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963).
Personal life
Pitts was married to actor Thomas Sarsfield Gallery from 1920 until their 1933 divorce. Gallery became a Los Angeles boxing promoter and later a TV executive. The couple had two children:
ZaSu Ann Gallery
Donald Michael "Sonny" Gallery (born Marvin Carville La Marr), whom they adopted and renamed after the 1926 death of Donald's biological mother (and Pitts's friend), actress Barbara La Marr.
In 1933, Pitts married John Edward "Eddie" Woodall, with whom she remained until her death.
She was a Republican, and became active in the party.
Declining health dominated Pitts's later years, particularly after she was diagnosed with cancer in the mid-1950s. She continued to work, appearing on TV and making brief appearances in The Thrill of It All (1963) and It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World. She died in Hollywood on June 7, 1963, aged 69, and was interred at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City. Pitts wrote a book of candy recipes, Candy Hits by ZaSu Pitts, which was published posthumously in 1963.
Legacy
ZaSu Pitts was inducted to the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 8, 1960 for her contribution to motion pictures. Her star is on the south side of the 6500 block of Hollywood Boulevard.
In 1994, she was honored with her image on a United States postage stamp along with fellow actors Rudolph Valentino, Clara Bow and Charlie Chaplin as part of The Silent Screen Stars stamp set, designed by caricaturist Al Hirschfeld. Her birthplace of Parsons, Kansas, has a star tile at the entrance to the Parsons Theatre to commemorate her.
In the film Never Give a Sucker an Even Break (1941), W.C. Fields asks his niece, played by Gloria Jean, "Don't you want to go to school? You want to grow up and be dumb like ZaSu Pitts?" Gloria Jean replied "She only acts like that in pictures. I like her."
Actress Mae Questel, who performed character voices in Max Fleischer's Popeye and Betty Boop cartoons, reportedly based the fluttering utterances of Olive Oyl on Pitts.
Filmography
Television credits
See also
Pitts and Todd
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Photographs and literature
1894 births
1963 deaths
20th-century American actresses
Actresses from Kansas
Actresses from Santa Cruz, California
American film actresses
American silent film actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City
California Republicans
Deaths from cancer in California
Hal Roach Studios actors
Kansas Republicans
People from Parsons, Kansas
Universal Pictures contract players
Vaudeville performers
Writers from California
Writers from Kansas
Santa Cruz High School alumni | [
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254519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluebeard | Bluebeard | "Bluebeard" (, ) is a French folktale, the most famous surviving version of which was written by Charles Perrault and first published by Barbin in Paris in 1697 in Histoires ou contes du temps passé. The tale tells the story of a wealthy man in the habit of murdering his wives and the attempts of one wife to avoid the fate of her predecessors. "The White Dove", "The Robber Bridegroom" and "Fitcher's Bird" (also called "Fowler's Fowl") are tales similar to "Bluebeard". The notoriety of the tale is such that Merriam-Webster gives the word "Bluebeard" the definition of "a man who marries and kills one wife after another". The verb "bluebearding" has even appeared as a way to describe the crime of either killing a series of women, or seducing and abandoning a series of women.
Plot
In one version of the story, Bluebeard is a wealthy and powerful nobleman who has been married several times to beautiful women who have all mysteriously vanished. When Bluebeard visits his neighbor and asks to marry one of his daughters, the girls are terrified. After hosting a wonderful banquet, the youngest daughter decides to be his wife and she goes to live with him in his rich and luxurious palace in the countryside, away from her family.
Bluebeard announces that he must leave for the country and gives the keys of the château to his wife. She is able to open any door in the house with them, each of which contain some of his riches, except for an underground chamber that he strictly forbids her to enter lest she suffer his wrath. He then goes away and leaves the house and the keys in her hands. She invites her sister, Anne, and her friends and cousins over for a party. However, she is eventually overcome with the desire to see what the forbidden room holds, and she sneaks away from the party and ventures into the room.
She immediately discovers the room is flooded with blood and the murdered corpses of Bluebeard's former wives hanging on hooks from the walls. Horrified, she drops the key in the blood and flees the room. She tries to wash the blood from the key, but the key is magical and the blood cannot be removed. Bluebeard unexpectedly returns and finds the bloody key. In a blind rage, he threatens to kill his wife on the spot, but she asks for one last prayer with her sister Anne. Then, as Bluebeard is about to deliver the fatal blow, Anne and the wife's brothers arrive and kill Bluebeard. The wife inherits his fortune and castle, and has the dead wives buried. She uses the fortune to have her other siblings married then remarries herself, finally moving on from her horrible experience with Bluebeard.
Sources
Although best known as a folktale, the character of Bluebeard appears to derive from legends related to historical individuals in Brittany. One source is believed to have been the 15th-century convicted Breton serial killer Gilles de Rais, a nobleman who fought alongside Joan of Arc and became both Marshal of France and her official protector, then was hanged and burned as a murderous witch. However, Gilles de Rais did not kill his wife, nor were any bodies found on his property, and the crimes for which he was convicted involved the sexually-driven, brutal murder of children rather than women.
Another possible source stems from the story of the early Breton king Conomor the Accursed and his wife Tryphine. This is recorded in a biography of St. Gildas, written five centuries after his death in the sixth century. It describes how after Conomor married Tryphine, she was warned by the ghosts of his previous wives that he murders them when they become pregnant. Pregnant, she flees; he catches and beheads her, but St. Gildas miraculously restores her to life, and when he brings her to Conomor, the walls of his castle collapse and kill him. Conomor is a historical figure, known locally as a werewolf, and various local churches are dedicated to Saint Tryphine and her son, Saint Tremeur.
Commentaries
The fatal effects of female curiosity have long been the subject of story and legend. Pandora and Psyche are examples of women in mythic stories whose curiosity is punished by dire consequences. In giving his wife the keys to his castle, Bluebeard is acting the part of the serpent, and therefore of the devil, and his wife the part of the victim held by the serpent's gaze.
In addition, hidden or forbidden chambers were not unknown in pre-Perrault literature. In Basile's Pentamerone, the tale The Three Crowns tells of a Princess Marchetta entering a room after being forbidden by an ogress, and in The Arabian Nights, Prince Agib is given a hundred keys to a hundred doors but forbidden to enter the golden door, which he does with terrible consequences.
While some scholars interpret the Bluebeard story as a fable preaching obedience to wives (as Perrault's moral suggests), folklorist Maria Tatar has suggested that the tale encourages women not to unquestioningly follow patriarchal rules. Women breaking men's rules in the fairy tale can be seen as a metaphor for women breaking society's rules and being punished for their transgression. The key can be seen as a sign of disobedience or transgression; it can also be seen as a sign that one should not trust their husband.
Tatar, however, does go on to speak of Bluebeard as something of a "Beauty and the Beast" narrative. The original Beauty and the Beast tale by Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont is said to be a story created to condition young women into the possibility of not only marriage, but marrying young, and to placate their fears of the implications of an older husband. It shows the beast as secretly compassionate, and someone meant to curb the aggressive sexual fears that young women have towards marriage. Though "Beauty and the Beast" holds several similarities in Gothic imagery to "Bluebeard" (such as is shared with Cupid and Psyche as well, in the case of a mysterious captor, a looming castle, and a young, beautiful heroine), Tatar goes on to state that the latter tale lives on the entire opposite side of the spectrum: one in which, instead of female placation, the tale simply aggravates women's apprehension, confirming one's "worst fears about sex".
Jungian psychoanalyst Clarissa Pinkola Estés refers to the key as "the key of knowing" which gives the wife consciousness. She can choose to not open the door and live as a naive young woman. Instead, she has chosen to open the door of truth.
For folklorist Bruno Bettelheim, Bluebeard can only be considered a fairy tale because of the magical bleeding key; otherwise, it would just be a monstrous horror story. Bettelheim sees the key as associated with the male sexual organ, "particularly the first intercourse when the hymen is broken and blood gets on it". For Bettelheim, the blood on the key is a symbol of the wife's indiscretion.
For scholar Philip Lewis, the key offered to the wife by Bluebeard represents his superiority, since he knows something she does not. The blood on the key indicates that she now has knowledge. She has erased the difference between them, and in order to return her to her previous state, he must kill her.
Aarne–Thompson classification
According to the Aarne–Thompson system of classifying folktale plots, the tale of Bluebeard is type 312. Another such tale is The White Dove, an oral French variant. The type is closely related to Aarne–Thompson type 311 in which the heroine rescues herself and her sisters, in such tales as Fitcher's Bird, The Old Dame and Her Hen, and How the Devil Married Three Sisters. The tales where the youngest daughter rescues herself and the other sisters from the villain is in fact far more common in oral traditions than this type, where the heroine's brother rescues her. Other such tales do exist, however; the brother is sometimes aided in the rescue by marvelous dogs or wild animals.
Some European variants of the ballad Lady Isabel and the Elf Knight, Child ballad 4, closely resemble this tale. This is particularly noteworthy among some German variants, where the heroine calls for help much like Sister Anne calls for help to her brothers in Perrault's Bluebeard.
Bluebeard's wives
It is not explained why Bluebeard murdered his first bride; she could not have entered the forbidden room and found a dead wife. Some scholars have theorized that he was testing his wife's obedience, and that she was killed not for what she discovered there, but because she disobeyed his orders.
In the 1812 version published in Grimms' Fairy Tales, Wilhelm Grimm, on p. XLI of the annotations, makes the following handwritten comment: "It seems in all Märchen [fairy tales] of Bluebeard, wherein his Blutrunst [lust for blood] has not rightly explained, the idea to be the basis of himself through bathing in blood to cure of the blue beard; as the lepers. That is also why it is written that the blood is collected in basins."
Maurice Maeterlinck wrote extensively on Bluebeard and in his plays name at least six former wives: Sélysette from Aglavaine et Sélysette (1896), Alladine from Alladine et Palomides (1894), both Ygraine and Bellangère from La mort de Tintagiles (1894), Mélisande from Pelléas et Mélisande, and Ariane from Ariane et Barbe-bleue (1907).
In Jacques Offenbach's opera Barbe-bleue (1866), the five previous wives are Héloïse, Eléonore, Isaure, Rosalinde and Blanche, with the sixth and final wife being a peasant girl, Boulotte, who finally reveals his secret when he attempts to have her killed so that he can marry Princess Hermia.
Béla Bartók's opera Bluebeard's Castle (1911), with a libretto by Béla Balázs, names "Judith" as wife number four.
Anatole France's short story "The Seven Wives of Bluebeard" names Jeanne de Lespoisse as the last wife before Bluebeard's death. The other wives were Collette Passage, Jeanne de la Cloche, Gigonne, Blanche de Gibeaumex, Angèle de la Garandine, and Alix de Pontalcin.
In Edward Dmytryk's film Bluebeard (1972), Baron von Sepper (Richard Burton) is an Austrian aristocrat known as Bluebeard for his blue-toned beard and his appetite for beautiful wives, and his wife is an American named Anne.
In Alex Garland's film Ex Machina (film) (2014), Nathan is an internet mogul who designs robots with a human female body inside his home. Each time he starts a new iteration of the robot, he eliminates the AI of the previous one and puts the robot body inside a cupboard in his vault. Nathan's company is called Blue Book and a key plays a central role in the movie.
Variants
"Bluebeard", a fairy tale (KHM 62a, dropped from later editions) collected by The Brothers Grimm in Kinder- und Hausmärchen (KHM) (1812)
"The Robber Bridegroom", a variant (KHM 40) in Grimms' Fairy Tales (1812)
"Fitcher's Bird", another variant (KHM 48) in Grimms' Fairy Tales (1812)
"The Castle of Murder" (KHM 73a, dropped from later editions), another variant in Grimms' Fairy Tales (1812)
"Mr. Fox", an English variant of Bluebeard
"The White Dove" a French variant of Bluebeard
Versions and reworkings
Literature
Other versions of Bluebeard include:
Commentaires Apostoliques et Théologiques sur les Saintes Prophéties de l'auteur Sacré de Barbe-Bleue (1779), a satire by Frederick the Great
Die Sieben Weiber des Blaubart ("The Seven Wives of Bluebeard") (1797), a novel by Ludwig Tieck
"Blaubart" ("Bluebeard") (1850), a fairy tale by Alexander von Ungern-Sternberg
"Captain Murderer" (1860), a short story by Charles Dickens
"Le Sixième Mariage de Barbe-Bleue" ("Bluebeard's Sixth Marriage") (1892), a short story by Henri de Régnier
"Bluebeard's Keys" (1902), a short story by Anne Thackeray Ritchie
"The Seven Wives of Bluebeard" (1903), a short story by Anatole France
Chevalier Blaubarts Liebesgarten ("Knight Bluebeard's Love Garden") (1910), a novel by Joseph August Lux
Ritter Blaubart ("Bluebeard the Knight") (1911), a short story by Alfred Döblin
Sister Anne (1932), a novella by Beatrix Potter
The Robber Bridegroom (1942), a novella by Eudora Welty
"The Bloody Chamber" (1979), a short story by Angela Carter
Bluebeard (1982), a novel by Max Frisch
"Bluebeard's Egg" (1983), a short story by Margaret Atwood in a collection of the same name
Blaubarts Letzte Reise ("Bluebeard's Last Journey") (1983), a short story by Peter Rühmkorf
"Bluebeard", (1986), a short story by Donald Barthelme
Bluebeard (1987), a novel by Kurt Vonnegut
"Blue-Bearded Lover" (1987), a short story by Joyce Carol Oates
Blaubarts Schatten ("Bluebeard's Shadow") (1991), a novel by Karin Struck
"Bluebeard in Ireland"' (1994), a short story by John Updike
Fitcher's Brides (2002), a novel by Gregory Frost
Barbe-Bleue ("Bluebeard") (2012), a novel by Amélie Nothomb
Mr. Fox (2011), a novel by Helen Oyeyemi
In Charles Dickens' short story "Captain Murderer", the titular character is described as "an offshoot of the Bluebeard family", and is far more bloodthirsty than most Bluebeards: he cannibalises each wife a month after marriage. He meets his demise after his sister-in-law, in revenge for the death of her sister, marries him and consumes a deadly poison just before he devours her.
In Anatole France's The Seven Wives of Bluebeard, Bluebeard is the victim of the tale, and his wives the perpetrators. Bluebeard is a generous, kind-hearted, wealthy nobleman called Bertrand de Montragoux who marries a succession of grotesque, adulterous, difficult, or simple-minded wives. His first six wives all die, flee, or are sent away under unfortunate circumstances, none of which are his fault. His seventh wife deceives him with another lover and murders him for his wealth.
In Angela Carter's "The Bloody Chamber", Bluebeard is a 1920s decadent with a collection of erotic drawings, and Bluebeard's wife is rescued by her mother, who rides in on a horse and shoots Bluebeard between the eyes, rather than by her brothers as in the original fairy tale.
In Joyce Carol Oates' short story, "Blue-Bearded Lover", the most recent wife is well aware of Bluebeard's murdered wives: she does not unlock the door to the forbidden room, and therefore avoids death herself. She remains with Bluebeard despite knowing he is a murderer, and gives birth to Bluebeard's children. The book has been interpreted as a feminist struggle for sexual power.
In Helen Oyeyemi's Mr. Fox, Mr. Fox is a writer of slasher novels, with a muse named Mary. Mary questions Mr. Fox about why he writes about killing women who have transgressed patriarchal laws, making him aware of how his words normalize domestic violence. One of the stories in the book is about a girl named Mary who has a fear of serial killers because her father raised her on stories about men who killed women who did not obey them and then killed her mother.
Kurt Vonnegut's Bluebeard features a painter who calls himself Bluebeard, and who considers his art studio to be a forbidden chamber where his girlfriend Circe Berman is not allowed to go.
In Donald Barthelme's Bluebeard, the wife believes that the carcasses of Bluebeard's previous six wives are behind the door. She loses the key and her lover hides the three duplicates. One afternoon Bluebeard insists that she open the door, so she borrows his key. Inside, she finds the decaying carcasses of six zebras dressed in Coco Chanel gowns.
In theatre
Pantomime versions of the tale were staged at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London as early as 1798, and famous editions there were by E. L. Blanchard in 1879 and starred Dan Leno in 1901. Many of these productions orientalized the tale by setting it in the Ottoman Empire, often giving the wife the name Fatima. The popularity of the pantomime made orientalized depictions of Bluebeard common in English illustrations throughout the 19th century and into the early 20th century.
Ariane et Barbe-bleue (1899), a symbolist play by Maurice Maeterlinck
Bluebeard's Eighth Wife (1921), a French farce by Alfred Savoir
Bluebeard (1896), a ballet by choreographer Marius Petipa to the music of composer Pyotr Schenk.
Bluebeard (2015), a ballet based on the novel The Seven Wives of Bluebeard by Anatole France, directed and choreographed by Staša Zurovac and composed by Marjan Nećak
Bluebeard (1970), an off-Broadway absurdist comedy by Charles Ludlam, adapted from The Island of Dr Moreau
Ritter Blaubart ("Knight Bluebeard") (1797), a play by Ludwig Tieck
The Grand Dramatic Romance Bluebeard, or Female Curiosity, a 1798 play by George Colman the Younger
Blaubart: Drama giocoso (1985), a play by Martin Mosebach
Bluebeard (1895), a ballet by Georges Jacobi, choreographed by Carlo Coppi
Bluebeard (1941), by Jacques Offenbach, choreographed by Michel Fokine
Blaubarts Traum (""Bluebeard's Dream) (1961), a ballet by Harold Saeverud, choreographed by Yvonne GeorgiBluebeard's Friends (2019), one of three short plays by Caryl Churchill
In music
Raoul Barbe-bleue (1789), an opera by André Grétry
Barbe-bleue (1866), an operetta by Jacques Offenbach
Ariane et Barbe-bleue (1907), an opera by Paul Dukas
Bluebeard's Castle (1918), an opera by Béla Bartók and Béla Balázs
"Bluebeard" (1993), a song by the Cocteau Twins, on the album Four-Calendar Café "Go Long" by Joanna Newsom (2010), on the album Have One on Me "Aoki Hakushaku no Shiro" ("The Blue Marquis' Castle"), a song by Sound Horizon, on the album Märchen "Mrs. Bluebeard", a song by They Might Be Giants, on the album I Like Fun"Bluebeard" (2019) a song by Patty Griffin, on the album Patty Griffin
"Nightmares by the Sea", a song by Jeff Buckley, on the album Sketches for My Sweetheart the DrunkIn film
Several film versions of the story were made:
Barbe-bleue, a 1901 short film by Georges Méliès
Bluebeard's 8th Wife, a 1923 silent comedy film directed by Sam Wood and starring Gloria Swanson
Bluebeard's Eighth Wife, a 1938 remake of the Swanson silent film, directed by Ernst Lubitsch and starring Claudette Colbert and Gary Cooper
Bluebeard, a 1944 film directed by Edgar G. Ulmer, starring John Carradine
Secret Beyond the Door, a 1948 contemporary adaptation directed by Fritz Lang, starring Michael Redgrave and Joan Bennett
Bluebeard's Six Wives, a 1950 Italian comedy film directed by Carlo Ludovico Bragaglia, starring Totò
Barbe-Bleue (titled Bluebeard in the U.S.), a 1951 German-French film directed by Christian-Jaque, starring Hans Albers
Bluebeard, a 1972 film directed by Edward Dmytryk, starring Richard Burton, Joey Heatherton, Raquel Welch, and Virna LisiBarbe Bleue, a 2009 film directed by Catherine Breillat
Monsieur Verdoux, a 1947 black comedy film directed by and starring Charles ChaplinBluebeard's Ten Honeymoons, a 1960 British thriller directed by W. Lee Wilder and starring George Sanders Landru (titled Bluebeard in the U.S.), a 1963 French drama directed by Claude Chabrol starring Charles Denner, Michèle Morgan, and Danielle DarrieuxHerzog Blaubarts Burg ("Duke Bluebeard's Castle"), a 1963 film directed by Michael Powell, a film of the Béla Bartók opera Bluebeard's CastleMiss Bluebeard, a 1925 silent comedy film directed by Frank Tuttle and starring Bebe Daniels, based on the play Little Miss Bluebeard Barbe-bleue, a 1936 claymation short film directed by Jean PainlevéLa Barbe-bleue, a 1986 French TV movie adaptation directed by Alain Ferrari
Juliette, or Key of Dreams, a 1951 French film based on the 1930 play of the same name, in which a main character is directly inspired from Bluebeard
The Piano, a 1993 film directed by Jane Campion, a loose adaptation which features a Christmas pageant presentation of the fairy tale BluebeardGaslight, Rebecca, and Suspicion are classical Hollywood cinema variations on the Bluebeard tale.
Очень синяя борода [Ochen' siniya boroda] (Very Blue Beard), a 1979 Soviet animated film, gives modern satirical variations on the theme of Bluebeard
Ex Machina, a 2015 film directed by Alex Garland, adapts the Bluebeard character as the reclusive CEO of a fictional tech company called "Bluebook"
Crimson Peak, a 2015 Gothic horror film, has plot similarities to the tale of Bluebeard in that a woman is taken to her husband's castle where he hides a dark, forbidden secret.
Elizabeth Harvest, a 2018 film directed by Sebastian Gutierrez, taking a modern approach to the tale.
Bye, Bye Bluebeard is a 1949 Warner Brothers cartoon by Arthur Davis in which Bluebeard is portrayed as a blue-bearded wolf/a killer on the loose who appears at the home of Porky Pig.
In poetry
"Bluebeard's Closet" (1888), a poem by Rose Terry Cooke
"Der Ritter Blaubart" ("The Knight Bluebeard") (1911), a poem by Reinhard Koester
"I Seek Another Place" (1917), a sonnet by Edna St. Vincent Millay
"Bluebeard", a poem by Sylvia Plath
The story is alluded to in Seamus Heaney's 1966 poem "Blackberry Picking": "Our hands were peppered/With thorn pricks, our palms sticky as Bluebeard's."
References in literature
In Charlotte Brontë's 1847 novel Jane Eyre, the narrator alludes to her husband as Bluebeard, and to his castle as Bluebeard's castle.
In Machado de Assis’s story "The Looking Glass", the main character, Jacobina, dreams he is trying to escape Bluebeard.
In The Scarlet Pimpernel by Baroness Orczy, the story of Bluebeard is referred to in Chapter 18, with Sir Percy's bedroom being compared to Bluebeard's chamber, and Marguerite to Bluebeard's wife.
In William Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing, the character Benedick exclaims, "Like the old tale, my lord: It is not so nor 'twas not so but, indeed, God forbid it should be so." Here Benedick is quoting a phrase from an English variant of Bluebeard, Mr. Fox, referring to it as "the old tale".
In The Blue Castle, a 1926 novel by Lucy Maude Montgomery, Valancy's mysterious new husband forbids her to open one door in his house, a room they both term "Bluebeard's Chamber".
In Stephen King's The Shining, the character Jack Torrance reads the story of Bluebeard to his three-year-old son Danny, to his wife's disapproval. The Shining also directly references the Bluebeard tale in that there is a secret hotel room which conceals a suicide, a remote 'castle' (The Overlook Hotel), and a husband (Jack) who attempts to kill his wife.
In Fifty Shades of Grey by E. L. James, Mr. Grey has a bloody S & M chamber where he tortures Anastasia, and she refers to him at least once as Bluebeard.
"Bones", a short story by Francesca Lia Block, recasts Bluebeard as a sinister L.A. promoter.
The short story Trenzas (Braids) by Chilean writer María Luisa Bombal has some paragraphs where the narrator comments on Bluebeard's last wife having long and thick braids that would get tangled in Bluebeard's fingers, and as he struggled to undo them before killing her, he was caught and killed by the woman's protective brothers.
In Carmen Maria Machado's 'In the Dream House, the author uses the story of Bluebeard to illustrate tolerance in domestic abuse situations.
In television
In a 1977 episode of Lou Grant, when considering their employer Mrs. Pynchon's relationship with a media mogul, Lou Grant says to Charlie Hume, "They make a nice couple." Whereupon, Charlie responds: "How often do you think that was mentioned at Bluebeard's wedding?"
Bluebeard is featured in Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics as part of its "Grimm Masterpiece Theater" season. The bride is the peasant teenage girl Josephine, raised by her three woodworker brothers; she is deliberately chosen by Bluebeard for her beauty, her naivete and her desire to marry a prince. The character design for Bluebeard strongly resembles the English King Henry VIII.
Bluebeard is featured in Sandra the Fairytale Detective as the villain in the episode "The Forbidden Room".
Bluebeard is featured in Scary Tales, produced by the Discovery Channel, Sony and IMAX, episode one, in 2011. (This series is not related to the Disney collection of the same name.)
Bluebeard was the subject of the pilot episode of an aborted television series, Famous Tales (1951), created by and starring Burl Ives with music by Albert Hague.
A Korean stage play of the Bluebeard story serves as the backstory and inspiration for the antagonist, a serial kidnapper, in the South Korean television show, Strong Woman Do Bong-soon (2017).
In Hannibal, Season 3 episode 12 "The Number of the Beast is 666", Bedelia Du Maurier compares herself and the protagonist Will Graham to Bluebeard's brides, referring to their relationships with Hannibal Lecter.
You, Season 1 episode 10 "Bluebeard's Castle", along with taking the episodes namesake from the fairy tale, heroine Guinevere Beck compares the character Joe Goldberg to Bluebeard and his glass box to Bluebeard's Castle.
It's Okay to Not Be Okay is a South Korean Drama in which this tale is narrated in episode 6.
The TV series Grimm, episode 4, season 1, "Lonely Hearts", is based on Bluebeard. The antagonist is a serial rapist who keeps all of his (living) victims in a secret basement room.
Succession, season 2, episode 9 when Rhea called Logan 'bluebeard' because she thinks he is trying to kill her by putting her up for the CEO position and takes the fall for the Cruise coverup.
In other media
The fairy tale of Bluebeard was the inspiration for the Gothic feminine horror game Bluebeard's Bride by Whitney "Strix" Beltrán, Marissa Kelly, and Sarah Richardson. Players play from the shared perspective of the Bride, each taking on an aspect of her psyche.
In DC Comics' Fables series, Bluebeard appears as an amoral character, willing to kill and often suspected of being involved in various nefarious deeds.
Bluebeard is a character in the video game The Wolf Among Us by Telltale Games, based on the Fables comics.
In the Japanese light novel and manga/anime Fate/Zero, Bluebeard appears as the Caster Servant, where his character largely stems from Gilles de Rais as a serial murderer of children.
The Awful History of Bluebeard consists of 7 original drawings by William Makepeace Thackeray from 1833, given as a gift to his cousin on her 11th birthday and published in 1924.
A series of photographs published in 1992 by Cindy Sherman illustrate the fairy tale Fitcher's Bird (a variant of Bluebeard).
Bluebeard appears as a minor Darklord in the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (2nd ed.) Ravenloft accessory Darklords.
BBC Radio 4 aired a radio play from 2014 called Burning Desires written by Colin Bytheway, about the serial killer Landru, an early 20th-century Bluebeard.
The 2013 fantasy horror comic Porcelain: A Gothic Fairy Tale (by Benjamin Read and Chris Wildgoose) employs the Bluebeard story element with the bloody key to a secret room of horrors.
The 1955 film The Night of the Hunter includes a scene at the trial of serial wife killer in which the crowd/mob chants "Bluebeard!" repeatedly.
A mausoleum containing the remains of Bluebeard and his wives can be seen at the exit of The Haunted Mansion at Walt Disney World.
The card "Malevolent Noble" in the Throne of Eldraine expansion of Magic: The Gathering is a visual reference to Bluebeard.
The independent role playing game Bluebeard's Bride by Magpie Games is centered around the premise of the fairy tale with players acting out emotions and thoughts of the titular bride.
The tale inspired the plot of hidden object game Dark Romance 5: Curse of Bluebeard, by developer DominiGames.
Ceramic tiles tell the tale of Bluebeard and his wives in Fonthill Castle, the home of Henry Mercer in Doylestown, Pennsylvania.
Bluebeard and a variation of his tale appears in the manga Ludwig Kakumei.
References
Further reading
Barzilai, Shuli. Tales of Bluebeard and His Wives from Late Antiquity to Postmodern Times. London: Routledge, 2009. Print.
Estés, Clarissa P. (1992). Women Who Run with the Wolves: Myths and Stories of the Wild Woman Archetype. New York: Random House, Inc.
Hermansson, Casie E. (2009). Bluebeard: A Reader's Guide to the English Tradition. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi.
Loo, Oliver (2014). The Original 1812 Grimm Fairy Tales Kinder- und Hausmärchen Children's and Household Tales.
Tatar, Maria (2004). Secrets Beyond the Door: The Story of Bluebeard and His Wives. Princeton / Oxford, Princeton University Press.
Vizetelly, Ernest Alfred (1902). Bluebeard: An Account of Comorre the Cursed and Gilles de Rais, with Summaries of Various Tales and Traditions; Chatto & Windus; Westminster, England.
External links
SurLaLune Fairy Tale Pages: Heidi Anne Heiner, "The Annotated Bluebeard"
Variants
"Bluebeard and the Bloody Chamber" by Terri Windling
Leon Botstein's concert notes on Dukas' Ariane et Barbe-bleue
Glimmerglass Opera's notes on Offenbach's Barbe Bleue, the Bluebeard fairy tale in general, and operetta in the time of Offenbach.
A Shakespeare reference
Bluebeard, audio version
1697 short stories
Grimms' Fairy Tales
Male characters in fairy tales
Fictional serial killers
Fictional French people
Fictional nobility
Works by Charles Perrault
French folklore
Fictional uxoricides
French fairy tales | [
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254526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roots%20to%20Branches | Roots to Branches | Roots to Branches is the 19th studio album by the British band Jethro Tull released in September 1995. It carries characteristics of Tull's classic 1970s progressive rock and folk rock roots alongside jazz and Arabic and Indian influences. All songs were written by Ian Anderson and recorded at his home studio. This is the last Tull album to feature Dave Pegg on the bass, and the first to feature keyboardist Andrew Giddings as an official band member, although he had contributed to Catfish Rising (1991) on a sessional basis. As a result, the album notably features the five longest serving members to date in Jethro Tull’s history. It was also the final Tull album to be released through long-time label Chrysalis Records.
A remastered edition of the album was released in January 2007.
Production and musical style
In some way, this album was much derived from the visit Ian Anderson made to India. S.A. Allen, in a history of the band, somewhat reductively describes the album as an "Indian Songs from the Wood."
About Roots to Branches, Ian Anderson said: "I see Roots To Branches as the 90s version of Stand Up, because it has a lot of the things that I feel represented the key elements of Jethro Tull: there's lots of flute, lots of riffy guitars and quite a broad palette of influences, from the blues and classical to the Eastern motifs that were apparent on Stand Up ". On the other hand, Anderson also added that "the only thing about it that lets me down is that I made it sound a little too Seventies. I deliberately made the album sound like it was in the context of a live performance, rather than have it sound too 'studio.' But looking back on it, I think it should have been a bit more varied".
Critical reception
{{Album ratings
| rev1 = AllMusic
| rev1Score =
| rev2 = The Encyclopedia of Popular Music| rev2Score =
| rev3 = Sputnik Music
| rev3Score =
}}AllMusic made an unimpressed but positive review: "All of the songs here have more of a mood of urgency than some of Tull's then-recent albums, and a few even have memorable melodies [...] Anderson's flute occasionally takes flight, Martin Barre's guitar still wails on the breaks, and Doane Perry (drums), Dave Pegg (bass), and Steve Bailey (bass) make up a decent rhythm section. Not nearly as strong as Catfish Rising, but better than anything else since Heavy Horses''".
Charts
The album sold less than the predecessor, reaching only No. 114 on the US Billboard Charts, but achieving No. 20 on the UK Albums Chart.
Track listing
Credits
Jethro Tull
Ian Anderson – vocals, flute, acoustic guitar
Martin Barre – electric guitar
Dave Pegg – bass guitar (on tracks 3, 5 & 11)
Andrew Giddings – keyboards
Doane Perry – drums, percussion
Additional personnel
Steve Bailey – bass guitar (on tracks 1, 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10)
Release details
1995, UK, Chrysalis 8-35418-4, release date 31 August 1995, Cassette
1995, UK, Chrysalis CDCHR 6109, release date 4 September 1995, CD
1995, UK, Chrysalis CHR 6109, release date 4 September 1995, LP
1995, UK, Chrysalis TCCHR 6109, release date ? ? 1995, Cassette
1995, UK, Chrysalis 8-35418-2, release date ? ? 1995, CD
1995, US, Chrysalis F2 35418, release date 12 September 1995, CD
1995, US, Chrysalis CHR 6109, release date 12 September 1995, LP
1995, Australia, Chrysalis CDCHR 6109, release date 27 October 1995, CD
References
External links
Roots to Branches at AllMusic
Jethro Tull (band) albums
1995 albums
Chrysalis Records albums
Albums produced by Ian Anderson | [
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254527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colegio%20Americano%20de%20Quito | Colegio Americano de Quito | The Fundación Colegio Americano de Quito or Colegio Americano de Quito (American School of Quito) is a private college preparatory school in Quito, Ecuador. In 1940 it was founded by the former president of Ecuador and the president of the Organization of American States (OAS) Galo Plaza Lasso, and Boaz Long.
History
The American School of Quito was founded on October 14, 1940 to 162 students. The first directors were Robert E. and Mrs. Hazel J. Tucker, who had just arrived from the United States. The founders of the school lived in a time characterized by the fascist movements in Europe, represented in Ecuador and other South American nations by the German and Italian schools operating there. The two founders wanted to counter this. They had a vision of educating the youth of Ecuador in democratic values knowing these students would become the future leaders. Boaz Long, the U.S. minister to Ecuador, helped get supplies from the U.S. to establish the school. The school hired English-speaking, U.S.-educated Ecuadorian teachers to teach civics, geography, history of Ecuador, and Spanish classes, while Americans taught the other classes. The Ecuadorian Ministry of Education cooperated with the foundation of the school. The U.S. and Ecuadorian governments did not have plans to financially aid the school. The school used an educational program derived from the Santa Barbara, California public schools and the Columbia University Lincoln School.
In 2011 the American School had over 2,800 students from pre-kindergarten to twelfth grade. Among these students are the children and grandchildren of founding families. The school is co-educational, non-religious, and is a non-profit foundation. It is accredited by AdvancED and the Ecuadorian Ministry of Education and Culture. It is recognized by the International Baccalaureate Organization and offers both I.B. Programmes: Middle Years and Diploma. American School graduates can obtain three diplomas: a high school diploma accredited in the United States, the Ecuadorian Bachillerato, and the I.B. Diploma.
Student Council
Every year students from high school vote for the Student Council. The student Council is a group of representatives for high school that run activities and organize events. Candidates from the Student Council come from 11th or 12th (Secretary, Treasurer and Vice-President), and 12th grade only (President).
The 2019-2020 has been regarded as the most remarkable student council to date for their charisma and good looks. The council included: President Francisco Alarcón, Vice-president Martin Chiriboga, Secretary Rosario Pallares and Treasurer Alejandro Moreano.
Model United Nations
The School hosts the largest Model United Nations in Spanish each year, which include local schools, thus contributing to the practice of democratic principles and the analysis of global and local issues in Ecuador.
Notable alumni and staff
Barbara Morgan taught here from 1978 to 1979. She taught English and science for one year. She was later an astronaut on the Space Shuttle.
Marcelo Aguirre, artist
Rodrigo Borja, former President of Ecuador;
Francisco Carrion, Minister of Foreign Affairs for Ecuador;
Diego Fernando Cordova, former Ecuadorian ambassador
Santiago Gangotena González, earned a PhD degree in Physics from University of North Carolina, Chapell Hill and founded the first liberal arts university in Ecuador, Universidad San Francisco de Quito
David Davidovic, Vice-President at Merck, Genentech and Roche
Gina Davidovic, President of Bay3000 Corporate Education
Freddy Ehlers, journalist, Minister
Edna Iturralde, author
Joseph J. Kohn, Princeton Maths Professor
Carlos Larreategui, former Minister, Chancellor of UDLA (Universidad de Las Americas)
Rodrigo Paz, former mayor of Quito
Gian-Carlo Rota, mathematician and MIT professor,
Guadalupe Mantilla, Director of the newspaper "El Comercio"
Alvaro Mantilla, Director of the newspaper "Hoy"
Frank Wilbauer, Director of the Red Cross, Ecuador
Maria Fernanda Rea, Vice-President and Corporate Controller of Geodis Logistics Co.
Xavier Ponce, Chairman of the Ecuadorian American Chamber of Commerce
See also
Americans in Ecuador
Ecuador–United States relations
External links
School website
sacs casi webpage
Further reading
Heredia, Juan Carlos. "Propuesta de un modelo de evaluación participativa del desempeño profesional para los docentes de sexto grado del programa de años intermedios del Colegio Americano de Quito" (master's thesis). Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación. Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Ecuador (PUCE). Quito. 2007. 135 p.
Durán Jaramillo, María Elizabeth and Andrés Sánchez Salazar. "Diseño de propuesta del mejoramiento del proceso de selección de docentes en la Fundación Colegio Americano de Quito" (thesis). Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Ecuador (PUCE). Quito. February 2005.
Flores, Susana and María José Pasquel. "Guía didáctica metodológica para enseñar nociones y conceptos matemáticos y geométricos con material concreto en niños y niñas de 4 - 5 años aplicada al pre-kinder del Colegio Americano de Quito" () (Tesis de pegrado). Universidad Politécnica Salesiana. April 15, 2004. See profile page.
"Education: Cooperative Style The American School of Quito. The Grace Log, Volumes 18-21. W. R.Grace & Company, 1935??. p. 14-15-?
Ward, Douglas S. "The American School of Quito." Intellect, Volume 64, 1946. Start p. 385.
"La Cooperativa Colegio Americano de Quito." El Año ecuatoriano. 1952. p. 120-122-? (Search page). "El mes de octubre de 1940 el Colegio Americano de Quito abría sus puertas a cien alumnos matriculados en su primer año escolar, como culminación de un esfuerzo y de un ideal de asociación propugnado por un grupo de caballeros que[...]"
Bibliography
Secondary schools in Quito
American international schools in Ecuador
International Baccalaureate schools in Ecuador
International schools in Quito
Private schools in Ecuador
Educational institutions established in 1940
Ecuador–United States relations
Association of American Schools in South America
1940 establishments in Ecuador | [
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254533 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic%20protection | Cathodic protection | Cathodic protection (CP; ) is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. A simple method of protection connects the metal to be protected to a more easily corroded "sacrificial metal" to act as the anode. The sacrificial metal then corrodes instead of the protected metal. For structures such as long pipelines, where passive galvanic cathodic protection is not adequate, an external DC electrical power source is used to provide sufficient current.
Cathodic protection systems protect a wide range of metallic structures in various environments. Common applications are: steel water or fuel pipelines and steel storage tanks such as home water heaters; steel pier piles; ship and boat hulls; offshore oil platforms and onshore oil well casings; offshore wind farm foundations and metal reinforcement bars in concrete buildings and structures. Another common application is in galvanized steel, in which a sacrificial coating of zinc on steel parts protects them from rust.
Cathodic protection can, in some cases, prevent stress corrosion cracking.
History
Cathodic protection was first described by Sir Humphry Davy in a series of papers presented to the Royal Society in London in 1824. The first application was to in 1824. Sacrificial anodes made from iron attached to the copper sheath of the hull below the waterline dramatically reduced the corrosion rate of the copper. However, a side effect of cathodic protection was the increase in marine growth. Usually, copper when corroding releases copper ions which have an anti-fouling effect. Since excess marine growth affected the performance of the ship, the Royal Navy decided that it was better to allow the copper to corrode and have the benefit of reduced marine growth, so cathodic protection was not used further.
Davy was assisted in his experiments by his pupil Michael Faraday, who continued his research after Davy's death. In 1834, Faraday discovered the quantitative connection between corrosion weight loss and electric current and thus laid the foundation for the future application of cathodic protection.
Thomas Edison experimented with impressed current cathodic protection on ships in 1890, but was unsuccessful due to the lack of a suitable current source and anode materials. It would be 100 years after Davy's experiment before cathodic protection was used widely on oil pipelines in the United States cathodic protection was applied to steel gas pipelines beginning in 1928 and more widely in the 1930s.
Types
Galvanic
In the application of passive cathodic protection, a galvanic anode, a piece of a more electrochemically "active" metal (more negative electrode potential), is attached to the vulnerable metal surface where it is exposed to an electrolyte. Galvanic anodes are selected because they have a more "active" voltage than the metal of the target structure (typically steel).
Concrete has a pH around 13. In this environment the steel reinforcement has a passive protective layer and remains largely stable. Galvanic systems are "constant potential" systems that aim to restore the concrete's natural protective environment by providing a high initial current to restore passivity. It then reverts to a lower sacrificial current while harmful negative Chloride ions migrate away from the steel and towards the positive anode. The anodes remain reactive through their lifetime (10-20 years typically) increasing current when the resistivity decreases due to corrosion hazards such as rainfall, temperature increases or flooding. The reactive nature of these anodes makes them an efficient choice.
Unlike ICCP systems steel constant polarization is not the goal, rather the restoration of the environment. Polarization of the target structure is caused by the electron flow from the anode to the cathode, so the two metals must have a good electrically conductive contact. The driving force for the cathodic protection current is the difference in electrode potential between the anode and the cathode. During the initial phase of high current, the potential of the steel surface is polarized (pushed) more negative protecting the steel which hydroxide ion generation at the steel surface and ionic migration restore the concrete environment.
Over time the galvanic anode continues to corrode, consuming the anode material until eventually it must be replaced.
Galvanic or sacrificial anodes are made in various shapes and sizes using alloys of zinc, magnesium and aluminium. ASTM International publishes standards on the composition and manufacturing of galvanic anodes.
In order for galvanic cathodic protection to work, the anode must possess a lower (that is, more negative) electrode potential than that of the cathode (the target structure to be protected). The table below shows a simplified galvanic series which is used to select the anode metal. The anode must be chosen from a material that is lower on the list than the material to be protected.
Impressed current systems
In some cases, impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) systems are used. These consist of anodes connected to a DC power source, often a transformer-rectifier connected to AC power. In the absence of an AC supply, alternative power sources may be used, such as solar panels, wind power or gas powered thermoelectric generators.
Anodes for ICCP systems are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. Common anodes are tubular and solid rod shapes or continuous ribbons of various materials. These include high silicon cast iron, graphite, mixed metal oxide (MMO), platinum and niobium coated wire and other materials.
For pipelines, anodes are arranged in groundbeds either distributed or in a deep vertical hole depending on several design and field condition factors including current distribution requirements.
Cathodic protection transformer-rectifier units are often custom manufactured and equipped with a variety of features, including remote monitoring and control, integral current interrupters and various type of electrical enclosures. The output DC negative terminal is connected to the structure to be protected by the cathodic protection system. The rectifier output DC positive cable is connected to the anodes. The AC power cable is connected to the rectifier input terminals.
The output of the ICCP system should be optimised to provide enough current to provide protection to the target structure. Some cathodic protection transformer-rectifier units are designed with taps on the transformer windings and jumper terminals to select the voltage output of the ICCP system. Cathodic protection transformer-rectifier units for water tanks and used in other applications are made with solid state circuits to automatically adjust the operating voltage to maintain the optimum current output or structure-to-electrolyte potential. Analog or digital meters are often installed to show the operating voltage (DC and sometime AC) and current output. For shore structures and other large complex target structures, ICCP systems are often designed with multiple independent zones of anodes with separate cathodic protection transformer-rectifier circuits.
Hybrid Systems
Hybrid systems have been used for over a decade and incorporate the coordination, monitoring and high restorative current flow of ICCP systems with the reactive, lower cost and easier to maintain galvanic anodes.
The system is made up of wired galvanic anodes in arrays typically 400mm apart which are then initially powered for a short period to restore the concrete and power ionic migration. The power supply is then taken away and the anodes simply attached to the steel as a galvanic system. More powered phases can be administered if needed. Like Galvanic systems corrosion rate monitoring from polarisation tests and half-cell potential mapping can be used to measure corrosion. Polarization is not the goal for the life of the system.
Applications
Hot Water Tank / Water Heater
This technology is also used to protect water heaters. Indeed, the electrons sent by the imposed current anode (composed of titanium and covered with MMO) prevents the inside of the tank from rusting.
In order to be recognized as effective, these anodes must comply with certain standards: A cathodic protection system is considered efficient when its potential reaches or exceeds the limits established by the cathodic protection criteria. The cathode protection criteria used come from the standard NACE SP0388-2007 (formerly RP0388-2001) of the NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
Pipelines
Hazardous product pipelines are routinely protected by a coating supplemented with cathodic protection. An impressed current cathodic protection system (ICCP) for a pipeline consists of a DC power source, often an AC powered transformer rectifier and an anode, or array of anodes buried in the ground (the anode groundbed).
The DC power source would typically have a DC output of up to 50 amperes and 50 volts, but this depends on several factors, such as the size of the pipeline and coating quality. The positive DC output terminal would be connected via cables to the anode array, while another cable would connect the negative terminal of the rectifier to the pipeline, preferably through junction boxes to allow measurements to be taken.
Anodes can be installed in a groundbed consisting of a vertical hole backfilled with conductive coke (a material that improves the performance and life of the anodes) or laid in a prepared trench, surrounded by conductive coke and backfilled. The choice of groundbed type and size depends on the application, location and soil resistivity.
The DC cathodic protection current is then adjusted to the optimum level after conducting various tests including measurements of pipe-to-soil potentials or electrode potential.
It is sometimes more economically viable to protect a pipeline using galvanic (sacrificial) anodes. This is often the case on smaller diameter pipelines of limited length. Galvanic anodes rely on the galvanic series potentials of the metals to drive cathodic protection current from the anode to the structure being protected.
Water pipelines of various pipe materials are also provided with cathodic protection where owners determine the cost is reasonable for the expected pipeline service life extension attributed to the application of cathodic protection.
Ships and boats
Cathodic protection on ships is often implemented by galvanic anodes attached to the hull and ICCP for larger vessels. Since ships are regularly removed from the water for inspections and maintenance, it is a simple task to replace the galvanic anodes.
Galvanic anodes are generally shaped to reduced drag in the water and fitted flush to the hull to also try to minimize drag.
Smaller vessels, with non-metallic hulls, such as yachts, are equipped with galvanic anodes to protect areas such as outboard motors. As with all galvanic cathodic protection, this application relies on a solid electrical connection between the anode and the item to be protected.
For ICCP on ships, the anodes are usually constructed of a relatively inert material such as platinised titanium. A DC power supply is provided within the ship and the anodes mounted on the outside of the hull. The anode cables are introduced into the ship via a compression seal fitting and routed to the DC power source. The negative cable from the power supply is simply attached to the hull to complete the circuit. Ship ICCP anodes are flush-mounted, minimizing the effects of drag on the ship, and located a minimum 5 ft below the light load line in an area to avoid mechanical damage. The current density required for protection is a function of velocity and considered when selecting the current capacity and location of anode placement on the hull.
Some ships may require specialist treatment, for example aluminium hulls with steel fixtures will create an electrochemical cell where the aluminium hull can act as a galvanic anode and corrosion is enhanced. In cases like this, aluminium or zinc galvanic anodes can be used to offset the potential difference between the aluminium hull and the steel fixture. If the steel fixtures are large, several galvanic anodes may be required, or even a small ICCP system.
Marine
Marine cathodic protection covers many areas, jetties, harbors, offshore structures. The variety of different types of structure leads to a variety of systems to provide protection. Galvanic anodes are favored, but ICCP can also often be used. Because of the wide variety of structure geometry, composition, and architecture, specialized firms are often required to engineer structure-specific cathodic protection systems. Sometimes marine structures require retroactive modification to be effectively protected
Steel in concrete
The application to concrete reinforcement is slightly different in that the anodes and reference electrodes are usually embedded in the concrete at the time of construction when the concrete is being poured. The usual technique for concrete buildings, bridges and similar structures is to use ICCP, but there are systems available that use the principle of galvanic cathodic protection as well, although in the UK at least, the use of galvanic anodes for atmospherically exposed reinforced concrete structures is considered experimental.
For ICCP, the principle is the same as any other ICCP system. However, in a typical atmospherically exposed concrete structure such as a bridge, there will be many more anodes distributed through the structure as opposed to an array of anodes as used on a pipeline. This makes for a more complicated system and usually an automatically controlled DC power source is used, possibly with an option for remote monitoring and operation. For buried or submerged structures, the treatment is similar to that of any other buried or submerged structure.
Galvanic systems offer the advantage of being easier to retrofit and do not need any control systems as ICCP does.
For pipelines constructed from pre-stressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP), the techniques used for cathodic protection are generally as for steel pipelines except that the applied potential must be limited to prevent damage to the prestressing wire.
The steel wire in a PCCP pipeline is stressed to the point that any corrosion of the wire can result in failure. An additional problem is that any excessive hydrogen ions as a result of an excessively negative potential can cause hydrogen embrittlement of the wire, also resulting in failure. The failure of too many wires will result in catastrophic failure of the PCCP. To implement ICCP therefore requires very careful control to ensure satisfactory protection. A simpler option is to use galvanic anodes, which are self-limiting and need no control.
Internal cathodic protection
Vessels, pipelines and tanks which are used to store or transport liquids can also be protected from corrosion on their internal surfaces by the use of cathodic protection. ICCP and galvanic systems can be used. A common application of internal cathodic protection is water storage tanks and power plant shell and tube heat exchangers.
Galvanized steel
Galvanizing generally refers to hot-dip galvanizing which is a way of coating steel with a layer of metallic zinc or tin. Galvanized coatings are quite durable in most environments because they combine the barrier properties of a coating with some of the benefits of cathodic protection. If the zinc coating is scratched or otherwise locally damaged and steel is exposed, the surrounding areas of zinc coating form a galvanic cell with the exposed steel and protect it from corrosion. This is a form of localized cathodic protection - the zinc acts as a sacrificial anode.
Galvanizing, while using the electrochemical principle of cathodic protection, is not actually cathodic protection. Cathodic protection requires the anode to be separate from the metal surface to be protected, with an ionic connection through the electrolyte and an electron connection through a connecting cable, bolt or similar. This means that any area of the protected structure within the electrolyte can be protected, whereas in the case of galvanizing, only areas very close to the zinc are protected. Hence, a larger area of bare steel would only be protected around the edges.
Automobiles
Several companies market electronic devices claiming to mitigate corrosion for automobiles and trucks. Corrosion control professionals find they do not work. There is no peer reviewed scientific testing and validation supporting the use of the devices. In 1996 the FTC ordered David McCready, a person that sold devices claiming to protect cars from corrosion, to pay restitution and banned the names "Rust Buster" and "Rust Evader."
Testing
Electrode potential is measured with reference electrodes. Copper-copper sulphate electrodes are used for structures in contact with soil or fresh water. Silver/silver chloride/seawater electrodes or pure zinc electrodes are used for seawater applications. The methods are described in EN 13509:2003 and NACE TM0497 along with the sources of error in the voltage that appears on the display of the meter. Interpretation of electrode potential measurements to determine the potential at the interface between the anode of the corrosion cell and the electrolyte requires training and cannot be expected to match the accuracy of measurements done in laboratory work.
Problems
Production of hydrogen
A side effect of improperly applied cathodic protection is the production of atomic hydrogen, leading to its absorption in the protected metal and subsequent hydrogen embrittlement of welds and materials with high hardness. Under normal conditions, the atomic hydrogen will combine at the metal surface to create hydrogen gas, which cannot penetrate the metal. Hydrogen atoms, however, are small enough to pass through the crystalline steel structure, and lead in some cases to hydrogen embrittlement.
Cathodic disbonding
This is a process of disbondment of protective coatings from the protected structure (cathode) due to the formation of hydrogen ions over the surface of the protected material (cathode). Disbonding can be exacerbated by an increase in alkali ions and an increase in cathodic polarization. The degree of disbonding is also reliant on the type of coating, with some coatings affected more than others. Cathodic protection systems should be operated so that the structure does not become excessively polarized, since this also promotes disbonding due to excessively negative potentials. Cathodic disbonding occurs rapidly in pipelines that contain hot fluids because the process is accelerated by heat flow.
Cathodic shielding
Effectiveness of cathodic protection (CP) systems on steel pipelines can be impaired by the use of solid film backed dielectric coatings such as polyethylene tapes, shrinkable pipeline sleeves, and factory applied single or multiple solid film coatings. This phenomenon occurs because of the high electrical resistivity of these film backings. Protective electric current from the cathodic protection system is blocked or shielded from reaching the underlying metal by the highly resistive film backing. Cathodic shielding was first defined in the 1980s as being a problem, and technical papers on the subject have been regularly published since then.
A 1999 report concerning a spill from a Saskatchewan crude oil line contains an excellent definition of the cathodic shielding problem:
"The triple situation of disbondment of the (corrosion) coating, the dielectric nature of the coating and the unique electrochemical environment established under the exterior coating, which acts as a shield to the electrical CP current, is referred to as CP shielding. The combination of tenting and disbondment permits a corrosive environment around the outside of the pipe to enter into the void between the exterior coating and the pipe surface. With the development of this CP shielding phenomenon, impressed current from the CP system cannot access exposed metal under the exterior coating to protect the pipe surface from the consequences of an aggressive corrosive environment. The CP shielding phenomenon induces changes in the potential gradient of the CP system across the exterior coating, which are further pronounced in areas of insufficient or sub-standard CP current emanating from the pipeline's CP system. This produces an area on the pipeline of insufficient CP defense against metal loss aggravated by an exterior corrosive environment."
Cathodic shielding is referenced in a number of the standards listed below. Newly issued USDOT regulation Title 49 CFR 192.112, in the section for Additional design requirements for steel pipe using alternative maximum allowable operating pressure requires that "The pipe must be protected against external corrosion by a non-shielding coating" (see coatings section on standard). Also, the NACE SP0169:2007 standard defines shielding in section 2, cautions against the use of materials that create electrical shielding in section 4.2.3, cautions against use of external coatings that create electrical shielding in section 5.1.2.3, and instructs readers to take 'appropriate action' when the effects of electrical shielding of cathodic protection current are detected on an operating pipeline in section 10.9.
Standards
49 CFR 192.451 - Requirements for Corrosion Control - Transportation of natural and other gas by pipeline: US minimum federal safety standards
49 CFR 195.551 - Requirements for Corrosion Control - Transportation of hazardous liquids by pipelines: US minimum federal safety standards
AS 2832 - Australian Standards for Cathodic Protection
ASME B31Q 0001-0191
ASTM G 8, G 42 - Evaluating Cathodic Disbondment resistance of coatings
DNV-RP-B401 - Cathodic Protection Design - Det Norske Veritas
EN 12068:1999 - Cathodic protection. External organic coatings for the corrosion protection of buried or immersed steel pipelines used in conjunction with cathodic protection. Tapes and shrinkable materials
EN 12473:2000 - General principles of cathodic protection in sea water
EN 12474:2001 - Cathodic protection for submarine pipelines
EN 12495:2000 - Cathodic protection for fixed steel offshore structures
EN 12499:2003 - Internal cathodic protection of metallic structures
EN 12696:2012 - Cathodic protection of steel in concrete
EN 12954:2001 - Cathodic protection of buried or immersed metallic structures. General principles and application for pipelines
EN 13173:2001 - Cathodic protection for steel offshore floating structures
EN 13174:2001 - Cathodic protection for "Harbour Installations".
EN 13509:2003 - Cathodic protection measurement techniques
EN 13636:2004 - Cathodic protection of buried metallic tanks and related piping
EN 14505:2005 - Cathodic protection of complex structures
EN 15112:2006 - External cathodic protection of well casing
EN 15280-2013 - Evaluation of a.c. corrosion likelihood of buried pipelines
EN 50162:2004 - Protection against corrosion by stray current from direct current systems
BS 7361-1:1991 - Cathodic Protection
NACE SP0169:2013 - Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems
NACE TM 0497 - Measurement Techniques Related to Criteria for Cathodic Protection on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems
See also
Anodic protection
Cathodic modification
Wetting voltage
Redox
Notes
References
A.W. Peabody, Peabody's Control of Pipeline Corrosion, 2nd Ed., 2001, NACE International.
Davy, H., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 114,151,242 and 328 (1824)
Ashworth V., Corrosion Vol. 2, 3rd Ed., 1994,
Baeckmann, Schwenck & Prinz, Handbook of Cathodic Corrosion Protection, 3rd Edition 1997.
Scherer, L. F., Oil and Gas Journal, (1939)
ASTM B843 - 07 Standard Specification for Magnesium Alloy Anodes for Cathodic Protection
ASTM B418 - 09 Standard Specification for Cast and Wrought Galvanic Zinc Anodes
Roberge, Pierre R, Handbook of Corrosion Engineering 1999
NACE International Paper 09043 Coatings Used in Conjunction with Cathodic Protection - Shielding vs Non-shielding Coatings
NACE International TM0497-2002, Measurement Techniques Related to Criteria for Cathodic Protection on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems
Transportation Safety Board of Canada, Report Number P99H0021, 1999
Covino, Bernard S, et al., Performance of Zinc Anodes for Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete Bridges, Oregon Dept of Transport & Federal Highway Administration, March 2002
UK Highways Agency BA 83/02; Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Vol.3, Sect.3, Part 3, Cathodic Protection For Use In Reinforced Concrete Highway Structures. (Retrieved 2011-01-04)
Daily, Steven F, Using Cathodic Protection to Control Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Marine Environments (published in Port Technology International)
Gummow, RA, Corrosion Control of Municipal Infrastructure Using Cathodic Protection. NACE Conference Oct 1999, NACE Materials Performance Feb 2000
EN 12473:2000 - General principles of cathodic protection in sea water
EN 12499:2003 - Internal cathodic protection of metallic structures
NACE RP0100-2000 Cathodic Protection of Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipelines
BS 7361-1:1991 - Cathodic Protection
SAE International Paper No. 912270 Robert Baboian, State of the Art in Automobile Cathodic Protection, Proceedings of the 5th Automotive Corrosion and Prevention Conference, P-250, Warrendale, PA, USA, August 1991
US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineering manual 1110-2-2704, 12 July 2004
External links
NACE International (formerly the National Association of Corrosion Engineers) - Introduction to Cathodic Protection
Institute of Corrosion - A technical society based in the UK
Glossary - A comprehensive glossary of cathodic protection and corrosion terms
Cathodic Protection 101 - Cathodic Protection 101, a beginner's guide
National Physics Laboratory - Short introductory paper on cathodic protection
USDOT CFR 192.112 - USDOT regulations CFR 192.112 requiring the use on non-shielding corrosion coating systems on steel pipe using alternative maximum allowable operation pressure.
Chemical processes
Corrosion prevention
Hydrogen technologies | [
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254537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrecking%20Crew%20%28video%20game%29 | Wrecking Crew (video game) | is an action video game developed and published by Nintendo. Designed by Yoshio Sakamoto, it was first released as an arcade game for the Nintendo VS. System in 1984, titled Vs. Wrecking Crew and featuring a simultaneous two-player mode. It was released as a single-player game for the Family Computer (Famicom) console in 1985, and as a launch game for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) later that year.
Gameplay
The player controls Mario (or Luigi in two-player mode) and attempts to destroy all of a certain set of objects with a large hammer on each of 100 levels. Mario cannot jump because of the hammer's weight. The player can select any level to start on from the title screen. Each level's playfield is divided into an invisible grid, each space of which can contain one object. Objects include these: destructible walls, pillars, and ladders; indestructible barrels and ladders; bombs that destroy all connected destructible objects; and various enemies that Mario must avoid. Doors may be opened to cause enemies to move harmlessly into the background. The game introduced a new character, a construction foreman named Spike, who chases Mario and attempts to disrupt him by knocking down objects and causing him to fall to the bottom of the playfield. The player starts the game with five lives and loses a life whenever Mario comes in contact with an enemy or fireball. The game is over when all lives are lost. The game can also be aborted at any time, and must be aborted if Mario becomes trapped in a barrel.
Because Mario lacks the ability to jump, the player must figure out the optimal order in which to destroy objects—for example, if a player destroys a ladder too soon, a wall may become unreachable and thus the player cannot finish the level. Destroying multiple objects in a row (usually with a chain of bombs) scores extra bonus points, and occasionally bonus items may appear that Mario can collect.
Wrecking Crew features a level editor, which allows the player to design up to four custom levels. They can be saved and loaded using the Famicom Data Recorder, a cassette tape drive. Because this peripheral was only released for Famicom in Japan, other localizations cannot save or load the custom levels. The U.S. manual includes a note stating that the load and save functions "have been programmed in for potential product developments". The feature was reenabled for the game's Wii Virtual Console release using Wii system storage.
Development
Wrecking Crew was designed by Yoshio Sakamoto. Hirokazu Tanaka composed the music.
Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed Vs. Wrecking Crew in its October 1, 1984 issue as the thirteenth most-successful table arcade unit of the month.
Re-releases
Wrecking Crew was re-released in 1989 on the Family Computer Disk System, and was later included as the 14th game of the Famicom Mini series on Game Boy Advance in 2004.
The game has been re-released on Virtual Console three times: on Wii in 2007, on Nintendo 3DS in September 2011 as part of the
"Ambassador Program", on the 3DS eShop in Japan, North America, and Europe and Australia in September 2012, March 2013, and May 2013 respectively. Wrecking Crew was also released on the Virtual Console for the Wii U system on June 19, 2013 in Japan and on June 20, 2013 in North America and Europe. All Virtual Console versions (except for the 3DS VC version) support saving levels designs, which is not possible in the original NES version of the game.
Sequel
is an action puzzle game released exclusively in Japan in 1998 for the Super Famicom's Nintendo Power download service, and later on cartridge. This sequel includes the original as a bonus. Unlike the original, in which the player's objective is to find ways to clear each level of all panels, Wrecking Crew '98 takes a more competitive approach, where two opponents are given their own sides to clean up. Each player must try to demolish as many panels as they can on their side, until the opponent's side is completely piled up, to win.
Story mode features Mario returning to the Mushroom Kingdom from a trip, then discovering that Bowser has started a construction campaign of building new hideouts. The construction is depriving the flora of sunlight and thus, Mario demolishes the new construction sites with his hammer. Along the way, he meets his old enemies from the original Wrecking Crew, including former rival Foreman Spike.
Story mode: The main single player mode, where one controls Mario and travels through an overworld, entering each of Koopa's construction sites.
Versus mode: A competitive mode where one can compete with a friend or the CPU. The player can choose between Mario or characters that are unlocked from Story Mode.
Tournament mode: Available after the player has cleared the main game once. Eight characters compete in a single-elimination tournament until only one remains and is declared the champion.
Legacy
A piece of music was remixed for the GameCube game Dance Dance Revolution: Mario Mix. The "Golden Hammer" music from Wrecking Crew was later used in the Wii video game Super Smash Bros. Brawl and plays every time a fighter grabs a Golden Hammer, or on the Mario Bros. stage. Two pieces of music are in Super Smash Bros. for Wii U; a soundtrack medley, and a remix medley, both of which appear on the Wrecking Crew stage. Similar to Smash Bros. Brawl, the Switch game Super Smash Bros. Ultimate also plays the Golden Hammer music when a fighter grabs a hammer.
Spike is set to appear in the upcoming Illumination/Nintendo animated Mario film, voiced by Sebastian Maniscalco. This version will be portrayed as the boss of Mario and Luigi.
See also
Electrician (1984)
List of Nintendo Entertainment System games
Notes
References
External links
Wrecking Crew at NinDB
1984 video games
1985 video games
Arcade video games
Famicom Disk System games
Game Boy Advance games
Intelligent Systems games
Mario video games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Pax Softnica games
Video games developed in Japan
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii
Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS
Virtual Console games for Wii U
Mario puzzle games
Video games scored by Hirokazu Tanaka
Video games designed by Yoshio Sakamoto
Nintendo Switch Online NES games | [
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254541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pets.com | Pets.com | Pets.com was a dot-com enterprise headquartered in San Francisco that sold pet supplies to retail customers. It began operations in November 1998 and liquidated in November 2000. A high-profile marketing campaign gave it a widely recognized public presence, including an appearance in the 1999 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade and an advertisement in the 2000 Super Bowl. Its popular sock puppet advertising mascot was interviewed by People magazine and appeared on Good Morning America.
Although sales rose dramatically due to the attention, the company lost money on most of its sales through mismanagement. It fell victim to the dot-com bubble in the 2000s. As of , the domain redirects to PetSmart's website.
History
On November 21, 1994, the Pets.com domain name was registered by Pasadena-based entrepreneur Greg McLemore. The Pets.com website launched in early November 1998 as a spinoff of WebMagic and Pets.com was incorporated in February 1999. After its start by Greg McLemore and Eva Woodsmall, Pets.com was purchased in early 1999 by Julie Wainwright. Amazon.com was involved in Pets.com's first round of venture funding, purchasing a majority 54% stake in the company. Amazon, along with Hummer Winblad Venture Partners and Bowman Capital Management invested $10.5 million into Pets.com in March 1999. The CEO of Pets.com, Julie Wainwright, said of Amazon's investment, "This is a marriage made in heaven". By October 2000, Amazon had a 30% stake in the company. Pets.com spent most of the venture funding on large warehouses and other shipment infrastructures, as well as purchasing their biggest online competitor at the time, Petstore.com in June 2000 for $10.6 million.
A regional advertising campaign using a variety of media began, which included television, radio, print, outdoor advertising and a Pets.com magazine, which had its first issue published in November 1999. The first issue was sent to 1 million pet owners in the United States during the month it was first published. Pets.com started with a five-city advertising campaign, which was expanded to 10 cities by Christmas 1999. The company succeeded in making its mascot, the Pets.com sock puppet, well known. The Pets.com site design was extremely well-received, garnering several advertising awards. In January 2000, the company aired its first national commercial as a Super Bowl ad which cost the company $1.2 million. That ad was ranked #5 by USA Today'''s Ad Meter. The company went public on the NASDAQ stock exchange in February 2000 and raised $82.5 million; the former Nasdaq stock symbol was IPET.
Despite its success in building brand recognition, it was uncertain whether a substantial market niche existed for Pets.com. No independent market research preceded the launch of Pets.com. During its first fiscal year (February to September 1999) Pets.com earned $619,000 in revenue, and spent $11.8 million on advertising. Pets.com lacked a workable business plan and lost money on nearly every sale because, even before the cost of advertising, it was selling merchandise for approximately one-third the price it paid to obtain the products. Pets.com tried to build a customer base by offering discounts and free shipping, but it was impossible to turn a profit while absorbing the costs of shipping for heavy bags of cat litter and cans of pet food within a business field whose conventional profit margins are only two to four percent. The company hoped to shift customers into higher-margin purchases, but customer purchasing patterns failed to change and during its second fiscal year the company continued to sell merchandise for approximately 27% less than cost, so the dramatic rise in sales during Pets.com's second fiscal year only hastened the firm's demise.
In September 2000, Pets.com opened a new customer service call center in Greenwood, Indiana and relocated the majority of its customer work force to Indiana in order to cut costs. They aggressively undertook actions to sell the company. PetSmart offered less than the net cash value of the company, and Pets.com's board turned down that offer. The company announced on November 7, 2000 that they would cease taking orders on November 9, 2000 at 11am PST and laid off 255 of their 320 employees. Pets.com had around 570,000 customers before its shutdown. Pets.com stock had fallen from its IPO price of $11 per share in February 2000 to $0.19 the day of its liquidation announcement. At its peak, the company had 320 employees, of which 250 were employed in the warehouses across the United States. While the offer from PetSmart was declined, some assets of Pets.com, including its domains, trademarks and subsidiaries such as Flying Fish Express, were sold to PetSmart in December 2000. As of 2021, the Pets.com domain redirects to PetSmart.com.
Wainwright and nine other executives stayed during the liquidation and held a stockholders' meeting on January 16, 2001 to finalize the liquidation. Wainwright received $235,000 in severance on top of a $225,000 "retention payment" while overseeing the closure. The company changed its name to IPET Holdings, Inc. on January 16, 2001 and liquidation of the company was completed on January 18.
Charity work
During the company's existence, Pets.com partnered with Best Friends Animal Sanctuary to start a charity called "Pets.commitment", which provided funding and support for animal shelters, animal therapy, service dog programs, pet care and wellness organizations. The charity's motto was "people helping animals, animals helping people." After the Pets.com website closed in November 2000, Pets.com donated more than 21 tons of dog food to help Mushers in Alaska's Interior in December 2000.
Sock puppet
Pets.com hired the San Francisco office of TBWA\Chiat\Day to design its advertising campaign. The firm had recently created the popular Taco Bell chihuahua. For Pets.com, they designed a doglike sock puppet that carried a microphone in its paw. The puppet, performed by Michael Ian Black (an alumnus of MTV's surrealist comedy sketch show The State), was a simple sock puppet with button eyes, flailing arms, a watch for a collar, and a stick microphone emblazoned with "pets.com". The sock puppet first appeared in Pets.com's advertising in August 1999.
As the puppet's fame grew through 1999 and 2000, it gained almost cult status and widespread popularity. The puppet made an appearance on ABC's Good Morning America and Nightline, WABC-TV-produced Live with Regis and Kathie Lee, was interviewed in People Magazine, Time Magazine, Entertainment Weekly and Adweek and even had a "falloon" made in its image for the 1999 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. In addition to the media appearances the Pets.com puppet made, merchandising was also done for the company including clothing, other trinkets, and a retail version of the sock puppet that delivered some of the puppet's famous lines, which started shipping on June 13, 2000. More than 10,000 puppets had been sold in its first week of availability and more than 35,000 puppets had been sold by late-July 2000. The Pets.com sock puppet toy was available until the website's shutdown. The Pets.com sock puppet also had an autobiography of himself titled "Me by Me", which was released in 2000.After Pets.com liquidated, Hakan and Associates and Bar None, Inc. purchased the rights to the puppet under a joint venture called Sock Puppet LLC for $125,000 in 2002. Bar None, Inc., an American automotive loan firm, gave the puppet a new slogan: "Everyone deserves a second chance." and aired nine commercials featuring the puppet in July 2002.
Lawsuit
As Pets.com's recognition began to grow, it attracted the attention of the creators of Triumph the Insult Comic Dog. Representatives from Robert Smigel sent letters, including a cease and desist demand, to Pets.com claiming that the puppet was based on Triumph. Pets.com responded by suing Smigel in the U.S. District Court in San Francisco in April 2000, demanding $20 million in damages for defamation and trade libel.
Wainwright responded to the lawsuit, saying that "We were surprised when we received the letter because there is obviously no relation between the Pets.com Sock Puppet and Triumph". Canadian sock puppet character Ed the Sock, who had previously accused Smigel of basing his Triumph character on himself, also used the incident for publicity.
The lawsuit was dismissed in February 2001 by Judge Charles R. Breyer.
Legacy
The publicity surrounding the Pets.com puppet, combined with the company's collapse, made it such a symbol of dot-com folly that E-Trade referred to it in an advertisement during the 2001 Super Bowl. The commercial, which parodies the famous crying Native public service advertisement from 1971, shows a chimpanzee riding on horseback through a ruined dot-com landscape. The chimpanzee comes across a company named "eSocks.com" that is being demolished and weeps when a discarded sock puppet lands at his feet.
In June 2008, CNET named Pets.com as one of the greatest dot-com disasters.
Pets.com's concept would be successfully realized by Chewy.com, prompting comparison between the two companies by analysts since Chewy held their IPO in 2019. Chewy's founder Ryan Cohen rejects comparisons to Pets.com, telling Yahoo in 2019, "That is an absolute crazy comparison. I think there’s really nothing in common between those two businesses.”
References
External links
Pets.com (domain now owned by PetSmart)
"Pets.com, Sock Puppet's Home, Will Close" New York Times article
"Investors put Pets.com to sleep; Garden.com wilts"—Internet Retailer
"Pets.com is extraordinary!"—Epinions
"Pets.com to finalize liquidation plans"—InfoWorld'' via the Wayback Machine
Retail companies established in 1998
Retail companies disestablished in 2000
Internet properties established in 1998
Defunct online companies of the United States
Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Pet stores
Online retailers of the United States
Dot-com bubble
Internet properties disestablished in 2000
2000 initial public offerings
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq | [
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254543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur%20ad-Din%20%28died%201174%29 | Nur ad-Din (died 1174) | Nūr al-Dīn Maḥmūd Zengī (; February 1118 – 15 May 1174), commonly known as Nur ad-Din (lit. "Light of the Faith" in Arabic), was a member of the Oghuz Turkish Zengid dynasty, which ruled the Syrian province (Shām) of the Seljuk Empire. He reigned from 1146 to 1174. He is regarded as an important figure of the Second Crusade.
War against Crusaders
Nur ad-Din was the second son of Imad ad-Din Zengi, the Turkish atabeg of Aleppo and Mosul, who was a devoted enemy of the crusader presence in Syria. After the assassination of his father in 1146, Nur ad-Din and his older brother Saif ad-Din Ghazi I divided the kingdom between themselves, with Nur ad-Din governing Aleppo and Saif ad-Din Ghazi establishing himself in Mosul. The border between the two new kingdoms was formed by al-Khabur River. Almost as soon as he began his rule, Nur ad-Din attacked the Principality of Antioch, seizing several castles in the north of Syria, while at the same time he defeated an attempt by Joscelin II to recover the County of Edessa, which had been conquered by Zengi in 1144. In 1146, after the Frankish attempt to reoccupy Edessa, Nur ad-Din massacred the local Armenian Christian population of the city and destroyed its fortifications, in punishment for assisting Joscelin in this attempt. According to Thomas Asbridge, the women and children of Edessa were enslaved.
Nur ad-Din sought to make alliances with his Muslim neighbours in northern Iraq and Syria in order to strengthen the Muslim front against their Crusader enemies. In 1147, he signed a bilateral treaty with Mu'in ad-Din Unur, governor of Damascus. As part of this agreement, he also married Mu'in ad-Din's daughter Ismat ad-Din Khatun. Together Mu'in ad-Din and Nur ad-Din besieged the cities of Bosra and Salkhad, which had been captured by a rebellious vassal of Mu'in ad-Din named Altuntash, but Mu'in ad-Din was always suspicious of Nur ad-Din's intentions and did not want to offend his former crusader allies in Jerusalem, who had helped defend Damascus against Zengi. To reassure Mu'in ad-Din, Nur ad-Din curtailed his stay in Damascus and turned instead towards the Principality of Antioch, where he was able to seize Artah, Kafar Latha, Basarfut, and Bara.
In 1148, the Second Crusade arrived in Syria, led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. Nur ad-Din's victories and the Crusader's losses in Asia Minor however had made the recovery of Edessa – their original goal – practically impossible. Given that Aleppo was too far off from Jerusalem for an attack and Damascus, recently allied with the Kingdom of Jerusalem against Zengi, had entered into an alliance with Nur ad-Din, the Crusaders decided to attack Damascus, the conquest of which would preclude a combination of Jerusalem's enemies. Mu'in ad-Din reluctantly called for help from Nur ad-Din, but the crusader siege collapsed after only four days.
Nur ad-Din took advantage of the failure of the Crusade to prepare another attack against Antioch. In 1149, he launched an offensive against the territories dominated by the castle of Harim, situated on the eastern bank of the Orontes, after which he besieged the castle of Inab. The Prince of Antioch, Raymond of Poitiers, quickly came to the aid of the besieged citadel. The Muslim army destroyed the Crusader army at the Battle of Inab, during which Raymond was killed, moreover, Raymond's head was sent to Nur ad-Din, who sent it along to the Caliph Al-Muqtafi in Baghdad. Nur ad-Din marched all the way to the coast and expressed his dominance of Syria by symbolically bathing in the Mediterranean. He did not, however, attack Antioch itself; he was content with capturing all Antiochene territory east of the Orontes and leaving a rump state around the city, which in any case soon fell under the suzerainty of the Byzantine Empire. In 1150, he defeated Joscelin II for a final time, after allying with the Seljuk Sultan of Rüm, Mas'ud (whose daughter he also married). Joscelin was blinded and died in his prison in Aleppo in 1159. In the Battle of Aintab, Nur ad-Din tried but failed to prevent King Baldwin III of Jerusalem's evacuation of the Latin Christian residents of Turbessel. In 1152, Nur ad-Din captured and burned Tortosa, briefly occupying the town.
Unification of sultanate
It was Nur ad-Din's dream to unite the various Muslim forces between the Euphrates and the Nile to make a common front against the crusaders. In 1149 Saif ad-Din Ghazi died, and a younger brother, Qutb ad-Din Mawdud, succeeded him. Qutb ad-Din recognized Nur ad-Din as overlord of Mosul, so that the major cities of Mosul and Aleppo were united under one man. Damascus was all that remained as an obstacle to the unification of Syria.
After the failure of the Second Crusade, Mu'in ad-Din had renewed his treaty with the crusaders, and after his death in 1149, his successor Mujir ad-Din followed the same policy. In 1150 and 1151, Nur ad-Din besieged the city, but retreated each time with no success, aside from empty recognition of his suzerainty. When Ascalon was captured by the crusaders in 1153, Mujir ad-Din forbade Nur ad-Din from travelling across his territory. Mujir ad-Din, however, was a weaker ruler than his predecessor, and he also agreed to pay an annual tribute to the crusaders in exchange for their protection. The growing weakness of Damascus under Mujir ad-Din allowed Nur ad-Din to overthrow him in 1154, with help from the population of the city. Damascus was annexed to Zengid territory, and all of Syria was unified under the authority of Nur ad-Din, from Edessa in the north to the Hauran in the south. He was cautious not to attack Jerusalem right away, and even continued to send the yearly tribute established by Mujir ad-Din; meanwhile he briefly became involved in affairs to the north of Mosul, where a succession dispute in the Sultanate of Rum threatened Edessa and other cities.
In 1157, Nur ad-Din besieged the Knights Hospitaller in the crusader fortress of Banias, routed a relief army from Jerusalem led by King Baldwin III, and captured Grand Master Bertrand de Blanquefort. However, he fell ill that year and the crusaders were given a brief respite from his attacks. In 1159, the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus arrived to assert his authority in Antioch, and the crusaders hoped he would send an expedition against Aleppo. However, Nur ad-Din sent ambassadors and negotiated an alliance with the emperor against the Seljuks, much to the crusaders' dismay. Nur ad-Din, along with the Danishmends of eastern Anatolia, attacked the Seljuk sultan Kilij Arslan II from the east the next year, while Manuel attacked from the west. Later in 1160, Nur ad-Din captured the Prince of Antioch, Raynald of Châtillon after a raid in the Anti-Taurus mountains; Raynald remained in captivity for the next sixteen years. By 1162, with Antioch under nominal Byzantine control and the crusader states further south powerless to make any further attacks on Syria, Nur ad-Din made a pilgrimage to Mecca. Soon after he returned, he learned of the death of King Baldwin III of Jerusalem, and out of respect for such a formidable opponent he refrained from attacking the crusader kingdom: William of Tyre reports that Nur ad-Din said "We should sympathize with their grief and in pity spare them, because they have lost a prince such as the rest of the world does not possess today."
The problem of Egypt
As there was now nothing the crusaders could do in Syria, they were forced to look to the south if they wanted to expand their territory. The capture of Ascalon had already succeeded in cutting off Egypt from Syria, and Egypt had been politically weakened by a series of very young Fatimid caliphs. By 1163, the caliph was the young al-Adid, but the country was ruled by the vizier Shawar. That year, Shawar was overthrown by Dirgham; soon afterwards, the King of Jerusalem, Amalric I, led an offensive against Egypt, on the pretext that the Fatimids were not paying the tribute they had promised to pay during the reign of Baldwin III. This campaign failed and he was forced to return to Jerusalem, but it provoked Nur ad-Din to lead a campaign of his own against the crusaders in Syria in order to turn their attention away from Egypt. His attack on Tripoli was unsuccessful, but he was soon visited by the exiled Shawar, who begged him to send an army and restore him to the vizierate. Nur ad-Din did not want to spare his own army for a defense of Egypt, but his Kurdish general Shirkuh convinced him to invade in 1164. In response, Dirgham allied with Amalric, but the king could not mobilize in time to save him. Dirgham was killed during Shirkuh's invasion and Shawar was restored as vizier.
Shawar immediately expelled Shirkuh and allied with Amalric, who arrived to besiege Shirkuh at Bilbeis. Shirkuh agreed to abandon Egypt when Amalric was forced to return home, after Nur ad-Din attacked Antioch and besieged the castle of Harenc. There, Nur ad-Din routed the combined armies of Antioch and Tripoli, but refused to attack Antioch itself, fearing reprisals from the Byzantines. Instead he besieged and captured Banias, and for the next two years continually raided the frontiers of the crusader states. In 1166, Shirkuh was sent again to Egypt. Amalric followed him at the beginning of 1167, and a formal treaty was established between Amalric and Shawar, with the nominal support of the caliph. The crusaders occupied Alexandria and Cairo and made Egypt a tributary state, but Amalric could not hold the country while Nur ad-Din still held Syria, and he was forced to return to Jerusalem. In 1167, Nur ad-Din raided the County of Tripoli, in which he temporarily captured Areimeh, Chastel Blanc and Gibelacar, exploiting the captivity of Raymond III.
In 1168, Amalric sought an alliance with Emperor Manuel and invaded Egypt once more. Shawar's son Khalil had had enough, and with support from Caliph al-Adid requested help from Nur ad-Din and Shirkuh. At the beginning of 1169, Shirkuh arrived and the crusaders once more were forced to retreat. This time Nur ad-Din gained full control of Egypt. Shawar was executed and Shirkuh was named vizier of the newly conquered territory, later succeeded by his nephew Saladin. One last invasion of Egypt was launched by Amalric and Manuel, but it was disorganized and came to nothing.
Death and succession
During this time Nur ad-Din was busy in the north, fighting the Ortoqids, and in 1170 he had to settle a dispute between his nephews when his brother Qutb ad-Din died. After conquering Egypt, Nur ad-Din believed that he had accomplished his goal of uniting the Muslim states, he was seized by a fever due to complications from a peritonsillar abscess. He died at the age of 56 on 15 May 1174 in the Citadel of Damascus. He was initially buried there, before being reburied in the Nur al-Din Madrasa. His young son As-Salih Ismail al-Malik became his legitimate heir, and Saladin declared himself his vassal, Syria and Egypt under his own rule. defeated the other claimants to the throne and took power in Syria in 1185, finally realizing Nur ad-Din's dream.
Legacy
According to William of Tyre, although Nur ad-Din was "a mighty persecutor of the Christian name and faith," he was also "a just prince, valiant and wise, and according to the traditions of his race, a religious man." Nur ad-Din was especially religious after his illness and his pilgrimage. He considered the crusaders foreigners in Muslim territory, who had come to Outremer to plunder the land and profane its sacred places. Nevertheless, he tolerated the Christians who lived under his authority, aside from the Armenians of Edessa, and regarded the Emperor Manuel with deep respect. In contrast to Nur ad-Din's respectful reaction to the death of Baldwin III, Amalric I immediately besieged Banias upon learning of the emir's death, and extorted a vast amount of money from his widow.
During Nur ad-Din's reign, forty-two madrasas were built in Syria, of which half he personally sponsored. Through the construction of these madrasas Nur ad-Din was ensuring the creation of Sunni Islamic qadis and imams. Nur ad-Din himself enjoyed to have specialists read to him from the Hadith, and his professors even awarded him a diploma in Hadith narration. He had bimaristans (hospitals) constructed in his cities as well, and built caravanserais on the roads for travellers and pilgrims. He held court several times a week so that people could seek justice from him against his generals, governors, or other employees who had committed some crime.
Nur ad-Din's Sunni orthodoxy can be seen in his public works. His repair of the Roman aqueduct in Aleppo insinuated an anti-Shia polemic, and the conversion of two Shia mosques into madrasas, one Shafi'i another Hanafi, reinforce his insistence of promoting Sunni Islam. Consequently, in November 1148, he forbade the Shia call to prayer in Aleppo and any public displays of Shi'ism.
In the Muslim world he remains a legendary figure of military courage, piety, and modesty. Sir Steven Runciman said that he loved, above all else, justice.
The Damascene chronicler Ibn al-Qalanisi generally speaks of Nur ad-Din in majestic terms, although he himself died in 1160, and unfortunately did not witness the later events of Nur ad-Din's reign.
The Islamist group Harakat Nour al-Din al-Zenki, active in the Syrian Civil War in Aleppo since 2011, is named after Nur ad-Din.
Nur ad-Din, or known as Nourn Dinh, is one of the martyrs venerated by the syncretistic Vietnamese religion of Cao Dai.
Notes
References
Sources
The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi. H.A.R. Gibb, 1932 (reprint, Dover Publications, 2002)
121
William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey. Columbia University Press, 1943.
Bibliography
.
.
Sunni Muslims
Hanafis
Maturidis
Atabegs
Deaths from peritonsillar abscess
Muslims of the Second Crusade
People from Aleppo
Turkic rulers
Zengid rulers
12th-century Turkic people
1118 births
1174 deaths
People of the Nizari–Seljuk wars | [
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254562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation%20Manager | Presentation Manager | Presentation Manager (PM) is the graphical user interface (GUI) that IBM and Microsoft introduced in version 1.1 of their operating system OS/2 in late 1988.
History
Microsoft began developing a graphic user interface (GUI) in 1981. After it persuaded IBM that the latter also needed a GUI, Presentation Manager (PM; codenamed Winthorn) was co-developed by Microsoft and IBM's Hursley Lab in 1987-1988. It was a cross between Microsoft Windows and IBM's mainframe graphical system (GDDM). Like Windows, it was message based and many of the messages were even identical, but there were a number of significant differences as well. Although Presentation Manager was designed to be very similar to the upcoming Windows 2.0 from the user's point of view, and Presentation Manager application structure was nearly identical to Windows application structure, source compatibility with Windows was not an objective. For Microsoft, the development of Presentation Manager was an opportunity to clean up some of the design mistakes of Windows. The two companies stated that Presentation Manager and Windows 2.0 would remain almost identical.
One of the most significant differences between Windows and PM was the coordinate system. While in Windows the 0,0 coordinate was located in the upper left corner, in PM it was in the lower left corner. Another difference was that all drawing operations went to the Device Context (DC) in Windows. PM also used DCs but there was an added level of abstraction called Presentation Space (PS). OS/2 also had more powerful drawing functions in its Graphics Programming Interface (GPI). Some of the GPI concepts (like viewing transforms) were later incorporated into Windows NT. The OS/2 programming model was thought to be cleaner, since there was no need to explicitly export the window procedure, no WinMain, and no non-standard function prologs and epilogs.
Parting ways
One of the most-cited reasons for the IBM-Microsoft split was the divergence of the APIs between Presentation Manager and Windows, which was probably driven by IBM. Initially, Presentation Manager was based on Windows GUI code, and often had developments performed in advance, like the support for proportional fonts (which appeared in Windows only in 1990). One of the divergences regarded the position of coordinate (0,0), which was at the top-left in Windows, but at bottom-left (as in Cartesian coordinates) in Presentation Manager. In practice it became impossible to recompile a GUI program to run on the other system; an automated source code conversion tool was promised at some point. Both companies were hoping that at some point users would migrate to OS/2.
In 1990, version 3.0 of Windows was beginning to sell in volume, and Microsoft began to lose interest in OS/2 especially since, even earlier, market interest in OS/2 was always much smaller than in Windows.
The companies parted ways, and IBM took over all of subsequent development. Microsoft took OS/2 3.0, which it renamed Windows NT; as such, it inherited certain characteristics of Presentation Manager. IBM continued to develop Presentation Manager. In subsequent versions of OS/2, and derivatives such as ArcaOS, it was used as a base for the object-oriented interface Workplace Shell.
There is a significant integration of the GUI layer with the rest of the system, but it is still possible to run certain parts of OS/2 from a text-console or X window, and it is possible to boot OS/2 into a command-line environment without Presentation Manager (e.g. using TSHELL ).
Presentation Manager for Unix
In the late 1980s, Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft collaborated on an implementation of Presentation Manager for Unix systems running the X11 windowing system. The port consisted of two separate pieces of software - a toolkit, window manager and style guide named CXI (Common X Interface) and an implementation of the Presentation Manager API for Unix named PM/X. Both CXI and PM/X were submitted to the Open Software Foundation for consideration as OSF's new user interface standard for Unix, which eventually became Motif. OSF ultimately selected CXI, but used Digital Equipment Corporation's XUI API instead of PM/X. Microsoft and HP continued the development of PM/X for some time after the release of Motif, but it was ultimately abandoned.
Technical details
PM follows the Common User Access interface conventions.
It also supports mouse chording for copying and pasting text.
An important problem was that of the single input queue: a non-responsive application could block the processing of user-interface messages, thus freezing the graphical interface. This problem has been solved in Windows NT, where such an application would just become a dead rectangle on the screen; in later versions it became possible to move or hide it. In OS/2 it was solved in a FixPack, using a timer to determine when an application was not responding to events.
See also
Program Manager
References
External links
OS/2
Graphical user interfaces | [
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254595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho%20III%20of%20Pamplona | Sancho III of Pamplona | Sancho Garcés III ( 992-996 – 18 October 1035), also known as Sancho the Great (, ), was the King of Pamplona from 1004 until his death in 1035. He also ruled the County of Aragon and by marriage the counties of Castile, Álava and Monzón. He later added the counties of Sobrarbe (1015), Ribagorza (1018) and Cea (1030), and would intervene in the Kingdom of León, taking its eponymous capital city in 1034.
He was the eldest son of García Sánchez II and his wife Jimena Fernández.
Biography
Birth and succession
The year of Sancho's birth is not known, but it is no earlier than 992 and no later than 996. His parents were García Sánchez II the Tremulous and Jimena Fernández, daughter of Fernando Bermúdez, count of Cea on the Leonese frontier. García and Jimena are first recorded as married in 992, but there is no record of their son Sancho until 996. The first record of the future king is a diploma of his father's granting the village of Terrero to the monastery of San Millán de la Cogolla. The king describes Sancho merely as "my son" (filius meus). The same diploma also shows the future duke of Gascony, Sancho VI, at the court of Pamplona.
Sancho was raised in the monastery of Leyre. His father last appears in 1000, while Sancho is first found as king in 1004, inheriting the kingdom of Pamplona (later known as Navarre). This gap has led to speculation as to whether there was an interregnum, while one document shows Sancho Ramírez of Viguera reigning in Pamplona in 1002, perhaps ruling as had Jimeno Garcés during the youth of García Sánchez I three generations earlier. On his succession, Sancho initially ruled under a council of regency led by the bishops, his mother Jimena, and grandmother Urraca Fernández.
Pyrenean politics
Sancho aspired to unify the Christian principalities in the face of the fragmentation of Muslim Spain into the taifa kingdoms following the Battle of Calatañazor. In about 1010 he married Muniadona of Castile, daughter of Sancho García of Castile, and in 1015 he began a policy of expansion. He displaced Muslim control in the depopulated former county of Sobrarbe. In Ribagorza, another opportunity arose. The 1010 partition of the county left it divided between William Isarn, illegitimate son of count Isarn, and Raymond III of Pallars Jussà and his wife, Mayor García of Castile, who was both niece of Isarn and aunt of Sancho's wife. In 1018, William Isarn tried to solidify his control over the Arán valley, but was killed, and Sancho jumped on the opportunity to take his portion, presumably based on some loose claim derived from his wife. Raymond and Mayor annulled their marriage, creating a further division finally resolved in 1025 when Mayor retired to a Castilian convent and Sancho received the submission of Raymond as vassal. He also forced Berengar Raymond I of Barcelona to become his vassal, though he was already a vassal of the French king. Berengar met Sancho in Zaragoza and in Navarre many times to confer on a mutual policy against the counts of Toulouse.
Acquisition of Castile
In 1016, Sancho fixed the border between Navarre and Castile, part of the good relationship he established by marrying Muniadona, daughter of Sancho García of Castile. In 1017, he became the protector of Castile for the young García Sánchez. However, relations between the three Christian entities of León, Castile, and Navarre soured after the assassination of Count García in 1027. He had been betrothed to Sancha, daughter of Alfonso V, who was set thus to gain from Castile lands between the rivers Cea and Pisuerga (as the price for approving the marital pact). As García arrived in León for his wedding, he was killed by the sons of a noble he had expelled from his lands.
Sancho III had opposed the wedding and the expected expansion of Leonese power to Castile, and used García's death to reverse this. Using the pretext of the protectorship he had exercised over Castile, he immediately occupied the county and named as successor his own younger son Ferdinand, who was nephew of the deceased count, bringing it fully within his sphere of influence.
Gascon suzerainty
Sancho established relations with the Duchy of Gascony, probably of a suzerain–vassal nature, him being the suzerain. In consequence of his relationship with the monastery of Cluny, he improved the road from Gascony to León. This road would begin to bring increased traffic down to Iberia as pilgrims flocked to Santiago de Compostela. Because of this, Sancho ranks as one of the first great patrons of the Saint James Way.
Sancho VI of Gascony was a relative of King Sancho and spent a portion of his life at the royal court in Pamplona. He also partook alongside Sancho the Great in the Reconquista. In 1010, the two Sanchos appeared together with Robert II of France and William V of Aquitaine, neither of whom was the Gascon duke's suzerain, at Saint-Jean d'Angély. After Sancho VI's death in 1032, Sancho the Great extended his authority definitively into Gascony, where he began to mention his authority as extending as far as the Garonne in the documents issued by his chancery.
In southern Gascony, Sancho created a series of viscounties: Labourd (between 1021 and 1023), Bayonne (1025), and Baztán (also 1025).
Acquisition of León
After the succession of Bermudo III to León, Sancho negotiated the marriage of his son Ferdinand to Sancha, the former fiancée of García Sánchez and Bermudo's sister, and along with it a dowry that included disputed Leonese lands. Sancho was soon engaged in a full-scale war with León, and combined Castilian and Navarrese armies quickly overran much of Bermudo's kingdom, occupying Astorga. By March 1033, he was king from Zamora to the borders of Barcelona.
In 1034, even the city of León, the imperiale culmen (imperial capital, as Sancho saw it), fell, and there Sancho had himself crowned again. This was the height of Sancho's rule which now extended from the borders of Galicia in the west to the county of Barcelona in the east. In 1035, he refounded the diocese of Palencia, which had been laid waste by the Moors. He gave the see and its several abbacies to Bernard, of French or Navarrese origin, to whom he also gave the secular lordship (as a feudum), which included many castles in the region. However, he died on 18 October 1035 and was buried in the monastery of San Salvador de Oña, an enclave in Burgos, under the inscription Sancius, gratia Dei, Hispaniarum rex.
Succession
Before his death in 1035, Sancho divided his possessions among his sons. Of the three surviving sons by Muniadona, the eldest, García, had already appeared as regulus in Navarre, inheriting the kingdom including the Basque country as well as exercising suzerainty over the kingdom's lands given to his brothers. Gonzalo had been placed in control of the counties of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza, which he would hold as regulus. Ferdinand had been given Castile on the death of count García Sánchez in 1029, holding it first under his father and later of Vermudo III of León, before killing that king to take León and the royal title. Ramiro, the eldest but illegitimate son of Sancho by mistress Sancha of Aybar, was given property in the former county of Aragón with the provision that he should ask for no more lands of his brother García, under whom he first acted as baiulus but from whom he later achieved de facto independence. Documents report two further sons, a second Ramiro and Bernard, but scholarship is divided on whether they were legitimate sons who died in youth, or if their appearance instead results from either scribal error or forgery. Sancho left two daughters, Mayor and Jimena, the former perhaps the wife of Pons, Count of Toulouse, the latter wife of Vermudo III.
Legacy
Taking residence in Nájera instead of the traditional capital of Pamplona, as his realm grew larger, he considered himself a European monarch, establishing relations on the other side of the Pyrenees.
He introduced French feudal theories and ecclesiastic and intellectual currents into Iberia. Through his close ties with the count of Barcelona and the duke of Gascony and his friendship with the monastic reformer Abbot Oliva, Sancho established relations with several of the leading figures north of the Pyrenees, most notably Robert II of France, William V of Aquitaine, William II and Alduin II of Angoulême, and Odo II of Blois and Champagne. It was through this circle that the Cluniac reforms first probably influenced his thinking. In 1024 a Navarrese monk, Paterno of San Juan de la Peña from Cluny, returned to Navarre and was made abbot of San Juan de la Peña, where he instituted the Cluniac custom and founded thus the first Cluniac house in Iberia west of Catalonia, under the patronage of Sancho. The Mozarabic rite continued to be practiced at San Juan, and the view that Sancho spread the Cluniac usage to other houses in his kingdom has been discredited by Justo Pérez de Urbel. Sancho sowed the seeds of the Cluniac reform and of the adoption of the Roman rite, but he did not widely enact them.
Sancho also began the Navarrese series of currency by minting what the Encyclopædia Britannica calls "deniers of Carolingian influence." The division of his realm upon his death, the concepts of vassalage and suzerainty, and the use of the phrase "by the grace of God" (Dei gratia) after his title were imported from France, with which he tried to maintain relations. For this he has been called the "first Europeaniser of Iberia."
His most obvious legacy, however, was the temporary union of all Christian Iberia. At least nominally, he ruled over León, the ancient capital of the kingdom won from the Moors in the eighth century, and Barcelona, the greatest of the Catalan cities. Though he divided the realm at his death, thus creating the enduring legacy of Castilian and Aragonese kingdoms, he left all his lands in the hands of one dynasty, the Jiménez, which kept the kingdoms allied by blood until the twelfth century. He made the Navarrese pocket kingdom strong, politically stable, and independent, preserving it for the remainder of the Middle Ages. It is for this that his seal has been appropriated by Basque nationalism, though, by dividing the realm, he isolated the kingdom and inhibited its ability to gain land at the expense of the Muslims. Summed up, his reign defined the political geography of Iberia until its union under the Catholic Monarchs.
Titles
Throughout his long reign, Sancho used a myriad of titles. After his coronation in León, he styled himself rex Dei gratia Hispaniarum, or "by the grace of God, king of the Spains", and may have minted coins with the legend "NAIARA/IMPERATOR". The use of the first title implied his kingship over all the independently founded Iberian kingdoms and the use of the form Dei gratia, adopted from French practice, stressed that his right to rule was of divine origin and sustenance. The latter, imperial title was only rarely employed, for it is not documented, being found only on coins only probably datable to his reign. It is not unlikely, however, that he desired to usurp the imperial title which the kings of León had thitherto carried.
Despite this, the contemporary ecclesiastic Abbot Oliva only ever acknowledged Sancho as rex Ibericus or rex Navarrae Hispaniarum, while he called both Alfonso V and Vermudo III emperor. The first title considers Sancho as king of all Iberia, as does the second, though it stresses his kingship over Navarre alone as if it had been extended to authority over the whole Christian portion of the peninsula. The near-contemporary writer Ibn Bassam, besides highlighting his virtues, calls him Lord of the Basques.
Marriage and family
Sancho III was married to Muniadona of Castile, daughter of Sancho García of Castile, count of Castile and Álava. They had the following children:
García Sánchez III, nicknamed "the one from Nájera", King of Pamplona from 1035 until his death in 1054 and married to Stephanie of Foix.
Fernando Sánchez, nicknamed "the Great", already Count of Castile, he became King of León from 1037 until his 1065 death, being Emperor of all Spain from 1056, married to Sancha of León.
Jimena Sánchez, Queen consort of León by her marriage to Bermudo III of León.
Gonzalo Sánchez, petty king of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza.
Before marrying Muniadona of Castile, Sancho III had a son with Sancha of Aibar:
Ramiro Sánchez, initially receiving lands in Aragon, he would come to be viewed as the first King of Aragon after succeeding to his brother Gonzalo's lands, he died in 1063.
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Sancho III el Mayor in Medieval History of Navarre
Map of the division of Sancho's realm.
|-
990s births
1035 deaths
11th-century Navarrese monarchs
House of Jiménez
Medieval child rulers
11th-century people from the Kingdom of Pamplona | [
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254597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roine%20Stolt | Roine Stolt | Roine Stolt (born 5 September 1956) is a Swedish guitarist, vocalist and composer.
A major figure in Sweden's rock history, Stolt led two of his country's most successful progressive rock bands: Kaipa in the 1970s and The Flower Kings in the 1990s onward.
Biography
Stolt started his career in the late 1960s playing bass guitar in local rock bands. He switched to guitar in 1973 and in the brief sojourn with Allman Brothers-influenced Orexis. In 1974 he became the guitarist in Kaipa, a professional progressive rock band, he was 17 years old at that time, the group made three successful albums and toured more than 100 gigs a year, including national TV and radio performances in Scandinavia.
In 1979 he left Kaipa to form his own group Fantasia and made two albums. The group split up in 1983 and Stolt started working as a solo and session musician, arranger and producer.
In the late 80's he started his own publishing and recording label called Foxtrot Music and was also involved in various projects including live performances and recording sessions with other artists going from symphonic rock towards more traditional rock, funk, pop, folk, blues and jazz. Under the "Stolt" project he released "The Lonely Heartbeat" in 1989, the sound is a mix of pop and complex rock.
Witnessing the progressive rock revival of the 1990s, a movement that partly originated from Sweden with bands like Landberk and Änglagård, Roine Stolt was quick to come back to his ancient love. Recruiting ex-Jonas Hellborg drummer Jaime Salazar and ex-Samla Mammas Manna percussionist Hasse Bruniusson, he released The Flower King in mid-August 1994. Stimulated by the warm response, he enlisted brother Michael Stolt (bass, vocals) and longtime friend Tomas Bodin (keyboards) and formed the Flower Kings, which would remain his principal musical project for years to come.
In 1998 he released his second solo album Hydrophonia which reveals major influences by early progressive musicians such as Frank Zappa and Steve Howe among others.
In the year 2000 Stolt worked in two different projects, the supergroup Transatlantic, and the re-launch of Kaipa in which he was involved in three albums from 2002–2005. He re-entered the studio with Transatlantic in 2009, for an album release later in the year.
In 2013, Stolt and The Flower Kings joined Neal Morse for a co-headlining tour in which the members of both bands collaborated for an encore consisting of Transatlantic songs, as 3 of the 4 members of Transatlantic were present (Roine Stolt, Neal Morse, and Mike Portnoy).
In 2015 Stolt joined Steve Hackett's touring band as bassist and guitarist for Hackett's Acolyte to Wolflight with Genesis Revisited Tour.
On 24 June 2016, the duo Stolt and Jon Anderson had formed released their debut studio album entitled Invention of Knowledge.
In 2017, Stolt co-formed the supergroup The Sea Within.
Discography
Family
Stolt and his wife Lilian have two sons, Johan Sebastian and Peter Gabriel, named after two of his all-time musical idols.
References
External links
Roine Stolt biography at The Flower Kings official site
[ Article in AMG by François Couture]
1956 births
Living people
Swedish rock guitarists
Transatlantic (band) members
The Flower Kings members
The Tangent members
Kaipa members
Inside Out Music artists | [
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254598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinen%20manga | Seinen manga | are Japanese comics marketed toward young adult men. In Japanese, the word seinen literally means "youth", but the term "seinen manga" is also used to describe the target audience of magazines like Weekly Manga Times and Weekly Manga Goraku which cater specifically to men's interests, and are marketed towards a demographic of adult men between the ages of 18 and 40. Seinen manga are distinguished from shōnen manga which are for younger teen boys, although some seinen manga like xxxHolic share similarities with shōnen manga. Seinen manga can focus on action, politics, science fiction, fantasy, relationships, sports, or comedy. The female equivalent to seinen manga is josei manga.
Seinen manga have a wide variety of art styles and variation in subject matter. Examples of seinen series include: Berserk, 20th Century Boys, Ghost in the Shell, Hellsing, Initial D, Maison Ikkoku, Master Keaton, Mushishi, Oh My Goddess!, Outlaw Star, and Tokyo Ghoul, as well as the formerly shōnen manga series JoJo's Bizarre Adventure and Trigun.
A common way to tell if a manga is seinen is by looking at whether furigana is used over the original kanji text: if there are furigana on all kanji, the title is generally aimed at a younger audience. The title of the magazine it was published in is also an important indicator. Usually Japanese manga magazines with the word "young" in the title (Weekly Young Jump for instance) are seinen. There are also mixed shōnen/seinen magazines such as Gangan Powered and Comp Ace. Other popular seinen manga magazines include Weekly Young Magazine, Weekly Young Sunday, Big Comic Spirits, Business Jump, Ultra Jump, and Afternoon.
History
One of the earliest manga magazines published in Japan was a seinen publication: Weekly Manga Times, first released in 1956. It was aimed squarely at middle-aged men, featuring erotic fiction and manga and tales of yakuza. It was only in 1959 that two of the main shōnen manga titles appeared: Weekly Shōnen Magazine and Weekly Shōnen Sunday. Then in 1967, the first of the magazines aimed at younger men appeared: Weekly Manga Action, which scored big hits with Lupin III and Lone Wolf and Cub, and later Crayon Shin-chan. Big Comic followed in 1968, perhaps best known for its series Golgo 13. The year 1972 saw the addition of Big Comic Original, which featured Tsuribaka Nisshi, a manga about two older men who enjoy fishing; the manga was made into a series of popular movies. In 1979, the publisher Shueisha, known for Weekly Shonen Jump for teen boys, entered the seinen market with Weekly Young Jump. Many Young Jump series have been adapted into anime or live action TV programs, e.g. Elfen Lied, Gantz, Hen, Kirara, Liar Game, Oku-sama wa Joshi Kōsei, and Zetman.
Magazines
A list of the top Japanese seinen manga magazines by circulation in the time-span from 1 October 2009 to 30 September 2010.
See also
Children's manga: intended for young children
Shōnen manga: intended for boys
Shōjo manga: intended for girls
Josei manga: intended for young women
Gekiga: intended for adults
References
External links
Japanese Magazine Publishers Association
Anime and manga terminology
Men's entertainment | [
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254606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer%20pricing | Transfer pricing | In taxation and accounting, transfer pricing refers to the rules and methods for pricing transactions within and between enterprises under common ownership or control. Because of the potential for cross-border controlled transactions to distort taxable income, tax authorities in many countries can adjust intragroup transfer prices that differ from what would have been charged by unrelated enterprises dealing at arm’s length (the arm’s-length principle). The OECD and World Bank recommend intragroup pricing rules based on the arm’s-length principle, and 19 of the 20 members of the G20 have adopted similar measures through bilateral treaties and domestic legislation, regulations, or administrative practice. Countries with transfer pricing legislation generally follow the OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations in most respects, although their rules can differ on some important details.
Where adopted, transfer pricing rules allow tax authorities to adjust prices for most cross-border intragroup transactions, including transfers of tangible or intangible property, services, and loans. For example, a tax authority may increase a company’s taxable income by reducing the price of goods purchased from an affiliated foreign manufacturer or raising the royalty the company must charge its foreign subsidiaries for rights to use a proprietary technology or brand name. These adjustments are generally calculated using one or more of the transfer pricing methods specified in the OECD guidelines and are subject to judicial review or other dispute resolution mechanisms.
Although transfer pricing is sometimes inaccurately presented by commentators as a tax avoidance practice or technique (transfer mispricing), the term refers to a set of substantive and administrative regulatory requirements imposed by governments on certain taxpayers. However, aggressive intragroup pricing – especially for debt and intangibles – has played a major role in corporate tax avoidance, and it was one of the issues identified when the OECD released its base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) action plan in 2013. The OECD’s 2015 final BEPS reports called for country-by-country reporting and stricter rules for transfers of risk and intangibles but recommended continued adherence to the arm’s-length principle. These recommendations have been criticized by many taxpayers and professional service firms for departing from established principles and by some academics and advocacy groups for failing to make adequate changes.
Transfer pricing should not be conflated with fraudulent trade mis-invoicing, which is a technique for concealing illicit transfers by reporting falsified prices on invoices submitted to customs officials. “Because they often both involve mispricing, many aggressive tax avoidance schemes by multinational corporations can easily be confused with trade misinvoicing. However, they should be regarded as separate policy problems with separate solutions,” according to Global Financial Integrity, a non-profit research and advocacy group focused on countering illicit financial flows.
In general
Over sixty governments have adopted transfer pricing rules, which in almost all cases (with the notable exceptions of Brazil and Kazakhstan) are based on the arm's-length principle. The rules of nearly all countries permit related parties to set prices in any manner, but permit the tax authorities to adjust those prices (for purposes of computing tax liability) where the prices charged are outside an arm's length range. Most, if not all, governments permit adjustments by the tax authority even where there is no intent to avoid or evade tax. The rules generally require that market level, functions, risks, and terms of sale of unrelated party transactions or activities be reasonably comparable to such items with respect to the related party transactions or profitability being tested.
Adjustment of prices is generally made by adjusting taxable income of all involved related parties within the jurisdiction, as well as adjusting any withholding or other taxes imposed on parties outside the jurisdiction. Such adjustments are generally made after filing of tax returns. For example, if Bigco US charges Bigco Germany for a machine, either the U.S. or German tax authorities may adjust the price upon examination of the respective tax return. Following an adjustment, the taxpayer generally is allowed (at least by the adjusting government) to make payments to reflect the adjusted prices.
Most systems allow use of transfer pricing multiple methods, where such methods are appropriate and are supported by reliable data, to test related party prices. Among the commonly used methods are comparable uncontrolled prices, cost-plus, resale price or markup, and profitability based methods. Many systems differentiate methods of testing goods from those for services or use of property due to inherent differences in business aspects of such broad types of transactions. Some systems provide mechanisms for sharing or allocation of costs of acquiring assets (including intangible assets) among related parties in a manner designed to reduce tax controversy. Most governments have granted authorization to their tax authorities to adjust prices charged between related parties. Many such authorizations, including those of the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Germany, allow domestic as well as international adjustments. Some authorizations apply only internationally.
In addition, most systems recognize that an arm's length price may not be a particular price point but rather a range of prices. Some systems provide measures for evaluating whether a price within such range is considered arm's length, such as the interquartile range used in U.S. regulations. Significant deviation among points in the range may indicate lack of reliability of data. Reliability is generally considered to be improved by use of multiple year data.
Most rules require that the tax authorities consider actual transactions between parties, and permit adjustment only to actual transactions. Multiple transactions may be aggregated or tested separately, and testing may use multiple year data. In addition, transactions whose economic substance differs materially from their form may be recharacterized under the laws of many systems to follow the economic substance.
Transfer pricing adjustments have been a feature of many tax systems since the 1930s. The United States led the development of detailed, comprehensive transfer pricing guidelines with a White Paper in 1988 and proposals in 1990–1992, which ultimately became regulations in 1994. In 1995, the OECD issued its transfer pricing guidelines which it expanded in 1996 and 2010. The two sets of guidelines are broadly similar and contain certain principles followed by many countries. The OECD guidelines have been formally adopted by many European Union countries with little or no modification.
Comparability
Most rules provide standards for when unrelated party prices, transactions, profitability or other items are considered sufficiently comparable in testing related party items. Such standards typically require that data used in comparisons be reliable and that the means used to compare produce a reliable result. The U.S. and OECD rules require that reliable adjustments must be made for all differences (if any) between related party items and purported comparables that could materially affect the condition being examined. Where such reliable adjustments cannot be made, the reliability of the comparison is in doubt. Comparability of tested prices with uncontrolled prices is generally considered enhanced by use of multiple data. Transactions not undertaken in the ordinary course of business generally are not considered to be comparable to those taken in the ordinary course of business. Among the factors that must be considered in determining comparability are:
the nature of the property or services provided between the parties,
functional analysis of the transactions and parties,
comparison of contractual terms (whether written, verbal, or implied from conduct of the parties),and
comparison of significant economic conditions that could affect prices, including the effects of different market levels and geographic markets.
Nature of property or services
Comparability is best achieved where identical items are compared. However, in some cases it is possible to make reliable adjustments for differences in the particular items, such as differences in features or quality. For example, gold prices might be adjusted based on the weight of the actual gold (one ounce of 10 carat gold would be half the price of one ounce of 20 carat gold).
Functions and risks
Buyers and sellers may perform different functions related to the exchange and undertake different risks. For example, a seller of a machine may or may not provide a warranty. The price a buyer would pay will be affected by this difference. Among the functions and risks that may impact prices are:
Product development
Manufacturing and assembly
Marketing and advertising
Transportation and warehousing
Credit risk
Product obsolescence risk
Market and entrepreneurial risks
Collection risk
Financial and currency risks
Company- or industry-specific items
Terms of sale
Manner and terms of sale may have a material impact on price. For example, buyers will pay more if they can defer payment and buy in smaller quantities. Terms that may impact price include payment timing, warranty, volume discounts, duration of rights to use of the product, form of consideration, etc.
Market level, economic conditions and geography
Goods, services, or property may be provided to different levels of buyers or users: producer to wholesaler, wholesaler to wholesaler, wholesaler to retailer, or for ultimate consumption. Market conditions, and thus prices, vary greatly at these levels. In addition, prices may vary greatly between different economies or geographies. For example, a head of cauliflower at a retail market will command a vastly different price in unelectrified rural India than in Tokyo. Buyers or sellers may have different market shares that allow them to achieve volume discounts or exert sufficient pressure on the other party to lower prices. Where prices are to be compared, the putative comparables must be at the same market level, within the same or similar economic and geographic environments, and under the same or similar conditions.
Testing of prices
Tax authorities generally examine prices actually charged between related parties to determine whether adjustments are appropriate. Such examination is by comparison (testing) of such prices to comparable prices charged among unrelated parties. Such testing may occur only on examination of tax returns by the tax authority, or taxpayers may be required to conduct such testing themselves in advance of filing tax returns. Such testing requires a determination of how the testing must be conducted, referred to as a transfer pricing method.
Best method rule
Some systems give preference to a specific method of testing prices. OECD and U.S. systems, however, provide that the method used to test the appropriateness of related party prices should be that method that produces the most reliable measure of arm's length results. This is often known as a "best method" rule. Factors to be considered include comparability of tested and independent items, reliability of available data and assumptions under the method, and validation of the results of the method by other methods.
Comparable uncontrolled price (CUP) method
The comparable uncontrolled price (CUP) method is a transactional method that determines the arm's-length price using the prices charged in comparable transactions between unrelated parties. In principle, the OECD and most countries that follow the OECD guidelines consider the CUP method to be the most direct method, provided that any differences between the controlled and uncontrolled transactions have no material effect on price or their effects can be estimated and corresponding price adjustments can be made. Adjustments may be appropriate where the controlled and uncontrolled transactions differ only in volume or terms; for example, an interest adjustment could be applied where the only difference is time for payment (e.g., 30 days vs. 60 days). For undifferentiated products such as commodities, price data for arm's-length transactions ("external comparables") between two or more other unrelated parties may be available. For other transactions, it may be possible to use comparable transactions ("internal comparables") between the controlled party and unrelated parties.
The criteria for reliably applying the CUP method are often impossible to satisfy for licenses and other transactions involving unique intangible property, requiring use of valuation methods based on profit projections.
Other transactional methods
Among other methods relying on actual transactions (generally between one tested party and third parties) and not indices, aggregates, or market surveys are:
Cost-plus (C+) method: goods or services provided to unrelated parties are consistently priced at actual cost plus a fixed markup. Testing is by comparison of the markup percentages.
Resale price method (RPM): goods are regularly offered by a seller or purchased by a retailer to/from unrelated parties at a standard "list" price less a fixed discount. Testing is by comparison of the discount percentages.
Gross margin method: similar to resale price method, recognised in a few systems.
Profit-based methods
Some methods of testing prices do not rely on actual transactions. Use of these methods may be necessary due to the lack of reliable data for transactional methods. In some cases, non-transactional methods may be more reliable than transactional methods because market and economic adjustments to transactions may not be reliable. These methods may include:
Comparable profits method (CPM): profit levels of similarly situated companies in similar industries may be compared to an appropriate tested party. See U.S. rules below.
Transactional net margin method (TNMM): while called a transactional method, the testing is based on profitability of similar businesses. See OECD guidelines below.
Profit split method: total enterprise profits are split in a formulary manner based on econometric analyses.
CPM and TNMM have a practical advantage in ease of implementation. Both methods rely on microeconomic analysis of data rather than specific transactions. These methods are discussed further with respect to the U.S. and OECD systems.
Two methods are often provided for splitting profits: comparable profit split and residual profit split. The former requires that profit split be derived from the combined operating profit of uncontrolled taxpayers whose transactions and activities are comparable to the transactions and activities being tested. The residual profit split method requires a two step process: first profits are allocated to routine operations, then the residual profit is allocated based on nonroutine contributions of the parties. The residual allocation may be based on external market benchmarks or estimation based on capitalised costs.
Tested party and profit level indicator
Where testing of prices occurs on other than a purely transactional basis, such as CPM or TNMM, it may be necessary to determine which of the two related parties should be tested. Testing is to be done of that party testing of which will produce the most reliable results. Generally, this means that the tested party is that party with the most easily compared functions and risks. Comparing the tested party's results to those of comparable parties may require adjustments to results of the tested party or the comparables for such items as levels of inventory or receivables.
Testing requires determination of what indication of profitability should be used. This may be net profit on the transaction, return on assets employed, or some other measure. Reliability is generally improved for TNMM and CPM by using a range of results and multiple year data.
this is based on circumstances of the relevant countries.
Intangible property issues
Valuable intangible property tends to be unique. Often there are no comparable items. The value added by use of intangibles may be represented in prices of goods or services, or by payment of fees (royalties) for use of the intangible property. Licensing of intangibles thus presents difficulties in identifying comparable items for testing. However, where the same property is licensed to independent parties, such license may provide comparable transactional prices. The profit split method specifically attempts to take value of intangibles into account.
Services
Enterprises may engage related or unrelated parties to provide services they need. Where the required services are available within a multinational group, there may be significant advantages to the enterprise as a whole for components of the group to perform those services. Two issues exist with respect to charges between related parties for services: whether services were actually performed which warrant payment, and the price charged for such services. Tax authorities in most major countries have, either formally or in practice, incorporated these queries into their examination of related party services transactions.
There may be tax advantages obtained for the group if one member charges another member for services, even where the member bearing the charge derives no benefit. To combat this, the rules of most systems allow the tax authorities to challenge whether the services allegedly performed actually benefit the member charged. The inquiry may focus on whether services were indeed performed as well as who benefited from the services. For this purpose, some rules differentiate stewardship services from other services. Stewardship services are generally those that an investor would incur for its own benefit in managing its investments. Charges to the investee for such services are generally inappropriate. Where services were not performed or where the related party bearing the charge derived no direct benefit, tax authorities may disallow the charge altogether.
Where the services were performed and provided benefit for the related party bearing a charge for such services, tax rules also permit adjustment to the price charged. Rules for testing prices of services may differ somewhat from rules for testing prices charged for goods due to the inherent differences between provision of services and sale of goods. The OECD Guidelines provide that the provisions relating to goods should be applied with minor modifications and additional considerations. In the U.S., a different set of price testing methods is provided for services. In both cases, standards of comparability and other matters apply to both goods and services.
It is common for enterprises to perform services for themselves (or for their components) that support their primary business. Examples include accounting, legal, and computer services for those enterprises not engaged in the business of providing such services. Transfer pricing rules recognize that it may be inappropriate for a component of an enterprise performing such services for another component to earn a profit on such services. Testing of prices charged in such case may be referred to a cost of services or services cost method. Application of this method may be limited under the rules of certain countries, and is required in some countries e.g. Canada.
Where services performed are of a nature performed by the enterprise (or the performing or receiving component) as a key aspect of its business, OECD and U.S. rules provide that some level of profit is appropriate to the service performing component. Canada's rules do not permit such profit. Testing of prices in such cases generally follows one of the methods described above for goods. The cost-plus method, in particular, may be favored by tax authorities and taxpayers due to ease of administration.
Cost sharing
Multi-component enterprises may find significant business advantage to sharing the costs of developing or acquiring certain assets, particularly intangible assets. Detailed U.S. rules provide that members of a group may enter into a cost sharing agreement (CSA) with respect to costs and benefits from the development of intangible assets. OECD Guidelines provide more generalized suggestions to tax authorities for enforcement related to cost contribution agreements (CCAs) with respect to acquisition of various types of assets. Both sets of rules generally provide that costs should be allocated among members based on respective anticipated benefits. Inter-member charges should then be made so that each member bears only its share of such allocated costs. Since the allocations must inherently be made based on expectations of future events, the mechanism for allocation must provide for prospective adjustments where prior projections of events have proved incorrect. However, both sets of rules generally prohibit applying hindsight in making allocations.
A key requirement to limit adjustments related to costs of developing intangible assets is that there must be a written agreement in place among the members. Tax rules may impose additional contractual, documentation, accounting, and reporting requirements on participants of a CSA or CCA, which vary by country.
Generally, under a CSA or CCA, each participating member must be entitled to use of some portion rights developed pursuant to the agreement without further payments. Thus, a CCA participant should be entitled to use a process developed under the CCA without payment of royalties. Ownership of the rights need not be transferred to the participants. The division of rights is generally to be based on some observable measure, such as by geography.
Participants in CSAs and CCAs may contribute pre-existing assets or rights for use in the development of assets. Such contribution may be referred to as a platform contribution. Such contribution is generally considered a deemed payment by the contributing member, and is itself subject to transfer pricing rules or special CSA rules.
A key consideration in a CSA or CCA is what costs development or acquisition costs should be subject to the agreement. This may be specified under the agreement, but is also subject to adjustment by tax authorities.
In determining reasonably anticipated benefits, participants are forced to make projections of future events. Such projections are inherently uncertain. Further, there may exist uncertainty as to how such benefits should be measured. One manner of determining such anticipated benefits is to project respective sales or gross margins of participants, measured in a common currency, or sales in units.
Both sets of rules recognize that participants may enter or leave a CSA or CCA. Upon such events, the rules require that members make buy-in or buy-out payments. Such payments may be required to represent the market value of the existing state of development, or may be computed under cost recovery or market capitalization models.
Penalties and documentation
Some jurisdictions impose significant penalties relating to transfer pricing adjustments by tax authorities. These penalties may have thresholds for the basic imposition of penalty, and the penalty may be increased at other thresholds. For example, U.S. rules impose a 20% penalty where the adjustment exceeds US$5 million, increased to 40% of the additional tax where the adjustment exceeds US$20 million.
The rules of many countries require taxpayers to document that prices charged are within the prices permitted under the transfer pricing rules. Where such documentation is not timely prepared, penalties may be imposed, as above. Documentation may be required to be in place prior to filing a tax return in order to avoid these penalties. Documentation by a taxpayer need not be relied upon by the tax authority in any jurisdiction permitting adjustment of prices. Some systems allow the tax authority to disregard information not timely provided by taxpayers, including such advance documentation. India requires that documentation not only be in place prior to filing a return, but also that the documentation be certified by the chartered accountant preparing a company return.
U.S. specific tax rules
U.S. transfer pricing rules are lengthy. They incorporate all of the principles above, using CPM (see below) instead of TNMM. U.S. rules specifically provide that a taxpayer's intent to avoid or evade tax is not a prerequisite to adjustment by the Internal Revenue Service, nor are nonrecognition provisions. The U.S. rules give no priority to any particular method of testing prices, requiring instead explicit analysis to determine the best method. U.S. comparability standards limit use of adjustments for business strategies in testing prices to clearly defined market share strategies, but permit limited consideration of location savings.
Comparable profits method
The Comparable Profits method (CPM) was introduced in the 1992 proposed regulations and has been a prominent feature of IRS transfer pricing practice since. Under CPM, the tested party's overall results, rather than its transactions, are compared with the overall results of similarly situated enterprises for whom reliable data is available. Comparisons are made for the profit level indicator that most reliably represents profitability for the type of business. For example, a sales company's profitability may be most reliably measured as a return on sales (pre-tax profit as a percent of sales).
CPM inherently requires lower levels of comparability in the nature of the goods or services. Further, data used for CPM generally can be readily obtained in the U.S. and many countries through public filings of comparable enterprises.
Results of the tested party or comparable enterprises may require adjustment to achieve comparability. Such adjustments may include effective interest adjustments for customer financing or debt levels, inventory adjustments, etc.
Cost plus and resale price issues
U.S. rules apply resale price method and cost-plus with respect to goods strictly on a transactional basis. Thus, comparable transactions must be found for all tested transactions in order to apply these methods. Industry averages or statistical measures are not permitted. Where a manufacturing entity provides contract manufacturing for both related and unrelated parties, it may readily have reliable data on comparable transactions. However, absent such in-house comparables, it is often difficult to obtain reliable data for applying cost-plus.
The rules on services expand cost-plus, providing an additional option to mitigate these data problems. Charges to related parties for services not in the primary business of either the tested party or the related party group are rebuttably presumed to be arm's length if priced at cost plus zero (the services cost method). Such services may include back-room operations (e.g., accounting and data processing services for groups not engaged in providing such services to clients), product testing, or a variety of such non-integral services. This method is not permitted for manufacturing, reselling, and certain other services that typically are integral to a business.
U.S. rules also specifically permit shared services agreements. Under such agreements, various group members may perform services which benefit more than one member. Prices charged are considered arm's length where the costs are allocated in a consistent manner among the members based on reasonably anticipated benefits. For instance, shared services costs may be allocated among members based on a formula involving expected or actual sales or a combination of factors.
Terms between parties
Under U.S. rules, actual conduct of the parties is more important than contractual terms. Where the conduct of the parties differs from terms of the contract, the IRS has authority to deem the actual terms to be those needed to permit the actual conduct.
Adjustments
U.S. rules require that the IRS may not adjust prices found to be within the arm's length range. Where prices charged are outside that range, prices may be adjusted by the IRS unilaterally to the midpoint of the range. The burden of proof that a transfer pricing adjustment by the IRS is incorrect is on the taxpayer unless the IRS adjustment is shown to be arbitrary and capricious. However, the courts have generally required that both taxpayers and the IRS to demonstrate their facts where agreement is not reached.
Documentation and penalties
If the IRS adjusts prices by more than $5 million or 10 percent of the taxpayer’s gross receipts, penalties apply. The penalty is 20% of the amount of the tax adjustment, increased to 40% at a higher threshold.
This penalty may be avoided only if the taxpayer maintains contemporaneous documentation meeting requirements in the regulations, and provides such documentation to the IRS within 30 days of IRS request. If documentation is not provided at all, the IRS may make adjustments based on any information it has available. Contemporaneous means the documentation existed with 30 days of filing the taxpayer's tax return. Documentation requirements are quite specific, and generally require a best method analysis and detailed support for the pricing and methodology used for testing such pricing. To qualify, the documentation must reasonably support the prices used in computing tax.
Commensurate with income standard
U.S. tax law requires that the foreign transferee/user of intangible property (patents, processes, trademarks, know-how, etc.) will be deemed to pay to a controlling transferor/developer a royalty commensurate with the income derived from using the intangible property. This applies whether such royalty is actually paid or not. This requirement may result in withholding tax on deemed payments for use of intangible property in the U.S.
OECD specific tax rules
OECD guidelines are voluntary for member nations. Some nations have adopted the guidelines almost unchanged. Terminology may vary between adopting nations, and may vary from that used above.
OECD guidelines give priority to transactional methods, described as the "most direct way" to establish comparability. The Transactional Net Margin Method and Profit Split methods are used either as methods of last resort or where traditional transactional methods cannot be reliably applied. CUP is not given priority among transactional methods in OECD guidelines. The Guidelines state, "It may be difficult to find a transaction between independent enterprises that is similar enough to a controlled transaction such that no differences have a material effect on price." Thus, adjustments are often required to either tested prices or uncontrolled process.
Comparability standards
OECD rules permit consideration of business strategies in determining if results or transactions are comparable. Such strategies include market penetration, expansion of market share, cost or location savings, etc.
Transactional net margin method
The transactional net margin method (TNMM) compares the net profitability of a transaction, or group or aggregation of transactions, to that of another transaction, group or aggregation. Under TNMM, use of actual, verifiable transactions is given strong preference. However, in practice TNMM allows making computations for company-level aggregates of transactions. Thus, TNMM may in some circumstances function like U.S. CPM.
Terms
Contractual terms and transactions between parties are to be respected under OECD rules unless both the substance of the transactions differs materially from those terms and following such terms would impede tax administration.
Adjustments
OECD rules generally do not permit tax authorities to make adjustments if prices charged between related parties are within the arm's length range. Where prices are outside such range, the prices may be adjusted to the most appropriate point. The burden of proof of the appropriateness of an adjustment is generally on the tax authority.
Documentation
OECD Guidelines do not provide specific rules on the nature of taxpayer documentation. Such matters are left to individual member nations.
EU
In 2002, the European Union created the EU Joint Transfer Pricing Forum. The Communication on "Tax and Development – Cooperating with Developing Countries in Promoting Good Governance in Tax Matters‟, COM (2010) 163 final, highlighted the need to support developing countries' capacity in mobilizing domestic resources for development in line with the principles of good governance in taxation. In this context, PwC prepared the report Transfer pricing and developing countries.
Many EU countries are currently implementing the OECD Guidelines for Transfer Pricing. The latest adopter is Cyprus which issued a ruling in 2017 for financial arrangements.
China specific tax rules
Prior to 2009, China generally followed OECD Guidelines. New guidelines were announced by the State Administration of Taxation (SAT) in March 2008 and issued in January 2009. These guidelines differed materially in approach from those in other countries in two principal ways: 1) they were guidelines issued instructing field offices how to conduct transfer pricing examinations and adjustments, and 2) factors to be examined differed by transfer pricing method. The guidelines covered:
Administrative matters
Required taxpayer filings and documentation
General transfer pricing principles, including comparability
Guidelines on how to conduct examinations
Advance pricing and cost sharing agreement administration
Controlled foreign corporation examinations
Thin capitalization
General anti-avoidance
On September 17, 2015, the SAT released a revised draft version of the "Implementation Measures for Special Tax Adjustment (Circular 2)," which replaced the previous 2009 guidelines. Three new sections were introduced under the revised draft: monitoring and management, intangible transactions/intra-group services and a new approach to transfer pricing documentation.
Documentation
Under the 2009 Circular, taxpayers must disclose related party transactions when filing tax returns. In addition, the circular provides for a three-tier set of documentation and reporting standards, based on the aggregate amount of intercompany transactions. Taxpayers affected by the rules who engaged in intercompany transactions under RMB 20 million for the year were generally exempted from reporting, documentation, and penalties. Those with transactions exceeding RMB 200 million generally were required to complete transfer pricing studies in advance of filing tax returns. For taxpayers in the top tier, documentation must include a comparability analysis and justification for the transfer pricing method chosen.
The 2015 draft introduced an overhauled three-tiered standardized approach to transfer pricing documentation. The tiers vary in documentation content and include the master file, the local file, and the country-by-country report. The draft also requires companies involved with related-party service transactions, cost sharing agreements or thin capitalization to submit a so-called "Special File."
General principles
Chinese transfer pricing rules apply to transactions between a Chinese business and domestic and foreign related parties. A related party includes enterprises meeting one of eight different tests, including 25% equity ownership in common, overlapping boards or management, significant debt holdings, and other tests. Transactions subject to the guidelines include most sorts of dealings businesses may have with one another.
The Circular instructs field examiners to review taxpayer's comparability and method analyses. The method of analyzing comparability and what factors are to be considered varies slightly by type of transfer pricing analysis method. The guidelines for CUP include specific functions and risks to be analyzed for each type of transaction (goods, rentals, licensing, financing, and services). The guidelines for resale price, cost-plus, transactional net margin method, and profit split are short and very general.
Cost sharing
The China rules provide a general framework for cost sharing agreements. This includes a basic structure for agreements, provision for buy-in and exit payments based on reasonable amounts, minimum operating period of 20 years, and mandatory notification of the SAT within 30 days of concluding the agreement.
Agreements between taxpayers and governments and dispute resolution
Tax authorities of most major countries have entered into unilateral or multilateral agreements between taxpayers and other governments regarding the setting or testing of related party prices. These agreements are referred to as advance pricing agreements or advance pricing arrangements (APAs). Under an APA, the taxpayer and one or more governments agree on the methodology used to test prices. APAs are generally based on transfer pricing documentation prepared by the taxpayer and presented to the government(s). Multilateral agreements require negotiations between the governments, conducted through their designated competent authority groups. The agreements are generally for some period of years, and may have retroactive effect. Most such agreements are not subject to public disclosure rules. Rules controlling how and when a taxpayer or tax authority may commence APA proceedings vary by jurisdiction.
Economic theory
The discussion in this section explains an economic theory behind optimal transfer pricing with optimal defined as transfer pricing that maximizes overall firm profits in a non-realistic world with no taxes, no capital risk, no development risk, no externalities or any other frictions which exist in the real world. In practice a great many factors influence the transfer prices that are used by multinational corporations, including performance measurement, capabilities of accounting systems, import quotas, customs duties, VAT, taxes on profits, and (in many cases) simple lack of attention to the pricing.
From marginal price determination theory, the optimum level of output is that where marginal cost equals marginal revenue. That is to say, a firm should expand its output as long as the marginal revenue from additional sales is greater than their marginal costs. In the diagram that follows, this intersection is represented by point A, which will yield a price of P*, given the demand at point B.
When a firm is selling some of its product to itself, and only to itself (i.e. there is no external market for that particular transfer good), then the picture gets more complicated, but the outcome remains the same. The demand curve remains the same. The optimum price and quantity remain the same. But marginal cost of production can be separated from the firm's total marginal costs. Likewise, the marginal revenue associated with the production division can be separated from the marginal revenue for the total firm. This is referred to as the net marginal revenue in production (NMR) and is calculated as the marginal revenue from the firm minus the marginal costs of distribution.
It can be shown algebraically that the intersection of the firm's marginal cost curve and marginal revenue curve (point A) must occur at the same quantity as the intersection of the production division's marginal cost curve with the net marginal revenue from production (point C).
If the production division is able to sell the transfer good in a competitive market (as well as internally), then again both must operate where their marginal costs equal their marginal revenue, for profit maximization. Because the external market is competitive, the firm is a price taker and must accept the transfer price determined by market forces (their marginal revenue from transfer and demand for transfer products becomes the transfer price). If the market price is relatively high (as in Ptr1 in the next diagram), then the firm will experience an internal surplus (excess internal supply) equal to the amount Qt1 minus Qf1. The actual marginal cost curve is defined by points A,C,D.
If the firm is able to sell its transfer goods in an imperfect market, then it need not be a price taker. There are two markets each with its own price (Pf and Pt in the next diagram). The aggregate market is constructed from the first two. That is, point C is a horizontal summation of points A and B (and likewise for all other points on the net marginal revenue curve (NMRa)). The total optimum quantity (Q) is the sum of Qf plus Qt.
Alternative approaches to profit allocation
A frequently-proposed alternative to arm's-length principle-based transfer pricing rules is formulary apportionment, under which corporate profits are allocated according to objective metrics of activity such as sales, employees, or fixed assets. Some countries (including Canada and the United States) allocate taxing rights among their political subdivisions in this way, and it has recommended by the European Commission for use within the European Union. According to the amicus curiae brief, filed by the attorneys general of Alaska, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon in support of the state of California in the U.S. Supreme Court case of Barclays Bank PLC v. Franchise Tax Board, the formulary apportionment method, which is also known as the unitary apportionment method, has at least three major advantages over the separate accounting system when applied to multi-jurisdictional businesses. First, the unitary method captures the added wealth and value resulting from economic interdependencies of multistate and multinational corporations through their functional integration, centralization of management, and economies of scale. A unitary business also benefits from more intangible values shared among its constituent parts, such as reputation, good will, customers and other business relationships. See, e.g., Mobil, 445 U.S. at 438–40; Container, 463 U.S. at 164–65.
Separate accounting, with its emphasis on carving out of the overall business only income from sources within a single state, ignores the value attributable to the integrated nature of the business. Yet, to a large degree, the wealth, power, and profits of the world's large multinational enterprises are attributable to the very fact that they are integrated, unitary businesses. Hellerstein Treatise, P8.03 at 8-32.n9 As one commentator has explained: To believe that multinational corporations do not maintain an advantage over independent corporations operating within a similar business sphere is to ignore the economic and political strength of the multinational giants. By attempting to treat those businesses which are in fact unitary as independent entities, separate accounting "operates in a universe of pretense; as in Alice in Wonderland, it turns reality into fancy and then pretends it is the real world".
Because countries impose different corporate tax rates, a corporation that has a goal of minimizing the overall taxes to be paid will set transfer prices to allocate more of the worldwide profit to lower tax countries. Many countries attempt to impose penalties on corporations if the countries consider that they are being deprived of taxes on otherwise taxable profit. However, since the participating countries are sovereign entities, obtaining data and initiating meaningful actions to limit tax avoidance is hard. A publication of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) states, "Transfer prices are significant for both taxpayers and tax administrations because they determine in large part the income and expenses, and therefore taxable profits, of associated enterprises in different tax jurisdictions."
See also
Base erosion and profit shifting
Corporate tax haven
Double Irish arrangement
Ireland as a tax haven
Reading and overall reference list
International:
Wittendorff, Jens: Transfer Pricing and the Arm's Length Principle in International Tax Law, 2010, Kluwer Law International, .
Canada:
Section 247 of the Income Tax Act (Canada)
Information Circular 87-2R - International Transfer Pricing (1999)
Information Circular 94-4R - International Transfer Pricing: Advance Pricing Arrangements (APAs) (2001)
TPM 07 - Referrals to the Transfer Pricing Review Committee (2005)
TPM 09 - Reasonable efforts under section 247 of the Income Tax Act (2006)
China:
Major international accounting and law firms have published summaries of the guidelines. See their web sites.
India:
Income Tax Department's compilation of Transfer Pricing Rules
Domestic Transfer Pricing Overview
Nigeria:
Transfer Pricing Regulations 2012 - Federal Inland Revenue Service
OECD:
Transfer Pricing Country Profiles, a useful cross reference to guidance in each member country
Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS), OECD landing page
Russian Federation:
Tax Code of Russian Federation
United Kingdom:
Transfer pricing statute: ICTA88/Sch 28AA
HMRC International Manual Transfer Pricing INTM430000
United Nations
United States:
Law: 26 USC 482
Regulations: 26 CFR 1.482-0 through 9
IRS view on OECD rules: https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-apa/apa_training_oecd_guidelines.pdf
APA Procedure: Rev. Proc. 2008-31
Feinschreiber, Robert: Transfer Pricing Methods, 2004,
Parker, Kenneth and Levey, Marc: Tax Director's Guide to International Transfer Pricing, 2008,
Services by Thompson RIA and Wolters Kluwer: search "transfer pricing" on their websites
References
External links
OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations 2017
OECD transfer pricing resources
Ernst & Young *2010 Global Transfer Pricing survey
Ernst & Young *2009 Global Transfer Pricing survey
OECD Transfer Pricing Country Profiles
China's new transfer pricing regulations 2009
IRS transfer pricing documentation
Customs vs Tax agencies in transfer pricing
Transfer Pricing Litigations
Pricing
Competition (economics)
International taxation
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254607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shtick | Shtick | A shtick () is a comic theme or gimmick. The word entered the English language from the Yiddish shtik (שטיק), in turn derived from German Stück and Polish sztuka (both ultimately from Proto-Germanic *stukkiją), all meaning "piece", "thing" or "theatre play"; note that "Theaterstück" is the German
word for play (theatre) (and is a synonym of "Schauspiel", literally "viewing play"
in contrast to the "Singspiel").
The English word "piece" is sometimes used in a similar context (e.g., a musical piece).
In stand-up comedy context a near equivalent term is a "bit". Another variant is "bits of business" or just "bits". Shtick may refer to an adopted persona, usually for comedy performances, that is maintained consistently (though not necessarily exclusively) across the performer's career. In this usage, the recurring personalities adopted by Laurel and Hardy through all of their many comedy films (although they often played characters with different names and occupations) would qualify as their shtick. A comedian might maintain several different shticks of this sort, particularly if appearing in a variety show encouraging development of multiple characters, such as Saturday Night Live.
In common usage, the word shtick has also come to mean any talent, style, habit, or other eccentricity for which a person is particularly well-known, even if not intended for comedic purposes. For example, a person who is known locally for an ability to eat dozens of hot dogs quickly might say that it was his shtick. Among Orthodox Jews, "shtick" can also refer to wedding shtick, in which wedding guests entertain the bride and groom through dancing, costumes, juggling, and silliness.
Because of its roots in show business, shtick has taken on connotation of a contrived and often used act. For this reason, journalists and commentators often apply the word disparagingly to stock replies from politicians.
Notable examples
Jack Benny's character on his radio program was notoriously both stingy and a bad violin player, as well as being perpetually 39 years old. In real life, Benny was known as a competent violinist and lavish tipper, and kept celebrating his 39th birthday each year publicly because "there's nothing funny about 40".
Three of the Marx Brothers, Groucho, Chico and Harpo, had well-honed shticks by the time they started making movies.
Groucho, with his stooped walk, greasepaint moustache, lascivious eyebrow raising, and his cigar;
Chico, with his fake Italian accent, his "shooting the keys" style of piano playing, and borderline moronic behavior; and
Harpo, with his pantomime routines, the seemingly bottomless pockets of his trench coat, and his ability to play the harp.
The fourth performing brother, Zeppo, never developed a shtick and was a straight man in their movies — though some have argued that blandness and "normality" was indeed his shtick.
W.C. Fields nurtured a character that was not far from himself in real life, being misanthropic, misogynistic, and a hard drinker, as well as the unique bellow of his voice and his famous bulbous nose.
Many of the performers over the course of Saturday Night Live'''s long broadcast history have developed shticks that were popular enough to be developed into feature films. The earliest of these was The Blues Brothers, the dark-suited alter egos of Dan Aykroyd and John Belushi, which spawned two movies and several actual blues albums. Of the movies that followed in later years, some met with similar success (such as Mike Myers' Wayne's World), while others are regarded as critical and commercial disasters (Julia Sweeney's It's Pat''!).
Henny Youngman's standard line "Take my wife — please!" was part of his shtick. It consisted of several one-liners delivered in rapid-fire sequence.
Johnny Carson's many shticks include his role as "Carnac the Magnificent", an Indian fortune teller who could divine answers to questions sealed in envelopes and "kept in a hermetically sealed mayonnaise jar on the front porch of Funk & Wagnalls since noon today". His signature imaginary golf swing at the end of his monologue would also qualify.
Chris Berman's shtick in his ESPN commentary was his tendency to give additional nicknames to players based on their last names (often intended as puns or pop culture references). Berman was also known to often say a football player "could — go — all — the — way" on long touchdown plays (parodying Howard Cosell's delivery).
Comedian George Carlin created a famously banned shtick, "Filthy Words", a/k/a "Seven dirty words."
Andrew Dice Clay's shtick in his comedy routines is his crude, misogynist themed humor, and sometimes vulgar reinterpretations of nursery rhymes.
Rodney Dangerfield's shtick was centered around his famous catchphrase, "I don't get no respect," accompanied by his characteristic facial gesture and yanking or straightening his scarlet necktie.
Stephen Colbert has referred to his character from his show The Colbert Report as a shtick.
Andy Kaufman was a particularly rigorous practitioner of shtick. Kaufman almost never appeared in public, other than as one of his shtick characters, such as "Foreign Man" or Tony Clifton. When he did appear as himself, he still acted out some shtick routine, with one notable example being a long-running professional wrestling feud with Jerry Lawler.
The Rubberbandits are Irish comedians who wear plastic bags over their faces as shtick.
Yakov Smirnoff's shtick, at the height of his career, involved comparisons between the United States and the Soviet Union, punctuated by the catchphrase "What a country!".
Lewis Black's shtick is the crescendo of rage upon which his routines are built; another is bewailing the rise in his blood pressure due to the presumed strain of these outbursts.
Sam Kinison's shtick was his increasingly emotional, high-stress vocal delivery, often leading to actual shouting or screaming, to the point where his voice became hoarse.
Bob Newhart's shtick is his long phone calls with imaginary or historical persons. Hearing only Newhart's deadpan comments, the audience is left to infer what the other person is saying.
All original members of The Wiggles were known for having shticks. Jeff Fatt's was falling asleep at odd times, leading the other Wiggles and the audience to call out the catchphrase "Wake Up Jeff!", Anthony Field's was eating too much food, Greg Page's was doing magic tricks, and Murray Cook's was an obsession with playing the guitar.
Penn and Teller's shtick focuses mainly on which part of the duo does the talking; Penn provides the only on-stage narration and is the only public voice of the act, whereas Teller never speaks on stage or on camera. In on-camera interviews, Teller remains in shadow, and in rare circumstances when Teller speaks on-stage, his face is obscured.
Gilbert Gottfried's stage persona, with his perpetually high-pitched squeaky voice and pinched face, is a shtick that has been maintained through almost all of his public appearances and television and film roles.
Larry the Cable Guy's stage persona, developed during his days as a member of a morning radio zoo crew, is considered a shtick. Despite his public appearances as a hillbilly with a deep Southern accent, propensity for wearing sleeveless flannel shirts and his signature "Git-R-Done!" catchphrase, the comedian, whose real name is Daniel Whitney, is a native of Nebraska.
See also
Trope
References
Comedy
Yiddish words and phrases
Jewish comedy and humor | [
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254609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonello%20da%20Messina | Antonello da Messina | Antonello da Messina, properly Antonello di Giovanni di Antonio, but also called Antonello degli Antoni and Anglicized as Anthony of Messina ( 1430February 1479), was a Sicilian painter from Messina, active during the Early Italian Renaissance. His work shows strong influences from Early Netherlandish painting, although there is no documentary evidence that he ever travelled beyond Italy. Giorgio Vasari credited him with the introduction of oil painting into Italy. Unusually for a south Italian artist of the Renaissance, his work proved influential on painters in northern Italy, especially in Venice.
Biography
Early life and training
Antonello was born at Messina around 1429–1431, to Garita (Margherita) and Giovanni de Antonio Mazonus, a sculptor who trained him early on.
Antonello is thought to have apprenticed in Rome before going to Naples, where Netherlandish painting was then fashionable. According to a letter written in 1524 by the Neapolitan humanist Pietro Summonte, in about 1450 Antonello was a pupil of the painter Niccolò Colantonio in Naples. This account of his training is accepted by most art historians.
Early career
Antonello returned to Messina from Naples during the 1450s. In around 1455, he painted the so-called Sibiu Crucifixion, inspired by Flemish treatments of the subject, which is now in the Muzeul de Artǎ in Bucharest. A Crucifixion in the Royal Museum of Antwerp dates from the same period. These early works shows a marked Flemish influence, which is now understood to be inspired by his master Colantonio and from paintings by Rogier van der Weyden and Jan van Eyck that belonged to Colantonio's patron, Alfonso V of Aragon.
In his biography of the artist, Giorgio Vasari remarked that Antonello saw an oil painting by Van Eyck (the Lomellini Tryptych) belonging to King Alfonso V of Aragon at Naples and consequently introduced oil painting to Italy. Recent evidence indicates that an "Antonello di Sicilia" (di Siclia meaning 'from Sicily') was in contact with Van Eyck's most accomplished follower, Petrus Christus, in Milan in early 1456. It appears likely that this was in fact Antonello da Messina as this would explain why he was one of the first Italians to master Eyckian oil painting, and why Christus was the first Netherlandish painter to learn Italian linear perspective. Antonello's paintings after that date show an observation of almost microscopic detail and of minute gradations of light on reflecting or light absorbent objects that is very close to the style of the Netherlandish masters, suggesting that Antonello was personally instructed by Christus. Also, the calmer expressions on human faces and calmness in the overall composition of Antonello's works appear to be owing to a Netherlandish influence. He is believed to have shared Van Eyck's techniques with Gentile and Giovanni Bellini.
Between the years of 1456 and 1457, Antonello proved himself to be a master painter in Messina. He also shared his home with Paolo di Ciacio, a student from Calabria. The artist's earliest documented commission, in 1457, was for a banner for the Confraternità di San Michele dei Gerbini in Reggio Calabria, where he set up a workshop for the production of such banners and devotional images. At this date, he was already married, and his son Jacobello had been born.
In 1460, his father is mentioned leasing a brigantine to bring back Antonello and his family from Amantea in Calabria. In that year, Antonello painted the so-called Salting Madonna, in which standard iconography and Flemish style are combined with a greater attention in the volumetric proportions of the figures, probably indicating a knowledge of works by Piero della Francesca. Also from around 1460 are two small panels depicting Abraham Served by the Angels and St. Jerome Penitent now in the Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia in Reggio Calabria. In 1461 Antonello's younger brother Giordano entered his workshop, signing a three-year contract. In that year Antonello painted a Madonna with Child for the Messinese nobleman Giovanni Mirulla, now lost.
Historians believe that Antonello painted his first portraits in the late 1460s. They follow a Netherlandish model, the subject being shown bust-length, against a dark background, full face or in three-quarter view, while most previous Italian painters had adopted the medal-style profile pose for individual portraits. John Pope-Hennessy described him as "the first Italian painter for whom the individual portrait was an art form in its own right".
Although Antonello is mentioned in many documents between 1460 and 1465, establishing his presence in Messina in those years, a gap in the sources between 1465 and 1471 suggests that he may have spent these years on the mainland. In 1474, he painted the Annunciation, now in Syracuse, and the St. Jerome in His Study also dates from around this time.
Venice
Antonello went to Venice in 1475 and remained there until the fall of 1476. His works of this period begin to show a greater attention to the human figure, regarding both anatomy and expressivity, indicating the influence of Piero della Francesca and Giovanni Bellini. His most famous pictures from this period include the Condottiero (Louvre), the San Cassiano Altarpiece and the St. Sebastian. The San Cassiano Altarpiece was especially influential on Venetian painters, as it was one of the first of the large compositions in the sacra conversazione format which was perfected by Giovanni Bellini (Antonello's surviving work in Vienna is only a fragment of a much larger original). It is also likely that Antonello passed on both the techniques of using oil paints and the principles of calmness on subjects' faces and in the composition of paintings to Giovanni Bellini and other Venetian painters during that visit. While in Venice he was offered, but did not accept, the opportunity to become the court portrait painter to the Duke of Milan.
Return to Messina and death
Antonello had returned to Sicily by September 1476. Works from near the end of his life include the famous Virgin Annunciate, now in the Palazzo Abatellis in Palermo, and the San Gregorio Polyptych.
He died at Messina in 1479. His testament dates from February of that year, and he is documented as no longer alive two months later. Some of his last works remained unfinished, but were completed by his son Jacobello.
Style and legacy
Antonello's style is remarkable for its union of Italian simplicity with Flemish concern for detail. He exercised an enormous influence on Italian painting, not only by the introduction of the Flemish invention, but also by the transmission of Flemish tendencies. However, no school of painting formed after his death, with the exception of the Sicilian Marco Costanzo.
Selected works
Sibiu Crucifixion (1455) - Muzeul de Artà, Bucharest
Abraham Served by the Angels - Museo della Magna Grecia, Reggio Calabria
Ecce Homo (c. 1470) - Tempera and oil on panel, 42.5 x 30.5 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Ecce Homo (1470) - Tempera and oil on panel, 40 x 33 cm, Galleria Nazionale di Palazzo Spinola, Genoa
St. Jerome Penitent - Various techniques on wood, 40.2 x 30.2 cm, Museo della Magna Grecia, Reggio Calabria
San Gregorio Polyptych (1473) - Tempera on panel, 194 x 202 cm, Regional Museum, Messina
Ecce Homo (c. 1473) - Tempera on panel, 19.5 x 14.3 cm, Private collection, New York City
Portrait of a Man (1474) - Oil on wood, Staatliche Museen, Berlin
Madonna with Child (Salting Madonna) - Oil on wood, 43.2 x 34.3 cm, National Gallery, London
Portrait of a Man (1474) - Oil on wood, 32 x 26 cm, Staatliche Museen, Berlin
Annunciation (1474) - Oil on panel, 180 x 180 cm, Bellomo Palace Regional Gallery, Syracuse
St. Jerome in His Study (c. 1474) - Oil on wood, 46 x 36,5 cm, National Gallery, London
Ecce Homo (1475) - Oil on panel, 48.5 x 38 cm, Collegio Alberoni, Piacenza
Portrait of a Man (Il Condottiere) (1475) - Oil on wood, 35 x 38 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris
Crucifixion (1455) - Oil on panel 52.5 x 42.5 cm, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp
Crucifixion (1475) - Wood, 42 x 25,5 cm, National Gallery, London
Portrait of a Man (c. 1475) - Oil on wood, Galleria Borghese, Rome
Portrait of a Man (c. 1475) - Oil on panel, 36 x 25 cm, National Gallery, London
Portrait of a Man (1475–1476) - Oil on panel, 28 x 21 cm, Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid
San Cassiano Altarpiece (1475–76) - Oil on panel, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
The Dead Christ Supported by an Angel (1475–78) - Panel, 74 x 51 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid
Christ at the Column (c. 1475–1479) - Oil on wood, 25,8 x 21 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris
Virgin of the Annunciation -Oil on panel, Alte Pinakothek, Munich
Portrait of a Man (1476) - Oil on panel, Museo Civico d'Arte Antica, Turin
Virgin of the Annunciation (c. 1476) - Oil on wood, 45 x 34,5 cm, Museo Nazionale, Palermo
St. Sebastian (1477–1479) - Oil on canvas transferred from panel, 171 × 85 cm, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden
Portrait of a Young Man (c. 1478) - Panel, 20.4 x 14.5 cm, Staatliche Museeun, Berlin
Portrait of an unknown man - Oil on panel, Museo Mandralisca, Cefalù
Madonna and Child - Oil and tempera on panel transferred from panel, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
References
Sources
(online).
Christiansen, Keith. “Antonello da Messina (ca. 1430–1479).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (March 2010)
External links
Antonello da Messina in the "History of Art"
Antonello da Messina – Biography and Works
Best of Sicily Magazine article on Antonello da Messina and the technique of egg tempera / oil media
Web Gallery of Art
Guardian article on Portrait of a Man
Petrus Christus: Renaissance master of Bruges, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Antonello da Messina (see index)
Italian Renaissance painters
Quattrocento painters
1430s births
1479 deaths
Italian male painters
Italian portrait painters
Painters from Messina
Kingdom of Sicily people
15th-century Italian painters
Catholic painters | [
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254610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketuvim | Ketuvim | Ketuvim (; Kethūvīm "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), after Torah (instruction) and Nevi'im (prophets). In English translations of the Hebrew Bible, this section is usually titled "Writings" or "Hagiographa".
In the Ketuvim, I and II Chronicles form one book, along with Ezra and Nehemiah which form a single unit entitled "Ezra–Nehemiah". (In citations by chapter and verse numbers, however, the Hebrew equivalents of "Nehemiah", "I Chronicles" and "II Chronicles" are used, as the system of chapter division was imported from Christian usage.) Collectively, eleven books are included in the Ketuvim.
Groups of books
Sifrei Emet
In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet ( sip̄rēi ʾemeṯ "documents of truth" - an acronym of the titles of the three books in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet, which is also the Hebrew for "truth").
These three books are also the only ones in the Hebrew Bible with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.
The Five Megillot
The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Five Megillot (Hamesh Megillot/ Five Scrolls). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon. These scrolls are traditionally read over the course of the year in many Jewish communities. The list below presents them in the order they are read in the synagogue on holidays, beginning with the Song of Songs on Passover.
Other books
The remaining books in the Ketuvim are the Book of Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah and the Books of Chronicles. These books share a number of distinguishing characteristics:
The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.
Daniel and Ezra are the only books in the Hebrew Bible with significant portions in Biblical Aramaic.
These two also describe relatively late events (i.e., the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).
Order of the books
The following list presents the books of the Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.
The Sifrei Emet:
Tehillim (Psalms) תְהִלִּים
Mishlei (Book of Proverbs) מִשְלֵי
Iyyôbh (Book of Job) אִיּוֹב
The Five Megillot
Shīr Hashīrīm (Song of Songs) שִׁיר הַשִׁירִים (Passover)
Rūth (Book of Ruth) רוּת (Feast of Weeks)
Eikhah (Lamentations) איכה (Ninth of Av or the Day of Atonement) [also called Kinnot in Hebrew]
Qōheleth (Ecclesiastes) קהלת (Feast of Tabernacles)
Estēr (Book of Esther) אֶסְתֵר (Feast of Lots)
Other books
Dānî’ēl (Book of Daniel) דָּנִיֵּאל
‘Ezrā (Book of Ezra–Book of Nehemiah) עזרא
Divrei ha-Yamim (Chronicles) דברי הימים
The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in the Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b–15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles.
In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, and Ezra.
Canonization
The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as Biblical canon. There is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars argue that it was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty, while others argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later.
While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, Michael Coogan says that the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century CE. According to T. Henshaw, as early as 132 BCE some references suggesting that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, though it lacked a formal title. Jacob Neusner argues that the notion of a biblical canon was not prominent in 2nd-century Rabbinic Judaism or even later.
Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable"; Michael Barber, however, avers that Josephus' canon is "not identical to that of the modern Hebrew Bible". For a long time, following this date, the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Kohelet (Ecclesiastes) was often under scrutiny.
In the 20th century, many scholars seemed to believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the Council of Jamnia ( 90 CE). But the theory of the Council of Jamnia is largely discredited today.
Liturgical use
There is no formal system of synagogal reading of Ketuvim equivalent to the Torah portion and haftarah. It is thought that there was once a cycle for reading the Psalms, parallel to the triennial cycle for Torah reading, as the number of psalms (150) is similar to the number of Torah portions in that cycle, and remnants of this tradition exist in Italy. All Jewish liturgies contain copious extracts from the Psalms, but these are normally sung to a regular recitative or rhythmic tune rather than read or chanted. Some communities also have a custom of reading Proverbs in the weeks following Pesach, and Job on the Ninth of Ab.
The five megillot are read on the festivals, as mentioned above, though Sephardim have no custom of public reading of Song of Songs on Passover or Ecclesiastes on Sukkot. There are traces of an early custom of reading a haftarah from Ketuvim on Shabbat afternoons, but this does not survive in any community. Some Reform communities that operate a triennial cycle choose haftarot on Shabbat morning from Ketuvim as well as Neviim.
Extraliturgical public reading
In some Near and Middle Eastern Jewish traditions, the whole of Ketuvim (as well as the rest of the Tanakh and the Mishnah) is read each year on a weekly rota, usually on Shabbat afternoons. These reading sessions are not considered to be synagogue services, and often took place in the synagogue courtyard.
Cantillation
Medieval sources speak of three cantillation melodies, for Torah, Nevi'im and Ketuvim respectively. Today the position is more complicated. Oriental Sephardic communities preserve cantillation systems for the three poetic books, namely Psalms, Proverbs and the main part of Job (usually a different melody for each of the three books). No such systems exist in the Ashkenazi or Spanish and Portuguese traditions. However, the Ashkenazic yeshiva known as Aderet Eliyahu, in the Old City of Jerusalem, uses an adaptation of the Syrian cantillation-melody for these books, and this is becoming more popular among other Ashkenazim as well.
In all communities there are special cantillation melodies for Lamentations and Esther, and in some communities for the Song of Songs. Otherwise, the melody for the book of Ruth is considered the "default" melody for books of the Ketuvim not otherwise provided for. The "prose" passages at the beginning and end of the book of Job, as read on Tisha B'Av, may be read either to the tune of Ruth or to one resembling that for the Song of Songs.
The Targum to Ketuvim
Western targumim exist on Sifrei Emet, on the Five Megillot and on Chronicles, i.e. on all the books of Ketuvim besides Daniel and Ezra (which contain large portions in Aramaic anyway). There are several complementary targumim to Esther.
There is, however, no "official" eastern (Babylonian) targum to Ketuvim, equivalent to Targum Onkelos on the Torah and Targum Jonathan on Nevi'im. In fact, the Babylonian Talmud explicitly notes the lack of a Targum to Ketuvim, explaining that Jonathan ben Uzziel was divinely prevented from completing his translation of the Bible. A more prosaic explanation may consist in the lack of regular formal readings of Ketuvim in the synagogue (except the five Megillot), making it unnecessary to have an official system for line-by-line translation.
See also
Books of the Bible
References
External links
David Betesh and the Sephardic Pizmonim Project (Syrian melodies).
Tehillim (Psalms) on CD-Rom (Syrian tradition, Rabbi Shimon Alouf).
Leining Master, Ashkenazi melodies for the five megillot.
"Potpourri for Purim", melodies for Megillat Ester in various traditional styles.
1st-millennium BC books
Hebrew Bible words and phrases
Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish law
Hebrew words and phrases in the Hebrew Bible
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254621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus%20Duronius | Marcus Duronius | Marcus Duronius was a tribune of the plebs, most likely in 97 BC. He abrogated a sumptuary law, one of the Leges Liciniae. In retaliation, the Roman censors Lucius Valerius Flaccus and Marcus Antonius expelled him from the Senate. Duronius then brought an accusation of ambitus against Antonius.
References
See also
Duronia (gens), for other members of the family
1st-century BC Romans
Tribunes of the plebs | [
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254627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nellie%20Melba | Nellie Melba | Dame Nellie Melba GBE (born Helen Porter Mitchell; 19 May 186123 February 1931) was an Australian operatic soprano. She became one of the most famous singers of the late Victorian era and the early 20th century, and was the first Australian to achieve international recognition as a classical musician. She took the pseudonym "Melba" from Melbourne, her home town.
Melba studied singing in Melbourne and made a modest success in performances there. After a brief and unsuccessful marriage, she moved to Europe in search of a singing career. Failing to find engagements in London in 1886, she studied in Paris and soon made a great success there and in Brussels. Returning to London she quickly established herself as the leading lyric soprano at Covent Garden from 1888. She soon achieved further success in Paris and elsewhere in Europe, and later at the Metropolitan Opera in New York, debuting there in 1893. Her repertoire was small; in her whole career she sang no more than 25 roles and was closely identified with only ten. She was known for her performances in French and Italian opera, but sang little German opera.
During the First World War, Melba raised large sums for war charities. She returned to Australia frequently during the 20th century, singing in opera and concerts, and had a house built for her near Melbourne. She was active in the teaching of singing at the Melbourne Conservatorium. Melba continued to sing until the last months of her life and made a large number of "farewell" appearances. Her death, in Australia, was news across the English-speaking world, and her funeral was a major national event. The Australian $100 note features her image.
Life and career
Early years
Melba was born in Richmond, Victoria, the eldest of seven children of the builder David Mitchell and his wife Isabella Ann née Dow. Mitchell, a Scot, had emigrated to Australia in 1852, becoming a successful builder. Melba was taught to play the piano and first sang in public around age six. She was educated at a local boarding school and then at the Presbyterian Ladies' College. She studied singing with Mary Ellen Christian (a former pupil of Manuel García) and Pietro Cecchi, an Italian tenor, who was a respected teacher in Melbourne. In her teens, Melba continued to perform in amateur concerts in and around Melbourne, and she played the organ at church. Her father encouraged her in her musical studies, but he strongly disapproved of her taking up singing as a career. Melba's mother died suddenly in 1881 at Richmond.
Melba's father moved the family to Mackay, Queensland, where he built a new sugar mill. Melba soon became popular in Mackay society for her singing and piano-playing. On 22 December 1882 in Brisbane, she married Charles Nesbitt Frederick Armstrong (1858–1948), the youngest son of Sir Andrew Armstrong. They had one child, a son, George, born on 16 October 1883. The marriage was not a success; Charles reportedly beat his wife more than once. The couple separated after just over a year, and Melba returned to Melbourne determined to pursue a singing career, debuting professionally in concerts in 1884. She was often accompanied in concert, and some of her concerts were organised, at times throughout her career by the flautist John Lemmone, who became a "lifelong friend and counsellor". On the strength of local success, she travelled to London in search of an opportunity. Her debut at the Princes' Hall in 1886 made little impression, and she sought work unsuccessfully from Sir Arthur Sullivan, Carl Rosa and Augustus Harris. She then went to Paris to study with the leading teacher Mathilde Marchesi, who instantly recognised the young singer's potential: she exclaimed, "J'ai enfin une étoile! ("I have a star at last!"). Melba made such rapid progress that she was allowed to sing the "Mad Scene" from Ambroise Thomas's Hamlet at a matinée musicale in Marchesi's house in December the same year, in the presence of the composer.
The young singer's talent was so evident that, after less than a year with Marchesi, the impresario Maurice Strakosch gave her a ten-year contract at 1000 francs annually. After she had signed, she received a far better offer of 3000 francs per month from the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels, but Strakosch would not release her and obtained an injunction preventing her from accepting it. She was in despair when the matter was resolved by Strakosch's sudden death. She made her operatic debut four days later as Gilda in Rigoletto at La Monnaie on 12 October 1887. The critic Herman Klein described her Gilda as "an instant triumph of the most emphatic kind ... followed ... a few nights later with an equal success as Violetta in La traviata." It was at this time, on Marchesi's advice, that she adopted the stage name of "Melba", a contraction of the name of her home city.
London, Paris and New York debuts
Melba made her Covent Garden début in May 1888, in the title role in Lucia di Lammermoor. She received a friendly but not excited reception. The Musical Times wrote, "Madame Melba is a fluent vocalist, and a quite respectable representative of light soprano parts; but she lacks the personal charm necessary to a great figure on the lyric stage." She was offended when Augustus Harris, then in charge at Covent Garden, offered her only the small role of the page Oscar in Un ballo in maschera for the next season. She left England vowing never to return. The following year, she performed at the Opéra in Paris, in the role of Ophélie in Hamlet; The Times described this as "a brilliant success", and said, "Madame Melba has a voice of great flexibility ... her acting is expressive and striking."
Melba had a strong supporter in London, Lady de Grey, whose views carried weight at Covent Garden. Melba was persuaded to return, and Harris cast her in Roméo et Juliette (June 1889) co-starring with Jean de Reszke. She later recalled, "I date my success in London quite distinctly from the great night of 15 June 1889." After this, she returned to Paris as Ophélie, Lucia in Lucia di Lammermoor, Gilda in Rigoletto, Marguerite in Faust, and Juliette. In French operas her pronunciation was poor, but the composer Delibes said that he did not care whether she sang in French, Italian, German, English or Chinese, as long as she sang.
In the early 1890s, Melba embarked on an affair with Prince Philippe, Duke of Orléans. They were seen frequently together in London, which excited some gossip, but far more suspicion arose when Melba travelled across Europe to St Petersburg to sing for Tsar Nicholas II: the Duke followed closely behind her, and they were spotted together in Paris, Brussels, Vienna and St Petersburg. Armstrong filed divorce proceedings on the grounds of Melba's adultery, naming the Duke as co-respondent; he was eventually persuaded to drop the case, but the Duke decided that a two-year African safari (without Melba) would be appropriate. He and Melba did not resume their relationship. In the first years of the decade, Melba appeared in the leading European opera houses, including Milan, Berlin and Vienna.
Melba sang the role of Nedda in Pagliacci at Covent Garden in 1893, soon after its Italian premiere. The composer was present, and said that the role had never been so well played before. In December of that year, Melba sang at the Metropolitan Opera in New York for the first time. As at her Covent Garden debut, she appeared as Lucia di Lammermoor, and as at Covent Garden, it was less than a triumph. The New York Times praised her performance – "one of the loveliest voices that ever issued from a human throat ... simply delicious in its fullness, richness and purity" – but the work was out of fashion, and the performances were poorly attended. Her performance in Roméo et Juliette, later in the season, was a triumph and established her as the leading prima donna of the time in succession to Adelina Patti. She had at first been nonplussed by the impenetrable snobbery at the Metropolitan; the author Peter Conrad has written, "In London she hobnobbed with royalty; in New York she was a singing menial." Assured of critical success, she set herself to achieve social recognition, and succeeded.
From the 1890s, Melba played a wide range of parts at Covent Garden, mostly in the lyric soprano repertoire, but with some heavier roles also. She sang the title roles in Herman Bemberg's Elaine and Arthur Goring Thomas's Esmeralda. Her Italian parts included Gilda in Rigoletto, the title role in Aida, Desdemona in Otello, Luisa in Mascagni's I Rantzau, Nedda in Pagliacci, Rosina in The Barber of Seville, Violetta in La traviata, and Mimì in La bohème. In the French repertoire, she sang Juliette in Roméo et Juliette, Marguerite in Faust, Marguerite de Valois in Les Huguenots, the title role in Saint-Saëns's Hélène, which was written for her, and Micaëla in Carmen.
Some writers expressed surprise at Melba's playing the last of these roles, since it was merely a supporting part in the opera. She played it on many occasions, saying in her memoirs, "Why on earth a prima donna should not sing secondary rôles I could not see then and am no nearer seeing to-day. I hate the artistic snobbery of it." She sang the role opposite the Carmens of Emma Calvé, Zélie de Lussan and Maria Gay. Marguerite de Valois, too, is not the leading female role in Les Huguenots, but Melba was willing to undertake it as seconda donna to Emma Albani. She was generous in support of singers who did not rival her in her favoured roles, but was, as her biographer J. B. Steane put it, "pathologically critical" of other lyric sopranos.
Melba was not known as a Wagner singer, although she occasionally sang Elsa in Lohengrin and Elisabeth in Tannhäuser. She received a certain amount of praise in these roles, although Klein found her unsuited to them, and Bernard Shaw thought she sang with great skill but played artificially and without sensibility. In 1896 at the Metropolitan, she attempted the role of Brünnhilde in Siegfried, in which she was not a success. Her most frequent role in that house was Marguerite in Gounod's Faust, which she had studied under the supervision of the composer. She never essayed any of Mozart's operas, for which some thought her voice ideally suited. Her repertoire across her entire career amounted to no more than 25 roles, of which, The Times obituarist wrote, "only some 10 parts are those which will be remembered as her own."
Melba's marriage to Armstrong was finally terminated when, having emigrated to the United States with their son, he divorced her in Texas in 1900.
Twentieth century
By now established as a leading star in Britain and America, Melba made her first return visit to Australia in 1902–03 for a concert tour, also touring in New Zealand. The profits were unprecedented; she returned for four more tours during her career. In Britain, Melba campaigned on behalf of Puccini's La bohème. She had first sung the part of Mimì in 1899, having studied it with the composer. She argued strongly for further productions of the work in the face of the distaste expressed by the Covent Garden management at this "new and plebeian opera". She was vindicated by the public enthusiasm for the piece, which was bolstered in 1902 when Enrico Caruso joined her in the first of many Covent Garden performances together. She sang Mimì for Oscar Hammerstein I at his opera house in New York, in 1907, giving the enterprise a needed boost. After her initial successes in Brussels and Paris in the 1880s, Melba sang infrequently on the European continent; only the English-speaking countries welcomed her wholeheartedly.
She performed 26 times at the Royal Albert Hall in London between 1898 and 1926. Although she called Covent Garden "my artistic home", her appearances there became less frequent in the 20th century. One reason for this was that she did not get on well with Sir Thomas Beecham, who was in control of the opera house for much of the period from 1910 until her retirement. She said, "I dislike Beecham and his methods", and he thought that while she had "nearly all the attributes inseparable from great artistry ... she was wanting in a genuine spiritual refinement." Another factor in her reduced appearances at Covent Garden was the appearance on the scene of Luisa Tetrazzini, a soprano ten years her junior, who became a great success in London and later in New York in roles previously associated with Melba. A third reason was her decision to spend more time in Australia. In 1909 she undertook what she called a "sentimental tour" of Australia, covering 10,000 miles (16,000 km) and including many remote towns. In 1911 in partnership with the J. C. Williamson company, she appeared in an operatic season. Her attitude to her tour concerts and the audiences attending was summed up in the advice that Clara Butt said Melba gave her apropos of a planned Australian tour: "Sing 'em muck; it's all they can understand." To another colleague and compatriot, Peter Dawson, she described his home city of Adelaide as "that city of the three P's – Parsons, Pubs and Prostitutes."
In 1909, Melba bought property at Coldstream, a small town near Melbourne, and in 1912 she had a home built there (extending an existing cottage) that she named Coombe Cottage after a house she had rented near London. She also set up a music school in Richmond, which she later merged into the Melbourne Conservatorium. She was in Australia when the First World War broke out, and she threw herself into fund-raising for war charities, raising £100,000. In recognition of this, she was created a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in March 1918, "for services in organising patriotic work".
After the war, Melba made a triumphant return to the Royal Opera House, in a performance of La bohème conducted by Beecham, which re-opened the house after four years of closure. The Times wrote, "Probably no season at Covent Garden has ever started with quite the thrill of enthusiasm which passed through the house." In her many concerts, however, her repertoire was regarded as trite and predictable. After one of them The Musical Times wrote:
In 1922, Melba returned to Australia, where she sang at the immensely successful "Concerts for the People" in Melbourne and Sydney, with low ticket prices, attracting 70,000 people. In 1924 for another Williamson opera season, she caused resentment among local singers by importing an entire chorus from Naples. In 1926 she made her farewell appearance at Covent Garden, singing in scenes from Roméo et Juliette, Otello, and La bohème. She is well remembered in Australia for her seemingly endless series of "farewell" appearances, including stage performances in the mid-1920s and concerts in Sydney on 7 August 1928, Melbourne on 27 September 1928 and Geelong in November 1928. From this, she is remembered in the vernacular Australian expression "more farewells than Dame Nellie Melba".
In 1929 she returned for the last time to Europe and then visited Egypt, where she contracted a fever that she never entirely shook off. Her last performance was in London at a charity concert on 10 June 1930. She returned to Australia but died in St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, in 1931, aged 69, of septicaemia which had developed after facial surgery in Europe some time before. She was given an elaborate funeral from Scots' Church, Melbourne, which her father had built and where as a teenager she had sung in the choir. The funeral motorcade was over a kilometre long, and her death made front-page headlines in Australia, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Europe. Billboards in many countries said simply "Melba is dead". Part of the event was filmed for posterity. Melba was buried in the cemetery at Lilydale, near Coldstream. Her headstone, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, bears the farewell words of Mimì in La bohème: "" (Farewell, without bitterness).
Teacher and patron
Despite the antipathy Melba inspired in some of her peers, she helped the careers of younger singers. She taught for many years at the Conservatorium in Melbourne and looked for a "new Melba". She published a book about her methods, which were based on those of Marchesi. The book opens:
Others also benefited from Melba's praise and interest. She passed her own cadenzas on to a young Gertrude Johnson, a valuable professional asset. In 1924, Melba brought the new star Toti Dal Monte, fresh from triumphs in Milan and Paris but still unheard in England or the United States, to Australia as a principal of the Melba-Williamson Grand Opera Company. After sharing the Covent Garden stage in a 1923 night of operatic extracts with another Australian soprano, Florence Austral (who, as a dramatic soprano, posed no threat to Melba, a lyric soprano), Melba was effusive with her praise, describing the younger woman as "one of the wonder-voices of the world". She similarly described the American contralto Louise Homer as possessing "the world's most beautiful voice". She gave financial assistance to the Australian painter Hugh Ramsay, living in poverty in Paris and also helped him to forge connections in the artistic world. The Australian baritone John Brownlee and tenor Browning Mummery were both protégés: both sang with her in her 1926 Covent Garden farewell (recorded by HMV), and Brownlee sang with her on two of her last commercial recordings later that year (a session arranged by her in part to promote Brownlee).
Recordings and broadcasts
Melba's first recordings were made around 1895, recorded on cylinders at the Bettini Phonograph Lab in New York. A reporter from Phonoscope magazine was impressed: "The next cylinder was labelled 'Melba' and was truly wonderful, the phonograph reproducing her wonderful voice in a marvellous manner, especially the high notes which soared away above the staff and were rich and clear." Melba was less impressed: "'Never again,' I said to myself as I listened to the scratching, screeching result. 'Don't tell me I sing like that, or I shall go away and live on a desert island.'" The recordings never reached the general public – destroyed on Melba's orders, it is suspected – and Melba would not venture into a recording studio for another eight years. Melba can be heard singing on several Mapleson Cylinders, early attempts at live recording, made by the Metropolitan Opera House librarian Lionel Mapleson in the auditorium there during performances. These cylinders are often poor in quality, but they preserve something of the quality of the young Melba's voice and performance that is sometimes lacking from her commercial recordings.
Melba made numerous gramophone (phonograph) records of her voice in England and America between 1904 (when she was already in her 40s) and 1926 for the Gramophone & Typewriter Company and the Victor Talking Machine Company. Most of these recordings, consisting of operatic arias, duets and ensemble pieces and songs, have been re-released on CD. The poor audio fidelity of the Melba recordings reflects the limitations of the early days of commercial sound recording. Melba's acoustical recordings (especially those made after her initial 1904 session) fail to capture vital overtones to the voice, leaving it without the body and warmth it possessed – albeit to a limited degree – in life. Despite this, they still reveal Melba to have had an almost seamlessly pure lyric soprano voice with effortless coloratura, a smooth legato and accurate intonation. Melba had perfect pitch; the critic Michael Aspinall says of her complete London recordings issued on LP, that there are only two lapses from pitch in the entire set. Like Patti, and unlike the more vibrant-voiced Tetrazzini, Melba's exceptional purity of tone was probably one of the principal reasons why British audiences, with their strong choral and sacred music traditions, idolised her.
Melba's farewell to Covent Garden on 8 June 1926 was recorded by HMV, as well as broadcast. The programme included Act 2 of Roméo et Juliette (not recorded because the tenor Charles Hackett was not under contract to HMV), followed by the opening of Act 4 of Otello (Desdemona's "Willow Song" and "Ave Maria") and Acts 3 and 4 of La bohème (with Aurora Rettore, Browning Mummery, John Brownlee and others). The conductor was Vincenzo Bellezza. At the conclusion Lord Stanley of Alderley made a formal address and Melba gave an emotional farewell speech. In a pioneering venture, eleven sides (78rpm) were recorded via a landline to Gloucester House (London), though in the event only three of these were published. The full series (including both speeches) was included in a 1976 HMV reissue.
As was the case in many of her performances, most of Melba's recordings were made at "French Pitch" (A=435 Hz), rather than the British early 20th century standard of A=452 Hz, or the modern standard of A=440 Hz. This, and the technical inadequacies of the early recording process (discs were frequently recorded faster or slower than the supposed standard of 78rpm, whilst the conditions of the cramped recording studios – kept very warm to keep the wax at the necessary softness when cutting – would wreak havoc with instrumental tuning during recording sessions), means that playing her recordings back in the speed and pitch she made them at is not always a simple matter.
On 15 June 1920, Melba was heard in a pioneering radio broadcast from Guglielmo Marconi's New Street Works factory in Chelmsford, singing two arias and her famous trill. She was the first artist of international renown to participate in direct radio broadcasts. Radio enthusiasts across the country heard her, and the broadcast was reportedly heard from as far away as New York. People listening on the radio barely heard a few scratches of the trill and two arias she sang. Further radio broadcasts would include her Covent Garden farewell performance, and a 1927 "Empire Broadcast" (broadcast throughout the British Empire, by radio stations AWA and 2FC, Sydney, on Monday 5 September 1927; it was relayed by the BBC London on Sunday 4 September).
Honours, memorials and legacy
Melba was appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1918 New Year Honours, along with May Whitty the first stage performer to receive this order, for her charity work during World War I, and was elevated to Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire in 1927. She was the first Australian to appear on the cover of Time magazine, in April 1927. A stained glass window commemorating Melba was erected in 1962 in the Musicians' Memorial Chapel of the church of St Sepulchre-without-Newgate, London. She is one of only two singers – the other being Adelina Patti – with a marble bust on the grand staircase of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden.
A blue plaque commemorates Melba at Coombe House, Devey Close in Coombe, Kingston upon Thames, where she lived in 1906. She was inducted onto the Victorian Honour Roll of Women in 2001. Melba was closely associated with the Melbourne Conservatorium, and this institution was renamed the Melba Memorial Conservatorium of Music in her honour in 1956. The music hall at the University of Melbourne is known as Melba Hall. The Canberra suburb of Melba is named after her.
The Australian $100 note features the image of her face, and her likeness has also appeared on an Australian stamp. Sydney Town Hall has a marble relief bearing the inscription "Remember Melba", unveiled during a World War II charity concert in memory of Melba and her First World War charity work and patriotic concerts. A tunnel on Melbourne's EastLink freeway is named in her honour. A street in San Francisco, Melba Avenue, is also named for her.
Melba's home in Marian, Queensland, during her brief cohabitation with her husband was relocated from the Marian Mill (where it was due to be demolished) to a riverbank setting along the main Eungella Road in Edward Lloyd Park, where, under the name Melba House, it was restored and now operates as a Melba museum and the Pioneer Valley Visitor Information Centre. Her home Coombe Cottage in Coldstream, Victoria, passed to her granddaughter Pamela, Lady Vestey (1918–2011). It is now owned by Lady Vestey's sons, Sam (3rd Baron Vestey) and Mark, who reside in the United Kingdom. The house was designed by John Harry Grainger, father of the composer Percy Grainger, and a close friend of Melba's father David Mitchell.
Melba's name is associated with four foods, all of which were created in her honour by the French chef Auguste Escoffier:
Peach Melba, a dessert made of peaches, raspberry sauce, and vanilla ice cream
Melba sauce, a sweet purée of raspberries and red currant
Melba toast, a crisp dry toast
Melba Garniture, chicken, truffles and mushrooms stuffed into tomatoes with velouté sauce.
Melba planted a variety of poplar tree known as Populus × canadensis "Aurea", or golden poplar, on the Central Lawn in Melbourne Botanic Gardens on 11 April 1903, which has become known as "Melba's poplar". On 19 May 2011 Google celebrated her 150th birthday with a Google Doodle.
Books, films and television
Melba's autobiography, Melodies and Memories, was published in 1925, largely ghost-written by her secretary Beverley Nichols. Nichols later complained that Melba did not cooperate in the process of writing or by reviewing what he wrote. Full-length biographies devoted to her include those by Agnes G. Murphy (1909), John Hetherington (1967), Thérèse Radic (1986) and Ann Blainey (2009).
A novel Evensong by Nichols (1932) was based on aspects of Melba's life, drawing an unflattering portrait. The 1934 motion picture adaptation of Evensong, starring Evelyn Laye as the character based on Melba, was for a time banned in Australia. Melba appears in the 1946 novel Lucinda Brayford by Martin Boyd. She is depicted as singing at a garden party thrown by the mother of the eponymous heroine, when she is described as having the "loveliest voice in the world".
In 1946–1947 Crawford Productions produced a popular radio series on Melba starring Glenda Raymond, who became one of the foundation singers of the Australian Opera (later Opera Australia) in 1956. In 1953 a biopic titled Melba was released by Horizon Pictures and directed by Lewis Milestone. Melba was played by the soprano Patrice Munsel. In 1987 the Australian Broadcasting Corporation produced a mini-series, Melba, starring Linda Cropper miming to the singing voice of Yvonne Kenny. Melba was portrayed by Kiri Te Kanawa in episode 3 of season 4 of the British ITV television show Downton Abbey (2013), performing at the abbey as a guest of Lord and Lady Grantham. Rupert Christiansen, writing in The Telegraph, bemoaned the casting and the fact checking.
Melba appears in a pivotal scene in the 2014 novel Tell by Frances Itani.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
(US edition (2009) published as Marvelous Melba: The Extraordinary Life of a Great Diva. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. )
Further reading
External links
Links to recordings, images and information about Melba
Melba – link to 1906 recording of the aubade from the opera Le roi d'Ys
1902 portrait Madame Melba, painted by Rupert Bunny
Photo of Melba, her father and niece (1903), Library of Congress
Biography; photo of dress worn by Melba
Melba in Queensland – John Oxley Library blog, State Library of Queensland
Melba, Nellie in The Encyclopedia of Women and Leadership in Twentieth-Century Australia
Nellie Melba Collection at the Performing Arts Collection, Arts Centre Melbourne
Australian operatic sopranos
1861 births
1931 deaths
ARIA Award winners
ARIA Hall of Fame inductees
Australian women writers
Australian autobiographers
Australian people of Scottish descent
Australian Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Singers awarded knighthoods
Women autobiographers
Women of the Victorian era
People educated at the Presbyterian Ladies' College, Melbourne
Deaths from sepsis
Infectious disease deaths in New South Wales
Singers from Melbourne
19th-century Australian women opera singers
20th-century Australian women opera singers | [
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254634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkoxy%20group | Alkoxy group | In chemistry, the alkoxy group is an alkyl (carbon and hydrogen chain) group singularly bonded to oxygen; thus R–O. The range of alkoxy group is vast, the simplest being methoxy (CH3O–). An ethoxy group (CH3CH2O–) is found in the organic compound ethyl phenyl ether, C6H5OCH2CH3 which is also known as ethoxybenzene. Related to alkoxy groups are aryloxy groups, which have an aryl group singular bonded to oxygen such as the phenoxy group (C6H5O–).
An alkoxy or aryloxy group bonded to an alkyl or aryl (R1–O–R2) is an ether. If bonded to H it is an alcohol. An alkoxide (RO–) is the ionic or salt form; it is a derivative of an alcohol where the proton has been replaced by a metal, typically sodium.
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254637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hustler | Hustler | Hustler is a monthly pornographic magazine published by Larry Flynt Publications in the United States. Introduced in 1974, it was a step forward from the Hustler Newsletter, originally conceived by founder Larry Flynt as cheap advertising for his strip club businesses at the time. The magazine grew from an uncertain start to a peak circulation of around 3 million in the early 1980s; it has since dropped to approximately 500,000. It shows explicit views of the female genitalia, becoming one of the first major US-based magazines to do so, in contrast with relatively modest publications like Playboy.
Today, Hustler is still considered more explicit (and more self-consciously lowbrow) than such well-known competitors as Playboy and Penthouse. It frequently depicts hardcore themes, such as the use of sex toys, penetration, oral sex and group sex.
Larry Flynt Publications also licenses the Hustler brand to the Hustler Casino in Gardena, California, which was owned directly by Flynt as an individual through his holding company El Dorado Enterprises. Other enterprises include licensing the Hustler name to the Hustler Club chain of bars and clubs and the Hustler Hollywood store chain that sells adult-oriented videos, clothing, magazines and sex toys. The chain's flagship store is on Sunset Boulevard in West Hollywood. Both licensed enterprises are operated by LFP's partner, Deja Vu.
Founding
The business first began in Cincinnati, where Larry Flynt and his brother, Jimmy Flynt, opened up a store in 1969. Jimmy wrote the check for $5,000 to pay for the club in Cincinnati, and he was listed on the masthead for volume 1, number 1 of the magazine in July 1974. However, Larry fired his brother in 2009, after which Jimmy began developing his own business, Jimmy Flynt's Sexy Gifts Stand. An old member of Hustler magazine has described the relationship, saying, "Larry is the show, and Jimmy makes it go".
Publisher
Hustler is officially published by LFP, Inc, which also produces pornographic films. The abbreviation "L.F.P." originally stood for "Larry Flynt Publications."
A Canadian version of Hustler is published by a Quebec-based firm. This magazine is not owned by Larry Flynt but is licensed to publish material from the American version. In general, Canadian Hustler imitates the appearance and tone of its American counterpart, with Canadian content added. In 1999, the magazine created a minor controversy in Canada by inviting readers to submit sexually explicit stories about Sheila Copps, a left-leaning member of the Liberal cabinet. There have also been Australian, British and South African versions of the magazine.
During a bookstore signing in July 2011, Flynt stated that less than five percent of his income comes from the print magazine; he also speculated that the print magazine would not be around in two to three years.
Regular features
One feature of Hustler is a column called "Asshole of the Month". In every monthly issue of the magazine, a public figure is selected for severe criticism as that month's "asshole". An illustration depicting the criticized person's head emerging from the anus of a cartoon donkey is shown alongside the article. After Flynt's imprisonment in 1977 and his alleged conversion to evangelical Christianity, he promised to reform "Asshole of the Month". However, as of 2016, reform in the feature has yet to be seen.
The centerfold pictorial is called the "Hustler Honey". Occasionally the models are pornographic actresses appearing under a pseudonym; in the mid-80's, actresses and strippers appeared under their more familiar names.
The following is a list of "Hustler Honeys" by month (models listed with only first names are pseudonyms):
In the 1970s, Hustler ran a comic strip feature entitled "Honey Hooker". In each installment, Honey would have graphic sexual encounters with any male (or female) she ran across. She might be in American colonial times one month and in a Super Bowl locker room the next. This feature was designed to compete against Playboy's Little Annie Fanny and Penthouse's Wicked Wanda. In keeping with Hustler'''s focus on the seamier and less romantic aspects of sexuality, Honey Hooker, unlike Fanny and Wanda, was explicitly portrayed as being a prostitute.
The Beaver Hunt section of the magazine contains explicit nudes of amateur models submitted by readers.
Another Hustler feature that was heavily criticized was the "Chester the Molester" cartoon. Each month's issue depicted Chester, a cartoon middle-aged pedophile, joyfully raping or molesting young girls. After increasing citicism, the cartoon became "Chester and Hester", featuring Hester, an unattractive middle-aged woman who was either Chester's wife or girlfriend. Following Flynt's alleged religious conversion, he introduced "Chester the Protector", a reincarnation of the molester character who served as a hero to protect young girls from rape and seduction.
A regular feature entitled "Ads We'd Like to See" recreates advertisements of everyday products in a sexualized or violent way. For example, an advertisement in the 1980 issue called 'Doer's Lite Label', a parody of Dewar's Lite Label Whiskey, featured Kenneth Bianchi, the Hillside Strangler. Listed as his greatest accomplishment was Cindy Lee Hudspeth, whom he actually raped and murdered in 1978. He is quoted as saying "You gotta treat 'em rough…". This section was highly criticized for admiring men who had committed sexualized crimes against women.
In addition to its regular features, Hustler occasionally published special features and issues. Examples include the "All Meat" issue from 1978, in which the cover spread depicted a naked woman being fed into a meat grinder upside down. In 1977, the magazine's front page read "First-Time Ever Scratch 'N' Sniff Centerfold".
Controversy and criticism
In 1984, conservative academic Judith Reisman received a grant from the Department of Justice to complete a study at American University concerning the cartoons of Playboy, Penthouse, and Hustler, specifically the sexual depictions of minors in these cartoons. She finished the study in 1986 and found that, on average, the number of times per issue that Hustler referred to children, crime, and violence was 46.
Reisman published a nearly 1,600-page report of her findings condemning the sexual depictions of children in pornographic magazines, but her work was met with criticism from her peers. An American University professor, Dr. Myra Sadker, said that she was "very dismayed about the quality of office management and the nature of the research that was going on." Many fellow academics have disputed the neutrality of the research. Avedon Carol, a sex crime researcher and author, said that Reisman's study was a "scientific disaster, riddled with researcher bias."Hustler's chief cartoon artist Dwaine Tinsley was arrested on May 18, 1989, after being accused by his 18-year-old daughter Allison of molesting her since she was thirteen years old. According to court records, he allegedly told his coworkers, "You can't write about this stuff all the time if you don't experience it." Tinsley was found guilty of five counts of child molestation and sentenced to six years in prison although he only spent 23 months behind bars. Tinsley was the artist behind the regular "Chester the Molester" series, which ran from 1976 to 1989.
In a 2012 issue of Hustler, S.E. Cupp, a conservative commentator, was photoshopped and depicted as explicitly performing oral sex. The article describes Cupp as a "lovely young lady who read too much Ayn Rand in high school and ended up joining the dark side... But her hotness is diminished when she espouses dumb ideas like defunding Planned Parenthood." Despite having a disclaimer that the photo was not real, the photograph horrified Cupp, knowing that "this photo will be out there forever." Flynt's response was that the photoshopped image was meant to be satirical: "I'm able to publish this because of the Supreme Court case I won in 1984, Flynt V. Falwell." Cupp did not pursue either Flynt or the magazine because of "free speech". Cupp ultimately chose to "express a little gratitude for Hustler," saying: "I’m completely serious here—there is an accompanying sidebar to this story, in which they lay out why they did this to me. It’s under a hundred words, and in that paragraph they say, ‘S.E. Cupp, she’s lovely, she’s smart, she’s fine, but she happens to be a crazy conservative who is pro-life and wants to defund Planned Parenthood. And for that, she deserves a phallus in her mouth.’ That is essentially what they're saying, and I have to commend that as being incredibly honest.”
Lawsuits and litigation
The magazine has had many lawsuits since the 1980s, including claims of defamation and enforcement of sexual violence and behavior. However, there have not been any lawsuits against the magazine or incorporation as of 2016.
In Douglass v. Hustler Magazine Inc. 769 F.2d 1128 (1985), actress Robyn Douglass sued Hustler for defamation and unlawfully placing her under a false light. Douglass posed nude for freelance photographer Augustin Gregory, believing that her photos would appear in an issue of Playboy Magazine. However, Gregory was hired to Hustler and Douglass's photos were published in the 1981 January issue without Douglass's consent. She brought the case to the United States District Court from the North District of Illinois on the basis that the magazine had defamed her name and likeness. The court cases ended in favoring Douglass since the magazine had violated her right of publicity, awarding her $600,000.
In Keeton v. Hustler Magazine, Inc., 465 U.S. 770 (1984) United States supreme court case, Kathy Keeton, vice chairman of Penthouse, sued Hustler for defamation. Keeton brought the case to New Hampshire due its generous six-year statute of limitations for libel and the state believed it was able to support taking jurisdiction due to the magazine's content. The magazine sold up to 15,000 issues since 1975, containing a cartoon where Keeton had received a venereal disease from Robert Guccione, a publisher of Penthouse. Keeton was awarded $2 million for the defamation damages.
At some point between 1974 and 1983, Hustler began mailing the latest issue of the magazine, uninvited and for free, to all of the offices of Members of the United States Congress. Attempts to block the monthly mailings proved unsuccessful after a court ruled in Hustler's favor in United States Postal Service v. Hustler Magazine, Inc. (1986), contending that the publishers had the right to mail the magazine, as the defendants did not “threaten the unique privacy interests that attach in the home.” The practice continues as of April 2014.Hustler Magazine, Inc. v. Falwell, 485 U.S. 46 (1988), is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the First and Fourteenth Amendments prohibit public figures from recovering damages for the tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED), if the emotional distress was caused by a caricature, parody, or satire of the public figure that a reasonable person would not have interpreted as factual.
In Herceg v. Hustler 484 U.S. 811 (1989), a family attempted to sue Hustler for the suicide of their fourteen-year-old boy on the basis that its illustrations stimulated violence. Within the magazine's contents was the article "Orgasm of Death", demonstrating practices of erotic asphyxia via photographs in order to heighten sexual pleasure in men. However, Hustler placed disclaimers on the photographs of "Do Not Attempt" to prevent the audience from mimicking the photos. The court case ended in favoring the magazine; the court agreed that the depictions were not forcing readers to perform these erotic or dangerous activities.
Other venture
Related magazines
LFP, Inc. publishes several other magazines that use the Hustler brand:
Hustler's Taboo, specializing in fetishistic material, such as the depiction of sexual bondage and urolagnia
Barely Legal, a primarily softcore magazine focusing on models between 18 and 23
Asian Fever, focusing on Asian models
Hustler XXX, a more generic hardcore offering
Chic, an upscale gentleman's magazine featuring nude layouts with lifestyle articles
Websites
In 1995, the company launched Hustler.com. Larry Flynt Productions operates Hustler.com and a number of related sites wherein it sells pictures and videos with content similar to that in its magazines. The site was targeted by Anonymous in Operation Payback in October 2010.
Erotic Movie Awards
During the Golden Age of Porn, and prior to getting into the movie business themselves, Hustler was one of two magazines that announced awards for adult sex films, the other being Adam Film World. They were discontinued in the late 1980s.
The awards were based on fan ballots printed in the publication. In announcing its third annual awards, the magazine said, "Hustlers erotic-movie awards are intended to reward excellence in the erotic-film industry and thereby encourage the fast-buck makers of mediocrity to clean up their act or go out of business."
1979 (3rd annual) recipients: Best Film – Sex World, Best Actress – Sharon Thorpe in Sex World, Best Actor – John Leslie in Sensual Encounters of Every Kind, Best Director – Anthony Spinelli for Sex World, Best Sex Scene – Harry Reems and Maria Lynn in Butterflies, Most Accomplished Fellatio Artist – Carol Connors in The Erotic Adventures of Candy, Most Accomplished Cunnilinguist – John Leslie in The Other Side of Julie
1983 (7th annual) recipients: Best Film – The Dancers, Best Actress – Annette Haven in Peaches and Cream, Best Actor – John Leslie in Nothing To Hide, Best Director – Anthony Spinelli for The Dancers, Best Sex Scene – Jamie Gillis and Veronica Hart in Wanda Whips Wall Street, Most Accomplished Fellatio Artist – Annie Sprinkle in Deep Inside Annie Sprinkle, Most Accomplished Cunnilinguist – Annette Haven in Peaches and Cream
1986' (10th annual) recipients: Best Film – New Wave Hookers, Best Actress – Colleen Brennan in Trinity Brown, Best Actor – Jerry Butler in Snake Eyes, Best Director – Gregory Dark for New Wave Hookers, Best Sex Scene – Traci Lords and Tom Byron in Sister Dearest, Most Accomplished Fellatio Artist – Ginger Lynn in Bedtime Tales, Most Accomplished Cunnilinguist – Danielle in Hostage Girls, Most Disappointing Film – Debbie Does Dallas III''
See also
List of men's magazines
List of pornographic magazines
Notes
References
External links
Men's magazines published in the United States
Monthly magazines published in the United States
American pornographic film studios
Pornographic magazines published in the United States
Larry Flynt Publications
Magazines established in 1974
Magazines published in California
Mass media in Los Angeles County, California
Obscenity controversies in literature
Pornographic men's magazines
Pornography in Los Angeles
Sexual revolution | [
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254638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missus%20dominicus | Missus dominicus | A missus dominicus (plural missi dominici), Latin for "envoy[s] of the lord [ruler]" or palace inspector, also known in Dutch as Zendgraaf (German: Sendgraf), meaning "sent Graf", was an official commissioned by the Frankish king or Holy Roman Emperor to supervise the administration, mainly of justice, in parts of his dominions too remote for frequent personal visits. As such, the missus performed important intermediary functions between royal and local administrations. There are superficial points of comparison with the original Roman corrector, except that the missus was sent out on a regular basis. Four points made the missi effective as instruments of the centralized monarchy: the personal character of the missus, yearly change, isolation from local interests and the free choice of the king.
Reign of Charlemagne
Based on Merovingian ad hoc arrangements, using the form missus regis (the "king's envoy") and sending a layman and an ecclesiastic in pairs, the use of missi dominici was fully exploited by Charlemagne (ruling 768—814), who made them a regular part of his administration, "a highly intelligent and plausible innovation in Carolingian government", Norman F. Cantor observes, "and a tribute to the administrative skill of the ecclesiastics, such as Alcuin and Einhard". The missi were at first chosen from Charlemagne's personal, most trusted entourage, of whatever social degree. Soon they were selected only from the secular and eccesiastical nobility: the entry for 802 in the so-called Lorsch Annals (794–803) states that instead of relying on "poorer vassals", Charlemagne "chose from the kingdom archbishops and bishops and abbots, with dukes and counts, who now had no need to receive gifts from the innocent, and sent them throughout his kingdom, so that they might administer justice to the churches, to widows, orphans and the poor, and to all the people." Presumably the same year the capitulary usually known as the Capitulare missorum generale was issued, which gives a detailed account of their duties and responsibilities. They were to execute justice, to ensure respect for the king, to control the government of the military dukes and administrative counts (then still royal officials), to receive their oath of allegiance, to let the king's will be known, at times by distributing capitularies around the empire, and to supervise the clergy of their assigned region. In short, they were the direct representatives of the king or Holy Roman Emperor. The inhabitants of the district they administered had to provide for their subsistence, and at times they led the host to battle. The missi were protected by a triple wergeld and resistance to them was punishable by death. In addition special instructions were given to various missi, and many of these have been preserved.
As missi became a conventional part of court machinery, missus ad hoc came to signify missi sent out for some particular purpose. The districts placed under the ordinary missi, which it was their duty to visit for a month at a time, four times a year, were called missatici or legationes (a term illustrating the analogy with a papal legate); the missatica (singular missaticum) avoided division along the lines of the existing dioceses or provinces. The missi were not permanent officials, but were generally selected from the ranks of officials at the court, and during the reign of Charlemagne high-standing personages undertook this work. They were sent out collegially, usually in twos, an ecclesiastic and a layman, and were generally complete strangers to the district which they administered, to deter them from putting out local roots and acting on their own initiative, as the counts were doing. In addition extraordinary missi represented the emperor on special occasions, and at times beyond the limits of his dominions. Even under the strong rule of Charlemagne it was difficult to find men to discharge these duties impartially, and after his death in 814 it became almost impossible.
Reigns of Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald
Under Charlemagne's surviving legitimate son, Louis the Pious (ruling 813–840),the process of disintegration was hastened. Once the king associated the choice of missi with the assembly of nobles, the nobles interfered in the appointment of the missi. The missi were later selected from the district in which their duties lay, which led to their association with local hereditary filiations and in general a focus upon their own interests rather than that of the king. The 825 list of missi reveals that the circuits of the missatica now corresponded with provinces, strengthening local powers. The duties of missi, who gradually increased in number, became merged in the ordinary work of the bishops and counts, and under the emperor Charles the Bald (ruling 843–877), who was repeatedly pressured by bishops to send out missi, they took control of associations for the preservation of the peace. Louis the German (ruling 843–876) is not known to have sent out missi. About the end of the ninth century, with the implosion of Carolingian power, the missi disappeared from France and during the 10th century from Italy.
The missi were the last attempt to preserve centralised control in the Holy Roman Empire. In the course of the ninth century, the forces which were making for feudalism tended to produce inherited fiefdoms as the only way to ensure stability, especially in the face of renewed external aggression in the form of Viking attacks, to which the impaired central power was demonstrated to be impotent.
Notes
Sources and external links
Capitulare missorum generale ("General Capitulary of the Missi"), Spring 802, ed. G. Pertz, MGH Cap. 1, no. 33; ed. Boretius, no. 60, p. 147; tr. H.R. Loyn and J. Percival, The Reign of Charlemagne. London, 1975. pp. 73–9; tr. D.C. Munro, "General Capitulary of the Missi (802) [no. 5]". In Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European history. Vol. 6. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1900. pp. 16–8. Available online
Capitularia missorum speciale, ed. G. Pertz, MGH Cap. 1, no. 34; tr. H.R. Loyn and J. Percival, The Reign of Charlemagne. London, 1975. pp. 79–82.
Lorsch Annals, ed. G. Pertz, MGH Scriptores 1. entry for 802, pp. 38–9.
Catholic Encyclopaedia (passim)
Further reading
Bougard, François. La justice dans le royaume d'Italie de la fin du VIIIe siècle au début du XIe siècle Rome, École française de Rome, 1995.
Davis, Jennifer R. "Inventing the Missi. Delegating Power in the Late Eighth and Early Ninth Centuries." In The ʿAbbasid and Carolingian Empires. Comparative Studies in Civilizational Formation, ed. Tor D.G., Brill, 2017. 13-51.
de Clercq, Charles. Neuf capitulaires de Charlemagne concernant son œuvre réformatrice par les « Missi » Milano, 1968
Depreux, Philippe. "L’absence de jugement datant du règne de Louis le Pieux: l’expression d’un mode de gouvernement reposant plus systématiquement sur le recours aux missi." Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de l'Ouest 108:1, (2001): 7-20.
Eckhardt, Wilhelm A. "Die Capitularia missorum specialia von 802." Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters 12 (1956):498-516
Ganshof, François Louis Frankish Institutions under Charlemagne (tr. Bryce and Mary Lyons). Providence (Rhode Island), 1968. 566–7 and 14-20.
Gravel, Martin. "Du rôle des missi impériaux dans la supervision de la vie chrétienne. Témoignage d’une collection de capitulaires du début du IXe siècle." Memini. Travaux et documents 11, (2007): 99-130.
Grunin, Andrey. "Réseau politique des agents du pouvoir central: l'exemple des missi dominici." Journal of Interdisciplinary Methodologies and Issues in Science 5 (2019):1-35.
Hannig, Jürgen. "Pauperiores de infra palatio? Zur Entstehung der karolingischen Königbotenorganisation." MIÖG 91 (1983): 309–74.
Hannig, Jürgen. "Zentrale Kontrolle und regionale Machtbalance: Beobachtungen zum System der karolingischen Königsboten am Beispiel des Mittelrheingebietes." Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 66:1 (1984):1-46.
Hannig, Jürgen. "Zur Funktion der karolingischen «missi dominici» in Bayern und in den südöstlichen Grenzgebieten." Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte, Germanistische Abteilung 101 (1984):256-300.
Kaiser, Reinhold. "Les évêques de Langres dans leur fonction de Missi dominici." In Aux origines d'une seigneurie ecclésiastique. Langres et ses évêques VIIIe-XIe siècles. Langres, 1986. 91-113
Kikuchi, Shigeto. Untersuchungen zu den Missi dominici. Herrschaft, Delegation und Kommunikation in der Karolingerzeit. (Doktorgrades der Philosophie), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 2013.
Krause, Victor. "Geschichte des Instituts der missi dominici." MIÖG 11 (1890). 193–300.
McKitterick, Rosamond. "Charlemagne's missi and their books." In Early medieval studies in memory of Patrick Wormald, ed. S. Baxter, C. Karkov, J. Nelson, & D. Pelteret, Aldershot, 2009. 253-268.
Scior, Victor. "Bemerkungen zum frühmittelalterlichen Boten- und Gesandtschaftswesen". In Der frühmittelalterliche Staat – europäische Perspektiven, ed. W. Pohl, V. Wieser, Wien, 2009. 315-331. .
Werner, Karl Ferdinand. “Missus – Marchio – Comes. Entre l'administration centrale et l'administration locale de l'Émpire carolingien.” In Histoire Comparée de l'administration (IVe-XVIIe siècles), ed. W. Paravicini and K.F. Werner. Beihefte der Francia 9. Munich, 1980. 191–239. Reprinted in Vom Frankenreich zur Entfaltung Deutschlands und Frankreichs. Ursprünge, Strukturen, Beziehungen; ausgewählte Beiträge; Festgabe zu seinem 60. Geburtstag, ed. K.F. Werner. Sigmaringen, 1984. 108–56. .
See also
St. Paulinus II, Patriarch of Aquileia and one of twelve episcopal missi dominici in Pistoia under Charlemagne
Theodulf of Orléans, a bishop and missus dominicus under Charlemagne
Capitulary of Servais, sending missi dominici to twelve missatica under Charles the Bald in 853
Carolingian Empire | [
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254639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Salford | University of Salford | The University of Salford is a public university in Salford, Greater Manchester, England, west of Manchester city centre. The Royal Technical Institute, Salford, which opened in 1896, became a College of Advanced Technology in 1956 and gained university status in 1967, following the Robbins Report into higher education.
It has students and is in of parkland on the banks of the River Irwell.
History
Origins of the Royal Technical Institute
The university's origins can be traced to the opening in 1896 of the Royal Technical Institute, Salford, a merger of Salford Working Men's College (founded in 1858) and Pendleton Mechanics' Institute (founded in 1850). The Royal Technical Institute received royal letters after the then-Duke and Duchess of York (later King George V and Queen Mary) officiated at its opening ceremony, an event commemorated in the university's Redbrick Peel Building and which allowed 'Royal' to be appended to the name of the institute.
At the start of the 20th century, mechanical engineering, chemical works, textiles and construction dominated the industrial scene in Salford. This heavily influenced the choice of subjects offered in the nine departments initially opened. These were Engineering, Electrical Engineering & Applied Physics, Mathematics, Chemistry, Building, Dyeing, Spinning & Weaving, Domestic, and Art. Some 1,240 students registered for the first session in these departments. There were originally 19 members of staff.
In 1921 the Institute was renamed the Royal Technical College, Salford. In 1958 the institution split into two organisations: the remaining Royal Technical College and a breakaway institution, Peel Park Technical College. This changed its name first in 1961 to Salford Technical College, before becoming the Salford College of Technology in 1970, and finally University College Salford in 1992.
Royal College of Advanced Technology
The Royal Technical College became a CAT in 1956, and became known as the Royal College of Advanced Technology. In 1963, the government completed an inquiry into the state of higher education in the United Kingdom and produced the Robbins Report, which paved the way for the Royal College of Advanced Technology (and other Colleges of Advanced Technology) to assume university status by Royal Charter.
University status
The Royal College of Advanced Technology became the University of Salford on 10 February 1967, when Queen Elizabeth II handed over the institution's Royal Charter. A multistorey chemistry tower was built in the 1960s between the Peel Building and the Salford Library, Museum and Art Gallery, but it was pulled down in the 1980s due to the damage it was causing to the foundations of these nearby buildings. The first Vice-Chancellor was Clifford Whitworth, after whom the university's main library is named. The first Chancellor was Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who remained the university's chancellor until 1991. Prince Philip took a keen interest in the university whilst in office which has continued since and he visited the university's award-winning acoustics laboratories in 2008. The breakaway University College Salford merged with the University of Salford in 1996, to form a single institution.
In 2012, the University of Salford announced a partnership with the UK's biggest arms company, (BAE Systems), and four other universities in northwestern England (Liverpool, Manchester, UCLAN and Lancaster) in order to work on the Gamma Programme, which aims to develop "autonomous systems". On 5 September 2016, Salford was represented for the third time on University Challenge and faced the Open University. The all male team, who sported the poet John Cooper Clarke as a mascot lost 210 to 115 points.
Campus and facilities
The main Peel Park campus is less than 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometres) from Manchester city centre on the banks of the River Irwell, adjacent to Peel Park, possibly the first public park in the world, which opened on 22 August 1846. A former president of the Students' Union described Salford in 2007 as "a relaxed campus close to Manchester, but cheaper and greener." Salford Crescent railway station is adjacent to the campus, and high frequency bus services operate to Manchester, Salford and Bolton and Liverpool. There are other university facilities within a mile of the main campus, namely the Frederick Road and Adelphi campuses. Most of the university administration buildings are along Salford Crescent, opposite the Peel Campus. The Salford Museum and Art Gallery, said to be the first unconditionally free public library in England, is located on the Peel Park Campus.
MediaCityUK
In October 2010 the university opened a learning, teaching and research space at MediaCityUK. They will study in 39 undergraduate and postgraduate programmes.
Major investment projects
The university embarked on a £150 million programme of investment in 2004, to deliver new buildings and carry out major refurbishment projects. These included:
£22m Mary Seacole Building, opened in 2006, the purpose-built five-storey facility for the College of Health and Social Care.
£10m Lady Hale Building for the Salford Law School which opened in February 2008. The whole building acts as its own night storage heating and cooling system thanks to a "Termodeck" system.
£10m Innovation Forum Building
Joule Physics Laboratory provides a suite of new, purpose-built physics teaching laboratories and is named after James Prescott Joule, whose former home is situated opposite the Peel Building.
Opened in October 2011 - A new building for the university's College of Arts, Media & Social Sciences designed by 3XN Architects on the MediaCityUK site in Salford Quays - which will be home to five BBC departments.
In summer 2013 construction work started on the £55 million New Adelphi building. The building opened in September 2016 and houses music, performance, art, design and architecture students. Facilities include a 350 capacity theatre with flexible seating to suit a range of events, 140sqm studio theatre, 2 large TV acting studios, 36 dedicated rehearsal rooms, 6 industry-standard recording studios, 12 amplified performance spaces (music ensemble rooms), 2 dance studios, 3 floors of dedicated wood, metal, textiles, print and plastics workshops, 7 photographic studios, 14 instrumental tuition rooms, a double-height 100 sq m band-room/live room and a suite of flexible performance and studio spaces. It also features a small gallery space.
An extension to the existing Newton Building, which houses the School of Computing, Science and Engineering, was awarded planning permission in May 2016. The £16 million project, known as the Engineering Showcase, was due to feature exhibition space to display engineering solutions, research/demonstration spaces, open-plan collaborative learning spaces, informal and formal presentation spaces, a café and 'maker-space'. Plans for the extension were put on hold in favour of a wider campus redesign, with the possibility of a brand new building to house teaching and laboratory facilities for a range of disciplines in Science, Engineering and Environment. An autonomous vehicle research centre was built in place of the proposed extension.
Library
The Library was opened in 1971 by Prince Philip, the then Chancellor of the University. It was renamed the Clifford Whitworth Library in 1984 following the death of the University's first Vice-Chancellor, Clifford Whitworth. A two-storey extension was added to the left of the building in the 1990s and was further extended in the 2000s into the top floor of Lady Hale Building via a link bridge. Between 2016–2018 the Clifford Whitworth Library went under a major £6.2 million refurbishment.
Facilities
Peel Hall has seating for nearly 400 people, hosts many musical performances and is the main venue for the midday recitals. The hall is housed in the Peel Building, a red brick and terracotta Victorian building on the Peel Park Campus.
The university's Robert Powell Theatre, named after the Salford-born actor, mostly stages live performances of modern works and participatory work for younger audiences.
At the heart of the Peel Park Campus, the Chapman Gallery hosts a wide range of modern and contemporary art exhibitions that showcase the work of up and coming artists, university staff, students and the community of Salford.
The Tom Husband Leisure Centre is on the Peel Park Campus and adjacent to the Students' Union. It contains a gym, 25m swimming pool, sauna and spa, squash courts, climbing wall, and a multi-use sports hall.
The Adelphi Studio Theatre is a small theatre venue based in the School of Music, Media and Performance's Adelphi Building.
Organisation and administration
Chancellors
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1967–1991)
Sarah, Duchess of York (1991–1995)
Sir Walter Bodmer (1995–2005)
Sir Martin Harris (2005–2009)
Irene Zubaida Khan (2009–2014)
Jackie Kay (2014–present)
Vice-Chancellors
Clifford Whitworth (1967–74)
John Harold Horlock (1974–81)
Sir John Michael Ashworth (1981–90)
Thomas Mutrie Husband (1990–97)
Michael Harloe (1997–2009)
Martin Hall (2009–14)
Helen Marshall (2015–present)
Research and development centres
The United National Institute for Prosthetics and Orthotics Development is located in the University's Prosthetics and Orthotics division of its School of Health, Sport and Rehabilitation Sciences. It is the only prosthetics and orthotics higher education provider in England.
The KidsCan Children's Cancer Research Centre is in the University's John Armstrong Welsh Laboratories at the Centre for Biochemistry, Drug Design and Cancer Research. It was established in 2002 to develop treatments with fewer side effects for children and young adults.
Academic profile
The university was organised into seven schools:
School of Arts and Media
Salford Business School
School of Health Sciences
School of Health and Society
NB — The University's Schools of Health Sciences and Nursing, Midwifery, Social Work and Social Sciences have strong links with teaching NHS hospitals in the north-west of England and maintain a presence at the Salford Royal Hospital.
School of Computing, Science and Engineering
School of Environment and Life Sciences
School of the Built Environment
After a series of mergers, in 2018 and 2019, the university is now organised into four schools:
School of Arts, Media and Creative Technology
School of Science, Engineering and Environment
School of Health and Society
Salford Business School
International students come from China, India, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Cyprus, Greece, Nigeria, the Republic of Ireland, Romania, Malaysia and Bulgaria. Previously, with its three colleges, 12 schools, nearly 20,000 students, and over 2,500 staff, Salford had a turnover of some £156m in 2006/07. A report from social and economic impact report published in 2019, sets the turnover to £180.5m in 2019
The university is a founding member of the Northern Consortium of universities.
In October 2008 it was announced that compulsory redundancies were likely at the university, as part of a plan to save £12.5 million over three years. A notice by the university registrar said that Salford needed to invest £300 million in university estate and £40 million in moving the arts and media faculty to the "MediaCityUK" site at Salford Quays, where the BBC is to establish its northern headquarters. The notice went on to say that these additional costs came in the context of a number of pressures: salary bills that had "exceeded the university's expectations"; a "serious problem" with student retention; the "credit crunch"; and three "seriously underperforming" schools. Affected schools include the School of Nursing, Salford Business School and the School of Community Health Sciences and Social Care.
Teaching quality and rankings
In the 2018 Guardian University League Tables, the University of Salford placed 99th, down from 83rd in 2017. The Times newspaper ranked Salford 105th out of 123 UK institutions in 2015, from 84th of 114 in 2010.
Student life
University House on the Peel Park Campus is home to the University of Salford Students' Union (USSU). As well as representing students, the union plays host to a number of services, including shops and a bar.
The Two Cities Boat Race is an annual boat race that has been running since 1972. It is now an established event in the sporting and social calendar of Salford and Manchester. The event is also significant for the amount of work put in by volunteers from both universities, to help with event set-up, stewarding, and programme selling, raising money for many different charities. In 2007 the recipient of the proceeds was SPARKS, a charity that supports medical research for children.
In 1971–72, the University Rugby League club won the UAU Championship, beating Sheffield University in the final at The Willows, then home of Salford Rugby League Club.
Diversity and Inclusion
At Salford there is still a difference in the degrees obtained by White students and those obtained by BAME students. The reported gap for 2017/2018 for first and 2.1 class degree level is 15% between white and BAME students as published in a University report. The students' union believe that the Black attainment gap is a result of institutional and systemic failures within the institution, including a lack of diversity within teaching, inadequate support services and covert racism and microagressions towards BME students. The University intend to respond by creating an 'inclusive environment'. To date this has involved surveying students and signing up to the Race Equality Charter. This is crucial, as The University has 10% more BAME students than the national average at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. As of 9 August 2018, BAME staff representation (13%) does not match the BAME student population representation. Whilst there have been a 2% increase in BAME lecturers being hired, there is an 8% decrease in promotion to senior lecturer level and a 3% increase at Professorial level. The University report states that '...it is important that we consider the pipeline for BAME academics to address this decrease.'. In October 2019, the University hosted a two-week festival on Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, with the theme, 'belonging at Salford'. As part of this, a one-day symposium featured keynote speaker, Nicola Rollock, a leading figures with a vision for equality, diversity and inclusion. There were presentations on the BAME Attainment Gap, a panel discussion of BAME women in HE, and networking opportunities for academics and students.
Representation of female staff is 51% compared to 56% undergraduate students. The number of staff who are LGBTQI is 4% and is equivalent to the number of students who report as being LGBTQI, however it is worth noting that 49% of students didn't report their sexuality. There is an underrepresentation of disabled staff (4%) compared to undergraduate students (21%).
Accommodation
There are five self-catered halls of residence:
Peel Park Quarter
Eddie Colman and John Lester Courts
Bramall Court
iQ Salford, Seaford Road
Sanctuary Students - Tramways, Seaford Road
Peel Park Quarter encompasses nine buildings of flats owned by Campus Living Villages, comprising a total of 1,367 rooms. There are six variations of rooms, including wheelchair accessible en-suite rooms. This complex opened for students in summer 2015.
Eddie Colman and John Lester Courts are two blocks of flats containing 755 rooms in total, and each flat is shared between two, three or four people. The flats are the closest accommodation to Salford Shopping City in Pendleton – colloquially referred to as the Precinct. Eddie Colman and John Lester Courts were sold by the University of Salford to Campus Living Villages in December 2008. These became CLV's first British properties. Eddie Colman was a resident of nearby Archie Street, the model for the television series Coronation Street, and was a player for Manchester United. He was killed in the Munich Disaster of 6 February 1958 along with seven other players.
Constantine Court was the only en suite university-owned accommodation, which consisted of 80 rooms in seven houses. This accommodation was in the centre of the main university campus, close to the Students' Union shop, a bank and Salford Crescent railway station. Adjacent Horlock Court comprised 168 rooms in 14 houses.
Bramall Court contains flats close to the Adelphi Campus. The flats are shared between two, three or four. Bramall Court is now owned by Campus Living Villages.
Castle Irwell Student Village was the largest area of accommodation, housing up to 1,600 students, and is on the site of the old Manchester Racecourse. Castle Irwell was a popular choice for first years, due to the cheap rent, however Castle Irwell is no longer in use and has been superseded by the on-campus Peel Park Quarter. In 2016 the main building on the Castle Irwell site, known as 'the pav', was burned down in an arson attack. Shortly after, demolition of the burnt and other derelict buildings on site commenced and completely cleared by early 2017.
iQ Salford, Seaford Road is owned and run by iQ Student Accommodation in partnership with the university. This accommodation site consists of a square of houses around a central reception, lounge, and laundry building, with an independent gym. Each house contains six flats, which are typically shared by six people with en suite bathrooms. The site also has deluxe rooms available for an extra cost. This accommodation is very close to Castle Irwell. The site includes purpose-built SPAR, Subway and Greggs shops.
Tramways, Seaford Road is independently run by Sanctuary Students. Its name originates from the old tram depot, run by Manchester Corporation Tramways, that was located on the same site.
Sports
The University currently has 35 sports clubs ranging from football to ultimate. Each year, Salford and Chester University take part in a varsity challenge. This began in 2016 at Chester's campus. In 2016, 19 sports were involved and Chester won 12-7 overall. The following year took place at Salford, and with an overall score of 12-8, Salford took the trophy.
Notable people
References
External links
University of Salford – official website
University of Salford Students' Union – official website
University Alliance
Educational institutions established in 1896
1896 establishments in England
University of Salford
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254641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karelian%20language | Karelian language | Karelian (karjala, karjal or kariela) is a Finnic language spoken mainly in the Russian Republic of Karelia. Linguistically, Karelian is closely related to the Finnish dialects spoken in eastern Finland, and some Finnish linguists have even classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, though in the modern day it is widely considered a separate language. Karelian is not to be confused with the Southeastern dialects of Finnish, sometimes referred to as ("Karelian dialects") in Finland.
There is no single standard Karelian language. Each writer writes in Karelian according to their own dialectal form. Three main written standards have been developed, for North Karelian, Olonets Karelian and Tver Karelian. All variants are written with the Latin-based Karelian alphabet, though the Cyrillic script has been used in the past.
Classification
Karelian belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages, and is closely related to Finnish. Finnish and Karelian have common ancestry in the Proto-Karelian language spoken in the coast of Lake Ladoga in the Iron Age, and Karelian forms a dialect continuum with the Eastern dialects of Finnish. Earlier, some Finnish linguists classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, sometimes known in older Finnish literature as ('Border Karelian dialects'), but today Karelian is seen as a distinct language. Besides Karelian and Finnish, the Finnic subgroup also includes Estonian and some minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea.
Geographic distribution
Karelian is spoken by about 100,000 people, mainly in the Republic of Karelia, Russia, although notable Karelian-speaking communities can also be found in the Tver region northwest of Moscow. Previously, it was estimated that there were 5,000 speakers in Finland, mainly belonging to the older generations, but more recent estimates have increased that number to 30,000. Due to post-World War II mobility and internal migration, Karelians now live scattered throughout Finland, and Karelian is no longer spoken as a local community language.
Official status
In the Republic of Karelia, Karelian has official status as a minority language, and since the late 1990s there have been moves to pass special language legislation, which would give Karelian an official status on par with Russian. Karelians in Tver Oblast have a national-cultural autonomy which guarantees the use of the Karelian language in schools and mass media. In Finland, Karelian has official status as a non-regional national minority language within the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
Dialects
The Karelian language has two main varieties, which can be considered as dialects or separate languages: Karelian Proper, which comprises North Karelian and South Karelian (including the Tver enclave dialects); and Olonets Karelian. These varieties constitute a continuum of dialects, the ends of which are no longer mutually intelligible. Varieties can be further divided into individual dialects:
Karelian Proper
North Karelian (spoken in the parishes of Jyskyjärvi, Kieretti, Kiestinki, Kontokki, Oulanka, Paanajärvi, Pistojärvi, Suomussalmi, Uhtua, Usmana, Vitsataipale and Vuokkiniemi)
South Karelian (spoken in the parishes of Ilomantsi, Impilahti, Korpiselkä, Mäntyselkä, Paatene, Porajärvi, Repola, Rukajärvi, Suikujärvi, Suistamo, Suojärvi and Tunkua; and additionally in the enclaves of Tver, Tikhvin and Valdai)
Tver Karelian
Dorža dialect
Maksuatiha dialect
Ruameška dialect
Tolmattšu dialect
Vesjegonsk (Vessi) dialect
Olonets Karelian or Livvi (spoken in the parishes of Kotkatjärvi, Munjärvi, Nekkula-Riipuškala, Salmi, Säämäjärvi, Tulemajärvi, Vieljärvi and Vitele)
The Ludic language, spoken along the easternmost edge of Karelian Republic, is in the Russian research tradition counted as a third main dialect of Karelian, though Ludic shows strong relationship also to Veps, and it is today considered a separate language.
Phonology
Vowels
Monophthongs
Like Finnish, the Karelian language has 8 phonemic vowel qualities, totalling 11 vowel phonemes when vowel length is considered:
Only the close vowels , and may occur long. The original Proto-Finnic long mid and open vowels have been diphthongized: > (as also in Finnish); *aa, *ää > (as also in Savonian dialects of Finnish).
Diphthongs
North Karelian and Olonets Karelian have 21 diphthongs:
Triphthongs
In addition to the diphthongs North Karelian has a variety of triphthongs:
Olonets Karelian has only the triphthongs .
Consonants
There are 23 consonants in Karelian:
Writing system
Alphabet
Karelian is today written using a Latin alphabet consisting of 29 characters. It extends the ISO basic Latin alphabet with the additional letters Č, Š, Ž, Ä, Ö and ' and excludes the letters Q, W and X. This unified alphabet is used to write all Karelian varieties except Tver Karelian. The very few texts that were published in Karelian from medieval times through the 19th century used the Cyrillic alphabet. With the establishment of the Soviet Union, Finnish, written with the Latin alphabet, became official. However, from 1937–39 Karelian written in Cyrillic replaced Finnish as an official language of the Karelian ASSR (see "History" below).
Orthography
Karelian is written with orthography similar to Finnish orthography. However, some features of the Karelian language and thus orthography are different from Finnish:
The Karelian system of sibilants is extensive; in Finnish, there is only one: .
Phonemic voicing occurs.
Karelian retains palatalization, usually denoted with an apostrophe (e.g. )
The letter 'ü' may replace 'y' in some texts.
The letter 'c' denotes , although 'ts' is used also. 'c' is more likely in Russian loan words.
Notice that /c/ and /č/ have length levels, which is not found in standard Finnish. For example, in Kalevala, Lönnrot's orthography hides the fact that the pronunciation of the original material is actually , with palatalization of the affricate. The exact details depend on the dialect, though. See Yleiskielen ts:n murrevastineet.
Karelian actually uses as a voiced alveolar fricative. (In Finnish, z is a foreign spelling for .) The plosives , and may be voiced. (In most Finnish dialects, they are not differentiated from the unvoiced , , and . Furthermore, in Karelian, voiced consonants occur also in native words, not just in loans as in standard Finnish.)
The sounds represented by č, š and ž are native to Karelian, but not Finnish. Speakers of Finnish do not distinguish and from , nor from (medial) or (initial). For example, the native Karelian words and are and in standard Finnish.
History
Prehistory
As all other Finnic languages, Karelian descends from Proto-Finnic, which in turn ultimately descends from Proto-Uralic. The most recent ancestor of the Karelian dialects is the language variety spoken in the 9th century at the western shores of Lake Ladoga, known as Old Karelian (Finnish: ).
Karelian is usually considered a part of the Eastern Finnic subgroup. It has been proposed that Late Proto-Finnic evolved into three dialects: Northern dialect, spoken in western Finland; Southern dialect, spoken in the area of modern-day Estonia and northern Latvia, and Eastern dialect, spoken in the regions east of the Southern dialect. In the 6th century, Eastern dialect arrived at the western shores of Lake Ladoga, and in the 9th century, Northern dialect reached the same region. These two dialects blended together and formed Old Karelian.
Medieval period
By the end of the 13th century, speakers of Old Karelian had reached the Savo region in eastern Finland, increasingly mixing with population from western Finland. In 1323 Karelia was divided between Sweden and Novgorod according to the Treaty of Nöteborg, which started to slowly separate descendants of the Proto-Karelian language from each other. In the areas occupied by Sweden, Old Karelian started to develop into dialects of Finnish: Savonian dialects and Southeastern dialects.
Birch bark letter no. 292 is the oldest known document in any Finnic language. The document is dated to the beginning of the 13th century. It was found in 1957 by a Soviet expedition, led by Artemiy Artsikhovskiy in the Nerev excavation on the left coast side of Novgorod. The language used in the document is thought to be an archaic form of the language spoken in Olonets Karelia, a dialect of the Karelian language.
In the regions ruled by Novgorod, the protolanguage started to evolve into Karelian language. In 1617 Novgorod lost parts of Karelia to Sweden in the Treaty of Stolbovo, which led the Karelian-speaking population of the occupied areas to flee from their homes. This gave rise to the Karelian speaking population in the Tver and Valday regions.
19th century
In the 19th century, a few books were published in Karelian using the Cyrillic script, notably A Translation of some Prayers and a Shortened Catechism into North Karelian and Olonets (Aunus) dialects in 1804, and the gospel of St. Matthew in South Karelian Tver dialect, in 1820. Karelian literature in 19th century Russia remained limited to a few primers, songbooks and leaflets.
Soviet period
In 1921, the first all-Karelian congress under the Soviet regime debated whether Finnish or Karelian should be the official language (next to Russian) of the new "Karelian Labour Commune" (, in Cyrillic Karelian), which two years later would become the Karelian ASSR. Finnish communists as well as ethnic Finns from North America, who came to live in Soviet Karelia, dominated the political discourse, as they were in general far better educated than local Karelians. They favored the use of Finnish, which had just been through an 80-year period of standardization based on a variety of dialects across Finland — and the Finns saw Karelian simply as additional Finnish dialects. In the end Finnish was established as the official "local" language.
An intense program of Finnicization, but called "Karelianization", began and Finnish-language schools were established across Soviet Karelia. Newspapers, literary journals were established and Russian literature was translated into Finnish, while much literature from Soviet Karelia in Finnish was published.
While this was happening in Soviet Karelia, in 1931–33, a Karelian literary language using the Latin alphabet was standardized for the Tver Karelian community of about 127,000 people, hundreds of kilometers to the south.
Between 1935 and 1938 the Finnish-dominated leadership of Soviet Karelia including leader Edvard Gylling, was removed from power, killed or sent to concentration camps. The Finnish language was branded a language of the bourgeois Finnish society in Finland proper, and was later regarded as a "fascist" language of the Finnish enemy.
From early 1938 to April 1940, the Soviet authorities ceased publication in Finnish, all Finnish-language schools were closed and the children were prohibited from speaking Finnish even during recess. The Soviet government replaced Finnish in the Karelian ASSR with Karelian written in the Cyrillic alphabet.
A new form of standardized Karelian was hurriedly introduced in 1938, written in Cyrillic, with only nine grammatical cases, and with a very large and increasing number of words taken directly from Russian but with Karelian grammatical endings. During this period about 200 titles were published, including educational materials, children's books, readers, Party and public affairs documents, the literary journal Karelia. The newspaper Karjalan Sanomat was written in this new Karelian Cyrillic, rather than in Finnish. Karelians who did not speak Russian could not understand this new official language due to the amount of Russian words, for example, the phrase "Which party led the revolution" in this form of Karelian was given as () where the word for party, led, and revolution are all Russian words with Karelian grammatical endings, whereas the Finnish equivalent words have completely different roots:
After the Winter War, in April 1940, political considerations changed again. The USSR established the Karelo-Finnish SSR with the idea that Finland proper would eventually be annexed to the USSR as part of that Republic. Finnish, written in the Latin alphabet, was once again made the official "local" language of Soviet Karelia, alongside Russian.
In the 1980s, publishing began again in various adaptations of the Latin alphabet for Olonets Karelian and the White Sea and Tver dialects of Karelian Proper.
Recent events
In 2007 a standard alphabet was adopted to write all dialects.
In 2008, Joensuu University launched Finland's first Karelian language professorship, in order to save the language. A year later, Finland's first Karelian language nest (pre-school immersion group) was established in the town of Nurmes.
Media in Karelian
is published in Olonets Karelian.
is published in North Karelian dialect.
is published in Tver Karelian dialect.
– A monthly Karelian language journal published by Karjalan Kielen Seura in Finland.
– News articles and a weekly radio news program in Karelian are published by the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
Examples of Karelian dialects
North Karelian
A sample from the book :
(Translation: Old people used to say that the swan is born of man. Swans are always paired up. When one is shot, the other weeps for it for a long time. Yet the swan is a sacred bird. Nobody ever dared to shoot them, for that was a sin. Swans come to us in the spring and in the autumn they leave again for the south. They fly in large flocks. When they left, it was a sign that winter was near.)
Olonets Karelian
Sample 1
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
(English version: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.)
Sample 2
A sample from the book . Note the older alphabet:
{|
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!|Olonets Karelian<ref>Bogdanova, Leena; Ščerbakova, Tamara. Karjalan kielen harjoituskogomus III–IV luokku Livvin murdehel. Petroskoi «Periodika», 2004, p. 14.</ref>
!|
!|Standard Finnish
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!|English translation
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||There is beautiful nature in Karelia. Tall birches,
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||green spruces and Scots pines decorate the forest.
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||Every place is full of berries and mushrooms.
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||
|| If only one picked them! The lakes and rivers, too, are full of fish:
|-
||
||
||
||
||there is pike, carp bream, ide, burbot, zander, whitefish.
|-
||
||
||
||
||Take a fishing rod and run to the lake!
|}
Tver Karelian
A sample from the book :
(Translation: Puasinkoi is a small Karelian village in the Tver region. There are forty houses. The village lies by a river. The river flows slowly—that's why it's called Tihvinitša. The surrounding region is very beautiful.—(My) father told (me): once, many hundreds of years ago, Karelians from North-Karelia came there. They cut down the forest and founded this village. And even now, there are houses in the village, which have been built from the trees of the old forest.)
See also
Birch bark letter no. 292
Karelia
Karelian alphabet
Karelians
Republic of Karelia
References
Sources
Ahtia, E. V. (1938): Karjalan kielioppi: Äänne- ja sanaoppi. Suojärvi: Karjalan kansallisseura.
Ahtia, Edvard V. (2014): Karjalan kielioppi II: Johto-oppi. Joensuu: Karjalan Kielen Seura. .
Ahtia, Edvard V. (2014): Karjalan kielioppi III: Lauseoppi. Joensuu: Karjalan Kielen Seura. .
Ojansuu, Heikki (1918): Karjala-aunuksen äännehistoria. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran toimituksia 162.
Virtaranta, Pertti; Koponen, Raija (eds) (1968-2005): Karjalan kielen sanakirja. Helsinki: Kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskus / Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.
Zaykov, P. M. (1999): Grammatika Karelskogo Yazyka fonetika i morfologia''. Petrozavodsk: Periodika.
External links
The Peoples of the Red Book: THE KARELIANS
Karjalaine lehüt - Karelian page
Karjalan Kielen Seuru – The Society for the Karelian Language
Neuvostoliiton kielipolitiikkaa: Karjalan kirjakielen suunnittelu 1930-luvulla ("On Soviet language policy: The planning of the Karelian literary language in the 1930s", in Finnish)
Karjalan kirjakielestä (in Finnish)
Wiki in the viena dialect
Livgiläižet (in Russian)
Karelian language on Omniglot
Karjalan kirjaimet (in Karelian)
Karjalan kielioppi (in Karelian)
Грамматика карельского языка
УРОКИ КАРЕЛЬСКОГО ЯЗЫКА - Karelian lessons (in Russian)
A short Karelian Conversation
Karelian-Russian-Finnish dictionary
Karelian-Finnish dictionary (Note: č is categorized under tš)
Karelian-Vepsian-Finnish-Estonian dictionary
Karjalan kielen harjoituskogomus (PDF/in Karelian)
Finnic languages
Finnish language
Languages of Russia
Languages of Finland
Language
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254645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus%20Fufius%20Calenus | Quintus Fufius Calenus | Quintus Fufius Calenus (died 40 BC) was a Roman general, and consul in 47 BC.
As tribune of the plebeians in 61 BC, he was chiefly instrumental in securing the acquittal of the notorious Publius Clodius when charged with having profaned the mysteries of Bona Dea (Cicero, Ad. Att. 1.16). In 59 BC Calenus was praetor, and brought forward a law that the senators, knights, and tribuni aerarii, who composed the judices, should vote separately, so that it might be known how they gave their votes (Cassius Dio xxxviii. 8). He fought in Gaul (51 BC) and Spain (49 BC) under Julius Caesar, who, after he had crossed over to Greece (48 BC), sent Calenus from Epirus to bring over the rest of the troops from Italy. On the passage to Italy, most of the ships were captured by Bibulus and Calenus himself escaped with difficulty. In 47 BC, he was raised to the consulship through the influence of Caesar. After the death of the dictator, he joined Mark Antony, for whom he commanded eleven legions in the north of Italy. Calenus died in 40 BC, while stationed with his army at the foot of the Alps, just as he was on the point of marching against Octavian; but Calenus' son handed over the legions to the future emperor.
References
Caesar, B.G. viii. 39; B.C. i. 87, iii. 26
Cicero Philippicae, viii. 4.
Oxford Classical Dictionary
Ancient Roman generals
1st-century BC Roman consuls
Calenus, Quintus
Year of birth unknown
40 BC deaths | [
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254647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veps%20language | Veps language | The Veps language (also known as Vepsian; natively as or ), spoken by the Vepsians (also known as Veps), belongs to the Finnic group of the Uralic languages. Closely related to Finnish and Karelian, Veps is also written using Latin script.
According to Soviet statistics, 12,500 people were self-designated ethnic Veps at the end of 1989.
According to the location of the people, the language is divided into three main dialects: Northern Veps (at Lake Onega to the south of Petrozavodsk, to the north of the river Svir, including the former Veps National Volost), Central Veps (in the East of the Leningrad Oblast and Northwest of the Vologda Oblast), and Southern Veps (in the Leningrad Oblast). The Northern dialect seems the most distinct of the three; however, it is still mutually intelligible for speakers of the other two dialects. Speakers of the Northern dialect call themselves "Ludi" (), or .
In Russia, more than 350 children learn the Veps language in a total of five national schools.
Veps has been called the "Sanskrit of the Finnic languages", because it retains many archaic features.
Classification and history
Veps is the easternmost surviving member of the Finnic languages. Having developed in relative isolation, the language lacks several features found in its relatives, such as consonant gradation and the length contrast in consonants. Original vowel length has mostly been lost as well (with the exception of Northern Veps, which retains ii and uu). At the same time, it retains a number of archaic features.
The closest relative of Veps is Ludic, connecting Veps to the wider Finnic dialect continuum.
Veps also shows some characteristic innovations such as the vocalization of original syllable-final*l, and the expansion of the local case system.
Distribution
According to Ethnologue there were 3,160 speakers of Veps in 2010, located in the Republic of Karelia and in the Leningrad and Vologda Oblasts.
Dialects
Veps shows substantial dialectal variation, affecting both phonetics and grammatical features. Three main dialect areas can be distinguished, the northern, central and southern dialects.
Northern
Northern Veps is spoken in the Republic of Karelia along the coast of Lake Onega south of Petrozavodsk. It is also spoken in a few small villages in Leningrad Oblast. Villages speaking Northern Veps include Shyoltozero, Rybreka, and Kvartsitny, as well as the city of Petrozavodsk itself.
Characteristics of Northern Veps are:
Diphthongs are either preserved in their historical form (koume), or the first component is raised (jaug [jɑʊ̯g] > dʹoug).
Combinations of vowel + l are usually preserved (talʹv [tɑlʲv], velg, sild, silʹm [silʲm], olda, sülʹg''' [sylʲgʲ], pölvaz [ˡpølvaz]), rarely vocalized to diphthongs: al > au, el, il, ül [yl], öl [øl]> üu [yw] and ol > uu [uː].
l, n, r are always palatalized before e in a non-initial syllable.
Word-final consonants are not palatalized after i, in for example the past indicative, the conditional and some case forms.
Long close vowels are retained, with *üü [yː] often diphthongized to üu (*püü > püu, contrast Southern and Central Veps pü).
j is fortified to dʹ [dʲ] word-initially, and medially after consonants (jaug > dʹoug [dʲoʊ̯gː], jogi > dʹogi [dʲogi], järv > dʹärv dʲærv], agj > agdʹ).
The last consonant of the stem is lengthened in the third-person singular present indicative (küzub > küzzub, tapab > tappab), and stem-final e becomes o (lugeb > luggob).
Only traces of vowel harmony are retained.
Central
Central Veps dialects are rather distinct from each other compared to Northern and Southern Veps, which are relatively homogeneous. They are spoken around a long line stretching from Tervenichey in the Lodeinopolsky District of Leningrad Oblast, to near Lake Beloye. The largest locality speaking Central Veps dialects is Vinnitsy.
Characteristics of Central Veps are:
Diphthongs are usually modified (sain > seinʹ, söi > süi).
Combinations of vowel + l are vocalized to diphthongs in Kuya and Pondala (Belozersk), and usually preserved elsewhere (edel, silʹm, sülʹkta, völ).
al and el are vocalized to ou or uu (el may also become üu) in the adessive and ablative case forms (talvel > touvuu or touvüu, mägelpäi > mäguupei).
Word-final consonants are palatalized after i (mänid > mänidʹ, mänižin > mänižinʹ).
In Kuya village, the vowel in the allative ending depends on the preceding stem vowel. After i the ending is -le (kanoile), after a it is -la (kalala) and after other vowels it is -lo (lebulo).
j is preserved in most dialects, mostly in the west (jono, agj). j is fortified to dʹ in Kuya (dʹono, agdʹ). It is fortified to gʹ in Pondala, Voylahta, Nemzha, and Shimozero (gʹono, aggʹ).
Final obstruent devoicing in Kuya Veps (sanub > sanup, vellesed > velleset).
Unrounding of ü and ö in a few villages (pühä > pihä, pökoi > pekoi).
ä > e in Shimozero (päiv > pei(v)).
Vowel harmony is weakly preserved, most prominently in the eastern and south-western areas.
Southern
Southern Veps is spoken in the Boksitogorsky District of Leningrad Oblast, including the villages of Radogoshcha and .
Characteristics of Southern Veps are:
Diphthongs are monophthongized to long vowels, especially in non-initial syllables (pertišpäi > pertišpää, heboine > heboone).
Combinations of vowel + l are usually preserved.
al and el are vocalized to aa and oo in the adessive and ablative case forms (talʹvel > talʹvoo, kezal > kezaa).
l and n are palatalized before e in non-initial syllables when followed by a case ending or person-and-number ending. r is not palatalized.
Word-final consonants are palatalized after i, in for example the past indicative, the conditional and some case forms.
j is preserved (jogi, jüged).
Unrounding of front rounded vowels, ü > i (pühä > pihä) and ö > e.
The ending -i of the third-person singular past indicative is usually dropped, leaving palatalization of the preceding consonant (pästi > pästʹ, väti > vätʹ, kolkati > kolkatʹ).
Vowel harmony is preserved well (höblötädä, pörüdä, södä).
Phonology
Consonants
Palatalization
In general, palatalizable consonants are palatalized allophonically before a front vowel. However, palatalized consonants also occur in other environments, especially in word-final position or in word-final clusters.
There are some cases where the front vowel is preceded by a non-palatalized consonant. In native Finnic vocabulary, this occurs where inflectional endings beginning with are attached to words with a stem ending in a non-palatalized consonant. The consonant is not palatalized by in this case, but remains non-palatalized by analogy with the other inflected forms. The vowel is backed to in this case, as in Russian, making it unclear whether the palatalization is a consequence of the front vowel, or the backing is the result of the lack of palatalization. Either analysis is possible.
Compare:
norʹ ("young"), genitive singular noren , partitive plural norid
nor ("rope"), genitive singular noran , partitive plural norid (or )
Russian loanwords have also introduced instances of non-palatalized consonants followed by , which are much more frequent in that language.
The phoneme can also in some cases be preceded by non-palatalized consonants, for example in the allative ending -le.
Vowels
The status of is marginal; it occurs as an allophone of after a non-palatalized consonant. See above under "Palatalization" for more information. It does not occur in the first syllable of a word.
Vowel harmony
Like many other Finnic languages, Veps has vowel harmony but in a much more limited form. Words are split into back-vowel and front-vowel words based on which vowels they contain:
Back vowels: , and
Front vowels: , and
However, the front vowels can only occur in the first two syllables of a word. In a third or later syllable, and also sometimes in the second syllable, they are converted to the corresponding back vowel. Thus, vowel harmony only applies (inconsistently) in the second syllable, and has been lost elsewhere. It is not applied for inflectional endings except in a few exceptional cases, but is retained more frequently in derivational endings.
For example:
korged ("high", back-vowel harmony), genitive singular korktan, derived noun korktuz' ("height"); compare Finnish korkean, korkeus.
pimed ("dark", back-vowel harmony), genitive singular pimedan, derived noun pimeduz' ("darkness"); compare Finnish pimeän, pimeys.
hüvä ("good", front-vowel harmony), illative singular hüväha, derived noun hüvüz' ("goodness"); compare Finnish hyvään, hyvyys.
päiv ("day", front-vowel harmony), genitive singular päivän, illative singular päivhan; compare Finnish päivän, päivään.
pä ("head", back-vowel harmony), illative singular päha; compare Finnish päähän.
keza ("summer", back-vowel harmony); compare Finnish kesä.
vävu ("son-in-law", back-vowel harmony); compare Finnish vävy.
üldüda ("to rise", front-vowel harmony in second syllable, back-vowel in third); compare Finnish yltyä.
küzuda ("to ask", back-vowel harmony); compare Finnish kysyä.
Orthography
The modern Vepsian alphabet is a Latin alphabet. It consists of a total of twenty-nine characters: twenty-two are from the basic modern Latin alphabet, six are derived from basic Latin letters by the addition of diacritical marks, and the final character is the apostrophe, which signifies palatalization of the preceding sound.
Veps orthography is largely phonemic, and represents each phoneme with one letter. Palatalized consonants are single phonemes, and thus the combination of a letter and a following apostrophe is a single combined letter for this purpose. The following table shows the correspondences between letters and phonemes:
Palatalization of consonants before front vowels is not indicated in the orthography, so plain consonant letters can represent both types of consonant depending on what vowel follows. For the following letters and , this is ambiguous, however: they can be preceded by both types of consonants, as noted above in the phonology section. Whether a consonant before the letter or is palatalized or not cannot be determined from the orthography and must be learned for each word.
Grammar
Like other Finnic languages, Veps is an agglutinating language. The preservation of the Proto-Finnic weak-grade consonants *d and *g in all positions, along with the loss of consonant gradation, has made Veps morphology relatively simple compared to the other Finnic languages. There are fewer inflectional classes, and inflections of nominals and verbs alike can be predicted from only a few basic principal parts.
Nouns
Veps has twenty-three grammatical cases, more than any other Finnic language. It preserves the basic set of Finnic cases shared by most Finnic languages, including the six locative cases, but several more cases have been added that generally have no counterpart in the others.
Notes:
"V" indicates a copy of whatever vowel the genitive singular stem ends with, replacing a i, ä, ö, ü with e, a, o, u. For example, for the illative singular: mecan > mecha, noren > norehe, pöudon > pöudho, pän > päha. Note that the stem-final vowel itself can disappear in these forms, but the rule applies the same.
In endings beginning with s or z or a group of consonants containing s or z, this changes to š/ž if the last preceding vowel is i. This always occurs in the plural forms.
The partitive, allative, terminative II, additive II and prolative singular cases have longer endings that are used with a few frequently-used pronouns, ken "who" and mi "what".
Principal parts
Nouns have four principal parts, from which all other noun forms can be derived by replacing the endings:
Nominative singular: Forms no other forms.
Partitive singular: Forms the prolative singular. Can usually be formed from the genitive singular by replacing -n with -d, but some words have an unpredictable form with -t and a different stem.
Genitive singular: When -n is removed, forms all remaining singular forms, and the nominative and accusative plural.
Illative singular: Forms the illative, terminative I and additive I singular. The illative singular is predictably formed from the genitive singular stem, so it's not a principal part as such.
Partitive plural: When -d is removed, forms all remaining plural forms.
The illative singular stem is the same as the genitive singular stem, except that the final vowel is dropped in some cases. The vowel is retained if at least one of these is the case, and dropped otherwise:
The final vowel is a diphthong.
The nominative singular is of the form "consonant-vowel-consonant-vowel".
The genitive singular has 1 or 3 syllables.
There is contraction of a syllable in the genitive singular stem (compared to the nominative stem), e.g. nom sg vauged > gen sg vauktan (contraction -ged > -kt-), nom sg lambaz > gen sg lambhan (contraction -az > -h-).
The final consonants of genitive singular stem are ll or lʹlʹ.
Thus:
If the genitive singular stem has h before the final vowel, then the ending -ze (-že after i) is used, and the vowel is never dropped:
Adjectives
Verbs
Endings
Veps has innovated a special reflexive conjugation, which may have middle voice or passive voice semantics. The endings are as follows:
Infinitives:
First infinitive in -da or -ta (reflexive: add -s).
Second infinitive in -de- or -te- with inessive or instructive case endings.
Third infinitive in -ma- with inessive, illative, elative, adessive or abessive case endings.
Participles:
Present active participle in -i (stem -ja-). This is the same suffix as is used for agent nouns.
Past active participle in -nu (stem -nude-).
Past passive participle in -dud or -tud.
The original Finnic present active participle is falling out of use, and is preserved only for a few verbs, as -b (stem -ba-'').
Negative verb
Pronouns
The personal pronouns are of Finno-Ugric origin:
Numbers
Language example
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
(English version: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood).
See also
Lonin Museum of Veps Ethnography
References
Further reading
External links
Open corpus of Veps and Karelian languages
The Peoples of the Red Book: THE VEPS
St.Petersburg Veps society forum
Veps language corpus and dictionary (in Russian)
Vepsian textbooks from 1930s
Translated texts in Veps
Finnic languages
Languages of Russia
Republic of Karelia | [
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254652 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold%20Comfort%20Farm | Cold Comfort Farm | Cold Comfort Farm is a comic novel by English author Stella Gibbons, published in 1932. It parodies the romanticised, sometimes doom-laden accounts of rural life popular at the time, by writers such as Mary Webb.
Plot summary
Following the death of her parents, the book's heroine, Flora Poste, finds she is possessed "of every art and grace save that of earning her own living". She decides to take advantage of the fact that "no limits are set, either by society or one's own conscience, to the amount one may impose on one's relatives", and settles on visiting her distant relatives at the isolated Cold Comfort Farm in the fictional village of Howling in Sussex. The inhabitants of the farm – Aunt Ada Doom, the Starkadders, and their extended family and workers – feel obliged to take her in to atone for an unspecified wrong once done to her father.
As is typical in a certain genre of romantic 19th-century and early 20th-century literature, each of the farm's inhabitants has some long-festering emotional problem caused by ignorance, hatred, or fear, and the farm is badly run. Flora, being a level-headed, urban woman in the dandy tradition, determines that she must apply modern common sense to their problems and help them adapt to the 20th century – bringing metropolitan values into the sticks.
Inspirations
As parody of the "loam and lovechild" genre, Cold Comfort Farm alludes specifically to a number of novels both in the past and contemporarily in vogue when Gibbons was writing. According to Faye Hammill's "Cold Comfort Farm, D. H. Lawrence, and English Literary Culture Between the Wars", the works of Sheila Kaye-Smith and Mary Webb are the chief influence: she considered that the farm is modelled on Dormer House in Webb's The House in Dormer Forest, and Aunt Ada Doom on Mrs. Velindre in the same book. The farm-obsessed Reuben's original is in Kaye-Smith's Sussex Gorse, and the Quivering Brethren on the Colgate Brethren in Kaye-Smith's Susan Spray. Others see John Cowper Powys's rural mysticism as a further target, as featured in his Wessex novel Wolf Solent (1929): "He felt as if he enjoyed at that hour some primitive life-feeling that was identical with what those pollarded elms felt."
Sequels, responses, and influence
Sheila Kaye-Smith, often said to be one of the rural writers parodied by Gibbons in Cold Comfort Farm, arguably gets her own back with a tongue-in-cheek reference to Cold Comfort Farm within a subplot of A Valiant Woman (1939), set in a rapidly modernising village. The upper middle-class teenager Lucia turns from writing charming rural poems to a great Urban Proletarian Novel: "… all about people who aren't married going to bed in a Manchester slum and talking about the Means Test." Her philistine grandmother is dismayed: she prefers "cosy" rural novels, and knows Lucia is ignorant of proletarian life:
Elizabeth Janeway responded to the lush ruralism of Laurie Lee's memoir Cider with Rosie by suggesting an astringent counterblast might be found by "looking for an old copy of Stella Gibbons's Cold Comfort Farm".
Characters
In order of appearance:
In London:
Flora Poste: the heroine, a nineteen-year-old from London whose parents have recently died
Mary Smiling: a widow, Flora's friend in London
Charles Fairfo: Flora's cousin in London, studying to become a parson
In Howling village Sussex:
Judith Starkadder: Flora's cousin, wife of Amos, with an unhealthy passion for her own son Seth
Seth Starkadder: younger son of Amos and Judith, handsome and over-sexed, with a passion for the movies
Ada Doom: Judith's mother, a reclusive, miserly widow, owner of the farm, who constantly complains of having seen "something nasty in the woodshed" when she was a girl
Adam Lambsbreath: 90-year-old farm hand, obsessed with his cows and with Elfine
Mark Dolour: farm hand, father of Nancy
Amos Starkadder: Judith's husband and hellfire preacher at the Church of the Quivering Brethren ("Ye're all damned!")
Amos's half-cousins: Mica, married to Susan; Urk, a bachelor who wants to marry Elfine and adores water-voles; Ezra, married to Jane; Caraway, married to Lettie; Harkaway
Amos's half-brothers: Luke, married to Prue; Ma, divorced from Susan and married to Phoebe
Reuben Starkadder: Amos's heir, jealous of anyone who stands between him and his inheritance of the farm
Meriam Beetle: hired girl and mother of Seth's four children
Elfin: an intellectual, outdoor-loving girl of the Starkadder family, who is besotted with the local squire Richard Hawk-Monitor of Hautcouture (pronounced "Howchiker") Hall
Mrs Beetle: cleaning lady, rather more sensible than the Starkadders
Mrs Murther: landlady of The Condemn'd Man public house
Mr Meyerburg (whom Flora thinks of as "Mr Mybug"): a writer who pursues Flora and insists that she only refuses him because she is sexually repressed, working on a thesis that the works of the Brontë sisters were written by their brother Branwell Brontë
Claud Hart-Harris: urbane friend of Flora's whom she summons to accompany her, Seth and Elfine to a ball
Mrs Hawk-Monitor: initially far from being pleased at her son's choice of bride
Renne: unwanted daughter of Susan and Mark
Dr Müdel: psychoanalyst
Mr Neck: film producer
Animals at Cold Comfort Farm:
Graceless, Aimless, Feckless, and Pointless: the farm's cows and Adam Lambsbreath's chief charge
Viper: the horse, who pulls the trap which is the farm's main transportation
Big Business: the bull, who spends most of his time inside the barn
Futurism
Although the book was published in 1932, the setting is an unspecified near future, shortly after the "Anglo-Nicaraguan wars of 1946". It refers to future social and demographic changes, such as the changing neighbourhoods of London: Mayfair has become a slum and Lambeth is fashionable.
The book contains technological developments that Gibbons thought might have been invented by then, such as TV phones and air-taxis, so the novel has been compared to science fiction.
Prequel and Sequel
Christmas at Cold Comfort Farm (actually a collection of short stories, of which Christmas was the first) was published in 1940. It is a prequel of sorts, set before Flora's arrival at the farm, and is a parody of a typical family Christmas.
Conference at Cold Comfort Farm, a sequel, was published in 1949 to mixed reviews.
Adaptations
Cold Comfort Farm has been adapted several times, including twice by BBC television.
In 1968 a television serial was made, dramatised by David Turner in three 45 minute episodes. It starred Alastair Sim as Amos, Fay Compton as Aunt Ada, Sarah Badel as Flora Poste, Rosalie Crutchley as Judith, Brian Blessed as Reuben and Peter Egan as Seth. Joan Bakewell was the narrator. This BBC adaptation was released on VHS but as of April 2014 is no longer available commercially, but can be seen on Youtube at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_AP0t3hUQKo.
In 1981, the BBC produced a four-part radio adaptation by Elizabeth Proud, who also narrated. Patricia Gallimore played Flora, and Miriam Margolyes played Mrs. Beetle. In January 1983, a 2-part sequel, There Have Always Been Starkadders at Cold Comfort Farm, set several years later and based on Conference at Cold Comfort Farm, when Flora is married with several children, was broadcast, with Patricia Gallimore again playing Flora.
In 1995, a television film was produced that was generally well received by critics. Janet Maslin in The New York Times wrote that this screen version "gets it exactly right". The film starred Kate Beckinsale as Flora, Joanna Lumley as her friend and mentor Mary Smiling, Rufus Sewell as Seth, Ian McKellen as Amos Starkadder, Eileen Atkins as Judith, Stephen Fry as Mybug, and Angela Thorne as Mrs Hawk-Monitor. Freddie Jones, who had played both Urk and Dr Mudel in the 1968 version, appeared as Adam Lambsbreath, while Miriam Margolyes again played Mrs. Beetle. The 1995 version was produced by BBC Films and Thames International, and was directed by John Schlesinger, from a script by novelist Malcolm Bradbury. It was filmed on location at Brightling, East Sussex. In 1996 and 1997, this version also had a brief theatrical run in North America, Australia and some European countries. Schlesinger reportedly used his own money to enlarge the 16mm BBC version of the film to 35mm, which was turned down by several US distributors before being distributed by Gramercy Pictures. As of April 2014, the film is still available on DVD in both the US and UK.
Other uses of title
The book inspired Mellon family heiress Cordelia Scaife May to name her home "Cold Comfort", and to name her philanthropic foundation Colcom Foundation.
Critical reception
BBC News included Cold Comfort Farm on its list of the 100 most influential novels.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Cavaliero, Glen (1977) The Rural Tradition in the English Novel 1900–39: Macmillan
Kaye-Smith, Sheila (1939) A Valiant Woman: Cassell & Co Ltd
Trodd, Anthea (1980) Women's Writing in English: Britain 1900–1945: Longmans.
External links
Cold Comfort Farm (1968) at IMDb
Cold Comfort Farm (1995) at IMDb
Cold Comfort Farm at BBC Programme Index
There Have Always Been Starkadders at Cold Comfort Farm at BBC Programme Index
1932 British novels
British comedy novels
British novels adapted into films
British satirical novels
Fictional farms
Novels set in Sussex
Parody novels
1932 debut novels | [
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254654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Chaos%20Engine | The Chaos Engine | The Chaos Engine is a top-down run and gun video game developed by The Bitmap Brothers and published by Renegade Software in March 1993. The game is set in a steampunk Victorian age in which one or two players must battle the hostile creations of the eponymous Chaos Engine across four landscapes and ultimately defeat it and its deranged inventor.
It was first released for the Amiga, with a version available for AGA Amigas, and later ported to MS-DOS, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Atari ST, Amiga CD32, RISC OS and Mega Drive. In the Super NES and Mega Drive versions, the character The Preacher had his clerical collar removed and was renamed The Scientist. The US versions of these two ports were retitled Soldiers of Fortune. A sequel to the game, The Chaos Engine 2, was released in 1996.
Plot
The setting is a steampunk Victorian era England. A time traveller on a reconnaissance mission from the distant future became stranded in the England of the late 1800s, and his technology came into the hands of the Royal Society, led by Baron Fortesque (based upon Charles Babbage), a grand inventor. Fortesque then retro engineered many of the futuristic contraptions, creating an entirely different, alternate timeline.
Baron Fortesque then succeeded in his greatest creation yet: the Chaos Engine, which was able to experiment with matter and the very nature of space and time. Unfortunately for the rest of the proud kingdom, the Engine then proceeded to become sentient, captured and assimilated its creator, and began to change the countryside for the worse. Vile monsters and destructive automata appeared everywhere, and even prehistoric beasts were resurrected. Telegram wires connecting the British Isles to the European mainland are cut, and any ship attempting to enter a British port is attacked. The British Royal Family, members of Parliament and a large number of refugees manage to escape across the sea, bringing with them many tales of horror. The British Empire is left in tatters, and the world in economic and political chaos. That lures a number of mercenaries on a potentially-rewarding quest to infiltrate the quarantined Britain, find the root of the problem, and swiftly bring a full stop to it.
At the end of the cellars in the hall of machines, the player characters face the Chaos Engine itself in a last battle. Upon its destruction, the narrator of the game is revealed to be the baron himself, trapped within the machine and studded with implants.
The introductory sequence is displayed in text on the screen on the floppy disk Amiga versions, but a slightly modified version is narrated with a voiceover on the Amiga CD32 version, together with some scene-setting animations.
Characters
Players choose two mercenaries from a group of six to take on the task of defeating the mad Baron Fortesque and the Chaos Engine itself. The playable characters have various qualities that affect gameplay, such as speed and combat ability. The players are provided with a certain amount of money to start the game and must hire the chosen characters at their set prices.
In one-player mode, the computer artificial intelligence controls the second player, so that one never has to fight the chaos alone. Control of characters cannot be swapped once chosen. It is possible to play with only one character, by starting a two-player game and letting the enemies kill the second character.
Navvie and Thug
The Navvie and Thug are the strongest and most expensive of the group. They have the highest health and most destructive specials but are slower than the other characters. The Navvie uses a bazooka, which fires straight ahead and does heavy damage; the Thug uses a shotgun, which is less powerful than the bazooka but fires many shots in a wide angle.
Brigand and Mercenary
The Brigand and Mercenary are the all-rounded characters and have a mid-range price. Though they are slightly weaker than the Navvie and Thug, they have access to more specials and can move faster. The Brigand uses a rifle, which works the same as the Navvie's bazooka but is not as powerful. The Mercenary uses a Gatling gun that operates similarly to the Thug's shotgun, but with a different pattern.
Gentleman and Preacher/Scientist
The Gentleman and Preacher are the least expensive, with the highest movement speed and widest selection of specials; however, they have the lowest health. The Gentleman uses a flame pistol, while the Preacher carries a laser. Their shots are weaker than those of the other characters, but can pass through enemies after hitting them.
For the North American release, the Preacher character was redesigned slightly and renamed as the Scientist because the game's North American publishers felt that a priest killing people was offensive.
Gameplay
The players must traverse through each level, picking up power-ups, gold and keys to pass through the various puzzles and mazes. A number of "nodes" must be activated via weapon fire (or special power) to open the final doors at the end of each level. At the end of every second level the player has a chance to spend their collected riches to upgrade their weapons, increase the number of hit points of their character, purchase new items and improve other character attributes.
Development
Developers included Steve Cargill, Simon Knight, Dan Malone, Eric Mathews and Mike Montgomery. Joi composed the title theme and Richard Joseph composed all other in-game music.
The game was inspired by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling's novel, The Difference Engine, and its basic plot and stylistics are both based on the novel.
The game's coder developed the partner AI by observing play-testing of the game, then coding the AI according to his observations of the player's behaviors.
The game was later ported to consoles. In order to fit the soundtrack into the Super NES's audio memory, which is much smaller than the Amiga's, Joseph both used standard compression methods and put all the note data and drivers in the console's main memory, reserving the audio memory for samples.
Beta version
An early version of the game was previewed on the British TV show Gamesmaster, and some screenshots were featured in Amiga magazines of the time. The early version was reportedly "running on an Amiga 3000" and featured simultaneous three player action.
Reception
Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the Super NES version a 6.8 out of 10, summarizing it as "A decent overhead shooting game in the spirit of Technoclash and Gauntlet." They gave the Genesis version a 6.4. GamePro remarked of the Genesis version that "Overhead-view gunfighting has never played better", citing the heavy challenge, solid controls, and use of teamwork. They criticized the sprites as overly small, but also noted that the sharp artwork ensures that it is still easy to make out what is happening on screen.
Reviewing the computer version, Computer Game Reviews Tasos Kaiafas wrote, "For the price, this a must-buy if you like two-player arcade shooters, especially since another one for the PC may not come along for awhile." In 1995, Total! ranked The Chaos Engine 68th on their Top 100 SNES Games summarizing: "Sort of Jules Vern meets Arnie. This is a great cooperative challenge and very stylish with it."
Remake
A remastered version of the game of The Chaos Engine, essentially a widescreen port of the Amiga AGA version (named AA version in the title screen) with the original intro and music intact, was developed by Abstraction Games and released for Windows, Mac and Linux on August 29, 2013. The game retains all gameplay features, the audio and the graphics of the original.
The remastered version adds the option to play a remote two-player game through Steam. There is also a global high score list, and two optional graphics effects: a softening filter to alleviate the low-resolution pixelated graphics and a bloom effect on selected parts of the game graphics.
References
External links
The Chaos Engine at Bitmap Bros.
The Chaos Engine review, 1993
1993 video games
Acorn Archimedes games
Alternate history video games
Amiga games
Amiga 1200 games
Atari ST games
Amiga CD32 games
DOS games
Linux games
MacOS games
Run and gun games
Sega Genesis games
Steampunk video games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Video games about time travel
Top-down video games
Video games based on novels
Video games scored by Richard Joseph
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games set in England
Windows games | [
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254655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Joseph | Richard Joseph | Richard Joseph (23 April 1953 – 4 March 2007) was an English computer game composer, musician and sound specialist. He had a career spanning 20 years starting in the early days of gaming on the C64 and the Amiga and onto succeeding formats.
Biography
Prior to working in games Richard had a fleeting career in the music industry working with artists such as Trevor Horn and Hugh Padgham. Richard released one solo single on EMI and was part of the group CMU which released two albums (although Richard was only involved with the second, Space Cabaret) on Transatlantic before evolving into jazz funk band Shakatak.
Richard was noted in game audio for bringing "real" voice actors into a game for the first time (Mega Lo Mania), the earliest use of interactive music (Chaos Engine), working with established recording artists (Betty Boo on Magic Pockets, Captain Sensible on Sensible Soccer, Brian May on Rise of the Robots and John Foxx on Gods and Speedball 2), and featuring vocals in title tunes, which was revolutionary for the time.
In the late 1980s and early '90s, he produced soundtracks for development teams Sensible Software and the Bitmap Brothers. He is also credited with the soundtrack to the C64 version of the hit Defender of the Crown.
He then went on to set up Audio Interactive at Pinewood Studios and, along with composer James Hannigan, helped Electronic Arts to win the BAFTA Award for best audio in 2000 for Theme Park World. From 1990 onwards Richard was a frequent musical collaborator with Jon Hare with whom he co-wrote and arranged all of Sensible Software's best known musical tracks including the soundtrack for Cannon Fodder the GBC version of which was also nominated for a BAFTA in 2000, and is still the only small-format soundtrack to be recognised by BAFTA to this day. In 1995 Hare and Joseph embarked upon an epic 32 track soundtrack for the multimedia product Sex 'n' Drugs 'n' Rock 'n' Roll, signed to Warner Interactive, however in 1998 Warner bowed out of the games market and their Magnum Opus was only ever released as a limited edition audio CD.
After working as Audio Director on Republic: The Revolution and Evil Genius for Elixir Studios (music composed by James Hannigan), both winning BAFTA nominations for Hannigan's scores, Richard moved to France where he ran SoundTropez, a company offering next-technology soundtracks.
Richard came from an entertainment family. Brother Eddy is a BAFTA-winning sound supervisor, working on films such as Harry Potter and James Bond. Brother Pat is a director of The Mill which won an Oscar for Gladiator. Nephew Alex is a foley supervisor. Richard's Father Teddy (1918–2006) was a production executive working on, amongst many others, films by John Schlesinger and Alfred Hitchcock.
After being diagnosed with lung cancer, he died on 4 March 2007 aged 53 years.
Works
References
External links
Profiles
Richard Joseph at MobyGames
Richard Joseph at OverClocked ReMix
Richard Joseph at CVGM
Articles and interviews
C64.COM audio interviews
Remix64 interview
Idlethumbs interview
Gamespot interview
Gamemusic article
1953 births
2007 deaths
Amiga people
British composers
British male composers
British people of Jewish descent
Commodore 64 music
Deaths from lung cancer
Sensible Software
Video game composers
20th-century British male musicians | [
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254656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item | Item | Item may refer to:
Organizations
Instituto del Tercer Mundo (ITeM), the Third World Institute
ITEM club, an economic forecasting group based in the United Kingdom
Newspapers
The Item, an American independent, morning newspaper published in Sumter, South Carolina
The Huntsville Item, an American seven-day morning daily newspaper published in Huntsville, Texas
Picayune Item, an American five-day daily newspaper published in Picayune, Mississippi
Other uses
Item (gaming), objects in a video game collected by the player character to increase the score or progress through the story
Item (EP), first release by the band Onetwo
Digital Item, the basic unit of transaction in the MPEG-21 framework
Item number, musical performance in Indian cinema
Item (TV series), a 2019 South Korean television series
See also
The Daily Item (disambiguation) | [
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254657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Hill%20%28musician%29 | Joseph Hill (musician) | Joseph Hill (22 January 1949 – 19 August 2006) was the lead singer and songwriter for the roots reggae group Culture, most famous for their 1977 hit "Two Sevens Clash", but also well known for their "International Herb" single. Hill recorded twenty-two albums.
Biography
Early life and career
Joseph Hill was born in 1949 in Linstead, a town in Saint Catherine Parish in the southeast of Jamaica. He was raised in a Christian family and began singing in church at the age of six. Within two years he was making his own musical instruments. After leaving home he came into contact with Rastafarians and adopted the faith.
He began his career in the late 1960s as a percussionist, recording with the Studio One house band the Soul Defenders. He also worked as a sound system deejay, and began performing as a backing vocalist, leading to his singles "Behold the Land" and "Take Me Girl" in the early 1970s. In the early 70s Hill performed with two groups that included future reggae star Glen Washington: C35 Incorporated and Stepping Stone. He performed regularly on the hotel circuit, but had his greatest success with the group Culture.
Culture
Hill formed Culture in 1976, and had early success with the prophetic "Two Sevens Clash", predicting apocalypse on 7 July 1977.
During the seventies the group had a string of highly successful singles for producers Joe Gibbs and Sonia Pottinger including the song 'Two Sevens Clash' which made its mark on both Jamaica and the United Kingdom. It was named by Rolling Stone magazine in 2002 as one of the '50 Coolest Records', the only single artist reggae album to make the list. The group also had a hit with 'Stop Fussing and Fighting', a song that addressed the chaotic political climate of the late 1970s and the attempt on Bob Marley's life.
Joseph Hill and Culture developed a reputation as a performing group after a performance at the 'One Love Peace Concert' in 1978, and was soon regularly touring the United States, Europe and Africa. In recent years the group continued to perform at least one hundred concerts each year, with Hill's wife Pauline as road manager. Hill was a presence on stage: part DJ as he directed his band to reconfigure songs on stage and part teacher as he commented on Jamaican history and current political issues. In his lyrics, Hill often explored how the legacy of slavery continued to have an influence on Jamaican citizens.
Hill had received a number of honours; an induction into the Jamaican Reggae Walk of Fame and a 2005 Independence Award presented by the Prime Minister of Jamaica. In 2005 he received the Culture Shock Bronze Medal in recognition of his contribution to Jamaican music.
As a member of the Rastafari movement, Joseph Hill was a worshipper of emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. Indeed, Hill's honorific/nickname, "Keeper of Zion Gate" reflects his position as one of reggae's and Rastafari's greatest voices.
Death
Joseph Hill died on a tour bus just after entering Berlin on 19 August 2006. At his funeral in September 2006, Hill was eulogised by, amongst others, Jamaican Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller who recognised his contributions to Jamaican culture.
His son Kenyatta subsequently took over his role in Culture.
Solo discography
Singles
"Behold the Land" (1972), Coxsone
"Take Me Girl" (197?)
"African King 2"
"Disobedient Children"
"The Rastaman"
"Cousin Rude Boy"
"Crack in a New York" (1987)
"Police Man" (2005)
Raw Truth EP (2006), Ababa Janhoy – featuring Big Youth and Daddy Rings
References
External links
2003 article
Jamaica Gleaner obituary
Jamaican reggae musicians
1949 births
2006 deaths
Jamaican Rastafarians
Jamaican former Christians
Converts to the Rastafari movement
People from Saint Catherine Parish | [
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254658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder%20of%20Gregory%20Glenn%20Biggs | Murder of Gregory Glenn Biggs | On October 26, 2001, 25-year-old nursing assistant Chante Jawan Mallard struck 37-year-old Gregory Glenn Biggs, a homeless man, with her automobile, in Fort Worth, Texas, U.S. The force of the crash lodged Biggs into the windshield. Mallard then drove home and left the man lodged in the windshield of her car, parked in her garage. He died a day or two later. Mallard was convicted and sentenced to 50 years' imprisonment for her role in his death.
Victim
Gregory Glenn Biggs, born August 16, 1964, was homeless and mentally ill. He was married, with one son, and worked in construction as a mason.
Course of events
Chante Jawan Mallard (born June 22, 1976) is a woman from Fort Worth, Texas. On October 26, 2001, Mallard's Chevrolet Cavalier struck the homeless pedestrian Gregory Glenn Biggs; at the time Mallard was believed to have been driving while intoxicated by a combination of marijuana, ecstasy and alcohol. The force of the impact sent Biggs flying through the windshield, lodging him there.
Mallard then drove home, leaving the injured Biggs stuck in her windshield, and parked her car in her garage.
After the accident, Mallard did not notify the police nor did she get Biggs any medical attention, even though she was a nursing assistant at the time. Occasionally, she would return to the garage to check on his status. When Biggs died a day or two later, still in the windshield of her car in her garage, she called a male friend, Clete Jackson, for assistance. Mallard, Jackson, and Jackson's cousin Herbert Tyrone Cleveland took the body to a park and left it there, even going so far as to set fire to part of the car in an attempt to disguise the evidence. The three were each convicted on charges of tampering with evidence for this action.
Mallard became a suspect after she was reported talking and laughing about the incident at a party some four months after the events. "I hit this white man", Mallard allegedly told acquaintance Maranda Daniel, while laughing.
Trial
Mallard's trial commenced on June 23, 2003. During the trial, Tarrant County medical examiner Nizam Peerwani testified that, had Mallard taken Biggs to a hospital, he would have recovered from his injuries. Other experts testified that they agreed that Biggs would have survived. "There's not a member of the Fort Worth Fire Department that could not have saved Mr. Biggs's life", testified Capt. Jim Sowder. Mallard was convicted of murder in June 2003, with the 50-year murder sentence and 10-year tampering sentence to run concurrently. She will be eligible for parole in 2027.
Aftermath
A wrongful death lawsuit filed by Biggs's son, Brandon, was settled out of court. He later chose to forgive Ms. Mallard and the others involved in his father's murder. "I want to extend my forgiveness to Chante Mallard and let her know that the Mallard family is in my prayers", he said in 2003. In response, convicted murderers from around the country raised $10,000 as a college scholarship and had it presented at a ceremony to Mr. Biggs, who at the time was a 20-year-old pastoral ministry sophomore at Southwestern Assemblies of God University in Waxahachie, Texas.
Since finishing his sentence, Clete Denel Jackson, who was imprisoned for helping move Biggs's body, has been in and out of prison on firearms- and drug-related charges. He was set to be released again in late November 2017. Some puzzling aspects to the case remain. Although the arrest warrant affidavit says Mallard originally implicated men named Vaughn and Terrance, it was Jackson and Cleveland who confessed to moving Biggs's body. Police have not said whether they have identified anyone named Vaughn or Terrance. Mallard's relationship with Jackson and Cleveland remains unclear. Jackson's lawyer described his client and Mallard as linked romantically. Yet relatives of Jackson and Cleveland claim they had never heard of Mallard.
Media adaptations
Mallard's case was later adapted as an episode of the CSI: Crime Scene Investigation ("Anatomy of a Lye", aired May 2, 2002) and also as an episode of Law & Order ("Darwinian", aired January 7, 2004 – although the driver is allowed to plead guilty to obstruction of justice after an autopsy reveals that the accident was not the cause of the fatal head injury).
The story also inspired events in the second season of Fargo, in which Peggy Blumquist (Kirsten Dunst) hits Rye Gerhardt (Kieran Culkin) and drives back home with him stuck through the windshield.
This story also inspired a scene in the third season of the FOX procedural drama 9-1-1 when Stella (Stephanie Lemelin) hits a homeless man after crashing into him with her car. The man is also lodged in the windshield of her car by the impact. Stella suffers a head injury in the crash and drives around town with the man still stuck in her windshield for nearly two days before firefighter Evan Buckley (Oliver Stark) stops her. Unlike the real-life incident, the man on the show survives his injuries after being rushed to the hospital.
Films inspired by the events include Stuck (2007, with Mena Suvari and Stephen Rea), Hit and Run (2009, with Laura Breckenridge), and Accident on Hill Road (2009, with Celina Jaitley and Farooque Shaikh).
See also
List of unusual deaths
References
External links
Smoking Gun Arrest Warrant Affidavit of Detective D.E. Owings.
2001 in Texas
Deaths by person in the United States
History of Fort Worth, Texas
Crime in Texas
2003 in Texas
2001 murders in the United States
Murder in Texas
Homelessness in the United States
October 2001 events in the United States
Driving under the influence
2002 in Texas
October 2001 crimes | [
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254660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Boomtown%20Rats | The Boomtown Rats | The Boomtown Rats are an Irish rock band originally formed in Dublin in 1975. Between 1977 and 1985, they had a series of Irish and UK hits including "Like Clockwork", "Rat Trap", "I Don't Like Mondays" and "Banana Republic". The group is led by vocalist Bob Geldof. The original line-up comprised Geldof, Garry Roberts (lead guitar), Johnnie Fingers (keyboards), Pete Briquette (bass), Gerry Cott (rhythm guitar) and Simon Crowe (drums). The Boomtown Rats broke up in 1986, but reformed in 2013, without Fingers or Cott.
History
Most of the six members originate from Dún Laoghaire, Ireland; Pete Briquette was originally from Ballyjamesduff, County Cavan, Ireland. Having been booked for their first gig under the name The Nightlife Thugs, the group agreed to change their name to The Boomtown Rats when Garry Roberts threatened to resign if they kept the original name. The new name referred to a gang of children about whom Geldof had read in Woody Guthrie's autobiography Bound for Glory. The band's fame and notability have been overshadowed by the charity work of frontman Bob Geldof, a former journalist with the New Musical Express.
In the summer of 1976, the group played their first UK gig in London followed by gigs in the Netherlands (Groningen and The Milky Way Club in Amsterdam and De PUL in Uden) before moving to London where they signed with Ensign Records later that year. Their first single, "Lookin' After No. 1", came out in August 1977. It reached the Top 40 of the UK Singles Chart, the first of a long string of successes. The album The Boomtown Rats was released the following month; it included another single, "Mary of the 4th Form". Music journalist Martin C. Strong commented, "Geldof's moody charisma helped to give the band a distinct identity".
Their next album, A Tonic for the Troops (1978), featured three hit singles, "Like Clockwork", "She's So Modern" and "Rat Trap". The US version of the album (with a slightly different selection of tracks) came out the next year on Columbia Records. Mutt Lange produced "Rat Trap", which became the first rock song by an Irish band to reach No. 1 in the UK. In addition, "Rat Trap" was also the first new wave song to claim the number one spot.
In 1979, "I Don't Like Mondays" was released. This was written in response to a school shooting in California, and also reached No. 1 in the UK. It was a worldwide Top Ten hit, except for the United States. It was the band's only song to reach the US Billboard Hot 100 and was included in the band's third album, The Fine Art of Surfacing. The album also contained "Diamond Smiles" and their next Top 10 hit in the UK, "Someone's Looking at You".
In 1980 "Banana Republic" was released, which was their last Top 10 hit, and in the following year the Boomtown Rats' next studio album Mondo Bongo was issued.
Cott's departure
Cott departed from the band at this point. According to Bob Geldof's autobiography, Is That It?, Cott had grown disillusioned with what he saw as the band's growing laziness in the studio, and their apparent relinquishing of their early R&B influences in favour of "cod-reggae". Throughout his time with the band, Cott had maintained a distance between himself and the other members and he resigned the day before the end of their 1981 world tour, only hours after the rest of the band had decided to confront him for refusing to join them and the road crew for a drink to celebrate Simon Crowe's birthday.
Cott had a short-lived solo career, releasing two UK singles, "The Ballad of the Lone Ranger" and "Pioneers" and the 1984 Canadian single "Alphabet Town".
V Deep
The band's fifth album, V Deep, was released in February 1982. The first single was "Never in a Million Years" which did not sell well, while the follow-up "House on Fire" made number 24 in the UK Singles Chart. In the US, the album was initially rejected by their American label, which instead issued a four-song EP called The Boomtown Rats, featuring four selections from V Deep. The full album was eventually issued in the US in late 1982.
A follow-up album entitled In The Long Grass was recorded in 1983, but was initially rejected by the group's label. By 1984, the band was touring universities after becoming unable to fund the "guarantee" required to book mainstream concert halls. In The Long Grass was finally issued in the UK in May 1984, but failed to chart. Two singles, "Tonight" and "Drag Me Down", were taken from the album; these reached the lower rungs of the UK Singles Chart, but two further singles, "Dave" and "A Hold of Me", failed to register.
The Boomtown Rats' involvement with Band Aid (on which they all played) raised their profile again, and in January 1985, a revised version of In the Long Grass was finally released in the US. The album made the US charts at No. 188, but the associated singles failed to make an impact on the charts or on the radio. The band subsequently performed at Live Aid's charity performance.
"Dave", a single from the original release of In the Long Grass was re-recorded as "Rain" for the US market. The song was about the band's saxophone player and school friend David MacHale (died 2009), who had suffered a breakdown after his girlfriend was found dead in a public toilet next to an empty heroin bag. The 'Rain' metaphor in the altered lyrics referenced Duran Duran's earlier song "Hold Back the Rain", where Geldof's friend Simon Le Bon pleaded with an unnamed band member to cease dabbling with narcotics.
Rats split
After Live Aid, the band was mothballed while Geldof wound up his affairs with the Band Aid Trust, during which time he succeeded in getting them a one-album deal with Vertigo Records. However, both Crowe and Fingers refused to rejoin the Boomtown Rats full-time, preferring to pursue their own band, Gung Ho.
The band's final performance came at Self Aid, a 1986 concert featuring many Irish rock stars, to raise awareness of unemployment in Ireland. Their rendition of "Joey's on the Street Again" was 12 minutes long, with an extended bridge, during which time Geldof ran among the crowd. It also included a rendition of Woody Guthrie's song "Greenback Dollar", which provided circularity and closure
. Following this performance, Geldof addressed the crowd, saying, "It's been a great ten years; rest in peace". The band then performed "Looking After No.1".
Following the band's break-up, Geldof launched a solo career with Pete Briquette continuing to work alongside him.
Garry Roberts co-wrote songs for Kirsty MacColl before leaving the music business and going on to become a successful salesman of financial services. Roberts later presented his Guitar Workshop to schools, encouraging pupils to play the instrument and emphasising the contribution of the blues to modern rock and pop music.
After Gung Ho split, Fingers became a successful record producer in Japan, as well as being part of the Japanese band Greengate. Simon Crowe was in the West Country-based Celtic instrumental band Jiggerypipery and has also run a clock making business.
In 2005, the band's albums were all remastered and re-released and a 'Best Of' compilation was released, along with two DVDs. Briquette mixed the live DVD and Francesco Cameli mixed the extra tracks for the re-release of the Boomtown Rats albums at Sphere Studios in London.
The Rats
In 2008, Garry Roberts and Simon Crowe, who had continued playing together in The Fab Four, with Alan Perman (ex Herman's Hermits) and Bob Doyle (who once auditioned unsuccessfully for E.L.O.), and The Velcro Flies, with Steve (Dusty) Hill and Gavin Petrie, got together as "The Rats", playing their favourite Boomtown Rats songs, with two guitars, bass and drums. The band was initially fronted by Peter Barton, who since the early 1980s has played with several resurrected acts, including The Animals, The Hollies and Lieutenant Pigeon. Barton was replaced on lead vocals and bass by Bob Bradbury, who was the founder and main songwriter in Hello. Darren Beale, formerly of The Caves, played lead guitar. Saxophone player Andy Hamilton, who toured and recorded with The Boomtown Rats, including at Live Aid, played as a guest at some gigs.
Gerry Cott and Johnnie Fingers were invited to join the band when circumstances allowed. Cott attended The Rats' second gig (at The 100 Club on Oxford Street, London). Fingers, meanwhile, worked for the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan, but planned to join the band on stage when he was in the UK.
On 21 June 2009, Geldof, Roberts, and Briquette got together in Dublin to play "Dave", at a party to celebrate the life of Boomtown Rats' close friend and saxophone player, "Doctor" Dave MacHale, who had died of cancer in Frankfurt. "Dave" was a song Geldof wrote for MacHale in 1983, after MacHale's girlfriend died from a heroin overdose.
On 20 September 2011, Gerry Cott guested with Geldof's band at The Cadogan Hall, London. They played three Boomtown Rats songs prior to the encores. Cott returned to the stage for the final encore playing on two Geldof solo songs.
The Boomtown Rats reform
The Boomtown Rats reformed in 2013. Bob Geldof said, "Playing again with the Rats and doing those great songs again will be exciting afresh. We were an amazing band and I just feel it's the right time to re-Rat, to go back to Boomtown for a visit." In June 2013, it was announced that the band would be embarking on a UK and Ireland tour supported by a new compilation album, Back to Boomtown: Classic Rats Hits. The group performed at the Brentwood Festival in 2016, where Geldof attracted controversy for criticising the audience. In April 2017, the band returned to the studio to record new material for their first studio album since In the Long Grass in 1984. In March 2020, they released a new album, Citizens of Boomtown, and a lead single, "Trash Glam Baby."
Members
Current
Bob Geldof – lead vocals, guitar, harmonica (1975–1986, 2013–present)
Garry Roberts – lead guitar, backing vocals (1975–1986, 2013–present)
Pete Briquette – bass, keyboards, backing vocals (1975–1986, 2013–present)
Simon Crowe – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1975–1986, 2013–present)
Former
Johnnie Fingers – keyboards, piano, backing vocals (1975–1986)
Gerry Cott – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1975–1981)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
The Boomtown Rats (1977)
A Tonic for the Troops (1978)
The Fine Art of Surfacing (1979)
Mondo Bongo (1981)
V Deep (1982)
In the Long Grass (1984)
Citizens of Boomtown (2020)
UK Top 40 singles
"Lookin' After No. 1" (1977) No. 11
"Mary of the 4th Form" (1977) No. 15
"She's So Modern" (1978) No. 12
"Like Clockwork" (1978) No. 6
"Rat Trap" (1978) No. 1
"I Don't Like Mondays" (1979) No. 1
"Diamond Smiles" (1979) No. 13
"Someone's Looking at You" (1980) No. 4
"Banana Republic" (1980) No. 3
"The Elephant's Graveyard (Guilty)" (1981) No. 26
"House on Fire" (1982) No. 24
"I Don't Like Mondays" (CD single re-issue) (1994) No. 38
See also
List of 1970s one-hit wonders in the United States
References
External links
Boomtown Rats official website
Boomtown Rats History
Irish new wave musical groups
Irish punk rock groups
Irish rock music groups
Musical groups established in 1975
Musical groups disestablished in 1986
Musical groups from County Dublin
People from Dún Laoghaire
Musical groups reestablished in 2013 | [
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254662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional | Functional | Functional may refer to:
Movements in architecture:
Functionalism (architecture)
Form follows function
Functional group, combination of atoms within molecules
Medical conditions without currently visible organic basis:
Functional symptom
Functional disorder
Functional classification for roads
Functional organization
Functional training
In mathematics
Functional (mathematics), a term applied to certain scalar-valued functions in mathematics and computer science
Functional analysis
Linear functional, a type of functional often simply called a functional in the context of functional analysis
Higher-order function, also called a functional, a function that takes other functions as arguments
In computer science, software engineering
(C++), a header file in the C++ Standard Library
Functional design, a paradigm used to simplify the design of hardware and software devices
Functional model, a structured representation of functions, activities or processes in systems and software engineering
Functional programming, a programming paradigm based on mathematical functions rather than changes in variable states
In an ontology (information science), "functional" is a property or relation that can only hold a single value for a given individual
See also
Function (disambiguation)
Functionalism (disambiguation)
Functional group (disambiguation)
Functional grammar (disambiguation) | [
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254664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windshield | Windshield | The windshield (North American English) or windscreen (Commonwealth English) of an aircraft, car, bus, motorbike, truck, train, boat or streetcar is the front window, which provides visibility while protecting occupants from the elements. Modern windshields are generally made of laminated safety glass, a type of treated glass, which consists of, typically, two curved sheets of glass with a plastic layer laminated between them for safety, and bonded into the window frame.
Motorcycle windshields are often made of high-impact polycarbonate or acrylic plastic.
Usage
Windshields protect the vehicle's occupants from wind and flying debris such as dust, insects, and rocks, and provide an aerodynamically formed window towards the front. UV coating may be applied to screen out harmful ultraviolet radiation. However, this is usually unnecessary since most auto windshields are made from laminated safety glass. The majority of UV-B is absorbed by the glass itself, and any remaining UV-B together with most of the UV-A is absorbed by the PVB bonding layer.
On motorbikes their main function is to shield the rider from wind, though not as completely as in a car, whereas on sports and racing motorcycles the main function is reducing drag when the rider assumes the optimal aerodynamic configuration with their body in unison with the machine and does not shield the rider from wind when sitting upright.
Safety
Early windshields were made of ordinary window glass, but that could lead to serious injuries in the event of a crash. A series of crashes led up to the development of stronger windshields. The most notable example of this is the Pane vs. Ford case of 1917 that decided against Pane in that he was only injured through reckless driving. They were replaced with windshields made of toughened glass and were fitted in the frame using a rubber or neoprene seal. The hardened glass shattered into many mostly harmless fragments when the windshield broke. These windshields, however, could shatter from a simple stone chip. "Triplex" glass laminating, however, had been available for windshields in France from 1911 and in Britain from 1912; it was adopted as an accessory by some high-end American auto manufacturers beginning in 1913, and from 1919 to 1929 Henry Ford ordered the use of laminated glass on all of his vehicles.
Modern, glued-in windshields contribute to the vehicle's rigidity, but the main force for innovation has historically been the need to prevent injury from sharp glass fragments. Almost all nations now require windshields to stay in one piece even if broken, except if pierced by a strong force.
The urethane sealant is protected from UV in sunlight by a band of dark dots called a frit around the edge of the windshield. The darkened edge transitions to the clear windshield with smaller dots to minimize thermal stress in manufacturing. The same band of darkened dots is often expanded around the rearview mirror to act as a sunshade.
Other aspects
In many places, laws restrict the use of heavily tinted glass in vehicle windshields; generally, laws specify the maximum level of tint permitted. Some vehicles have noticeably more tint in the uppermost part of the windshield to block sunglare.
In aircraft windshields, an electric current is applied through a conducting layer of tin(IV) oxide to generate heat to prevent icing. A similar system for automobile windshields, introduced on Ford vehicles as "Quickclear" in Europe ("InstaClear" in North America) in the 1980s and through the early 1990s, used this conductive metallic coating applied to the inboard side of the outer layer of glass. Other glass manufacturers utilize a grid of micro-thin wires to conduct the heat especially on the later European Ford Transit vans. These systems are more typically utilized by European auto manufacturers such as Jaguar and Porsche.
The use of thermal glass prevents some navigation systems from functioning correctly, as the embedded metal blocks the satellite signal. The RF signal tends to flow along the metal wires or layer so very little radiation can pass. This can be resolved by using an external antenna. Mobile telephones can also have problems; thermal glass typically allows only 0.001 (1‰, or one per mille or 1 ppt) of the signal to pass, whereas a concrete wall with rebars allows up to 0.100 (10%, or 100‰) of the signal to pass.
Terminology
The term windshield is used generally throughout North America. The term windscreen is the usual term in the British Isles and Australasia for all vehicles. In the US windscreen refers to the mesh or foam placed over a microphone to minimize wind noise, while a windshield refers to the front window of a car.
In the UK, the terms are reversed, although generally, the foam screen is referred to as a microphone shield, and not a windshield.
Sports or racing cars would sometimes have aero screens, which were small semi-circular or rectangular windshields. These were often mounted in pairs behind a foldable flat windshield. Aero screens are usually less than in height. They are known as aero screens because they only deflect the wind. The twin aeroscreen setup (often called Brooklands) was popular among older sports and modern cars in vintage style.
A wiperless windshield is a windshield that uses a mechanism other than wipers to remove snow and rain from the windshield. The concept car Acura TL features a wiperless windshield using a series of jet nozzles in the cowl to blow pressurized air onto the windshield. Also several glass manufacturers have experimented with nano type coatings designed to repel external contaminants with varying degrees of success but to date none of these have made it to commercial applications.
Certification
Certification of a windshield is necessary to ensure safety. Different counties have made different set of rule that all windshield manufacturers need to comply under Motor Vehicle Acts. Some of the most know certifications are US DOT, EU ECE, Chinese CCC, South African SABS and Indian BIS standards. These certification ensures safety, reliability and quality of a product as per respective legal requirements.
Repair of stone-chip and crack damage
According to the US National Windshield Repair Association, many types of stone damage can be successfully repaired. Whether the windshield can be repaired always depends upon four factors: the size, type, depth and location of the damage.
Size and depth
Repair of cracks up to is within permissible limits; automobile glass with more severe damage needs to be replaced. However, this is dependent on local laws. If a crack extends to the edge of the panel then this would compromise the structural integrity of the windshield. Aircraft windshields are designed in such a way that even if a crack were to extend all the way across the panel, the structural integrity is maintained via multiple failsafe methods in both frame and the glass plies. A sacrificial outer layer that cracks rather than devitrifies is the first failsafe.
Type
Circular bullseyes, linear cracks, crack chips, dings, pits and star-shaped breaks can be repaired without removing the glass, eliminating the risk of leaking or bonding problems sometimes associated with replacement.
Location
Some damages are very difficult to repair, or cannot be repaired:
on inside of the windshield
deep damage on both layers of glass due to solar absorption or oxidation.
damage over rain sensor or internal radio antenna
complex multiple cracks
very long cracks (i.e. over long)
contaminated cracks
edge cracks
In cracked windshield repair, air is removed from the damaged area on the windshield with a specified vacuum injection pump. Then using the injection pump, the clear adhesive resin is injected to replace the air in the windshield crack. The resin is then cured with an ultraviolet light. When done properly, the damaged area’s strength is restored, as is 90–95% of the clarity.
Replacement
Windshields that cannot be repaired have to be replaced. Replacement of a windshield typically takes less than an hour. To ensure the vehicle is safe to drive, time values called the Safe Drive Away Time have been established. Windshields which have been replaced must cure or bond sufficiently until they are able to withstand the forces of a crash. Knowing the minimum time needed to cure the glass bonding adhesives is therefore important. This safe drive away time (SDAT) or minimum drive away time (MDAT) refers to the time required until a windshield installation or glass replacement is considered safe to drive again. Criteria are specified in U.S. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards 212/208 (see FMVSS) to ensure the reliability of adhesive systems. Typically the SDAT is verified with crash tests as well as with high-speed laboratory test methods.
Consumers may be unaware that the MDAT or SDAT time is focused on safety and not necessarily on the quality, durability, or warranty of the installation. Care must be taken not to drive the vehicle prior to the SDAT/MDAT.
Airbags deploy at speeds up to and in some cases exert tremendous force on the windshield. Occupants can impact the airbag just 50 ms after initial deployment. Depending on vehicle design, airbag deployment and/or occupant impact into the airbag may increase forces on the windshield, dramatically in some cases.
Forces of occupants on the airbags - and hence the potential forces on the windshield - are lower for belted occupants. As consequence, adhesive suppliers usually inform their customers about the level of security achieved:
1) Example: Security exceeding FMVSS 212/208 belted
2) Example: Security exceeding FMVSS 212/208 unbelted
With the advent of quick-cure adhesives, mobile windshield replacements have become more prevalent. Often the temperature and humidity cannot be controlled for mobile installations. For most common glass adhesives the ideal environment is and 50% humidity. Variations from the ideal curing environment can increase the time needed for a sufficiently safe bond to form. Because of the variables and difficulties involved in mobile windshield replacement, many vehicle manufacturers do not recommend this method of installations.
Disposal
Waste disposal of laminated glass is no longer permitted in a landfill in most European countries as the End of Life Vehicles Directive (ELV) is implemented. A study by Surrey University and Pilkington Glass proposes that waste laminated glass be placed into a separating device such as a rolling mill where the glass is fragmented and the larger cullet is mechanically detached from the inner film. The application of heat then melts the laminating plastic, usually, Polyvinyl Butyral "PVB" enabling both the glass and the interior film to be recycled. The PVB recycling process is a simple procedure of melting and reshaping it.
One possible method of recycling of simple automotive laminated windshields could involve heating the windshield to above the melting point of the PVB interlayer and then separating the glass plies. This depends chiefly on the differential melting points of PVB and glass and is not suitable for other interlayer materials such as silicone based materials.
See also
Automotive head-up display
BS 857
Driver visibility
Glass run channel
Motorcycle windshield
Windscreen wiper
Windshield sun shade
Notes
References
How it's made. Series six, Windshields, English saddles, butter, and post clocks
Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide: Robert H. Todd, Dell K. Allen, and Leo Alting
External links
UNECE Reg. 43 Safety glazing material
BS 857:1967 Specification for safety glass for land transport
National Glass Association
Auto Glass Replacement Safety Standards Council
Vehicle parts
Glass applications
Glass coating and surface modification
Vehicle safety technologies
Automotive safety
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254667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizam%20Peerwani | Nizam Peerwani | Nizam Peerwani is the chief medical examiner for Tarrant County, Texas. Locally, he is notable for his role in the David Koresh–Mount Carmel incident in Waco, Texas and in the trial of Chante Jawan Mallard for the murder of Gregory Glenn Biggs
Among his work includes the evaluation of genocide and human rights violations within Rwanda. He testified to the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda regarding the forensic team's findings. Peerwani was an advance team member in the evaluation of genocide within Bosnia-Herzegovina. Peerwani was honored in October 2006 by Physicians for Human Rights for his human rights work.
Peerwani is a graduate of the American University of Beirut (MD '76). He completed his residency in pathology at Baylor University Medical Center in Dallas, and is board certified in clinical, anatomic and forensic pathology.
References
External links
Okado, Bryon. "Honoring a Witness for the Dead". Fort Worth Star Telegram. October 19, 2006.
Physicians for Human Rights: https://web.archive.org/web/20071012165426/http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/about/20-years/profiles/peerwani.html
PBS: https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/waco/drpeerwani.html
People from Tarrant County, Texas
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people) | [
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254668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori%20Berenson | Lori Berenson | Lori Helene Berenson (born November 13, 1969) is an American who served a 20-year prison sentence for collaboration with a guerrilla organization in Peru in 1996. Berenson was convicted of collaborating with the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), a group accused of trying to overthrow the Peruvian government by force, considered to be a terrorist organization by the Peruvian government, and on the U.S. State Department's official "terrorist organization" list from 1997–2001. Her arrest and conviction, and the circumstances surrounding her trials, drew considerable attention in both the United States and Peru.
Early life and education
Berenson was born and raised in New York City to Rhoda and Mark Berenson, both college professors. After graduating from LaGuardia High School of Music and Art, she enrolled at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the fall of 1987. On her web site, she states that she volunteered for soup kitchens and blood banks and also worked as a mother's helper in the Hamptons as a teenager. While an undergraduate at MIT, she volunteered with the Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador (CISPES). She dropped out of MIT in 1988 as a sophomore majoring in archeology and anthropology and continued to volunteer for CISPES. Later, she went to El Salvador and became secretary and translator for Leonel González, a leader of the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), during negotiations that achieved peace in 1992. FMLN was at that time an umbrella organization associated with various leftist guerrilla organizations and the Salvadoran Communist Party and working to overthrow the Salvadoran military dictatorship. FMLN transitioned during the peace process in order to become a legal political party. González (aka Salvador Sánchez Cerén) was the President of El Salvador.
Activities in Peru and arrest
In Peru, Berenson met members of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), a group accused of committing terrorist attacks in Peru including kidnapping, bank robberies, extortion, hostage taking, and assassinations. Berenson, however, denied until 2011 knowing that they were MRTA members, though even after admitting that her associates were members she maintained that she did not know the group conducted acts of terrorism.
Berenson obtained press credentials for herself and her photographer to the Congress of Peru to interview some of its members and attend sessions where she took notes and sketched a seating plan. Afterwards, the media reported these to be "false journalist credentials". Berenson and those who supported her contended that she was on assignment from two U.S. publications, Modern Times and Third World Viewpoint, to work as a free-lance journalist writing articles about the effects of poverty on women in Perú. Her photographer, Nancy Gilvonio, was actually the wife of Néstor Cerpa, the MRTA second-in-command — although Berenson maintained she was unaware of this connection, saying that she knew her only as a Bolivian photographer. Berenson had entered the main Congress building with Gilvonio several times during 1995 to interview members of Congress. Gilvonio was alleged to have provided the information she collected to the MRTA including detailed information on the floor plans of Congress, its security and members. The alleged plan was for the MRTA to invade the Congress building, kidnap the legislators, and exchange the hostages for MRTA prisoners.
On November 30, 1995, Berenson and Gilvonio were arrested on a public bus in downtown Lima. Berenson was accused of being a leader of the MRTA, which had been officially classified as a terrorist group by the government.
Within hours after Berenson's arrest, the government launched an all-night siege of the MRTA safe house in an upscale neighborhood in Lima which Berenson had co-rented with an associate. At the end of the siege, three MRTA guerrillas and one police officer had died and 14 guerrillas were captured. The upper floors of the house were found to contain an "arsenal of weapons" and ammunition including 3,000 sticks of dynamite. Diagrams, notes, weapons, and police and military uniforms found at the safe house suggested that the group was planning to seize members of Congress and trade them for captured guerrillas. Police also seized a floor plan and a scale architectural model of the Congress building. After being taken to the house siege, in which Berenson claims she was used as a human shield by the Peruvian police, both women were taken to the DINCOTE (División Nacional Contra el Terrorismo, or National Counter Terrorist Division).
Berenson later said that she was unaware of what was happening on the upper floors and had even moved out some months prior to her arrest. She denied knowing of the presence of either the weaponry or the guerrillas, and she also denied knowing that the documents she prepared would be used for terrorism. In 2011 she admitted that she had known that her associates were MRTA members and she said: "It might not have been intentional, but the bottom line is: I did collaborate with them." In the same interview she maintained that she had not been aware that weapons were being amassed in the upper floors of her house which she had sublet to the MRTA members, and she also maintained that she was unaware that violent actions were being planned at the Congress, stating that "at that time in Fujimori's dictatorship, Congress was the only place that there was some sort of democratic process."
On January 8, 1996, the DINCOTE hosted a news event in which they showed Berenson to the press. At the event, she shouted in Spanish, with her fists clenched to her sides, in a statement to the local reporters:
The image of Berenson defiantly shouting to the press continues to make her unpopular in Peru. Her supporters later offered the explanation that her vehement defense of MRTA came about because she was angry over the treatment of a wounded cell mate and that she was instructed by authorities to shout in order to be heard.
Trials
After she was tried in 1996 and sentenced to life imprisonment, Berenson became, as The Guardian put it, a "cause celebre for human rights campaigners and a symbol for leftwing social activists around the world", except in Peru, where parties and newspapers across the political spectrum condemned her actions, and criticized the unwillingness of European and American media, even progressive ones, to apply the label "terrorist" to citizens of "First World" countries.
Elements of her trial were criticized in statements from institutions ranging from the US State Department to Amnesty International to be violations of human rights and lacking in impartiality, provoking controversy in the United States and other countries. In particular, she was allegedly denied the right to examine the government's evidence and witnesses.
In accordance with anti-terrorism legislation enacted during a state of emergency declared by the authoritarian government of President Alberto Fujimori, Berenson was tried in a closed courtroom by a military tribunal on a charge of treason against the fatherland for leadership of a terrorist organization. This charge did not require Peruvian citizenship as an element.
The proceedings were conducted by a hooded military judge who spoke through a voice distortion apparatus (judges often concealed their identities to protect themselves from assassination). On January 11, 1996, six weeks after her arrest and three days after her presentation to the media, Berenson was convicted of all charges and sentenced to life in prison without parole. An appeal lodged against the conviction was dismissed on January 30. Due to the nature of the closed military court, human rights campaigners protested her conviction and disputed the fairness of the proceedings.
In February 1999, after three years of fact-finding, the U.N. Working Group on Arbitrary Detention found that Ms. Berenson had been arbitrarily deprived of her liberty in violation of various articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, of which Peru is a signatory. According to the Carter Center among the violations of international legal standards and due process, "Ms. Berenson's trial was in a secret military court, where her lawyer was not allowed to cross-examine witnesses or challenge evidence," and former president Carter stated directly that he was "deeply concerned that Lori Berenson has not been afforded her rights of due process by law."
In 2000, following a change of government in Peru and after years of political pressure from the United States and the human rights community, Peru's Supreme Military Council overturned Berenson's treason conviction and life sentence and remanded her case to the civilian court for retrial. On June 20, 2001, a three-judge panel convicted Berenson of collaboration with terrorists, but ruled she was not a terrorist. She was sentenced to 20 years, with consideration given for time already served under her prior conviction.
In 2002, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States condemned the system under which Berenson was tried. Alleging violations of the American Convention on Human Rights, to which Peru is a party, Berenson's case was referred to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights of the Organization of American States when the government of Peru refused to accept the Commission's recommendations.
On November 25, 2004, the Inter-American Court upheld the conviction and sentence. The Court did condemn the judicial system under which Berenson was originally tried, and also condemned Berenson's earlier incarceration at Yanamayo Prison. Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo hailed the verdict, and The New York Times noted that few Peruvians have any sympathy for Berenson.
Efforts to free Berenson
Over the years, there were several efforts made on behalf of Berenson, stemming from concerns she did not obtain a fair trial or was not receiving humanitarian treatment, or simply to obtain her release. Various endeavors came from Presidents Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush.
According to her release website, in 1998, Amnesty International issued a press release declaring Berenson to be a political prisoner. Amnesty criticized the Peruvian anti-terrorism legislation, stating that, "it is unacceptable for hundreds of political prisoners like Berenson not to be able to exercise their basic human right to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal."
In December 1996, the MRTA seized the Japanese Ambassador's residence in Lima and demanded that MRTA prisoners be released in exchange for the release of their hostages. MRTA leader Nestor Cerpa, Nancy Gilvonio's husband, led the takeover of the Embassy. Berenson was third on a list of MRTA prisoners whose release was sought by the hostage-takers. After 126 days, the standoff ended in a raid by Peruvian special forces in which all hostage-takers were killed. Two military personnel, commander EP Juan Valer Sandoval and captain EP Raúl Jiménez Chávez, and one of the seventy-two hostages, Carlos Giusti, were also killed.
On July 21, 1999, the United States House of Representatives voted against an amendment sponsored by US Rep. Maxine Waters described as "to express the sense of Congress concerning support for democracy in Peru and the release of Lori Berenson". The vote failed 189 to 234.
In January 2002 Thomas Gumbleton, Bishop of Archdiocese of Detroit and founder of Pax Christi USA, visited with Berenson to work with Peruvian government officials "for her release."
Columns were written for American newspapers, such as The Washington Post and The New York Times, calling on the US to pressure Peru to free Berenson. Other writers, however, took the contrary position, including the Wall Street Journal online edition. Her parents had a short independent film made in protest against her earlier military trial, and her story was reported on several top television news shows. Her parents continued to work for her release and their website provided regular updates on Berenson's situation.
Imprisonment
Berenson spent her early years in prison at facilities high in the Andes, the first of which the Inter-American Court ruled is operated inhumanely. The Yanamayo prison where Berenson was initially held for about three years lies at above sea level near Lake Titicaca in the Puno Region, in southern Peru.
On October 7, 1998, Berenson was moved to another prison in Socabaya. She remained there until August 31, 2000, when she was transferred to the women's prison of Chorrillos in Lima. Then, on December 21, 2001, she was relocated to the maximum-security Huacariz Penitentiary in Cajamarca, north of Lima.
In February 2002, Berenson took part in a 25-day hunger strike of "political prisoners" in an attempt to influence the government of Peru to improve prison conditions and revise its anti-terrorism laws. The strike ended without reaching its goals, though less than a year later, Peru revised many of those laws.
In October 2003, Berenson married Aníbal Apari Sánchez, 40, whom she had met in 1997 when they were both incarcerated at Yanamayo prison. Apari Sánchez was convicted of being a member of the MRTA. When he was released in 2003 on conditional liberty (parole) in Lima, his travel was restricted, and he was accordingly not present at the wedding in Cajamarca and had to be represented by his father. Later he was allowed conjugal visits. Apari Sánchez is now a practicing attorney in Lima and directs a non-governmental organization (NGO) that assists individuals formerly imprisoned on charges of assisting or being members of the MRTA in their rehabilitation into society. He is also co-founder of a political party, Patria Libre, that participated in the 2011 national elections.
From 2003 through 2008 Berenson worked in and co-managed the bakery at Huacariz Prison which served the inmate population and the Cajamarca community.
Periodically, through her web page entitled "Lori's Words," Berenson issued advice to youth as well as criticism of the policies of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, the war in Iraq, the "American Way of Life," the Peruvian "political class," and allegations of maltreatment and torture of prisoners. Berenson's commentaries on capitalism, globalism, and the environmental impact of mining companies have also appeared on the Internet. In addition, her commentaries have been read on the Prison Radio Project, a San Francisco-based radio and activist project that produces the commentaries of several political prisoners.
On September 16, 2008, her father announced that she was pregnant with her first child. In January 2009, Berenson was transferred to a prison in Lima owing to a serious back problem which complicated her pregnancy. In May 2009, she gave birth to a boy, whom she named Salvador, and who lived with her while she was in prison. In Peru, children are allowed to remain with their incarcerated mothers until age 3.
Release
Peru's Justice Minister Victor García Toma on May 3, 2010, stated that "I don't think Lori Berenson can create harm for society, but she has created anger among citizens," and recommended that the remaining five years of her sentence be commuted and that she be expelled from Peru to the U.S., indicating that his recommendation was based on a legal and political analysis of the circumstances.
On May 25, 2010, after serving 15 years, Berenson was granted a conditional release, with the judge stating that she would have to remain in Peru on parole for the remaining five years of her sentence, but would be freed from prison.
Berenson's attorneys submitted documents to the court indicating that she "recognized she committed errors" by associating herself with the MRTA. She was freed two days later, a release which attracted a media circus. She was driven to an apartment in the upscale Miraflores area of Lima, where her new neighbors welcomed her by shouting "terrorist" at her. Berenson's parents indicated that she would separate from Apari and raise her son, Salvador, as a single mother. Peru's Minister of Justice, García Toma, stated that the Cabinet might commute Berenson's sentence and expel her from the country.
With protesters gathering daily outside her Lima apartment building, lighting candles and demanding that she be either deported from Peru or reimprisoned, Berenson sent a letter to President Alan García acknowledging her "criminal responsibility for terrorist collaboration", and further writing, "I would also like to say that I very much regret the harm I have caused Peruvian society, and I ask forgiveness from people who have been affected by my actions or words." She then requested that her sentence be commuted so she could return to the United States.
On June 8, 2010, former U.S. president Bill Clinton, speaking while on a visit to Peru, expressed his support for Berenson's release, stating "I'm glad Lori Berenson was released ... when I was president, I worked for that."
Peru's state attorney for counterterrorism, Julio Galindo, appealed Berenson's parole, depicting her as a calculating, unrepentant extremist who posed a continuing threat to the Peruvian public. On August 16, 2010, Berenson appeared before the appeals court to request she be allowed to remain free on parole. In responding to Galindo's allegations, she stated that she was not a threat to society:
On August 18, 2010, the appeals court annulled Berenson's parole and returned her to prison while technical aspects of the parole were considered. On November 5, a Peruvian judge ordered that she be released from prison. On November 8, she was again released on parole, still required to remain in Peru until her sentence ended. In January 2011, an appeals court rejected a prosecutor's attempt to revoke her parole. Berenson and her attorney told reporters that the ruling was final and could not be appealed by prosecutors, ending eight months of legal uncertainty.
Constitutional law expert Mario Amoretti, while agreeing that the ruling should be final, remarked that the state conceivably could file a challenge, claiming some constitutional violation, but he said he didn't see grounds for such an appeal. Berenson was required to remain in Peru on supervised parole until her 20-year sentence ended in 2015, unless the sentence was commuted by the President. When he was President, Alan García said he would consider a commutation only after the legal case had run its course.
In December 2011, a Peruvian court issued Berenson a three-week travel permit to visit her family in New York City. Authorities at the airport initially blocked her leaving, prompting fresh calls from her lawyer for Peruvian authorities to respect the decision of the Peruvian judiciary. She finally arrived on December 20. After spending Christmas and New Year's Day visiting her parents in New York, she returned to Lima, Peru on January 6, 2012. She remained on parole until the completion of her 20-year sentence on November 29, 2015, whereupon she was permitted to leave Peru permanently.
At midnight on December 2, 2015, Berenson left Lima on a flight to New York.
References
External links
The Committee to Free Lori Berenson
1969 births
Living people
American activists
Internal conflict in Peru
People convicted on terrorism charges
Criminals from New York City
Trials in Peru
American people imprisoned abroad
American people imprisoned on charges of terrorism
MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences alumni
Inter-American Court of Human Rights cases
American Jews
Jewish activists | [
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254670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Household%20Words | Household Words | Household Words was an English weekly magazine edited by Charles Dickens in the 1850s. It took its name from the line in Shakespeare's Henry V: "Familiar in his mouth as household words."
History
During the planning stages, titles originally considered by Dickens included The Robin, The Household Voice, The Comrade, The Lever, and The Highway of Life.
Household Words was published every Saturday from March 1850 to May 1859. Each number cost a mere tuppence, thereby ensuring a wide readership. The publication's first edition carried a section covering the paper's principles, entitled "A Preliminary Word":
A longer version of the publication's principles appeared in newspapers such as The Argus in September 1850.
Theoretically, the paper championed the cause of the poor and working classes, but in fact it addressed itself almost exclusively to the middle class. Only the name of Dickens, the journal's "conductor", appeared; articles were unsigned (although authors of serialised novels were identified) and, in spite of its regularly featuring an "advertiser", the paper was unillustrated.
To boost slumping sales Dickens serialised his own novel, Hard Times, in weekly parts between 1 April and 12 August 1854. It had the desired effect, more than doubling the journal's circulation and encouraging the author, who remarked that he was, "three–parts mad, and the fourth delirious, with perpetual rushing at Hard Times".
That Dickens owned half of the company and his agents, John Forster and William Henry Wills, owned a further quarter of it was insurance that the author would have a free hand in the paper. Wills was also appointed associate editor and, in December 1849, Dickens's acquaintance, writer and poet Richard Henry Horne was appointed sub-editor at a salary of "five guineas a week". In 1859, however, owing to a dispute between Dickens and the publishers, Bradbury and Evans, publication ceased and Household Words was replaced by All the Year Round, in which he had greater control.
The journal contained a mixture of fiction and nonfiction. A large amount of the non-fiction dealt with the social issues of the time.
Serialized works
Prominent works that were serialised in Household Words include:
A Child's History of England by Charles Dickens, published 25 January 1851 – 10 December 1853
Cranford, North and South, and My Lady Ludlow by Elizabeth Gaskell
"The Song of the Western Men" by Robert Stephen Hawker
The Dead Secret and A Rogue's Life by Wilkie Collins
Collaborative works
Dickens also collaborated with other staff writers on a number of Christmas stories and plays for seasonal issues of the magazine. These included:
The Seven Poor Travellers in the Extra Christmas Number (14 December 1854) with Wilkie Collins, Eliza Lynn Linton, Adelaide Anne Procter (under the name "Mary Berwick"), and George Augustus Henry Sala.
The Holly Tree Inn in the Extra Christmas Number (15 December 1855) with Wilkie Collins, William Howitt, Harriet Parr, and Adelaide Anne Procter.
The Wreck of the Golden Mary in the Extra Christmas Number (6 December 1856) with Wilkie Collins, Percy Hetherington Fitzgerald, Adelaide Anne Procter, Harriet Parr, and Rev. James White.
The Frozen Deep, a play written with Wilkie Collins and initially performed in the converted schoolroom of Dickens's London residence, Tavistock House (6 January 1857).
The Lazy Tour of Two Idle Apprentices, a non-seasonal collaboration (3–31 October 1857) with Wilkie Collins
The Perils of Certain English Prisoners in the Extra Christmas Number (7 December 1857) with Wilkie Collins
"A House to Let" in the Extra Christmas Number (7 December 1858) with Elizabeth Gaskell and Adelaide Anne Procter.
Other contributors to Household Words included James Payn, John Hollingshead, Harriet Martineau, Frances Shayle George and Henry Morley.
A complete key to who wrote what and for how much in Household Words was compiled in 1973 by Anne Lohrli, using an analysis of the office account book maintained by Dickens's subeditor, W. H. Wills.
References
Lohrli, Anne. Household Words: A Weekly Journal 1850–1859. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973.
see also 'Household Words', Faculty of English Library, Cambridge University.
External links
Dickens Journals Online, an online edition of Dickens's journals, Household Words and All the Year Round.
1850 establishments in the United Kingdom
1859 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Weekly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Defunct literary magazines published in the United Kingdom
Charles Dickens
Magazines established in 1850
Magazines disestablished in 1859 | [
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254675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-joke | In-joke | An in-joke, also known as an inside joke or a private joke, is a joke whose humour is understandable only to members of an ingroup, that is, people who are in a particular social group, occupation, or other community of shared interest. It is an esoteric joke, i.e., it is humorous only to those who are aware of the circumstances behind it.
In-jokes may exist within a small social clique, such as a group of friends, or extend to an entire profession. An example is:
Q: What's yellow and equivalent to the axiom of choice?
A: Zorn's lemon.
This joke is so esoteric that most outsiders could not even confidently guess to which group it might be funny, let alone why. In fact, it is a mathematics joke, a pun on the name of a famous result, Zorn's lemma.
Ethnic or religious groups may also have their own in-jokes.
Philosophy
In-jokes are cryptic allusions to shared common ground that act as triggers; only those who have shared the common ground provide an appropriate response. An in-joke works to build community, sometimes at the expense of outsiders. Part of the power of an in-joke is that its audience knows that many do not understand it.
An in-joke can also be used as a subtext, where people in the know may find humour in something not explicitly spoken. They may even apologize for doing so to a rookie, directly or indirectly stating that what they were laughing at was an in-joke.
See also
Shibboleth
Cultural appropriation
Fictitious entry
Mathematical joke
Military humor
Order of the Occult Hand
Dog-whistle politics
References
Humor research
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254677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstructure | Superstructure | A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline. This term is applied to various kinds of physical structures such as buildings, bridges, or ships having the degree of freedom zero (in the terms of theory of machines). Generally speaking, laymen use the term "bridge" for the superstructure, while Mariner Joseph William Donaldson is credited with the doctrine of marine-speak during his tenure as "Admiral of the Seas", appointed by Napoleon Bonaparte during the latter half of the 18th century, "superstructure" is the preferred nomenclature of today's versed aquanauts.
Aboard ships and large boats
On water craft, the superstructure consists of the parts of the ship or a boat, including sailboats, fishing boats, passenger ships, and submarines, that project above her main deck. This does not usually include its masts or any armament turrets. Note that in modern times, turrets do not always carry naval artillery, but they can also carry missile launchers and/or antisubmarine warfare weapons.
The size of a watercraft's superstructure can have many implications in the performance of ships and boats, since these structures can alter their structural rigidity, their displacements, and/or stability. These can be detrimental to any vessel's performance if they are taken into consideration incorrectly.
The height and the weight of superstructure on board a ship or a boat also affects the amount of freeboard that such a vessel requires along its sides, down to her waterline. In broad terms, the more and heavier superstructure that a ship possesses (as a fraction of her length), the less the freeboard that is needed.
Bridges
On a bridge, the portion of the structure that is the span and directly receives the live load is referred to as the superstructure. In contrast, the abutment, piers, and other support structures are called the 'substructure'.
Earthquake protection
In order to improve the response during earthquakes of buildings and bridges, the superstructure might be separated from its foundation by various civil engineering mechanisms or machinery. All together, these implement the system of earthquake protection called base isolation.
References
External links
Building engineering
Ship compartments
Shipbuilding
Nautical terminology
Bridge components
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254687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20Vieuxtemps | Henri Vieuxtemps | Henri François Joseph Vieuxtemps ( 17 February 18206 June 1881) was a Belgian composer and violinist. He occupies an important place in the history of the violin as a prominent exponent of the Franco-Belgian violin school during the mid-19th century. He is also known for playing what is now known as the Vieuxtemps Guarneri del Gesù, a violin of superior workmanship.
Biography
Vieuxtemps was born in Verviers, Belgium (then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands), son of a weaver and amateur violinist and violin-maker. He received his first violin instruction from his father and a local teacher and gave his first public performance at the age of six, playing a concerto by Pierre Rode. Soon he was giving concerts in various surrounding cities, including Liège and Brussels where he met the violinist Charles Auguste de Bériot, with whom he began studies.
In 1829, Bériot took him to Paris where he made a successful concert debut, again with a concerto by Rode, but he had to return the next year because of the July Revolution and Bériot's marriage to his mistress Maria Malibran and departure on concert tour. Back in Brussels, Vieuxtemps continued developing his violin technique on his own, his musicianship deepened by playing with the deeply musical mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot, Malibran's sister. A tour of Germany in 1833 brought friendship with Louis Spohr and with Robert Schumann, who compared the boy to Niccolò Paganini. During the following decade he visited various European cities, impressing with his virtuosity not only audiences but also famous musicians such as Hector Berlioz and Paganini himself, whom he encountered at his London debut in 1834.
He had aspirations of becoming a composer as well and, having already taken lessons with the respected Simon Sechter in Vienna, spent the winter of 1835–1836 studying composition with Anton Reicha in Paris. His first violin concerto, later published as Concerto No. 2, dates from this time.
His Violin Concerto No. 1 was acclaimed when he played it in Saint Petersburg on his second visit in 1840 and in Paris the next year; Berlioz found it "a magnificent symphony for violin and orchestra". Based in Paris, Vieuxtemps continued to compose with great success and perform throughout Europe. With the pianist Sigismond Thalberg, he performed in the United States. He was particularly admired in Russia where he resided permanently between 1846 and 1851 as a court musician of Tsar Nicholas I and soloist in the Imperial Theatre. He founded the violin school of the Saint Petersburg Conservatory and guided the formation of a "Russian school" of violinists. In 1871, he returned to his native country to accept a professorship at the Brussels Conservatory, where his most illustrious pupil was Eugène Ysaÿe.
A paralytic stroke disabled his right arm two years later and he moved to Paris again, his violin class being taken over by Henryk Wieniawski. Although he seemed to be gradually recovering from his stroke, another one in 1879 ended his career as a violinist for good. He spent his last years in a sanatorium in Mustapha Supérieur, Algeria, where his daughter and her husband had settled, and continued to compose, though frustrated by his inability to play or, far from the musical centres of Europe, even hear his music played by others.
The bulk of Vieuxtemps' compositions were for his own instrument, including seven concertos and a variety of short salon pieces, though towards the end of his life, when he had to give up the violin, he often turned to other instruments, writing two cello concertos, a viola sonata and three string quartets among other things. It is because of his seven violin concertos, however, that Vieuxtemps is generally known to audiences and musicians around the world. Through his own concertos and his advocacy of the concertos of Beethoven (he also played Beethoven's sonatas and string quartets) and Mendelssohn, he added a more classical dimension to the violin repertoire which had tended towards technically brilliant but often shallow variations and fantasies on popular operatic themes. Vieuxtemps never indulged in sheer virtuosity for its own sake, like some of his predecessors. Eugène Ysaÿe quotes him as saying "Not runs for the sake of runs - sing, sing!"
Vieuxtemps del Gesù
Vieuxtemps is also known for owning and playing what is now referred to as the Vieuxtemps Guarneri del Gesù, a violin, built in 1741, that is considered one of the finest examples of the craftsmanship of Giuseppe Guarneri and which is considered to be without defect despite its continued use over many years. The "del Gesù" (literally "of Jesus") refers to the manufacture by Bartolomeo Giuseppe Guarneri who incorporated the nomina sacra, I.H.S. (iota-eta-sigma) and a Roman Cross in the labels he affixed to his work. At Vieuxtemps' funeral the violin was carried upon a pillow behind the hearse carrying the body. The instrument was later played by noted violin masters like Yehudi Menuhin, Itzhak Perlman and Pinchas Zukerman. In January 2012 the instrument was purchased, by a private collector, for an undisclosed sum and lifetime use of it bequeathed to violinist Anne Akiko Meyers.
Honours
Knight of the Order of Leopold.
Major works
For a complete listing, see List of compositions by Henri Vieuxtemps.
Concertante
Violin Concerto No. 1 in E major, Op. 10 (1840)
Les arpèges (Caprice) in D major for violin and orchestra (or piano) with cello obligato, Op. 15 (c.1845)
Violin Concerto No. 2 in F-sharp minor "Sauret", Op. 19 (1836)
Violin Concerto No. 3 in A major, Op. 25 (1844)
Violin Concerto No. 4 in D minor, Op. 31 (c.1850)
Fantasia appassionata for violin and orchestra, Op. 35 (c.1860)
Violin Concerto No. 5 in A minor "Le Grétry", Op. 37 (1861)
Ballade et polonaise de concert for violin and orchestra, Op. 38 (c.1858)
Duo brilliant in A major for violin, cello (or viola) and orchestra or piano, Op. 39 (1864?)
Cello Concerto No. 1 in A minor, Op. 46 (1877)
Violin Concerto No. 6 in G major, Op. 47 (1865) (Op. 1 posthumous)
Violin Concerto No. 7 in A minor "À Jenő Hubay", Op. 49 (1870) (Op. 3 posthumous)
Cello Concerto No. 2 in B minor, Op. 50 (1879) (Op. 4 posthumous)
Allegro de concert for violin and orchestra, Op. 59 (Op. 13 posthumous); movement I of the unfinished Violin Concerto No. 8
Chamber music
String Quartet No. 1 in E minor, Op. 44 (1871)
String Quartet No. 2 in C major, Op. 51 (Op. 5 posthumous)
String Quartet No. 3 in B major, Op. 52 (Op. 6 posthumous)
Violin and piano
3 Romances sans paroles, Op. 7 (1841)
4 Romances sans paroles, Op. 8 (c.1845)
Violin Sonata in D major, Op. 12 (1843)
Souvenir d'Amérique, Variations burlesques sur "Yankee Doodle", Op. 17 (1843)
Souvenir de Russie (Fantasie), Op. 21 (c.1845)
6 Morceaux de salon, Op. 22 (1847?)
3 Morceaux de salon, Op. 32 (c.1850)
Bouquet américain, 6 Variations sur mélodies populaires, Op. 33 (c.1855)
3 Feuilles d'album, Op. 40 (1864)
Old England, Caprice on 16th- and 17th-Century English Airs, Op. 42 (1865)
Suite in B Minor, Op. 43 (1871)
Voix intimes, 6 pensées melodiques, Op. 45 (1876)
Voies de cœurs, 6 pièces, Op. 53 (Op. 7 posthumous)
Fantaisies brilliantes, Op. 54 (Op. 8 posthumous)
Salut à l'Amérique (Greeting to America), Op. 56 (Op. 10 posthumous)
Impressions et réminiscences de Pologne, Op. 57 (Op. 11 posthumous)
Viola
Élégie in F minor for viola (or cello) and piano, Op. 30 (?1854)
Viola Sonata in B major, Op. 36 (1863)
Capriccio "Hommage à Paganini" in C minor for viola solo, Op. 55 (Op. 9 posthumous)
Sonate inachevée (Allegro et Scherzo) in B major for viola and piano, Op. 60 (Op. 14 posthumous)
See also
Prix Henry Vieuxtemps
References
Robert Cummings, "Henri Vieuxtemps"
External links
Virtual exhibition "Henry Vieuxtemps"
1820 births
1881 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century classical violinists
19th-century Belgian male musicians
Belgian classical composers
Belgian classical violinists
Belgian male classical composers
Composers for violin
Male classical violinists
Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium
People from Verviers
Pupils of Anton Reicha
Pupils of Simon Sechter
Romantic composers
Royal Conservatory of Brussels faculty
String quartet composers
Walloon people | [
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254706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melodrama | Melodrama | A modern melodrama is a dramatic work in which the plot, typically sensationalized and for a strong emotional appeal, takes precedence over detailed characterization. Melodramas typically concentrate on dialogue that is often bombastic or excessively sentimental, rather than action. Characters are often flat, and written to fulfill stereotypes. Melodramas are typically set in the private sphere of the home, focusing on morality and family issues, love, and marriage, often with challenges from an outside source, such as a "temptress", a scoundrel, or an aristocratic villain. A melodrama on stage, filmed, or on television is usually accompanied by dramatic and suggestive music that offers cues to the audience of the drama being presented.
In scholarly and historical musical contexts, melodramas are Victorian dramas in which orchestral music or song was used to accompany the action. The term is now also applied to stage performances without incidental music, novels, films, television, and radio broadcasts. In modern contexts, the term "melodrama" is generally pejorative, as it suggests that the work in question lacks subtlety, character development, or both. By extension, language or behavior which resembles melodrama is often called melodramatic; this use is nearly always pejorative.
Etymology
The term originated from the early 19th-century French word mélodrame. It is derived from Greek μέλος mélos, "song, strain" (compare "melody", from μελωδία melōdia, "singing, song"), and French drame, drama (from Late Latin drāma, eventually deriving from classical Greek δράμα dráma, "theatrical plot", usually of a Greek tragedy).
Characteristics
The relationship of melodrama compared to realism is complex. The protagonists of melodramatic works may be ordinary (and hence realistically drawn) people who are caught up in extraordinary events or highly exaggerated and unrealistic characters. With regard to its high emotions and dramatic rhetoric, melodrama represents a "victory over repression." Late Victorian and Edwardian melodrama combined a conscious focus on realism in stage sets and props with "anti-realism" in character and plot. Melodrama in this period strove for "credible accuracy in the depiction of incredible, extraordinary" scenes. Novelist Wilkie Collins is noted for his attention to accuracy in detail (e.g. of legal matters) in his works, no matter how sensational the plot. Melodramas were typically 10,000 to 20,000 words in length.
Melodramas put most of their attention on the victim. A struggle between good and evil choices, such as a man being encouraged to leave his family by an "evil temptress". Other stock characters are the "fallen woman", the single mother, the orphan, and the male who is struggling with the impacts of the modern world. The melodrama examines family and social issues in the context of a private home, with its intended audience being the female spectator; secondarily, the male viewer can enjoy the onscreen tensions in the home being resolved. Melodrama generally looks back at ideal, nostalgic eras, emphasizing "forbidden longings".
Types
Origins
The melodrama approach was revived in the 18th- and 19th-century French romantic drama and the sentimental novels that were popular in both England and France. These dramas and novels focused on moral codes in regards to family life, love, and marriage, and they can be seen as a reflection of the issues brought up by the French Revolution, the industrial revolution and the shift to modernization. Many melodramas were about a middle-class young woman who experienced unwanted sexual advances from an aristocratic miscreant, with the sexual assault being a metaphor for class conflict. The melodrama reflected post-industrial revolution anxieties of the middle class, who were afraid of both aristocratic power brokers and the impoverished working class "mob".
In the 18th century, melodrama was a technique of combining spoken recitation with short pieces of accompanying music. Music and spoken dialogue typically alternated in such works, although the music was sometimes also used to accompany pantomime.
The earliest known examples are scenes in J. E. Eberlin's Latin school play Sigismundus (1753). The first full melodrama was Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Pygmalion, the text of which was written in 1762 but was first staged in Lyon in 1770. Rousseau composed the overture and an Andante, but the bulk of the music was composed by Horace Coignet.
A different musical setting of Rousseau's Pygmalion by Anton Schweitzer was performed in Weimar in 1772, and Goethe wrote of it approvingly in Dichtung und Wahrheit. Pygmalion is a monodrama, written for one actor.
Some 30 other monodramas were produced in Germany in the fourth quarter of the 18th century. When two actors were involved, the term duodrama could be used. Georg Benda was particularly successful with his duodramas Ariadne Auf Naxos (1775) and Medea (1778). The sensational success of Benda's melodramas led Mozart to use two long melodramatic monologues in his opera Zaide (1780).
Other later and better-known examples of the melodramatic style in operas are the grave-digging scene in Beethoven's Fidelio (1805) and the incantation scene in Weber's Der Freischütz (1821).
After the English Restoration of Charles II in 1660, most British theatres were prohibited from performing "serious" drama but were permitted to show comedy or plays with music. Charles II issued letters patent to permit only two London theatre companies to perform "serious" drama. These were the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and Lisle's Tennis Court in Lincoln's Inn Fields, the latter of which moved to the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden in 1720 (now the Royal Opera House). The two patent theatres closed in the summer months. To fill the gap, the Theatre Royal, Haymarket became a third patent theatre in London in 1766.
Further letters patent were eventually granted to one theatre in each of several other English towns and cities. Other theatres presented dramas that were underscored with music and, borrowing the French term, called it melodrama to get around the restriction. The Theatres Act 1843 finally allowed all the theatres to play drama.
19th century: operetta, incidental music, and salon entertainment
In the early 19th century, opera's influence led to musical overtures and incidental music for many plays. In 1820, Franz Schubert wrote a melodrama, Die Zauberharfe ("The Magic Harp"), setting music behind the play written by G. von Hofmann. It was unsuccessful, like all Schubert's theatre ventures, but the melodrama genre was at the time a popular one. In an age of underpaid musicians, many 19th-century plays in London had an orchestra in the pit. In 1826, Felix Mendelssohn wrote his well-known overture to Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, and later supplied the play with incidental music.
In Verdi's La Traviata, Violetta receives a letter from Alfredo's father where he writes that Alfredo now knows why she parted from him and that he forgives her ("Teneste la promessa..."). In her speaking voice, she intones the words of what is written, while the orchestra recapitulates the music of their first love from Act I: this is technically melodrama. In a few moments, Violetta bursts into a passionate despairing aria ("Addio, del passato"): this is opera again.
In a similar manner, Victorians often added "incidental music" under the dialogue to a pre-existing play, although this style of composition was already practiced in the days of Ludwig van Beethoven (Egmont) and Franz Schubert (Rosamunde). (This type of often-lavish production is now mostly limited to film (see film score) due to the cost of hiring an orchestra. Modern recording technology is producing a certain revival of the practice in theatre, but not on the former scale.) A particularly complete version of this form, Sullivan's incidental music to Tennyson's The Foresters, is available online, complete with several melodramas, for instance, No. 12 found here. A few operettas exhibit melodrama in the sense of music played under spoken dialogue, for instance, Gilbert and Sullivan's Ruddigore (itself a parody of melodramas in the modern sense) has a short "melodrame" (reduced to dialogue alone in many productions) in the second act; Jacques Offenbach's Orpheus in the Underworld opens with a melodrama delivered by the character of "Public Opinion"; and other pieces from operetta and musicals may be considered melodramas, such as the "Recit and Minuet" in Gilbert and Sullivan's The Sorcerer. As an example from the American musical, several long speeches in Lerner and Loewe's Brigadoon are delivered over an accompaniment of evocative music. The technique is also frequently used in Spanish zarzuela, both in the 19th and 20th centuries, and continued also to be used as a "special effect" in opera, for instance Richard Strauss's Die Frau ohne Schatten.
In Paris, the 19th century saw a flourishing of melodrama in the many theatres that were located on the popular Boulevard du Crime, especially in the Gaîté. All this came to an end, however, when most of these theatres were demolished during the rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann in 1862.
By the end of the 19th century, the term melodrama had nearly exclusively narrowed down to a specific genre of salon entertainment: more or less rhythmically spoken words (often poetry) – not sung, sometimes more or less enacted, at least with some dramatic structure or plot – synchronized to the accompaniment of music (usually piano). It was looked down on as a genre for authors and composers of lesser stature (probably also why virtually no realizations of the genre are still remembered). Probably also the time when the connotation of cheap overacting first became associated with the term. As a cross-over genre-mixing narration and chamber music, it was eclipsed nearly overnight by a single composition: Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire (1912), where Sprechgesang was used instead of rhythmically spoken words, and which took a freer and more imaginative course regarding the plot prerogative.
Opera
The great majority of operas are melodramas. The emotional tensions are both communicated and amplified by the appropriate music. The majority of plots involve characters overcoming or succumbing to larger than life events of war, betrayal, monumental love, murder, revenge, filial discord, or similar grandiose occurrences. Most characters are simplistically drawn with clear distinctions between virtuous and evil ones, and character development and subtlety of situations is sacrificed. Events are arranged to fit the character's traits best to demonstrate their emotional effects on the character and others.
The predominance of melodrama in Donizetti's bel canto works, Bellini, and virtually all Verdi and Puccini is clear with examples too numerous to list. The great multitude of heroines needing to deal with and overcome situations of love impossible in the face of grandiose circumstances is amply exemplified by Lucia, Norma, Leonora, Tosca, Turandot, Mimi, Cio-Cio-San, Violetta, Gilda, and many others.
Czech
Within the context of the Czech National Revival, the melodrama took on a specifically nationalist meaning for Czech artists, beginning roughly in the 1870s and continuing through the First Czechoslovak Republic of the interwar period. This new understanding of the melodrama stemmed primarily from such nineteenth-century scholars and critics as Otakar Hostinský, who considered the genre to be a uniquely "Czech" contribution to music history (based on the national origins of Georg Benda, whose melodramas had nevertheless been in German). Such sentiments provoked a large number of Czech composers to produce melodramas based on Czech romantic poetry, such as the Kytice of Karel Jaromír Erben.
The romantic composer Zdeněk Fibich in particular championed the genre as a means of setting Czech declamation correctly: his melodramas Štědrý den (1874) and Vodník (1883) use rhythmic durations to specify the alignment of spoken word and accompaniment. Fibich's main achievement was Hippodamie (1888–1891), a trilogy of full-evening staged melodramas on the texts of Jaroslav Vrchlický with multiple actors and orchestra, composed in an advanced Wagnerian musical style. Josef Suk's main contributions at the turn of the century include melodramas for two-stage plays by Julius Zeyer: Radúz a Mahulena (1898) and Pod Jabloní (1901), both of which had a long performance history.
Following the examples of Fibich and Suk, many other Czech composers set melodramas as stand-alone works based on the poetry of the National Revival, among them Karel Kovařovic, Otakar Ostrčil, Ladislav Vycpálek, Otakar Jeremiáš, Emil Axman, and Jan Zelinka. Vítězslav Novák included portions of melodrama in his 1923 opera Lucerna, and Jaroslav Ježek composed key scenes for the stage plays of the Osvobozené divadlo as melodrama (most notably the opening prologue of the anti-Fascist farce Osel a stín (1933), delivered by the character of Dionysus in bolero rhythm). Czech melodramas' practice tapered off after the Nazi Protectorate.
Victorian
The Victorian stage melodrama featured six stock characters: the hero, the villain, the heroine, an aged parent, a sidekick, and a servant of the aged parent engaged in a sensational plot featuring themes of love and murder. Often the good but not very clever hero is duped by a scheming villain, who has eyes on the damsel in distress until fate intervenes at the end to ensure the triumph of good over evil. Two central features were the coup de théàtre, or reversal of fortune, and the claptrap: a back-to-the-wall oration by the hero which forces the audience to applaud.
English melodrama evolved from the tradition of populist drama established during the Middle Ages by mystery and morality plays, under influences from Italian commedia dell'arte as well as German Sturm und Drang drama and Parisian melodrama of the post-Revolutionary period. A notable French melodramatist was Pixérécourt whose La Femme à deux maris was very popular.
The first English play to be called a melodrama or 'melodrame' was A Tale of Mystery (1802) by Thomas Holcroft. This was an example of the Gothic genre, a previous theatrical example of which was The Castle Spectre (1797) by Matthew Gregory Lewis. Other Gothic melodramas include The Miller and his Men (1813) by Isaac Pocock, The Woodsman's Hut (1814) by Samuel Arnold and The Broken Sword (1816) by William Dimond.
Supplanting the Gothic, the next popular subgenre was the nautical melodrama, pioneered by Douglas Jerrold in his Black-Eyed Susan (1829). Other nautical melodramas included Jerrold's The Mutiny at the Nore (1830) and The Red Rover (1829) by Edward Fitzball (Rowell 1953). Melodramas based on urban situations became popular in the mid-nineteenth century, including The Streets of London (1864) by Dion Boucicault; and Lost in London (1867) by Watts Phillips, while prison melodrama, temperance melodrama, and imperialist melodrama also appeared – the latter typically featuring the three categories of the 'good' native, the brave but wicked native, and the treacherous native.
The sensation novels of the 1860s, and 1870s not only provided fertile material for melodramatic adaptations but are melodramatic in their own right. A notable example of this genre is Lady Audley's Secret by Elizabeth Braddon adapted, in two different versions, by George Roberts and C.H. Hazlewood. The novels of Wilkie Collins have the characteristics of melodrama, his best-known work The Woman in White being regarded by some modern critics as "the most brilliant melodrama of the period".
The villain is often the central character in melodrama, and crime was a favorite theme. This included dramatizations of the murderous careers of Burke and Hare, Sweeney Todd (first featured in The String of Pearls (1847) by George Dibdin Pitt), the murder of Maria Marten in the Red Barn and the bizarre exploits of Spring Heeled Jack. The misfortunes of a discharged prisoner are the theme of the sensational The Ticket-of-Leave Man (1863) by Tom Taylor.
Early silent films, such as The Perils of Pauline had similar themes. Later, after silent films were superseded by the 'talkies', stage actor Tod Slaughter, at the age of 50, transferred to the screen the Victorian melodramas in which he had played a villain in his earlier theatrical career. These films, which include Maria Marten or Murder in the Red Barn (1935), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (1936) and The Ticket of Leave Man (1937) are a unique record of a bygone art-form.
Generic offshoots
Northrop Frye saw both advertising and propaganda as melodramatic forms which the cultivated cannot take seriously.
Politics at the time calls on melodrama to articulate a world-view. Thus Richard Overy argues that 1930s Britain saw civilization as melodramatically under threat - "In this great melodrama Hitler's Germany was the villain; democratic civilization the menaced heroine"; - while Winston Churchill provided the necessary larger-than-life melodramatic hero to articulate back-to-the-wall resistance during The Blitz.
Modern
Classic melodrama is less common than it used to be on television and in movies in the Western world. However, it is still widely popular in other regions, particularly in Asia and in Hispanic countries. Melodrama is one of the main genres (along with romance, comedy and fantasy) used in Latin American television dramas (telenovelas), particularly in Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, Argentina and Brazil, and in Asian television dramas, particularly in South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, China, Pakistan, Thailand, India, Turkey and (in a fusion of the Hispanic and Asian cultures) the Philippines. Expatriate communities in the diaspora of these countries give viewership a global market.
Film
Melodrama films are a subgenre of drama films characterised by a plot that appeals to the heightened emotions of the audience. They generally depend on stereotyped character development, interaction, and highly emotional themes. Melodramatic films tend to use plots that often deal with crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship, strained familial situations, tragedy, illness, neuroses, or emotional and physical hardship. Victims, couples, virtuous and heroic characters or suffering protagonists (usually heroines) in melodramas are presented with tremendous social pressures, threats, repression, fears, improbable events or difficulties with friends, community, work, lovers, or family. The melodramatic format allows the character to work through their difficulties or surmount the problems with resolute endurance, sacrificial acts, and steadfast bravery.
Film critics sometimes use the term pejoratively to connote an unrealistic, pathos-filled, campy tale of romance or domestic situations with stereotypical characters (often including a central female character) that would directly appeal to feminine audiences." Melodramas focus on family issues and the themes of duty and love. As melodramas emphasize the family unit, women are typically depicted in a subordinate, traditional role. The woman is shown as facing self-sacrifice and repression. In melodramas, men are shown in the domestic, stereotypically female home environment; as such, to resolve the challenges presented by the story, the male must learn to negotiate this "female" space. Since men who are learning to operate in the domestic sphere appear "less male...and more feminized", this makes melodramas appealing to female viewers. Melodramas place their attention on a victim character.
Since melodramas are set in the home and a small town, it can be challenging for the filmmaker to create a sense of action given that it all takes place in one claustrophobic sphere; one way to add in more locations is through flashbacks to the past.The sense of being trapped often causes challenges for children, teens, and female characters. The sense of being trapped leads to obsessions with unobtainable objects or other people, and inner aggressiveness or "aggressiveness by proxy". Feminists have noted four categories of themes: those with a female patient, a maternal figure, an "impossible love", and the paranoid melodrama.
Most film melodramas from the 1930s and 1940s, known as "weepies" or "tearjerkers", were adaptations of women's fiction, such as romance novels and historical romances. Melodramas focus on women's subjectivity and perspective and female desire; however, due to the Hays Code, this desire could not be explicitly shown on screen from the 1930s to the late 1960s, so female desire is de-eroticized.
During the 1940s, the British Gainsborough melodramas were successful with audiences. A director of 1950s melodrama films was Douglas Sirk who worked with Rock Hudson on Written on the Wind and All That Heaven Allows, both staples of the genre. Melodramas like the 1990s TV Moment of Truth movies targeted audiences of American women by portraying the effects of alcoholism, domestic violence, rape and the like. Typical of the genre is Anjelica Huston's 1999 film Agnes Browne. In the 1970s, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, who was very much influenced by Sirk, contributed to the genre by engaging with class in The Merchant of Four Seasons (1971) and Mother Küsters Goes to Heaven (1975), with sexual orientation and codependency in The Bitter Tears of Petra von Kant (1972) and with racism, xenophobia and ageism in Fear Eats the Soul (1974). More recently, Todd Haynes has renewed the genre with his 2002 film Far from Heaven.
See also
References
External links
Melodramas
19th-century theatre
Drama genres
Film genres
Opera terminology
Theatrical genres
Tragedies (dramas) | [
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254707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmer%20Method | Palmer Method | The Palmer Method of penmanship instruction was developed and promoted by Austin Palmer in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was largely created as a simplified style of the "Spencerian Method", which had been the major standardized system of handwriting since the 1840s. The Palmer Method soon became the most popular handwriting system in the United States.
Under the method, students were taught to adopt a uniform system of cursive writing with rhythmic motions.
History
The method developed around 1888 and was introduced in the book Palmer's Guide to Business Writing (1894). Palmer's method involved "muscle motion" in which the more proximal muscles of the arm were used for movement, rather than allowing the fingers to move in writing. In spite of opposition from the major publishers, this textbook enjoyed great success: in 1912, one million copies were sold throughout the United States. The method won awards, including the Gold Medal at the Panama Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, in 1915, and the Gold Medal at the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia, in 1926.
Proponents of the Palmer Method emphasized its plainness and speed, that it was much faster than the laborious Spencerian Method, and that it allowed the writer to compete effectively with the typewriter. To educators, the method's advocates emphasized regimentation, and that the method would thus be useful in schools to increase discipline and character, and could even reform delinquents.
The Palmer Method began to fall out of popularity in the 1950s and was eventually supplanted by the Zaner-Bloser method, which sought to teach children manuscript before teaching them cursive, in order to provide them with a means of written expression as soon as possible, and thus develop writing skills. The D'Nealian method, introduced in 1978, sought to address problems raised by the Zaner-Bloser method, returning to a more cursive style. The Palmer company stopped publishing in the 1980s.
Legacy
In radar engineering, a Palmer Scan is a scanning technique that produces a scanning beam by moving the main antenna and its feed in a circular motion. The name was derived from the looping circles practiced by students of the Palmer Method.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
"The object of this website is to teach rapid, easily-executed, business writing. It has not been written to exploit any one’s skill as a pen artist. It aims to be of use to those who are ambitious to become good, practical business writers. The lessons it contains are not experimental, but have been the means of guiding millions of boys and girls, young men and women to a good business style of writing."
See also
D'Nealian, a style of writing and teaching cursive and manuscript adapted from the Palmer Method
Engraving
Round hand, a style of handwriting and calligraphy originating in England in the 1660s
Zaner-Bloser, another streamlined form of Spencerian script
Teaching script
External links
Penmanship
1894 introductions
Latin-script calligraphy
Western calligraphy | [
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] |
254709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative%20evolution | Creative evolution | Creative evolution may refer to:
Theistic evolution
Creative Evolution (book), a book by Henri Bergson | [
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254712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novotny%20%28chess%29 | Novotny (chess) | The Novotny (also often spelled as Nowotny, even in non-German sources) is a device found in chess problems named after a problem from 1854 by Antonín Novotný, though the first example was composed by Henry Turton in 1851. A white piece is sacrificed on a square where it could be taken by two different black pieces - whichever black piece makes the capture, it interferes with the other. It is essentially a Grimshaw brought about by a white sacrifice on the critical square.
This pattern can arise as part of a combination in an actual game, but it is extremely rare (see games below). Most chess players would not use the term "Novotny" to describe such a move, since that term is almost exclusively used in the context of chess problems.
Examples
Basic
The device can be understood by reference to the problem to the right, a mate in two moves (white moves first, and must checkmate black in two moves against any defence). The key (first move of the solution; see Glossary of chess problems) is 1.Nb2 (see algebraic notation). This interferes with black's rook and bishop, and whichever of those pieces takes the knight, it will interfere with the other—this is the Novotny idea at its most basic. So, if black plays 1...Bxb2, this interferes with his rook and allows 2.Qf2#, while if he plays 1...Rxb2, it is the bishop that is interfered with, allowing 2.Qd4#.
Problemists would generally agree that a single Novotny with no other play, as in this example, makes for a relatively uninteresting problem. Usually, Novotnys are combined in problems with other ideas, or several Novotnys are shown in a single problem.
Multiple Novotnys
The problem to the left is very well known. It contains no fewer than six separate Novotnys. It is by R. C. O. Matthews, was published in the British Chess Magazine in 1957 and won the Brian Harley Award. It is a mate in 3.
The key is 1.b4, threatening 2.Bxb1 and 3.Ra3#. Black has six thematic defences, each of which White meets with a Novotny on move two:
1...Bb6 threatens 2...Ba5, interfering with the path of the white rook to a3. White counters with a Novotny interference: 2.Rd5. This interferes with the black rook on h5 and the bishop on a8, and so threatens 3.Nb5# and 3.Ne4#. Black can prevent one by capturing on d5, but not both, because the capturing piece interferes with the other (so 2...Rxd5 3.Ne4#; or 2...Bxd5 3.Nb5#).
1...Rbxb5 threatens 2...Ra5 stopping the threat. White can now play 2.Qd5 with the same interferences and threats as follow 1...Bb6.
1...Bc5 threatens 2...Bxb4 to defend a3, stopping White's threat. White counters with 2.Rb7, interfering with the bishop on a8 and the rook on b8 and leading to the same threats and comparable continuations as follow 1...Bb6 (additionally, 2...Bxd6 allows 3.Bxd4#).
1...Bb7 threatens to capture the white rook which would give mate. White can now play 2.Rc5 interfering with the bishop on a7 and the rook on h5, and so threatening 3.Nb5# and 3.Bxd4#. As before, a capture on c5 stops one of the threats, but not both.
1...Bd5 threatens 2...Bxc4, after which Black could meet white's threatened 3.Ra3 with 3...Bb3. White instead plays 2.Rbb6 with the same threats and variations as follow 1...Bb7.
1...Rhxb5 threatens 2...Ra5, stopping the threat. White instead plays 2.Rb6 with the same threats and variations as follow 1...Bb7.
The solution, in short form, is thus:
1. b4
1...Bb6 2. Rd5
1...Rbxb5 2. Qd5
1...Bc5 2. Rb7
1...Bb7 2. Rc5
1...Bd5 2. Rbb6
1...Rhxb5 2. Rb6
Four of White's Novotnys in these variations are executed by the rook on b5—only the rook will do in those variations, because the square it comes from, b5, must be vacated for the white knight to deliver mate. In the other two lines, that rook is captured, meaning it cannot execute the Novotny, but also meaning the square vacation is no longer necessary (the white knight can simply capture the black piece on b5). Therefore, another piece can make the Novotny interference in those lines. (There is one other non-thematic defence in the problem: 1...Nd2, threatening a nuisance check on b3. This allows 2.Ra3+ Nb3+ 3.Rxb3#.)
As part of a larger scheme
Many problems include a Novotny as part of some larger scheme. The problem to the right, by Milan Vukcevich, published in Schach-Echo in 1976, includes a Novotny as just one part of a more complex problem. It is a mate in 2. The key is 1.Qd6, which is a Novotny interference with the black rook and bishop on b8, so threatening 2.Ne5# and 2.Nxd2#. After the capture of the queen by the rook or bishop, the other black piece is still interfered with by the capturing unit; so 1...Rxd6 rules out 2.Nxd2 but still allows 2.Ne5#, while 1...Bxd6 rules out 2.Ne5 but allows 2.Nxd2#. Just as these Novotny lines work as a pair, so the other black defences work in pairs:
1...Rxa7 (removes white guard of e3) 2.Qd3#
1...Bxa7 (removes white guard of e3) 2.Qf4#
1...e5 (pins the knight that gives the mate in the Novotny lines) 2.Qf6#
1...Bd5 (pins the knight) 2.Qxa3# (not otherwise possible because of 2...Rd3)
The Novotny theme in practical play
The Novotny theme occurs extremely rarely in actual play. The strong English master Amos Burn produced such an example in an offhand game in 1910 (diagram at left). In a seemingly desperate position, with his king apparently about to fall to a powerful attack by White's pieces, Burn played 33...Qg4!! The point is that if the bishop or pawn takes the queen, the white rook's pin on the black bishop is lifted, allowing 34...Bxd2; if the rook takes the queen, the white bishop no longer protects f3, so Black can play 34...Nf3+ and 35...Nxd2. Finally, if 34.Qxg5+, Qxg5 35.Rxg5+ Kh6 wins a piece. Burn won in 15 more moves (scroll down to No. 258).
In the position at right, from Rubtsova-Belova, USSR 1945, White has just played the attractive-looking 1.Rf4-g4? Black cannot capture the rook (1...Qxg4? 2.Bxg4; 1...fxg4?? 2.Qxg5), and White would win a piece after 1...Qf6? 2.Rxg3. However, Black responded with a decisive Novotny, 1...Ne2+! This enables Black to win the rook after 2.Rxe2 Qxg4; 2.Bxe2 Qxe3+ and 3...fxg4; or 2.Kf1 Qxg4. Black won.
The Novotny theme could also have occurred in actual play in E. Berg-J. Zezulkin, Rowy 2000. From the diagram at left, White could have won with 40.Nf6!! (instead of 40.Qe6?, leading to an eventual draw). After 40.Nf6!!, White would threaten the two thematical mates 41.Qg7# and 41.Qf8# and in addition 41.Rg8# and 41.Qxh7#. Now 40...Bxf6 would block Black's rook, allowing 41.Qf8#, while 40...Rxf6 would block Black's bishop, allowing 41.Qg7#. After 40...Qxh6 which parries both thematical threats White has 41.Rg8#.
The Novotny theme was played in David Navara vs Anna Dergatschova-Daus, Ordix Open (2007), Mainz, 2007. If White could check on the a2–g8 diagonal, it would force mate quickly. But the R guards e6, and the B guards d5. So 36. Rc6!! intersects both lines: 36... Rxc6 37.Qd5+ Re6 38.Qxe6#, or 36... Bxc6 37.Qe6#; and if 36... Qxc6 then 37. e8=Q+ Qxe8 38. Qxe8#
Notes
External links
Selection of Novotny problems, mostly fairy
Game Collection: The Novotny Theme
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254713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agar%20plate | Agar plate | An agar plate is a Petri dish that contains a growth medium solidified with agar, used to culture microorganisms. Sometimes selective compounds are added to influence growth, such as antibiotics.
Individual microorganisms placed on the plate will grow into individual colonies, each a clone genetically identical to the individual ancestor organism (except for the low, unavoidable rate of mutation). Thus, the plate can be used either to estimate the concentration of organisms in a liquid culture or a suitable dilution of that culture using a colony counter, or to generate genetically pure cultures from a mixed culture of genetically different organisms.
Several methods are available to plate out cells. One technique is known as "streaking". In this technique, a drop of the culture on the end of a thin, sterile loop of wire, sometimes known as an inoculator, is streaked across the surface of the agar leaving organisms behind, a higher number at the beginning of the streak and a lower number at the end. At some point during a successful "streak", the number of organisms deposited will be such that distinct individual colonies will grow in that area which may be removed for further culturing, using another sterile loop.
Another way of plating organisms, next to streaking, on agar plates is the spot analysis. This type of analysis is often used to check the viability of cells and performed with pinners (often also called froggers). A third used technique is the use of sterile glass beads to plate out cells. In this technique cells are grown in a liquid culture of which a small volume is pipetted on the agar plate and then spread out with the beads. Replica plating is another technique in order to plate out cells on agar plates. These four techniques are the most common, but others are also possible. It is crucial to work in a sterile manner in order to prevent contamination on the agar plates. Plating is thus often done in a laminar flow cabinet or on the working bench next to a bunsen burner.
History
In 1881, Fanny Hesse, who was working as a technician for her husband Walther Hesse in the laboratory of Robert Koch, suggested agar as an effective setting agent, since it had been commonplace in jam making for some time.
Types
Like other growth media, the formulations of agar used in plates may be classified as either "defined" or "undefined"; a defined medium is synthesized from individual chemicals required by the organism so the exact molecular composition is known, whereas an undefined medium is made from natural products such as yeast extract, where the precise composition is unknown.
Agar plates may be formulated as either permissive, with the intent of allowing the growth of whatever organisms are present, or restrictive or selective, with the intent of only allowing growth a particular subset of those organisms. This may take the form of a nutritional requirement, for instance providing a particular compound such as lactose as the only source of carbon and thereby selecting only organisms which can metabolize that compound, or by including a particular antibiotic or other substance to select only organisms which are resistant to that substance. This correlates to some degree with defined and undefined media; undefined media, made from natural products and containing an unknown combination of very many organic molecules, is typically more permissive in terms of supplying the needs of a wider variety of organisms, while defined media can be precisely tailored to select organisms with specific properties.
Agar plates may also be indicator plates, in which the organisms are not selected on the basis of growth, but are instead distinguished by a color change in some colonies, typically caused by the action of an enzyme on some compound added to the medium.
The plates are incubated for 12 hours up to several days depending on the test that is performed.
Some commonly used agar plate types are:
Blood agar
Blood agar plate
Blood agar plates (BAPs) contain mammalian blood (usually sheep or horse), typically at a concentration of 5–10%. BAPs are enriched, differential media used to isolate fastidious organisms and detect hemolytic activity. β-Hemolytic activity will show lysis and complete digestion of red blood cell contents surrounding a colony. Examples include Streptococcus haemolyticus. α-Hemolysis will only cause partial lysis of the red blood cells (the cell membrane is left intact) and will appear green or brown, due to the conversion of hemoglobin to methemoglobin. An example of this would be Streptococcus viridans. γ-Hemolysis (or nonhemolytic) is the term referring to a lack of hemolytic activity. BAPs also contain meat extract, tryptone, sodium chloride, and agar.
Chocolate agar
Chocolate agar a type of blood agar plate in which the blood cells have been lysed by heating the cells to 80 °C. It is used for growing fastidious respiratory bacteria, such as Haemophilus influenzae. No chocolate is actually contained in the plate; it is named for the coloration only.
Horse blood agar
Horse blood agar is a type of blood-enriched microbiological culture media. As it is enriched, it allows the growth of certain fastidious bacteria, and allows indication of haemolytic activity in these bacterial cultures.
Thayer–Martin agar
Thayer–Martin agar is a chocolate agar designed to isolate Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose agar
Thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose agar enhances growth of Vibrio spp., including Vibrio cholerae.
General bacterial media
Bile esculin agar is used for the isolation of Enterococcus and group D Streptococcus species
CLED agar – cysteine, lactose, electrolyte-deficient agar is used to isolate and differentiate urinary tract bacteria, since it inhibits Proteus species swarming and can differentiate between lactose fermenters and nonfermenters.
Granada medium is used to isolate and differentiate group B Streptococcus, Streptococcus agalactiae from clinical samples. It grows in Granada medium as red colonies and most of accompanying bacteria are inhibited.
Hektoen enteric agar is designed to isolate and recover fecal bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is particularly useful in isolating Salmonella and Shigella.
Lysogeny broth
MacConkey agar is a selective and differential medium used to differentiate between Gram-negative bacteria while inhibiting the growth of Gram-positive bacteria. The addition of bile salts and crystal violet to the agar inhibits the growth of most Gram-positive bacteria, making MacConkey agar selective. Lactose and neutral red are added to differentiate the lactose fermenters, which form pink colonies, from lactose nonfermenters that form clear colonies. An alternative medium, eosin methylene blue serves a similar purpose.
Mannitol salt agar is also a selective and differential medium. The mannitol indicates organisms that ferment mannitol: mannitol fermentation produces lactic acid, lowering the pH and turning the plate yellow. The salt is to select for halophiles; organisms that cannot withstand a high salt content are unable to grow well.
Mueller–Hinton agar contains beef infusion, peptone, and starch, and is used primarily for antibiotic susceptibility testing. It can be in a form of blood agar.
Nutrient agar is usually used for growth of nonfastidious organisms and observation of pigment production. It is safe to use in school science laboratories because it does not selectively grow pathogenic bacteria.
Önöz agar allows more rapid bacteriological diagnosis, as Salmonella and Shigella colonies can be clearly and reliably differentiated from other Enterobacteriaceae. The yields of Salmonella from stool samples obtained, when using this medium, are higher than those obtained with LEIFSON agar or Salmonella–Shigella agar.
Phenylethyl alcohol agar selects for Staphylococcus species while inhibiting Gram-negative bacilli (e.g., Escherichia coli, Shigella, Proteus, etc.).
R2A agar, a nonspecific medium, imitates water, so is used for water analysis.
Tryptic (trypticase) soy agar (TSA) is a general-purpose medium produced by enzymatic digestion of soybean meal and casein. It is frequently the base medium of other agar types; for example, blood agar plates are made by enriching TSA plates with blood. TSA plates support growth of many semifastidious bacteria, including some species of Brucella, Corynebacterium, Listeria, Neisseria, and Vibrio.
Xylose-lysine-deoxycholate agar is used for the culture of stool samples and contains two indicators. It is formulated to inhibit Gram-positive bacteria, while the growth of Gram-negative bacilli is encouraged. The colonies of lactose fermenters appear yellow. It is also used to culture possible Salmonella that may be present in a food sample. Most Salmonella colonies produce a black centre on it.
Cetrimide agar is used for the selective isolation of the Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Tinsdale agar contains potassium tellurite, which can isolate Corynebacterium diphteriae.
Fungal media
Sabouraud agar is used to culture fungi and has a low pH that inhibits the growth of most bacteria; it also contains the antibiotic gentamicin to specifically inhibit the growth of Gram-negative bacteria.
Hay infusion agar is specific for the culturing of slime moulds (which are not fungi).
Potato dextrose agar is used to culture certain types of fungi.
Malt extract agar has a high content of peptone and is acidic. It is essentially used in the isolation of fungal microorganisms.
Moss media
Knop agar is used to axenically culture protonema and whole moss plants, such as those of Physcomitrella patens, a model organism.
Yeast media
YEPD media is often used as a general growth media for yeasts like Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans
Sporulation medium is medium used when spores have to be formed. It can also be used when working with fungi or bacteria depending on whether or not the strain is capable of forming spores.
Mega Plate
A 2' x 4' petri plate filled with 14L (liters) of seaweed derived agar medium created by Harvard scientists that was used to see how E. coli evolved to be resistant to antibiotics. The mega plate also helped study more unique concepts of microbiology such as parallel evolution, mutation selection, colonial interference etc.
See also
Microbial art
Viral plaque
Different specific types of agar:
Casein nutrient agar
MRS agar
New York City Agar
References
External links
Video of sheep blood agar preparation
Science Buddies – All About Agar
Video on aseptic plating methods
Video on how to use glass beads to plate out samples
Microbiological media
Laboratory equipment
Microbiology terms
Microbiology equipment | [
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254717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentamicin | Gentamicin | Gentamicin is an antibiotic used to treat several types of bacterial infections. This may include bone infections, endocarditis, pelvic inflammatory disease, meningitis, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and sepsis among others. It is not effective for gonorrhea or chlamydia infections. It can be given intravenously, by injection into a muscle, or topically. Topical formulations may be used in burns or for infections of the outside of the eye. It is often only used for two days until bacterial cultures determine what specific antibiotics the infection is sensitive to. The dose required should be monitored by blood testing.
Gentamicin can cause inner ear problems and kidney problems. The inner ear problems can include problems with balance and hearing loss. These problems may be permanent. If used during pregnancy, it can cause harm to the developing baby. However, it appears to be safe for use during breastfeeding. Gentamicin is a type of aminoglycoside. It works by disrupting the ability of the bacteria to make proteins, which typically kills the bacteria.
Gentamicin is naturally produced by the bacterium Micromonospora purpurea, was patented in 1962, approved for medical use in 1964. The antibiotic is collected from the culture of the Micromonospora by perforating the cell wall of the bacterium. Current research is underway to understand the biosynthesis of this antibiotic in an attempt to increase expression and force secretion of gentamicin for higher titer. Gentamicin is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies gentamicin as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication.
Medical uses
Gentamicin is active against a wide range of bacterial infections, mostly Gram-negative bacteria including Pseudomonas, Proteus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Serratia, and the Gram-positive Staphylococcus. Gentamicin is used in the treatment of respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, blood, bone and soft tissue infections of these susceptible bacteria.
There is insufficient evidence to support gentamicin as the first line treatment of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection. Gentamicin is not used for Neisseria meningitidis or Legionella pneumophila bacterial infections (because of the risk of the person going into shock from lipid A endotoxin found in certain Gram-negative organisms). Gentamicin is also useful against Yersinia pestis (responsible for plague), its relatives, and Francisella tularensis (the organism responsible for tularemia often seen in hunters and trappers).
Some Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas spp., Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus aureus and other Staphylococcus spp. have varying degrees of resistance to gentamicin.
Special populations
Pregnancy and breastfeeding
Gentamicin is not recommended in pregnancy unless the benefits outweigh the risks for the mother. Gentamicin can cross the placenta and several reports of irreversible bilateral congenital deafness in children have been seen. Intramuscular injection of gentamicin in mothers can cause muscle weakness in the newborn.
The safety and efficacy for gentamicin in nursing mothers has not been established. Detectable gentamicin levels are found in human breast milk and in nursing babies.
Elderly
In the elderly, renal function should be assessed before beginning therapy as well as during treatment due to a decline in glomerular filtration rate. Gentamicin levels in the body can remain higher for a longer period of time in this population. Gentamicin should be used cautiously in persons with renal, auditory, vestibular, or neuromuscular dysfunction.
Children
Gentamicin may not be appropriate to use in children, including babies. Studies have shown higher serum levels and a longer half-life in this population. Kidney function should be checked periodically during therapy. Long-term effects of treatment can include hearing loss and balance problems. Hypocalcemia, hypokalemia, and muscle weakness have been reported when used by injection.
Contraindications
Gentamicin should not be used if a person has a history of hypersensitivity, such as anaphylaxis, or other serious toxic reaction to gentamicin or any other aminoglycosides. Greater care is required in people with myasthenia gravis and other neuromuscular disorders as there is a risk of worsening weakness.
Adverse effects
Adverse effects of gentamicin can range from less severe reactions, such as nausea and vomiting, to more severe reactions including:
Low blood cell counts
Allergic reactions
Neuromuscular problems
Nerve damage (neuropathy)
Kidney damage (nephrotoxicity)
Ear disorders (ototoxicity)
Nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity are thought to be dose related with higher doses causing greater chance of toxicity. These two toxicities may have delayed presentation, sometimes not appearing until after completing treatment.
Kidney damage
Kidney damage is a problem in 10–25% of people who receive aminoglycosides, and gentamicin is one of the most nephrotoxic drugs of this class. Oftentimes, acute nephrotoxicity is reversible, but it may be fatal. The risk of nephrotoxicity can be affected by the dose, frequency, duration of therapy, and concurrent use of certain medications, such as NSAIDs, diuretics, cisplatin, ciclosporin, cephalosporins, amphotericin, iodide contrast media, and vancomycin.
Factors that increase risk of nephrotoxicity include:
Increased age
Reduced renal function
Pregnancy
Hypothyroidism
Hepatic dysfunction
Volume depletion
Metabolic acidosis
Sodium depletion
Kidney dysfunction is monitored by measuring creatinine in the blood, electrolyte levels, urine output, presence of protein in the urine, and concentrations of other chemicals, such as urea, in the blood.
Inner ear
About 11% of the population who receives aminoglycosides experience damage to their inner ear. The common symptoms of inner ear damage include tinnitus, hearing loss, vertigo, trouble with coordination, and dizziness. Chronic use of gentamicin can affect two areas of the ears. First, damage of the inner ear hair cells can result in irreversible hearing loss. Second, damage to the inner ear vestibular apparatus can lead to balance problems. To reduce the risk of ototoxicity during treatment, it is recommended to stay hydrated.
Factors that increase the risk of inner ear damage include:
Increased age
High blood uric acid levels
Kidney dysfunction
Liver dysfunction
Higher doses
Long courses of therapy
Also taking strong diuretics (e.g., furosemide)
Pharmacology
Mechanism of action
Gentamicin is a bactericidal antibiotic that works by binding the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, negatively impacting protein synthesis. The primary mechanism of action is generally accepted to work through ablating the ability of the ribosome to discriminate on proper transfer RNA and messenger RNA interactions. Typically, if an incorrect tRNA pairs with an mRNA codon at the aminoacyl site of the ribosome, adenosines 1492 and 1493 are excluded from the interaction and retract, signaling the ribosome to reject the aminoacylated tRNA::Elongation Factor Thermo-Unstable complex. However, when gentamicin binds at helix 44 of the 16S rRNA, it forces the adenosines to maintain the position they take when there is a correct, or cognate, match between aa-tRNA and mRNA. This leads to the acceptance of incorrect aa-tRNAs, causing the ribosome to synthesize proteins with wrong amino acids placed throughout (roughly every 1 in 500). The non-functional, mistranslated proteins misfold and aggregate, eventually leading to death of the bacterium. A secondary mechanism has been proposed based on crystal structures of gentamicin in a secondary binding site at helix 69 of the 23S rRNA, which interacts with helix 44 and proteins that recognize stop codons. At this secondary site, gentamicin is believed to preclude interactions of the ribosome with ribosome recycling factors, causing the two subunits of the ribosome to stay complexed even after translation completes. This creates a pool of inactive ribosomes that can no longer re-initiate and translate new proteins.
Chemistry
Structure
Since gentamicin is derived from the species Micromonospora, the backbone for this antibiotic is the aminocyclitol 2-deoxystreptamine. This six carbon ring is substituted at the carbon positions 4 and 6 by the amino sugar molecules cyclic purpurosamine and garosamine, respectively. The gentamicin complex, is differentiated into five major components (C1, C1a, C2, C2a, C2b) and multiple minor components by substitution at the 6' carbon of the purpurosamine unit indicated in the image to the right by R1 and R2. The R1 and R2 can have the follow substitutions for some of the species in the gentamicin complex.
Components
Gentamicin is composed of a number of related gentamicin components and fractions which have varying degrees of antimicrobial potency. The main components of gentamicin include members of the gentamicin C complex: gentamicin C1, gentamicin C1a, and gentamicin C2 which compose approximately 80% of gentamicin and have been found to have the highest antibacterial activity. Gentamicin A, B, X, and a few others make up the remaining 20% of gentamicin and have lower antibiotic activity than the gentamicin C complex. The exact composition of a given sample or lot of gentamicin is not well defined, and the level of gentamicin C components or other components in gentamicin may differ from lot-to-lot depending on the gentamicin manufacturer or manufacturing process. Because of this lot-to-lot variability, it can be difficult to study various properties of gentamicin including pharmacokinetics and microorganism susceptibility if there is an unknown combination of chemically related but different compounds.
Biosynthesis
The complete biosynthesis of gentamicin is not entirely elucidated. The genes controlling the biosynthesis of gentamicin are of particular interest due to the difficulty in obtaining the antibiotic after production. Since gentamicin is collected at the cell surface and the cell surface must be perforated some how to obtain the antibiotic. Many propose the amount of gentamicin collected after production could increase if the genes are identified and re-directed to secrete the antibiotic instead of collecting gentamicin at the cell surface. Literature also agrees with the gentamicin biosynthesis pathway starting with D-Glucose-6-phosphate being dephopsphorylated, transaminated, dehydrogenated and finally glycosylated with D-glucosamine to generate paromamine inside Micromonospora echinospora. The addition of D-xylose leads to the first intermediate of the gentamicin C complex pathway, gentamicin A2. Gentamicin A2 is C-methylated and epimerized into gentamicin X2, the first branch point of this biosynthesis pathway
When X2 is acted on by the cobalamin-dependent radical S-adenosyl-L-methionine enzyme GenK, the carbon position 6' is methylated to form the pharmacologically active intermediate G418 G418 then undergoes dehydrogenation and amination at the C6' position by the dehydrogenase gene, GenQ, to generate the pharmacologically active JI-20B, although another intermediate, 6'-dehydro-6'oxo-G418 (6'DOG) is proposed to be in-between this step and for which the gene GenB1 is proposed as the aminating gene. JI-20B is dehydroxylated and epimerized to first component of the gentamicin C complex, gentamicin C2a which then undergoes an epimerization by GenB2 and then a N-methylation by an unconfirmed gene to form the final product in this branch point, gentamicin C1.
When X2 bypasses GenK and is directly dehydrogenated and aminated by the GenQ enzyme, the other pharmacologically relevant intermediate JI-20A is formed. Although, there has been identification of an intermediate for this step, 6'-dehydro-6'-oxo-gentamicin X2 (6'-DOX), for which the enzyme GenB1 is purposed as the aminating enzyme. JI-20A is then dehydroxylated into the first component of the gentamicin C complex for this branch, gentamicin C1a via a catalytic reaction with GenB4. C1a then undergoes an N-methylation by an unconfirmed enzyme to form the final component, gentamicin C2b.
Fermentation
Gentamicin is only synthesized via submerged fermentation and inorganic sources of nutrients have been found to reduce production. Traditional fermentation used yeast beef broth, but there has been research into optimizing the growth medium for producing gentamicin C complex due to the C complex currently being the only pharmaceutically relevant component. The main components of the growth medium are carbon sources, mainly sugars, but several studies found increased gentamicin production by adding vegetable and fish oils and decreased gentamicin production with the addition of Glucose, Xylose and several carboxylic acids. Tryptone and various forms of yeast and yeast derivatives are traditionally used as the nitrogen source in the growth medium, but several amino acids, soybean meal, Corn steep liquor, ammonium sulfate, and ammonium chloride have proven to be beneficial additives. Phosphate ions, metal ions (cobalt and a few others at low concentration), various vitamins (mostly B vitamins), purine and pyrimidine bases are also supplemented into the growth medium to increase gentamicin production, but the margin of increase is dependent on the species of Micromonospora and the other components in the growth medium. With all of these aforementioned additives, pH and aeration are key determining factors for the amount of gentamicin produced. A range of pH from 6.8 to 7.5 is used for gentamicin biosynthesis and the aeration is determined by independent experimentation reliant on type of growth medium and species of Micromonospora.
History
Gentamicin is produced by the fermentation of Micromonospora purpurea. It was discovered in 1963 by Weinstein, Wagman et al. at Schering Corporation in Bloomfield, N.J. while working with source material (soil samples) provided by Rico Woyciesjes. Subsequently, it was purified and the structures of its three components were determined by Cooper, et al., also at the Schering Corporation. It was initially used as a topical treatment for burns at burn units in Atlanta and San Antonio and was introduced into IV usage in 1971. It remains a mainstay for use in sepsis.
It is synthesized by Micromonospora, a genus of Gram-positive bacteria widely present in the environment (water and soil). According to the American Medical Association Committee on Generic Names, antibiotics not produced by Streptomyces should not use y in the ending of the name, and to highlight their specific biological origins, gentamicin and other related antibiotics produced by this genus (verdamicin, mutamicin, sisomicin, netilmicin, and retymicin) have their spellings ending in ~micin and not in ~mycin.
Research
Gentamicin is also used in molecular biology research as an antibacterial agent in tissue and cell culture, to prevent contamination of sterile cultures. Gentamicin is one of the few heat-stable antibiotics that remain active even after autoclaving, which makes it particularly useful in the preparation of some microbiological growth media.
References
Further reading
External links
Aminoglycoside antibiotics
Nephrotoxins
Otologicals
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Toxicology
World Health Organization essential medicines | [
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254718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff%20Shaara | Jeff Shaara | Jeffrey M. "Jeff" Shaara (born February 21, 1952) is an American novelist, the son of Pulitzer Prize winner Michael Shaara.
Biography
Jeffrey Shaara was born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, and grew up in Tallahassee, Florida. He graduated from Florida State University in 1974 with a degree in Criminology and lives in Gettysburg.
He wrote Gods and Generals and The Last Full Measure, which are the prequel and sequel, respectively, to his father Michael's award-winning novel The Killer Angels. Jeff followed his father's footsteps upon the latter's death, writing historical fiction and documenting the American wars and their most historically relevant characters. In total, Jeff has written fifteen New York Times bestselling novels.
Jeff delivered the commencement speech at University of Delaware's 2005 undergraduate ceremony. Jeff has deemed this "one of the most important moments in his life."
He completed a trilogy in 2010 about World War II in the European and North African theaters. A fourth World War II novel, titled The Final Storm, covers the end of the war in the Pacific, and was released on May 17, 2011.
Awards
Shaara has received the W.Y. Boyd Literary Award for Excellence in Military Fiction from the American Library Association in 2018 for The Frozen Hours, in 2005 for To The Last Man: A Novel of The First World War, and in 1997 for Gods and Generals. The American Library Association's Reference and Users Services Association recognized The Steel Wave as a 2009 Notable Book.
He has also been awarded the Lincoln Forum's "Richard Nelson Current Award", New York Civil War Round Table's "Bell I. Wiley Award", and Florida State University's "Artes Award" as a Distinguished Alumnus. In 2011, Shaara was inducted into the FSU College of Criminology Hall of Fame and awarded FSU's first annual Distinguished Writer's Award.
Film adaptations
In 2003, Warner Brothers made the major motion picture Gods and Generals, which was based upon his book of the same title.
Works
Jeff Shaara's Civil War Battlefields: Discovering America's Hallowed Ground (2006)
Novels
Gods and Generals (1996)—Civil War (1858–1863)
The Last Full Measure (1998)—Civil War (1861–1865)
Gone for Soldiers (2000)—US-Mexican War (1847–1848)
Rise to Rebellion (2001)—Pre-American Revolutionary War (1770–1776)
The Glorious Cause (2002)—American Revolutionary War (1776–1783)
To the Last Man (2004)—World War I (1914–1918)
The Rising Tide (2006)—World War II (1939–1945), Trilogy Part 1 of 3
The Steel Wave (2008)—World War II (1939–1945), Trilogy Part 2 of 3
No Less Than Victory (2009)—World War II (1939–1945), Trilogy Part 3 of 3
The Final Storm (2011)—World War II (1939–1945), Pacific Theater
A Blaze of Glory (2012)—Civil War (1861-1865), Western Theater, Tetralogy Part 1 of 4
A Chain of Thunder (2013)—Civil War (1861-1865), Western Theater, Tetralogy Part 2 of 4
The Smoke at Dawn (2014)—Civil War (1861-1865), Western Theater, Tetralogy Part 3 of 4
The Fateful Lightning (2015)—Civil War (1861-1865), Western Theater, Tetralogy Part 4 of 4
The Frozen Hours (2017)—Korean War (1950-1953)
To Wake The Giant (2020)—Pearl Harbor, World War II (1939–1945)
The Eagle's Claw (2021) - Battle of Midway, World War II (1939–1945)
References
"Interview with Jeff Shaara", by Gene Santoro, HistoryNet.com, September 2009.
"Meet Jeff Shaara" official web site
"Author Jeff Shaara" 3 interviews at BookReporter.com: May 16, 2008; November 10, 2006; October 2004.
"Interview with Best-Selling Author Jeff Shaara", by Greg Caggiano, January 24, 2011.
External links
Author's website
Interview on The Rising Tide at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library on November 30, 2006
Video or audio interview by Karen Saupe on Inner Compass
Video interview on The Steel Wave
Interview on his father and No Less Than Victory at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library on February 4, 2010
In Depth interview with Shaara, September 7, 2003
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American historical novelists
American male novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in the modern age
Novelists from Florida
Florida State University alumni
1952 births
Living people
American writers of Italian descent
Writers from New Brunswick, New Jersey
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from New Jersey
Leon High School alumni | [
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254724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ertapenem | Ertapenem | Ertapenem (trade name Invanz) is a carbapenem antibiotic medication for the treatment of infections of the abdomen, the lungs, the upper part of the female reproductive system, and diabetic foot, used in the form of infusions or injections.
The most common side effects include diarrhoea, nausea (feeling sick), headache, and problems around the area where the medicine is infused. It can significantly reduce the concentrations of valproic acid, an anti-seizure medication, in the blood to the point where it loses its effectiveness.
The drug has been available in the US since 2001 and in Europe since 2002. It is marketed by Merck.
Medical uses
Ertapenem is indicated for the treatment of intra-abdominal infections, community-acquired pneumonia, pelvic infections, and diabetic foot infections, with bacteria that are susceptible to this drug, or expected to be so. It can also be used to prevent infections after colorectal surgery. In the United States it is also indicated for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections including pyelonephritis.
It is given as an intravenous infusion or intramuscular injection. The drug is not approved for children under three months of age.
Contraindications
The drug is contraindicated in people with known hypersensitivity to ertapenem or other carbapenem type antibiotics, or with severe hypersensitivity reactions (such as anaphylaxis or severe skin reactions) to other beta-lactam antibiotics in the past.
Side effects
Common side effects are diarrhoea (in 5% of people receiving ertapenem), nausea (in 3%) and vomiting, reactions at the injection site (5%, including pain and inflammation of the vein), and headache. Uncommon but possibly serious side effects include candida infections, seizures, skin reactions such as rashes (including nappy rash in children), and anaphylaxis. Hypersensitivity cross-reactions with penicillins are rare.
Ertapenem also can have an effect on some blood tests such as liver enzymes and platelet count.
Overdose
Overdosing is unlikely. In adults receiving the threefold therapeutic dose over eight days, no significant toxicity was observed.
Interactions
Ertapenem can reduce the concentrations of valproic acid, an epilepsy medication, by 70% and perhaps up to 95% within 24 hours; this can result in inadequate control of seizures. The effect is described for other carbapenem antibiotics as well, but seems to be most pronounced for ertapenem and meropenem. This is likely caused by several mechanisms: carbapenems inhibit transport of valproic acid from the gut into the body; they may increase metabolization of valproic acid to its glucuronide; they may reduce enterohepatic circulation and recycling of valproic acid glucuronide by acting against gut bacteria; and they may block transporter proteins that pump valproic acid out of red blood cells into the blood plasma. The effect is also seen in reverse: in cases where ertapenem has been withdrawn blood concentrations of valproate have been reported to rise.
Drug interactions via the cytochrome P450 enzyme system or the P-glycoprotein transporter are considered unlikely, as these proteins are not involved in the metabolism of ertapenem.
Pharmacology
Mechanism of action
Like all beta-lactam antibiotics, ertapenem is bactericidal. It inhibits cross-linking of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls by blocking a type of enzymes called penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). When a bacterial cell tries to synthesize new cell wall in order to grow and divide, the attempt fails, rendering the cell vulnerable to osmotic disruption. Additionally, the surplus of peptidoglycan precursors triggers autolytic enzymes of the bacterium, which disintegrate the existing wall.
Susceptible bacteria
Bacteria that are normally susceptible to ertapenem treatment (at least in Europe) include:
Gram-positive aerobes
Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus species (including Staphylococcus aureus)
Streptococcus agalactiae
Streptococcus pneumoniae (not established for penicillin-resistant strains)
Gram-negative aerobes
Escherichia coli
Haemophilus influenzae
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Moraxella catarrhalis
Proteus mirabilis
Anaerobes:
Clostridium species (excluding C. difficile)
Eubacterium species
Fusobacterium species
Peptostreptococcus species
Porphyromonas asaccharolytica
Prevotella species
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) label specifies activity against additional anaerobes:
Bacteroides distasonis
Bacteroides fragilis
Bacteroides ovatus
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron
Bacteroides uniformis
Resistance
Bacteria that show no clinically relevant response to ertapenem include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus species (including MRSA) as well as Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Enterococcus, and Pseudomonas.
Microorganisms can become resistant to ertapenem by producing carbapenemases, enzymes that inactivate the drug by opening the beta-lactam ring. Other mechanisms of resistance against carbapenems are development of efflux pumps that transport the antibiotics out of the bacterial cells, mutations of PBPs, and mutations of Gram-negative bacteria's porins which are necessary for carbapenems to enter the bacteria.
Pharmacokinetics
The route of administration has only a slight effect on the drug's concentrations in the bloodstream: when given as an intramuscular injection, its bioavailability is 90% (as compared to the 100% availability when given directly into a vein), and its highest concentrations in the blood plasma are reached after about 2.3 hours. In the blood, 85–95% of ertapenem are bound to plasma proteins, mostly albumin. Plasma protein binding is higher for lower concentrations, and vice versa. The drug is only partially metabolized, with 94% circulating in form of the parent substance and 6% as metabolites. The main metabolite is the inactive hydrolysis product with the ring opened.
Ertapenem is mainly eliminated via the kidneys and urine (80%) and to a minor extent via the faeces (10%). Of the 80% found in the urine, 38% is excreted as the parent drug and 37% as the ring-opened metabolite. The biological half-life is about 3.5 hours in women, 4.2 hours in men and 2.5 hours in children up to 12 years of age.
Comparison with other antibiotics
Like all carbapenem antibiotics, ertapenem has a broader spectrum of activity than other beta-lactams like penicillins and cephalosporins. Similar to doripenem, meropenem and biapenem, ertapenem has slightly better activity against many Gram-negative bacteria than other carbapenems such as imipenem. In contrast to imipenem, doripenem and meropenem, it is not active against Enterococcus, Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter species.
For diabetic foot infections, ertapenem as a single treatment or in combination with vancomycin has been found to be more effective and have fewer side effects than tigecycline, but in severe cases it is less effective than piperacillin/tazobactam.
Regarding pharmacokinetics, imipenem, doripenem and meropenem have lower plasma protein bindings (up to 25%) and shorter half-lives (about one hour) than ertapenem.
History
The drug is marketed by Merck. It was approved for use by the US Food and Drug Administration on 21 November 2001 and by the European Medicines Agency on 18 April 2002.
References
External links
Carbapenem antibiotics
Benzoic acids
Anilides
Merck & Co. brands
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254727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Scavenger | Operation Scavenger | During World War II, Operation Scavenger was the aerial bombardment of Iwo Jima and the Bonin Islands on 4–5 August 1944, as part of the preparation for the invasion and other fighting around the Marianas Islands.
References
Carter, Worrall Reed. Beans, Bullets, and Black Oil - The Story Of Fleet Logistics Afloat In The Pacific During World War, Washington DC : Department of the Navy, 1953, p. 168.
Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II
Airstrikes
Naval battles of World War II involving the United States
Naval aviation operations and battles | [
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254728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination%20%28chess%29 | Combination (chess) | In chess, a combination is a sequence of moves, often initiated by a sacrifice, which leaves the opponent few options and results in tangible gain. At most points in a chess game, each player has several reasonable options from which to choose, which makes it difficult to plan ahead except in strategic terms. Combinations, in contrast to the norm, are sufficiently forcing that one can calculate exactly how advantage will be achieved against any defense. Indeed, it is usually necessary to see several moves ahead in exact detail before launching a combination, or else the initial sacrifice should not be undertaken.
Definition
In 1952/53, the editors of Shakhmaty v SSSR decided on this definition: A combination is a forced sequence of moves which uses tactical means and exploits specific peculiarities of the position to achieve a certain goal.
Irving Chernev wrote:What is a combination? A combination is a blend of ideas – pins, forks, discovered checks, double attacks – which endow the pieces with magical power. It is a series of staggering blows before the knockout. It is the climactic scene in the play appearing on the board. It is the touch of enchantment that gives life to inanimate pieces. It is all this and more – A combination is the heart of chess .
Example
A combination is usually built out of two or more fundamental chess tactics such as forks, pins, skewers, undermining, discovered attacks, etc. Thus a combination is usually at least three moves long, but the longer it takes to recoup the initial sacrifice, the more impressive the combination. The position below from G. Stepanov–Peter Romanovsky, Leningrad 1926, begins a combination which illustrates several forks and skewers.
Black has just played 1... Rxf3+. Retreating with 2.Ke2 would allow 2...Nd4+, a attacking both White's king and queen and winning the queen. Similarly, 2.Kd2 would allow 2...Rf2+ (skewering the white king and queen) 3.Be2 Rxe2+! 4.Kxe2 Nd4+, again winning the queen. White accordingly chose 2. Ke4, but after 2... d5+! resigned. White still could not take the black rook without losing his queen, but the alternative 3.cxd5 exd5+ 4.Kxd5 Be6+ would leave White with no good defense. Taking the bishop with 5.Kxe6 allows the long-threatened fork 5...Nd4+, while taking the knight with 5.Kxc6 allows the skewer 5...Rc8+ followed by 6...Rxc2. Retreating with 5.Ke4 permits the black bishop to skewer the white king and queen with 5...Bf5+, so White has only one option left: 5.Kd6.
After 5.Kd6, Black would have played 5...Rd8+. White couldn't take the bishop or the knight for exactly the same reasons as before (after 6.Kxe6 Nd4+ 7.Ke7, Black comes out a rook ahead with 7...Nxc2 8.Kxd8 Nxa1), which leaves one legal move, namely 6.Kc7, but then 6...Rf7+ absolutely forces the white king to take the black knight, allowing the skewer 7...Rc8+ followed by 8...Rxc2.
See also
Chess tactics
Glossary of chess
Zwischenzug
References
Bibliography
“What is a Chess Combination?” by Edward Winter
Chess terminology
Chess tactics | [
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] |
254729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxton | Foxton | Foxton is the name of several places in the world:
New Zealand
Foxton, New Zealand, in the North Island
Foxton (New Zealand electorate), a former parliamentary electorate, 1881–1890
Foxton Beach, North Island
United Kingdom
Foxton, Cambridgeshire, England
Foxton, County Durham, England
Foxton, Leicestershire, England
Foxton, North Yorkshire, England
Foxton Locks, on the Grand Union Canal, in Leicestershire, England
United States
Foxton, Colorado
See also
Foxtons, estate agent based in London | [
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254731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin%20II%20of%20Jerusalem | Baldwin II of Jerusalem | Baldwin II, also known as Baldwin of Bourcq or Bourg (; c. 1075 – 21August 1131), was Count of Edessa from 1100 to 1118, and King of Jerusalem from 1118 until his death. He accompanied his cousins Godfrey of Bouillon and Baldwin of Boulogne to the Holy Land during the First Crusade. He succeeded Baldwin of Boulogne as the second count of Edessa when he left the county for Jerusalem following his brother's death. He was captured at the Battle of Harran in 1104. He was held first by Sökmen of Mardin, then by Jikirmish of Mosul, and finally by Jawali Saqawa. During his captivity, Tancred, the Crusader ruler of the Principality of Antioch, and Tancred's cousin, Richard of Salerno, governed Edessa as Baldwin's regents.
Baldwin was ransomed by his cousin, Joscelin of Courtenay, lord of Turbessel, in the summer of 1108. Tancred attempted to retain Edessa, but Bernard of Valence, the Latin patriarch of Antioch, persuaded him to restore the county to Baldwin. Baldwin allied with Jawali, but Tancred and his ally, Radwan of Aleppo, defeated them at Turbessel. Baldwin and Tancred were reconciled at an assembly of the crusader leaders near Tripoli in April 1109. Mawdud, the Atabeg of Mosul, and his successor, Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi, launched a series of campaigns against Edessa in the early 1110s, devastating the eastern regions of the country. Baldwin accused Joscelin of treason for seizing the prosperous town of Turbessel from him in 1113 and captured the neighboring Armenian lordships in 1116 and 1117.
Baldwin of Boulogne, the first king of Jerusalem, died on 2April 1118. He bequeathed Jerusalem to his brother Count Eustace III of Boulogne, stipulating that the throne was to be offered to Baldwin if Eustace failed to come to the Holy Land. Arnulf of Chocques, the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, and Joscelin of Courtenay, who held the largest fief in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, convinced their peers to elect Baldwin king. Baldwin took possession of most towns in the kingdom and gave Edessa to Joscelin. After the army of the Principality of Antioch was almost annihilated on 28 June 1119, Baldwin was elected regent for the absent Prince Bohemond II of Antioch. The frequent Seljuq invasions of Antioch forced him to spend most of his time in the principality, which caused discontent in Jerusalem. After Nur al-Daulak Balak captured him in April 1123, a group of noblemen offered the throne to Count Charles I of Flanders, but Charles refused. During his absence, the Jerusalemite troops captured Tyre with the assistance of a Venetian fleet. After he was released in August 1124, he tried to capture Aleppo, but al-Bursuqi forced him to abandon the siege in early 1125.
Bohemond II came to Syria in October 1126. Baldwin gave his second daughter, Alice, in marriage to him and also renounced the regency. Baldwin planned to conquer Damascus, but he needed external support to achieve his goal. He married off his eldest daughter, Melisende, to the wealthy Count Fulk V of Anjou in 1129. The new troops who accompanied Fulk to Jerusalem enabled Baldwin to invade Damascene territory, but he could seize only Banias with the support of the Nizari (or Assassins) in late 1129. After Bohemond II was killed in a battle in early 1130, Baldwin forced Alice to leave Antioch and assumed the regency for her daughter, Constance. He fell seriously ill in Antioch and took monastic vows before he died in the Holy Sepulchre. Baldwin had been respected for his military talent, but he was notorious for his "love for money".
Early life
His birth year is unknown. It is only known that his father, Count Hugh I of Rethel, was born in the 1040s and Baldwin was already an adult by the 1090s. He was the lord of Bourcq when he joined the army of his kinsman Godfrey of Bouillon at the beginning of the First Crusade. The army departed for the Holy Land on 15August 1096, and reached Constantinople on 23 December. The Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, urged the crusader leaders to take an oath of fealty to him. Godfrey of Bouillon appointed Baldwin, Conon of Montaigu and Geoffrey of Esch to represent him at a meeting with Alexios in January 1097. After Godfrey and his principal commanders swore fealty to the Emperor, the crusader army was shipped to Asia Minor in February.
Baldwin's cousin Baldwin of Boulogne and Tancred of Hauteville broke away from the main army to invade Cilicia around 15September 1097. Baldwin accompanied them in Boulogne's contingent. He also participated in Boulogne's military campaigns against the Seljuq rulers of the fortresses on the plains near the River Euphrates. After seizing Ravendel, Turbessel and Edessa, Boulogne established the first crusader state, the County of Edessa, in early 1098.
Baldwin rejoined the main crusader army, which was marching towards Jerusalem, near Tyre in late May 1099. He and Tancred seized Bethlehem; there was no resistance as the town was inhabited by local Christians. The crusaders laid siege to Jerusalem, and shortly afterwards Baldwin and Tancred captured an elderly Muslim nobleman. After he refused to convert to Christianity, Baldwin's soldiers beheaded him at the Tower of David to frighten the defenders of Jerusalem. Jerusalem fell to the crusaders on 15July. Baldwin left Jerusalem in the retinue of Count Robert II of Flanders in late August. Robert returned to Europe, but Baldwin remained in Syria. Geoffrey of Bouillon died on 18July 1100. Baldwin of Boulogne decided to return to Jerusalem to take possession of Geoffrey's inheritance.
Count of Edessa
First years
Baldwin was staying in Antioch when Baldwin of Boulogne decided to leave Edessa. He was a military commander of the troops of Bohemond I of Antioch who had recently been captured by Danishmend Gazi. Baldwin of Boulogne summoned Baldwin from Antioch and granted him the County of Edessa. Baldwin swore fealty to Baldwin of Boulogne, who left Edessa for Jerusalem on 2October 1100.
Baldwin married Morphia, the daughter of Gabriel, the Armenian lord of Melitene, which enabled him to consolidate his position among his mainly Armenian subjects. Sökmen, the Artuqid ruler of Mardin, attacked Saruj in early 1101. Baldwin attempted to relieve the town, but Sökmen routed his army, forcing him to return to Edessa. When relating these events, the Armenian historian, Matthew of Edessa, described Baldwin as a coward who was "pitiful in body". Sökmen captured the town, but the fortress resisted his siege. Baldwin went to Antioch to raise new troops before returning to Saruj. He forced Sökmen to leave the town and executed all the townspeople who had cooperated with the Artuqids.
One of his cousins, Joscelin of Courtenay, came to Edessa in 1102. Baldwin granted him lands to the west of the Euphrates. When the Egyptians invaded the Kingdom of Jerusalem in May, Baldwin of Boulognewho had been crowned king of Jerusalemsent envoys to Tancred (who ruled Antioch) and Baldwin, seeking their assistance. They assembled their troops and marched to Jerusalem together, but by the time they arrived in late September, the Egyptians had returned to their headquarters at Ascalon. The three crusader rulers made a raid against Ascalon, but Tancred and Baldwin soon returned to their realms.
Tancred's ambitions in northern Syria irritated both Baldwin and Bernard of Valence, the Latin Patriarch of Antioch. They started negotiations with Danishmend Gazi regarding Bohemond's release. Kogh Vasil, the Armenian lord of Raban and Kaisun, and Bohemond's Italian kinsmen contributed to his ransom. Bohemond was set free in May 1103. Baldwin granted villages to the Armenian prelate, Barsegh Pahlavuni, because he wanted to strengthen his position among his Armenian subjects.
First captivity
Baldwin's troops made frequent raids against the fertile plains around Harran. Sökmen and Jikirmish, the atabeg of Mosul, made an alliance and invaded Edessa in May 1104. While their troops were assembling at Ras al-Ayn, Baldwin sent envoys to Joscelin and Bohemond and persuaded them to make a joint attack against Harran. Baldwin, Bohemond and Joscelin went together to Harran and entered into negotiations with the Seljuq garrison for a peaceful surrender. However, both Baldwin and Bohemond wanted to seize the wealthy town and the crusader army started disintegrating because of their conflict.
Sökmen and Jikirmish attacked the crusaders' camp at Harran on 7May. Applying the tactic of feigned retreat, they drew the crusaders into an ambush, capturing Baldwin and Joscelin. Bohemond and Tancred rode to Edessa to save the town. Benedict, Archbishop of Edessa, who was also captured but quickly released, and the Edessene knights elected Tancred regent for the captive Baldwin. Baldwin was first taken to Sökman's tent, but Jikirmish's soldiers broke into it and dragged him away. Joscelin remained in the custody of Sökmen, passing to Ilghazi upon the latter's death. The citizens of Turbessel paid a ransom for Joscelin in 1107.
Jikirmish laid siege to Edessa, but Tancred routed his troops, forcing him to flee. Jikirmish then took Baldwin to Mosul. Tancred captured a Seljuq princess of Jikirmish's household at Edessa. Jikirmish offered to pay 15,000 bezants in ransom, or to release Baldwin in return for her liberty. Bohemond and Tancred preferred the money and Baldwin remained imprisoned. Before his departure for Europe in the autumn, Bohemond appointed Tancred to rule Antioch and their kinsman, Richard of Salerno, was entrusted with the administration of Edessa.
A Turkish soldier of fortune, Jawali Saqawa, captured Jikirmish and seized Mosul in 1107. Joscelin started negotiations with Jawali over the release of Baldwin. Jawali demanded 60,000 dinars and the release of the Muslim prisoners from Edessa. The Seljuq Sultan, Muhammad I Tapar, made the Mamluk Mawdud atabeg of Mosul. When Mawdud expelled Jawali from Mosul, Jawali fled to the fortress of Qalat Jabar, taking Baldwin with him. Joscelin paid 30,000 dinars to Jawali and offered himself as hostage to guarantee the payment of the balance. Jawali, who needed allies against Mawdud, accepted the offer and released Baldwin in the summer of 1108.
Conflicts
Baldwin went to Edessa after his release, but Tancred demanded his oath of fealty in exchange for the town. Baldwin refused and went to Turbessel. After Tancred carried out a raid against Turbessel, they started peace negotiations, but could not reach a compromise. Baldwin made an alliance with Kogh Vasil against Tancred. Oshin of Lampron also sent troops300 Pecheneg horsemento join them. Their raids against the Principality of Antioch persuaded Tancred to accept the arbitration of the Catholic prelates, who decided in favor of Baldwin; he returned to Edessa on 18September 1108.
In accordance with his treaty with Jawali, Baldwin released most of the Muslim prisoners held in Edessa. He also allowed the Muslim burghers of Saruj to build a mosque, and executed the unpopular rais (or governor) of the town, who was a convert from Islam. Jawali's alliance with Baldwin alarmed Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan, the Seljuq ruler of Aleppo, which brought about a rapprochement between Radwan and Tancred. When Jawali launched a military expedition against Aleppo, Baldwin and Joscelin of Courtney joined him, while Tancred came to assist Radwan. Radwan and Tancred routed Jawali, Baldwin and Joscelin near Turbessel in late September 1108.
Baldwin fled the battlefield to a nearby fortress. Tancred laid siege to it, but lifted the siege when he learnt of Jawali's approach. Believing that Baldwin had died, the Armenian burghers of Edessa held an assembly to set up a provisional government. After his return, Baldwin thought that the Armenians wanted to dethrone him and ordered the blinding of the ringleaders. The Armenian bishop of the town was obliged to pay a huge fine. To put an end to the conflicts between the crusader leaders, Baldwin I of Jerusalem summoned them in the name of the "Church of Jerusalem" to Mount Pilgrim near Tripoli in April 1109. At the meeting, the king mediated a reconciliation between Baldwin and Tancred, who acknowledged Baldwin's rule in the County of Edessa in exchange for receiving Galilee and other fiefs in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Thereafter Baldwin participated in the siege of Tripoli, which ended with the capture of the town by the crusaders.
Mawdud's campaigns
The Seljuq sultan instructed Mawdud to unite his troops with the Seljuq ruler of Armenia, Sökmen el-Kutbî, and the Artuqid Ilghazi against the crusaders. They laid siege to Edessa in April 1110. Baldwin sent envoys to Baldwin I of Jerusalem, who was besieging Beirut, urging him to come to his rescue, but the king did not abandon the siege until Beirut fell on 13May. Before departing for Edessa, Baldwin I celebrated Pentecost in Jerusalem. The King persuaded Bertrand of Tripoli, Joscelin of Courtenay and other crusader leaders to join his campaign, and the Armenian Kogh Vasil and Abu'l-Garib also sent contingents. On their arrival, Mawdud and his allies lifted the siege of Edessa and withdrew towards Harran.
Baldwin and Tancred accused each other of having incited the invasion. Tancred also claimed sovereignty over the County of Edessa, saying that its territory had been subject to Antioch under the Byzantine Empire. Baldwin I refuted Tancred's claim, declaring himself the head of the Latin East. After a short campaign against the neighboring Muslim territories, the rulers of the other crusader states decided to leave the county. On the King's advice, Baldwin ordered the transfer of the local Christian (predominantly Armenian) peasants to the lands to the west of the Euphrates. Taking advantage of the gathering of the Christian peasants by the river and their mainly Armenian escort, Mawdud attacked and massacred them. Baldwin, who had already crossed the river along with the other crusader leaders, hastily returned and assaulted Mawdud's troops, although they outnumbered his small retinue. Baldwin and his men were only saved by Baldwin I and Tancred, who had followed on the other bank of the river.
In July 1111 Mawdud launched a new invasion against the county and laid siege to Turbessel. While Mawdud was besieging Turbessel, Sultan, the Munquidite emir (or ruler) of Shaizar, sent envoys to him, seeking his assistance against Tancred. Mawdud lifted the siege of Turbessel and moved to help Shaizar. Toghtekin, the atabeg of Damascus, joined him and they decided to reconquer Tripoli in September. The concentration of Muslim forces alarmed the crusaders and Baldwin I of Jerusalem summoned all crusader rulers to his camp. Baldwin complied, accompanied by his two powerful vassals, Joscelin and Pagan of Sajar. The smaller Muslim rulers had meanwhile left Mawdud's camp and returned to Mesopotamia. Mawdud did not risk a pitched battle with the united crusader armies and retired first to Shaizar, and later to Mosul. In April 1112, Mawdud returned and besieged Edessa. His agents started secret negotiations with some Armenian soldiers in the town, but Joscelin, who was informed of the plot, warned Baldwin. Mawdud could not capture the town and withdrew to Mosul in June. Next year, he was murdered by Assassins at Damascus.
Mawdud's invasions devastated the eastern regions of the county, but Joscelin's fief at Turbessel still flourished. In 1113 Baldwin persuaded Joscelin to come to Edessa, saying that he was dying and wanted to make his last will. Stating that Joscelin had not sent enough food to Edessa, Baldwin had him imprisoned and only released him after Joscelin renounced Turbessel. Joscelin soon left the county for Jerusalem, where Baldwin I granted Galilee to him. A new reconciliation between the crusader leaders was brought about by marriage alliances: Baldwin's sister, Cecilia, was given in marriage to Roger of Salerno, who had succeeded Tancred in Antioch in late 1112; and Joscelin married Roger's sister, Maria.
Expansion
While Baldwin was away from his capital to take possession of Turbessel, the Armenians of Edessa continued to plot against him. He returned to the town and ordered the transportation of the Armenian townspeople to Samosata. After the Armenians started to move to Kaisun, Baldwin allowed those who remained in Samosata to return to Edessa in early 1114.
Mawdud's successor, Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi, invaded the county in May 1114, but Edessa resisted his siege, forcing him to return to Mosul. The Sultan made Bursuq ibn Bursuq of Hamadan the supreme commander of the Seljuq armies. Bursuq moved on Edessa in early 1115, but he soon left for Aleppo. Lulu el-Yaya, the atabeg of Aleppo, sought assistance from Ilghazi and Toghtekin, who also persuaded Roger of Salerno to join their coalition against Bursuq. At Roger's request, Baldwin I of Jerusalem, Pons of Tripoli and Baldwin also gathered their troops at Apamea in August. Bursuq chose to retreat and the crusader rulers dispersed.
Taking advantage of the weakening of the Seljuqs' power after Roger of Salerno's victory at the Battle of Sarmin, Baldwin decided to annex the small Armenian principalities in the valley of the Euphrates. The Armenian Thoros I of Cilicia captured Kogh Vasil's successor, Vasil Dgha, who had made an alliance with Bursuq. Thoros sold Vasil Dgha to Baldwin, who forced his prisoner to renounce Raban and Kaisun in 1116. Next, Baldwin laid siege to Abu'l-Garib's fortress of Birejik. The siege lasted for a year and Abu'l-Garib was forced into surrender in 1117. Baldwin granted the fortress to his cousin, Waleran of Le Puiset. In the same year, Kogh Vasil's brother, Bagrat, had to abandon Cyrrhus and Baldwin captured Constantine of Gargar.
King of Jerusalem
Ascension to the throne
The childless Baldwin I of Jerusalem died on 2April 1118, during a campaign against Egypt. According to the contemporaneous Albert of Aachen he had willed the kingdom to his eldest brother, Eustace III of Boulogne, "if by chance he would come", but also stipulated that Baldwin of Bourcq should be elected king, if Eustace were unable to come, "because of his age". Baldwin arrived in Jerusalem around the day when the late king's body was carried into the town. Albert of Aachen stated that Baldwin had come to celebrate Easter in Jerusalem, without having any knowledge of the King's death. Decades later, William of Tyre recorded that Baldwin had been informed of his kinsman's death during his journey to Jerusalem.
The question of Baldwin I's succession divided the barons and the prelates, according to William of Tyre. The highest-ranking prelate, Arnulf of Chocques, the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, and Joscelin of Courtenay, who held the largest fief in the kingdom, argued that Baldwin should be elected without delay to avoid an interregnum. Others maintained that the crown should first be offered to Eustace in accordance with Baldwin I's last will. Some "great nobles", whom William of Tyre did not name, were appointed to inform Eustace of his brother's death. However, shortly after their departure, on Easter Day (14 April), Baldwin was anointed. His coronation was delayed for unknown reasons. Patriarch Arnulf died two weeks after Baldwin's anointment and his successor, Warmund of Picquigny, was only installed in August or September.
Baldwin promised the County of Edessa to Joscelin, but Joscelin remained in the kingdom to secure the defence of Galilee. Baldwin convoked the noblemen to an assembly "on an appointed day" to receive "fealty and an oath of allegiance from them", according to Albert of Aachen. He also secured the direct royal control of eight important towns, including Nablus, Jaffa, Acre, Sidon and Tiberias. Modern historian Alan Murray argues that Albert of Aachen's words are evidence that Baldwin "carried out a major distribution of fiefs, granting out some lordships but retaining other towns and territories as domain lands" in 1118. Baldwin also reorganized the royal household, making Hugh Caulis constable, Pagan butler, and John the chamberlain.
Eustace accepted the barons' invitation and left Boulogne for Jerusalem. He had travelled as far as Apulia when he was informed of Baldwin's ascension to the throne. The delegates tried to convince him to continue his journey, saying that Baldwin's election was illegal, but Eustace preferred to return home.
Muslim threat
His predecessor's last campaign against Egypt brought about a rapprochement between Egypt and Damascus. Baldwin sent envoys to Toghtekin in Damascus to argue against his making an alliance with the Egyptian vizier, Al-Afdal Shahanshah, but Toghtekin demanded Oultrejourdain in return for his neutrality. Toghtekin launched an incursion against Galilee and Al-Afdal gathered his troops near Ascalon in May or June 1118. Baldwin hurried to the southern frontier and urged Roger and Pons to send reinforcements from Antioch and Tripoli. Neither the Egyptians nor the crusaders risked a pitched battle and both armies were dissolved three months later. Baldwin and Joscelin made a raid against Damascene territory in the autumn and defeated Toghtekin's son, Taj al-Muluk Buri near Daraa.
Ilghazi, Toghtekin and the Munquidites of Shaizar made an alliance and their troops started raiding Antioch and Edessa in May 1119. Roger sent envoys to Baldwin, urging him to come to the north to fight against the invaders. The envoys met with Baldwin in Tiberias, because he had just concluded a short campaign against a Bedouin tribe in Oultrejourdain. He gathered troops and departed for Antioch, taking a portion of the True Cross with him. Roger did not wait until Baldwin's arrival and marched from Antioch. On the plains of Sarmada Ilghazi's army encircled the crusaders' camp and on 28June inflicted a major defeat in the Battle of the "Field of Blood". Roger and hundreds of his soldiers died fighting and most who survived the battle were taken prisoner. Antioch was left almost undefended, but Ilghazi did not attack the city.
Baldwin and Pons of Tripoli reached Antioch in late July or early August. The leaders of the city acknowledged Baldwin as regent for the lawful prince, the ten-year old Bohemond II, who was living in southern Italy. Baldwin distributed the estates of the noblemen who had perished in the Field of Blood among his retainers, mainly through giving the widows of the deceased lords to them in marriage. Meanwhile, Ilghazi and Toghtekin joined their forces and started to capture the Antiochene fortresses to the east of the Orontes River. Baldwin gathered almost all available crusader troops and marched against the Muslims as far as Tell Danith near Zardana. The crusaders and the united armies of Toghtekin and Ilghazi clashed in the Battle of Hab on 14August. According to Walter the Chancellor, the crusaders routed the Muslims, but Matthew of Edessa stated that "neither side was defeated nor was victorious". Baldwin returned to Antioch two days later, where the townspeople and the patriarch gave him a "victor's welcome". Before leaving Antioch he granted the County of Edessa to Joscelin of Courtenay.
Baldwin and his wife were crowned king and queen in Bethlehem on Christmas Day. He and the Patriarch held a general assembly at the Council of Nablus on 16January 1120. The prelates and noblemen who attended the meeting confirmed the clergy's right to collect the tithe and to bear arms "in the cause of defense". The council also ordered the punishment of adulterers, pimps, sodomites and bigamists, and prohibited sexual relations between Christians and Muslims. Other decrees established penalties against thieves and those who falsely accused others of crimes. The decisions of the council were the first examples of law making in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
A confraternity of knights established by Hugh of Payns and Godfrey de Saint-Omer to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land most probably received official recognition at the council, according to historians Malcolm Barber and Christopher Tyerman. Baldwin temporarily lodged the knights in the royal palace on the Temple Mount and they became known as the Knights Templar. He offered Nabi Samwil to the Cistercians, but Bernard of Clairvaux ceded the place to the Premonstratensians who built a monastery. Shortly after the council, Baldwin and Patriarch Warmund also sent letters to Pope Calixtus II and the Venetians, urging them to support the defense of the Holy Land. The crusaders especially needed the Venetians' ships against the Egyptians.
Ilghazi and his nephew, Belek Ghazi, invaded Edessa and Antioch in May 1120. Being responsible for the defence of the northern crusader states, Baldwin decided to again lead his troops to Antioch, but a significant group of the Jerusalemite noblemen and clergy opposed the expedition. Patriarch Warmund refused to accompany the royal army and allowed Baldwin to take the True Cross with him only after lengthy negotiations. Baldwin and his army reached Antioch in June. Ilghazi agreed to sign a one-year truce, which secured the possession of Kafartab and two other fortresses for the crusaders.
Baldwin returned to Jerusalem only in early 1121, after Toghtekin made a raid against Galilee. In July, he invaded Damascene territory and destroyed a fortress that Toghtekin had recently erected near Jerash. David IV of Georgia routed the united armies of Ilghazi and the Seljuq prince Toghrul Arslan in August. Taking advantage of Ilghazi's weakness, Baldwin launched a military campaign across the Orontes. In November this forced Ilghazi's son to hand over to the crusaders Zardana, Atarib and other forts that Ilghazi had captured the previous year.
In early 1122 Pons of Tripoli refused to pledge allegiance to Baldwin for unknown reasons. After Baldwin mustered his troops and marched against Tripoli, Pons paid homage to him without resistance. Ilghazi and Belek laid siege to Zardana in June, but Baldwin and Joscelin of Edessa's arrival forced them to lift the siege in July. Belek ambushed and captured Joscelin near Saruj on 13September. Ilghazi reoccupied Atarib, but he died on 3November 1122. His lands were divided among his sons and nephews. Baldwin, who was still in Antioch, persuaded Badr ad-Daulah Suleiman, the new ruler of Aleppo, to restore Atarib to the crusaders on 2April 1123. Baldwin recaptured Birejik and made Geoffrey, Lord of Marash, regent of Edessa.
Second captivity
Baldwin made a raid towards Kharput where Belek held Joscelin and other knights captive, but he stopped near Gargar. While Baldwin was preparing to practice falconry on the morning of 18April 1123, Belek attacked his camp and captured him. Baldwin was taken to the fortress of Kharput. While Belek was away in Aleppo in June, Jocelyn's fifty Armenian supporters came to Kharput, disguising themselves as monks, and expelled the Seljuq garrison from the fortress. Joscelin left Kharput to gather troops in Turbessel and Antioch, but Baldwin and the Armenian soldiers remained in the fortress to defend it against Belek. Belek returned to Kharput and forced Baldwin to surrender. Belek ordered the execution of the Armenians and transferred Baldwin to Harran. Baldwin was later imprisoned in the Citadel of Aleppo.
On learning of Baldwin's captivity, Patriarch Warmund convoked the prelates and barons to an assembly which elected Eustace Grenier bailiff (or regent) of Jerusalem. After Grenier died on 15June, William of Bures succeeded him as regent. The bailiffs and the patriarch closely cooperated with each other and other high-ranking officials in administering the kingdom during Baldwin's captivity. They made an alliancethe so-called Pactum Warmundiwith Domenico Michiel, the Doge of Venice, offering commercial privileges to the Venetians in return for their military assistance against the Egyptian towns on the coast. They captured Tyre on 7or 8July 1124.
The contemporaneous Galbert of Bruges recorded that delegates came to Flanders from Jerusalem during Baldwin's captivity. They stated that Baldwin "was grasping and penurious, and had not governed the people of God well". They offered the crown to Charles the Good, Count of Flanders. Bruges's report shows that a faction of the Jerusalemite nobility attempted to dethrone the captive Baldwin. Being the head of the lineage from which the first two rulers of Jerusalem were descended, and also the overlord of their brother, Eustace, Charles the Good was an ideal candidate for the throne. However, he refused the offer. Murray tentatively associates the leader of the discontented noblemen with the Flemish Eustace Grenier.
Belek died fighting against one of his rebellious officials on 6May 1124, and Baldwin was seized by Ilghazi's son, Timurtash. Timurtash entrusted Sultan, the emir of Shaizar, with commencing negotiations for Baldwin's release with Joscelin and Morphia. According to their agreement, Baldwin was to pay 80,000 dinars and to cede Atarib, Zardana, Azaz and other Antiochene fortresses to Timurtash. Baldwin also promised that he would assist Timurtash against the Bedouin warlord, Dubais ibn Sadaqa. After a quarter of Baldwin's ransom was paid and a dozen hostages (including Baldwin's youngest daughter Ioveta and Joscelin's son Joscelin II) were handed over to Timurtash to secure the payment of the balance, Baldwin was released on 29August 1124.
Wars
Baldwin went to Antioch where Patriarch Bernard reminded him that he had not been authorized to renounce Antiochene territories and on 6September 1124 forbade him to cede fortresses to Timurtash. On 6October, Baldwin laid siege to Aleppo where the hostages for his ransom were held. Dubais ibn Sadaqa, and two Seljuq princes, Sultan-Shah ibn Radwan and Toghrul Arslan, joined him and Timurtash did not support the besieged town. Il-Bursuqi decided to intervene and gathered his troops. On learning of al-Bursuqi's approach, Dubais ibn Sadaqa withdrew from Aleppo, which forced Baldwin to lift the siege on 25January 1125.
After more than two years absence, Baldwin returned to Jerusalem on 3April. He renegotiated the Pactum Warmundi with the Venetians, approving most of its terms in the so-called Pactum Balduini, but also stipulating that the Venetians were to provide military assistance to the kingdom. After al-Bursuqi, Toghtekin and Khirkan of Homs captured Kafartab and laid siege to Zardana, Baldwin again went north. Few knights accompanied him from the kingdom, which according to Murray and Barber may have been a sign of discontent over his frequent campaigns. Pons of Tripoli and Joscelin of Edessa joined him and they defeated the Seljuqs at the Battle of Azaz in late May. The battle has been described by historian Peter Lock as "one of the bloodiest engagements in the history of the crusader states". Spoils seized enabled Baldwin to pay off his ransom before his return to Jerusalem.
The careers of some influential lords started around the time when Baldwin returned to Jerusalem in 1125. Walter I Brisebarre witnessed the Pactum Balduini as lord of Beirut on 2May 1125; Pagan the Butler was first mentioned as lord of Oultrejordain in 1126. According to William of Tyre, Pagan seized Oultrejordain after Roman of Le Puy and his son, Ralph, had been deprived of the territory. Murray argues that Baldwin must have confiscated Oultrejordain from Roman because Roman had been one of his opponents during his captivity. Murray also says that Baldwin allegedly adopted an expansionist policy against Damascus in the late 1120s to assuage the Jerusalemite noblemen's discontent. He made a raid against Damascene territory across the Jordan in early 1126. Accompanied by almost the whole army, Baldwin routed Toghtekin on 25January and returned to the kingdom laden with booty. Shortly thereafter he supported Pons of Tripoli in capturing Rafniye and in raiding Homs. Al-Bursuqi laid siege to Atarib in July 1126. Baldwin again marched north and Joscelin of Edessa joined him at Artah. Both sides wanted to avoid a pitched battle, and al-Bursuqi retired to Aleppo.
Succession
After reaching the age of majority, Bohemond II of Antioch came to Syria to claim his inheritance in October 1126. His arrival put an end to Baldwin's rule in Antioch, but Bohemond married Baldwin's second daughter, Alice. Baldwin, who had no sons, made his eldest daughter, Melisende, his heir in 1126 or 1127.
Baldwin had already realized that the crusaders were unable to conquer Damascus without further reinforcements from Europe. After consulting with his nobles, he sent William I of Bures and Guy I Brisebarre to France to offer Melisende's hand to the powerful count of Anjou, Fulk V, in the autumn of 1127. Hugh of Payns and his five fellows accompanied the envoys. The embassy first visited Louis VI of France, who gave consent to the marriage. The negotiations between Fulk and Baldwin's envoys lasted for months. In August or September 1127, Baldwin launched a new military campaign against Damascene territory. Historian Steven Tibble proposes that the royal fortress at Wadi Musa was built shortly after this.
Baldwin dispatched William I, Archbishop of Tyre, and Robert, Bishop of Lydda and Ramla, to the Holy See. Pope Honorius II stated that Baldwin was the lawful ruler of Jerusalem in a letter of 29May 1129. Christopher Tyerman and Hans Eberhard Mayer agree that the pope wrote his letter to remove any doubts about the legitimacy of Baldwin's rule. On the other hand, Stephen of La Ferté, who had succeeded Warmund of Picquigny as patriarch in July 1128, turned against Baldwin and demanded Jerusalem for the patriarchate.
Fulk of Anjou arrived to the Holy Land in the spring of 1129. He married Melisende and Baldwin granted them the two wealthiest towns of the kingdom, Tyre and Acre. Hugh of Payns, who had achieved the adoption of the statutes of the Knights Templar at the Council of Troyes, returned to the kingdom accompanied by new crusaders.
Toghtekin's successor, Taj al-Muluk Buri, ordered the massacre of the Nizari in Damascus in September 1129. The Nizari's local leader, Ismail al-Ajami, sent envoys to Baldwin and offered the fortress of Banias to the crusaders in return for receiving asylum in the kingdom. Baldwin accepted the offer and his troops seized Banyas. Taking advantage of the presence of the new crusaders, he also decided to launch an attack on Damascus. He gathered all available troops and marched as far as the Wooden Bridge, about south-west of the town, in November. After Buri's Turcoman horsemen routed a detachment of the crusader army and a heavy storm turned the plains around Damascus into a large marshland, Baldwin had to return to Jerusalem in early December.
After the Danishmend Gazi Gümüshtigin ambushed and killed Bohemond II in February 1130, Baldwin travelled to Antioch to make arrangements for the administration of the principality. Alice, however, wanted to establish herself as regent during the minority of her and Bohemond's infant daughter, Constance, and did not allow Baldwin to enter Antioch. She even sent envoys to Imad ad-Din Zengi, the atabeg of Mosul, to seek his assistance against her father, according to the contemporaneous Ibn al-Qalanisi. The Antiochene noblemen were strongly opposed to her plan and opened two gates of the town, which enabled Baldwin to enter. He forgave his daughter, but forbade her to stay in Antioch during Constance's minority. After the Antiochene noblemen swore fealty to him and Constance, Baldwin appointed Joscelin of Edessa to administer the principality.
According to William of Tyre, Baldwin fell seriously ill after his return from Antioch. He was already dying when he made arrangements for his succession in August 1131. He was transferred to the patriarch's palace near the Holy Sepulchre where he bequeathed the kingdom to Fulk, Melisende and their infant son, Baldwin. He took monastic vows and entered the collegiate chapter of the Holy Sepulchre, where he died on 21 August. He was buried in the Holy Sepulchre.
Ancestry
Baldwin was a younger son of Hugh I, Count of Rethel and Melisende of Montlhéry. He was closely related to the lords of Courtenay and Le Puiset, and other noble families in the Ile-de-France. He was also a kinsman of the brothers Eustace III of Boulogne, Godfrey of Bouillon, and Baldwin of Boulogne, but their exact relationship is unknown.
The main concern are the identities of Baldwin II's paternal grandmother and great-grandmother. The Chronicles of Alberic of Trois-Fontaine (written in 1119) describes Yvette, sister of Ebles I of Roucy as "mother of Hugh I, Count of Rethel". This is the traditional genealogy given for Baldwin II. Notwithstanding, considering her family history, such assertion is chronologically impossible. Jean-Nöel Mathieu raises the fundamental objection that Ebles I (who died in 1033), could not have had a sister who was still alive in 1081, instead he argues that she must have been confused with the wife of Manasses II.
Li Estoire de Jerusalem et d'Antioche, written in the 12th century, indicates that Manasses III was married to a daughter of Godfrey III, Duke of Lower Lorraine. This would also explain the connection between the two Baldwins of Jerusalem, as well as the fact that Godfrey made a donation to Manasses in 1065.
Alan V. Murray says that the primary sources suggest that Baldwin II's connection to his predecessors "was not particularly close", and that Baldwin was most probably related to their mother, Ida of Lorraine. Thomas Asbridge says that Baldwin was their second cousin instead.
The family tree below is the reconstruction based on the above two records, which makes Baldwin II a first cousin once removed of his predecessors through their mother. Asbridge's view would match the alternate hypothesis that has Godfrey III's wife Doda as Manasses III's sister instead of his mother-in-law. There is also a hypothesis that Judith was Eustace II's sister. However, Murray objects that there is no allusion of this daughter nor of any other connection between the Rethel and Boulogne families in Genealogica comitum Boloniensium', a compilation of the Boulogne genealogy which was being copied and extended by the mid-twelfth century, when the descendants of Manasses III were ruling the kingdom of Jerusalem. The three women in question are in italics.
Family
Most Armenians adhered to the Armenian Apostolic Church, but Baldwin's wife, Morphia, was born to an Orthodox noble family. Her father, Gabriel, gave her in marriage to Baldwin, because he needed the crusaders' support against his enemies. Morphia gave birth to four daughters. She died on 1October 1126 or 1127.
The eldest daughter of Baldwin and Morphia, Melisende, succeeded Baldwin along with her husband, Fulk. They were crowned in the Holy Sepulchre on 14September 1131. Baldwin's second daughter, Alice, made several attempts to administer Antioch after Baldwin's death. Hodierna was Baldwin and Morphia's third daughter. She was given in marriage to Raymond II, Count of Tripoli before 1138. Ioveta was her parents' youngest daughter, and their only child "born into the purple" (that is after her father's coronation). She entered the Convent of Saint Anne in Jerusalem around 1134. About 10 years later, she became the second abbess of the convent that Melisende had established at the Tomb of Lazarus in Bethany.
Legacy
Baldwin's contemporaries often criticized him. Matthew of Edessa, who recorded the Armenians' grievances during Baldwin's reign in Edessa, described him as a greedy ruler who had "an intolerable love for money". Stephen of Blois, an ascetic monk who settled in the Amanus Mountains, blamed him for "certain enormities in his way of life". Fulcher of Chartres hinted that Baldwin's captivity was a punishment for sin, because he had never seen other kings who were imprisoned.
William of Tyre described Baldwin as "a devout and God-fearing man, notable for his loyalty and for his great experience in military matters," and said that he was nicknamed "the Thorny" (cognominatus est Aculeus). Ibn al-Qalanisi, who calls him "Baldwin the Little" (Baghdawin al-ru'aiuis) to distinguish him from Baldwin I, remarked that "after him there was none left amongst them possessed of sound judgment and capacity to govern".
References
Sources
Primary sources
William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey. Columbia University Press, 1943.
Galbert of Bruges: The Murder of Charles the Good (Translated by James Bruce Ross) (1959). Columbia University Press.
Secondary sources
Further reading
External links
1070s births
1131 deaths
12th-century kings of Jerusalem
Counts of Edessa
Kings of Jerusalem
Regents of Antioch
Burials at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
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254735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel%20True | Rachel True | Rachel India True (born November 15, 1966) is an American film and television actress and former fashion model. She is best known for her roles in such films as The Craft (1996), Nowhere (1997), and Half Baked (1998). True is also known for her role as Mona Thorne on the UPN sitcom Half & Half, which ran from 2002 to 2006.
Early life
True was born in New York City, the middle of three children. Her father is of Ashkenazi Jewish descent, whereas her mother is of African American heritage. Her younger sister, Noel, is also an actress.
True attended New York University.
Career
True made her television debut in 1991 on the episode "Theo's Final Final" of The Cosby Show. Later, she moved to Los Angeles, and made appearances on Beverly Hills, 90210, Getting By, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, and Dream On.
In 1993, True appeared in the feature film CB4. After appearing in the horror film Embrace of the Vampire, she had a breakthrough role as Rochelle in the 1996 film The Craft, where she played a member of a teenage coven. The following year, she starred in Nowhere, then appeared in the 1998 film Half Baked. From 1997 to 1998, she also had the recurring role of Janet Clemens on The Drew Carey Show. From 1999 to 2000, she appeared in the ABC drama series, Once and Again.
From 2002 to 2006, True starred with Essence Atkins in the UPN comedy series Half & Half, as paternal half-sisters who barely knew each other until becoming adults.
In 2017, True worked as a tarot-card reader in Echo Park.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
1966 births
Actresses from New York City
American film actresses
American television actresses
African-American actresses
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
African-American Jews
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
21st-century African-American people
American Ashkenazi Jews | [
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254736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricing%20objectives | Pricing objectives | Pricing objectives or goals give direction to the whole pricing process. Determining what your objectives are is the first step in pricing. When deciding on pricing objectives you must consider: 1) the overall financial, marketing, and strategic objectives of the company; 2) the objectives of your product or brand; 3) consumer price elasticity and price points; and 4) the resources you have available.
Some of the more common pricing objectives are:
maximize long-run profit
maximize short-run profit
increase sales volume (quantity)
increase monetary sales
increase market share
obtain a target rate of return on investment (ROI)
obtain a target rate of return on sales
stabilize market or stabilize market price: an objective to stabilize price means that the marketing manager attempts to keep prices stable in the marketplace and to compete on non-price considerations. Stabilization of margin is basically a cost-plus approach in which the manager attempts to maintain the same margin regardless of changes in cost.
company growth
maintain price leadership
desensitize customers to price
discourage new entrants into the industry
match competitors prices
encourage the exit of marginal firms from the industry
survival
avoid government investigation or intervention
obtain or maintain the loyalty and enthusiasm of distributors and other sales personnel
enhance the image of the firm, brand, or product
be perceived as “fair” by customers and potential customers
create interest and excitement about a product
discourage competitors from cutting prices
use price to make the product “visible"
help prepare for the sale of the business (harvesting)
social, ethical, or ideological objectives
See also
Price
Price controls
Price fixing
Price gouging
Just price
Resale price maintenance
Pricing
Pricing strategies
Pricing | [
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254745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety | Variety | Variety may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Entertainment formats
Variety (radio)
Variety show, in theater and television
Films
Variety (1925 film), a silent film
Variety (1935 film), a British musical film
Variety (1935 German film), a German drama film
Variety (1971 film), a Spanish drama film
Variety (1983 film), an American independent film
Music
Variety (Family Fodder album), tenth studio album by Family fodder
Variety (Les Rita Mitsouko album), seventh studio album by Les Rita Mitsouko
Variety (Mariya Takeuchi album), sixth studio album by Mariya Takeuchi
Variety (Tokyo Jihen album), third studio album by Tokyo Jihen
Variety Records, a short-lived US record label that was produced by Brunswick Records
Other uses in arts and entertainment
Variety (magazine), an entertainment industry newspaper
Variety Television Network, an American former digital subchannel
"Variety", a 2002 Oz television episode
Botany and horticulture
Businesses and organizations
Variety, the Children's Charity, international charity to help children with special needs
Variety Cruises, a cruise line
Variety (magazine), an entertainment industry newspaper
Variety Wholesalers, a retail store owner operating in the southeastern United States
Mathematics and systems
Algebraic variety, the set of solutions of a system of polynomial equations
Variety (cybernetics), the number of possible states of a system or of an element of the system
Variety (universal algebra), classes of algebraic structures defined by equations in universal algebra
Other uses
Variety (linguistics), a specific form of a language (or of a dialect continuum)
Variety, a term in coin collecting
Variety Jones, pseudonym of a person closely involved with the founding of the darknet market Silk Road
See also
Variability (disambiguation)
Variant (disambiguation)
Variation (disambiguation) | [
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254747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Being%20%28album%29 | Human Being (album) | Human Being is the third studio album by Seal, released in 1998. The title track was written about late rappers Tupac Shakur and The Notorious B.I.G. Human Being received mixed reviews ranging from being panned for its overtly dark and moody feel, to being described in terms such as "pop perfection". The album failed to sell in the same way as his 1994 multi-platinum album, Seal. However, it is a fan favourite and was inspired by his then-girlfriend, Tyra Banks and their breakup.
A remix of "Lost My Faith" was featured over the closing credits of the 1999 film Entrapment, and the song's single release was accompanied by a music video in which Seal is integrated into scenes from the film alongside Sean Connery and Catherine Zeta-Jones.
The cover art for the album was shot by French fashion photographer Jean-Baptiste Mondino.
Track listing
Personnel
Seal – vocals, guitar, bass guitar
Earl Harvin – drums, bass, guitar, sound engineering
Chris Bruce – guitar, bass guitar
Jamie Muhoberac – keyboards, bass guitar, programming
Grant Mitchell – additional keyboards, programming
Dave Palmer, David Sancious, Mike Garson, George De Angelis, Lisa Coleman – additional keyboards
Gregg Arreguin, Chester Kayman, Gus Isadore, Wendy Melvoin, Ramon Stagnaro, Danny Saber – additional guitar
Alex Acuña, Andy Duncan – percussion
Andy Richards, Dave McCracken, Danny Saber, William Orbit – programming
Anne Dudley, Wil Malone, Aaron Zigman, Nick Ingman – string arrangements
Charts
Certifications
References
1998 albums
Seal (musician) albums
Albums produced by Trevor Horn
Warner Records albums | [
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254749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal%20IV | Seal IV | Seal IV is the fourth studio album by Seal. It follows the aborted sessions for Togetherland, which was scrapped because Seal thought it was not up to the standard of his previous work.
In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number four. In the United States, it debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200, making it his highest-charting album to date.
Track listing
Notes
signifies a co-producer
signifies additional production and remix
Personnel
Seal – vocals, keyboards, bass guitar, guitar
Jamie Muhoberac – keyboards, bass guitar
Mark Batson – keyboards, bass guitar, piano, Hammond organ, programming
Chris Bruce – bass guitar, guitar
Earl Harvin, Ian Thomas – drums
Luís Jardim – percussion
Trevor Horn – guitar, piano, bass guitar, keyboards
Gus Isidore, Tim Cansfield, Tim Pierce, Heitor Pereira, Steven McDonald – guitar
Charlie Russell – programming
Alan Griffiths – programming, guitar
Tessa Niles – backing vocals
Pete Murray – keyboards, piano
Carlos Rios – keyboards
Gavyn Wright – strings
Nick Ingman, Steve Sidwell – string, horn and choir arrangements
Charts
Certifications
References
External links
2003 albums
Seal (musician) albums
Albums produced by Trevor Horn
Warner Records albums | [
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254753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequent-flyer%20program | Frequent-flyer program | A frequent-flyer program (FFP) (or frequent-flyer programme) is a loyalty program offered by an airline.
Many airlines have frequent-flyer programs designed to encourage airline customers enrolled in the program to accumulate points (also called miles, kilometers, or segments) which may then be redeemed for air travel or other rewards. Points earned under FFPs may be based on the class of fare, distance flown on that airline or its partners, or the amount paid. There are other ways to earn points. For example, in recent years, more points have been earned by using co-branded credit and debit cards than by air travel. Another way to earn points is spending money at associated retail outlets, car hire companies, hotels, or other associated businesses. Points can be redeemed for air travel, other goods or services, or for increased benefits, such as travel class upgrades, airport lounge access, fast track access, or priority bookings.
Frequent-flyer programs can be seen as a certain type of virtual currency, one with unidirectional flow of money to purchase points, but no exchange back into money.
History
Although United Airlines had tracked customers far back as the 1950s, the first modern frequent-flyer program was created in 1972 by Western Direct Marketing for United. It gave plaques and promotional materials to members. In 1979, Texas International Airlines created the first frequent-flyer program that used mileage tracking to give 'rewards' to its passengers, while in 1980 Western Airlines created its Travel Bank, which ultimately became part of Delta Air Lines' program upon their merger in 1987. American Airlines' AAdvantage program launched in 1981 as a modification of a never-realized concept from 1979 that would have given special fares to frequent customers. It was quickly followed later that year by programs from United Airlines (Mileage Plus), Delta (Delta Air Lines Frequent Flyer Program, which later changed to SkyMiles), Continental Airlines (OnePass), Air Canada (Altitude), and in 1982 from British Airways (Executive Club).
Frequent-flyer programs have grown since. In 2005, 163 million people were enrolled in frequent flyer programs from over 130 airlines. By then, 14 trillion frequent-flyer points had been accumulated by people worldwide, for a value of 700 billion US dollars. When United Airlines filed for bankruptcy in 2002, its frequent flyer program was its only money-making business. Tom Stuker is the world's most frequent flier having logged over 21 million miles with United.
Accrual
Flying
Most larger airlines around the world have frequent flyer programs; each has a program name, and policies and restrictions regarding joining, accumulating, and redeeming points.
The primary method of obtaining points in a frequent-flyer program until recent years was to fly with the associated airline. Paying expenses using an airline-sponsored credit card, even those charged to an employer, can rack up frequent flyer points. Most systems reward travelers with a specific number of points based on the distance traveled (such as 1 point per mile flown), although systems vary. Many discount airlines, rather than awarding points per mile, award points for flight segments in lieu of distance or the amount paid. For example, a number of airlines in Europe offer a fixed number of points for domestic or intra-European flights regardless of the distance (but varied according to class of travel). With the introduction of airline alliances and code-share flights, frequent-flyer programs are often extended to allow benefits to be used across partner airlines.
Bonus points
Most, if not all, programs award bonus earnings to premium-cabin passengers and to their elite-status members based on tier status; earning an extra 25%-100% of miles flown are common bonuses. While these bonus points may not count toward ascension to (or retention of) elite status, they count toward the member's total balance for normal redemption purposes.
Minimum credit guarantee
Some programs award a full 500 points (or a similar minimum credit guarantee) for non-stop flights spanning less than 500 miles. An airline's program can either award this guarantee to all members regardless of elite status, or they can reserve this privilege only for their elite members.
Credit card purchases
Many credit card companies partner with airlines to offer a co-branded credit card or the ability to transfer points in their loyalty program to an airline's program. Large sign-up bonuses and other incentives are common. Accruing points via credit cards bonuses and spending allows infrequent travelers to benefit from the frequent flyer program.
With a non-affiliated travel rewards credit card a cardmember can buy a positive-space ticket considered "revenue" class, which can earn the passenger points with the airline flown.
Other purchases
Frequent-flyer programs may offer points through other means, such as purchasing food or merchandise sold by an affiliated company. American engineer David Phillips became known as the "Pudding Guy" in 2000 for purchasing $3,140 of Healthy Choice pudding that awarded him 1,253,000 AAdvantage miles.
Elite status
Occasionally, airlines may offer double elite-qualifying mile (EQM) promotions, which speeds up a member's status ascension (or retention) by reducing flight mileage requirements.
Some carriers also require frequent flyers to spend a set amount of money on tickets before they are eligible for elite status. This is in addition to the miles-flown requirements that are already in place. Delta switched to revenue-based elite status requirements in January 2014, United in March 2015, with American Airlines the last of the three US legacy carriers to switch on August 1, 2016. This has led to some frequent flyers devaluing those programs over others, as the changing model can be less rewarding to frequent flyers. To date no UK frequent flyer scheme has sought to operate in such a fashion, with both Virgin Atlantic and British Airways opting for the traditional method of granting tier points based on the miles flown and class of travel.
Redemption
After accumulating a certain number of points, members then use these points to obtain airline tickets. However, points only pay for the base fare, with the member still responsible for the payment of mandatory taxes and fees.
Flights
Although a controversial topic and a source of frustration among frequent flyers, award flights are still the primary commodity purchased by members using points. While alliances and partnerships have facilitated the redemption process for some programs, award seat availability is still subject to blackout dates and seasonal fluctuations, as airlines utilize statistics, yield management, and capacity-control formulas to determine the number of seats to allocate for award booking.
This lack of availability has since been alleviated by non-airline rewards programs, such as certain credit cards (see above) and other corporate programs (Expedia Rewards, Starwood Preferred Guest) by allowing a member to use points to search for and purchase revenue tickets as if using cash.
Products and services
Depending on an airline's program, members can also redeem points toward cabin upgrades, hotel stays, car rentals, and purchase of various retail items. On American Airlines' AAdvantage program for example, it is possible to pay for a complete vacation package solely with points.
Value of points
Travelers frequently debate on how much accumulated points are worth, something which is highly variable based on how they are redeemed. An estimate is approximately 1-2 cents per point based on discount (rather than full fare) economy class travel costs.
The author of an economics PhD thesis published in 2014 at Monash University, in Melbourne, Australia, examined the cash-equivalent value (purchasing power) of loyalty points, the impact of FFPs on consumer behavior and surplus, and the taxation issues surrounding FFPs. Unlike most previous research on FFPs, this research used data from an actual FFP. The cash-equivalent value of a loyalty point in 2010 was estimated to range between AU$0.0066 and AU$0.0084. This range however excluded the value of status benefits to the status member. The loyalty point gained by a FFP member per flight equated to an in-kind discount on an average airfare of 3.3% for lowest status members, 3.96% for medium status members and 4.63% for premium status members. A detailed survey undertaken in 2010 among a representative sample of over 3300 members of that specific FFP showed that a large proportion of leisure and business travelers admitted a willingness to pay a higher fare - a FFP premium - to fly with the sponsoring airline because of their FFP membership. The average FFP premium was estimated to be around 8% and was statistically different between leisure and business travelers. The cash-equivalent value of a loyalty point as encapsulated in the FFP premium was estimated to range between AU$0.0108 and AU$0.0153, depending on the FFP status of a member.
The airlines themselves value points in their financial statements at less than one one-thousandth of a cent per points.. That loyalty points undoubtedly have an estimable monetary value is also reflected in the fact that some programs allow for the donation of frequent-flyer points to certain charities.
Accounting and regulatory issues
The frequent flyer points accumulated through business trips are a desirable employee benefit, which can encourage unnecessary travel within organisations to accumulate them and lead to superfluous personal trips.
Business travelers typically accrue the valuable points in their own names, rather than the names of the companies that paid for the travel. This has raised concerns that the company is providing a tax-free benefit (point-based awards) to employees, or that employees have misappropriated value that belongs to the company, or even that the rewards acts as a kind of bribe to encourage travelers to choose one particular airline or travel unnecessarily. Most companies consider the miles earned by their employees to be a valuable personal perk that in part compensates for the daily grind of frequent business travel, though some governmental organizations have attempted to prevent their employees from accumulating miles on official travel.
Although it has long been recognized that FFP rewards earned on employer-funded business flights should be subject to either income or fringe-benefit taxation, this is currently not taking place in the vast majority of countries - a notable exception however being Germany. One of the main arguments against the implementation of taxation is the lack of a monetary tax base. It can however be argued that since the cash-equivalent value of loyalty currency can be reasonably estimated with public data, this value is appropriate as a tax base. Hurdles preventing the taxation of FFP rewards are generally less related to the technical issue of valuation, but have more to do with legal constraints (e.g. "who owns the points") and often a lack of political will (e.g. "who would lose out due to taxation"). Australian and German public servants are not permitted to redeem points accrued from official travel for private purposes. The Australian example occurred in the 1990s when Qantas and the now-defunct Ansett Australia competed for the Australian federal government travel contract; this was put forward as a system requirement for the competing companies in order to win the contract.
In the US, the General Services Administration has regulated, "frequent traveler benefits earned [by federal employees] in connection with official travel, [which] may be used only for official travel, see 41 C.F.R. § 301-1.6(f)." Frequent flyer program contracts are not generally regulated.
Competition
These programmes have been studied as anti-competitive practices: in 1989, M. Tretheway found competition prevented an airline to unilaterally end its program, but the regulatory body could end all; in 1999, S. Storm observed loyalty programs were forbidden in Denmark until 1992, instated then because Danish airlines were disadvantaged, as governments can forbid these programs at industry players request and the World Trade Organization could ban all programs.
In the U.S. in 1989, Braniff wished for an end to unfair competition from frequent-flyer programs. Precedent exists for ending frequent-flyer programs. In 2002, Norway banned domestic loyalty programs to promote airline competition. In 2005, the Modernization Minister asked the competition authority to consider extending the Norwegian ban on frequent flyer miles to include all of Scandinavia. The country lifted the ban in 2013 when the competitive situation changed.
Flight shame
Frequent-flyer programs have been receiving scrutiny because of the prevalence and rapid growth of air travel, in terms of both the frequency that individuals fly and the tendency toward longer distance travel. In 2011, S. Cohen observed both air travel and concern over its climate impacts were growing, balanced by technology and physical resources, self and external regulation and social norms including stigmatisation of excessive air travel. In 2009, Stefan Gössling pointed out the conflict caused by air travel growth in a carbon-constrained world, with a minority of hypermobile individuals responsible for a large share of air travel.
Mileage runs
A "mileage run" is an airline trip designed and taken solely to gain maximum frequent-flyer miles, points, or elite status usually at lowest cost. If a traveler has already achieved some sort of elite status, then that traveler will earn bonus award miles or points on top of his or her actual flight miles or points. Depending on the program, that traveler will reach their goal sooner if the miles they accrue are elite qualifying miles. A mileage run may allow a traveler to (re-)qualify for a beneficial elite level, which requires a minimum number of miles to qualify. Some airlines have changed their frequent flyer rules to award miles based on ticket expense rather than absolute distance traveled, which may remove the incentive for mileage runs.
Status challenge
A status challenge can be an often unpublicized offer to accrue a certain amount of flying within a certain very short timeframe (usually 90 days), to earn elite status. The higher status may or may not be given immediately if it can be seen that qualifying travel (particularly travel that is non-refundable) has already been booked before the challenge was offered, otherwise higher status will be conferred once the challenge is officially completed. In some instances, a fee for a challenge may also be charged. Status challenges are employed by other types of establishments, as well, such as casinos and hotels.
Status match
Some airlines will match status with that of a competitor upon application, usually to airlines outside of any alliance that the airline used to match status with belongs to. This enables travellers to switch their travel more easily from one carrier to another (e.g., when the traveller's employer switches carriers due to a new travel contract's being signed). It does so by maintaining equivalent elite benefits with the new airline, without the need for time to pass while the traveller earns the benefits; this also has the side effect of retaining elite benefits with the previous airline, in order that one does not have to be given up for the other to allow for a more gradual transition. Status matches are employed by other types of establishments, as well, such as casinos, cruise lines, hotels, and rental car companies.
See also
FlyerTalk
Revenue passenger mile
Scrip
References
External links
Airline tickets
Products introduced in 1972 | [
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254755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhythmia%20%28disambiguation%29 | Arrhythmia (disambiguation) | Arrhythmia is a group of conditions in which the heartbeat is irregular, too fast, or too slow.
Arrhythmia may also refer to:
Arrhythmia (film), a 2017 Russian drama film
Arrhythmia (Antipop Consortium album), 2002
Arrhythmia (Hail the Ghost album), 2019
Arrhythmia (novel), a 2011 novel by Alice Zorn | [
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254758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Southwest%20Conference | American Southwest Conference | The American Southwest Conference (ASC) is a college athletic conference, founded in 1996, whose member schools compete in the NCAA's Division III. The schools are located in Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas and Mississippi. The conference competes in baseball, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's cross country, football, men's and women's golf, men's and women's soccer, softball, men's and women's tennis, men's and women's track and field, and women's volleyball.
The American Southwest Conference operates from the same headquarters complex in the Dallas suburb of Richardson as the NCAA Division II Lone Star Conference.
History
The American Southwest Conference was announced in May 1996. The new league included some former members of the Texas Intercollegiate Athletic Association (TIAA). Founding members of the ASC were Howard Payne University, Austin College, Hardin–Simmons University, McMurry University, Mississippi College, Sul Ross State University, the University of Dallas and the University of the Ozarks.
The expansion soon began as the University of Mary Hardin–Baylor joined the ASC in 1997; followed by East Texas Baptist University, LeTourneau University, Schreiner University and the University of Texas at Dallas in 1998; then Concordia University Texas in 1999, and finally Louisiana Christian University, then known as Louisiana College, and Texas Lutheran University in 2000.
The University of Dallas was a member of the ASC until the end of the 2000–01 season to become an Independent; and Austin College withdrew the ASC in the 2005–06 season to join the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference (SCAC). The University of Texas at Tyler began athletics in 2002 and became a member in 2003, but as a provisional member of the NCAA, was ineligible to participate in ASC or NCAA postseason tournaments until 2007. Centenary College of Louisiana joined the conference in 2011, after completing their transition from Division I to Division III, but almost immediately announced its departure for the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference.
Recently, however, several schools have announced plans to leave the conference in favor of the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference, which lost seven of its members at the end of the 2011–12 school year. Centenary departed at the end of the 2011–12 season after joining the ASC in that same season; Schreiner and Texas Lutheran left at the end of the 2012–13 season.
In 2012, McMurry left the ASC and completed the process of reclassifying to a full-scholarship, Division II institution and joined the Heartland Conference. Additionally, Mississippi College announced that it would be also leaving the conference and reclassifying to Division II in 2014. Mississippi College will re-join the Gulf South Conference, a league that it had been a member of until 1996.
The departures of McMurry, Texas Lutheran and Mississippi College will leave the conference with only six football playing members, below the minimum seven participating schools required to receive an automatic bid to the NCAA football playoffs. The conference has not announced a plan to maintain its automatic bid.
ASC officials announced on March 13, 2014, the forthcoming addition of McMurry University and Belhaven University to its membership. McMurry will re-join the ASC after a two-year stint in the Division II level, competing as a member of the Heartland Conference; while Belhaven is scheduled to join the ASC as a provisional member in 2015.
On December 3, 2015, ASC officials reported that Texas Lutheran University and Southwestern University would join the conference for football in 2017 as football-only members. Both schools are members of the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference, but the conference only had four remaining schools competing in football. Two other SCAC schools. Austin College and Trinity University (Texas), announced they would play football in the Southern Athletic Association beginning with the 2017 season. The SCAC dropped football as a conference sport after the 2016 season.
In July 2018, the NCAA approved UT Tyler's application to begin a transition to NCAA Division II effective with the 2019–20 school year. Accordingly, UT Tyler left the ASC at the end of the 2018–19 school year. While the school did not immediately announce its future affiliation, it stated that it expected to join the Lone Star Conference. The following month, UT Tyler was officially unveiled as an incoming LSC member.
In July 2020, Louisiana College announced that it would leave the NCAA and applied to rejoin the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics after the 2020–21 school year.
The most recent changes in the ASC membership were announced on August 13, 2020, when Austin reported it would return to the conference as a football-only affiliate beginning with the 2021 season, committing to at least four years as an affiliate, and on November 26, 2021, when the USA South Athletic Conference initially named Belhaven as its newest member in the 2022–23 academic year. However, on February 18, 2022, Belhaven was announced as an inaugural member of the new Collegiate Conference of the South (CCS) following a geographical split in the USA South, where the Blazers will remain as football associate members.
Member schools
Current members
Notes
Affiliate members
UC Santa Cruz joined the conference as an affiliate member in women's golf in 2013. Southwestern University and Texas Lutheran University joined as affiliate members in football in 2017. Austin College joins as an affiliate member in football in 2021.
Notes
Former members
Notes
Membership timeline
Sports
Men's sponsored sports by school
Men's varsity sports not sponsored by the ASC that are played by ASC schools
Women's sponsored sports by school
Women's varsity sports not sponsored by the ASC that are played by ASC schools
References
External links
College sports in Arkansas
College sports in Louisiana
College sports in Mississippi
College sports in Texas
Articles which contain graphical timelines | [
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254759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20class%20travel | First class travel | First class is the most luxurious and most expensive travel class of seats and service on a train, passenger ship, airplane, bus, or other system of transport. Compared to business class and economy class, it offers the best service and most comfortable accommodation.
Aviation
The first-class section of a fixed-wing jet airliner is typically toward the front of the aircraft. Many airlines have removed first class altogether from their international flights, offering business class as their highest level of international service. First class passengers are usually allowed into lounges at airports while they wait for their flights.
Railways
While first-class travel accommodation is common in intercity public transport rail services, they have become increasingly prevalent for commuters' short-distance daily travel, especially in rapid transit contexts, rather than longer-distance regional rail.
Australia
Australia has internal rail operations in each of its states, excluding Tasmania, normally run by the State Government but in some cases is run by private operators. In each state, first class travel differs.
NSW TrainLink (New South Wales)
First-class travel on TrainLink comes in two forms. On Xplorer and XPT trains, first-class seating is offered which include an increased legroom and seating recline over economy-class seating. On some XPT trains, first-class sleeping compartments can also be found. On day services these accommodate three people per compartment, and by night they carry two people with bunk-style accommodation.
Queensland Rail (Queensland)
Queensland Rail offer first-class travel on many of their Traveltrain services, along with business class on their Tilt Train Services. Queensland Rail Traveltrain first class carriages provided private cabins in either roomette (single room) or twinette (double room) cabins.
V/Line (Victoria)
First-class accommodation on V/Line is a 2x2 seating arrangement, with extra legroom and recline, only available on certain locomotive-hauled services.
Journey Beyond (New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Northern Territory and Western Australia)
This railway privately operates the tourist-oriented The Overland, Indian Pacific, and The Ghan services. The first class travel on these trains are branded as Platinum Service (on the Indian Pacific and The Ghan) with roomette, twinette and deluxe cabins; or Red Premium Service (on The Overland) with 2x1 seating, extra legroom, and more recline than the Red Service seating.
Canada
The Canadian () train, operated by Via Rail, offers a Prestige class, comparable to first class. It includes room service, in-room entertainment, and a private washroom with shower. The Québec City–Windsor corridor, also operated by Via Rail, offers a business class.
China
China Railway and its high-speed subsidiary offer First Class on its trains, slotting in between the standard "Second Class" and the premium "Business Class" tier. First Class consists of 2 seats on each side of the aisle, with adjustable, larger-than-normal seats, footrests, and access to sockets, toilets, and water dispensers.
Aside from inter-city train services, Shenzhen Metro Line 11, which serves the regional airport, has become the first metro line in China to offer Business Class cars (making up two of the eight cars on each train). It has been reported that this service, costing three times the amount of a standard class ticket, has remained sparsely used despite overcrowding in the rest of the train.
Germany
The various private and state-owned railways in Germany featured first-class, second-class and third-class amenities from the start. Beginning in Prussia in 1852, extremely austere fourth-class coaches were introduced. After nationalization (1920) and consolidation (Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft, 1924), the fourth class was abandoned in 1928 in order to generate more revenue by forcing passengers to pay the higher prices for third-class tickets.
As those of most of the rest of Europe, the railways of East as well as West Germany moved to a two-class system in 1956. To this end, the first class was abandoned and the former second and third classes redesignated as the new first and second classes. Except for some regional and commuter train services (including some, but not all S-Bahn systems), which are second-class only, this distinction exists to this day.
The difference in amenities between the first and second class varies between train operators, services and lines. It generally translates to more legroom, tables and/or three-abreast instead of four-abreast seating for first-class passengers. On Deutsche Bahn's international and Sprinter ICE services, first-class passengers, unlike second-class passengers, receive a complimentary meal; on all ICE and InterCity services, passengers in first class are served the full selection of meals and refreshments at their seats, while second-class passengers can only obtain them in the dining car.
With some, primary local, services operated both by DB and other companies, there is no difference in seating between classes, with exception to the presence of armrests and tables (with ostensibly cleaner interiors in some instances) in first class. The rationale for providing first-class spaces on these services is mainly that due to the higher price, there are usually seats left in first class when all second-class seats are taken. As such, the justification of purchasing First Class on regional services, often for the average traveller, is more so dictated as offering a "better-odds" gamble of finding vacant seating availability on certain trains (esp. rush hour S-Bahn/regional services) rather than the availability of tangible frills in contrast to second class.
Hong Kong
A First Class compartment is available on each train serving the East Rail line (formerly KCR East Rail) in Hong Kong. Instead of longitudinal, stainless steel benches offered to standard-class passengers, the first-class compartments have comfier, individual padded seating with armrests. They are arranged in pairs and oriented transversely to the compartments. Passengers are required to pay an extra "first class premium" (equaling to the standard adult fare of the same East Rail line journey) on top of the standard fare, and first-class compartments are regularly patrolled by ticket inspectors.
The line originated as an intercity rail service, then known as the Kowloon-Canton Railway British Section, that formerly extended into Guangdong in Mainland China. Even after the line was electrified and modernized in the early 1980s and its trains were converted to provide high-capacity, metro-style service the following decade, the fourth compartment from the north end of each trainset retained its original seating layout as a First Class compartment. In 2007, the line became part of the MTR network, and it remains the only railway line in the region to offer a separate first-class service (though the Airport Express line provides a similar travel experience in all its carriages).
India
A number of suburban railways in India offer first-class travel, including:
Hyderabad Multi-Modal Transport System
Mumbai suburban railway
Chennai suburban railway
Indonesia
The Indonesian Railway Company operates first-class services that are officially called Luxury class services. Luxury class cars currently in operation have two different designs: the first-generation Luxury cars have a 1-1 seating formation with a dominantly woody ambience; the second-generation Luxury cars have a 2-1 seating formation with a more modern ambience and a complimentary mini bar. Both generations have audio-video on demand (AVOD) displays and a relatively better comfort than Executive-class trains.
Japan
The term "First Class" was abolished on Japanese National Railways in May 1969, and was replaced by "Green cars". Green cars are identifiable by the green four-leaf clover logo—accompanied with the words "GREEN CAR" typeset in Clarendon—at the doorways, and all seats in these cars are reserved. Usually they are in 1-2 configuration, with 2-2 configuration for Shinkansen trains, although more exclusive accommodations have also been introduced. While "green cars" have traditionally been found on limited express services, in recent years, there has been a gradual trend to restore Green cars to longer-distance commuter lines in the Tokyo area, complete with "Green Attendants" who provide an at-seat refreshment service as well as checking tickets. On overnight trains, premium accommodations are known as A cabins, which may be couchettes, private rooms or suites.
Nagoya Railroad (Meitetsu) refers to its first-class coaches as its "myu-ticket" (ミューチケット) service. These coaches are somewhat more comfortable than economy class and include assigned seating.
The Netherlands
Similarly to Germany, Dutch trains have had two classes since 1956. On Intercity trains, first class has a 2+1 seating, as opposed to 2+2 in second class, can recline and feature a feet rest in coach seating and have power sockets. For commuter trains both first and second class are in 2+2 layout, the difference between second and first class is in the padding of the seats, an additional armrest, decorative lighting and being more quiet due to being located at the ends of the train. Most regional trains in the rural areas only contain second class. Since 2015 all new bought trains contain power sockets in both first and second class in agreement with the government.
Philippines
The PNR South Long Haul project's express trains will operate a three-class configuration starting in 2022. "First Class" was defined by the Philippine National Railways as being lower than business class but higher than second class. This is based on the China Railway layout and similar to the Austrian Railjet model, with First Class being more of a premium economy class equivalent for railways.
The express trainsets were ordered in late 2019 but these were cancelled by February 2021. However, these were again proposed for bidding five months after the cancellation, with the order for 21 trainsets or 63 cars scaled down to 3 trainsets or 9 cars.
A first class or similar offering is also expected to be used on the North–South Commuter Railway with the introduction of the – Airport Express Train service, which will be classified as limited express trains.
Qatar
The Doha Metro, which began trial service in 2019, has a "Gold Class" section in one end car, similar to that of Dubai (below).
Russia
The term "First Class" is not used as such by the Russian Railways, which has its own class system, but is commonly employed to translate the corresponding Russian term "SV" ("СВ" or "Спальный вагон", literally "Sleeping Car"). Note that while technically most cars in Russian long-distance trains are sleepers (i.e. berths rather than seats), the term is used only for the first-class cars. Such cars usually have 8 or 9 two-berth compartments with transversely mounted soft couches and a TV set, two toilets on different ends of the car, and a communal shower room (in 8-compartment cars). There is also a deluxe version of the SV car, usually dubbed "Premium", which features one-berth (or two-berth with foldable upper berth) compartments with a built in toilet/shower and better furnishing. This deluxe variant is sometimes informally referred to as "Myagky Vagon" (literally "Soft Car"), though this is a misnomer, as historically such designation indicated the intermediate between the SV and Coupe classes, long since discontinued, and referred to the better furnishing and softer padding of the berths as compared to the traditional Coupe class.
The service is usually the same in all classes on Russian Railways, the main difference being the increased personal space, reduced noise, and better isolation from unwanted contact with strangers, as well as better amenities; lower class cars may have a single shower per two couchette cars (54 passengers), while SV cars have one per 16 passengers, and in a Premium car each passenger has their own shower, an important consideration on lines such as the Trans-Siberian on which travel may last for up to a full week.
Spain
First-Class travel is not available on short-distance trains in Spain such as the Regionales or Cercanias services, but on long- and medium-distance trains such as the Altaria or Euromed services "Preferente" class, comparable to British first class, is available. This includes complimentary food and drinks (typically a welcome-aboard drink, including champagne, and drinks with the meal) as well as larger seats.
A further service is available on the high-speed AVE network. A club-class or preferente ticket allows access to lounges at certain stations. And onboard club-class service includes a large leather seat, power supply, à la carte food and unlimited complimentary bar service at your seat.
On all Spanish "Grandes Líneas" (long-haul) and Media Distancia (medium-haul) trains, video and music is available and accessed through complimentary headphones. Prices for first-class travel are not discounted other than for off-peak times of day and the price of a "preferente" ticket is normally only €30 - 40 more than economy, and club class on the AVE is normally only €40 more than "preferente" - significantly cheaper than most first-class fares in Britain.
United Kingdom
The existence and nature of different classes of passenger service on British trains has varied over time. From its inception, First, Second, and Third Class carriages were provided, alongside luxury Pullman coaches. Currently, most longer-distance services offer First Class and Standard Class, whilst most local and suburban services are single class – as are urban transit services such as the London Underground.
A First Class ticket offers access to dedicated sections of the train, nearly always featuring fewer but larger, and more comfortable seats, in a generally more spacious arrangement that provides more personal space, often a table and upgraded decor/carpeting, and in some cases additional amenities (such as power outlets for mobile phones or laptop computers and as well as upgraded lighting for each set of seats).
In addition to the dedicated seating, the current First Class rail experience may include access to a passenger lounge (at major departure and/or arrival stations) and additional on-board services, such as food and/or drinks service, complimentary newspapers, free onboard WiFi etc. Such on-board services vary widely; they can be distributed by train operating company, by route, by day of week (weekday or weekend), and by time of day. The most complete First Class experience is offered by long-distance train operators, such as Great Western Railway, Avanti West Coast, London North Eastern Railway, and Transport for Wales's Premier Service, especially on weekday morning and evening trains on high-volume routes, where it is targeted at business travelers.
On busy commuter services First Class seating is similar or identical to Standard Class. However its much higher cost ensures the First Class ticket holder a better chance of finding a seat. Some Train Operating Companies offer First Class fares that are often nearly double the fare of Standard class. On some services despite the existence of a First Class cabin, it is "declassified" indicating that any ticket holder may sit there, and first class tickets are usually not sold.
First Class service is also offered on the overnight Caledonian Sleeper service from London to Scotland.
Eurostar international trains between Great Britain and
continental Europe offer two distinct first-class services, which they call Business Premier and Standard Premier respectively, in addition to Standard Class. The on-board accommodation is the same; the difference is a greater flexibility, a shorter check-in time and more extensive catering (a full meal instead of a lighter snack) for the Business Premier service. Standard Premier was introduced on September 1, 2010; formerly, this service was called Leisure Select and also included full meal catering.
United States
From 1863, George Pullman introduced comfortable long-distance rail cars from, what was to become the Pullman Company, founded in 1867.
Today, on Amtrak services, first-class travel is available on the Acela Express service, as well as long-distance services operated with Superliner or Viewliner stock. Passengers also have access to special waiting rooms at many cities and high-traffic stations. First class on the Acela Express service has wider seats than the standard business class (44 vs. 65 seats per carriage), in-seat electrical outlets, a carriage attendant, and complimentary meals and beverages. On the long-distance services sleeping accommodation is provided, including Roomettes, Bedrooms, Bedroom Suites, and Accessible Bedrooms. Many rooms include a shower and toilet; for other rooms a toilet and/or shower is located nearby. Meals and other hotel-style services are also included in the price.
South Korea
KTX (Korea Train eXpress), KTX-Sancheon (Type A, B), Saemaeul, Mugunghwa (available only in some routes) class trains operate First Class service. Called Teukshil (특실), First Class offers larger and comfortable seats. KTX and KTX-Sancheon First Class service includes complimentary mineral water, a headphone, water tissues, and a sleeping shade. Usually First Class tickets are about 50% more expensive than Economy Class tickets. First Class is located on Car 2, 3, 4 on the KTX trains, Car 3 on the KTX-Sancheon trains, and car 1 on the Mugunghwa and Saemaeul trains. ITX (Intercity Train eXpress) - Saemaeul trains do not have a First Class car.
Switzerland
The Swiss Federal Railways offers both first- and second-class travel on all services. Only exemption being the RegioExpress between Neuchatel and Frasne. Most private railway operators also offer first class travel.
Taiwan
The Taiwan Railway Administration provided a first-class carriage on its limited express train from 1949 until 1953, when travelling classes were officially abolished.
United Arab Emirates
Part of one end car of each Dubai Metro train is designated as Gold Class, featuring individual seats, tray tables, and luggage compartments.
Cruise ships and liners
Some benefits of first class on modern cruise ships include larger cabins, priority check-in, priority embarkation and disembarkation, priority meal-sitting selection, and, on premium lines, butler service.
See also
First class (aviation)
Travel class
Passenger car (rail)
References
Airline tickets
Passenger rail transport
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254766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20Central%20Football%20Conference | Atlantic Central Football Conference | The Atlantic Central Football Conference (ACFC) was a college athletic conference which competed in football only in the NCAA Division III. Its member teams were located in Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. The conference disbanded following the 2010 season.
Member schools
Final member schools
* - The Apprentice School is not a college or university, and is not associated with either the NCAA or the NAIA. However, ever since the school was founded in 1919 it has fielded athletic teams (including football) that compete against small college NCAA/NAIA teams.
Other member schools
Championship teams
Individual records
Note: ACFC records are incomplete. Various sources have been used to attempt to complete the records, including individual schools' websites.
Offensive
Scoring
Game: 30 - DeNelle Hale, Frostburg vs. Apprentice, 10/27/01
and Leroy Satchell, Salisbury vs. Buffalo State, 10/15/05
Season: 11.3 ppg (102 pts) - Fred Edwards, Wesley, 2001
Scoring (TDs)
Game: 5 - DeNelle Hale, Frostburg vs. Apprentice, 10/27/01
and Leroy Satchell, Salisbury vs. Buffalo State, 10/15/05
Season: 19 Fred Edwards, Wesley, 2001
Rushing
Game: 282 - Kevin Nelson, Wesley vs. Chowan, 11/6/04
Yards/Game: 157.9 - Kevin Nelson, Wesley, 2004
Season: 1579 yds - Kevin Nelson, Wesley, 2004
Rushing Attempts
Game: 39 - Brandon Walker, Frostburg State vs. Methodist, 11/14/98
Season: 273, Brandon Walker, Frostburg State, 1998
Rushing TDs
Game: 5 - DeNelle Hale, Frostburg vs. Apprentice, 10/27/01
and Leroy Satchell, Salisbury vs. Buffalo State, 10/15/05
Season: 19 - Fred Edwards, Wesley, 2001
Passing Yds.
Game: 476 - Jason Visconti, Wesley vs. Rowan, 9/8/01
Yards/Game: 333.6 - Jason Visconti, Wesley, 2001
Season: 3710 yds - Chris Warrick, Wesley, 2005
Passing Attempts
Game: 65 - Grant Burrough, Frostburg State vs. Catholic, 10/19/02
Season: 421 - Grant Burrough, Frostburg State, 2002 and
Chris Warrick, Wesley, 2005
Career: 1,334 - Chris Warrick, Wesley, 2003–06
Passing Completions
Game: 35 - Grant Burrough, Frostburg State vs. Catholic, 10/19/02 and
Grant Burrough, Frostburg State vs. Waynesburg, 11/9/02
Season: 239 - Chris Warrick, Wesley, 2005
Career: 737 - Chris Warrick, Wesley, 2003–06
Pass Efficiency Rating
Season: 163.7 - Jason Visconti, Wesley, 2001
Passing TD
Game: 6 - Jason Visconti, Wesley vs. Apprentice, 10/14/00
Jason Visconti, Wesley vs. Apprentice, 10/13/01
Jason Visconti, Wesley vs. Chowan, 11/3/01
Season: 37 - Jason Visconti, Wesley, 2001 and
Chris Warrick, Wesley, 2005
Career: 100 - Chris Warrick, Wesley, 2003–06
Total Offense
Game: 464 yds - Jason Visconti, Wesley vs. Rowan, 9/8/01
Yards/Game: 321.5 - Jason Visconti, Wesley, 2001
Season: 3655 yds - Chris Warrick, Wesley, 2005
Receptions
Game: 16 - Greg Cooper, Frostburg State vs. Brockport State, 10/16/99
Season: 77 - Marcus Lee, Wesley, 2005
Season Average: 6.27 - Greg Cooper, Frostburg State, 1999
Receiving Yards
Game: 248 - Anthony Young, Frostburg State vs. Apprentice, 11/6/10
Season: 1304 - Mike Clarke, Wesley, 2006
Season Average: 100.4 - William Ray, Methodist, 1998
Receiving TDs
Game: 4 - Larry Beavers, Wesley vs. Mary Hardin-Baylor, 11/26/05 and
Mike Clarke, Wesley vs. Dickinson, 11/18/06
Season: 20 - Ellis Krout, Wesley, 2009
All-Purpose Yards
Game: 282 - Kevin Nelson, Wesley vs. Chowan, 11/6/04
Yards per Game: 189.2 - Brian Wise, SUNY Brockport, 2005
Season: 1892 - Brian Wise, SUNY Brockport, 2005
Longest Rushing Play
99 yds - Reggie Boyce, Salisbury vs. Chowan, 10/7/00
Longest Pass Play
93 yds - Grant Burrough to Anthony Long, Frostburg State vs. Waynesburg, 11/9/02
Passes Intercepted
Game: 6 - Jason Tipton, Apprentice vs. Salisbury, 10/20/01
Season: 17 - Chris Warrick, Wesley, 2005
Defensive
Interceptions
Game: 3 - many people
Season: 8 - Antwain Haskins, Chowan, 1998
Interceptions Per Game
Season: 0.80 - Antwain Haskins, Chowan, 1998
Interception Return Yards
Game: 100 - Duane Manson, Wesley vs. Stonehill, 11/7/98
Season: 204 - Duane Manson, Wesley, 1998
Longest Interception Return:
100 yds - Duane Manson, Wesley vs. Stonehill, 11/7/98
Sacks
Game: 5 - Tone Dancy, Ferrum at Chowan 10/14/00
Season: 14 Tone Dancy, Ferrum, 2000
Special teams
Scoring (Kicking) Season
Game: 16 pts - Jarred Boehner, Frostburg State vs. Wesley, 10/11/03 (4-4 PAT, 4-4 FG)
Season: 7.1 ppg (99 pts/14 gms ) - Christian Cattanea, Wesley, 2006
Field Goal Attempts
Game: 5 - Chris Carlton, Wesley vs. Frostburg State, 10/9/04
and Mark Sedlock, Frostburg State vs. Westminster, 10/29/05
Season: 18 - Brock Boland, Salisbury, 2004
and Mark Sedlock, Frostburg State, 2005
Field Goals
Game: 4 - Jarred Boehner, Frostburg State at Wesley, 10/11/03
Season: 1.44 FG/gm - Paul Jacko, Salisbury, 2001
Field Goal Pct.
Season: 88.9 (8-9) - Joe Cavaleri, Ferrum, 2000
Longest Field Goal
49 yds - Adam Lanctot, SUNY Brockport vs. College of New Jersey, 11/5/05
PAT Made
Game: 10 - Brock Boland, Salisbury vs. Apprentice, 10/1/05
Season: 64 - Chris Carlton, Wesley, 2005
PAT Attempts
Game: 10 - Brock Boland, Salisbury vs. Apprentice, 10/1/05
Season: 70 - Chris Carlton, Wesley, 2005
PAT Kicking Pct. (2 att/G)
Game: 100% many times, most 10-10 by Brock Boland, Salisbury vs. Apprentice, 10/1/05
Season: 95.8 (23-24) - Mark Sedlock, Frostburg State, 2005 and Adam Lanctot, SUNY Brockport, 2005
Punts
Game: 11 - Matt Henne, Chowan vs. Randolph-Macon, 9/26/98
11 - Richard Harr, Ferrum vs. Emory & Henry, 10/31/98
Season: 71 - Tim Loss, Frostburg State, 2000
Punting Yards
Game: 467 - Richard Harr, Ferrum vs. Emory & Henry, 10/31/98
Season: 40.9 avg - Richard Harr, Ferrum, 1998
Longest Punt
76 yds - Tom Vanik, Frostburg State vs. Montclair State, 9/17/05
Punt Returns
Game: 6 - many times
Season: 29 - Darrien Tucker, Methodist, 1998
Punt Return Yards
Game: 159 - Curtis Gore, Wesley vs. Husson, 10/25/03
Season: 513 - Curtis Gore, Wesley, 2003
Punt Return Average
Season: 18.3 yds/ret - Curtis Gore, Wesley, 2003
Longest Punt Return
95 yds - Curtis Gore, Wesley vs. Husson, 10/25/03
Kickoff Returns
Game: 6 - many times
Season: 33 - Albert Adderly, Methodist, 1999
Kickoff Return Yards
Game: 194 - Trae Hille, Apprentice School vs. Wesley, 10/12/01
Season: 845 - Byron Westbrook, Salisbury, 2005
Kickoff Return Average
Season: 39.2 yds/ret - Tony Hill, Salisbury State, 1998
Longest Kickoff Return
97 yds - Kodi Smith, Ferrum vs. Greensboro, 9/19/98
97 yds - Tony Hill, Salisbury State vs. William Paterson, 11/13/98
Team records
NOTE: ACFC records are incomplete. Various sources have been used to attempt to complete the records, including individual schools' websites.
Longest Winning Streak
13 games - Wesley (twice), 9/2/06 to 12/9/06, and 9/5/09 to 12/5/09
Longest Losing Streak
9 Games - Apprentice, 9/26/09 to 9/11/10
Scoring Offense
Game: 77 - Salisbury vs. Apprentice, 10/1/05
Season - Points: 581 - Wesley, 2005
Season Average: 44.5 ppg - Wesley, 2001
Scoring Defense
Game: 0 pts allowed, by many teams
Season: 7.7 ppg allowed - Ferrum, 2000
Pass Offense
Game: 476 - Wesley College vs. Rowan University, 9/8/01
Season: 336.9 yds/gm - Wesley College, 2001
Pass Defense
Game: 1 yd allowed - Wesley vs. Madison, 9/12/98
Season: 84.7 yds/gm - Ferrum, 2000
Rushing Offense
Game: 477 yds - Salisbury vs. Greensboro, 9/23/00
477 yds - Salisbury at Methodist, 9/21/02
Season: 330.4 yds/gm - Salisbury, 2005
Rushing Defense
Game: -41 yds - Wesley vs. Averett, 9/10/05
Season: 80.8 yds/gm allowed - Ferrum, 2000
Total Offense
Game: 643 yds - Wesley vs. Salisbury, 10/29/05
Season: 485.5 yds/gm (4855 yds) - Wesley, 2001
Total Defense
Game: -29 yds - Wesley vs. Madison, 9/12/98
Season: 165.5 yds allowed - Ferrum, 2000
3rd-Down Conversions
Season: .440 (84-191) - Wesley, 2005
4th-Down Conversions
Season: .842 (16-18) - Ferrum, 1999
Sacks For
Season: 39 - Wesley, 2005
Sacks Against
Season: 7 - Methodist, 2000
Field Goals
Season: .800 (12-15) - Wesley, 2006
PAT Kicking
Season: .931 (27-29) - Salisbury, 2001
Kickoff Returns
Game: 10 - Apprentice School vs. Salisbury, 10/1/05
Buffalo State vs. Salisbury, 10/15/05
Season: 25.6 yds/ret - Wesley, 1998
Punting Yards
Game: 467 - Ferrum vs. Emory & Henry, 10/31/98
Season: 39.1 yds/punt - Apprentice School, 2005
Turnover Margin
Season: 1.5 avg - Wesley, 2001
Punt Returns
Season: 18.7 yds/ret - Wesley, 2003
Pass Efficiency
Season: 154.93 rating - Wesley, 2001
Pass Efficiency Defense
Season: 64.46 rating - Ferrum, 2000
First Downs
Game: 35 - Wesley vs. Chowan, 11/3/01
Season: 285 - Wesley, 2005
Fewest First Downs Allowed
Game: 4 allowed - Ferrum vs. Averett, 9/2/00
Season: 89 - Ferrum, 2000
Penalties (fewest)
Season: 36 - Apprentice, 2003 (309 yds)
Yearly standings
Awards
References
External links | [
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254769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research%20and%20development | Research and development | Research and development (R&D, R+D), known in Europe as research and technological development (RTD), is the set of innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments in developing new services or products, and improving existing ones. Research and development constitutes the first stage of development of a potential new service or the production process.
R&D activities differ from institution to institution, with two primary models of an R&D department either staffed by engineers and tasked with directly developing new products, or staffed with industrial scientists and tasked with applied research in scientific or technological fields, which may facilitate future product development. R&D differs from the vast majority of corporate activities in that it is not intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk and an uncertain return on investment. However R&D is crucial for acquiring larger shares of the market through the marketisation of new products. R&D&I or R&D&i are also acronyms with the same general meaning of R&D and stand for research, development and innovation.
Background
New product design and development is often a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In a global industrial landscape that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and range of products. This is necessary as well due to the fierce competition and the evolving preferences of consumers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, and networks to tap into the innovations of others.
A system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and produces goods that are known to sell. Market research is carried out, which establishes the needs of consumers and the potential niche market of a new product. If the development is technology driven, R&D is directed toward developing products to meet the unmet needs.
In general, research and development activities are conducted by specialized units or centers belonging to a company, or can be out-sourced to a contract research organization, universities, or state agencies. In the context of commerce, "research and development" normally refers to future-oriented, longer-term activities in science or technology, using similar techniques to scientific research but directed toward desired outcomes and with broad forecasts of commercial yield.
Statistics on organizations devoted to "R&D" may express the state of an industry, the degree of competition or the lure of progress. Some common measures include: budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are continuously maintained, public and reflect risk.
In the United States, a typical ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3.5% of revenues; this measure is called "R&D intensity". A high technology company, such as a computer manufacturer, might spend 7% or a pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co. 14.1% or Novartis 15.1%. Anything over 15% is remarkable, and usually gains a reputation for being a high technology company such as engineering company Ericsson 24.9%, or biotech company Allergan, which tops the spending table with 43.4% investment. Such companies are often seen as credit risks because their spending ratios are so unusual.
Generally such firms prosper only in markets whose customers have extreme high technology needs, like certain prescription drugs or special chemicals, scientific instruments, and safety-critical systems in medicine, aeronautics or military weapons. The extreme needs justify the high risk of failure and consequently high gross margins from 60% to 90% of revenues. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, because so many individual projects yield no exploitable product. Most industrial companies get 40% revenues only.
On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and repackage advanced technologies as a way of amortizing the high overhead. They often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems.
Research from 2000 has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment program.
Business R&D
Research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, "higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share". Research is the most risky financing area because both the development of an invention and its successful realization carries uncertainty including the profitability of the invention. One way entrepreneurs can reduce these uncertainties is to buy the licence for a franchise, so that the know-how is already incorporated in the licence.
Benefit by sector
In general, it has been found that there is a positive correlation between the research and development and firm productivity across all sectors, but that this positive correlation is much stronger in high-tech firms than in low-tech firms. In research done by Francesco Crespi and Cristiano Antonelli, high-tech firms were found to have "virtuous" Matthew effects while low-tech firms experienced "vicious" Matthew effects, meaning that high-tech firms were awarded subsidies on merit while low-tech firms most often were given subsidies based on name recognition, even if not put to good use. While the strength of the correlation between R&D spending and productivity in low-tech industries is less than in high-tech industries, studies have been done showing non-trivial carryover effects to other parts of the marketplace by low-tech R&D.
Risks
Business R&D is risky for at least two reasons. The first source of risks comes from R&D nature, where R&D project could fail without residual values. The second source of risks comes from takeover risks, which means R&D is appealing to bidders because they could gain technologies from acquisition targets. Therefore, firms may gain R&D profit that co-moves with takeover waves, causing risks to the company which engages in R&D activity.
Global
Global R&D management is the discipline of designing and leading R&D processes globally, across cultural and lingual settings, and the transfer of knowledge across international corporate networks.
Government expenditures
United States
President Barack Obama requested $147.696 billion for research and development in FY2012, 21% of which was destined to fund basic research. According to National Science Foundation in U.S., in 2015, R&D expenditures performed by federal government and local governments are 54 and 0.6 billions of dollars. The federal research and development budget for fiscal year 2020 was $156 billion, 41.4% of which was for the Department of Defense (DOD). DOD's total research, development, test, and evaluation budget was roughly $108.5 billion.
European Union
Research and innovation in Europe are financially supported by the programme Horizon 2020, which is open to participation worldwide.
A notable example is the European environmental research and innovation policy, based on the Europe 2020 strategy which will run from 2014 to 2020, a multidisciplinary effort to provide safe, economically feasible, environmentally sound and socially acceptable solutions along the entire value chain of human activities.
Worldwide
In 2015, research and development constituted an average 2.2% of the global GDP according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
By 2018, research and development constituted an average 1.79% of the global GDP according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Countries agreed in 2015 to monitor their progress in raising research intensity (SDG 9.5.1), as well as researcher density (SDG 9.5.2), as part of their commitment to reaching the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. However, this undertaking has not spurred an increase in reporting of data. On the contrary, a total of 99 countries reported data on domestic investment in research in 2015 but only 69 countries in 2018. Similarly, 59 countries recorded the number of researchers (in full-time equivalents) in 2018, down from 90 countries in 2015. UNESCO Institute for Statistics is the global custodian of these R&D data; data can be freely obtained from the UIS database.
See also
Basic research
Demonstration
Industrial laboratory
Innovation
List of business and finance abbreviations
List of companies by research and development spending
List of countries by research and development spending
Neglected tropical disease research and development
Prototype
Science of science policy
Science policy
Technological revolution
Technology life cycle
References
Sources
External links
Innovation
Product development
Development | [
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254772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College%20Conference%20of%20Illinois%20and%20Wisconsin | College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin | The College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin (CCIW) is a college athletic conference which competes in the NCAA's Division III.
CCIW schools have accounted for 47 national championships in NCAA Division III competition, including 15 in men's cross country, six in men's basketball, six in men's outdoor track and field, five in football, four men's indoor track and field, three in women's soccer, two in women's outdoor track and field, women's basketball and men's soccer and one apiece in baseball, women's indoor track and field, and men's volleyball.
Elmhurst College won a pair of Division III women's volleyball championships (1983 and 1985), and North Central College won a women's basketball title (1983) before the conference began sponsorship of women's athletics in 1986-87.
North Central men's cross country won its 13th national title in program history during the fall of 2009, while the North Central men's indoor track and field team captured the 2010 national championship. The Cardinals made it clean sweep by winning the men's outdoor track and field title in the spring of 2010. In addition, the Illinois Wesleyan women's outdoor track and field team, as well as the baseball team, took home national titles, giving the CCIW five national championships during the 2009–10 season.
North Central defended its titles in men's indoor track and field and outdoor track and field in the spring of 2011 while the Cardinals won their second men's cross country title in three seasons in the fall of 2011 and their third-straight indoor track and field title in 2012. Illinois Wesleyan won the conference's second women's basketball national title in 2012.
History
The conference was formed with nine charter members (Augustana College, Carthage College, Elmhurst College, Illinois College, Illinois Wesleyan University, Lake Forest College, Millikin University, North Central College and Wheaton College) on April 26, 1946, in Jacksonville, Illinois, and opened competition in the 1946–47 academic year as the College Conference of Illinois. In 1967, the name was changed to the College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin to recognize Carthage, which moved to Kenosha, Wisconsin in 1962, and Carroll University, which entered the conference in 1955.
The CCIW sponsors 25 sports: baseball, men's and women's basketball, women's bowling, men's and women's cross country, football, men's and women's golf, men's and women's lacrosse, men's and women's soccer, softball, men's and women's swimming, men's and women's tennis, men's and women's indoor track and field, men's and women's outdoor track and field, men's and women's volleyball and wrestling. The most recently added sports are men's volleyball, which started play in the 2020 season (2019–20 school year), and bowling, which started play in 2020–21.
CCIW membership has experienced several changes since its inception. After Carthage left in 1952, Illinois College withdrew the following year (1953). Elmhurst and Wheaton withdrew following the 1959–60 academic year. Wheaton re-joined for all sports but football in 1967 (and for football in 1970). Elmhurst re-joined in the fall of 1967 for all sports but football (and for football in 1968). Carroll joined during the 1955 spring sports season (1954-55 academic season). Carthage returned in the fall of 1961, and North Park University entered the following fall (1962). Lake Forest dropped out at the end of the 1962–63 academic year. The last member to leave the CCIW was Carroll following the 1991–92 academic year. Carroll returned to the CCIW in 2016. In 2007, Rose–Hulman Institute of Technology, located in Terre Haute, Indiana, joined the CCIW as an associate member for men's and women's swimming. After 2017, Rose–Hulman left as an associate member shortly before its full-time home of the Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference (HCAC) announced it would add swimming.
The CCIW lost one affiliate member and gained two in 2020. Greenville University, which had moved its men's volleyball program from the single-sport Midwest Collegiate Volleyball League to the CCIW in 2019–20, downgraded the sport from varsity to club status after that school year. With the addition of bowling, Lakeland University, a wrestling affiliate since 2016–17, added bowling to its CCIW membership, while Aurora University and Marian University became affiliates in that sport.
Member schools
Current members
The league currently has nine full members.
Notes
Affiliate members
The "Joined" column indicates the calendar year of entry, which for spring sports will differ from the first season of competition.
Former members
Former affiliate members
Notes
Membership timeline
Sports
In 2015, men's and women's lacrosse were added as sanctioned sports by the CCIW. The CCIW announced the inclusion of men's volleyball for the 2020 season (2019–20 school year), with bowling (an NCAA sport for women only) added in 2020–21.
The CCIW sponsors championships in the following sports:
National championships
References
External links
College sports in Illinois
College sports in Wisconsin | [
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254773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail%20Glinka | Mikhail Glinka | Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (; ) was the first Russian composer to gain wide recognition within his own country and is often regarded as the fountainhead of Russian classical music. His compositions were an important influence on Russian composers, notably the members of The Five, who produced a distinctive Russian style of music.
Early life and education
Glinka was born in the village of Novospasskoye, not far from the Desna River in the Smolensk Governorate of the Russian Empire (now in the Yelninsky District of the Smolensk Oblast). His wealthy father had retired as an army captain, and the family had a strong tradition of loyalty and service to the tsars, and several members of his extended family had lively cultural interests. His great-great-grandfather was a Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth nobleman, Wiktoryn Władysław Glinka of the Trzaska coat of arms who was given lands in the Smolensk Voivodeship. In 1655, Wiktoryn converted to Eastern Orthodoxy with the new name Yakov Yakovlevich (Jacob, son of Jacob), and remained the owner of his lands under the tsar. The coat of arms was originally received after the conversion to Catholicism according to the Union of Horodło.
Mikhail was raised by his overprotective and pampering paternal grandmother, who fed him sweets, wrapped him in furs, and confined him to her room, which was kept at Accordingly, he developed a sickly disposition, later in his life retaining the services of numerous physicians, and often falling victim to quacks. The only music he heard in his youthful confinement was the sounds of the village church bells and the folk songs of passing peasant choirs. The church bells were tuned to a dissonant chord, and so his ears became used to strident harmony. While his nurse would sometimes sing folksongs, the peasant choirs who sang using the podgolosochnaya technique (an improvised style—literally "under the voice"—using improvised dissonant harmonies below the melody) influenced his independence from the smooth progressions of Western harmony.
After his grandmother's death, he moved to his maternal uncle's estate some away, where he heard his uncle's orchestra, whose repertoire included Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. At the age of about ten he heard them play a clarinet quartet by Finnish composer Bernhard Henrik Crusell, which had a profound effect upon him. "Music is my soul", he wrote many years later, recalling the experience. While his governess taught him Russian, German, French and geography, he also received instruction on the piano and violin.
At 13, Glinka went to the capital, Saint Petersburg, to attend a school for children of the nobility. He learned Latin, English, and Persian, studied mathematics and zoology, and considerably widened his musical experience. He had three piano lessons from John Field, the Irish composer of nocturnes, who spent some time in Saint Petersburg. He then continued his piano lessons with Charles Mayer and began composing.
When he left school his father wanted him to join the Foreign Office, and he was appointed assistant secretary of the Department of Public Highways. The light work allowed Glinka to settle into the life of a musical dilettante, frequenting the city's drawing rooms and social gatherings. He was already composing a large amount of music, such as melancholy romances which amused the rich amateurs. His songs are among the most interesting parts of his work from this period.
In 1830, at a physician's recommendation, Glinka traveled to Italy with tenor . They took a leisurely pace, ambling through Germany and Switzerland, before settling in Milan. There, Glinka took lessons at the conservatory with Francesco Basili. He struggled with counterpoint, which he found irksome. After three years listening to singers, romancing women with his music, and meeting famous people including Mendelssohn and Berlioz, he became disenchanted with Italy. He realized that his life's mission was to return to Russia, write in a Russian manner, and do for Russian music what Donizetti and Bellini had done for Italian music.
His return took him through the Alps, and he stopped for a while in Vienna, where he heard the music of Franz Liszt. He stayed another five months in Berlin, where he studied composition under the distinguished teacher Siegfried Dehn. A Capriccio on Russian Themes for piano duet and an unfinished Symphony on Two Russian Themes were important products of this period.
When word reached Glinka of his father's death in 1834, he left Berlin and returned to Novospasskoye.
Career
While in Berlin, Glinka became enamored of a beautiful and talented singer, for whom he composed Six Studies for Contralto. He contrived a plan to return to her, but when his sister's German maid turned up without the necessary paperwork to cross to the border with him, he abandoned his plan as well as his love and turned north for Saint Petersburg. There he reunited with his mother, and made the acquaintance of Maria Petrovna Ivanova. After a brief courtship, they married, but was short-lived, as Maria was tactless and uninterested in his music. His initial fondness for her was said to have inspired the trio in the first act of his opera A Life for the Tsar (1836), but his naturally sweet disposition coarsened under his wife's and mother-in-law's constant criticism. When the marriage ended, she remarried, and Glinka moved in with his mother, and later with his sister, Lyudmila Shestakova.
A Life for the Tsar was the first of Glinka's two great operas. It was originally entitled Ivan Susanin. Set in 1612, it tells the story of the Russian peasant and patriotic hero Ivan Susanin who sacrifices his life for the Tsar by leading astray a group of marauding Poles who were hunting him. The Tsar himself followed the work's progress with interest and suggested the change in the title. It was a great success at its premiere on 9 December 1836, under the direction of Catterino Cavos, who had written an opera on the same subject in Italy. The Tsar rewarded Glinka for his work with a ring valued at 4,000 rubles. (During the Soviet era, the opera was staged under its original title, Ivan Susanin.)
In 1837, Glinka was installed as the instructor of the Imperial Chapel Choir, with a yearly salary of 25,000 rubles and lodging at the court. In 1838, at the Tsar's suggestion, he traveled to Ukraine to gather new voices for the choir; the 19 new boys he found earned him another 1,500 rubles from the Tsar.
He soon embarked on his second opera, Ruslan and Lyudmila. The plot, based on the tale by Alexander Pushkin, was concocted in 15 minutes by Konstantin Bakhturin, a poet who was drunk at the time. Consequently, the opera is a dramatic muddle, yet the quality of Glinka's music is higher than in A Life for the Tsar. The override features a descending whole tone scale associated with the villainous dwarf Chernomor, who has abducted Lyudmila, daughter of the Prince of Kiev. There is much Italianate coloratura, and Act 3 contains several routine ballet numbers, but Glinka's great achievement lies in his use of folk melody which becomes thoroughly infused into the musical argument. Much of the borrowed folk material is oriental in origin. When it debuted on 9 December 1842, it was received coolly, but subsequently gained popularity.
Later years
Glinka went through a dejected year after the poor reception of Ruslan and Lyudmila. His spirits rose when he travelled to Paris and Spain. In Spain he met Don Pedro Fernández, his secretary and companion for the last nine years of his life. In Paris, Hector Berlioz conducted some excerpts from Glinka's operas and wrote an appreciative article about him. Glinka in turn admired Berlioz's music and resolved to compose some fantasies pittoresques for orchestra. Beginning in 1852, he spent two years in Paris, living quietly and frequently visiting the botanical and zoological gardens. He then moved to Berlin where, after five months, he died suddenly on 15 February 1857, following a cold. He was buried in Berlin, but a few months later his body was taken to Saint Petersburg and reinterred in the cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery.
The genesis of a Russian style
Glinka was the beginning of a new direction in Russian music. Musical culture arrived in Russia from Europe, and for the first time specifically Russian music began to appear, in Glinka's operas. Historical events were often used as its basis, but for the first time they were presented realistically.
The first to note this new direction was Alexander Serov. He was then joined by his friend Vladimir Stasov, who became the theorist of this cultural trend; it was developed further by composers of "The Five".
Modern Russian music critic Viktor Korshikov wrote: "Russian musical culture [would not have developed] without...three operas—Ivan Soussanine, Ruslan and Ludmila, and the Stone Guest have created Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov and Borodin. Soussanine is an opera where the main character is the people; Ruslan is the mythical, deeply Russian intrigue; and in Guest, the drama dominates over the softness of the beauty of sound." Two of these operas—Ivan Soussanine and Ruslan and Ludmila—were Glinka's.
Glinka's work, and that of the composers and other creative people he inspired, has been instrumental in the development of a distinctly Russian artistic style that occupies a prominent place in world culture.
Legacy
After Glinka's death, the relative merits of his two operas became a topic of heated debate in the musical press, especially between Vladimir Stasov and his former friend Alexander Serov. Glinka's orchestral composition Kamarinskaya (1848) was said by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky to be "the acorn from which the oak" of later Russian symphonic music grew.
In 1884, Mitrofan Belyayev founded the annual Glinka Prize, whose early winners included Alexander Borodin, Mily Balakirev, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Cesar Cui and Anatoly Lyadov.
Outside Russia, several of Glinka's orchestral works have been fairly popular in concerts and recordings. Besides the well-known overtures to the operas (especially the brilliantly energetic overture to Ruslan), his major orchestral works include the symphonic poem Kamarinskaya (1848), based on Russian folk songs; and two Spanish works, A Night in Madrid (1848, 1851) and Jota Aragonesa (1845). He also composed many art songs and piano pieces, and some chamber music.
A lesser work that received attention in the last decade of the 20th century was Glinka's "Patrioticheskaya Pesnya", supposedly written for a contest for a national anthem in 1833. In 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Russia adopted it as the regional anthem of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which till then was the only Soviet constituent state without its own anthem. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Russian SFSR, the hymn was retained unofficially until it was officially confirmed as the Russian national anthem in 1993, where it remained as such until 2000.
Three Russian conservatories are named after Glinka:
Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory ()
Novosibirsk State Conservatory ()
Magnitogorsk State Conservatory ()
Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh named a minor planet 2205 Glinka in his honor. It was discovered in 1973. A crater on Mercury is also named after him.
Glinkastraße in Berlin was named in Glinka's honor. In the wake of the George Floyd protests, the Berlin U-Bahn station Mohrenstraße was proposed to be renamed "Glinkastraße", which is adjacent to the station. The plan was cancelled due to Glinka's reputed antisemitism.
In popular culture
The stirring overture to Glinka's opera Ruslan and Lyudmila is heard as the theme of the long-running U.S. television comedy series Mom. Its creators felt the fast-paced, complex orchestral music reflected the characters' struggles to overcome their destructive habits and keep up with the demands of daily life.
Works
See: List of compositions by Mikhail Glinka.
Media
References
Notes
Sources
Brown, David (1974). Mikhail Glinka, a biographical and critical study, Oxford University Press.
Glinka Mikhail Ivanovich, biographic encyclopedia, in Russian on biografija.ru
Knowles, John Paine (Ed.), Theodore Thomas, and Karl Klauser (1891). Famous Composers and Their Works, J.B. Millet Company.
Taruskin, Richard, "Glinka, Mikhail" in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, (Ed.) Stanley Sadie (London, 1992)
External links
List of works
Cylinder recording of a Glinka composition, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.
Glinka – the author of Russian national anthem by K.Kovalev
A short video from 1998
Turgenev and Glinka (with music samples)
1804 births
1857 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century male musicians
19th-century Russian people
Burials at Tikhvin Cemetery
Composers of the Russian Empire
Monarchists of the Russian Empire
People of the Russian Empire of Polish descent
Male opera composers
National anthem writers
Pupils of Siegfried Dehn
Russian male classical composers
Russian opera composers
Russian Romantic composers
Russian nobility | [
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254776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centennial%20Conference | Centennial Conference | The Centennial Conference is an athletic conference which competes in the NCAA's Division III. Member teams are located in Maryland and Pennsylvania.
Eleven private colleges compose the Centennial Conference. Five of ten members of the Centennial Conference rank among the top 50 national liberal arts colleges and Johns Hopkins University is tied for tenth among national universities.
On average, Centennial members sponsor 19 varsity teams. Conference members have won seventeen NCAA team titles: Johns Hopkins women's cross country (2012, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2021), Gettysburg women's lacrosse (2011, 2017, 2018), Haverford men's cross country (2010), Franklin & Marshall women's lacrosse (2007, 2009), Ursinus field hockey (2006), Washington men's lacrosse (1998), and Washington men's tennis (1994, 1997).
History
According to the Centennial Conference's web site: "On June 4, 1981, Keith Spalding, then-president of Franklin & Marshall College, made the announcement that "eight private colleges found it timely and appropriate to form a round-robin football schedule among institutions with similar attitudes and practices in intercollegiate football competition." With that statement, the Centennial Conference was born. Those private colleges were Dickinson College, Franklin & Marshall College, Gettysburg College, Johns Hopkins University, Muhlenberg College, Swarthmore College, Ursinus College, and Western Maryland College (later renamed and now known as McDaniel College).
The conference moved from a football-only conference to an all-sports conference after a 1991 feasibility study. The study also recommended to expand from eight schools to eleven. The other schools recommended were Bryn Mawr College, Haverford College, and Washington College. Those three schools accepted and became charter members in 1992 as the conference expanded its sports offerings.
All of the charter members defected from the Middle Atlantic Conference (MAC). Johns Hopkins and McDaniel College both played in the Mason-Dixon Conference prior to entering the MAC in 1975.
Chronological timeline
1981 - On June 4, 1981, the Centennial Conference was founded as a football-only league, then known as the Centennial Football Conference. Charter members included Dickinson College, Franklin & Marshall College, Gettysburg College, Johns Hopkins University, Muhlenberg College, Swarthmore College, Ursinus College, and Western Maryland College (now McDaniel College).
1992 - The Centennial Football Conference became the Centennial Conference when the conference expanded to add other sports, effective the 1992-93 academic year. Bryn Mawr College, Haverford College and Washington College also joined the newly-formed all-sports conference.
1998 - Washington and Lee University joined the Centennial as an affiliate member for men's wrestling, effective the 1998-99 academic year.
2001 - Johns Hopkins left the University Athletic Association (UAA) to fully align with the Centennial Conference for all the sports being sponsored, effective the 2001-02 academic year.
2004 - The United States Merchant Marine Academy (Merchant Marine) and Stevens Institute of Technology (Stevens or Stevens Tech) joined the Centennial as affiliate members for men's wrestling, effective the 2004-05 academic year.
2007 - Juniata College and Moravian College joined the Centennial as affiliate members for football, effective the 2007 fall season (2007-08 academic year).
2010 - Susquehanna University joined the Centennial as an affiliate member for football and women's golf, effective the 2010-11 academic year.
2012 - New York University joined the Centennial as an affiliate member for men's wrestling, effective the 2012-13 academic year.
2016 - NYU left the Centennial as an affiliate member for wrestling, effective the 2015-16 academic year.
2017 - Susquehanna left the Centennial as an affiliate member for women's golf, effective the 2017 spring season (2016-17 academic year).
2017 - Marymount University and Neumann University joined the Centennial as affiliate members for women's golf, effective the 2018 spring season (2017-18 academic year).
2019 - Neumann left the Centennial as an affiliate member for women's golf and Stevens left the Centennial as an affiliate member for men's wrestling, effective the 2018-19 academic year.
2019 - Cabrini University joined the Centennial as an affiliate member for women's golf to replace Neumann's spot, effective the 2020 spring season (2019-20 academic year).
2023 - Football affiliates Juniata, Moravian and Susquehanna will depart for the new football league started in the Landmark Conference, effective after the 2022 fall season (2022-23 academic year).
Member schools
Current members
Notes
Affiliate members
Notes
Former affiliate members
Membership timeline
Sports
The Centennial Conference sponsors championships in the following sports:
Men's sponsored sports by school
Notes
Men's varsity sports not sponsored by the Centennial Conference that are played by Landmark schools
Women's sponsored sports by school
Notes
Women's varsity sports not sponsored by the Centennial Conference that are played by Landmark schools
Current champions
See also
Centennial Conference football
Centennial Conference Men's Basketball Tournament
References
External links | [
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254777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometry | Isometry | In mathematics, an isometry (or congruence, or congruent transformation) is a distance-preserving transformation between metric spaces, usually assumed to be bijective.
Introduction
Given a metric space (loosely, a set and a scheme for assigning distances between elements of the set), an isometry is a transformation which maps elements to the same or another metric space such that the distance between the image elements in the new metric space is equal to the distance between the elements in the original metric space.
In a two-dimensional or three-dimensional Euclidean space, two geometric figures are congruent if they are related by an isometry; the isometry that relates them is either a rigid motion (translation or rotation), or a composition of a rigid motion and a reflection.
Isometries are often used in constructions where one space is embedded in another space. For instance, the completion of a metric space M involves an isometry from M into M, a quotient set of the space of Cauchy sequences on M.
The original space M is thus isometrically isomorphic to a subspace of a complete metric space, and it is usually identified with this subspace.
Other embedding constructions show that every metric space is isometrically isomorphic to a closed subset of some normed vector space and that every complete metric space is isometrically isomorphic to a closed subset of some Banach space.
An isometric surjective linear operator on a Hilbert space is called a unitary operator.
Isometry definition
Let X and Y be metric spaces with metrics (e.g., distances) dX and dY.
A map f : X → Y is called an isometry or distance preserving if for any a,b ∈ X one has
An isometry is automatically injective; otherwise two distinct points, a and b, could be mapped to the same point, thereby contradicting the coincidence axiom of the metric d.
This proof is similar to the proof that an order embedding between partially ordered sets is injective. Clearly, every isometry between metric spaces is a topological embedding.
A global isometry, isometric isomorphism or congruence mapping is a bijective isometry. Like any other bijection, a global isometry has a function inverse.
The inverse of a global isometry is also a global isometry.
Two metric spaces X and Y are called isometric if there is a bijective isometry from X to Y.
The set of bijective isometries from a metric space to itself forms a group with respect to function composition, called the isometry group.
There is also the weaker notion of path isometry or arcwise isometry:
A path isometry or arcwise isometry is a map which preserves the lengths of curves; such a map is not necessarily an isometry in the distance preserving sense, and it need not necessarily be bijective, or even injective.
This term is often abridged to simply isometry, so one should take care to determine from context which type is intended.
Examples
Any reflection, translation and rotation is a global isometry on Euclidean spaces. See also Euclidean group and .
The map in is a path isometry but not an isometry. Note that unlike an isometry, it is not injective.
Isometries between normed spaces
The following theorem is due to Mazur and Ulam. Definition: The midpoint of two elements and in a vector space is the vector .
Linear isometry
Given two normed vector spaces and , a linear isometry is a linear map that preserves the norms:
for all .
Linear isometries are distance-preserving maps in the above sense.
They are global isometries if and only if they are surjective.
In an inner product space, the above definition reduces to
for all , which is equivalent to saying that . This also implies that isometries preserve inner products, as
Linear isometries are not always unitary operators, though, as those require additionally that and .
By the Mazur–Ulam theorem, any isometry of normed vector spaces over R is affine.
Examples
A linear map from Cn to itself is an isometry (for the dot product) if and only if its matrix is unitary.
Manifold
An isometry of a manifold is any (smooth) mapping of that manifold into itself, or into another manifold that preserves the notion of distance between points.
The definition of an isometry requires the notion of a metric on the manifold; a manifold with a (positive-definite) metric is a Riemannian manifold, one with an indefinite metric is a pseudo-Riemannian manifold. Thus, isometries are studied in Riemannian geometry.
A local isometry from one (pseudo-)Riemannian manifold to another is a map which pulls back the metric tensor on the second manifold to the metric tensor on the first. When such a map is also a diffeomorphism, such a map is called an isometry (or isometric isomorphism), and provides a notion of isomorphism ("sameness") in the category Rm of Riemannian manifolds.
Definition
Let and be two (pseudo-)Riemannian manifolds, and let be a diffeomorphism. Then is called an isometry (or isometric isomorphism) if
where denotes the pullback of the rank (0, 2) metric tensor by .
Equivalently, in terms of the pushforward , we have that for any two vector fields on (i.e. sections of the tangent bundle ),
If is a local diffeomorphism such that , then is called a local isometry.
Properties
A collection of isometries typically form a group, the isometry group. When the group is a continuous group, the infinitesimal generators of the group are the Killing vector fields.
The Myers–Steenrod theorem states that every isometry between two connected Riemannian manifolds is smooth (differentiable). A second form of this theorem states that the isometry group of a Riemannian manifold is a Lie group.
Riemannian manifolds that have isometries defined at every point are called symmetric spaces.
Generalizations
Given a positive real number ε, an ε-isometry or almost isometry (also called a Hausdorff approximation) is a map between metric spaces such that
for one has , and
for any point there exists a point with
That is, an ε-isometry preserves distances to within ε and leaves no element of the codomain further than ε away from the image of an element of the domain. Note that ε-isometries are not assumed to be continuous.
The restricted isometry property characterizes nearly isometric matrices for sparse vectors.
Quasi-isometry''' is yet another useful generalization.
One may also define an element in an abstract unital C*-algebra to be an isometry:
is an isometry if and only if .
Note that as mentioned in the introduction this is not necessarily a unitary element because one does not in general have that left inverse is a right inverse.
On a pseudo-Euclidean space, the term isometry'' means a linear bijection preserving magnitude. See also Quadratic spaces.
See also
Beckman–Quarles theorem
The second dual of a Banach space as an isometric isomorphism
Euclidean plane isometry
Flat (geometry)
Homeomorphism group
Involution
Isometry group
Motion (geometry)
Myers–Steenrod theorem
3D isometries that leave the origin fixed
Partial isometry
Scaling (geometry)
Semidefinite embedding
Space group
Symmetry in mathematics
References
Bibliography
Bibliography
Functions and mappings
Metric geometry
Symmetry
Equivalence (mathematics)
Riemannian geometry | [
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254780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanstead%2C%20Quebec | Stanstead, Quebec | Stanstead is a town in the Memphrémagog Regional County Municipality in the Estrie region of Quebec, located on the Canada–United States border across from Derby Line, Vermont.
The Town of Stanstead was created in 1995 by the merger of the former villages of Stanstead Plain and Beebe (formerly Beebe Plain) and the Town of Rock Island. It is not to be confused with the township of Stanstead, which is nearby although not directly adjacent (the municipality of Ogden lies in between). Not only is Stanstead home to the Haskell Free Library and Opera House—the only heritage building deliberately constructed straddling the border between both countries—it also features Canusa Street, one of a number of streets in the world where the country border corresponds to the middle line marker, effectively making across-the-street neighbors residents of two countries.
History
Prior to merging, Stanstead Plain, Rock Island and Beebe were known informally as "les trois villages" or "the Three Villages," although originally, "the Three Villages" referred to Stanstead Plain, Rock Island and Derby Line, Vt., each of which ran into the next.
In 1940, traffic on Quebec Route 143—the area's main route at the time—was halted due to snowfall from March 22 to April 3. Dufferin Heights was most affected. As volunteers attempted to clear the road with shovels, the snow banks became so high that steps needed to be carved into them. Trains were similarly affected, although able to dig out more quickly.
Stanstead Plain
Stanstead Plain was founded in 1796 by Johnson Taplin, who came from New England in search of good farming land.
The Mansur (red brick) one-room school was built in 1819. It is the oldest one-room school remaining in Quebec.
The town grew in the 19th century, due to the influx of United Empire Loyalists and the development of the granite industry. In 1855, the village was incorporated by the Quebec legislature. The town was the main centre of commerce of the region through the late 18th century, though eventually losing pre-eminence to Sherbrooke. Stanstead was also at one time the seat of the former Stanstead County.
The first automobile manufactured in Canada was built by Henry Seth Taylor of Stanstead. Taylor demonstrated his steam buggy at the Stanstead Fair in 1867.
The railroad reached Stanstead in 1871. Today its tracks have been transformed into bike trails owned by the regional government.
A seminary built here in 1829 became Stanstead College in 1873. In 1884, Ursulines opened a convent here which operated a Francophone college. The convent and the school both closed in 2004. The word "college" here designates a high school in each case. Starting 2011, the convent became an elders residence named the "Stanstead Manor".
In 1878, the Governor General of Canada, Lord Dufferin, and his wife visited the town. The main road over which they travelled was renamed "Dufferin Street".
Rock Island
Rock Island was settled in 1798 by Samuel and Selah Pomroy from Massachusetts. In 1802, a bridge was built across the Tomifobia River to ease access to Derby Line. The following year, Col. Charles Kilborn built a saw mill and a corn mill, then set up a dam on the river to feed them. A few years later, a channel was dug in the bend of the river. The territory located between the channel and the river was named "Rock Island".
Rock Island was incorporated as a village in 1892, and became a town in 1957.
Rock Island is known for the Haskell Free Library and Opera House, deliberately constructed on the Canada–US border and opened in 1904. The original owners were a couple with dual nationality; Mr. Carlos F. Haskell was an American businessman from Derby Line who owned a number of sawmills, while Mrs. Haskell was born in Canada. The intent was that people on both sides of the border would have use of the facility, which is now a designated historic site. Visitors today may still enter the facility from the Canadian or American sides, though those who use it as a border crossing must report to their respective customs office.
Another famous native of Rock Island is Henrietta Banting (1912–1976), the wife of Frederick Banting, co-discoverer of insulin in 1922. The Bantings donated some land to the town, and the municipal authorities recognized them by naming a public park in their honour in 1981 (located on the north side of Notre-Dame Ouest Street going westbound towards Dufferin).
It is also the home of the Dairy Association Company, the manufacturers of Bag Balm.
The Butterfield factory closed in 1982 after a lengthy strike by Canadian workers.
Beebe Plain
Beebe Plain was colonized around 1789 by Zeeba Beebe of Connecticut. A saw mill was established as the town's first business in 1863. By 1869, Beebe Plain had a church, two stores, a post office, a customs post and some houses. The village separated from the township of Stanstead and became a separate municipality. From 1874 to 1935, a Chautauqua-style holiday resort, including a meeting hall, a dining room and about 30 country cottages, attracted thousands of people, mainly Americans from New York and Boston. The granite industry is the major force in the area's economic history.
Beebe Junction was the international crossing point for the 1870 Massawippi Valley Railway (later the Quebec Central Railway, leased by Canadian Pacific Railway and abandoned in 1990). The line ran from the Canadian Pacific mainline in Sherbrooke-Lennoxville south to Newport, Vermont, where onward connections were available via White River Junction to New York City and Boston. The last Quebec City-Sherbrooke-Newport passenger train ran in 1960. The historic Beebe station is now a private residence.
A building located at 3, Rue Principale (Main Street) is in a similar state to the Haskell Library—a line runs through its north aisle. In this case, however, Canadian citizens are not allowed to access the building without reporting to the U.S. customs first, and then to the Canadian customs when going back.
Access to homes on Canusa Street is made through the Canada–US border. U.S. citizens residing there have to report to their customs if travelling south, and to the Canadian customs if travelling elsewhere in Beebe.
Geography
The Tomifobia River runs through the town of Stanstead, dividing the Canada–US border at times. Along portions of Canada's Canusa Street, houses on the southern end of the street lie entirely within Vermont, while their driveways direct northward, and connect to the street in Quebec, as the northern portions of their properties are within Canada. These residents' backyard neighbours are American, while families living right across the street are Canadian, though no noticeable boundary exists between the two (the street itself is entirely within Canada). In other places, the international border runs through individual homes, so that meals prepared in one country are eaten in the other. An entire tool-and-die factory, once operated by the Butterfield division of Litton Industries, is also divided in two by the border.
Climate
As typical of southern Quebec, Stanstead has a humid continental climate with significant differences of temperature between seasons. Summers are warm but rarely hot and are in general cooler than areas further west on similar parallels. Winters are cold considering its southerly latitude, further demonstrating the continental nature of the climate. The climate is relatively wet resulting in plenty of snowfall in winter.
Demographics
Population
Population trend:
Language
Mother tongue (2011)
Government
The town of Stanstead was created in 1995 by the merger of the former towns of Stanstead Plain, Rock Island and Beebe Plain. The mayor is Jody Stone. There are six town councilors.
Economy
The Canadian side of the former Butterfield building is being used by small industrial businesses, such as the Sealander Waterworks as a demonstration plant for renewable energy.
Attractions
The Haskell Free Library and Opera House has an international border line painted on the floors of the building. Another landmark is Centenary United Church.
Stanstead, which refers to itself as the Granite Capital of Canada, was previously home to a granite-themed museum known as "Granit Central". This museum closed in October 2017 citing years of financial challenges. Another museum in the town is the Colby-Curtis Museum, which is focused on the town's history.
Infrastructure
Drinking water for the adjacent towns of Derby Line and Stanstead is pumped from wells in Canada, stored in a reservoir in the United States and distributed through a system maintained by Canadians. Derby Line's sewage makes a cross-border trip for treatment.
Roads
Quebec Autoroute 55
Quebec Route 143
Quebec Route 247
Education
Stanstead College is located here. There are also two elementary schools: Sunnyside Elementary School, an English school; and Jardin des Frontières, a French school. Sunnyside was built on top of the location of Sunnyside Castle, located beside the Stanstead Townhall and across the street from the White House, a former old folks home after it was owned by Dr. White.
Media
The Stanstead Journal, an English-language weekly newspaper founded in 1845, was published until May 29, 2019.
Sports
There is a curling club which recruits members from both sides of the border. 2011 saw the construction of the Pat Burns Arena, the largest indoor hockey rink and sports complex within a 30 km radius in Canada and 20 km radius in the U.S., named after the NHL coach Pat Burns.
See also
Johns River (Vermont)
List of towns in Quebec
References
External links
Ville de Stanstead | MRC Memphrémagog
Canada–United States border
Cities and towns in Quebec | [
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254781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Glazunov | Alexander Glazunov | Alexander Konstantinovich Glazunov (, 10 August 1865 – 21 March 1936) was a Russian composer, music teacher, and conductor of the late Russian Romantic period. He was director of the Saint Petersburg Conservatory between 1905 and 1928 and was instrumental in the reorganization of the institute into the Petrograd Conservatory, then the Leningrad Conservatory, following the Bolshevik Revolution. He continued as head of the Conservatory until 1930, though he had left the Soviet Union in 1928 and did not return. The best-known student under his tenure during the early Soviet years was Dmitri Shostakovich.
Glazunov successfully reconciled nationalism and cosmopolitanism in Russian music. While he was the direct successor to Balakirev's nationalism, he tended more towards Borodin's epic grandeur while absorbing a number of other influences. These included Rimsky-Korsakov's orchestral virtuosity, Tchaikovsky's lyricism and Taneyev's contrapuntal skill. Younger composers such as Prokofiev and Shostakovich eventually considered his music old-fashioned, while also admitting he remained a composer with an imposing reputation, and a stabilizing influence in a time of transition and turmoil.
Biography
Prodigy
Glazunov was born in Saint Petersburg, the son of a wealthy publisher. His father Konstantin was granted the status of hereditary nobility later, in 1882. He began studying piano at the age of nine and began composing at 11. Mily Balakirev, former leader of the nationalist group "The Five", recognized Glazunov's talent and brought his work to the attention of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. "Casually Balakirev once brought me the composition of a fourteen- or fifteen-year-old high-school student, Alexander Glazunov", Rimsky-Korsakov remembered. "It was an orchestral score written in childish fashion. The boy's talent was indubitably clear." Balakirev introduced him to Rimsky-Korsakov shortly afterwards, in December 1879. Rimsky-Korsakov premiered this work in 1882, when Glazunov was 16. Borodin and Stasov, among others, lavishly praised both the work and its composer.
Rimsky-Korsakov taught Glazunov as a private student. "His musical development progressed not by the day, but literally by the hour", Rimsky-Korsakov wrote. The nature of their relationship also changed. By the spring of 1881, Rimsky-Korsakov considered Glazunov more of a junior colleague than a student. While part of this development may have been from Rimsky-Korsakov's need to find a spiritual replacement for Modest Mussorgsky, who had died that March, it may have also been from observing his progress on the first of Glazunov's eight completed symphonies (he left a ninth unfinished at his death).
Mentored by Belyayev
More important than this praise was that among the work's admirers was a wealthy timber merchant and amateur musician, Mitrofan Belyayev. Belyayev was introduced to Glazunov's music by Anatoly Lyadov and would take a keen interest in the teenager's musical future, then extend that interest to an entire group of nationalist composers. Belyayev took Glazunov on a trip to Western Europe in 1884. Glazunov met Liszt in Weimar, where Glazunov's First Symphony was performed.
Also in 1884, Belyayev rented out a hall and hired an orchestra to play Glazunov's First Symphony plus an orchestral suite Glazunov had just composed. Buoyed by the success of the rehearsal, Belyayev decided the following season to give a public concert of works by Glazunov and other composers. This project grew into the Russian Symphony Concerts, which were inaugurated during the 1886–1887 season.
In 1885 Belyayev started his own publishing house in Leipzig, Germany, initially publishing music by Glazunov, Lyadov, Rimsky-Korsakov and Borodin at his own expense. Young composers started appealing for his help. To help select from their offerings, Belyayev asked Glazunov to serve with Rimsky-Korsakov and Lyadov on an advisory council. The group of composers that formed eventually became known at the Belyayev Circle.
Fame
Glazunov soon enjoyed international acclaim. He emerged from a creative crisis in 1890–1891 with a new maturity. During the 1890s he wrote three symphonies, two string quartets and a ballet. When he was elected director of the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in 1905, he was at the height of his creative powers. His best works from this period are considered his Eighth Symphony and his Violin Concerto. This was also the time of his greatest international acclaim. He conducted the last of the Russian Historical Concerts in Paris on 17 May 1907, and received honorary Doctor of Music degrees from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. There were also cycles of all-Glazunov concerts in Saint Petersburg and Moscow to celebrate his 25th anniversary as a composer.
Conductor
Glazunov made his conducting debut in 1888. The following year, he conducted his Second Symphony in Paris at the World Exhibition. He was appointed conductor for the Russian Symphony Concerts in 1896. In March of that year he conducted the posthumous premiere of Tchaikovsky's student overture The Storm. In 1897, he led the disastrous premiere of Rachmaninoff's Symphony No 1. This catalysed Rachmaninoff's three-year depression. The composer's wife later claimed that Glazunov seemed to be drunk at the time. While this assertion cannot be confirmed, it is not implausible for a man who, according to Shostakovich, kept a bottle of alcohol hidden behind his desk and sipped it through a tube during lessons.
Drunk or not, Glazunov had insufficient rehearsal time with the symphony and, while he loved the art of conducting, he never fully mastered it. From time to time he conducted his own compositions, especially the ballet Raymonda, even though he may have known he had no talent for it. He would sometimes joke, "You can criticize my compositions, but you can't deny that I am a good conductor and a remarkable conservatory Director".
Despite the hardships he suffered during World War I and the ensuing Russian Civil War, Glazunov remained active as a conductor. He conducted concerts in factories, clubs and Red Army posts. He played a prominent part in the Russian observation in 1927 of the centenary of Beethoven's death, as both speaker and conductor. After he left Russia, he conducted an evening of his works in Paris in 1928. This was followed by engagements in Portugal, Spain, France, England, Czechoslovakia, Poland, the Netherlands, and the United States.
Conservatory
In 1899, Glazunov became a professor at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory. In the wake of the 1905 Russian Revolution and firing, then re-hiring of Rimsky-Korsakov that year, Glazunov became its director. He remained so until the revolutionary events of 1917, which culminated on 7 November. His Piano Concerto No. 2 in B major, Op. 100, which he conducted, was premiered at the first concert held in Petrograd after that date. After the end of World War I, he was instrumental in the reorganization of the Conservatory—this may, in fact, have been the main reason he waited so long to go into exile. During his tenure he worked tirelessly to improve the curriculum, raise the standards for students and staff, as well as defend the institute's dignity and autonomy. Among his achievements were an opera studio and a students' philharmonic orchestra.
Glazunov showed paternal concern for the welfare of needy students, such as Dmitri Shostakovich and Nathan Milstein. He also personally examined hundreds of students at the end of each academic year, writing brief comments on each.
While Glazunov's sobriety could be questioned, his prestige could not. Because of his reputation, the Conservatory received special status among institutions of higher learning in the aftermath of the October Revolution. Glazunov established a sound working relationship with the Bolshevik regime, especially with Anatoly Lunacharsky, the minister of education. Nevertheless, Glazunov's conservatism was attacked within the Conservatory. Increasingly, professors demanded more progressive methods, and students wanted greater rights. Glazunov saw these demands as both destructive and unjust. Tired of the Conservatory, he took advantage of the opportunity to go abroad in 1928 for the Schubert centenary celebrations in Vienna. He did not return. Maximilian Steinberg ran the Conservatory in his absence until Glazunov finally resigned in 1930.
Emigration
Glazunov toured Europe and the United States in 1928, and settled in Paris by 1929. He always claimed that the reason for his continued absence from Russia was "ill health"; this enabled him to remain a respected composer in the Soviet Union, unlike Stravinsky and Rachmaninoff, who had left for other reasons. In 1929, he conducted an orchestra of Parisian musicians in the first complete electrical recording of The Seasons. In 1934, he wrote his Saxophone Concerto, a virtuoso and lyrical work for the alto saxophone.
Married life
In 1929, at age 64, Glazunov married the 54-year-old Olga Nikolayevna Gavrilova (1875–1968). The previous year, Olga's daughter Elena Gavrilova had been the soloist in the first Paris performance of his Piano Concerto No. 2 in B major, Op. 100. He subsequently adopted Elena (she is sometimes referred to as his stepdaughter), and she then used the name Elena Glazunova. In 1928, Elena had married the pianist Sergei Tarnowsky, who managed Glazunov's professional and business affairs in Paris, such as negotiating his United States appearances with Sol Hurok. (Tarnowsky was also a noted piano teacher, whose students included Vladimir Horowitz.) Elena later appeared as Elena Gunther-Glazunova after her second marriage, to Herbert Gunther (1906–1978).
Death
Glazunov died in Neuilly-sur-Seine (near Paris) at the age of 70 in 1936. The announcement of his death shocked many, who had long associated Glazunov with the music of the past rather than of the present and assumed he had already been dead for many years.
In 1972 his remains were reinterred at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in Leningrad.
Works and influence
Phenomenal memory
Glazunov was acknowledged as a great prodigy in his field and, with the help of his mentor and friend Rimsky-Korsakov, finished some of Alexander Borodin's great works, the most famous being the Third Symphony and the opera Prince Igor, including the popular Polovtsian Dances. It is claimed that he reconstructed the overture from memory, having heard it played on the piano only once , although this claim is dubious, as the overture, with its involved counterpoint, is not playable by a single pianist. It is much more likely that, as attested by Shostakovich in "Testimony," that Glazunov simply composed the overture, giving all the credit to Borodin.
Compositions
Glazunov's most popular works nowadays are his ballets The Seasons and Raymonda, some of his later symphonies, particularly the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth, the Polonaise from Les Sylphides, and his two Concert Waltzes. His Violin Concerto, which was a favorite vehicle for Jascha Heifetz, is still sometimes played and recorded. His last work, the Saxophone Concerto (1934), showed his ability to adapt to Western fashions in music at that time. The earlier rebellions of the experimental, serialist and minimalist movements passed him by and he never shied away from the polished manner he had perfected at the turn of the century.
Glazunov's musical development was paradoxical. He was adopted as an idol by nationalist composers who had been largely self-taught and, apart from Rimsky-Korsakov, were deeply distrustful of academic technique. Glazunov's first two symphonies could be seen as an anthology of nationalist techniques as practiced by Balakirev and Borodin; the same could be said for his symphonic poem Stenka Razin with its use of the folk song "Volga Boatmen" and orientalist practices much like those employed by The Five. By his early 20s he realized the polemic battles between academicism and nationalism were no longer valid. Although he based his compositions on Russian popular music, Glazunov's technical mastery allowed him to write in a sophisticated, cultured idiom. With his Third Symphony, he consciously attempted to internationalize his music in a manner similar to Tchaikovsky, to whom the piece is dedicated.
The Third Symphony was a transitional work. Glazunov admitted its composition caused him a great deal of trouble. With the Fourth Symphony, he came into his mature style. Dedicated to Anton Rubinstein, the Fourth was written as a deliberately cosmopolitan work by a Russian looking outward to the West, yet it remained unmistakably Russian in tone. He continued to synthesize nationalist tradition and Western technique in the Fifth Symphony. By the time Glazunov wrote his Seventh Symphony, his duties at the Conservatory had slowed his rate of composition. After his Eighth Symphony, his heavy drinking may have started taking a toll on his creativity, as well. He sketched one movement of a Ninth Symphony but left the work unfinished.
Glazunov wrote three ballets; eight symphonies and many other orchestral works; five concertos (2 for piano; 1 for violin; 1 for cello; 1 for saxophone); seven string quartets; two piano sonatas and other piano pieces; miscellaneous instrumental pieces; and some songs. He worked together with the choreographer Michel Fokine to create the ballet Les Sylphides. It was a collection of piano works by Frédéric Chopin, orchestrated by Glazunov. He was also given the opportunity by Serge Diaghilev to write music to The Firebird after Lyadov had failed to do so. Glazunov refused. Eventually, Diaghilev sought out the then-unknown Igor Stravinsky, who wrote the music.
Both Glazunov and Rachmaninoff, whose first symphony Glazunov supposedly had conducted so poorly at its premiere (according to the composer), were considered "old-fashioned" in their later years. In recent years, reception of Glazunov's music has become more favorable, thanks to extensive recordings of his complete orchestral works.
Glazunov and Stravinsky
In his 1935 autobiography, Igor Stravinsky admitted that, as a young man, he greatly admired Glazunov's perfection of musical form, purity of counterpoint and ease and assurance of his writing. At 15, Stravinsky transcribed one of Glazunov's string quartets for piano solo. He also deliberately modeled his Symphony in E, Op. 1, on Glazunov's symphonies, which were then in vogue. He used Glazunov's Eighth Symphony, Op. 83, which was written in the same key as his, as a pattern on which to base corrections to his symphony.
This attitude changed over time. In his memoirs, Stravinsky called Glazunov one of the most disagreeable men he had ever met, adding that the only bad omen he had experienced about the initial (private) performance of his symphony was Glazunov having come to him afterwards saying, "Very nice, very nice." Later, Stravinsky amended his recollection of this incident, adding that when Glazunov passed him in the aisle after the performance, he told Stravinsky, "Rather heavy instrumentation for such music."
For his part, Glazunov was not supportive of the modern direction Stravinsky's music took. He was not alone in this prejudice—their mutual teacher Rimsky-Korsakov was as profoundly conservative by the end of his life, wedded to the academic process he helped instill at the Conservatory. Unlike Rimsky-Korsakov, Glazunov was not anxious about the potential dead end Russian music might reach by following academia strictly, nor did he share Rimsky-Korsakov's grudging respect for new ideas and techniques.
Chances are that Glazunov treated Stravinsky with reserve, certainly not with open rudeness. His opinion of Stravinsky's music in the presence of others was another matter. At the performance of (Fireworks), he reportedly made the comment, "Kein talent, nur Dissonanz" ("no talent, just dissonance"). (Also in the audience was Sergei Diaghilev, who on the strength of this music sought out the young composer for the Ballets Russes.) Glazunov eventually considered Stravinsky merely an expert orchestrator. In 1912 he told Vladimir Telyakovsky, "Petrushka is not music, but is excellently and skillfully orchestrated."
In 1962, when Stravinsky returned to the Soviet Union to celebrate his 80th birthday, he visited the Leningrad conservatory and, according to his associate Robert Craft, moaned and said "Glazunov!" when he saw a photograph of the composer on display.
Glazunov and modernism
Stravinsky was not the only composer whose modernist tendencies Glazunov disliked. Shostakovich mentioned Glazunov's attacks against the "recherché cacophonists"—the elder composer's term for the newer generation of Western composers, beginning with Debussy. When Franz Schreker's opera Der ferne Klang was staged in Leningrad, Glazunov pronounced the opera "Schreckliche Musik!"—Horrible Music. He also may have wondered occasionally whether he had played a role in spawning musical chaos. Once, while looking at a score of Debussy's Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, he commented, "It's orchestrated with great taste.... And he knows his work.... Could it be that Rimsky and I influenced the orchestration of all these contemporary degenerates?"
To Glazunov's credit, however, even after he had consigned a piece of music to be "cacophonic", he did not stop listening to it. Instead, he would continue listening in an effort to comprehend it. He "penetrated" Wagner's music in this way; he understood nothing about Die Walküre the first time he heard it—or the second, third, or fourth. On the tenth hearing, he finally understood the opera and liked it very much.
Glazunov and Shostakovich
Dmitri Shostakovich entered the Petrograd Conservatory at age 13, becoming the youngest student there. He studied piano with Leonid Nikolayev and composition with Rimsky-Korsakov's son-in-law Maximilian Steinberg. He proved to be a disciplined, hard-working student. Glazunov may have recognized in Shostakovich an echo of his younger self. He carefully monitored his progress in Steinberg's class and, in awarding him his doctorate, recommended Shostakovich for a higher degree which normally would have led to a professorship. Due to his family's financial hardship, Shostakovich was not able to take advantage of this opportunity. Glazunov also arranged for the premiere of Shostakovich's First Symphony, which took place on 12 March 1926 with the Leningrad Philharmonic under Nikolai Malko. This was 44 years after Glazunov's First Symphony had first been presented in the same hall. In another instance of déjà vu with Glazunov's early life, the symphony caused almost as much of a sensation as the appearance of the 19-year-old Shostakovich on the stage awkwardly taking his bow. In his memoirs Testimony, Shostakovich dedicates several pages to Glazunov. He mentions that Glazunov was at the time far ahead concerning knowledge and appreciation of medieval and pre-Mozartian music.
Notes
References
Sources
Ossovsky, Alexander, Aleksandr Konstantinovich Glazunov: His life and creative work; Sanct-Petersburg, Alexander Siloti Concerts Publishing House, 1907.
Figes, Orlando, Natasha's Dance: A Cultural History of Russia (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2002). (hc.).
Huth, Andrew, Notes for Warner 61434, Glazunov: Symphony No. 5; The Seasons; Royal Scottish National Orchestra conducted by José Serebrier.
Huth, Andrew, Notes for Warner 61939, Glazunov: Symphony No. 8; Raymonda; Royal Scottish National Orchestra conducted by José Serebrier.
Huth, Andrew, Notes for Warner 63236, Glazunov: Symphonies Nos. 4 and 7; Royal Scottish National Orchestra conducted by José Serebrier.
MacDonald, Ian, The New Shostakovich (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990). .
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai, Letoppis Moyey Muzykalnoy Zhizni (Saint Petersburg, 1909), published in English as My Musical Life (New York: Knopf, 1925, 3rd ed. 1942). ISBN n/a.
Norris, Geoffrey and Marina Frolova-Walker, "Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich" in New Grove
Schwarz, Boris, "Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich" in New Grove
Taylor, Philip, Notes for Chandos 9751, Glazunov: Symphony No. 1, "Slavyanskaya"; Violin Concerto; Julie Krasko, violin; Russian State Symphony Orchestra conducted by Valery Polyansky.
Volkov, Solomon, tr. Bouis, Antonina W., Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitri Shostakovich (New York: The Free Press, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1995). .
Volkov, Solomon, tr. Bouis, Antonina W., Saint Petersburg: A Cultural History (New York: Harper & Row, 1979). .
Walsh, Stephen, Stravinsky, A Creative Spring: Russia and France, 1882–1934 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999). .
White, Eric Walter, Stravinsky: The Man and His Works (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966). Library of Congress Card Catalog Number 66-27667.
External links
More Complete List of Works
Free scores at the Mutopia Project
Chant du ménestrel, Op. 71 recording from Musopen
Alexander Konstantinovich Glazunov Naxos
Quinteto AMIZADE first recording of Glazunov's original Oriental Reverie.
Letters from Glazunov "The Saxophone Concerto Years" published in Saxophone Journal
1865 births
1936 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century male conductors (music)
19th-century conductors (music)
20th-century classical composers
20th-century Russian conductors (music)
Russian male conductors (music)
20th-century Russian male musicians
Burials at Tikhvin Cemetery
Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society
People from Saint Petersburg
Pupils of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov
Russian ballet composers
Russian emigrants to France
Russian male classical composers
Russian Romantic composers
Saint Petersburg Conservatory faculty | [
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254786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell%20Free%20Library%20and%20Opera%20House | Haskell Free Library and Opera House | The Haskell Free Library and Opera House () is a Victorian building that straddles the Canada–United States border, in Rock Island (now part of Stanstead), Quebec and Derby Line, Vermont, respectively. The Opera House opened on June 7, 1904, having deliberately been built on the international border. It was declared a heritage building by both countries in the 1970s and 1980s.
The library has two different addresses: 93 Caswell Avenue, Derby Line, Vermont, and 1 rue Church (Church Street), Stanstead, Quebec.
Overview
The library collection and the opera stage are located in Stanstead, but the main entrance and most opera seats are located in Derby Line. Because of this, the Haskell is sometimes called "the only library in the U.S.A. with no books" and "the only opera house in the U.S.A. with no stage". There is no entrance from Canada; however, there is an emergency exit on the Canadian side of the building. All patrons and visitors must use the U.S. entrance to access the building. Patrons from Canada are permitted to enter the United States door without needing to report to customs by using a prescribed route through the sidewalk of rue Church (Church Street), provided that they return to Canada immediately upon leaving the building using the same route.
A thick black line runs beneath the seats of the opera house and diagonally across the center of the library's reading room to mark the Canada–United States border. The stage and half of the seats are in Canada, the remainder of the opera hall is in the US. The building has different postal codes (93 Caswell Avenue, 05830 and 1, rue Church (Church Street), J0B 3E2) and different telephone area codes (+1-802-873-3022 and +1-819-876-2471) in its two respective countries.
The library has a collection of more than 20,000 books in French and English, and is open to the public 38 hours a week.
The building is recognized as a historic site in both countries. In the United States, it has been registered in the National Register of Historic Places since 1976. In Canada, it was designated a National Historic Site in 1985 and has been a provincial heritage site since 1977.
Following the Trump travel ban, the library served as a site for international reunions, as it is partly in Canada and partly in the United States.
History
The Haskell Free Library and Opera House was a gift from Martha Stewart Haskell and her son Horace "Stewart" Haskell. It was built in memory of her parents Catherine and Horace Stewart and her husband Carlos Freeman Haskell. The Haskells wanted Canadians and Americans to have equal access to the Library and Opera House and so they chose to build on the border. Construction began in 1901 and the Opera House opened in 1904 and the Library in 1905.
The opera house on the second floor was rumored to be modeled after the old Boston Opera House in a somewhat scaled down fashion (it seats four hundred), but the Boston Opera house was built afterwards. A painted scene of Venice on the drop curtain and 4 other scenes by Erwin Lamoss (1901) and plaster scrollwork complete with plump cherubs built in Boston ornament the opera hall and balcony in this historic building, which was constructed with walls built of granite from Stanstead.
The Haskell family later donated the building to the towns of Derby Line and Rock Island in Haskell's memory; it is run by a private international board of four American and three Canadian directors.
Organization
French and English books are co-filed. Because of different language conventions in the direction of printing titles on spines—American English books have titles written top-to-bottom, and French books bottom-to-top—the language of a book can be immediately determined.
See also
La Cure, a village divided between Switzerland and France; one hotel is bisected by the boundary, as are at least two residences and a pub.
Estcourt Station, Maine (population 4) and Estcourt, Quebec
Baarle-Nassau, a community with a complicated borderline between The Netherlands and Belgium.
Transnational marriage
Line house – a building that straddles an international boundary.
Collins–Valentine line – the boundary between Quebec and the states of Vermont and New York, surveyed in the early 1770s.
References
External links
History of the Library on its official web site
Libraries in Vermont
Public libraries in Vermont
Opera houses in Vermont
Libraries on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
Vermont culture
Canada–United States border
Libraries in Quebec
Opera houses in Canada
Buildings and structures in Derby, Vermont
Stanstead, Quebec
National Historic Sites in Quebec
Music venues in Quebec
Queen Anne architecture in Vermont
Queen Anne architecture in Canada
Tourist attractions in Estrie
Heritage immovables of Quebec
Buildings and structures in Estrie
Education in Estrie
Music venues completed in 1904
Theatres completed in 1904
Theatres on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
National Register of Historic Places in Orleans County, Vermont
Opera houses on the National Register of Historic Places
Event venues on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
1904 establishments in Quebec
1904 establishments in Vermont | [
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254789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database%20administrator | Database administrator | Database administrators (DBAs) use specialized software to store and organize data. The role may include capacity planning, installation, configuration, database design, migration, performance monitoring, security, troubleshooting, as well as backup and data recovery.
Skills
Some common and useful skills for database administrators are:
Knowledge of database queries
Knowledge of database theory
Knowledge of database design
Knowledge about the RDBMS itself, e.g. Microsoft SQL Server or MySQL
Knowledge of structured query language (SQL), e.g. SQL/PSM or Transact-SQL
General understanding of distributed computing architectures, e.g. Client–server model
General understanding of operating system, e.g. Windows or Linux
General understanding of storage technologies and networking
General understanding of routine maintenance, recovery, and handling failover of a database
Database administrators benefit from a bachelor's degree or master's degree in computer science. An associate degree or a certificate may be sufficient with work experience.
Certification
There are many certifications available for becoming a certified database administrator. Many of these certifications are offered by database vendors themselves. Database administrator certifications may be earned by passing a series of tests and sometimes other requirements. Schools offering Database Administration degrees can also be found.
For example:
IBM Certified Advanced Database Administrator – DB2 10.1 for Linux, Unix and Windows
IBM Certified Database Administrator – DB2 10.1 for Linux, Unix, and Windows
Oracle Database 12c Administrator Certified Professional
Oracle MySQL 5.6 Database Administrator Certified Professional
MCSA SQL Server 2012
MCSE Data Platform Solutions Expert
See also
Comparison of database tools
References
Computer occupations
Data management | [
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254790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopurinol | Allopurinol | Allopurinol is a medication used to decrease high blood uric acid levels. It is specifically used to prevent gout, prevent specific types of kidney stones and for the high uric acid levels that can occur with chemotherapy. It is taken by mouth or injected into a vein.
Common side effects when used by mouth include itchiness and rash. Common side effects when used by injection include vomiting and kidney problems. While not recommended historically, starting allopurinol during an attack of gout appears to be safe. In those already on the medication, it should be continued even during an acute gout attack. While use during pregnancy does not appear to result in harm, this use has not been well studied. Allopurinol is in the xanthine oxidase inhibitor family of medications.
Allopurinol was approved for medical use in the United States in 1966. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Allopurinol is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 43rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 15million prescriptions.
Medical uses
Gout
Allopurinol is used to reduce urate formation in conditions where urate deposition has already occurred or is predictable. The specific diseases and conditions where it is used include gouty arthritis, skin tophi, kidney stones, idiopathic gout; uric acid lithiasis; acute uric acid nephropathy; neoplastic disease and myeloproliferative disease with high cell turnover rates, in which high urate levels occur either spontaneously, or after cytotoxic therapy; certain enzyme disorders which lead to overproduction of urate, for example: hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase, including Lesch–Nyhan syndrome; glucose 6-phosphatase including glycogen storage disease; phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate synthetase, phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate amidotransferase; adenine phosphoribosyltransferase.
It is also used to treat kidney stones caused by deficient activity of adenine phosphoribosyltransferase.
Tumor lysis syndrome
Allopurinol was also commonly used to treat tumor lysis syndrome in chemotherapeutic treatments, as these regimens can rapidly produce severe acute hyperuricemia; however, it has gradually been replaced by urate oxidase therapy. Intravenous formulations are used in this indication when people cannot take medicine by mouth.
Inflammatory bowel disease
Allopurinol cotherapy is used to improve outcomes for people with inflammatory bowel disease and Crohn's disease who do not respond to thiopurine monotherapy. Cotherapy has also been shown to greatly improve hepatoxicity side effects in treatment of IBD. Cotherapy invariably requires dose reduction of the thiopurine, usually to one-third of the standard dose depending upon the patient's genetic status for thiopurine methyltransferase.
Psychiatric disorders
Allopurinol has been tested as an augmentation strategy for the treatment of mania in bipolar disorder. Meta-analytic evidence showed that adjunctive allopurinol was superior to placebo for acute mania (both with and without mixed features). Its efficacy was not influenced by dosage, follow-up duration, or concurrent standard treatment.
Side effects
Because allopurinol is not a uricosuric, it can be used in people with poor kidney function. However, for people with impaired kidney function, allopurinol has two disadvantages. First, its dosing is complex. Second, some people are hypersensitive to the drug; therefore, its use requires careful monitoring.
Allopurinol has rare but potentially fatal adverse effects involving the skin. The most serious adverse effect is a hypersensitivity syndrome consisting of fever, skin rash, eosinophilia, hepatitis, and worsened renal function, collectively referred to as DRESS syndrome. Allopurinol is one of the drugs commonly known to cause Stevens–Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis, two life-threatening dermatological conditions. More common is a less-serious rash that leads to discontinuing this drug.
More rarely, allopurinol can also result in the depression of bone marrow elements, leading to cytopenias, as well as aplastic anemia. Moreover, allopurinol can also cause peripheral neuritis in some patients, although this is a rare side effect. Another side effect of allopurinol is interstitial nephritis.
Allopurinol should not be given to people who are allergic to it.
Drug interactions
Drug interactions are extensive, and are as follows:
Azathioprine and 6-mercaptopurine: Azathioprine is metabolised to 6-mercaptopurine which in turn is inactivated by the action of xanthine oxidase - the target of allopurinol. Giving allopurinol with either of these drugs at their normal dose will lead to overdose of either drug; only one-quarter of the usual dose of 6-mercaptopurine or azathioprine should be given;
Didanosine: plasma didanosine Cmax and AUC values were approximately doubled with concomitant allopurinol treatment; it should not be co-administered with allopuroinol and if it must be, the dose of should be reduced and the person should be closely monitored.
Allopurinol may also increase the activity or half-life of the following drugs, in order of seriousness and certainty of the interaction:
Ciclosporin
Coumarin anticoagulants, such as warfarin (reported rarely, but is serious when it occurs)
Vidarabine
Chlorpropamide
Phenytoin
Theophylline
Cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, bleomycin, procarbazine, mechlorethamine
Co-administration of the following drugs may make allopurinol less active or decrease its half-life:
Salicylates and medicines that increase the secretion of uric acid
furosemide (see more on diuretics below)
Co-administration of the following drugs may cause hypersensitivity or skin rash:
Ampicillin and amoxicillin
Diuretics, in particular thiazides, especially in renal impairment
Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors)
Pharmacology
A common misconception is that allopurinol is metabolized by its target, xanthine oxidase, but this action is principally carried out by aldehyde oxidase. The active metabolite of allopurinol is oxipurinol, which is also an inhibitor of xanthine oxidase. Allopurinol is almost completely metabolized to oxipurinol within two hours of oral administration, whereas oxipurinol is slowly excreted by the kidneys over 18–30 hours. For this reason, oxipurinol is believed responsible for the majority of allopurinol's effect.
Mechanism of action
Allopurinol is a purine analog; it is a structural isomer of hypoxanthine (a naturally occurring purine in the body) and is an inhibitor of the enzyme xanthine oxidase. Xanthine oxidase is responsible for the successive oxidation of hypoxanthine and xanthine, resulting in the production of uric acid, the product of human purine metabolism. In addition to blocking uric acid production, inhibition of xanthine oxidase causes an increase in hypoxanthine and xanthine. While xanthine cannot be converted to purine ribotides, hypoxanthine can be salvaged to the purine ribotides adenosine and guanosine monophosphates. Increased levels of these ribotides may cause feedback inhibition of amidophosphoribosyl transferase, the first and rate-limiting enzyme of purine biosynthesis. Allopurinol, therefore, decreases uric acid formation and may also inhibit purine synthesis.
Pharmacogenetics
The HLA-B*5801 allele is a genetic marker for allopurinol-induced severe cutaneous adverse reactions, including Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN). The frequency of the HLA-B*5801 allele varies between ethnicities: Han Chinese and Thai populations have HLA-B*5801 allele frequencies of around 8%, as compared to European and Japanese populations, who have allele frequencies of around 1.0% and 0.5%, respectively. The increase in risk for developing allopurinol-induced SJS or TEN in individuals with the HLA-B*5801 allele (as compared to those who do not have this allele) is very high, ranging from a 40-fold to a 580-fold increase in risk, depending on ethnicity. As of 2011 the FDA-approved drug label for allopurinol did not contain any information regarding the HLA-B*5801 allele, though FDA scientists did publish a study in 2011 which reported a strong, reproducible and consistent association between the allele and allopurinol-induced SJS and TEN. However, the American College of Rheumatology recommends screening for HLA-B*5801 in high-risk populations (e.g. Koreans with stage 3 or worse chronic kidney disease and those of Han Chinese and Thai descent), and prescribing patients who are positive for the allele an alternative drug. The Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium guidelines state that allopurinol is contraindicated in known carriers of the HLA-B*5801 allele.
History
Allopurinol was first synthesized and reported in 1956 by Roland K. Robins (1926-1992), in a search for antineoplastic agents. Because allopurinol inhibits the breakdown (catabolism) of the thiopurine drug mercaptopurine, and it was later tested by Wayne Rundles, in collaboration with Gertrude Elion's lab at Wellcome Research Laboratories to see if it could improve treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia by enhancing the action of mercaptopurine. However, no improvement in leukemia response was noted with mercaptopurine-allopurinol co-therapy, so that work turned to other compounds and the team then started testing allopurinol as a potential for gout. Allopurinol was first marketed as a treatment for gout in 1966.
Society and culture
Formulations
Allopurinol is sold as an injection for intravenous use and as a tablet.
Brands
Allopurinol has been marketed in the United States since 19 August 1966, when it was first approved by FDA under the trade name Zyloprim. Allopurinol was marketed at the time by Burroughs-Wellcome. Allopurinol is a generic drug sold under a variety of brand names, including Allohexal, Allosig, Milurit, Alloril, Progout, Ürikoliz, Zyloprim, Zyloric, Zyrik, and Aluron.
See also
Lesinurad/allopurinol, a fixed-dose combination drug
Hydroxychavicol, potent xanthine oxidase inhibitor
References
Further reading
External links
Medication handout sheet (Revised: 07/2019 0603-2115)
Allopurinol pathway on PharmGKB
Antigout agents
Hepatotoxins
World Health Organization essential medicines
Xanthine oxidase inhibitors
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | [
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254791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lesser%20Key%20of%20Solomon | The Lesser Key of Solomon | The Lesser Key of Solomon, also known as Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis or simply Lemegeton, is an anonymous grimoire on demonology. It was compiled in the mid-17th century, mostly from materials a couple of centuries older. It is divided into five books—the Ars Goetia, Ars Theurgia-Goetia, Ars Paulina, Ars Almadel, and Ars Notoria.
Ars Goetia
Etymology
The text is more properly called "Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis, or, The little Key of Solomon".
The title most commonly used, "The Lesser Key of Solomon," does not in fact occur in the manuscripts. A.E. Waite, in his 1898 Book of Black Magic and of Pacts does use the terms "so-called Greater Key" and "Lesser Key" to distinguish between the Clavicula Salomonis and Lemegeton, so he may have been the first one to coin it.
The Latin term refers to the evocation of demons or evil spirits. It is derived from the Ancient Greek word (goēteía) meaning "witchcraft" or "jugglery".
In medieval and Renaissance Europe, goetia was generally considered evil and heretical, in contrast to theurgia (theurgy) and magia naturalis (natural magic), which were sometimes considered more noble. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, in his Three Books of Occult Philosophy, writes "Now the parts of ceremonial magic are goetia and theurgia. Goetia is unfortunate, by the commerces of unclean spirits made up of the rites of wicked curiosities, unlawful charms, and deprecations, and is abandoned and execrated by all laws."
Sources
The most obvious source for the Ars Goetia is Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum in his De praestigiis daemonum. Weyer does not cite, and is unaware of, any other books in the Lemegeton, suggesting that the Lemegeton was derived from his work, not the other way around. The order of the spirits changed between the two, four additional spirits were added to the later work, and one spirit (Pruflas) was omitted. The omission of Pruflas, a mistake that also occurs in an edition of Pseudomonarchia Daemonum cited in Reginald Scot's The Discoverie of Witchcraft, indicates that the Ars Goetia could not have been compiled before 1570. Indeed, it appears that the Ars Goetia is more dependent upon Scot's translation of Weyer than on Weyer's work in itself. Additionally, some material came from Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa's Three Books of Occult Philosophy, the Heptameron by pseudo-Pietro d'Abano, and the Magical Calendar.
Weyer's Officium Spirituum, which is likely related to a 1583 manuscript titled The Office of Spirits, appears to have ultimately been an elaboration on a 15th-century manuscript titled Livre des Esperitz (30 of the 47 spirits are nearly identical to spirits in the Ars Goetia).
In a slightly later copy made by Thomas Rudd (1583?–1656), this portion was labelled "Liber Malorum Spirituum seu Goetia", and the seals and demons were paired with those of the 72 angels of the Shem HaMephorash which were intended to protect the conjurer and to control the demons he summoned. The angelic names and seals derived from a manuscript by Blaise de Vigenère, whose papers were also used by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers (1854-1918) in his works for the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (1887–1903). Rudd may have derived his copy of Liber Malorum Spirituum from a now-lost work by Johannes Trithemius, who taught Agrippa, who in turn taught Weyer.
This portion of the work was later translated by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers and published by Aleister Crowley in 1904 under the title The Book of the Goetia of Solomon the King. Crowley added some additional invocations previously unrelated to the original work (including some evocations in the Enochian language), as well as essays describing the rituals as psychological exploration instead of demon summoning.
The Seventy-Two Demons
The demons' names (given below) are taken from the Ars Goetia, which differs in terms of number and ranking from the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum of Weyer. As a result of multiple translations, there are multiple spellings for some of the names, which are given in the articles concerning them. The demons Vassago, Seere, Dantalion, and Andromalius are new additions in Ars Goetia that are not present in the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum that it is based upon, whereas the demon Pruflas appears in the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum but not in Ars Goetia.
King Bael
Duke Agares
Prince Vassago
Marquis Samigina
President Marbas
Duke Valefor
Marquis Amon
Duke Barbatos
King Paimon
President Buer
Duke Gusion
Prince Sitri
King Beleth
Marquis Leraje
Duke Eligos
Duke Zepar
Count/President Botis
Duke Bathin
Duke Sallos
King Purson
Count/President Morax
Count/Prince Ipos
Duke Aim
Marquis Naberius
Count/President Glasya-Labolas
Duke Buné
Marquis/Count Ronové
Duke Berith
Duke Astaroth
Marquis Forneus
President Foras
King Asmoday
Prince/President Gäap
Count Furfur
Marquis Marchosias
Prince Stolas
Marquis Phenex
Count Halphas
President Malphas
Count Räum
Duke Focalor
Duke Vepar
Marquis Sabnock
Marquis Shax
King/Count Viné
Count Bifrons
Duke Vual
President Haagenti
Duke Crocell
Knight Furcas
King Balam
Duke Alloces
President Caim
Duke/Count Murmur
Prince Orobas
Duke Gremory
President Ose
President Amy
Marquis Orias
Duke Vapula
King/President Zagan
President Valac
Marquis Andras
Duke Flauros
Marquis Andrealphus
Marquis Kimaris
Duke Amdusias
King Belial
Marquis Decarabia
Prince Seere
Duke Dantalion
Count Andromalius
The demons are described as being commanded by four kings of the cardinal directions: Amaymon (east), Corson (west), Ziminiar (north), and Gaap (south). A footnote in one variant edition instead lists them as Oriens or Uriens, Paymon or Paymonia, Ariton or Egyn, and Amaymon or Amaimon, alternatively known as Samael, Azazel, Azael, and Mahazael (purportedly their preferred rabbinic names). Agrippa's Occult Philosophy lists the kings of the cardinal directions as Urieus (east), Amaymon (south), Paymon (west), and Egin (north); again providing the alternate names Samuel (i.e. Samael), Azazel, Azael, and Mahazuel. The Magical Calendar lists them as Bael, Moymon, Poymon, and Egin, though Peterson notes that some variant editions instead list '"Asmodel in the east, Amaymon in the south, Paymon in the west, and Aegym in the north"; "Oriens, Paymon, Egyn, and Amaymon"; or "Amodeo (king of the east), Paymon (king of the west), Egion (king of the north), and Maimon."'
Ars Theurgia Goetia
The Ars Theurgia Goetia mostly derives from Trithemius's Steganographia, though the seals and order of the spirits are different due to corrupted transmission via manuscript. Rituals not found in Steganographia were added, in some ways conflicting with similar rituals found in the Ars Goetia and Ars Paulina. Most of the spirits summoned are tied to compass points: four emperors are tied to the cardinal points (Carnesiel in the east, Amenadiel in the west, Demoriel in the north and Caspiel in the south); and sixteen dukes are tied to cardinal points, inter-cardinal points, and additional directions between those. There are in addition eleven "wandering princes", so that a total of thirty-one spirit leaders each rule several spirits, up to a few dozen.
Ars Paulina
Derived from book three of Trithemius's Steganographia and from portions of the Heptameron, but purportedly delivered by Paul the Apostle instead of (as claimed by Trithemius) Raziel. Elements from The Magical Calendar, astrological seals by Robert Turner's 1656 translation of Paracelsus's Archidoxes of Magic, and repeated mentions of guns and the year 1641 indicate that this portion was written in the later half of the seventeenth century. Traditions of Paul communicating with heavenly powers are almost as old as Christianity itself, as seen in some interpretations of 2 Corinthians 12:2–4 and the apocryphal Apocalypse of Paul. The Ars Paulina is in turn divided into two books, the first detailing twenty-four angels aligned with the twenty-four hours of the day, the second (derived more from the Heptameron) detailing the 360 spirits of the degrees of the zodiac.
Ars Almadel
Mentioned by Trithemius and Weyer, the latter of whom claimed an Arabic origin for the work. A 15th-century copy is attested to by Robert H.Turner, and Hebrew copies were discovered in the 20th century. The Ars Almadel instructs the magician on how to create a wax tablet with specific designs intended to contact angels via scrying.
Ars Notoria
The oldest known portion of the Lemegeton, the Ars Notoria (or Notory Art) was first mentioned by Michael Scot in 1236 (and thus was written earlier). The Ars Notoria contains a series of prayers (related to those in The Sworn Book of Honorius) intended to grant eidetic memory and instantaneous learning to the magician. Some copies and editions of the Lemegeton omit this work entirely; A. E. Waite ignores it completely when describing the Lemegeton. It is also known as the Ars Nova.
Editions
Crowley, Aleister (ed.), S. L. MacGregor Mathers (transcribed) The Book of the Goetia of Solomon the King. Translated into the English tongue by a dead hand (Foyers, Inverness: Society for the Propagation of Religious Truth, 1904) 1995 reprint: .
Greenup, A. W., "The Almadel of Solomon, according to the text of the Sloane MS. 2731" The Occult Review vol. 22 no. 2, August 1915, 96–102.
Henson, Mitch (ed.) Lemegeton. The Complete Lesser Key of Solomon (Jacksonville: Metatron Books, 1999) . Noted by Peterson to be "uncritical and indiscriminate in its use of source material".
de Laurence, L. W. (ed.), The Lesser Key Of Solomon, Goetia, The Book of Evil Spirits (Chicago: de Laurence, Scott & Co., 1916) 1942 reprint: ; 2006 reprint: . A plagiarism of the Mathers/Crowley edition.
Peterson, Joseph H. (ed.), The Lesser Key of Solomon: Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis (York Beach, ME: Weiser Books, 2001). Considered "the definitive version" and "the standard edition".
Runyon, Carroll, The Book of Solomon’s Magick (Silverado, CA: C.H.S. Inc., 1996). Targeted more toward practicing magicians than academics, claims that the demons were originally derived from Mesopotamian mythology.
Shah, Idries, The Secret Lore of Magic (London: Abacus, 1972). Contains portions of Ars Almandel and split sections the Goetia, missing large portions of the rituals involved.
Skinner, Stephen & Rankine, David (eds.), The Goetia of Dr Rudd: The Angels and Demons of Liber Malorum Spirituum Seu Goetia (Sourceworks of Ceremonial Magic) (London and Singapore: The Golden Hoard Press 2007)
Thorogood, Alan (ed.), Frederick Hockley (transcribed), The Pauline Art of Solomon (York Beach, ME: The Teitan Press, 2016)
Veenstra, Jan R. “The Holy Almandal. Angels and the intellectual aims of magic” in Jan N. Bremmer and Jan R. Veenstra (eds.), The Metamorphosis of Magic from Late Antiguity to the Early Modern Period (Leuven: Peeters, 2002), pp. 189–229. The Almadel is transcribed at pp. 217–229.
Waite, Arthur Edward, The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts. Including the rites and mysteries of goëtic theurgy, sorcery, and infernal necromancy, also the rituals of black magic (Edinburgh: 1898). Reprinted as The Secret Tradition in Goëtia. The Book of Ceremonial Magic, including the rites and mysteries of Goëtic theurgy, sorcery, and infernal necromancy (London: William Rider & Son, 1911). Includes the Goetia, Pauline Art and Almadel.
White, Nelson & Anne (eds.) Lemegeton: Clavicula Salomonis: or, The complete lesser key of Solomon the King (Pasadena, CA: Technology Group, 1979). Noted by Peterson to be "almost totally unreadable".
Wilby, Kevin (ed.) The Lemegetton. A Medieval Manual of Solomonic Magic (Silian, Lampeter: Hermetic Research Series, 1985)
See also
The Book of Abramelin
Grimoire
List of magical terms and traditions
Works of Aleister Crowley
Explanatory notes
Citations
Works cited
Aleister Crowley (ed.), Samuel Liddell Mathers (trans.), The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King. York Beach, ME : Samuel Weiser (1995) .
E. J. Langford Garstin, Theurgy or The Hermetic Practice: A Treatise on Spiritual Alchemy. Berwick: Ibis Press, 2004. (Published posthumously)
Stephen Skinner, & David Rankine, The Goetia of Dr Rudd: The Angels and Demons of Liber Malorum Spirituum Seu Goetia (Sourceworks of Ceremonial Magic). Golden Hoard Press, 2007.
External links
J. B. Hare, online edition (2002, sacred-texts.com)
Joseph H. Peterson, online edition (1999)
Demon list with descriptions
17th-century books
Demonological literature
Grimoires
Goetia
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] |
254799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1804%20in%20music | 1804 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1804.
Events
January 1 – Johann Nepomuk Hummel's Concerto for trumpet and orchestra receives its première in Vienna, in the presence of Nicholas II, Prince Esterházy.
January 23 – François-Adrien Boieldieu becomes musical director at the court of Tsar Alexander I of Russia.
February 20 – Giovanni Paisiello is appointed Maestro di Cappella at Naples.
April 22 – Twelve-year-old Gioachino Rossini gives a concert at Imola.
May 8 – Seventeen-year-old Carl Maria von Weber becomes Kapellmeister at Breslau in Silesia.
May 14 – Napoleon proclaims himself emperor, causing Beethoven to tear up the title page of his recently completed Symphony No. 3 and rename it the Eroica.
September 18 – Composer Muzio Clementi marries 19-year-old pianist Caroline Lehmann, the daughter of Johann Georg Lehmann, director of the Royal Opera, Berlin. There is a 33-year age gap between bride and groom.
Nicolas Dalayrac is awarded the Légion d'honneur.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Piano Sonata No. 22 in F major
Piano Sonata No. 23, Op.57
Symphony No. 2 (published; composed 1801–02)
Triple Concerto, Op.56
Gedenke mein!, WoO 130
Isabella Colbran – Cavatina di partenza
Jan Ladislav Dussek – Fantasia and Fugue for piano
Anton Eberl – Symphony in D minor, Op. 34
Johann Nepomuk Hummel
Rondo in E-flat major, Op. 11
Variations for piano Op. 15
Rondo-Fantasie, Op. 19
Mass in E-flat major, Op. 80
Leopold Kozeluch – Three Piano Sonatas
Niccolo Paganini – Divertimenti Carnevaleschi
Ferdinand Ries – Piano sonata in A minor, Op. 1 No. 2
Gioachino Rossini – 6 Sonate a quattro
Antonio Salieri – Requiem in C minor
Louis Spohr – Concerto for Violin No. 2 in D minor, Op. 2
Carl Maria von Weber
6 Variations sur l'air de Naga de 'Samori', Op.6
6 Lieder, Op. 30
Turandot, Op.37 (incidental music for Schiller's production)
Joseph Wölfl – Symphony in C major, Op. 41
Opera
Ludwig van Beethoven – Fidelio, Op.72 (composed; premiered 1805)
François-Adrien Boieldieu – Aline, reine de Golconde
Pierre Gaveaux –
Adalbert Gyrowetz – Selico
Ferdinando Paer – Leonora
Gaspare Spontini – Milton
Georg Joseph Vogler – Samori
Births
January 24 – Delphine de Girardin, lyricist and writer (died 1855)
January 25 – Antoni Edward Odyniec, librettist and writer (died 1885)
February 5 – Johan Ludvig Runeberg, lyricist and poet (died 1877)
March 14 – Johann Strauss I, Austrian composer (d. 1849)
March 30 – Salomon Sulzer, Austrian Jewish composer (d. 1890)
April 15 – Otto Friedrich Gruppe, lyricist and poet (died 1876)
May 13 – Aleksey Khomyakov, lyricist and philosopher (died 1860)
May 31 – Louise Farrenc, born Jeanne-Louise Dumont, French pianist and composer (d. 1875)
June 1 – Mikhail Glinka, Russian composer (d. 1857)
June 13 – Gustave de Wailly, librettist and writer (died 1878)
June 21 – Johann Gabriel Seidl, librettist and archeologist (died 1875)
July 14 – Julius Schuberth, German author and publisher, founder of Schuberth & Co. (d. 1875)
July 17 – Carl Ferdinand Becker, music collector and musician (died 1877)
August 19 – Christina Enbom, Swedish operatic soprano (d. 1880)
September 8 – Eduard Mörike, lyricist and poet (died 1875)
October 1 – Eduard Sobolewski, Polish-American violinist, composer and conductor (may have been born in 1808; d. 1872)
October 18
Alexandre Charles Fessy, composer and musician (died 1856)
Joseph-Bernard Rosier, librettist and playwright (died 1880)
November 27 – Sir Julius Benedict, German-born conductor and composer (d. 1885)
date unknown – Ferdinand Giovanni Schediwy, Czech-born organist, conductor and composer (d. 1877)
Deaths
March 29 (or 30) – Ivan Khandoshkin, violinist and composer (b. 1747)
June 16 – Johann Adam Hiller, conductor, composer and music writer (b. 1728)
July 17 – Christian Ernst Graf, composer and kapellmeister (born 1723)
August 24 – Valentin Adamberger, operatic tenor (b. 1740)
November 5 – Maria Anna Adamberger, actress and singer, wife of Valentin Adamberger (b. 1752)
November 19 – Pietro Guglielmi, composer (b. 1728)
date unknown
Gioacchino Cocchi, opera composer (b.c.1720)
Marie Louise Marcadet, actress and singer (b. 1758)
Lorenzo Quaglio, stage designer (b. 1730)
Giovanni Valentini, composer, poet and painter (b. c. 1730)
Christian Felix Weisse, lyricist and writer (born 1726)
Abraham Wood, early American composer (b. 1752)
References
19th century in music
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] |
254812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudy%20Rucker | Rudy Rucker | Rudolf von Bitter Rucker (; born March 22, 1946) is an American mathematician, computer scientist, science fiction author, and one of the founders of the cyberpunk literary movement. The author of both fiction and non-fiction, he is best known for the novels in the Ware Tetralogy, the first two of which (Software and Wetware) both won Philip K. Dick Awards. Until its closure in 2014 he edited the science fiction webzine Flurb.
Early life
Rucker was born and raised in Louisville, Kentucky, son of Embry Cobb Rucker Sr (October 1, 1914 - August 1, 1994), who ran a small furniture-manufacture company and later became an Episcopal priest and community activist, and Marianne (née von Bitter). The Rucker family were of Huguenot descent. Through his mother, he is a great-great-great-grandson of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.
Rucker attended St. Xavier High School before earning a B.A. in mathematics from Swarthmore College (1967) and M.S. (1969) and Ph.D. (1973) degrees in mathematics from Rutgers University.
Career
Rucker taught mathematics at the State University of New York at Geneseo from 1972 to 1978. Although he was liked by his students and "published a book [Geometry, Relativity and the Fourth Dimension] and several papers," several colleagues took umbrage at his long hair and convivial relationships with English and philosophy professors amid looming budget shortfalls; as a result, he failed to attain tenure in the "dysfunctional" department.
Thanks to a grant from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Rucker taught at the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg from 1978 to 1980. He then taught at Randolph-Macon Women's College in Lynchburg, Virginia from 1980 to 1982, before trying his hand as a full-time author for four years.
Inspired by an interview with Stephen Wolfram, Rucker became a computer science professor at San José State University in 1986, from which he retired as professor emeritus in 2004.
From 1988 to 1992 he was hired as a programmer of cellular automata by John Walker of Autodesk which inspired his book The Hacker and the Ants.
A mathematician with philosophical interests, he has written The Fourth Dimension and Infinity and the Mind. Princeton University Press published new editions of Infinity and the Mind in 1995 and in 2005, both with new prefaces; the first edition is cited with fair frequency in academic literature.
As his "own alternative to cyberpunk," Rucker developed a writing style he terms transrealism. Transrealism, as outlined in his 1983 essay "The Transrealist Manifesto", is science fiction based on the author's own life and immediate perceptions, mixed with fantastic elements that symbolize psychological change. Many of Rucker's novels and short stories apply these ideas. One example of Rucker's transreal works is Saucer Wisdom, a novel in which the main character is abducted by aliens. Rucker and his publisher marketed the book, tongue in cheek, as non-fiction.
His earliest transreal novel, White Light, was written during his time at Heidelberg. This transreal novel is based on his experiences at SUNY Geneseo.
Rucker often uses his novels to explore scientific or mathematical ideas; White Light examines the concept of infinity, while the Ware Tetralogy (written from 1982 through 2000) is in part an explanation of the use of natural selection to develop software (a subject also developed in his The Hacker and the Ants, written in 1994). His novels also put forward a mystical philosophy that Rucker has summarized in an essay titled, with only a bit of irony, "The Central Teachings of Mysticism" (included in Seek!, 1999).
His non-fiction book, The Lifebox, the Seashell, and the Soul: What Gnarly Computation Taught Me About Ultimate Reality, the Meaning Of Life, and How To Be Happy summarizes the various philosophies he's believed over the years and ends with the tentative conclusion that we might profitably view the world as made of computations, with the final remark, "perhaps this universe is perfect."
Personal life
Rucker was the roommate of Kenneth Turan during his freshman year at Swarthmore College. In 1967, Rucker married Sylvia Rucker. Together they have three children. On July 1, 2008, Rucker suffered a cerebral hemorrhage. Thinking he may not be around much longer, this prompted him to write Nested Scrolls, his autobiography.
Rucker resided in Highland Park, New Jersey during his graduate studies at Rutgers University.
Bibliography
Novels
The Ware Tetralogy
Software (1982)
Wetware (1988)
Freeware (1997)
Realware (2000)
Transreal Trilogy
The Secret of Life (1985)
White Light (1980)
Saucer Wisdom (1999) novel marketed as non-fiction
Transreal novels
Spacetime Donuts (1981)
The Sex Sphere (1983)
Master of Space and Time (1984)
The Hollow Earth (1990)
The Hacker and the Ants (1994) (Revised 'Version 2.0' 2003)
Spaceland (2002)
Frek and the Elixir (2004)
Mathematicians in Love (2006)
Jim and the Flims (2011)
The Big Aha (2013)
All the Visions (1991), memoir/novel
Other novels
As Above, So Below: A Novel of Peter Bruegel (2002)
Postsingular (2007)
Hylozoic (sequel to Postsingular, May 2009)
Turing and Burroughs (2012)
Return to the Hollow Earth (2018)
Million Mile Road Trip (2019)
Juicy Ghosts (2021)
Short fiction
Collections
The Fifty-Seventh Franz Kafka (1983)
Transreal!, includes poetry and non-fiction essays (1991)
Gnarl! (2000), complete short stories
Mad Professor (2006)
Surfing the Gnarl (2012), includes an essay and interview with the author
Complete Stories (2012)
Transreal Cyberpunk, with Bruce Sterling (2016)
Stories (by date of composition)
Non-fiction
Geometry, Relativity and the Fourth Dimension (1977)
Infinity and the Mind (1982)
The Fourth Dimension: Toward a Geometry of Higher Reality (1984)
Mind Tools (1987)
Seek! (1999), collected essays
Software Engineering and Computer Games (2002), textbook
The Lifebox, the Seashell, and the Soul: What Gnarly Computation Taught Me about Ultimate Reality, the Meaning of Life, and how to be Happy (Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005)
Nested Scrolls - autobiography (2011)
Collected Essays (2012)
How To Make An Ebook (2012)
Better Worlds (2013), art book of Rucker’s paintings
Journals 1990-2014 (2015)
As editor
Speculations on the Fourth Dimension: Selected Writings of Charles H. Hinton, Dover (1980),
Mathenauts: Tales of Mathematical Wonder, Arbor House (1987)
Semiotext(e) SF, Autonomedia (1989)
Critical studies and reviews of Rucker's work
Review of Turing & Burroughs.
Filmography
As actor-speaker in Manual of Evasion LX94, a 1994 film by Edgar Pêra
Notes
References
External links
Rudy Rucker Portal
Rudy Rucker Books
1946 births
Living people
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
American technology writers
Writers from California
Cyberpunk writers
Writers from Louisville, Kentucky
San Jose State University faculty
Swarthmore College alumni
Cellular automatists
Wired (magazine) people
Rutgers University alumni
State University of New York at Geneseo faculty
American people of German descent
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from New York (state)
Novelists from Kentucky
People from Highland Park, New Jersey
People from Los Gatos, California
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers | [
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254814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20house%20types | List of house types | This is a list of house types. Houses can be built in a large variety of configurations. A basic division is between free-standing or single-family detached homes and various types of attached or multi-family residential dwellings. Both may vary greatly in scale and the amount of accommodation provided.
By layout
Hut
A Hut is a dwelling of relatively simple construction, usually one room and one story in height. The design and materials of huts vary widely around the world.
Bungalow
Bungalow is a common term applied to a low one-story house with a shallow-pitched roof (in some locations, dormered varieties are referred to as 1.5-story, such as the chalet bungalow in the United Kingdom).
Cottage
A Cottage is a small house, usually one story in height, although the term is sometimes applied to larger structures.
Ranch
A Ranch-style house or Rambler is one-story, low to the ground, with a low-pitched roof, usually rectangular, L- or U-shaped with deep overhanging eaves Ranch styles include:
California ranch: the "original" ranch style, developed in the United States in the early 20th century, before World War II
Tract ranch: a post-World War II style of ranch that was smaller and less ornate than the original, mass-produced in housing developments, usually without basements
Suburban ranch: a modern style of ranch that retains many of the characteristics of the original but is larger, with modern amenities
I-house
An I-house is a two-story house that is one room deep with a double-pen, hall-parlor, central-hall or saddlebag layout.
New England I-house: characterized by a central chimney
Pennsylvania I-house: characterized by internal gable-end chimneys at the interior of either side of the house
Southern I-house: characterized by external gable-end chimneys on the exterior of either side of the house
Gablefront
A Gablefront house or Gablefront cottage has a gable roof that faces its street or avenue, as in the novel The House of Seven Gables.
A-frame: so-called because the steep roofline, reaching to or near the ground, makes the gable ends resemble a capital letter A.
Chalet: a gablefront house built into a mountainside with a wide sloping roof
Charleston single house: originating in Charleston, South Carolina, a narrow house with its shoulder to the street and front door on the side.
Split-level
Split-level house is a design of house that was commonly built during the 1950s and 1960s. It has two nearly equal sections that are located on two different levels, with a short stairway in the corridor connecting them.
Bi-level, split-entry, or raised ranch
Tri-level, quad-level, quintlevel etc.
Tower
A Tower house is a compact two or more story house, often fortified.
Irish tower houses were often surrounded by defensive walls called bawns
Kulla: an Albanian tower house
Peel tower or Pele tower: fortified tower houses in England and Scotland used as keeps or houses
Vainakh tower: a tower house found in Chechenya and Ingushetia that reached up to four stories tall and were used for residential or military purposes, or both
Welsh tower houses: built mostly in the 14th and 15th centuries
Longhouse
A Longhouse is historical house type typically for family groups.
Geestharden house: one of the three basic house types in Schleswig-Holstein region of Germany
Uthland-Frisian house: a sub type of Geestharden house of northwest Germany and Denmark
Longère: a long and narrow house in rural Normandy and Brittany
Housebarn
A Housebarn is a combined house and barn.
Barndominium: a type of house that includes living space attached to either a workshop or a barn, typically for horses, or a large vehicle such as a recreational vehicle or a large recreational boat
Byre-dwelling: farmhouse with people and livestock under one roof
Connected farm: type of farmhouse common in New England
Frutighaus: a type of barnhouse originating in the Frutigland region of Switzerland.
Other house types
Courtyard house Riad: a type of courtyard house found in Morocco
Siheyuan: a type of courtyard house found in China
Snout house: a house with the garage door being the closest part of the dwelling to the street.
Octagon house: a house of symmetrical octagonal floor plan, popularized briefly during the 19th century by Orson Squire Fowler
Stilt house: is a house built on stilts above a body of water or the ground (usually in swampy areas prone to flooding).
Villa: a large house which one might retreat to in the country. Villa can also refer to a freestanding comfortable-sized house, on a large block, generally found in the suburbs, and in Victorian terraced housing, a house larger than the average byelaw terraced house, often having double street frontage.
Mansion: a very large, luxurious house, typically associated with exceptional wealth or aristocracy, usually of more than one story, on a very large block of land or estate. Mansions usually will have many more rooms and bedrooms than a typical single-family home, including specialty rooms, such as a library, study, conservatory, theater, greenhouse, infinity pool, bowling alley, or server room.
By construction method or materials
Airey house: a type of low-cost house that was developed in the United Kingdom during the 1940s by Sir Edwin Airey, and then widely constructed between 1945 and 1960 to provide housing for soldiers, sailors, and airmen who had returned home from World War II. These are recognizable by their precast concrete columns and by their walls made of precast "ship-lap" concrete panels.
Assam-type House: an earthquake-resistant house type commonly found in the northeastern states of India
Bastle house: a fortified farmhouse found in England and Scotland
Castle: primarily a defensive structure/dwelling built during the Dark Ages and the Middle Ages, and also during the 18th century and the 19th century.
Converted barn: an old barn converted into a house or other use.
Earth sheltered: houses using dirt ("earth") piled against it exterior walls for thermal mass, which reduces heat flow into or out of the house, maintaining a more steady indoor temperature
Pit-house: a prehistoric house type used on many continents and of many styles, partially sunken into the ground.
Rammed earth Sod house Souterrain: an earthen dwelling typically deriving from Neolithic Age or Bronze Age times.
Underground home: a type of dwelling dug and constructed underground. Ex. A Rammed-Earth Style House
Yaodong: a dugout used as an abode or shelter in northern China, especially on the Loess Plateau
Wattle and daub Adobe: a type of mudbrick house made of dirt and straw with mud used as mortar. Found throughout the world, in particular Spain, North Africa, the Middle East and the Americas.
Igloo: an Inuit, Yup'ik, and Aleut seasonal or emergency shelter that was made of knife-sliced blocks of packed snow and/or ice in the Arctic regions of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Siberian Russia.
Kit house: a type of pre-fabricated house made of pre-cut, numbered pieces of lumber.
Sears Catalog Home: an owner-built "kit" houses that were sold by the Sears, Roebuck and Co. corporation via catalog orders from 1906 to 1940.
Laneway house: a type of Canadian house that is constructed behind a normal single-family home that opens onto a back lane
Log home, Log cabin: a house built by American, Canadian, and Russian frontiersmen and their families which was built of solid, unsquared wooden logs and later as a well crafted style of dwelling
Plank house: a general term for houses built using planks in a variety of ways
Pole house: a timber house in which a set of vertical poles carry the load of all of its suspended floors and roof, allowing all of its walls to be non-load-bearing.
Prefabricated house: a house whose main structural sections were manufactured in a factory, and then transported to their final building site to be assembled upon a concrete foundation, which had to be poured locally.
Manufactured house: a prefabricated house that is assembled on the permanent site on which it will sit.
Modular home: a prefabricated house that consists of repeated sections called modules.
Lustron house: a type of prefabricated house
Stilt houses or Pile dwellings: houses raised on stilts over the surface of the soil or a body of water.
Tree house: a house built among the branches or around the trunk of one or more mature trees and does not rest on the ground.
Upper Lusatian house or Umgebinde: combined log and timber-frame construction in Germany-Czech Republic-Poland region
Wimpey no-fines house: a low-cost semi-attached or terraced houses built in the United Kingdom from the 1940s onwards using concrete without fine aggregates ("no-fine")
Single-family attached
Two-family or duplex: two living units, either attached side by side and sharing a common wall (in some countries, called semi-detached) or stacked one atop the other (in some countries, called a double-decker)
Three-family or triplex: three living units, either attached side by side and sharing common walls, or stacked (in some countries, called a three-decker or triple-decker)
Four-family or quadplex or quad: four living units, typically with two units on the first floor and two on the second, or side-by-side
Townhouse, terraced house, or rowhouse: common terms for single-family attached housing, whose precise meaning varies by location, often connecting a series of living units arranged side-by-side sharing common walls (not to be confused with the English term for an aristocratic mansion, townhouse (Great Britain))
Linked house: side-by-side attached houses that appear detached above-ground but are attached at the foundation below-ground
Linked semi-detached: side-by-side attached houses with garages in between them, sharing basement and garage walls
Mews property: an urban stable-block that has often been converted into residential properties. The houses may have been converted into ground floor garages with a small flat above which used to house the ostler or just a garage with no living quarters.
Patio house: townhouses that share a patio
Weavers' cottage: townhouses with attached workshops for weavers
Movable dwellings
Chattel house: a small wooden house occupied by working-class people on Barbados. Originally relocatable; personal chattel (property) rather than fixed real property.
Mobile home, park home, or trailer home: a prefabricated house that is manufactured off-site and moved by trailer to its final location (but not intended to be towed regularly by a vehicle)
Recreational vehicle or RV: a motor vehicle or trailer that can be used for habitation
Travel trailer, camper or caravan: a trailer designed to be used as a residence (usually temporarily), which must be towed regularly by a vehicle and cannot move under its own power
Tiny house: a trailer, often or smaller, built to look like a small house and suitable for long-term habitation
Houseboat includes float houses: a boat designed to be primarily used as a residence
Tent: a temporary, movable dwelling usually constructed with fabric covering a frame of lightweight wood or other locally-available material
Tipi: a conical tent originating in North America
Yurt''': a round tent with a conical roof originating in Central Asia
See also
Cohousing
Company town
City block
Home
House
Gated community
Intentional Community
List of house styles
Planned Unit Development
Real estate
Spite house, which may or may not be attached to other structures
Sustainable design
Timeshare, form of vacation property
Notes
References
External links
House Images
Architectural Housing Styles at Old House Web
Bilingual Glossary of House types
A comprehensive summary of common residential architectural styles and themes
House types | [
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254819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Santiago%20de%20Cuba | Battle of Santiago de Cuba | The Battle of Santiago de Cuba was a decisive naval engagement that occurred on July 3, 1898 between an American fleet, led by William T. Sampson and Winfield Scott Schley, against a Spanish fleet led by Pascual Cervera y Topete, which occurred during the Spanish–American War. The significantly more powerful US Navy squadron, consisting of four battleships and two armored cruisers, decisively defeated an outgunned squadron of the Royal Spanish Navy, which consisted of four armored cruisers and two destroyers. All the Spanish ships were sunk, but no American ship was lost. The crushing loss sealed American victory in the Cuban theater of the war and ensuring the independence of Cuba from Spanish rule.
Tensions between Spain and the United States worsened over the Spanish conduct during their efforts to quell the Cuban War of Independence, with many Americans being agitated by largely exaggerated reports of Spanish atrocities against the Cubans. In January 1898, fearing the fate of American interests in Cuba from the war, the cruiser USS Maine was dispatched to protect them. Less than a month later, the cruiser exploded while lying at anchor in Havana harbor, killing 261 sailors onboard and inflaming American opinion with Spain being portrayed as the culprit in the American media regardless of the actual source of the explosion. Two months later, war was declared.
The Americans realized that defeating a significant Spanish squadron then stationed in Cuba was vital to ensuring victory in the war. A squadron consisting of six warships were dispatched to ensure success, commanded by both Sampson and Schley, each admiral having his own approach to naval warfare. On July 3, the Spanish squadron steamed out of the harbor to engage with the Americans. The Spanish, being totally unprepared and outgunned, made a desperate attempt to reach the open sea with the American battleships and cruisers in hot pursuit. Superior naval gunnery and seamanship prevailed, and the entire Spanish fleet was sunk with minimal casualties for the Americans, who suffered only two men killed or wounded.
The Americans pulled a total of 1889 Spanish sailors from the water, among them Cervera. The captured Spaniards were treated with respect and care by the Americans, and Cervera gained respect from the American officers for his dignified conduct during and after the battle. Although the battle ensured the American campaign in Cuba would end in a success, tensions soon arose between Sampson and Schley, with various parties in the US Navy and the American public debating over which admiral had made the greatest contribution to victory, and the dispute reached the desk of Theodore Roosevelt. The battle remains one of the most significant naval battles in US maritime history.
Background
Preliminary context
The battle marked the culmination of the Cuban Wars for Independence, which had been waged by Cuban revolutionaries against Spanish imperial power for several decades. The United States had political, economic, cultural, and ideological interests in Cuba. Within the larger context, many American political leaders, pushed by interventionist public opinion, were outraged by the publication of a private letter by Spanish Minister Enrique Dupuy de Lôme critical of US President William McKinley and by the destruction of the American armored cruiser that was touted by newspapers at the time as the "Battleship Maine" for which a naval court of inquiry and American yellow journalism blamed Spain.
Cuban revolutionaries had staged revolts against Spanish colonial authority in the Ten Years' War (1868–1878), the Little War (1879–1880), and the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898). During the last war, Spanish General Valeriano Weyler established a policy of interning Cubans in camps he called reconcentrados, which functioned as internment camps. The etymology behind the re- prefix is that formerly the Cubans lived in villages but now they were going to be redistributed into new villages under the hypocritical pretext that it was for their own protection. Spanish forces gathered Cubans who lived in the countryside and centralized them in camps, where they could be monitored. As a consequence, many Cubans died of disease and malnutrition. That policy did as much to paint the Spanish as barbarians to the Cuban natives and the United States as any other item of misrule by the Spanish.
With outrage over Weyler's seemingly-brutal policy and sympathy with the Cubans' struggle building, US public opinion pushed for war with Spain after the publication of the de Lôme Letter in February. Enrique Dupuy de Lôme had been appointed the Spanish Minister to the United States in 1892. In that capacity, it was his duty to refrain from allowing his personal beliefs to intervene with his public duty to support peaceful diplomatic relations between the United States and Spain. However, a letter that expressed his opposition to McKinley's foreign policy decisions was exposed, and the New York Journal translated and printed the letter. Many Americans considered it an insult to the nation and to the president.
Although Spain apologized on February 13, 1898, Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor, Cuba, two days later and killed 266 American sailors. After a hasty naval court of inquiry, the American press blamed Spain and accused it of planting a mine that sank the battleship. The war with Spain became known as the "Correspondents' War". Journalists not only wrote stories about the conflict but also took part in the fight. In 1898, the prestige of the press ran high.
American society was changing as literacy rates increased. There was a new revolution of readers. As war zones became more open to the press, journalists wrote eyewitness accounts of what was happening. In an era before radio and television, newspapers were the main source of information, opinion, and entertainment for the American public. In New York City, where the population was about 2,800,000, the combined circulation of daily papers was about 2,000,000.
In response to the public's outcry, McKinley took action against Spain. On April 25, the United States declared war and claimed to have had no self-serving interest in Cuba, but some political and military leaders and imperialists believed that war would be an opportunity for the United States to expand territories overseas and to demonstrate its increasing naval power against a weak foe. Moreover, the United States sought to expand economic ties with Cuba for its resources in sugar and tobacco, all of which influenced America's decision to intervene. It was evident that gaining territories across the globe would increase US strength and influence and tap markets for the products of American industry.
Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta did not seek war with the United States. He did not expect victory but knew that Spanish citizens would likely revolt if he conceded to American demands in Cuba. Meanwhile, Spanish naval leaders tried to employ a strategy that would not win the war outright but resist the US Navy as much as possible. On May 1, 1898, American and Spanish naval forces met in the Philippines at the Battle of Manila Bay, which resulted in a decisive victory for the United States. The Spanish government sent their fleet, under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete, to defend Cuba and keep an open line of communication with the Spanish garrison there. Cervera opposed that strategy since he believed his squadron lacked the strength necessary to engage the American squadron. He preferred to engage the Americans near the Canary Islands or to mount an attack against the American coast, but he was overruled by his superiors in Madrid. Cervera's own misgivings reveal the seriousness of the situation faced:
It is impossible for me to give you an idea of the surprise and consternation experienced by all on the receipt of the order to sail. Indeed, that surprise is well justified, for nothing can be expected of this expedition except the total destruction of the fleet or its hasty and demoralized return.
Lacking a clear strategy, the Spanish policymakers at home may have hoped to end the war quickly in a "glorious defeat" against the more powerful US Navy. Cervera knew better but like a good officer followed orders to the letter. There is a hint of his real views in his attack orders to the fleet. He suggests they nail their flags to the masts; that is, not even to think about lowering them in surrender. As the fleet was being massacred against superior firepower, some captains in fact ran their ships aground and surrendered to save what was left of their men.
Spanish fleet
Before taking command of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron, Cervera had served a variety of military and political roles and retiring after a dispute with opposing politicians. However, when war against the United States broke, Cervera was recalled into the Spanish Navy and given command of the Caribbean Squadron. The squadron was to be dispatched from Spain with the ultimate destination of the Caribbean, initially Puerto Rico but then changed to Cuba, to reinforce the Spanish garrison, defend the island from American invasion, and break the American naval blockade. Before the outbreak of war, Cervera attempted to inform Spanish officials of the Spanish Navy's weakness relative to the US Navy. Captain Fernando Villaamil, the Second Officer in the Ministry of the Navy and a pioneer in destroyer warfare, disagreed with Cervera's passivity and advocated Spain to offset American naval superiority by scattering the fleet and taking the initiative through quick and dispersed actions. A lack of consensus between Cervera, Villaamil, and the Spanish government put Spanish naval strategy in flux from the beginning.
On April 29, Cervera steamed from Cape Verde. Panic gripped the American people, who did not know what his ships might do: attack the largely-undefended East Coast while the fleet sailed about in an effort to engage him; prey upon American shipping; or perhaps sail up the Potomac and set fire to Washington, DC. Ultimately, Cervera did none of those but managed to evade the US fleet for several weeks, confounded his American counterparts, and recoaled in the process before he finally sought refuge in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. On May 29, 1898, an American squadron sighted Cervera's newest ship, the cruiser , and immediately established a blockade around the mouth of the harbor. The Spanish soon found themselves "blockaded closely by an American semicircle of ships about six miles from the Morro by day, and moving discreetly closer after nightfall." Moreover, by early July, the Spanish were nearly surrounded at Santiago from the east by an advancing American army numbering some 16,000 soldiers, 3,000 Cuban insurgents to the west, and the American fleet to the south.
The Spanish squadron consisted of the cruisers , , , and Cristóbal Colón in addition to Villaamil's destroyers and . The cruisers displaced approximately 7,000 tons each, but they were not heavily armored, and their armament did not match the Americans. With the exception of Cristóbal Colón, which was more lightly armed, the cruisers' main armament consisted of two guns each and a secondary armament of ten guns. Cervera's fleet was at a further disadvantage relative to the Americans because of the condition of its ships. The breech mechanisms in many of the Spanish guns were dangerously faulty and caused jams and other mishaps. Many of the ships' boilers were in need of repair. Several ships, including Viscaya, desperately needed bottom-cleaning as they were suffering from extra drag from fouling. The most well-protected ship in Cervera's fleet, the second-generation armored cruiser Cristóbal Colón, had not even had her main battery installed and carried wooden dummy guns instead.
Finally, Cervera's crews were poorly trained. They lacked experience and practice in gunnery drills, and their training had emphasized rapid fire at regular intervals but the Americans favored more deliberately-aimed fire. Relative to the Americans' fleet, which consisted mainly of modern battleships, Cervera's force was lightly armed, a result of recent budget cuts but also a naval policy that for many years favored the construction of light swift ships to patrol the far-flung oceanic empire.
With Cervera's fleet bottled in Santiago, Captain General Ramon Blanco y Erenas, the top military commander in Cuba, ordered it to sortie from the harbor along the coast westward to Cienfuegos. In Cervera's eyes, escape from the bay seemed nearly impossible. He strongly considered fleeing under protection of night but opted to sail by day instead to ensure the safe navigation of his ships through Santiago's narrow channel. On July 3, 1898, Cervera, aboard his flagship Infanta Maria Teresa, led the Spanish fleet out of the safety of the Santiago harbor at 7 min intervals.
American fleet
The primary elements of the American forces in Cuban waters were initially divided between two commands: Rear Admiral William T. Sampson of the North Atlantic Squadron and Commodore Winfield Scott Schley, commanding the "Flying Squadron". Although the two combined squadrons outnumbered the Spanish fleet, victory was not achieved solely by American numerical superiority. Rather, victory resulted from strategic and tactical decisionmaking in addition to the general superiority of the American forces. As the historian James C. Rentfrow argues, the American victory at Santiago was, in many ways, the culmination of an "ongoing process towards [the North Atlantic Fleet's] construction as a combat unit."
The American fleet was composed of many different types of vessels. At the head of the fleet were Sampson's armored cruiser and Schley's armored cruiser . New York and Brooklyn, but only armored cruisers were well-armed for their class. Schley's flagships were powerful cruisers, but the primary firepower of the American fleet resided in its battleships , , , and . The American battleships were modern steam-powered and steel-hulled coast defense battleships all built within the decade. The oldest and least powerful of them was Texas, a near-sister ship to the famous Maine, which had exploded in Havana Harbor in February. The ships were armed with guns and could steam at speeds up to . Off Santiago, Schley's "Flying Squadron" was merged into the larger fleet under Sampson's overall command.
To bolster the force, US Navy Secretary John D. Long ordered the battleship to sail from Mare Island, California, to join the fleet in the Caribbean. The "West coast's lone battleship" steamed from San Francisco around Cape Horn to Key West to join the rest of Sampson's fleet in early May, a journey completed in 66 days. The ship's armament included four 13-inch guns, eight /30 caliber guns, and -thick steel armor. With its engines, it was propelled through the water at a rate upwards of 17 knots. Its combined speed and firepower gave Oregon the nickname "bulldog of the Navy." These "were clearly superior ships," observed W.J. Murphy, a sailor aboard Iowa. The powerful battleships, at least according to Murphy, enabled the US fleet to be victorious in battle.
Battleships and cruisers, however, were not the only forces the Americans employed in the conflict. Other vessels included torpedo boats like , light cruisers such as , and even the collier , which sank on June 3. Sampson specifically approached Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson, the commanding officer, charging him with the task to "sink the collier in the channel" in order to both blockade the Spanish fleet and to clear the narrow passage of any mines.
Standoff at Santiago
Sampson structured the blockade as a semicircle at the opening of the harbor. An auxiliary ship floated around the edges and waited to be used if a forced entrance was necessary, and a torpedo boat was stationed farther off the front line. The newly-developed torpedo boat was charged with guarding Sampson's flagship when he broke the blockade to perform "frequent inspections, attacks, and pursuits," according to a correspondent aboard the New York.
Except for the sinking of Merrimac, the duty proved tedious. "Blockade duty off the Cuban coast was long, dull and unremitting," wrote the historian Jim Leeke. During the day, the blockade stationed constant lookouts. At night, a battleship shone a searchlight on the entrance of the harbor if the Spanish fleet attempted an escape under the cover of darkness. The chore was repeated daily for nearly two months. As a sailor aboard put it, "what at first had been a pleasure had become a duty."
As long as Cervera remained within Santiago Harbor, his fleet was relatively safe. The guns of the city were quite sufficient to make up for his fleet's deficiencies, and the area was well defended with sea mines, torpedoes, and other obstructions. Nevertheless, Cervera was terribly outmatched. Though his ships were modern, they were too few, and their technical problems compounded his worries. The lack of refitting facilities in Santiago to assist with the repairs of the vessels in Cervera's squadron made the situation all the more desperate.
For more than a month, the two fleets faced off, with only a few inconclusive skirmishes resulting. For his part, Cervera was content to wait in the hope that bad weather would scatter the Americans so that he could make a run to a position more favorable for engaging the enemy. However, US land forces began to drive on Santiago de Cuba, and by the end of June 1898, Cervera found himself unable to remain safely in the harbor, and Governor-General Ramón Blanco y Erenas wanted a sortie: "it is better for the honor of our arms that the squadron perish in battle...."
The breakout was planned for 09:00 on July 3. That seemed the most logical time: the Americans would be at religious services, and waiting until night would only make the escape even more treacherous. By noon on July 2, the fleet had a full head of steam and had fallen into position for the breakout.
At about 8:45 a.m., just as his ships had slipped their moorings, Admiral Sampson and two ships of his command, his flagship, the armored cruiser New York, and the torpedo boat had left their positions for a trip to Siboney and a meeting with Major General William Rufus Shafter of the US Army. That opened a gap in the western portion of the American blockade line, which left a window for Cervera. Sampson's New York was one of only two ships in the squadron fast enough to catch Cervera if he managed to break through the blockade. Further, the battleship Massachusetts and the cruisers and New Orleans had left that morning to coal at Guantanamo Bay.
With the departure of Admiral Sampson, who had signaled, "Disregard movements of flagship," immediate command devolved to Commodore Schley in armored cruiser Brooklyn, which now became the de facto flagship of the blockade.
Thus, the blockade formation that morning consisted of Schley's Brooklyn, followed by the battleships Texas, Oregon, Iowa, and Indiana and the armed yachts and Gloucester.
At 09:35, the navigator of Brooklyn sighted a plume of smoke coming from the mouth of the port and reported to Schley,
The enemy's ships are coming out!
Battle
The Spanish column made its way around Cay Smith at around 9:31 a.m. on July 3 and left the channel about five minutes later. In the lead was Cervera's flagship Infanta Maria Teresa, followed by Vizcaya, Cristóbal Colón, Almirante Oquendo, travelling at around and apart, followed by the torpedo-boat destroyers Plutón and Furor, respectively. They then formed three echelons, the destroyers heading eastward, followed by Cristóbal Colón and Almirante Oquendo, and Infanta Maria Teresa and Vizcaya made for Brooklyn.
The battle commenced almost immediately. At the mouth of the harbor, the American vessels, Texas, Iowa, Oregon, and Indiana, engulfed the Spanish fleet in a "hail of fire." At 9:30 a.m., the first shot was fired by Iowa and Signal No. 250 was hoisted when the ships were seen in the channel. The Spanish responded, supported by the batteries on Morro and Upper Socapa. After leaving the channel, the Spanish vessels turned westward in column towards the American fleet.
While the Spanish had taken the initiative by beginning the engagement, two factors slowed their escape. One was the continuing problem experienced in maintaining proper speed by Vizcaya; the other was the poor quality of most of the coal in the Spanish holds. An expected resupply of high-quality anthracite had been captured aboard the collier Restormel, by the American auxiliary cruiser on May 25.
Brooklyn headed nearly straight for Infanta Maria Teresa at first, but by 10:05, it was apparent they were on a collision course, and Commodore Schley ordered a sharp turn to starboard, the so-called "retrograde loop," when all of the other American ships had already turned to port. That threatened Texas with collision and Captain Philip of Texas ordered "all engines back full," which brought Texas to a near standstill until Brooklyn passed across the bow of Texas. Infanta Maria Teresa and Vizcaya then altered course to the west, Cristóbal Colón and Almirante Oquendo falling in behind, and the two squadrons paralleled each other. Texas then swung behind Brooklyn, but Oregon then ran up on Texas and passed inboard, masking the fire of Texas. Oregon, initially to the rear of the action but the fastest ship in the US fleet, soon raced past Indiana, which had an engine problem and could go only at the time of the battle. Iowa had started from a disadvantaged position and was passed by Infanta Maria Teresa but hit her with two rounds from and swung into the chase. As Iowa was passed in turn by Cristóbal Colón, the Spanish ship hit her with two shots from her secondary battery. One of them struck near the waterline and caused Iowa to slow and she therefore engaged Almirante Oquendo, bringing up the rear of Cervera's four cruisers. With the Spanish fleet past the American blockade, the battle became a chase.
Rather than expose the entirety of his fleet to the American battle line, Cervera had signaled his other ships to continue to the southwest while he attempted to cover their escape by directly engaging Brooklyn, his nearest enemy. Though Brooklyn was hit more than 20 times during the battle, she suffered only two casualties, and her return fire resulted in the deaths of most of Cervera's bridge crew and grave damage to the ship generally. Under that brutal punishment, Infanta Maria Teresa began to burn furiously. According to Admiral Sampson's battle report, "it was afterward learned that the Infanta Maria Teresa's fire-main had been cut by one of [the] first shots." Cervera ordered her aground at 10:35 in shallows along the Cuban coast and had been completely wrecked and aflame. Admiral Cervera survived and was rescued after he had been picked up near Punta Cabrera by the crew of Gloucester.
The rest of the Spanish fleet continued its race for the open sea. Almirante Oquendo was hit a total of 57 times and was driven out of the battle by the premature detonation of a shell stuck in a defective breech-block mechanism of an 11-inch turret, which killed the entire gun crew. A boiler explosion finished her, and she was ordered scuttled by the mortally wounded Captain Lazaga. At 10:35 Almirante Oquendo ran aground no more than a mile beyond Infanta Maria Teresa. Meanwhile, Plutón and Furor made a dash in a direction opposite the rest of the Spanish squadron. Gloucester inflicted a considerable amount of damage by direct fire at close range to the destroyers, which eventually led to their destruction from the battleships Iowa, Indiana, and eventually New York. After receiving word of the battle, Sampson turned his flagship New York around and raced to join the fight. Furor was sunk at 10:50 before making the beach. Plutón succeeded in grounding herself at 10:45 near Cabanas Bay. In total, Furor and Plutón lost two thirds of their men.
Vizcaya was locked in a running gun duel for nearly an hour with Brooklyn. Despite steaming side by side with Schley's flagship at a range of about and even with some good shooting, which knocked out a secondary gun aboard Brooklyn, almost none of the Spaniards' nearly 300 shots caused significant damage, and Brooklyn pounded Vizcaya with devastating fire. Subsequent claims by Admiral Cervera and later research by historians have suggested that nearly 85% of the Spanish ammunition at Santiago was utterly useless, defective, or simply filled with sawdust as a cost-saving measure for practice firing. The American ammunition had no such issues of lethality. Vizcaya continued the fight until she was overwhelmed and by the end of the engagement, she had been struck as many as 200 times by the fire from Brooklyn and Texas. Brooklyn had closed to within when she finally delivered an round, which, according to witnesses, may have detonated a torpedo being prepared for launch. A huge explosion ensued, Vizcaya was mortally wounded, and fires raged out of control that burned her reserves of ammunition that were on deck. She hauled down her flag and turned toward the Aserraderos beach to ground herself at 11:15.
Schley signaled Indiana to go back to the harbor entrance, and Iowa was signaled to resume blockading station. Iowa, Ericsson, and aided the crew of the burning Vizcaya. Meanwhile, and Gloucester rescued those of Infanta Maria Teresa and Almirante Oquendo. With flames and ready-to-explode ammunition on deck, the officers and sailors still ran into harm's way to rescue the Spanish crews. These proved to be some of the most valiant actions performed that day.
While Vizcaya was under fire, Cristóbal Colón had drawn ahead. Within a little more than an hour, five of the six ships of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron had been destroyed or forced aground. Only one vessel, the speedy new armored cruiser Cristóbal Colón, still survived and steamed as fast as she could for the west and freedom. Though modern in every respect and possibly the fastest ship in either fleet, Cristóbal Colón had one serious problem: she had been only recently purchased from Italy, and her main armament had not yet been installed because of a contractual issue with Armstrong Whitworth. She therefore sailed with empty main turrets but retained her ten secondary battery. That day, speed was her primary defense.
By the time Vizcaya had been beached, Cristóbal Colón was nearly six miles beyond Brooklyn and Oregon. At her best rate of nearly , Cristóbal Colón slowly distanced herself from the pursuing US fleet. Her closest antagonist, USS Brooklyn, had begun the battle with just two of her four engines coupled because of her long stay on the blockade line, and she could manage barely while she was building steam. As Brooklyn ineffectively fired 8-inch rounds at the rapidly-disappearing Cristóbal Colón, there was only one ship in the US fleet with a chance of maintaining the pursuit, Oregon, burning Cardiff coal and New York, doing .
For 65 min, Oregon pursued Cristóbal Colón. which hugged the coast and was unable to turn toward the open sea because Oregon was standing out about from the course of Cristóbal Colón and would have been able to close the gap fatally of Cristóbal Colón had turned to a more southerly course.
Finally, three factors converged to end the chase. Cristóbal Colón had run through her supply of high-quality Cardiff coal and was forced to begin using an inferior grade obtained from Spanish reserves in Cuba. Also, peninsula jutting out from the coastline would soon force her to turn south, across Oregons path. Finally, on the flagship Brooklyn, Commodore Schley signaled Oregon Captain Charles Edgar Clark to open fire. Despite the immense range still separating Oregon and Cristóbal Colón, the forward turret of Oregon launched a pair of 13-inch shells that bracketed the wake of Cristóbal Colón just astern of the ship.
Vizcaya exploded at 1:20 p.m., Captain Jose de Paredes, declining to see his crew needlessly killed, abruptly turned the Cristóbal Colón toward the mouth of the Turquino River and ordered the scuttle valves opened and the colors struck as she grounded. Captain Cook of Brooklyn went on board to receive the surrender. Oregon was in charge of the wreck of Cristóbal Colón wreck with orders to save her if possible. All of the prisoners were to be transferred to . Despite all efforts, Cristóbal Colón was taken by the sea and sank in shoal water. As the ships of the US fleet pushed through the carnage and rescued as many Spanish survivors as possible, one officer was fished out by sailors of Iowa. The man proved to be Captain Don Antonio Eulate of Vizcaya. He thanked his rescuers and presented his sword to Captain Robley Evans, who handed it back as an act of chivalry.
By the end of the battle, the Spanish fleet had been completely destroyed. The Spanish lost more than 300 killed and 150 wounded out of 2,227 men, or approximately 22% of the fleet. 1,800 officers and men were taken prisoner by the Americans, and roughly 150 returned to Santiago de Cuba. The American fleet lost only one killed and one wounded, the former being Yeoman George Henry Ellis of the Brooklyn. The Spanish ships were devastated by the overwhelming barrage of firepower by the Americans. However, according to historian David Trask, despite the overwhelming victory, only 1-3% of all rounds fired by the Americans found their mark.
Sampson-Schley controversy
The American victory bred controversy in the ranks of the naval officer corps over the question of the commanding officer who deserved credit for the victory. Should it be Sampson, who was in operational command of the fleet, but absent when Cervera's force engaged the Americans, or Schley, who remained in tactical command during Sampson's absence and who saw the fight to a successful close from the bridge of Brooklyn? The controversy between the two officers began almost immediately after the conclusion of the battle.
At the conclusion of the battle, Sampson's flagship New York approached Brooklyn. Schley sent the message by signal flag: "The enemy has surrendered" and "We have gained a great victory." Against common practice at the end of a victorious battle, Sampson did not respond with the expected congratulatory remark, but rather, according to historian Joseph G. Dawson, "the answering signal was terse and seemed needlessly brusque." After the messages were exchanged, more tension grew between the two officers when Schley requested for he and his crew to "have the honor of the surrender of the Cristobal Colon." With disregard to Schley and the other commanding officers, Sampson cabled Secretary Long, "The fleet under my command offers the nation as a Fourth of July present the whole of Cevera’s fleet." He invoked General William T. Sherman's message to President Abraham Lincoln after taking Atlanta in 1864 but made no reference to Schley. A day after the news reached the United States, The New York Times published an article with the headline "Sampson's Fourth of July Victory," which expressed gratitude towards Sampson for his leadership during the battle. In Sampson's hometown of Palmyra, New York, a respectful 100 shots were fired for his victory. Following the newspaper headlines were interviews and telegraphs from Sampson's wife, sister, and two sons. Each message displayed praise and congratulations for his accomplishments in the battle.
Less than two weeks before Sampson's battle report was due, reporters sensed that there was tension between the two officers. On July 5, Kentucky Representative Albert S. Berry went on record in favor of Schley by declaring, "Schley is the real hero of the incident. Sampson commands the fleet in those waters, but it was Commodore Schley in command when Cervera and his fleet made the plucky attempt at escape and it was under Schley that every one of that Spanish fleet met its destruction." Berry still did not impugn Sampson but believed that Schley deserved much of the credit for the American victory. The next day, a news report from the Baltimore American declared that "Schley [was] the real hero."
The controversy quickly became a public spectacle inflamed by journalistic sensationalism, popular interest in the recent war, and in the war's celebration of military heroism. On August 9, 1898, the Springfield Republic claimed the controversy to be largely a product of writers determined "to get a brilliant hero out of the Santiago battle at any cost." Many journalists felt that Sampson's "careful, thorough and comprehensive leadership" did not fit the mold of the brash American hero in the era of Rooseveltian masculinity. Just as early motion picture-makers such as Thomas Edison made films celebrating Schley's leadership at Santiago, journalists by and large placed Schley on a pedestal for winning the battle because he was the man standing on the bridge who led the fleet towards the enemy and victory in combat.
The controversy also sharply divided the Navy's officer corps. Alfred Thayer Mahan, author of The Influence of Sea Power upon History: 1660–1783, threw his considerable influence behind Sampson. He argued that it did not matter who was in command during the battle because the "stringent methods laid down" by Sampson brought about the ultimate victory. In Mahan's eyes, the press and the public were robbing Sampson of the credit that he deserved since it was through his overall command that Schley had the means to defeat the enemy.
Within the Navy, the controversy sharpened when Long proposed promotions for the two officers. Prior to the war, both men had held the rank of captain, and both men were promoted to rear admiral to reflect their wartime commands. After the war, Long proposed for both officers to be promoted to vice admiral. Sampson had ranked number ten in the Naval Register and Schley ranked number eight. Upon promotion, Sampson would be moved eight numbers up and Schley only six and would rank Sampson higher in the register than Schley. Alexander McClure, editor of the Philadelphia Times, warned President McKinley that the promotion of Sampson over Schley would be a "great injustice" in the eyes of the public. His warning was ignored, and the promotion of Sampson over Schley became permanent on March 3, 1899.
Shortly thereafter, The New York Sun published an article that quoted Brooklyns navigator, Lieutenant Commander Albon C. Hodgson, as saying that Schley gave orders to turn "hard aport" when first met by the Spanish fleet. That turn, in which Brooklyn had nearly collided with the battleship Texas, was a key critique of Schley's antagonist that Sampson and his supporters had been using to construct an argument of cowardice against Schley. Hodgson asked if he meant to starboard, and Schley replied "no." According to that testimony, Schley apparently said "damn the Texas; let her look out for herself!" Schley, denying any such remark, requested for Hodgson to write a formal statement retracting his accusations. He pointed out that such a statement would damage the reputation of not only Schley but also Hodgson. The latter complied and retracted his statement but requested Schley to write a statement explaining why he retracted his claim. Schley did not answer that request.
Long grew increasingly frustrated by the issue and its detrimental effects within the service. In November 1899, he ordered all officers to refrain from discussing the matter in public. However, debate continued in private, and those against Schley "were determined to destroy his reputation through a court of inquiry" that would investigate Schley's actions and ultimately give credit to the appropriate officer. Schley had nothing to gain from a court of inquiry but was forced to seek a hearing on his own accord in order to clear his name. Outraged by the publication of Edgar S. Maclay's History of the United States Navy, which Schley supporters deemed slanderous to the admiral's reputation, Schley sought and received the court of inquiry.
A court of inquiry opened on September 12, 1901 at the Washington Navy Yard to investigate 24 charges against Schley from his search for Cervera off Cienfuegos to the conclusion of the battle of Santiago de Cuba. Contrary to public opinion, the court concluded after 40 days of deliberations closely followed by the public and the press that Schley did not "project the right image of a naval officer" because of his failure to act "decisively between his departure from Key West to the time of the battle." In the court's findings, Schley was criticized for his route to the battle and for possibly endangering the Texas. It also referenced the "injustice to Lt. Cmdr. Hodgson when he published only a portion of the correspondence that passed between the officers about the matter." Admiral George Dewey, president of the court of inquiry and a so-called supporter of Schley, offered a dissenting opinion.
Disappointed with the court's conclusions, Schley appealed his case to President Theodore Roosevelt. The president called for an end to all public disputes. Tensions died down temporarily, but arose after the publication of Long's personal memoir in which the former secretary of the navy credited Sampson fully and believed that Schley contributed little to the battle's outcome. Sampson died in 1902 and Schley in 1911, but the controversy left an internecine struggle within the Navy that in some ways tarnished its image after what had otherwise seemed a glorious naval victory.
Aftermath
The end of the Spanish–American War was in many ways a new beginning for the US Navy and marked a watershed moment in American and Spanish history. The defeat of the Spanish Navy gave the US uncontested control of the seas surrounding Cuba. With resupply of the Spanish garrison nearly impossible, Spain ultimately sued for peace and surrendered in August, and the war was over. Some of the terms of surrender were as follows:
3. Que los Estados Unidos convienen en transportar todas las fuerzas españolas en dicho territorio al Reino de España con la menor demora posible… [That the United States agrees to carry all Spanish forces in that territory to the Kingdom of Spain with the least possible delay...]5. Las autoridades españoles convienen en quitar, o ayudar a que sean quitadas por la Marina americana, todas las minas y demás entorpecimientos a la navegación que existen ahora en la bahía de Santiago de Cuba y su entrada. [The Spanish authorities agree to remove or help to remove with the American Navy, all mines or other obstructions to navigation that now exist in the Bay of Santiago de Cuba and its entrance.]
9. Que las fuerzas españolas saldrán de Santiago de Cuba con honores de guerra, depositando después sus armas en un lugar mutuamente convenido... [That the Spanish forces will leave Santiago de Cuba with the honors of war, afterwards depositing their weapons in a mutually agreed-upon place...]
The terms, upon which both sides came to an agreement during the 1898 Treaty of Paris (1898) negotiations, decided the fate of the remaining Spanish troops, vessels, and the matter of Cuba's sovereignty. Spanish prisoners-of-war who were not wounded were sent to Seavey's Island at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, where they were confined at Camp Long from July to September 1898. The Americans treated Spain's officers, soldiers, and sailors with great respect. Ultimately, Spanish prisoners were returned to Spain with their "honors of war" on American ships.
The battle was the end of any noteworthy Spanish naval presence in the New World. It forced Spain to reassess its strategy in Cuba and resulted in an ever-tightening blockade of the island. Fighting continued until August. When the Treaty of Paris was signed, all surviving Spanish capital ships were now husbanded to defend their homeland and left only isolated units of auxiliary vessels to defend the coast. Uncontested US control of the seas around Cuba made resupply of the Spanish garrison impossible and its surrender inevitable. Admiral Cervera received different treatment from the sailors taken to Portsmouth. For a time, he was held at Annapolis, Maryland, where he was received with great enthusiasm by the people of that city. The Battle of Santiago de Cuba brought Cervera peace of mind that he had fulfilled an officer's duties and that his fleet had upheld Spanish honor. His bravery in the face of the enemy's superiority garnered respect from Spanish and American sailors and officers alike. The Spanish prisoners-of-war were released upon the signing of the 1898 Treaty of Paris, and the remaining Spanish forces left Cuba. Civil order was left to the military government that the United States established. The US Army under the overall administration of General Leonard Wood governed the island for some time afterwards and, with help, removed many of the mines that had been laid in the bay.
In the imperial vacuum left by Spain's New World empire, the United States now exerted considerable influence both in annexing formal territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines and in subsequent American military interventions throughout the Caribbean over the next half-ceentury.
The late 19th century was a transitional period for the US Navy and for the growth of American power. The war and the conquest of territory seemed to validate American navalism and tipped the scale of US naval policy towards the full embrace of Mahanian sea power. The Spanish–American War and subsequent interventions in Latin America known collectively as the Banana Wars were indicative of American commitment to the Monroe Doctrine articulated by the Roosevelt Corollary, which committed the United States, through the Navy and Marine Corps particularly, to be an international police force in the Western Hemisphere.
Imperialist sentiments followed the victory of the US Navy and the newfound celebrity status of some of its commanders. Part of the impetus for new territorial expansion was the need for foreign naval bases and the need for a larger navy to take and maintain control of such bases. The Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and others had become locations for US overseas naval bases and coaling stations, but native resistance remained high. The resistance in the Philippines developed into a colonial war between local guerrillas and US forces under Major General Elwell S. Otis, who was appointed military governor of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War. The territorial conflict was ironic because the roles of the Spanish–American War were now reversed. The US had fought to free Cuba from Spain's colonial power but now aimed to colonize the Philippines. Ultimately, the Spanish–American War brought to light deeply rooted conflicts between the principles of democracy and the urges of the buffing American imperialism.
Two of the Spanish ships, Infanta Maria Teresa and Cristóbal Colón, were later re-floated and taken over by the US. Both eventually foundered and were lost. , abandoned in Santiago Bay because of engine troubles, was an unprotected cruiser captured by the US Navy and used as a receiving ship until 1957 as .
All of the various flags, warship pennants, national combat flags, the royal standard, admirals' flags, and so on retrieved from the Spanish ships in the days following the battle are part of the United States Navy Trophy Flag Collection at the U.S. Naval Academy Museum in Annapolis, Maryland. The collection was given to the care of the US Naval Academy by an act of Congress in 1949.
In 1998, in recognition of the hundredth anniversary of the battle and the Spanish–American War, the US Secretary of the Navy authorized the return of the National Combat Flag from the Spanish flagship Infanta Maria Teresa to the Spanish Navy via their Chief of Staff, who was to meet with the US Navy Chief of Naval Operations in Newport, Rhode Island. However, the return of the flag was aborted when the curator of the Naval Academy Museum, citing the congressional language from 1949, refused to surrender the banner.
Notes
References
Azoy, A.C.M. Signal 250! The Sea Fight Off Santiago. New York: David McKay Company, Inc, 1964.
Bradford, James C. Crucible of Empire: The Spanish–American War & Its Aftermath. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1993.
Feuer, A. B. The Spanish–American War at Sea: Naval Action in the Atlantic. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1995.
Goldstein, Donald M., Katherine V. Dillon, J. Michael Wenger, and Robert J. Cressman: The Spanish–American War: The Story and Photographs. Brassey's 2001, , p. 121-136 ()
Graham, George Edward and Winfield Scott Schley. Schley and Santiago; an Historical Account of the Blockade and Final Destruction of the Spanish Fleet under Command of Admiral Pasquale Cervera, July 3, 1898. Chicago: W.B. Conkey, 1902.
Hobson, Richmond Pearson. The Sinking of the Merrimac. New York: Century, 1899.
LaFeber, Walter. The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967.
Rentfrow, James C. Home Squadron: The U.S. Navy on the North Atlantic Station. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2014.
Spector, Ronald H. Admiral of the New Empire: The Life and Career of George Dewey. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1974.
Sweetman, Jack. Great American Naval Battles. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1998.
Tejeiro, José Müller Y. Combates Y Capitulación De Santiago De Cuba. Madrid: F. Marqués, 1898.
Titherington, Richard H. A History of the Spanish–American War of 1898. New York: D. Appleton, 1900
Wright, General Marcus. Leslie’s Official History of the Spanish–American War. Washington, D.C. War Records Office, 1900.
External links
Spanish–American War Centennial
Naval Battle at Santiago Harbor
Edison Film Sampson-Schley Controversy Tea Party
Edison Film Sampson-Schley Controversy Battle of Santiago
Santiago de Cuba
Battles involving Cuba
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
Conflicts in 1898
Battle of Santiago de Cuba | [
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254824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott%20McNealy | Scott McNealy | Scott McNealy (born November 13, 1954) is an American businessman. He is most famous for co-founding the computer technology company Sun Microsystems in 1982 along with Vinod Khosla, Bill Joy, and Andy Bechtolsheim. In 2004, while still at Sun, McNealy founded Curriki, a free online education service. In 2011, he co-founded Wayin, a social intelligence and visualization company based in Denver. McNealy stepped down from his position as CEO of Wayin in 2016.
Career
Unlike most people who become involved in high technology industries, McNealy did not come from the world of amateur programmers or hardware hackers; instead, his background was in business, having earned a Bachelor of Arts in economics from Harvard and an MBA from the Stanford Graduate School of Business. McNealy has self-deprecatingly referred to himself as a "golf major" rather than a computer scientist.
McNealy started out working at American Motors, where his father was vice chairman and vice president of marketing. He later became manufacturing director at Onyx Systems, a vendor of microprocessor-based Unix systems.
In 1982, he was approached by fellow Stanford alumnus Vinod Khosla to help provide the necessary organizational and business leadership for Sun Microsystems. Sun, along with companies such as Apple Inc., Silicon Graphics, 3Com, and Oracle Corporation, was part of a wave of successful startup companies in California's Silicon Valley during the early and mid-1980s. The name "Sun" was derived from co-founder Andy Bechtolsheim's original Stanford University Network (SUN) computer project, the SUN workstation.
In 1984, McNealy took over the CEO role from Khosla, who ultimately would leave the company in 1985. On April 24, 2006, McNealy stepped down as CEO after serving in that position for 22 years, and turned the job over to Jonathan I. Schwartz. McNealy is one of the few CEOs of a major corporation to have had a tenure of over twenty years.
According to the book The Decline and Fall of Nokia, Scott McNealy was the "dream candidate" to become CEO of Nokia in 2010. However, McNealy said he was not offered the job.
In 2017, Scott joined the golf app startup 18Birdies as advisor and equity partner.
In early 2018, he joined the Redis Labs Advisory Board.
Wayin
In 2010, the same year Oracle Corporation purchased Sun, McNealy co-founded the social media intelligence company Wayin. The new venture was not widely covered in the media—the day he invited reporters to his home to launch Wayin, was the same day Apple co-founder Steve Jobs died. Their product is an application store for brands to self-publish interactive advertising campaigns using reusable digital assets, removing the bulk of cost involved in delivering multi-channel digital advertising.
Wayin sought out and merged with EngageSciences in 2016, to acquire senior staff and diversify their market. In May of that year, McNealy stepped down as CEO and EngageSciences head Richard Jones became CEO of the combined company.
In July 2019, Wayin was acquired by Cheetah Digital.
Personal life
McNealy was born in Columbus, Indiana. He grew up in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, where his father, Raymond William McNealy Jr. (1927-2014), was vice chairman of the American Motors Corporation. He graduated from Cranbrook School; he later supported the campaign of fellow Cranbrook alumnus and 2012 presidential nominee Mitt Romney. Most of his work experience prior to joining Sun was in automotive manufacturing.
He is married to Susan McNealy; they live in Nevada, and have four sons: Maverick, Dakota, Colt, and Scout. He is known to be an enthusiastic ice hockey player and has been ranked as one of the best golfers in executive ranks.
He is the commissioner of the Alternative Golf Association (known as "Flogton").
Positions at Sun
Chairman of the board of directors from April 2006 to January 2010
Chairman of the board of directors and chief executive officer from April 2004 to April 2006
Chairman of the board of directors, president and chief executive officer from July 2002 to April 2004
Chairman of the board of directors and chief executive officer from April 1999 to June 2002
Chairman of the board of directors, president and chief executive officer from December 1984 to April 1999
President and chief operating officer from February 1984 to December 1984
Vice president of operations from February 1982 to February 1984
Awards
In 1987, McNealy was named an Award Recipient of the EY Entrepreneur of the Year Award in the Northern California Region.
Opinions
In 1999, McNealy said, "You have zero privacy anyway. Get over it." Writer Stephen Manes criticized the statement in his Full Disclosure column: "He's right on the facts, wrong on the attitude.... Instead of 'getting over it', citizens need to demand clear rules on privacy, security, and confidentiality." The authors of Privacy in the 21st Century admitted, "While a shocking statement, there is an element of truth in it."
McNealy was an early advocate of the networked environment; his company's motto was "The Network is the Computer". At times, he has been known to be skeptical of products that do not integrate well with networked environments. One example McNealy has given involved the Apple iPod. As quoted in The Register, McNealy said, "There’s a pendulum thing where stuff is on the client side and then goes back into the network where it belongs. The answering machine put voicemail by the desk, and then it went back into the network. Your iPod is like your home answering machine. I guarantee you it will be hard to sell an iPod five or seven years from now when every cell phone can access your entire music library wherever you are."
McNealy is a self-proclaimed "raging capitalist" and affiliates with libertarian ideologies, although he often supports and endorses the Republican Party. He makes regular appearances on the Fox Business Channel to discuss libertarian business issues. In 2017, McNealy praised the 45th U.S. President, Donald Trump, for his free-market economic policies. On September 17, 2019, McNealy hosted a fundraiser for Donald Trump's re-election campaign.
McNealy was a member of the 1776 Commission. Created by President Donald Trump, it rushed to produce The 1776 Report which was released two days before the end of that administration.
References
External links
Scott McNealy's biography at the International Directory of Business Biographies
Computer History Museum, 11-Jan-2006: Sun Founders Panel
Marketplace: "A different way of doing business", a radio interview with McNealy
McNealy's foray into providing educational resources to school children worldwide
USA Today story about McNealy and other CEOs who have played golf with Tiger Woods
McNealy meets with a group of UK entrepreneurs (2008 video)
McNealy to Ellison: How to duck death by open source
1954 births
Living people
American computer businesspeople
American libertarians
American technology chief executives
Businesspeople in software
Cranbrook Educational Community alumni
Fellows of the British Computer Society
Harvard University alumni
People from Columbus, Indiana
Stanford Graduate School of Business alumni
Sun Microsystems people
American chief operating officers | [
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254825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Neutra | Richard Neutra | Richard Joseph Neutra (April 8, 1892 – April 16, 1970) was a Jewish Austrian-American architect. Living and building for the majority of his career in Southern California, he came to be considered among the most prominent and important modernist architects.
Biography
Neutra was born in Leopoldstadt, the 2nd district of Vienna, Austria Hungary, on April 8, 1892, into a wealthy Jewish family. His Jewish-Hungarian father Samuel Neutra (1844–1920) was a proprietor of a metal foundry, and his mother, Elizabeth "Betty" Glaser Neutra (1851–1905) was a member of the IKG Wien. Richard had two brothers who also emigrated to the United States, and a sister, Josephine Theresia "Pepi" Weixlgärtner, an artist who was married to the Austrian art historian Arpad Weixlgärtner and who emigrated later to Sweden, where her work can be seen at The Museum of Modern Art.
Neutra attended the Sophiengymnasium in Vienna until 1910. He studied under Max Fabiani and Karl Mayreder at the Vienna University of Technology (1910–18), and also attended the private architecture school of Adolf Loos. In 1912 he undertook a study trip to Italy and the Balkans with Ernst Ludwig Freud (son of Sigmund Freud).
In June 1914, Neutra's studies were interrupted when he was ordered to Trebinje, where he served as an lieutenant in the artillery until the end of the war. Dione Neutra recalled her husband Richard’s hatred of the retribution against the Serbs in an interview conducted in 1978 after his death: “He talked about the people he met [i.e. in Trebinje] … how his commander was a sadist, who was able to play out his sadistic tendencies … . He was just a small town clerk in Vienna, but then he became his commander.”
Neutra took a leave in 1917 to return to the Technische Hochschule to take his final examinations.
After World War I, Neutra went to Switzerland where he worked with the landscape architect Gustav Ammann. In 1921 he served briefly as city architect in the German town of Luckenwalde, and later in the same year he joined the office of Erich Mendelsohn in Berlin. Neutra contributed to the firm's competition entry for a new commercial centre for Haifa, Palestine (1922), and to the Zehlendorf housing project in Berlin (1923). He married Dione Niedermann, the daughter of an architect, in 1922. They had three sons, Frank L (1924–2008), Dion (1926–2019) an architect and his father's partner, and Raymond Richard (1939–) a physician and environmental epidemiologist.
Neutra moved to the United States by 1923 and became a naturalized citizen in 1929. Neutra worked briefly for Frank Lloyd Wright before accepting an invitation from his close friend and university companion Rudolf Schindler to work and live communally in Schindler's Kings Road House in California. Neutra’s first work in Los Angeles was in landscape architecture, where he provided the design for the garden of Schindler’s beach house (1922–25), designed for Philip Lovell, Newport Beach, and for a pergola and wading pool for Wright and Schindler’s complex for Aline Barnsdall on Olive Hill (1925), Hollywood. Schindler and Neutra collaborated on an entry for the League of Nations Competition of 1926–27; in the same year they formed a firm with the planner Carol Aronovici (1881–1957) called the Architectural Group for Industry and Commerce (AGIC). He subsequently developed his own practice and went on to design numerous buildings embodying the International Style, twelve of which are designated as Historic Cultural Monuments (HCM), including the Lovell Health House (HCM #123; 1929) and the Richard and
Dion Neutra VDL Research House (HCM #640; 1966). In California, he became celebrated for rigorously geometric but airy structures that symbolized a West Coast variation on the mid-century modern residence. Clients included Edgar J. Kaufmann, Galka Scheyer, and Walter Conrad Arensberg. In the early 1930s, Neutra's Los Angeles practice trained several young architects who went on to independent success, including Gregory Ain, Harwell Hamilton Harris, and Raphael Soriano. In 1932, he tried to move to the Soviet Union, to help design workers' housing that could be easily constructed, as a means of helping with the housing shortage.
In 1932, Neutra was included in the seminal MoMA exhibition on modern architecture, curated by Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock. In 1949 Neutra formed a partnership with Robert E. Alexander that lasted until 1958, which finally gave him the opportunity to design larger commercial and institutional buildings. In 1955, the United States Department of State commissioned Neutra to design a new embassy in Karachi. Neutra's appointment was part of an ambitious program of architectural commissions to renowned architects, which included embassies by Walter Gropius in Athens, Edward Durrell Stone in New Delhi, Marcel Breuer in The Hague, Josep Lluis Sert in Baghdad, and Eero Saarinen in London. In 1965 Neutra formed a partnership with his son Dion Neutra. Between 1960 and 1970, Neutra created eight villas in Europe, four in Switzerland, three in Germany, and one in France. Prominent clients in this period included Gerd Bucerius, publisher of Die Zeit, as well as figures from commerce and science. His work was also part of the architecture event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics.
Richard Joseph Neutra died on April 16, 1970, at the age of 78.
Architectural style
He was known for the attention he gave to defining the real needs of his clients, regardless of the size of the project, in contrast to other architects eager to impose their artistic vision on a client. Neutra sometimes used detailed questionnaires to discover his client's needs, much to their surprise. His domestic architecture was a blend of art, landscape, and practical comfort.
In a 1947 article for the Los Angeles Times, "The Changing House," Neutra emphasizes the "ready-for-anything" plan – stressing an open, multifunctional plan for living spaces that are flexible, adaptable and easily modified for any type of life or event.
Neutra had a sharp sense of irony. In his autobiography, Life and Shape, he included a playful anecdote about an anonymous movie producer-client who electrified the moat around the house that Neutra designed for him and had his Persian butler fish out the bodies in the morning and dispose of them in a specially designed incinerator. This was a much-embellished account of an actual client, Josef von Sternberg, who indeed had a moated house but not an electrified one.
The novelist/philosopher Ayn Rand was the second owner of the Von Sternberg House in the San Fernando Valley (now destroyed). A photo of Neutra and Rand at the home was taken by Julius Shulman.
Neutra's early watercolors and drawings, most of them of places he traveled (particularly his trips to the Balkans in WWI) and portrait sketches, showed influence from artists such as Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele etc. Neutra's sister Josefine, who could draw, is cited as developing Neutra's inclination towards drawing.
Legacy
Neutra's son Dion has kept the Silver Lake offices designed and built by his father open as "Richard and Dion Neutra Architecture" in Los Angeles. The Neutra Office Building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
In 1980, Neutra's widow donated the Van der Leeuw House (VDL Research House), then valued at $207,500, to California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (Cal Poly Pomona) to be used by the university's College of Environmental Design faculty and students. In 2011, the Neutra-designed Kronish House (1954) at 9439 Sunset Boulevard in Beverly Hills sold for $12.8 million.
In 2009, the exhibition "Richard Neutra, Architect: Sketches and Drawings" at the Los Angeles Central Library featured a selection of Neutra's travel sketches, figure drawings and building renderings. An exhibition on the architect's work in Europe between 1960 and 1979 was mounted by the MARTa Herford, Germany.
The Kaufmann Desert House was restored by Marmol Radziner + Associates in the mid-1990s.
The typeface family Neutraface, designed by Christian Schwartz for House Industries, was based on Richard Neutra's architecture and design principles.
In 1977, he was posthumously awarded the AIA Gold Medal, and in 2015 he was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Walk of Stars in Palm Springs, California.
Lost works
The 1935 Von Sternberg House in Northridge, California was demolished in 1972.
Neutra's 1960 Fine Arts Building at California State University, Northridge was demolished in 1997, three years after suffering severe damage in the 1994 Northridge earthquake.
The 1962 Maslon House in Rancho Mirage, California, was demolished in 2002.
Neutra's Cyclorama Building at Gettysburg was demolished by the National Park Service in March 2013.
Selected works
Jardinette Apartments, 1928, 5128 Marathon Street, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
Lovell House, 1929, Los Angeles, California
Van der Leeuw House (VDL Research House), 1932, Los Angeles, California
Mosk House, 1933, 2742 Hollyridge Drive, Hollywood, California
Nathan and Malve Koblick House, 1933, 98 Fairview Avenue, Atherton, California
Universal-International Building (Laemmle Building), 1933, 6300 Hollywood Boulevard, Hollywood, Los Angeles, California
Scheyer House, 1934, 1880 Blue Heights Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
William and Melba Beard House (with Gregory Ain), 1935, 1981 Meadowbrook, Altadena
California Military Academy, 1935, Culver City, California
Corona Avenue Elementary School, 1935, 3835 Bell Avenue, Bell, California
Largent House, 1935, 49 Hopkins Avenue at the corner of Burnett Avenue, San Francisco. Building was demolished by new owners and , they have been ordered to rebuild an exact replica.
Von Sternberg House, 1935, San Fernando Valley, Los Angeles
Sten and Frenke House (Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument #647), 1934, 126 Mabery Road, Santa Monica
The Neutra House Project, 1935, Restoration of the Neutra "Orchard House" in Los Altos, California
Josef Kun House, 1936, 7960 Fareholm Drive, Nichols Canyon, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
Darling House, 1937, 90 Woodland Avenue, San Francisco, California
George Kraigher House, 1937, 525 Paredes Line Road, Brownsville, Texas
Landfair Apartments, 1937, Westwood, Los Angeles, California
Strathmore Apartments, 1937, Westwood, Los Angeles, California
Aquino Duplex, 1937, 2430 Leavenworth Street, San Francisco
Leon Barsha House (with P. Pfisterer), 1937, 302 Mesa Road, Pacific Palisades, California
Miller House, 1937, Palm Springs, California
Windshield House, 1938, Fisher's Island, New York
Albert Lewin House, 1938, 512-514 Palisades Beach Road, Santa Monica, Los Angeles
Emerson Junior High School, 1938, 1650 Selby Avenue, West Los Angeles, California
Ward-Berger House, 1939, 3156 North Lake Hollywood Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
Kelton Apartments, Westwood, Los Angeles
Sidney Kahn House, 1940, Telegraph Hill, San Francisco
Beckstrand House, 1940, 1400 Via Montemar, Palos Verdes Estates, Los Angeles County
Bonnet House, 1941, 2256 El Contento Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
Neutra/Maxwell House, 1941, 475 N. Bowling Green Way, Brentwood, Los Angeles (Moved to Angelino Heights in 2008.)
Van Cleef Residence, 1942, 651 Warner Avenue, Westwood, Los Angeles
Geza Rethy House, 1942, 2101 Santa Anita Avenue, Sierra Madre, California
Channel Heights Housing Projects, 1942, San Pedro, California
John Nesbitt House, 1942, 414 Avondale, Brentwood, Los Angeles
Kaufmann Desert House, 1946, Palm Springs, California
Stuart Bailey House, 1948, Pacific Palisades, California (Case Study 20A)
Case Study Houses #6, #13, #20A, #21A
Schmidt House, 1948, 1460 Chamberlain Road, Linda Vista, Pasadena, California
Joseph Tuta House, 1948, 1800 Via Visalia, Palos Verdes, California
Holiday House Motel, 1948, 27400 Pacific Coast Highway, Malibu, California
Elkay Apartments, 1948, 638-642 Kelton Avenue, Westwood, Los Angeles
Gordon Wilkins House, 1949, 528 South Hermosa Place, South Pasadena, California
Alpha Wirin House, 1949, 2622 Glendower Avenue, Los Feliz, Los Angeles
Hines House, 1949, 760 Via Somonte, Palos Verdes, California
Atwell House, 1950, 1411 Atwell Road, El Cerrito, California
Nick Helburn House, 1950, Sourdough Road, Bozeman, Montana
Neutra Office Building — Neutra's design studio from 1950 to 1970
Kester Avenue Elementary School, 5353 Kester Avenue, Los Angeles (with Dion Neutra), 1951, Sherman Oaks, California
Everist House, 1951, 200 W. 45th Street, Sioux City, Iowa
Moore House, 1952, Ojai, California (received AIA award)
Perkins House, 1952–55, 1540 Poppypeak Drive, Pasadena, California
Schaarman House, 1953, 7850 Torreyson Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
Olan G. and Aida T. Hafley House, 1953, 5561 East La Pasada Street, Long Beach
Brown House, 1955, 10801 Chalon Road, Bel Air, Los Angeles
Kronish House, 1955, Beverly Hills, California
Sidney R. Troxell House, 1956, 766 Paseo Miramar, Pacific Palisades, California
Chuey House, 1956, 2460 Sunset Plaza Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
Clark House, 1957, Pasadena, California
Airman's Memorial Chapel, 1957, 5702 Bauer Road, Miramar, California
Sorrell's House, 1957, Old State Highway 127, Shoshone, California
Ferro Chemical Company Building, 1957, Cleveland, Ohio
The Lew House, 1958, 1456 Sunset Plaza Drive, Los Angeles
Connell House, 1958, Pebble Beach, California
Mellon Hall and Francis Scott Key Auditorium, 1958, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland
Riviera United Methodist Church, 1958, 375 Palos Verdes Boulevard, Redondo Beach
Loring House, 1959, 2456 Astral Drive, Los Angeles (addition by Escher GuneWardena Architecture, 2006
Singleton House, 1959, 15000 Mulholland Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
Oyler House, 1959 Lone Pine, California
UCLA Lab School, 1959 (with Robert Alexander)
Garden Grove Community Church, Community Church, 1959 (Fellowship Hall and Offices), 1961 (Sanctuary), 1968 (Tower of Hope), Garden Grove, California
Three senior officer's quarters on Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho, 1959
Julian Bond House, 1960, 4449 Yerba Santa, San Diego, California
R.J. Neutra Elementary School, 1960, Naval Air Station Lemoore, in Lemoore, California (designed in 1929)
Buena Park Swim Stadium and Recreation Center, 1960, 7225 El Dorado Drive, Buena Park, California
Palos Verdes High School, 1961, 600 Cloyden Road, Palos Verdes, California
Haus Rang, 1961, Königstein im Taunus, Germany
Hans Grelling House/Casa Tuia on Monte Verità, 1961, Strada del Roccolo 11, Ascona, Tessin, Switzerland
Los Angeles County Hall of Records, 1962, Los Angeles, California.
Gettysburg Cyclorama, 1962, Gettysburg National Military Park, Pennsylvania [DEMOLISHED]
Gonzales Gorrondona House, 1962, Avenida la Linea 65, Sabana Grande, Caracas, Venezuela
Bewobau Residences, 1963, Quickborn near Hamburg, Germany
Mariners Medical Arts, 1963, Newport Beach, California
Painted Desert Visitor Center, 1963, Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona
United States Embassy, (later US Consulate General until 2011), 1959, Abdullaha Haroon Road, Karachi, Pakistan
Swirbul Library, 1963, Adelphi University, Garden City, New York
Kuhns House, 1964, Woodland Hills, Los Angeles, California
Rice House (National Register of Historic Places), 1964, 1000 Old Locke Lane, Richmond, Virginia
VDL II Research House, 1964, (rebuilt with son Dion Neutra) Los Angeles, California
Rentsch House, 1965, Wengen near Berne in Switzerland; Landscape architect: Ernst Cramer
Ebelin Bucerius House, 1962-1965, Brione sopra Minusio in Switzerland; Landscape architect: Ernst Cramer
Haus Kemper, 1965, Wuppertal, Germany
Sports and Congress Center, 1965, Reno, Nevada
Delcourt House, 1968–69, Croix, Nord, France
Haus Pescher, 1969, Wuppertal, Germany
Haus Jürgen Tillmanns, 1970, Stettfurt, Thurgau, Switzerland
Publications
1927: Wie Baut Amerika? (How America Builds) (Julius Hoffman)
1930: Amerika: Die Stilbildung des neuen Bauens in den Vereinigten Staaten (Anton Schroll Verlag). New Ways of Building in the World [series], vol. 2. Edited by El Lissitzky.
1935:
1948: Architecture of Social Concern in Regions of Mild Climate (Gerth Todtman)
1951: Mystery and Realities of the Site (Morgan & Morgan)
1954: Survival Through Design (Oxford University Press)
1956: Life and Human Habitat (Alexander Koch Verlag).
1961: Welt und Wohnung (Alexander Kock Verlag)
1962: Life and Shape: an Autobiography (Appleton-Century-Crofts), reprinted 2009 (Atara Press)
1962: Auftrag für morgen (Claassen Verlag)
1962: World and Dwelling (Universe Books)
1970: Naturnahes Bauen (Alexander Koch Verlag)
1971: Building With Nature (Universe Books)
1974: Wasser Steine Licht (Parey Verlag)
1977: Bauen und die Sinneswelt (Verlag der Kunst)
1989: Nature Near: The Late Essays of Richard Neutra (Capra Press)
References
Other sources
reprinted in 1975 by Praeger
reprinted in 1994 by the University of California Press
reprinted in 2006 by Rizzoli Publications
Publications on Richard Neutra:
Harriet Roth; Richard Neutra in Berlin, Die Geschichte der Zehlendorfer Häuser, Berlin 2016. Hatje Cantz publishers.
Harriet Roth; Richard Neutra. The Story of the Berlin Houses 1920–1924, Berlin 2019. Hatje Cantz publishers.
Harriet Roth; Richard Neutra. Architekt in Berlin, Berlin 2019. Hentrich&Hentrich publishers.
External links
Finding Aid for the Richard and Dion Neutra Papers, UCLA Library Special Collections.
Digitized plans, sketches, photographs, texts from the Richard and Dion Neutra Collection, UCLA Library Special Collections.
Jan De Graaff Residence architectural drawings and photographs, circa 1940sHeld by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University
Richard Joseph Neutra papers, 1927-1978 Held in the Dept. of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University, New York City
Neutra Institute for Survival Through Design
Neutra at GreatBuildings.com
Neutra at modernsandiego.com
Neutra biography at r20thcentury.com
Info and photos from Winkens.ie
History, plans and photographs of the VDL I & VDL II Research Houses
Neutra VDL Studio and Residences iPad App
Richard Neutra and the California Art Club: Pathways to the Josef von Sternberg and Dudley Murphy Commissions
R. M. Schindler, Richard Neutra and Louis Sullivan's "Kindergarten Chats"
Foundations of Los Angeles Modernism: Richard Neutra's Mod Squad
Richard Joseph Neutra papers, 1927-1978, held by the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library, Columbia University
Finding aid for Thomas S. Hines interviews regarding Richard J. Neutra. Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles. Accession No. 2010.M.58. Interviewees include Neutra's family, friends, business associates, clients, and Los Angeles architects.
International style architects
Modernist architects from the United States
Jewish architects
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
1892 births
1970 deaths
01
Austrian architects
Modernist architects
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona faculty
20th-century Austrian people
Austrian Jews
Austrian expatriates in Germany
Austrian emigrants to the United States
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
People from Leopoldstadt
20th-century American architects
Olympic competitors in art competitions
Recipients of the AIA Gold Medal | [
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] |
254836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsu | Matsu | Matsu may refer to:
Mazu, or Matsu, a sea goddess in Chinese folk religion
Matsu-class destroyer
Matsu Islands (Lienchiang County), Fujian, Republic of China (Taiwan)
Matsu Ball (Indian Cuisine)
Matsu Beigan Airport
Matsushima (Matsu Islands), in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan
Japanese ship Matsu, several ships
Matsu (Sekirei), a character in the Sekirei manga and anime
Japanese pine (まつ, 松), matsu in Japanese
See also
Matanuska-Susitna Valley (Mat-Su Valley, an area in South Central Alaska
Matanuska-Susitna Borough (Mat-Su Borough), a borough of Alaska
Mazu (disambiguation), Chinese origin of matsu
Open Commons Consortium (Project Matsu), imaging process project for human assisted disaster relief named after the goddess | [
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254838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherent%20%28operating%20system%29 | Coherent (operating system) | Coherent is a clone of the Unix operating system for IBM PC compatibles and other microcomputers, developed and sold by the now-defunct Mark Williams Company (MWC). Historically, the operating system was a proprietary product, but it became open source in 2015, released under the BSD-3-Clause license.
Development
Coherent was not Unix; the Mark Williams Company had no rights to either the Unix trademark or the AT&T/Bell Labs source code. In the early years of its existence, MWC received a visit from an AT&T delegation looking to determine whether MWC was infringing on AT&T Unix property. The delegation included Dennis Ritchie, who concluded that "it was very hard to believe that Coherent and its basic applications were not created without considerable study of the OS code and details of its applications." However, he also stated that:
Much of the operating system was written by alumni from the University of Waterloo: Tom Duff, Dave Conroy, Randall Howard, Johann George, and Trevor John Thompson. Significant contributions were also made by people such as Nigel Bree (from Auckland, New Zealand), the later author of Ghost.
Versions
Coherent was originally written for the PDP-11 range of minicomputers in 1980, then ported to various early 1980s microcomputer systems including IBM PC compatibles and machines based on the Zilog Z8000 and Motorola 68000. Initially sold to OEMs, starting 1983 it was available on the consumer market from MWC directly. At this point, Coherent 2.3 offered roughly the functionality of Version 7 Unix on PC hardware, including the nroff formatter but not the BSD extensions offered by competing Unix/clone vendors; compared to its competitors, it was a small system distributed on only seven double-sided floppy disks, costing only US$500 for a license.
BYTE in 1984 called Coherent a "highly compatible UNIX Version 7 lookalike". In 1985 it criticized the difficulty of installation, but stated that "as a UNIX clone, Coherent is amazingly complete ... it should be easy to port programs ... the price of $495 is a bargain". Early 1990s reviews of Coherent pointed out that the system was much smaller than other contemporary Unix offerings, as well as less expensive at US$99.95, but lacking in functionality and software support. PC Magazine called Coherent 3.0 a "time capsule" that captured the state of Unix in the late 1970s, without support for mice, LANs or SCSI disks, good for learning basic Unix programming but not for business automation. A review in the AUUG's newsletter was more positive, favorably comparing Coherent to MKS Toolkit, Minix and Xenix, and suggesting it might fill a niche as a low-end training platform.
Coherent was able to run on most Intel-based PCs with Intel 8088, 286, 386, and 486 processors. Coherent version 3 for Intel-based PCs required at least a 286, Coherent version 4 for Intel-based PCs required at least a 386. Like a true Unix, Coherent was able to multitask and support multiple users. From version 4, released 1992, Coherent also had support for X11 and MGR windowing systems.
Later versions of Coherent (version 4 and higher) supported features common in modern Unix-like systems, including a version of MicroEMACS, access to DOS FAT16 file systems, an optimizing C compiler, and a modified version of Taylor UUCP. The final releases of Coherent also fully supported the iBCS COFF binary standard, which allowed binary compatibility with SCO Unix applications, including WordPerfect, Lotus 1-2-3, and several Microsoft applications including QuickBASIC, Microsoft Word, and MultiPlan. The last 386 versions supported virtual memory, but not demand paging.
A Zilog Z8000 port of Coherent was also used by the canceled Commodore 900 system.
In 1983, NCSC (a subsidiary of Nixdorf) announced a port of Coherent to IBM mainframes, in the form of a Unix compatibility subsystem for IBM's DOS/VS and DOS/VSE and Nixdorf's Edos/VS and Edos/VSE operating systems, known as Programmer Work Station/VSE-Advanced Functions, or PWS/VSE-AF for short.
The Mark Williams Company closed in 1995.
On January 3, 2015, Coherent sources were released under the BSD-3-Clause license.
See also
Venix
PC/IX
References
External links
Andrzej Popielewicz's GNU stuff for Coherent website
Coherent history archive
Installation Media for Coherent 4.2.10
Coherent image for qemu
Mark Williams Company Sources
Virtualbox, Qemu and PCem VM's with Coherent 3.x, 4.0, 4.2.x, DDK, X11, sources...
Discontinued operating systems
Formerly proprietary software
Lightweight Unix-like systems
Software using the BSD license
Unix variants
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254841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quota | Quota | Quota may refer to:
Economics
Import quota, a trade restriction on the quantity of goods imported into a country
Market Sharing Quota, an economic system used in Canadian agriculture
Milk quota, a quota on milk production in Europe
Individual fishing quota, a quota on allowable catch
Politics
Gender quota (disambiguation)
Racial quota, numerical requirements for hiring, promoting, admitting or graduating members of a particular racial group
Ticket quota, directives by police departments for their officers to deliver a predetermined number of summons
Quotas in electoral systems
Music and entertainment
The Quota (Jimmy Heath album) or the title song, 1961
The Quota (Red Garland album), an 1973 song.
Quota (EP), by Eleventyseven, an 2011 song.
Quota (film) - a 2020 Indian film.
Other
Disk quota, a limit that restricts disk file system usage in computing
Quota International, a service organization
See also
Quotaism, the concept of organising society by a quota system | [
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254844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Csaka%20Station | Ōsaka Station | is a major railway station in the Umeda district of Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan, operated by West Japan Railway Company (JR West). It forms the city's main rail terminal in the north.
Although it is officially served by only the JR Kobe/Kyoto Lines (Tōkaidō Main Line) and the Osaka Loop Line, Osaka is the starting point of JR Takarazuka Line service, and serves as the terminal for trains bound for the San'in region via JR Takarazuka Line and the Hokuriku region via JR Kyoto Line, while offering connections to trains bound for Nara, Wakayama and Kansai International Airport via the Osaka Loop Line.
Umeda Station (Hankyu, Hanshin, and Osaka Metro Midosuji Line), Nishi-Umeda Station (Subway Yotsubashi Line) and Higashi-Umeda Station (Subway Tanimachi Line) are directly connected to Osaka Station, and Kitashinchi Station on the JR Tōzai Line is within walking distance.
Osaka Station and Umeda Station, effectively part of the same complex, together constitute the busiest station in Western Japan, serving 2,343,727 passengers daily in 2005, and the fourth-busiest railway station in the world.
Osaka Station also houses a large terminal for overnight bus services to other cities in Japan, and until March 2013 also had a nearby freight terminal complex, Umeda Freight Terminal, owned by JR Freight.
Station layout
Osaka station is elevated above street level, on the second floor of the station complex. There are four concourses, corresponding to four sets of ticket gates: the Midosuji gates, serving as a transfer point to Hankyu and Subway Umeda Station and Higashi-Umeda Station; the Central gates, with access to Daimaru, Lucua, Yodobashi Camera, Umeda Sky Building, Grand Front and transfers to Hanshin Umeda and JR Kitashinchi Station; the Sakurabashi gates, with access to Osaka Garden City and transfers to Subway Nishi-Umeda Station, city bus, hotel shuttle buses and taxi; and the Bridge Gates, with direct access into Daimaru and Lucua, as well as a bridge passage to Hankyu Umeda. The Midosuji concourse is on the lower level, with escalators and elevators leading directly to platforms; the Central concourse has both direct escalators and a mezzanine-level transfer passage connected by stairs; the Sakurabashi concourse has gates on ground level but is primarily on the mezzanine level, connected to the central concourse by a corridor; and the Bridge Gate is on the third level above the platforms, and connected by escalators and elevators. An additional concourse is planned for the west side of the station, which will link the elevated platforms with the under-construction underground platforms to the northwest of the main station.
Platforms and tracks are on the second floor. There were previously six island platforms and one side platform serving 13 tracks; the highest-numbered track was Track 11, as the Osaka Loop Line tracks were referred to as "Inner Loop" and "Outer Loop" only. In preparation for the construction of the new north building, the sixth platform was closed and the seventh was removed altogether; at the same time, the remaining platforms were renumbered so that Tracks 1 and 2 were for the Osaka Loop Line, and so on. The sixth platform reopened on 20 December 2009 and there became five island platforms and a side platform serving 11 tracks in total (up to the new Track 11—the old Track 9). The remainder of the old Track 11 platform, on the west side of the station, was used as a pedestrian walkway linking the North Gate Building with its parking garage until 2020, when it was removed to facilitate construction of a new West Gate Building. There was originally a through track in between tracks 8 and 9, but it had been long disused; during the closure of Track 11, the platform for Tracks 9 and 10 was expanded and this track was used temporarily as Track 9. Since 12 October 2010, this track has been used permanently as Track 8 after the widening of the adjoining platform.
Under Construction
A new line called the Naniwasuji Line is planned to be opened by 2031 and will route trains under the Naniwasuji corridor to JR Namba Station and further south. To prepare for the opening of the line, an additional two underground platforms (serving four tracks on the former Umeda Freight Line) are currently under construction on the northwest side of the station; these are tentatively slated for opening in fiscal 2023, and their numbering has yet to be made public. Once these platforms are opened, there will be a total of eight platforms serving 16 tracks. They will also enable the limited express Haruka (which currently runs on the former Umeda Freight Line that bypasses the station completely) to make a stop at Osaka Station.
Platforms
Limited express trains
for the Hokuriku Line
Limited express Thunderbird (Osaka - Kanazawa, Wakura-Onsen)
for the Tokaido Line and the Takayama Line
Sleeper limited express Sunrise Izumo/Sunrise Seto (/ → Tokyo) - Tokyo-bound train only
Limited express Hida (Osaka - Takayama)
Commuter limited express Biwako Express (Osaka - Kusatsu, Maibara)
for the Sanyo Line
Commuter limited express Rakuraku Harima (Osaka - Himeji)
for the San'in region
Limited express Super Hakuto (Kyoto - Tottori, Kurayoshi) via the Chizu Express Chizu Line
Limited express Hamakaze (Osaka - , Hamasaka, Tottori) via the Bantan Line
for the north area of the Kansai region via the Fukuchiyama Line
Limited express Kounotori (Shin-Osaka - Fukuchiyama, Toyooka, Kinosaki-Onsen)
Adjacent stations
History
Osaka Station opened on May 11, 1874, as one of the first railway stations in the Kansai region when the railway between Osaka and Kobe started operation. It was electrified along with the Tōkaidō Main Line in 1934.
The existence of the station naturally made the area the primary transport hub of the city. Railways that set Ōsaka Station as the terminal or built their terminal around Osaka Station include Osaka Railway (present-day east half of the Osaka Loop Line) in 1895, Nishinari Railway (west half of the Osaka Loop Line) in 1898, Hanshin Electric Railway in 1906, Minoo Arima Electric Tramway (Hankyu Railway) in 1910, and Osaka Municipal Subway in 1933. The regional railways tended to name their stations Umeda, the name of the area, rather than the city name.
The air raids in World War II flattened the blocks in front of the station. Immediately after the war, the area turned into a huge black market, the atmosphere of which remained until redevelopment in the 1970s.
The station building was rebuilt in 1901, 1940, and 1979 (north building). In 1983, a high-rise building, Acty Osaka, which housed a department store and a hotel, was added to the south of the station. A new north station building (the North Gate Building) was opened in 2011, coinciding with an expansion of Acty Osaka (now the South Gate Building) and major renovation of the station areas with a new concourse and north–south connection. This is the first step in a larger drive to redevelop the land used by JR Freight's Umeda Terminal, which is seen as the last undeveloped piece of real estate in the area. Plans also call for moving the Umeda Freight Line underground and establishing a terminal for the Osaka Higashi Line just north of ALBi, with an eye towards a future extension to JR Namba Station (thus alleviating delays on the Osaka Loop Line caused by Limited Express trains), though details have not yet been firmly decided.
Major renovation
Surrounding area
Osaka Station City
South Gate Building
Daimaru Umeda
Pokémon Center Osaka
Tokyu Hands
Hotel Granvia Osaka
North Gate Building
Lucua (shopping mall)
Lucua 1100 (shopping mall, successor of Osaka Mitsukoshi-Isetan Department Store)
Osaka Station City Cinema
Itochu
JR Expressway bus terminal
eki marche (restaurants and fashion stores)
ALBi (outdoor shops and fashion stores)
Umesan-koji (restaurants)
North side
Hankyu bus stop (for Kashima-ekimae and Nishikawa via Oyodo-minami Itchome and Juso)
Hankyu San-bangai
San-bangai Expressway bus terminal
Hotel New Hankyu Osaka
Airport shuttle bus terminal for Kansai International Airport and Osaka International Airport
Grand Front Osaka
Yodobashi Camera
Shin Umeda City
Umeda Sky Building
The Westin Osaka
Chayamachi district
NU Chayamachi
Mainichi Broadcasting System
Umeda Arts Theater
Loft
Umekita Gardens
South side
Osaka city bus terminal (Osaka-ekimae)
Hankyu Department Store, Hanshin Department Store (Both owned by Hankyu Hanshin Department Stores, Inc.)
Hankyu bus stop (for Hinodecho (Hankyu Bus Co.), Kozushima, Hankyu Sonoda and Toyonaka via Juso)
Umeda DT Tower
Osaka Ekimae Buildings
Osaka Central Post Office (in Osaka Ekimae Dai-Ichi Building)
Osaka Marubiru Building
Airport shuttle bus terminal for Osaka International Airport
Hilton Osaka (Plaza East)
Osaka Garden City
Hilton Osaka (Plaza West)
Ritz-Carlton Osaka
Herbis Osaka
Airport shuttle bus for Kansai International Airport and Osaka International Airtport
Herbis Ent
Osaka Shiki Theatre
Billboard live Osaka
Mainichi Shimbun
HEP Five
See also
Umeda Station
Transport in Keihanshin
References
External links
Osaka Station City
Tōkaidō Main Line
Osaka Loop Line
Railway stations in Osaka
Railway stations in Japan opened in 1874
Umeda | [
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254845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primo%20Carnera | Primo Carnera | Primo Carnera (; 26 October 1906 – 29 June 1967), nicknamed the Ambling Alp, was an Italian professional boxer and wrestler who reigned as the boxing World Heavyweight Champion from 29 June 1933 to 14 June 1934. He won more fights by knockout than any other heavyweight champion in boxing history.
Personal life
Primo Carnera was born in Sequals, then in the Province of Udine, now in the Province of Pordenone, Friuli-Venezia Giulia at the north-easternmost corner of Italy.
On 13 March 1939, Carnera married Giuseppina Kovačič (1913–1980), a post office clerk from Gorizia. In 1953 they received dual citizenship. They settled in Los Angeles, where Carnera opened a restaurant and a liquor store. They had two children, Umberto and Giovanna Maria. Umberto became a medical doctor.
Professional boxing career
Overview
Carnera was touted in America as being tall, and thus the tallest heavyweight in history (up until that time), but he was actually tall. He fought at as much as . Jess Willard who stood was the tallest world heavyweight champion in boxing history until Nikolai Valuev, at and . Though shorter than Willard, Carnera was around heavier and was the heaviest champion in boxing history until Valuev.
At a time when the average height in Italy was approximately and in the United States , Carnera was considered a giant.
He enjoyed a sizable reach advantage over most rivals, and when seen on fight footage, he seems like a towering giant compared to many heavyweights of his era, who were usually at least lighter and shorter. One publicity release about him read in part: "For breakfast, Primo has a quart of orange juice, two quarts of milk, nineteen pieces of toast, fourteen eggs, a loaf of bread and half a pound of Virginia ham." His size earned him the nickname "The Ambling Alp". Time magazine called him "The Monster".
Starting career
12 September 1928 was the date of Carnera's first professional fight, against Leon Sebilo, in Paris. Carnera won by knockout in round two. He won his first six bouts, then lost to Franz Diener by disqualification in round one at Leipzig. Then, he won seven more bouts in a row before meeting Young Stribling. He and Stribling exchanged disqualification wins, Carnera winning the first in four rounds, and Stribling winning the rematch in round seven. In Carnera's next bout he avenged his defeat to Diener with a knockout in round six.
In 1930, he moved to the United States, where he toured extensively, winning his first seventeen bouts there by knockout. George Godfrey broke the knockout streak in Philadelphia by losing to Carnera by disqualification in the fifth round. In 1932, Carnera faced the tallest heavyweight in history up to that point, Santa Camarão, a Portuguese fighter. Carnera won the fight in a sixth-round knockout.
On 10 February 1933, he knocked out Ernie Schaaf in thirteen rounds in New York City. Schaaf died four days later. Schaaf had suffered a severe beating and knockout in a bout with future heavyweight champion Max Baer six months earlier, on 31 August 1932. Furthermore, an autopsy revealed that Schaaf had meningitis, a swelling of the brain, and was still recovering from a severe case of influenza when he entered the ring with Carnera.
World Heavyweight Champion
For his next fight, Carnera faced the world heavyweight champion, Jack Sharkey, on June 29, at the Madison Square Garden Bowl in Queens, New York. Carnera became world champion by knocking out Sharkey in round six.
He retained the title against Paulino Uzcudun and Tommy Loughran, both by decision in 15 rounds, but in his next fight on 14 June 1934 against Max Baer, Carnera was knocked down multiple times in 11 rounds, before referee Arthur Donovon stopped the fight. There is disagreement regarding how many times Carnera was knocked down, with sources giving conflicting totals of 7, 10, 11 (per Associated Press) and 12 (per The Ring magazine founder Nat Fleischer, ringside for the fight, who wrote that Carnera was knocked down 12 times and slipped once after a missed punch).
After defeat
After that, Carnera won his next four fights, three of them as part of a South American tour that took him to Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay, as well as two exhibitions fought on the South American continent. But then, on 25 June 1935, he was knocked out in six rounds by Joe Louis.
For the next two and a half years, he won five and lost three of eight total fights. But in 1938, Carnera, a diabetic, had to have a kidney removed, which forced him into retirement by 1944. Carnera's record was 89 wins and 14 losses. His 72 wins by knockout made him a member of the exclusive club of boxers that won 50 or more bouts by knockout.
Carnera died in 1967 in his native town of a combination of liver disease and complications from diabetes.
Legacy in boxing
Carnera was the third European to hold the world heavyweight championship after Bob Fitzsimmons and Max Schmeling. He would be the last until Ingemar Johansson claimed the title against Floyd Patterson in 1959, over a quarter of a century later.
Carnera was also the first boxer to win the European Heavyweight title and subsequently become World Heavyweight champion.
Carnera's 1933 title defense against Tommy Loughran held the record for the greatest weight differential between two combatants in a world title fight () for 73 years until the reign of Nikolai Valuev, who owns the current record for the weight advantage he held in his 2006 defense against Monte Barrett.
Valuev also broke Carnera's record of to become the heaviest world champion in history, weighing as high as during his reign. Carnera still ranks as the fourth-heaviest, behind Valuev, Tyson Fury and Andy Ruiz Jr., over eighty years after he held the title.
Carnera's 1933 title defense against Paulino Uzcudun in Italy was the first Heavyweight title fight to be held in Europe since Jack Johnson's title defence against Frank Moran in Paris in 1913. It would be the last such occasion until Muhammad Ali defended the title against Henry Cooper in London in 1966. Carnera-Uzcudun was the first World Heavyweight championship fight to be contested between two Europeans. It would be another sixty years, when Lennox Lewis defended the WBC heavyweight title against fellow-Englishman Frank Bruno in 1993, that this would occur again.
Trailing only Ezzard Charles's 95 wins, Carnera holds the second-most victories of all heavyweight champions with 89. Carnera's 72 career knockouts is the most of any world heavyweight champion.
Acting career
Carnera appeared in a short film in 1931. During his tenure as world champion he played a fictional version of himself in the 1933 film The Prizefighter and the Lady starring Max Baer and Myrna Loy. Here he plays the heavyweight champion who barely holds onto his title with a draw decision after a furious fight with Baer. The film was made just a year before Carnera fought Baer for real, in a bout that was as wild as the film version, but ended with a knockout loss for Carnera.
Carnera had a bit part in the 1949 movie Mighty Joe Young. He played himself in the tug-of-war scene with the giant gorilla. After being pulled by the ape into a pool of water, Carnera throws a couple of futile punches to Joe's chin.
He also played a bully boy wrestler in Carol Reed's A Kid for Two Farthings (1955). Set in London's Petticoat Lane Market, the film pits Carnera's character against a local bodybuilder who is to marry another character named Sonia, played by Diana Dors.
Primo appeared in at least ten Italian films between 1939 and 1943, as well as several in the 1950s, like Prince Valiant, in the role of Sligon. His last screen role was as the giant Antaeus alongside Steve Reeves in Hercules Unchained (US title, filmed in Italy, 1959, original title Ercole e la regina di Lidia).
Professional wrestling career
In 1945 he temporarily returned to boxing and won two fights. But the next year, after three losses against Luigi Musina his talent for wrestling was discovered. In 1946 he became a professional wrestler and was immediately a huge success at the box office. For several years he was one of the top draws in wrestling. Carnera continued to be an attraction into the 1960s. Max Baer attended at least one of Carnera's wrestling matches.
Carnera won his debut on 22 August 1946, when he defeated Tommy O'Toole in California. On 23 October 1946, Carnera won his 41st consecutive wrestling match by defeating Jules Strongbow. On 19 November 1946, Carnera beat Harry Kruskamp to remain undefeated at 65–0–0. Primo Carnera went 120 straight wrestling matches undefeated (119–0–1) before suffering his first loss to Yvon Robert in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, on 20 August 1947. Carnera's greatest victory took place on 7 December 1947 when he defeated former world heavyweight champion Ed "Strangler" Lewis.
In May 1948, Carnera took a 143–1–1 record against world heavyweight champion Lou Thesz. Thesz defeated Carnera in a world title defense.
Mob accusations
According to boxing historian Herbert Goldman, Carnera was "very much mob controlled." Carnera met his first serious heavyweight contender, Young Stribling, in 1929, and won when Stribling fouled him. In a rematch, he fouled Stribling. His 1930 fight against California club fighter Bombo Chevalier in Emeryville was considered fixed, and Carnera was banned from fighting in California. His 1930 match against George Godfrey was controversial, as Godfrey was disqualified in the sixth round when he was clearly getting the better of Carnera.
Time magazine, in a 5 October 1931 cover story on Carnera before he won the heavyweight title, commented on his odd career:
Depictions in popular culture
In film
Requiem for a Heavyweight, Rod Serling's 1956 Emmy Award-winning teleplay for Playhouse 90 directed by Ralph Nelson (who also won an Emmy), focused on down-and-out former heavyweight boxer Harlan "Mountain" McClintock. The travails of McClintock, who was played by Jack Palance (Sean Connery played the part on British television and Anthony Quinn essayed the role in the 1962 film), was thought by many boxing fans to resemble Carnera's life.
In 1947, fighting aficionado Budd Schulberg wrote The Harder They Fall, a novel about a giant boxer whose fights are fixed. It was adapted into Mark Robson's 1956 film, which starred Humphrey Bogart and Rod Steiger. A highlight was the appearance of Max Baer, playing a fighter the mob could not fix who destroys the giant in his first fair fight. Critics drew parallels with the real-life Baer-Carnera fight two decades before. In response, Carnera unsuccessfully sued the film's company.
Carnera played himself in the 1949 movie Mighty Joe Young.
Carnera was played by Matthew G. Taylor in the 2005 film Cinderella Man, a film about the life of fellow boxer James J. Braddock.
In 2008, the actor Andrea Iaia played Carnera in the Italian biographical film Carnera: The Walking Mountain, directed by Renzo Martinelli.
In 2013, Emporio Elaborazioni Meccaniche named a motorbike, the 1983 BMW R80RT Carnera, in honor of Carnera.
In comics
In 1947, Carnera, an Italian comic book series sporting a fictional version of Primo Carnera, was produced. In 1953, it was translated into German. A facsimile version was published in 2010.
Another popular Italian comic character, Dick Fulmine, was graphically inspired by Carnera.
In literature
Carnera is mentioned by Bertie Wooster in the 1934 novel Right Ho, Jeeves, by P.G. Wodehouse on p. 234.
In his 1933 collection of short stories Mulliner Nights, Wodehouse described one character as follows: "He was built on large lines, and seemed to fill the room to overflowing. In physique he was not unlike what Primo Carnera would have been if Carnera hadn't stunted his growth by smoking cigarettes when a boy."
Carrera's fight with Walter Neusel is described in One-storied America by Soviet authors Ilf and Petrov (1937).
Carnera is mentioned by Julian “Digger” Burroughs in the 1982 novel Lucifer’s Weekend, by Warren Murphy on p. 81.
In music
Carnera is mentioned in Cambalache, a 1934 tango song by Enrique Santos Discépolo that was featured in the musical drama film The Soul of the Accordion.
The Yeasayer song Ambling Alp, from their 2010 album Odd Blood references Carnera by his nickname in the title and second verse. Both Carnera and German boxer Max Schmeling are referenced for their bouts with American Joe Louis.
Professional boxing record
All information in this section is derived from BoxRec, unless otherwise stated.
Official record
All newspaper decisions are officially regarded as “no decision” bouts and are not counted in the win/loss/draw column.
Unofficial record
Record with the inclusion of newspaper decisions to the win/loss/draw column.
Championships and accomplishments
Boxing
International Boxing Union
IBU Heavyweight Championship (22 October 1933 – 21 June 1935; vacated)
National Boxing Association
NBA World Heavyweight Championship (29 June 1933 – 14 June 1934)
New York State Athletic Commission
NYSAC World Heavyweight Championship (29 June 1933 – 14 June 1934)
Professional wrestling
NWA Hollywood Wrestling
NWA International Television Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Bobo Brazil
NWA San Francisco
NWA World Tag Team Championship (San Francisco version) (1 time) – with Sandor Szabo
WWE
WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2019)
See also
Walk of Fame of Italian sport
List of heavyweight boxing champions
References
Bibliography
External links
Primo Carnera – CBZ Profile
Biography: Primo Carnera
Primo Carnera Photos
1906 births
1967 deaths
People from the Province of Pordenone
Heavyweight boxers
Italian male boxers
Italian male film actors
Italian emigrants to the United States
American male boxers
American boxers of Italian descent
Italian male professional wrestlers
World heavyweight boxing champions
20th-century Italian male actors
Articles containing video clips
WWE Hall of Fame Legacy inductees
Stampede Wrestling alumni
Deaths from liver disease
Deaths from diabetes | [
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254847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazu | Mazu | Mazu or Ma-tsu is a Chinese sea goddess also known by several other names and titles. She is the deified form of the legendary figure Lin Mo or Lin Moniang, a Fujianese shamaness whose life span is traditionally dated from 960 to 987. Revered after her death as a tutelary deity of seafarers, including fishermen and sailors, her worship spread throughout China's coastal regions and overseas Chinese communities throughout Southeast Asia. She was thought to roam the seas, protecting her believers through miraculous interventions. She is now generally regarded by her believers as a powerful and benevolent Queen of Heaven. Mazu worship is popular in Taiwan as large numbers of early immigrants to Taiwan were Min people; her temple festival is a major event in the country, with the largest celebrations around her temples at Dajia and Beigang.
Names and titles
In addition to Mazu or Ma-tsu, meaning "Maternal Ancestor" "Mother", "Granny", or "Grandmother", Lin Moniang is worshipped under various other names and titles:
Mazupo ("Granny Mazu"), a popular name in Fujian
A-Ma, also spelled Ah-Ma ("Mother" or "Grandmother"), a popular name in Macau
Linghui Furen ("Lady of Numinous Grace"), an official title conferred in 1156.
Linghui Fei ("Princess of Numinous Grace"), an official title conferred in 1192.
Tianfei ("Princess of Heaven"), fully Huguo Mingzhu Tianfei ("Illuminating Princess of Heaven who Protects the Nation"), an official title conferred in 1281.
Huguo Bimin Miaoling Zhaoying Hongren Puji Tianfei ("Heavenly Princess who Protects the Nation and Shelters the People, of Marvelous Numen, Brilliant Resonance, Magnanimous Kindness, and Universal Salvation"), an official title conferred in 1409.
Tianhou (天后, literally meaning: "Queen/Empress of Heaven"), an official title conferred in 1683.
Tianshang Shengmu ("Holy Heavenly Mother"; title used mostly in Taiwan) or Tianhou Shengmu (title used mostly in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Vietnam)
Tongxian Lingnü ("Worthy & Efficacious Lady")
Shennü ("Divine Woman")
Zhaoxiao Chunzheng Fuji Ganying Shengfei ("Holy Princess of Clear Piety, Pure Faith, and Helpful Response"), an official title conferred during the reign of the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming.
Although many of Mazu's temples honor her titles Tianhou and Tianfei, it became customary to never pray to her under those names during an emergency since it was believed that, hearing one of her formal titles, Mazu might feel obligated to groom and dress herself as properly befitting her station before receiving the petition. Prayers invoking her as Mazu were thought to be answered more quickly.
History
Very little is known of the historical Lin Moniang. She was apparently a shamaness from a small fishing village on Meizhou Island, part of Fujian's Putian County, in the late 10th century. She probably did not live there, however, but on the nearby mainland. During this era, Fujian was greatly sinicized by influxes of refugees fleeing invasions of northern China and Mazu's cult may represent a hybridization of Chinese and local culture. The earliest record of her cult is from two centuries later, an 1150 inscription that mentions "she could foretell a man's good and ill luck" and, "after her death, the people erected a temple for her on her home island".
Legend
The legends around Lin Moniang's life were broadly established by the 12th century.
She was said to have been born under the reign of the Quanzhounese warlord Liu Congxiao (.962), in the Min Kingdom, which eventually developed into the specific date of the 23rd day of the third month of the Chinese lunar calendar in AD960, the first year of the Song. The late Ming Great Collection of the Three Teachings' Origin and Development and Research into the Divine (, Sānjiào Yuánliú Sōushén Dàquán), however, placed her birth much earlier, in 742.
The early sources speak of her as "Miss Lin"; her given name Mo ("Silent One") or Moniang ("the Silent Girl") appeared later. It was said to have been chosen when she did not cry during birth or during the first month afterwards; she remained a quiet and pensive child as late as four. She was said to have been the sixth or seventh daughter of Lin Yuan (). He is now usually remembered as one of the local fishermen, although the 1593 edition of the Records of Research into the Divine made him Putian's chief military inspector. The family was helpful and popular within their village. Late legends intended to justify Mazu's presence in Buddhist temples held that her parents had prayed to Guanyin for a son but received yet another daughter. In one version, her mother dreamt of Guanyin giving her a magical pill to induce pregnancy and woke to find the pill still in her hand; rather than being born in the conventional way, Mazu shot from her mother at birth in the form of a fragrant flash of red light. Guanyin was said to have been especially devoted to Mazu or even to have been incarnated as Mazu; for her part, Mazu was said to have been entranced by a statue of Guanyin at a temple she visited as a child, after which she became an ardent Buddhist.
She is now often said to have studied religious literature, mastering Confucius by 8 and the principal Buddhist sutras by 11. The Account of the Blessings Revealed by the Princess of Heaven , Tiānfēi Xiǎnshèng Lù) collected by her supposed descendants Lin Yaoyu , , Lín Yáoyú; ) and Lin Linchang , Lín Línchàng; ) claimed that, while still a girl, she was visited by a Taoist master (elsewhere a Buddhist monk) named Xuantong , Xuántōng) who recognized her Buddha nature. By 13, she had mastered the book of lore he had left her , Xuánwēi Bìfǎ) and gained the abilities to see the future and visit places in spirit without travel. She was able to manifest herself at a distance as well and used this power to visit gardens in the surrounding countryside, although she asked owners' permission before gathering any flowers to take home. Although she only started swimming at the relatively late age of 15, she soon excelled at it. She was said to have stood on the shore in red garments to guide fishing boats home, regardless of harsh or dangerous weather. She met a Taoist immortal at a fountain at sixteen and received an amulet or two bronze tablets which she translated or used to exorcize demons, to heal the sick, and to avert disasters. She was also said to be a rainmaker during times of drought.
Mazu's principal legend concerns her saving one or some members of her family when they were caught offshore during a typhoon, usually when she was 16. It appears in several forms. In one, the women at home feared Lin Yuan and his son were lost but Mazu fell into a trance while weaving at her loom. Her spiritual power began to save the men from drowning but her mother roused her, causing her to drop her brother into the sea. The father returned and told the other villagers of the miracle; this version of the story is preserved in murals at Fengtin in Fujian. One variant is that her brothers were saved but her father was lost; she then spent three days and nights searching for his body before finding it. Another version is that all the men returned safely. Another is that Mazu was praying to Guanyin; another that she was sleeping and assisting her family through her dream. Still another is that the boats were crewed by her four brothers and that she saved three of them, securing their boats together, with the eldest lost owing to the interference of her parents, who mistook her trance for a seizure and woke her.
In earlier records, Mazu died unmarried at 27 or 28. (Her celibacy was sometimes ascribed to a vow she took after losing her brother at sea.) The date of her passing eventually became the specific date of the Double Ninth Festival in 987, making her 27 by western reckoning and 28 by traditional Chinese dating. She was said to have died in meditation, though in some accounts she did not die but climbed a mountain alone and ascended into Heaven as a goddess in a beam of bright light. In others, she died protesting an unwanted betrothal. Still another places her death at age 16, saying she drowned after exhausting herself in a failed attempt to find her lost father, underlining her filial piety. Her corpse then washed ashore on Nangan Island, which preserves a gravesite said to be hers.
Myths
In addition to the legends surrounding her earthly life, Mazu figures in a number of Chinese myths.
In one, the demons Qianliyan ("Thousand-Mile Eye") and Shunfeng'er ("Wind-Following Ear") both fell in love with her and she conceded that she would marry the one who defeated her in combat. Using her martial arts skills, however, she subdued them both and, after becoming friends, hired them as her guardian generals.
In a book of the Taoist Canon , , Tàishàng Lǎojūn Shuō Tiānfēi Jiùkǔ Língyàn Jīng), the Jade Woman of Marvelous Deeds ) is a star from the Big Dipper brought to earth by Laojun, the divine form of Laozi, to show his compassion for those who might be lost at sea. She is incarnated as Mazu and swears not only to protect sailors but to oversee all facets of life and death, providing help to anyone who might call upon her.
Legacy
Worship
Mazuism is first attested in Huang Gongdu's poem "On the Shrine of the Smooth Crossing" , , Shùnjì Miào), which considered her a menial and misguided shamaness whose continued influence was inexplicable. He notes that her devotees danced and sang together and with their children. Shortly afterwards, Liao Pengfei ()'s 1150 inscription at the village of Ninghai (now Qiaodou Village) in Putian was more respectful. It states that, "after her death, the people erected a temple for her on her home island" and that the Temple of the Sacred Mound , , Shèngdūn Miào) was raised in 1086 after some people in Ninghai saw it glowing, discovered a miraculous old raft or stump, and experienced a vision of "the goddess of Meizhou". This structure had been renamed the Smooth Crossing Temple by Emperor Huizong of Song in 1123 after his envoy Lu Yundi , Lù Yǔndí) was miraculously saved during a storm the year before while on an official mission to pay respects to the court of Goryeo upon the death of its king, Yejong, and to replace the Liao dynasty as the formal suzerains investing his successor, Injong.
Her worship subsequently spread: Li Junfu's early-13th century Putian Bishi records temples on Meizhou and at Qiaodou, Jiangkou, and Baihu. By 1257, Liu Kezhuang was noting Putian's "large market towns and small villages all have... shrines to the Princess" and that they had spread to Fengting to the south. By the end of the Song, there were at least 31 temples to Mazu, reaching at least as far as Shanghai in the north and Guangzhou in the south.
As Mazuism spread, it began to absorb the cults of other local shamanesses such as the other two of Xianyou's "Three Princesses" and even some lesser maritime and agricultural gods, including Liu Mian and Zhang the Heavenly Instructor. By the 12th century, she had already become a guardian to the people of Qiaodou when they suffered drought, flood, epidemic, piracy, or brigandage. She protected women during childbirth and assisted with conception. As the patron of the seas, her temples were among the first erected by arriving overseas Chinese, as they gave thanks for their safe passage. Despite his Islamic upbringing, the Ming admiral and explorer Zheng He credited Mazu for protecting one of his journeys, prompting a new title in 1409. He patronized the Mazu temples of Nanjing and prevailed upon the Yongle Emperor to construct the city's Tianfei Palace; because of its imperial patronage and prominent location in the empire's southern capital, this was long the largest and highest-status center of Mazuism in China. During the Southern Ming resistance to the Qing, Mazu was credited with helping Koxinga's army capture Taiwan from the Dutch; she was later said to have personally aided some of Shi Lang's men in defeating Liu Guoxuan at Penghu in 1683, ending the independent kingdom of Koxinga's descendants and placing Taiwan under Qing control. The Ming prince Zhu Shugui's palace was converted into Tainan's Grand Matsu Temple, the first to bear her new title of "Heavenly Empress".
In late imperial China, sailors often carried effigies of Mazu to ensure safe crossings. Some boats still carry small shrines on their bows. Mazu charms are also used as medicine, including as salves for blistered feet. As late as the 19th century, the Qing government officially credited her divine intervention with their 1884 victory over the French at Tamsui District during the Sino-French War and specially honored the town's temple to her, which had served as General Sun Kaihua's headquarters during the fighting. When US forces bombed Taiwan during World War II, Mazu was said to intercept bombs and defend the people.
Today, Mazuism is practiced in about 1500 temples in 26 countries around the world, mostly in the Sinosphere or the overseas Chinese communities. Of these temples, almost 1000 are on Taiwan, representing a doubling of the 509 temples recorded in 1980 and more than a dozen times the number recorded before 1911. These temples are generally registered as Taoist, although some are considered Buddhist. There are more than 90 Mazu Temples in Hong Kong. In Mainland China, Mazuism is formally classified as a cult outside of Buddhism and Taoism, although numerous Buddhist and Taoist temples include shrines to her. Her worship is generally permitted but not encouraged, with most surviving temples concentrated around Putian in Fujian. Including the twenty on Meizhou Island, there are more than a hundred in the prefecture and another 70 elsewhere in the province, mostly in the settlements along its coast. There are more than 40 temples in Guangdong and Hainan and more than 30 in Zhejiang and Jiangsu, but many historical temples are now treated as museums and operated by local parks or cultural agencies. From the early 2000s, pilgrimages from Taiwan to temples in Fujian have been permitted, particularly to the one in Yongchun, where Taiwan's Xingang Mazu Temple has been allowed to open a branch temple. The A-Ma Temple on Macao Island is the probable source of its name in Portuguese and English; the historic and protected Tin Hau Temple, Causeway Bay in Hong Kong is the source of the Tin Hau area's name from the Cantonese pronunciation of one of Mazu's titles, "Empress of Heaven". The Mazu temple in Melbourne is the largest Chinese temple in Australia.
A major project to build the world's tallest Mazu statue at Tanjung Simpang Mengayau in Kudat, Borneo, was officially launched by Sabah. The statue was to be 10 stories high, but was canceled due to protests from Muslims in Sabah and political interference. In its absence, the world's tallest statue of the goddess is the Mazu of Tianjin that was erected in 2012.
Informal centers of pilgrimage for Mazu's believers include Meizhou Island, the Zhenlan Temple in Taichung on Taiwan, and Xianliang Temple in Xianliang Harbor, Putian. Together with Meizhou Island, the Xianliang Temple is considered the most sacred place to Mazu, whose supposed death happened on the seashore of Xianliang Harbor. A ceremony attended by pilgrims from different provinces of China and from Taiwan commemorates this legendary event each year in October.
Pilgrimages
The primary temple festival in Mazuism is Lin Moniang's traditional birthday on the 23rd day of the 3rd month of the Chinese lunar calendar. In Taiwan, there are two major pilgrimages made in her honor, the Dajia Mazu Pilgrimage and the Baishatun Mazu Pilgrimage. In both festivals, pilgrims walk more than 300 kilometers to carry a litter containing statues of the goddess between two temples. Another major festival is that around the Tianhou Temple in Lukang. Depending on the year, Mazu's festival day may fall as early as mid-April or as late as mid-May.
The anniversary of her death or supposed ascension into Heaven is also celebrated, usually on the Double Ninth Festival (the ninth day of the ninth month of the lunar calendar).
In art
After her death, Mazu was remembered as a young lady who wore a red dress as she roamed over the seas. In religious statuary, she is usually clothed in the attire of an empress, and decorated with accessories such as a ceremonial hu tablet and a flat-topped imperial cap (mian'guan) with rows of beads (liu) hanging from the front and back. Her temples are usually protected by the door gods Qianliyan and Shunfeng'er. These vary in appearance but are frequently demons, Qianliyan red with two horns and two yellow sapphire eyes and Shunfeng'er green with one horn and two ruby eyes.
Lin Moniang (2000), a minor Fujianese TV series, was a dramatization of Mazu's life as a mortal. Mazu 2007) was a Taiwanese animated feature film from the Chinese Cartoon Production Co. depicting her life as a shamaness and goddess. Its production director Teng Chiao admitted the limited appeal to the domestic market: "If young people were our primary target audience, we wouldn't tell the story of Mazu in the first place since they are not necessarily interested in the ancient legend[;] neither do they have loyalty to made-in-Taiwan productions". Instead, "when you look to global markets, the question that foreign buyers always ask is what can best represent Taiwan". Mazu, with its story about "a magic girl and two cute sidekicks [Mazu's door gods Qianliyan and Shunfeng'er] spiced up with a strong local flavor" was instead designed with an intent to appeal to international markets interested in Taiwan.
See also
List of Mazu temples around the world
Tin Hau temples in Hong Kong
Hung Shing Ye (洪聖爺)
Qianliyan & Shunfeng'er
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
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External links
De wonderen van Mazu [The miracles of Mazu]. Rijksmuseum, The Netherlands.
Chinese goddesses
Mother goddesses
Sea and river goddesses
Folk saints
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
Tutelary deities
Deified Chinese people
Taoism in Guangdong | [
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254848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simply%20Smiffy | Simply Smiffy | Simply Smiffy is a comic strip published in the British comic magazine The Beano. It is one of the many spin-off comic strips off The Bash Street Kids, first appearing in issue 2254.
Background
Simply Smiffy is the second Bash Street Kids spin-off that starred Smiffy, the first being Says Smiffy from 1971. It encouraged readers to mail the Beano office their ideas for new inventions, which are tested by Smiffy in the following issues. The series was illustrated by Jim Petrie and ran for over 25 issues.
Synopsis
The stories are about Smiffy's life outside of going to school, usually making mistakes because of his ditziness. It is revealed he has a brother, a bespectacled boy (who looks similar to Smiffy) named Norman, who supervises Smiffy's antics.
Publication history
Despite Jim Petrie illustrating Smiffy's previous comic strip, Simply Smiffy was illustrated by Jerry Swaffield. It was one of the first comic strips published and approved by chief editor Euan Kerr soon after Harry Cramond's retirement. The strips were a page long and were set in Smiffy's home, garden, or in parks or the high street. The series ran from issue 2254 to 2338.
Subsequent appearances
Simply Smiffy returned to The Beano in the Funsize Funnies, illustrated by Paul Palmer. It also appeared in 1987 and 1988's Beano annuals, and The Beano Summer Specials of 1986 and 1987.
References
External links
from the Funsize Funnies run on the Beano website
Beano strips
1985 comics debuts
1986 comics endings
Comics characters introduced in 1985
Child characters in comics
British humour comics
Gag-a-day comics
Comics spin-offs
The Bash Street Kids | [
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254851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rap%20metal | Rap metal | Rap metal is a subgenre of rap rock and alternative metal music which combines hip hop with heavy metal. It usually consists of heavy metal guitar riffs, funk metal elements, rapped vocals and sometimes turntables.
History
Origins and early development (1980s–early 1990s)
Rap metal originated from rap rock, a genre fusing vocal and instrumental elements of hip hop with rock. The genre's roots are based both in hip hop acts who sampled heavy metal music, such as Beastie Boys, MC Strecker Cypress Hill, Esham and Run-DMC, and rock bands who fused heavy metal and hip hop influences, such as 24-7 Spyz and Faith No More.
Scott Ian of Anthrax (who helped pioneer the genre) believes Rage Against the Machine invented the genre. However, Urban Dance Squad (formed in 1986), fused rap and metal before Rage Against the Machine, although Rage Against the Machine is considered to have refined the sound, giving rap rock an edginess and grit that would define the genre for years to come.
In 1987, the heavy metal band Anthrax fused hip hop with heavy metal for their extended play I'm the Man. The next year rapper Sir Mix-a-Lot teamed up with Metal Church for his 1988 single "Iron Man", from his debut album Swass, loosely based upon the Black Sabbath song of the same name. Rap metal can be found in a track from the industrial metal band Ministry in their 1989 album The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste on the track "Test" for which they hired rappers The Grand Wizard (K. Lite) and The Slogan God (Tommie Boyskee) to perform vocals. In 1990, the rapper Ice-T formed a heavy metal band called Body Count, and while performing at the 1991 Lollapalooza tour performed a set that was half rap songs and half metal songs. Stuck Mojo and Clawfinger, both formed in 1989, are considered to be another two pioneers of the genre. Anthrax in 1991 teamed up with Public Enemy for a remake of the latter's "Bring the Noise" that fused hip hop with thrash metal. Also in 1991, the thrash metal band Tourniquet featured the hip hop group P.I.D. on the song "Spineless" from their album Psycho Surgery.
Rise in popularity (1990s–early 2000s)
In the 1990s, rap metal became a popular style of music. For instance, the band Faith No More's song "Epic" was a major success and peaked at number 9 on the Billboard Hot 100. 1993 saw the release of the Judgment Night soundtrack that featured numerous collaborations between rappers, musicians and rock and metal group of bands. Rage Against the Machine's 1996 album Evil Empire entered the Billboard 200 at number one, and in 1999, their third studio album, The Battle of Los Angeles, also debuted in top spot in the Billboard 200, selling 430,000 copies in its first week. Each of the band's albums became at least platinum hits. Biohazard played on the Ozzfest mainstage alongside Ozzy Osbourne, Slayer, Danzig, Fear Factory, and Sepultura. In support of the album, Biohazard embarked on a short co-headlining tour of Europe with Suicidal Tendencies.
On August 18, 1998, Atlantic released rap metal musician Kid Rock's Devil Without a Cause behind the single "Welcome 2 the Party (Ode 2 the Old School)" and Kid Rock went on the Vans Warped Tour to support the album. Sales of "Welcome 2 The Party" and Devil Without a Cause were slow, though the 1998 Warped Tour in Northampton, Massachusetts stimulated regional interest in Massachusetts and New England. This led to substantial airplay of the single "I Am The Bullgod" during the summer and fall of 1998 on Massachusetts rock staples WZLX and WAAF. In early December 1998, while DJing at a club, he met and became friends with MTV host Carson Daly. He talked Daly into getting him a performance on MTV and on December 28, 1998, he performed on MTV Fashionably Loud in Miami, Florida, creating a buzz from his performance, even upstaging Jay-Z. In May, his sales began taking off with the third single "Bawitdaba" and by April 1999, Devil Without a Cause had achieved a gold disc. The following month, Devil, as he predicted, went platinum. Kid Rock's first major tour was Limptropolis, where he opened for Limp Bizkit with Staind. He solidified his superstardom with a Woodstock 1999 performance and on July 24 of that year, he was double platinum. The following single "Cowboy", a mix of southern rock, country, and rap, was an even bigger hit, making the Top 40. It even became the theme song of WCW's Jeff Jarrett. Rock's next single, the slow back porch blues ballad "Only God Knows Why", was the biggest hit off the album, charting at No. 19 on the Billboard Hot 100. It was one of the first songs to use the autotune effect. By the time the final single, "Wasting Time", was released, the album had sold 7 million copies. Devil Without a Cause was certified 11 times platinum by the RIAA on April 17, 2003. According to Nielsen SoundScan, as of 2013, actual sales are 9.3 million. Kid Rock was nominated as Best New Artist at the 2000 Grammy Awards, but lost to Christina Aguilera. He was nominated for "Bawitdaba" for Best Hard Rock Performance, but lost to Metallica's "Whiskey in the Jar". In 1998, Ice Cube released his long-awaited album War & Peace Vol. 1 (The War Disc) which had some elements of nu metal and rap metal on some tracks. The album debuted at No. 7 on the Billboard 200 chart, selling 180,000 copies in the first week.
It reached the height of its popularity during 1999, with the Port Huron Times-Herald describing the summer of that year as a "bipolar menu of harsh rap-metal and gooey teen pop." Around this time, the style started to attract criticism in the mainstream, particularly after the troubled Woodstock 1999 festival, which featured many artists associated with rap metal and nu/alternative metal, such as Kid Rock, Limp Bizkit, Rage Against the Machine and Reveille. Pop punk musician Jeff Brogowski told The Morning Call newspaper in 1999 that "these macho rap-metal bands are just so mean-spirited. Look what happened at Woodstock (last summer). All the violence, looting and the fires. Something strange is going on. Maybe it has something do with all the economic prosperity. It's getting ugly like it was during the '80s, when so many people and bands were so cocky."
The nu/rap metal band Limp Bizkit's 1999 album Significant Other climbed to No. 1 on the Billboard 200, selling 643,874 copies in its first week of release. In its second week of release, the album sold an additional 335,000 copies. The band's follow-up album, Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water, set a record for highest week-one sales of a rock album with over one million copies sold in the U.S. in its first week of release, with 400,000 of those sales coming on its first day, making it the fastest-selling rock album ever, breaking the record held for 7 years by Pearl Jam's Vs. That same year, Papa Roach's major label debut Infest became a platinum hit. Cypress Hill incorporated direct heavy metal influences into their 2000 album Skull & Bones, which featured six tracks in which rappers B-Real and Sen Dog were backed by a band including Fear Factory members Christian Olde Wolbers and Dino Cazares and Rage Against the Machine drummer Brad Wilk. B-Real also formed a rap metal group, Kush, with Wolbers, Fear Factory drummer Raymond Herrera and Deftones guitarist Stephen Carpenter. According to B-Real, Kush is more aggressive than other bands in the genre. SX-10, formed in 1996 by Sen Dog, also performs rap rock and rap metal.
In 2000, the rap metal band P.O.D.'s 1999 album The Fundamental Elements of Southtown went platinum and was the 143rd best-selling album of 2000. Late in 2000, Linkin Park released their debut album Hybrid Theory, which remains both the best-selling debut album by any artist in the 21st century, and the best-selling nu metal album of all time. The album was also the best-selling album in all genres in 2001, offsetting sales by prominent pop acts like Backstreet Boys and N'Sync, earning the band a Grammy Award for their second single "Crawling", with the fourth single, "In the End", released late in 2001, becoming one of the most recognized songs in the first decade of the 21st century. The rap rock band Crazy Town also broke into the mainstream success of nu metal with their 1999 album The Gift of Game, especially their number 1 hit single, "Butterfly", which peaked at number 1 on many charts including the Billboard Hot 100 during March 2001, remaining on the Hot 100 for 23 weeks. It also peaked at number 1 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart and the Hot Dance Singles chart as well as peaking number 6 on the Rhythmic Top 40, number 2 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart and number 4 on the Top 40 Tracks chart. Their album The Gift of Game peaked at number 9 on the Billboard 200. Worldwide the album sold more than 2.5 million units, with more than 1.5 million in the US alone. Also that year was Saliva's Every Six Seconds which was also a commercial success, debuting at no. 6 on the Billboard 200. In 2001, the band P.O.D.'s Satellite album went triple platinum and peaked at #6 on the Billboard 200 chart.
2010s
Proyecto Eskhata, a Spanish band which debuted in 2012, has received much press coverage in Spain for its fusion of progressive rock and rap metal, which journalists have described as "progressive rap metal".
Influence on other genres
Nu metal
Nu metal (also known as nü-metal and ) is a genre that combines elements of with elements of other music genres such as hip hop, alternative metal, funk, industrial and groove metal. bands have drawn elements and influences from a variety of musical styles, including rap metal and other heavy metal subgenres.
Trap metal
Trap metal (also known as ragecore, death rap, industrial trap and scream rap) is a fusion genre that combines elements of trap music and heavy metal, as well as elements of other genres, like industrial and nu metal. It is characterized by distorted beats, hip hop flows, harsh vocals, and down tuned heavy metal guitars. Bones has been considered by Kerrang! to be one of the earliest practitioners of the genre, performing trap metal tracks beginning around 2014. British rapper Scarlxrd is often associated with the genre and is considered a pioneer of trap metal. WQHT described OG Maco's 2014 eponymous EP as being a part of the genre's early development. Other artists associated with trap metal include Dropout Kings, Bone Crew, Ghostemane, ZillaKami, Fever 333, Ho99o9, City Morgue, Kid Bookie, Rico Nasty, Kim Dracula, and $uicideboy$, as well as the early careers of XXXTentacion, 6ix9ine and Ski Mask the Slump God.
Some artists such as Ho99o9, ZillaKami and 6ix9ine are also influenced by hardcore punk, whereas Ghostemane's music contains elements of black metal, gothic rock and emo.
See also
Crunkcore
Nu metal
List of rap metal and rap rock bands
References
Fusion music genres
Heavy metal genres
Alternative metal genres
Hip hop genres
Rap rock
1980s in music
1990s in music
2000s in music
20th-century music genres
21st-century music genres
2010s fads and trends
American rock music genres
American styles of music | [
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