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255187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Tragically%20Hip%20%28EP%29 | The Tragically Hip (EP) | The Tragically Hip is the first release from Canadian rock band The Tragically Hip. The EP was produced by Ken Greer of Red Rider fame, and consisted of 7 songs (8 on CD).
Release and reception
The Hip's EP was released in the Kingston area in late 1987 & nationally in January 1988. In early 1988 the Hip went on their first cross-Canada tour lasting 5 weeks. In Dec 1988 they signed a long term contract with MCA. A live version of "Highway Girl" was released in 1991 as a B-side to "Twist My Arm", in which Gord Downie tells the story of a suicide pact between a man and his girlfriend. It was a hit on Canadian radio, allowing the song to chart considerably higher than in its original form. The story contains some lines which would later recur as lyrics in the band's 1992 single "Locked in the Trunk of a Car"; it ends with Downie exclaiming "Get Mr. Ry Cooder to deliver my eulogy", which would also recur in "At the Hundredth Meridian". The album version was also the only song from this EP to be included in the Yer Favourites fan-picked compilation of 2005.
Track listing
References
1987 debut EPs
The Tragically Hip albums
MCA Records EPs | [
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255188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA%20South%20Athletic%20Conference | USA South Athletic Conference | The USA South Athletic Conference (formerly the Dixie Intercollegiate Athletic Conference or the Dixie Conference) is an athletic conference which competes in the NCAA's Division III. Member schools are located in North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, and Kentucky.
History
The Dixie Intercollegiate Athletic Conference was founded in 1963 as a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) with the philosophy that participation would be strictly amateur, so no athletic financial aid or scholarships would be awarded by its affiliate institutions. The six charter members were Charlotte College, College of Charleston, Methodist College, North Carolina Wesleyan College, St. Andrews Presbyterian College, and Lynchburg College. In 1973, when the National Collegiate Athletic Association divided into a three-division format, the Dixie Conference left the NAIA and moved into the non-scholarship NCAA Division III.
On June 30, 2003, the conference changed to its name to the USA South Athletic Conference.
During the 2010–11 school year, changes to the membership of the USA South were announced. Three colleges announced plans to join the USA South Conference beginning in the 2012–13 season while one will depart the league. Piedmont College, LaGrange College, and Maryville College joined the Great South Athletic Conference on July 1, 2012.
Shenandoah University left the USA South on the above date, to become a full member of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC), a league in which it held associate membership in several sports.
Christopher Newport University left the USA South after the 2012–2013 season to join the Capital Athletic Conference in all sports except for football which will remain a USA South affiliate member through the 2015 season.
On May 10, 2012, Covenant College and Huntingdon College announced plans to leave the Great South and join USA South Athletic Conference beginning in the 2013–2014 season.
On May 6, 2015, the USA South announced that Agnes Scott College, Salem College, and Wesleyan College would leave the Great South Athletic Conference and join the USA South beginning in the 2016–17 school year. The conference announced the future arrival of three more schools during the 2015–16 school year. First, it announced on December 9, 2015, that Brevard College, transitioning from the NCAA Division II South Atlantic Conference to Division III, would join for 2017–18 and beyond. Then, on May 4, 2016, two more incoming members were announced: Berea College, nearing completion of a transition from the NAIA to Division III, and Pfeiffer University, transitioning from the Division II Conference Carolinas to Division III. Both joined in 2017–18 as well.
On June 27, 2017, Ferrum College, a conference member since 1988, announced that it would leave for the Old Dominion Athletic Conference after the 2017–18 school year.
On December 11, 2019, the USA South announced the addition of Southern Virginia University who will join in the 2021–22 academic year.
The most recent changes to the USA South membership came on March 8, 2021, when Averett University revealed its intention to leave the USA South and join Ferrum College in the ODAC as a full member in the 2022–23 academic year, and on November 22, when Belhaven University was at first accepted for membership in the conference also for 2022–23. Belhaven is leaving the American Southwest Conference.
On February 18, 2022, the USA South Conference presidents announced a restructuring of the conference, resulting in Agnes Scott, Berea, Covenant, Huntingdon, LaGrange, Maryville, Piedmont, and Wesleyan leaving the USA South to form the new Collegiate Conference of the South (CCS) for the 2022-23 academic year. They were joined by incoming member Belhaven. CCS members sponsoring football, men's lacrosse, women's lacrosse, and women's golf will remain in the USA South as associate members for those sports.
Chronological timeline
1963 - The USA South was founded as the Dixie Intercollegiate Athletic Conference was founded. It was a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). Charter members included Charlotte College (now the University of North Carolina at Charlotte), the College of Charleston, Lynchburg College (now the University of Lynchburg), Methodist College (now Methodist University), North Carolina Wesleyan College, and St. Andrews Presbyterian College (now St. Andrews University), effective the 1963-64 academic year.
1966 - Greensboro College joined the Dixie Conference, effective the 1966-67 academic year.
1968 - The University of North Carolina at Greensboro joined the Dixie Conference, effective the 1968-69 academic year.
1970 - Charlotte and the College of Charleston left the Dixie Conference, effective the 1969-70 academic year.
1970 - Virginia Wesleyan College (now Virginia Wesleyan University) joined the Dixie Conference, effective the 1970-71 academic year.
1972 - Christopher Newport College (now Christopher Newport University) joined the Dixie Conference, effective the 1972-73 academic year.
1973 - The Dixie Conference left the NAIA to join the Division III ranks of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), effective the 1973-74 academic year.
1976 - Lynchburg left the Dixie Conference to join the Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC), effective the 1975-76 academic year.
1978 - Averett College (now Averett University) joined the Dixie Conference, effective the 1978-79 academic year.
1988 - UNC Greensboro and St. Andrews Presbyterian left the Dixie Conference, effective the 1987-88 academic year.
1988 - Ferrum College joined the Dixie Conference, effective the 1988-89 academic year.
1989 - Virginia Wesleyan left the Dixie Conference to join the ODAC, effective the 2000-01 academic year.
1992 - Shenandoah College (now Shenandoah University) joined the Dixie Conference, effective the 1992-93 academic year.
2000 - Chowan College (now Chowan University) joined the Dixie Conference, effective the 2000-01 academic year.
2003 - Peace College (now William Peace University) joined the Dixie Conference, effective the 2003-04 academic year.
2003 - The Dixie Conference has renamed and rebranded as the USA South Athletic Conference (USA South), effective the 2003-04 academic year.
2004 - Chowan left the USA South to become an NCAA Division II independent school (and later on, the Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association (CIAA)), effective the 2003-04 academic year.
2005 - Maryville College joined the USA South as an associate member for football, effective the 2005 fall season (2005-06 academic year).
2007 - Mary Baldwin College and Meredith College joined the USA South, effective the 2007-08 academic year.
2009 - Agnes Scott College and LaGrange College joined the USA South as associate members for women's lacrosse, effective the 2010 spring season (2009-10 academic year).
2012 - Shenandoah left the USA South to join the ODAC, effective the 2011-12 academic year.
2012 - Piedmont College joined the USA South (with LaGrange and Maryville adding the rest of their sports for full member status), effective the 2012-13 academic year.
2013 - Christopher Newport left the USA South to join the Capital Athletic Conference (CAC), effective the 2012-13 academic year.
2013 - Covenant College and Huntingdon College joined the USA South, effective the 2013-14 academic year.
2014 - Agnes Scott left the USA South as an associate member for women's lacrosse, effective the 2014 spring season (2013-14 academic year).
2016 - Christopher Newport left the USA South as an associate member for football, effective the 2015 fall season (2015-16 academic year).
2016 - Salem College and Wesleyan College joined the USA South (with Agnes Scott re-joining, but for all sports), effective the 2016-17 academic year.
2017 - Berea College, Brevard College, and Pfeiffer University joined the USA South, effective the 2017-18 academic year.
2018 - Ferrum left the USA South to join the ODAC, effective the 2017-18 academic year.
2021 - Southern Virginia University joined the USA South, effective the 2021-22 academic year.
2022 - Averett will leave the USA South to join the ODAC, effective the 2021-22 academic year.
2022 - Agnes Scott, Berea, Covenant, Huntingdon, LaGrange, Maryville, Piedmont, and Wesleyan will leave the USA South to form the new Collegiate Conference of the South (CCS), effective the 2022-23 academic year.
2022 - Belhaven University will join the USA South as an associate member for football, effective the 2022-23 academic year. Belhaven was initially slated to join for all sports, but was admitted to the CCS as a full member instead.
Member schools
Current members
The USA South currently has 19 full members, all private schools:
Notes
Future associate members
Former members
Notes
Membership timeline
Sports
The conference sponsors championships in the following sports:
Men's sponsored sports by school
Departing members are displayed in red.
Women's sponsored sports by school
Departing members are displayed in red.
Conference facilities
References
External links | [
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255189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20M.%20La%20Follette | Robert M. La Follette | Robert Marion "Fighting Bob" La Follette Sr. (June 14, 1855June 18, 1925), was an American lawyer and politician. He represented Wisconsin in both chambers of Congress and served as the 20th Governor of Wisconsin. A Republican for most of his life, he ran for president of the United States as the nominee of his own Progressive Party in the 1924 presidential election. Historian John D. Buenker describes La Follette as "the most celebrated figure in Wisconsin history".
Born and raised in Wisconsin, La Follette won election as the Dane County District Attorney in 1880. Four years later, he was elected to the House of Representatives, where he was friendly with party leaders like William McKinley. After losing his seat in the 1890 election, La Follette embraced progressivism and built up a coalition of disaffected Republicans. He sought election as governor in 1896 and 1898 before winning the 1900 gubernatorial election. As governor of Wisconsin, La Follette compiled a progressive record, implementing primary elections and tax reform.
La Follette won re-election in 1902 and 1904, but in 1905 the legislature elected him to the United States Senate. He emerged as a national progressive leader in the Senate, often clashing with conservatives like Nelson Aldrich. He initially supported President William Howard Taft, but broke with Taft after the latter failed to push a reduction in tariff rates. He challenged Taft for the Republican presidential nomination in the 1912 presidential election, but his candidacy was overshadowed by that of former President Theodore Roosevelt. La Follette's refusal to support Roosevelt alienated many progressives, and, though La Follette continued to serve in the Senate, he lost his stature as the leader of that chamber's progressive Republicans. La Follette supported some of President Woodrow Wilson's policies, but he broke with the president over foreign policy. During World War I, La Follette was one of the most outspoken opponents of the administration's domestic and international policies.
With the Republican and Democratic Parties each nominating conservative candidates in the 1924 presidential election, left-wing groups coalesced behind La Follette's third-party candidacy. With the support of the Socialist Party, farmer's groups, labor unions, and others, La Follette briefly appeared to be a serious threat to unseat Republican President Calvin Coolidge. La Follette stated that his chief goal was to break the "combined power of the private monopoly system over the political and economic life of the American people", and he called for government ownership of railroads and electric utilities, cheap credit for farmers, the outlawing of child labor, stronger laws to help labor unions, and protections for civil liberties. His diverse coalition proved challenging to manage, and the Republicans rallied to claim victory in the 1924 election. La Follette won 16.6% of the popular vote, one of the best third party performances in U.S. history. He died shortly after the presidential election, but his sons, Robert M. La Follette Jr. and Philip La Follette, succeeded him as progressive leaders in Wisconsin.
Early life
Robert Marion La Follette Sr. was born on a farm in Primrose, Wisconsin, on June 14, 1855. He was the youngest of five children born to Josiah La Follette and Mary Ferguson, who had settled in Wisconsin in 1850. Josiah descended from French Huguenots, while Mary was of Scottish ancestry. La Follette's great-great-grandfather, Joseph La Follette emigrated from France to New Jersey in 1745. La Follette's great-grandfather moved to Kentucky, where they were neighbors to the Lincoln family.
Josiah died just eight months after Robert was born, and in 1862, Mary married John Saxton, a wealthy, seventy-year-old merchant. La Follette's poor relationship with Saxton made for a difficult childhood. Though his mother was a Democrat, La Follette became, like most of his neighbors, a member of the Republican Party.
La Follette began attending school at the age of four, though he often worked on the family farm. After Saxton died in 1872, La Follette, his mother, and his older sister moved to the nearby town of Madison. La Follette began attending the University of Wisconsin in 1875 and graduated in 1879 with a Bachelor of Science degree. He was a mediocre student, but won a statewide oratory contest and established a student newspaper named the University Press. He was deeply influenced by the university's president, John Bascom, on issues of morality, ethics, and social justice. During his time at the university, he became a vegetarian, declaring that his diet gave him more energy and a "clear head".
La Follette met Belle Case while attending the University of Wisconsin, and they married on December 31, 1881, at her family home in Baraboo, Wisconsin. She became a leader in the feminist movement, an advocate of women's suffrage and an important influence on the development of La Follette's ideas.
Early political career
House of Representatives
La Follette was admitted to the state bar association in 1880. That same year, he won election as the district attorney for Dane County, Wisconsin, beginning a long career in politics. He became a protégé of George E. Bryant, a wealthy Republican Party businessman and landowner from Madison. In 1884, he won election to the House of Representatives, becoming the youngest member of the subsequent 49th Congress. His political views were broadly in line with those of other Northern Republicans at the time; he supported high tariff rates and developed a strong relationship with William McKinley. He did, however, occasionally stray from the wishes of party leaders, as he voted for the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 and the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. He also denounced racial discrimination in the Southern United States and favored the Lodge Bill, which would have provided federal protections against the mass disenfranchisement of African Americans in the South. Milwaukee Sentinel referred to him as being "so good a fellow that even his enemies like him". Views on racial and ethnic matters were not central to La Follette's political thinking. Author Jorn Brøndal wrote that La Follette, "on at least one occasion referred to an African American as a 'coon' and a 'blamed nigger', if only for humorous effect". His wife was a stronger proponent of Civil Rights.
At 35 years old, La Follette lost his seat in the 1890 Democratic landslide. Several factors contributed to his loss, including a compulsory-education bill passed by the Republican-controlled state legislature in 1889. Because the law required major subjects in schools to be taught in English, it contributed to a divide between the Catholic and Lutheran communities in Wisconsin. La Follette's support for the protective McKinley Tariff may have also played a role in his defeat. After the election, La Follette returned to Madison to begin a private law practice. Author Kris Stahl wrote that due to his "extraordinarily energetic" and dominating personality, he became known as "Fighting Bob" La Follette.
Gubernatorial candidate
In his autobiography, La Follette explains that he experienced a political epiphany in 1891 after Senator Philetus Sawyer attempted to bribe him. La Follette claimed that Sawyer offered the bribe so that La Follette would influence his brother-in-law, Judge Robert G. Siebecker, who was presiding over a case involving state funds that Republican officials had allegedly embezzled. La Follette's public allegation of bribery precipitated a split with many friends and party leaders, though he continued to support Republican candidates like John Coit Spooner. He also strongly endorsed McKinley's run for president in the 1896 election, and he denounced Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan as a radical. Rather than bolting the party or retiring from politics, La Follette began building a coalition of dissatisfied Republicans, many of whom were relatively young and well-educated. Among his key allies were former governor William D. Hoard and Isaac Stephenson, the latter of whom published a pro-La Follette newspaper. La Follette's coalition also included many individuals from the state's large Scandinavian population, including Nils P. Haugen, Pee Lenroot, and James O. Davidson.
Beginning in 1894, La Follette's coalition focused on winning the office of Governor of Wisconsin. With La Follette serving as his campaign manager, Haugen sought the Republican nomination for governor in 1894, but he was defeated by William H. Upham. La Follette ran for the Republican gubernatorial nomination in 1896, but he was beaten by Edward Scofield; La Follette alleged that Scofield only won the nomination after conservative party leaders bribed certain Republican delegates. La Follette declined to run as an independent despite the pleas of some supporters, and after the election, he turned down an offer from President William McKinley to serve as the Comptroller of the Currency. In 1897, La Follette began advocating the replacement of party caucuses and conventions, the traditional method of partisan nominations for office, with primary elections, which allowed voters to directly choose party nominees. He also denounced the power of corporations, charging that they had taken control of the Republican Party. These progressive stances had become increasingly popular in the wake of the Panic of 1893, a severe economic downturn that caused many to reevaluate their political beliefs.
La Follette ran for governor for the second time in 1898, but he was once again defeated by Scofield in the Republican primary. In 1900, La Follette made a third bid for governor, and won the Republican nomination, in part because he reached an accommodation with many of the conservative party leaders. Running in a strong year for Republicans nationwide, La Follette decisively defeated his Democratic opponent Louis G. Bomrich in the general election, winning just under 60 percent of the vote.
Governor of Wisconsin (1901–1906)
Upon taking office, La Follette called for an ambitious reform agenda, with his two top priorities being the implementation of primary elections and a reform of the state's tax system. La Follette initially hoped to work with the conservative faction of the Republican Party to pass these reforms, but conservatives and railroad interests broke with the governor. La Follette vetoed a primary election bill that would have applied only to local elections, while the state Senate voted to officially censure the governor after he attacked the legislature for failing to vote on his tax bill. Conservative party leaders attempted to deny La Follette renomination in 1902, but La Follette's energized supporters overcame the conservatives and took control of the state convention, implementing a progressive party platform. In the 1902 general election, La Follette decisively defeated the conservative Democratic nominee, Mayor David Stuart Rose of Milwaukee.
In the aftermath of the 1902 election, the state legislature enacted the direct primary (subject to a statewide referendum) and La Follette's tax reform bill. The new tax law, which required railroads to pay taxes based on property owned rather than profits, resulted in railroads paying nearly double the amount of taxes they had paid before the enactment of the law. Having accomplished his first two major goals, La Follette next focused on regulating railroad rates, but the railroads prevented passage of his bill in 1903. During this period, La Follette became increasingly convinced of the need for a direct income tax in order to minimize tax avoidance by the wealthy.
After the legislature adjourned in mid-1903, La Follette began lecturing on the Chautauqua circuit, delivering 57 speeches across the Midwest. He also earned the attention of muckraker journalists like Ray Stannard Baker and Lincoln Steffens, many of whom supported La Follette's progressive agenda. La Follette's continued movement towards progressivism alienated many Republican Party leaders, and La Follette's followers and conservative party leaders held separate conventions in 1904; ultimately, the state Supreme Court declared that La Follette was the Republican Party's 1904 gubernatorial nominee. In the general election, La Follette won 51 percent of the vote, but he ran far behind Republican President Theodore Roosevelt, who took 63 percent of the state's vote. In that same election, Wisconsin voters approved the implementation of the direct primary.
During the 1904 campaign, La Follette pledged that he would not resign as governor during his term, but after winning re-election he directed state representative Irvine Lenroot, a close political ally, to secure his election to the United States Senate. Shortly after La Follette delivered the inaugural message of his third term as governor, Lenroot began meeting with other legislators to assure that La Follette would be able to win election to the Senate; at that time, the state legislature elected senators. La Follette was formally nominated by the Republican caucus on January 23, 1905, and the state legislature chose him the following day. La Follette delayed accepting the nomination and continued to serve as governor until December 1905, when he announced his resignation. Throughout 1905, La Follette continued to push his progressive policies, including the state regulation of railroad rates. The state legislature passed a relatively weak regulation bill that La Follette considered vetoing, but he ultimately signed the law. Lieutenant Governor James O. Davidson succeeded La Follette as governor and went on to win re-election in 1906.
Senator (1906–1925)
Roosevelt administration (1906–1909)
La Follette immediately emerged as a progressive leader in the Senate. At first, he focused on a railroad regulation bill making its way through the Senate; he attacked the bill, eventually known as the Hepburn Act, as a watered-down compromise. He also began campaigning across the country, advocating for the election of progressive senators. Conservative party leaders, including Spooner and Nelson W. Aldrich, detested La Follette, viewing him as a dangerous demagogue. Hoping to deprive La Follette of as much influence as possible, Aldrich and his allies assigned La Follette to insignificant committees and loaded him down with routine work. Nonetheless, La Follette found ways to attack monopolistic coal companies, and he pressed for an expansion of the railroad regulation powers of the Interstate Commerce Committee.
With the help of sympathetic journalists, La Follette also led the passage of the 1907 Railway Hours Act, which prohibited railroad workers from working for more than 16 consecutive hours. Though he initially enjoyed warm relations with President Roosevelt, La Follette soured somewhat on the president after Roosevelt declined to support some progressive measures like physical valuation of Railroad properties. When Roosevelt did not support La Follette's bill to withdraw mineral land from corporate exploitation, La Follette told to Belle that Roosevelt "throws me down every day or so". Meanwhile, La Follette alienated some of his supporters in Wisconsin by favoring Stephenson, his main donor, over Lenroot in an election to fill the seat of retiring Senator John Coit Spooner. After the Panic of 1907, La Follette strongly opposed the Aldrich–Vreeland Act, which would authorize the issuance of $500 million in bond-backed currency. He alleged that the panic had been engineered by the "Money Trust", a group of 97 large corporations that sought to use the panic to destroy competitors and force the government to prop up their businesses. La Follette was unable to prevent the passage of the bill, but his 19-hour speech, the longest filibuster in Senate history up to that point, proved popular throughout the country.
Beginning in 1908, La Follette repeatedly sought election as the president. La Follette hoped that the backing of influential journalists like Lincoln Steffens and William Randolph Hearst would convince Republican leaders to nominate him for president in 1908, but he was unable to build a strong base of support outside of Wisconsin. Though he entered the 1908 Republican National Convention with the backing of most Wisconsin delegates, no delegates outside of his home state backed his candidacy. At the start of the convention, Secretary of War William Howard Taft was President Roosevelt's preferred choice, but Taft was opposed by some conservatives in the party. La Follette hoped that he might emerge as the Republican presidential nominee after multiple ballots, but Taft won the nomination on the first ballot of the convention. La Follette was nonetheless pleased that the party platform called for a reduction of the tariff and that Taft indicated that he would emulate Roosevelt's support for progressive policies. Taft defeated William Jennings Bryan in the 1908 election, and several progressives were victorious in the concurrent congressional elections. In early 1909, La Follette launched La Follette's Weekly Magazine, which quickly achieved a circulation of well over 30,000.
Taft administration (1909–1913)
Along with Jonathan P. Dolliver, La Follette led a progressive faction of Republicans in the Senate that clashed with Aldrich over the reduction of tariff rates. Their fight for tariff reduction was motivated by a desire to lower prices for consumers, as they believed that the high rates of the 1897 Dingley Act unfairly protected large corporations from competition and thereby allowed those corporations to charge high prices. Despite a widespread desire among consumers for lower prices, and a party platform that called for tariff reduction, Aldrich and other party leaders put forward the Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act, which largely preserved the high tariff rates of the Dingley Act. With the support of President Taft, the Payne–Aldrich Tariff passed the Senate; all Republican senators except for La Follette's group of progressives voted for the tariff. The progressives did, however, begin the process of proposing the Sixteenth Amendment, which would effectively allow the federal government to levy an income tax.
In late 1909, Taft fired Louis Glavis, an official of the Department of the Interior who had alleged that Secretary of the Interior Richard A. Ballinger favored the illegal expansion of coal mining on government land in Alaska. The resulting Pinchot–Ballinger controversy pitted Ballinger and Taft against Gifford Pinchot, the head of the United States Forest Service and a close friend of Theodore Roosevelt. La Follette's progressives strongly criticized the Taft administration for its handling of the controversy and initiated a congressional investigation into the affair.
La Follette's successful re-election campaign in early 1911 further bolstered his position as the leader of the progressive faction of the Republican Party. In January 1911, after consulting with sympathetic journalists and public officials, La Follette launched the National Progressive Republican League, an organization devoted to passing progressive laws such as primary elections, the direct election of U.S. senators, and referendums. La Follette hoped that the league would also form a base of support for a challenge against Taft for the 1912 Republican presidential nomination. The league won the endorsement of nine senators, 16 congressmen, four governors, and well-known individuals like Pinchot and Louis Brandeis, but notably lacked the support of former President Roosevelt. Explaining his refusal to join the league, Roosevelt asserted that he viewed the organization as too radical, stating his "wish to follow in the path of Abraham Lincoln rather than in the path of John Brown and Wendell Phillips".
By mid-1911, most progressives believed that the battle for the 1912 Republican nomination would be waged between La Follette and Taft, but La Follette himself feared that Roosevelt would jump into the race. Many progressive leaders strongly criticized La Follette for focusing on writing his autobiography rather than on campaigning across the country. La Follette believed that his autobiography would help him win votes, and said: "Every line of this autobiography is written for the express purpose of exhibiting the struggle for a more representative government which is going forward in this country, and to cheer on the fighters for that cause." Roosevelt announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination in early 1912, but La Follette rejected the request of Pinchot and some other progressives leaders to drop out of the race and endorse the former president. In February 1912, La Follette delivered a disastrous speech shortly after learning that his daughter, Mary, required surgery. Some of his opponents accused La Follette of having suffered a mental breakdown, and many progressive leaders shifted their support to Roosevelt. Nonetheless, La Follette continued to campaign, focusing his attacks on Roosevelt rather than Taft.
La Follette hoped to rejuvenate his campaign with victories in the 1912 Republican primaries, but was able to win in only Wisconsin and North Dakota. He continued to oppose Roosevelt at the 1912 Republican National Convention, which ultimately re-nominated Taft. Roosevelt's supporters bolted the Republican Party, established the Progressive Party, and nominated Roosevelt on a third party ticket, but La Follette continued to attack Roosevelt as a traitor to the progressive cause. La Follette remained neutral in the three-way general election contest between Roosevelt, Taft, and the Democratic nominee, Woodrow Wilson, with La Follette even going as far as to vote for Socialist candidate Eugene Debs on election day. With the Republican Party split, Wilson emerged triumphant in the 1912 election. La Follette's conduct during the campaign destroyed his standing as the leader of progressive Republicans in the Senate, as many progressives believed that La Follette's refusal to work with Roosevelt had damaged the progressive cause and abetted Taft's re-nomination as Republican candidate.
Wilson administration (1913–1921)
La Follette initially hoped to work closely with the Wilson administration, but Wilson ultimately chose to rely on congressional Democrats to pass legislation. Nonetheless, La Follette was the lone Republican senator to vote for the Revenue Act of 1913, which lowered tariff rates and levied a federal income tax. La Follette, who wanted to use the income tax for the purpose of income redistribution, influenced the bill by calling for a higher surtax on those earning more than $100,000 per year. La Follette and his fellow progressives challenged Wilson's proposed Federal Reserve Act as being overly-friendly towards the banking establishment, but Wilson convinced Democrats to enact his bill. La Follette also clashed with Southern Democrats like James K. Vardaman, who directed the farm benefits of the Smith–Lever Act of 1914 away from African-Americans. In 1915, La Follette won passage of the Seamen's Act, which allowed sailors to quit their jobs at any port where cargo was unloaded; the bill also required passenger ships to include lifeboats.
In the 1914 mid-term elections, La Follette and his progressive allies in Wisconsin suffered a major defeat when conservative railroad executive Emanuel L. Philipp won election as governor. La Follette fended off a primary challenge in 1916 and went on to decisively defeat his Democratic opponent in the general election, but Philipp also won re-election. By 1916, foreign policy had emerged as the key issue in the country, and La Follette strongly opposed American interventions in Latin America. After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, La Follette praised the Wilson administration's policy of neutrality, but he broke with the president as Wilson pursued policies favorable to the Allied Powers. Theodore Roosevelt called him a "skunk who ought to be hanged" when he opposed the arming of American merchant ships.
La Follette opposed United States entry into World War I. On April 4, 1917, the day of the vote on a war declaration by the US Congress, La Follette in a debate before the US Senate said, "Stand firm against the war and the future will honor you. Collective homicide can not establish human rights. For our country to enter the European war would be treason to humanity." Eventually, the U.S. Senate voted to support entry to the war 82–6, with the resolution passing the House of Representatives 373–50 two days later. La Follette faced immediate pushback, including by the Wisconsin State Journal, whose editorial claimed La Follette to be acting on behalf of German interests. The newspaper said, "It reveals his position to be decidedly pro-German (and) un-American... It is nothing short of pathetic to witness a man like La Follette, whose many brave battles for democracy have endeared him to the hearts of hundreds of thousands of Americans, now lending himself to the encouragement of autocracy. And that is all it is". After the U.S. declared war, La Follette denounced many of the administration's wartime policies, including the Selective Service Act of 1917 and the Espionage Act of 1917. This earned the ire of many Americans, who believed that La Follette was a traitor to his country, effectively supporting Germany.
After the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in late 1917, La Follette supported the Bolsheviks, whom he believed were "struggling to establish an industrial democracy". He denounced the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in 1919, which he thought stemmed from Wilson's desire to prevent the spread of socialism. During the First Red Scare, a post-war period in the United States marked by the widespread fear of socialism and anarchism, La Follette condemned the Palmer Raids, sought the repeal of the Espionage Act, and proposed amnesty for political prisoners like Eugene V. Debs. Along with a diverse array of progressive and conservative Republican senators, he helped prevent the U.S. from ratifying the Treaty of Versailles. La Follette believed that the League of Nations, a vital component of the Treaty of Versailles, was primarily designed to protect the dominant financial interests of the United States and the Allied Powers.
Harding–Coolidge administration (1921–1924)
La Follette retained influence in Wisconsin after the war, and he led a progressive delegation to the 1920 Republican National Convention. Nationwide, however, the Republican Party had increasingly embraced conservatism, and La Follette was denounced as a Bolshevik when he called for the repeal of the 1920 Esch–Cummins Act. After the Republican Party nominated conservative senator Warren G. Harding, La Follette explored a third-party presidential bid, though he ultimately did not seek the presidency because various progressive groups were unable to agree on a platform. After the 1920 presidential election, which was won by Harding, La Follette became part of a "farm bloc" of congressmen who sought federal farm loans, a reduction in tariff rates, and other policies designed to help farmers. He also resisted the tax cuts proposed by Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon, and his opposition helped prevent Congress from cutting taxes as deeply as had been proposed by the secretary of the treasury.
In 1922, La Follette decisively defeated a primary challenge from conservative allies of President Harding, and he went on to win re-election with 81 percent of the vote. Nationwide, the elections saw the defeat of many conservative Republicans, leaving La Follette and his allies with control of the balance of power in Congress. After the Supreme Court struck down a federal child labor law, La Follette became increasingly critical of the Court, and he proposed an amendment that would allow Congress to repass any law declared unconstitutional. La Follette also began investigations into the Harding administration, and his efforts ultimately helped result in the unearthing of the Teapot Dome scandal. Harding died in August 1923 and was succeeded by Vice President Calvin Coolidge, who was firmly in the conservative wing of the Republican Party.
In 1920–21, La Follette continued his support for the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War, in addition to his vigorous denunciation of imperialism and militarism in that conflict and beyond. In the American and British versions, he continued to oppose the treaty oversight settlement and continued to reject the League of Nations. He advocated self-government for Ireland, India, Egypt, and withdrawal of foreign interest from China. By 1922, he focused primarily on domestic affairs.
1924 presidential campaign
By 1924, conservatives were ascendant in both major parties. In 1923, La Follette began planning for a third party run for the presidency, sending his allies to various states to build up a base of support and ensure ballot access. In early 1924, a group of labor unions, socialists, and farm groups, inspired by the success of Britain's Labour Party, established the Conference for Progressive Political Action (CPPA) as an umbrella organization of left-wing groups. Aside from labor unions and farm groups, the CPPA also included groups representing African Americans, women, and college voters. The CPPA scheduled a national convention to nominate a candidate for president in July 1924. La Follette had changed his previous pro-Bolshevik stance after visiting the Soviet Union in late 1923, where he had seen the impact of Communism on civil liberties and political rights. With other left-wing groups supporting La Follette, the Communist Party nominated its first ever candidate for president, William Z. Foster.
On July 3, 1924, one day before the CPPA convention, La Follette announced his candidacy in the 1924 presidential election, stating that, "to break the combined power of the private monopoly system over the political and economic life of the American people is the one paramount issue." The CPPA convention, which was dominated by supporters of La Follette, quickly endorsed his presidential bid. La Follette's first choice for his running mate, Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court Louis Brandeis, refused to join the campaign. The convention instead nominated Senator Burton K. Wheeler of Montana, a progressive Democrat who had refused to endorse John W. Davis, the Democratic nominee for president. Though the Socialists pushed for a full slate of candidates, at La Follette's insistence, the CPPA did not establish a formal third party or field candidates for races other than the presidency. La Follette would appear on the ballot in every state except Louisiana, but his ticket was known by a variety of labels, including "Progressive", "Socialist", "Non-Partisan", and "Independent".
After the convention, the Socialist Party of America, acting on the advice of perennial presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs, endorsed La Follette's candidacy. The American Federation of Labor and numerous other worker's groups also threw their support behind La Follette. Among the notable individuals who endorsed La Follette were birth control activist Margaret Sanger, African-American leader W. E. B. Du Bois, author Thorstein Veblen, and newspaper publisher E. W. Scripps. Harold L. Ickes and some other progressives who had supported Roosevelt's 1912 candidacy threw their backing behind La Follette, though others, including Gifford Pinchot, endorsed Coolidge. Another group supporting La Follette was the Steuben Society a German-American organization that claimed a membership of six million.
La Follette's platform was based on many of the issues that he had been campaigning on throughout his political career. He called for government ownership of the railroads and electric utilities, cheap credit for farmers, the outlawing of child labor, stronger laws to help labor unions, more protection of civil liberties, an end to American imperialism in Latin America, and a referendum before any president could again lead the nation into war. Professional gamblers initially gave La Follette a 16-to-1 odds of winning, and many expected that his candidacy would force a contingent election in the House of Representatives. As election day approached, however, those hoping for a La Follette victory became more pessimistic. The various groups supporting La Follette often clashed, and his campaign was not nearly as well-financed as those of Davis and especially Coolidge. Corporate leaders, who saw in La Follette the specter of class warfare, mobilized against his third-party candidacy. Republicans campaigned on a "Coolidge or chaos" platform, arguing that the election of La Follette would severely disrupt economic growth. Having little fear of a Democratic victory, the Republican Party mainly focused its campaign attacks on La Follette.
Ultimately, La Follette took 16.6 percent of the vote, while Coolidge won a majority of the popular and electoral vote. La Follette carried his home state of Wisconsin and finished second in eleven states, all of which were west of the Mississippi River. He performed best in rural areas and working-class urban areas, with much of his support coming from individuals affiliated with the Socialist Party. La Follette's 16.6 percent showing represents the third best popular vote showing for a third party since the American Civil War (after Roosevelt in 1912 and Ross Perot in 1992), and with him winning of his home state of Wisconsin. The CPPA dissolved shortly after the election as various groups withdrew support.
Death and legacy
La Follette died in Washington, D.C. of a cardiovascular disease, complicated by bronchitis and pneumonia, on June 18, 1925, four days after his 70th birthday. He was buried in the Forest Hill Cemetery on the near west side of Madison, Wisconsin. After his death, his senate seat was offered to his wife, Belle Case La Follette, but she declined the offer. Subsequently, his son Robert M. La Follette Jr. was elected the senator from Wisconsin.
After her husband's death, Belle Case remained an influential figure and editor. By the mid-1930s, the La Follettes had reformed the Progressive Party on the state level in the form of the Wisconsin Progressive Party. The party quickly, if briefly, became the dominant political power in the state, electing seven Progressive congressmen in 1934 and 1936. Their younger son, Philip La Follette, was elected Governor of Wisconsin, while their older son, Robert M. La Follette Jr., succeeded his father as senator. La Follette's daughter, Fola, was a prominent suffragette and labor activist and was married to the playwright George Middleton. A grandson, Bronson La Follette, served several terms as the Attorney General of Wisconsin and was the 1968 Democratic gubernatorial nominee. La Follette has also influenced numerous other progressive politicians outside of Wisconsin, including Floyd B. Olson, Upton Sinclair, Fiorello La Guardia, and Wayne Morse. Senator and 2020 presidential candidate Bernie Sanders has frequently been compared to La Follette.
In 1957, a Senate Committee chaired by Senator John F. Kennedy selected La Follette to be one of the five senators to be listed in the senate "hall of fame", along with Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John C. Calhoun, and Robert A. Taft. A 1982 survey asking historians to rank the "ten greatest Senators in the nation's history" based on "accomplishments in office" and "long range impact on American history", placed La Follette first, tied with Henry Clay. Writing in 1998, historian John D. Buenker described La Follette as "the most celebrated figure in Wisconsin history". La Follette is represented by one of two statues from Wisconsin in the National Statuary Hall. An oval portrait of La Follette, painted by his cousin, Chester La Follette, also hangs in the Senate. The Robert M. La Follette House in Maple Bluff, Wisconsin, is a National Historic Landmark. Other things named for La Follette include La Follette High School in Madison, the Robert M. La Follette School of Public Affairs at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the town of La Follette, Wisconsin.
See also
La Follette family
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–49)
List of United States senators expelled or censured
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links
The Career of Robert M. La Follette—documentary coverage at the Wisconsin Historical Society
Statement of Free Speech and the Right of Congress to Declare the Objects of the War
Statement of Robert La Follette Sr. on Communist Participation in the Progressive Movement, 26 May 1924
Wisconsin Electronic Reader—Senator La Follette's picture biography
1855 births
1925 deaths
19th-century American lawyers
20th-century American politicians
American people of French descent
American social democrats
Burials in Wisconsin
Candidates in the 1908 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1912 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1916 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1920 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1924 United States presidential election
District attorneys in Wisconsin
Governors of Wisconsin
La Follette family
Lawyers from Madison, Wisconsin
Liberalism in the United States
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Wisconsin
People from Argyle, Wisconsin
People from Primrose, Wisconsin
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Progressive Era in the United States
Progressivism in the United States
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
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Republican Party United States senators
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United States senators from Wisconsin
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
Wisconsin Progressives (1924)
Wisconsin Republicans
Writers from Madison, Wisconsin | [
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255193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up%20to%20Here | Up to Here | Up to Here is the debut studio album by Canadian rock band The Tragically Hip, released in September 1989. It is one of the band's most successful albums: it has achieved diamond status in Canada for sales of over a million copies, earned the band Juno Award for Most Promising Artist, and introduced fan-favourite songs such as "Blow at High Dough", "New Orleans Is Sinking", and "38 Years Old". The album reached on RPMs Canadian Albums Chart, and both "Blow at High Dough" and "New Orleans is Sinking" reached on the RPM Canadian Content singles charts.
Background
The Tragically Hip toured intensively behind their first release, the EP The Tragically Hip, which had earned considerable airplay on Canadian FM radio and the MuchMusic video station. The band found an audience on US college radio as well and drew the attention of MCA representative Bruce Dickinson while performing at the CMJ New Music Festival in New York City in late 1988. That December Dickinson travelled to Toronto to see the band perform at the Toronto Music Awards, and MCA signed the band later that month.
Dickinson recommended the band record in Memphis, Tennessee, with producer Don Smith. The band entered Ardent Studios with a set of songs they had extensive experience playing live. Smith and the band further developed the arrangements in the studio before recording.
Release and reception
Up to Here appeared on 5 September 1989. It sold copies within its first year in Canada and ranked 14th Canadian Content album for 1989, 5th for 1990, and 1st for 1991. The album peaked at in February 1990 on RPMs Canadian Albums Chart. The album went gold in Canada in January 1990 and platinum that March and later that year earned the band a Juno Award for Most Promising Artist. By 1999 Up to Here had sold enough to gain diamond status.
Up to Here was the band's first release in the US. In 1990 the album peaked on the Billboard 200 album charts at and "New Orleans is Sinking" reached on Billboards Mainstream Rock singles charts. Despite strong sales and sustained popularity in Canada, the band and album failed to find a significant international audience; American sales of the album were in its first year and from 1991 to 1997 amounted to copies. The Tragically Hip's relative lack of success in the US has been a frequent topic by commenters and interviewers, to the irritation of members of the band.
The songs are credited to the whole band. Typically the instrumentalists of the band developed the backing music while lead singer Gord Downie came up with his poetic lyrics separately, writing them in a notebook and selecting something to fit when the band was ready.
Singles
The hard-rocking lead single "Blow at High Dough" appeared in April 1989, before the album's release. It had a strong showing on Canadian radio and was the band's first charting single, reaching on the RPM singles chart and on the RPM Canadian Content singles charts. "Blow at High Dough" was the theme song to the CBC comedy-drama Made in Canada (1998—2003).
In November 1989 appeared the second single, "New Orleans Is Sinking", a loose jam piece which had taken a key place at the band's live shows. In the midst of "New Orleans" the band often débuted new songs or gave Downie the spotlight to improvise. Like "Blow at High Dough", it reached on the RPM Canadian Content singles charts, and on the RPM singles charts. Music videos appeared for both "Blow at High Dough" and "New Orleans is Sinking".
"Boots or Hearts" came out as the third single in February 1990, and "38 Years Old" that April as the fourth, peaking at on the RPM singles charts. Downie's memories of a jailbreak in at the maximum-security Millhaven Institution inspired the lyrics to "38 Years Old", whose ringing acoustic guitar backing is overlaid with distorted electric guitar leads.
Touring
The Tragically Hip went on tour from June 1989, before the album's release. The band continued to tour Canada and the US through 1990, and made its first European appearance at a sold-out headlining show in Rotterdam. The band gained a reputation for its energetic live show and the enthusiasm of its fans.
The band introduced new material while touring that appeared on their next album Road Apples in 1991, as well as numerous songs that have never been officially released.
Track listing
Personnel
Band
Gord Downie – vocals
Rob Baker – guitar
Gord Sinclair – bass, vocals
Johnny Fay – drums
Paul Langlois – guitar, vocals
Recording personnel
Bruce Barris – engineer, mixing
Jeff DeMorris – assistant engineer
Paul Eberson – assistant engineer
Stephen Marcussen – mastering
Don Smith – engineer, mixing, producer
Andy Udoff – assistant engineer
Other
Jeanne Bradshaw – design
Michael Going – photography
Notes
References
Works cited
1989 debut albums
The Tragically Hip albums
MCA Records albums | [
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255194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20Society%20%281956%20film%29 | High Society (1956 film) | High Society is a 1956 American musical romantic comedy film directed by Charles Walters and starring Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly, and Frank Sinatra. The film was produced by Sol C. Siegel for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and shot in VistaVision and Technicolor, with music and lyrics by Cole Porter.
The film is a musical remake of the 1940 film The Philadelphia Story which was based on the 1939 play The Philadelphia Story by Philip Barry. High Society'''s screenplay was written by John Patrick and involves a successful popular jazz musician (Crosby) who tries to win back the affections of his ex-wife (Kelly), who is preparing to marry another man. The cast also features Celeste Holm, John Lund, and Louis Calhern, in his final film, with a musical contribution by Louis Armstrong. The film was Kelly's last professional appearance before she married Prince Rainier III and became Princess consort of Monaco.
Plot
Successful singer-composer C.K. Dexter-Haven (the grandson of a Newport "robber baron") is divorced from wealthy Newport, Rhode Island socialite Tracy Samantha Lord. Dexter, who lives next door to the Lord estate, remains in love with her but she is now engaged to socially prominent and snobbish George Kittredge. As Tracy prepares for her upcoming wedding, Dexter is busily organizing a community jazz festival.
Meanwhile, Spy, a fictional tabloid newspaper, possesses embarrassing information about Tracy's errant father, Seth Lord, and has coerced the family into allowing reporter Mike Connor and photographer Liz Imbrie to cover the nuptials. Tracy, resenting their forced presence, begins an elaborate charade, including introducing her Uncle Willy as her father, while Seth is passed off as "wicked" Uncle Willy.
As a wedding gift, Dexter gives Tracy a scale model of their former sailboat, "True Love," which evokes her memories about their happy honeymoon aboard it. Tracy gradually realizes George knows little about her true self and has instead created an idealized image of her. When Tracy drives Mike around Newport, he notices some neglected mansions; Tracy explains many owners have been forced to board up or sell off their properties due to high taxes. Her Uncle Willy is selling his own estate. The two form a mutual attraction, leaving Tracy to choose from three very different men during a course of self-discovery. During the wedding-eve party at Uncle Willy's house, George catches a tipsy Tracy kissing Dexter on the patio. George leaves Tracy in an empty room to sober up but, still tipsy, she climbs out the window and runs into Mike. George finds her again after she and Mike have had a swim in the Lords' pool. The next day, Tracy has hazy memories of the previous night. She initially intends to go through with the wedding, then prods George into agreeing to call it off. While informing the waiting guests the wedding is canceled, Dexter suddenly proposes that he be the groom. Knowing she loves him, Tracy accepts. Liz and Mike, who now realize they love each other, tell Tracy and Dexter that they are not writing a story about the wedding or other events to protect the family's privacy.
Cast
Bing Crosby as C. K. Dexter-Haven
Grace Kelly as Tracy Lord
Frank Sinatra as Mike Connor
Celeste Holm as Liz Imbrie
John Lund as George Kittredge
Louis Calhern as Uncle Willie
Sidney Blackmer as Seth Lord
Louis Armstrong and His Band as themselves
Edmond Hall – clarinetist
Trummy Young – trombonist
Billy Kyle – pianist
Arvell Shaw – bassist
Barrett Deems – drummer
Margalo Gillmore as Mrs. Seth Lord
Lydia Reed as Caroline Lord
Gordon Richards as Dexter Haven's butler
Richard Garrick as Lords' butler
Philo McCullough as party guest (uncredited)
Production
Filming took place between January and March 1956. The location scenes were mostly shot in and around Clarendon Court in Newport, Rhode Island, which was then owned by Mae Cadwell Hayward, and later purchased in 1970 by Claus von Bülow.
The location, according to Turner Classic Movies, enabled them to take advantage of the Newport Jazz Festival, established in 1954, incorporating it into the film by giving Crosby's character a background as a descendant of a Gilded Age robber baron who became a jazz composer and friend of jazz star Louis Armstrong, who plays himself in the film, and patron of the Festival. As name-checked by Crosby in the song "Now You Has Jazz", where each musician takes a small solo, Armstrong's band members were Edmond Hall (clarinet), Trummy Young (trombone), Billy Kyle (piano), Arvell Shaw (bass), and Barrett Deems (drums).
This film featured Kelly's final role before she became Princess of Monaco; it was released three months after her marriage to Prince Rainier III. In the film, Kelly wore the Cartier engagement ring given to her by Rainier. Sinatra was 40 and Crosby 53 while playing the love interests of Kelly, who was only 26 during the filming. Sinatra biographers George Jacobs and William Stadiem claimed Crosby kept his distance from Sinatra during the production and remained strictly professional when Sinatra desired companionship, and that it "killed" Sinatra to think that Crosby considered himself a higher class singer. However this is rejected by TCM, which states that "in spite of a rumored rivalry between Frank Sinatra and Bing Crosby, the two worked together very amicably during the shoot."
They claim that Sinatra was fascinated with Grace Kelly – as were many of her previous co-stars – and would have loved to have an affair with her but feared rejection and embarrassment in front of Crosby, who had previously had an affair with Kelly.
The sailboat used in the film, the True Love (originally the Venona II based on the Malabar design by John Alden built for racing), sails on Seneca Lake out of Watkins Glen, NY as an excursion boat for Seneca Sailing Adventures, LLC.
Musical numbers
Producer Sol C. Siegel paid Porter $250,000 for his first original film score in eight years; it introduced a couple of pop standards, including "True Love" and "You're Sensational". Not only did Sinatra and Crosby collaborate for the first time, but behind the scenes two master orchestrators – Conrad Salinger and Nelson Riddle – melded their arrangements under the baton of Johnny Green. Armstrong and his band get a couple of standout moments and Kelly has her only role in a musical.
"Overture"
"High Society Calypso" – Louis Armstrong & his band
"Little One" – C.K. (Bing Crosby)
"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" – Mike (Frank Sinatra), Liz (Celeste Holm)
"True Love" – C.K. (Crosby), Tracy (Grace Kelly)
"You're Sensational" – Mike (Sinatra)
"I Love You, Samantha" – C.K. (Crosby)
"Now You Has Jazz" – C.K. (Crosby), Armstrong & his band, individually introduced by name
"Well, Did You Evah!" – C.K. (Crosby), Mike (Sinatra)"Well Did You Evah" from Bing Crosby Hit Songs-131-140 at the Internet Archive. Retrieved August 5, 2011.
"Mind if I Make Love to You?" – Mike (Sinatra)
A soundtrack album was released the year of the film's release and was a major success in both America and the United Kingdom. It has been said that one of the main reasons star Sinatra was drawn to the film was a mock-tipsy duet with his boyhood idol Crosby on "Well, Did You Evah!", a song from an earlier Porter show, DuBarry Was a Lady (1939), re-adapted and added at the last minute when it was noted that the two singers did not have a duet to perform in the film.
The title of the song "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" gained new significance a half-century later as the title of a global game show franchise. "I Love You, Samantha" has also become a jazz favorite for improvisations.
Release
Critical reception
Opening on July 17, 1956, High Society garnered mixed reviews, often being compared as a lesser offering to The Philadelphia Story, a previous adaptation in 1940 of the same play starring Cary Grant in the Crosby part, Katharine Hepburn in the Kelly role, and James Stewart in an Oscar-winning turn as the reporter played in the remake by Sinatra. Variety observed: "High Society should spell high finance business all over. It's a solid entertainment every minute of its footage. Fortified with a strong Cole Porter score, film is a pleasant romp for cast toppers Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly and Frank Sinatra who, tactfully, get alphabetical top billing. Their impact is almost equally consistent. Although Sinatra has the top pop tune opportunities, the Crooner makes his specialties stand up and out on showmanship and delivery, and Miss Kelly impresses as the femme lead with pleasantly comedienne overtones. This is perhaps her most relaxed performance ..."
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times described it as "flimsy as a gossip-columnist's word", missing "the snap and the crackle that its un-musical predecessor had." According to Time, in spite of its "Who's Who cast" the film is "simply not top-drawer"; a "good deal of the screenplay seems as dated today as the idle rich ... [Kelly] lacks the gawky animal energy that Katharine Hepburn brought to the 1939 play and the 1941 movie, [Crosby] saunters through the part rather sleepily, without much of the old Bing zing [, and] Sinatra plays the reporter like a dead-end kid with a typewriter."
Box-office
At the North American box-office, High Society was a success. It was one of the 10 highest grossing films of 1956 in the US and Canada earning $5,602,000, and $2,656,000 elsewhere, resulting in a profit of $1,148,000.
Awards and nominationsHigh Society received two Academy Award nominations, and nearly received a third. The film was initially nominated in the 1956 Academy Awards for Best Motion Picture Story, even though it was based on the 1940 film The Philadelphia Story and thus was not eligible in that category. Moreover, the nominated writers, Elwood Ullman and Edward Bernds, had written not this film, but a 1955 Bowery Boys film also titled High Society.
According to the book Inside Oscar'', Steve Broidy, president of The Bowery Boys home studio Allied Artists, told the press, "This just proves what we've known all along – that the Bowery Boys series couldn't have lasted this long if not for the fine writers." The joking in the press aside, Ullman and Bernds sent a telegram to the Academy Award Board of Governors, acknowledging the error and requesting that their names be removed from the final ballot.
Broadway adaptation
More than 40 years following the film's release, it was adapted for the stage as a Broadway musical with several Porter songs from other sources added to the score. The Broadway production opened on April 27, 1998, at the St. James Theatre, with John McMartin and Anna Kendrick. Kendrick received a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. The show ran for 144 performances.
See also
List of American films of 1956
References
External links
1956 films
1956 musical comedy films
1956 romantic comedy films
1950s romantic musical films
Remakes of American films
American films
American films based on plays
American musical comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American romantic musical films
Comedy of remarriage films
English-language films
Films about music and musicians
Films about social class
Films about tabloid journalism
Films about weddings
Films directed by Charles Walters
Films produced by Sol C. Siegel
Films scored by Cole Porter
Films scored by Johnny Green
Films scored by Saul Chaplin
Films set in country houses
Films set in Rhode Island
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Rhode Island
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films | [
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255195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiac%20Killer | Zodiac Killer | The Zodiac Killer is the pseudonym of an unidentified serial killer who operated in Northern California in the late 1960s. The case has been described as the most famous unsolved murder case in American history, becoming a fixture of popular culture and inspiring amateur detectives to attempt to resolve it.
The Zodiac murdered five known victims in the San Francisco Bay Area between December 1968 and October 1969, operating in rural, urban and suburban settings. He targeted young couples and a lone male cab driver, and his known attacks took place in Benicia, Vallejo, unincorporated Napa County, and the city of San Francisco proper. Two of his attempted victims survived. The Zodiac himself claimed to have murdered 37 victims, and he has been linked to several other cold cases, some in Southern California or outside the state.
The Zodiac originated the name himself in a series of taunting letters and cards that he mailed to regional newspapers, threatening killing sprees and bombings if they were not printed. Some of the letters included cryptograms, or ciphers, in which the killer claimed that he was collecting his victims as slaves for the afterlife. Of the four ciphers he produced, two remain unsolved, and one took 51 years to crack. While many theories regarding the identity of the killer have been suggested, the only suspect authorities ever publicly named was Arthur Leigh Allen, a former elementary school teacher and convicted sex offender who died in 1992.
Although the Zodiac ceased written communications around 1974, the unusual nature of the case led to international interest that has sustained throughout the years. The San Francisco Police Department marked the case "inactive" in April 2004, but re-opened it at some point prior to March 2007. The case also remains open in the city of Vallejo, as well as in Napa County and Solano County. The California Department of Justice has maintained an open case file on the Zodiac murders since 1969.
Murders and correspondence
Confirmed murders
Although the Zodiac claimed to have committed 37 murders in letters to the newspapers, investigators agree on only seven confirmed victims, two of whom survived. They are:
David Arthur Faraday, 17, and Betty Lou Jensen, 16: shot and killed on December 20, 1968, on Lake Herman Road, within the city limits of Benicia.
Michael Renault Mageau, 19, and Darlene Elizabeth Ferrin, 22: shot on July 4, 1969, in the parking lot of Blue Rock Springs Park in Vallejo. While Mageau survived the attack, Ferrin was pronounced dead on arrival at Kaiser Foundation Hospital.
Bryan Calvin Hartnell, 20, and Cecelia Ann Shepard, 22: stabbed on September 27, 1969, at Lake Berryessa in Napa County. Hartnell survived eight stab wounds to the back, but Shepard died as a result of her injuries on September 29, 1969.
Paul Lee Stine, 29: shot and killed on October 11, 1969, in the Presidio Heights neighborhood in San Francisco.
Lake Herman Road murders
The first murders widely attributed to the Zodiac Killer were the shootings of high school students Betty Lou Jensen and David Arthur Faraday on December 20, 1968 on Lake Herman Road, just inside Benicia city limits. The couple were on their first date and planned to attend a Christmas concert at Hogan High School, about three blocks from Jensen's home. They instead visited a friend before stopping at a local restaurant and then driving out on Lake Herman Road. At about 10:15 p.m., Faraday parked his mother's Rambler in a gravel turnout, which was a well-known lovers' lane. Shortly after 11:00 p.m., their bodies were found by Stella Borges, who lived nearby. The Solano County Sheriff's Department investigated the crime but no leads developed.
Utilizing available forensic data, Robert Graysmith postulated that another car pulled into the turnout just prior to 11:00 p.m. and parked beside the couple. The killer may have then exited the second car and walked toward the Rambler, possibly ordering the couple out of it. It appeared that Jensen had exited the car first, but when Faraday was halfway out, the killer shot him in the head. The killer then shot Jensen five times in the back as she fled; her body was found 28 feet from the car. The killer then drove off.
Blue Rock Springs murder
Just before midnight on July 4, 1969, Darlene Ferrin and Michael Mageau drove into the Blue Rock Springs Park in Vallejo, from the Lake Herman Road murder site, and parked. While the couple sat in Ferrin's car, a second car drove into the lot and parked alongside them but almost immediately drove away. Returning about 10 minutes later, this second car parked behind them. The driver of the second car then exited the vehicle, approaching the passenger side door of Ferrin's car, carrying a flashlight and a 9 mm Luger. The killer directed the flashlight into Mageau's and Ferrin's eyes before shooting at them, firing five times. Both victims were hit, and several bullets had passed through Mageau and into Ferrin. The killer walked away from the car but upon hearing Mageau's moaning, returned and shot each victim twice more before driving off.
On July 5, 1969, at 12:40 a.m., a man phoned the Vallejo Police Department to report and claim responsibility for the attack. The caller also took credit for the murders of Jensen and Faraday six and a half months earlier. Police traced the call to a phone booth at a gas station at Springs Road and Tuolumne, located about from Ferrin's home and only a few blocks from the Vallejo Police Department. Ferrin was pronounced dead at the hospital. Mageau survived the attack despite being shot in the face, neck and chest. Mageau described his attacker as a 26-to-30-year-old, or possibly even more, white male with short, light brown curly hair.
First letters from the Zodiac
On August 1, 1969, three letters prepared by the killer were received at the Vallejo Times Herald, the San Francisco Chronicle, and The San Francisco Examiner. The nearly identical letters, subsequently described by a psychiatrist to have been written by "someone you would expect to be brooding and isolated", took credit for the shootings at Lake Herman Road and Blue Rock Springs. Each letter also included one-third of a 408-symbol cryptogram which the killer claimed contained his identity. The killer demanded they be printed on each paper's front page or he would "cruse around all weekend killing lone people in the night then move on to kill again, until I end up with a dozen people over the weekend".
The Chronicle published its third of the cryptogram on page four of the next day's edition. An article printed alongside the code quoted Vallejo Police Chief Jack E. Stiltz as saying "We're not satisfied that the letter was written by the murderer" and requested the writer send a second letter with more facts to prove his identity. The threatened murders did not happen, and all three parts were eventually published.
On August 7, 1969, another letter was received at The San Francisco Examiner with the salutation "Dear Editor This is the Zodiac speaking." This was the first time the killer had used this name for identification. The letter was a response to Chief Stiltz's request for more details that would prove he had killed Faraday, Jensen and Ferrin. In it, the Zodiac included details about the murders that had not yet been released to the public, as well as a message to the police that when they cracked his code "they will have me".
On August 8, 1969, Donald and Bettye Harden of Salinas, California cracked the 408-symbol cryptogram. It contained a misspelled message in which the killer seemed to reference "The Most Dangerous Game". The author also said that he was collecting slaves for his afterlife. No name appears in this decoded text, and the killer said that he would not give away his identity because it would slow down or stop his slave collection.
Lake Berryessa murder
On September 27, 1969, Pacific Union College students Bryan Hartnell and Cecelia Shepard were picnicking at Lake Berryessa on a small island connected by a sand spit to Twin Oak Ridge. A white man, about weighing more than , approached them wearing a black executioner's-type hood with clip-on sunglasses over the eye-holes and a bib-like device on his chest that had a white cross-circle symbol on it. He approached them with a gun, which Hartnell believed to be a .45. The hooded man claimed to be an escaped convict from a jail with a two-word name, in either Colorado or Montana (a police officer later inferred that the man had been referring to a jail in Deer Lodge, Montana), where he had killed a guard and subsequently stolen a car, explaining that he now needed their car and money to travel to Mexico because the vehicle that he had been driving was "too hot".
The killer had brought precut lengths of plastic clothesline and told Shepard to tie up Hartnell before he tied her up. The killer checked, and tightened Hartnell's bonds after discovering that Shepard had bound Hartnell's hands loosely. Hartnell initially believed this event to be a bizarre robbery, but the man drew a knife and stabbed them both repeatedly, Hartnell suffering six and Shepard ten wounds in the process. The killer then hiked back up to Knoxville Road, drew the cross-circle symbol on Hartnell's car door with a black felt-tip pen, and wrote beneath it:
Vallejo
12-20-68
7-4-69
Sept 27–69–6:30
by knife
At 7:40 p.m., the killer called the Napa County Sheriff's office from a pay telephone to report this latest crime. The caller first stated to the operator that he wished to "report a murder – no, a double murder," before stating that he had been the perpetrator of the crime. The phone was found, still off the hook, minutes later at the Napa Car Wash on Main Street in Napa by KVON radio reporter Pat Stanley, only a few blocks from the sheriff's office, yet from the crime scene. Detectives were able to lift a still-wet palm print from the telephone but were never able to match it to any suspect.
After hearing the victims' screams for help, a man and his son who were fishing in a nearby cove discovered the victims and summoned help by contacting park rangers. Napa County Sheriff's deputies Dave Collins and Ray Land were the first law enforcement officers to arrive at the crime scene. Shepard was conscious when Collins arrived, providing him with a detailed description of the attacker. Hartnell and Shepard were taken to Queen of the Valley Hospital in Napa by ambulance. Shepard lapsed into a coma during transport and never regained consciousness. She died two days later, but Hartnell survived to recount his tale to the press. Napa County detective Ken Narlow, who was assigned to the case from the outset, worked on solving the crime until his retirement from the department in 1987.
Presidio Heights murder
Two weeks later, on October 11, 1969, a white male passenger entered the cab driven by Paul Stine at the intersection of Mason and Geary Streets (one block west from Union Square) in San Francisco, requesting to be driven to Washington and Maple Streets in Presidio Heights. For reasons unknown, Stine drove one block past Maple to Cherry Street. The passenger then shot Stine once in the head with a 9 mm handgun, took Stine's wallet and car keys, and tore away a section of Stine's bloodstained shirt tail. The perpetrator was observed by three teenagers across the street at 9:55 p.m., and they phoned the police while the crime was in progress. They observed a man wiping the cab down before walking away toward the Presidio, one block to the north.
Two blocks from the crime scene, patrol officers Don Fouke and Eric Zelms, responding to the call, observed a white man walking along the sidewalk east on Jackson Street and stepping onto a stairway leading up to the front yard of one of the homes on the north side of the street; the encounter lasted only five to ten seconds.
Fouke estimated the white male pedestrian to be 35 to 45 years old, 5'10" tall with a crew cut, similar to but slightly older than the description provided by the teenagers who observed the killer in and out of Stine's cab. The teenagers described the suspect to be 25 to 30 years old with a crew cut and standing approximately to tall. However, the police radio dispatcher had alerted officers to look out for a black suspect, so Fouke and Zelms drove past the perpetrator without stopping; the mixup in descriptions remains unexplained. A search ensued, but no suspects were found. This was the last officially confirmed murder by the Zodiac Killer.
The Stine murder was initially believed to be a routine robbery that had escalated into homicidal violence. However, on October 13, the San Francisco Chronicle received a new letter from Zodiac that claimed credit for the killing and contained a torn section of Stine's bloody shirt to "prove this" fact. The three teen witnesses worked with a police artist to prepare a composite sketch of Stine's killer; a few days later, this police artist returned, working with the witnesses to prepare a second composite sketch. Detectives Bill Armstrong and Dave Toschi were assigned to the case. The San Francisco Police Department investigated an estimated 2,500 suspects over a period of years.
1969 mailings
{{quote box
| quote = "I hope you are having lots of fan in trying to catch me that wasnt me on the tv show which bringo up a point about me I am not afraid of the gas chamber becaase it will send me to paradlce all the sooher because e now have enough slaves to worv for me where every one else has nothing when they reach paradice so they are afraid of death I am not afraid because i vnow that my new life is life will be an easy one in paradice death"
| source = —The solution to Zodiac's 340-symbol cipher, solved in December 2020, including faithful transliterations of spelling and grammar errors in the original.{{refn|group=n|When corrected for most errors, excluding the distinctive spelling of paradice, the Z340 message says:
{{Quote|<center>
I hope you are having lots of fun in trying to catch me. That wasn't me on the TV show, which brings up a point about me. I am not afraid of the gas chamber because it will send me to paradice all the sooner, because I now have enough slaves to work for me where everyone else has nothing when they reach paradice, so they are afraid of death. I am not afraid because I know that my new life is life will be an easy one in paradice death.</center>}}}}
| width = 30em
}}
On October 14, 1969, the Chronicle received another letter from the Zodiac, this time containing a swatch of Paul Stine's shirt tail as proof he was the killer; it also included a threat about killing schoolchildren on a school bus. To do this, Zodiac wrote, "just shoot out the front tire & then pick off the kiddies as they come bouncing out". At 2:00 p.m. on October 20, 1969, someone claiming to be the Zodiac called the Oakland Police Department (OPD), demanding that one of two prominent lawyers, F. Lee Bailey or Melvin Belli, appear on A.M. San Francisco, a talk show on KGO-TV hosted by Jim Dunbar. Bailey was not available, but Belli did appear on the show. Dunbar appealed to the viewers to keep the lines open. Someone claiming to be the Zodiac called several times, and Belli asked the caller for a less ominous name and the caller picked "Sam". The caller said he would not reveal his true identity as he was afraid of being sent to the gas chamber (then California's capital punishment method). Belli arranged a rendezvous to meet the caller outside a shop on Mission Street in Daly City, but no one arrived. The call was later traced back to a patient in a mental institution, and investigators concluded that the man was not the Zodiac.
On November 8, 1969, the Zodiac mailed a card with another cryptogram consisting of 340 characters. This cipher, dubbed "Z-340", remained unsolved for over 51 years. On December 5, 2020, it was deciphered by an international team of private citizens, including American software engineer David Oranchak, Australian mathematician Sam Blake and Belgian programmer Jarl Van Eycke. In the decrypted message, the Zodiac denied being the "Sam" who spoke on A.M. San Francisco, explaining that he was not afraid of the gas chamber "because it will send me to paradice [sic] all the sooner". The team submitted their findings to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, which verified the discovery. The FBI stated that the decoded message gave no further clues to the identity of Zodiac.
On November 9, 1969, the Zodiac mailed a seven-page letter stating that two policemen stopped and actually spoke with him three minutes after he shot Stine. Excerpts from the letter were published in the Chronicle on November 12, including the Zodiac's claim; that same day, Officer Don Fouke wrote a memo explaining what had happened on the night of Stine's murder. On December 20, 1969, exactly one year after the murders of David Faraday and Betty Lou Jensen, the Zodiac mailed a letter to Belli that included another swatch of Stine's shirt; the Zodiac said that he wanted Belli to help him.
Public speculation and Zodiac claims
Various authors speculated at the time of the killings that other murders and attacks may have been the work of the Zodiac, but none have been confirmed:
Robert George Domingos, 18, and Linda Faye Edwards, 17: shot and killed on June 4, 1963 on a beach near Gaviota. There are some specific similarities between their attack and the Zodiac's attack at Lake Berryessa five years later.
Cheri Jo Bates, 18: stabbed to death and nearly decapitated on October 30, 1966, at Riverside City College in Riverside. Bates's possible connection to the Zodiac only appeared four years after her murder when San Francisco Chronicle reporter Paul Avery received a tip regarding similarities between the Zodiac killings and the circumstances surrounding Bates's death.
Donna Ann Lass, 25: last seen September 6, 1970 in Stateline, Nevada. A postcard bearing an advertisement for Forest Pines condominiums (near Incline Village at Lake Tahoe) pasted on the back was received at the Chronicle on March 22, 1971. No evidence has been uncovered to connect Lass's disappearance with the Zodiac Killer.
Kathleen Johns, 22: allegedly abducted on March 22, 1970 on Highway 132 near I-580, in an area west of Modesto. Johns escaped from the car of a man who drove her and her infant daughter around the area between Stockton and Patterson for approximately 1 hours.
Kathleen Johns' report
On the night of March 22, 1970, Kathleen Johns was driving from San Bernardino to Petaluma to visit her mother. She was seven months pregnant and had her 10-month-old daughter beside her. While heading west on Highway 132 near Modesto, a car behind her began honking its horn and flashing its headlights. She pulled off the road and stopped. The man in the car parked behind her, approached her car, stated that he observed that her right rear wheel was wobbling, and offered to tighten the lug nuts. After finishing his work, the man drove off; yet when Johns pulled forward to re-enter the highway the wheel almost immediately came off the car. The man returned, offering to drive her to the nearest gas station for help. She and her daughter climbed into his car.
During the ride, the car passed several service stations, but the man did not stop. For about 90 minutes, he drove back and forth around the back roads near Tracy. When Johns asked why he was not stopping, he would change the subject. When the driver finally stopped at an intersection, Johns jumped out with her daughter and hid in a field. The driver searched for her using a flashlight, telling her that he would not hurt her, before eventually giving up. Unable to find her, he got back into the car and drove off. Johns hitched a ride to the police station in Patterson.
When Johns gave her statement to the sergeant on duty, she noticed the police composite sketch of Paul Stine's killer and recognized him as the man who had abducted her and her child. Fearing that he might return to kill them all, the sergeant had Johns wait in the dark at nearby Mil's Restaurant. When her car was found, it had been gutted and torched.
Most accounts say that the man threatened to kill Johns and her daughter while driving them around, but at least one police report disputes that. Johns's account to Paul Avery of the Chronicle indicates that her abductor left his car and searched for her in the dark with a flashlight; however, in one report she made to the police, she stated that he did not leave the vehicle.
Further Zodiac communications
Zodiac continued to communicate with authorities for the remainder of 1970 via letters and greeting cards to the press. In a letter postmarked April 20, 1970, the Zodiac wrote, "My name is _," followed by a 13-character cipher that hasn't been solved to this day. The Zodiac went on to state that he was not responsible for the recent bombing of a police station in San Francisco (referring to the February 18, 1970, death of Sgt. Brian McDonnell two days after the bombing at Park Station in Golden Gate Park) but added "there is more glory to killing a cop than a cid because a cop can shoot back." The letter included a diagram of a bomb the Zodiac claimed that he would use to blow up a school bus. At the bottom of the diagram, he wrote: " = 10, SFPD = 0."
Zodiac sent a greeting card postmarked April 28, 1970 to the Chronicle. Written on the card was "I hope you enjoy yourselves when I have my BLAST," followed by the Zodiac's cross-circle signature. On the back of the card, the Zodiac threatened to use the bus bomb soon unless the newspaper published the full details that he had written. He also wanted to start seeing people wearing "some nice Zodiac butons ".
In a letter postmarked June 26, 1970, the Zodiac stated that he was upset that he did not see people wearing Zodiac buttons. He wrote, "I shot a man sitting in a parked car with a .38." The Zodiac was possibly referring to the murder of 25-year-old Sgt. Richard Radetich one week earlier. At 5:25 a.m. on June 19, Radetich was writing a parking ticket in his squad car when an assailant unrelated to the traffic violation shot him in the head with a .38-caliber pistol through the closed driver's side window. Radetich died 15 hours later. The San Francisco Police Department (SFPD) denies that the Zodiac was involved; the murder remains unsolved.
Included with the letter was a Phillips 66 roadmap of the San Francisco Bay area. On the image of Mount Diablo, the Zodiac had drawn a crossed circle similar to those from previous correspondence. At the top of the crossed circle, he placed a zero, a three, six, and a nine. The accompanying instructions stated that the zero was "to be set to Mag. N." The letter also included a 32-letter cipher that the killer claimed would, in conjunction with the code, lead to the location of a bomb that he had buried and set to detonate in the fall. The cipher was never decoded, and the alleged bomb was never located. The killer signed the note with " - 12, SFPD - 0".
In a letter to the Chronicle postmarked July 24, 1970, the Zodiac took credit for Kathleen Johns's abduction, four months after the incident. In a July 26, 1970 letter, the Zodiac paraphrased a song from The Mikado, adding his own lyrics about making a "little list" of the ways in which he planned to torture his "slaves" in "paradice". The letter was signed with a large, exaggerated crossed-circle symbol and a new score: " = 13, SFPD = 0". A final note at the bottom of the letter stated, "P.S. The Mt. Diablo code concerns Radians + # inches along the radians." In 1981, a close examination of the radian hint by Zodiac researcher Gareth Penn led to the discovery that a radian angle, when placed over the map per Zodiac's instructions, pointed to the locations of two Zodiac attacks.
On October 7, 1970, the Chronicle received a three-by-five inch card signed by the Zodiac with the and a small cross reportedly drawn with blood. The card's message was formed by pasting words and letters from an edition of the Chronicle, and thirteen holes were punched across the card. Inspectors Armstrong and Toschi agreed that it was "highly probable" that the card had been sent by the Zodiac.
Letter to Paul Avery
On October 27, 1970, Chronicle reporter Paul Avery (who had been covering the Zodiac case) received a Halloween card signed with a letter 'Z' and the Zodiac's crossed-circle symbol. Handwritten inside the card was the note "Peek-a-boo, you are doomed." The threat was taken seriously and was the subject of a front-page story in the Chronicle. Soon after receiving the letter, Avery received an anonymous letter alerting him to the similarities between the Zodiac's activities and the unsolved murder of Cheri Jo Bates, which had occurred four years earlier at the city college in Riverside in the Greater Los Angeles Area, more than south of San Francisco. Avery reported his findings in the Chronicle on November 16, 1970.
Riverside murder
On October 30, 1966, an 18-year-old student at Riverside City College, Cheri Jo Bates, spent the evening at the campus library annex until it closed at 9:00 p.m. Neighbors reported hearing a scream around 10:30 p.m. Bates was found dead the next morning, a short distance from the library, between two abandoned houses slated to be demolished for campus renovations. The wires in her Volkswagen's distributor cap had been pulled out. She was brutally beaten and stabbed to death. A man's Timex watch with a torn wristband was found nearby. The watch had stopped at 12:24, but police believe that the attack had occurred much earlier.
A month later, on November 29, 1966, nearly identical typewritten letters were mailed to the Riverside police and the Riverside Press-Enterprise, titled "The Confession". The author claimed responsibility for the Bates murder, providing details of the crime that were not released to the public. The author warned that Bates "is not the first and she will not be the last". In December 1966, a poem was discovered carved into the bottom side of a desktop in the Riverside City College library. Titled "Sick of living/unwilling to die", the poem's language and handwriting resembled that of the Zodiac's letters. It was signed with what were assumed to be the initials rh. During the 1970 investigation, Sherwood Morrill, California's top "questioned documents" examiner, expressed his opinion that the poem was written by the Zodiac.
On April 30, 1967, exactly six months after the Bates murder, Bates' father Joseph, the Press-Enterprise, and the Riverside police all received nearly identical letters. In handwritten scrawl, the Press-Enterprise and police copies read "Bates had to die there will be more," with a small scribble at the bottom that resembled the letter Z. Joseph Bates' copy read "She had to die there will be more," this time without the Z signature. In August 2021, the Riverside Police Department's Homicide Cold Case Unit announced that the author of the handwritten letters anonymously contacted investigators in 2016 and was identified via DNA analysis in 2020. He admitted the correspondence was a distasteful hoax and apologized, explaining that he had been a troubled teenager and wrote the letters as a means of seeking attention. Investigators confirmed that the author was not the Zodiac.
On March 13, 1971, five months after Avery's article linking the Zodiac to the Riverside murder, the Zodiac mailed a letter to the Los Angeles Times. In the letter he credited the police, instead of Avery, for discovering his "Riverside activity, but they are only finding the easy ones, there are a hell of a lot more down there".
The connection between Cheri Jo Bates, Riverside and the Zodiac remains uncertain. Paul Avery and the Riverside Police Department maintain that the Bates homicide was not committed by the Zodiac, but did concede that some of the Bates letters may have been his work to claim credit falsely.
Lake Tahoe disappearance
On March 22, 1971, a postcard to the Chronicle, addressed to "Paul Averly" and believed to be from the Zodiac, appeared to claim responsibility for the disappearance of Donna Lass on September 6, 1970. Made from a collage of advertisements and magazine lettering, it featured a scene from an advertisement for Forest Pines condominiums and the text "Sierra Club", "Sought Victim 12", "peek through the pines", "pass Lake Tahoe areas", and "around in the snow". The Zodiac's crossed-circle symbol was in both the place of the usual return address and the lower-right section of the front face of the postcard.
Lass was a nurse at the Sahara Tahoe hotel and casino. She worked until about 2:00 a.m. on September 6, 1970, treating her last patient at 1:40 a.m. Later that same day, both Lass's employer and her landlord received phone calls from an unknown male falsely claiming that Lass had left town because of a family emergency. Lass was never found. What appeared to be a gravesite was discovered near the Clair Tappaan Lodge in Norden, California, on Sierra Club property. No evidence has been uncovered to definitively connect the Lass disappearance with the Zodiac Killer.
Santa Barbara County murders
In a Vallejo Times-Herald story appearing on November 13, 1972, Bill Baker of the Santa Barbara County Sheriff's Office postulated that the 1963 murders of a young couple in northern Santa Barbara County might have been the work of the Zodiac Killer. On June 4, 1963, high school senior Robert Domingos and his fiancée Linda Edwards were shot dead on a beach near Lompoc, having skipped school that day for "Senior Ditch Day". Police believed that the assailant attempted to bind the victims, but when they freed themselves and attempted to flee, the killer shot them repeatedly in the back and chest with a .22-caliber weapon. The killer then placed their bodies in a small shack and then tried, unsuccessfully, to burn the structure to the ground.
Final Zodiac letter
After the Lake Tahoe card, the Zodiac remained silent for nearly three years. The Chronicle then received a letter from the Zodiac, postmarked January 29, 1974, praising The Exorcist as "the best saterical comidy that I have ever seen". The letter included a snippet of verse from The Mikado and an unusual symbol at the bottom that has remained unexplained by researchers. Zodiac concluded the letter with a new score, "Me = 37, SFPD = 0".
Later letters of suspicious authorship
Of further communications sent by the public to members of the news media, some contained similar characteristics of previous Zodiac writings. The Chronicle received a letter postmarked February 14, 1974, informing the editor that the initials for the Symbionese Liberation Army spelled out an Old Norse word meaning "kill".
However, the handwriting was not authenticated as the Zodiac's.
A letter to the Chronicle, postmarked May 8, 1974, featured a complaint that the movie Badlands was "murder-glorification" and asked the paper to cut its advertisements. Signed only "A citizen", the handwriting, tone, and surface irony were all similar to earlier Zodiac communications. The Chronicle subsequently received an anonymous letter postmarked July 8, 1974, complaining of their publishing the writings of the antifeminist columnist Marco Spinelli. The letter was signed "the Red Phantom (red with rage)". The Zodiac's authorship of this letter is debated.
A letter, dated April 24, 1978, was initially deemed authentic but was declared a hoax less than three months later by three experts. Dave Toschi, the SFPD homicide detective who had worked the case since the Stine murder, was thought to have forged the letter. Author Armistead Maupin believed the letter to be similar to "fan mail" that praised the work of Toschi in the investigation, which he received in 1976; he believed both letters were written by Toschi. While he admitted to writing the fan mail, Toschi denied forging the Zodiac letter and was eventually cleared of any charges. The authenticity of this letter remains unverified.
On March 3, 2007, an American Greetings Christmas card sent to the Chronicle, postmarked 1990 in Eureka, was re-discovered in their photo files by editorial assistant Daniel King. This letter was handed over to the Vallejo police. Inside the envelope, with the card, was a photocopy of two U.S. Postal keys on a magnet keychain. The handwriting on the envelope resembles Zodiac's print but was declared inauthentic by forensic document examiner Lloyd Cunningham; however, not all Zodiac experts agree with Cunningham's analysis. There is no return address on the envelope nor is his crossed-circle signature to be found. The card itself is unmarked. The Chronicle turned over all the material to the Vallejo Police Department for further analysis.
21st century developments
In April 2004, the SFPD marked the case "inactive", citing caseload pressure and resource demands, effectively closing the case.Cosgrove-Mather, Bootie (April 8, 2004). "Unsolved Zodiac Killer Case Closed" . CBS News. However, they re-opened their case sometime before March 2007."Los Angeles Man Claims to Have Met Zodiac Killer" . NBC Bay Area. January 23, 2015. The case is open in Napa County and in the city of Riverside.
In February 2020, local historian Kristi Hawthorne put forth the idea that the Zodiac may have murdered cab driver Ray Davis in April 1962 in Oceanside, California. On April 9, 1962, the day before the murder, an individual believed to be the culprit had phoned the Oceanside Police Department and told them "I am going to pull something here in Oceanside and you'll never be able to figure it out". A few days after the murder, the police received another call from who is presumed to be the same individual, in which he told police details of the murder and said he would kill a bus driver next. Following Hawthorne's research Oceanside police announced that they were "looking into" possible connections between the murder and the Zodiac.
In May 2018, the Vallejo Police Department announced their intention to attempt to collect the Zodiac Killer's DNA from the back of stamps he used during his correspondence. The analysis, by a private laboratory, was expected to check the DNA against GEDmatch. It was hoped the Zodiac Killer may be caught in a similar fashion to the "Golden State Killer" Joseph James DeAngelo. In May 2018, a Vallejo police detective said that results were expected in several weeks. However, as of September 2021, no results have been reported.
In October 2021, the Case Breakers, a team of over 40 cold case investigators composed of former law enforcement investigators, military intelligence officers, and journalists, claimed to have identified the Zodiac Killer as Gary Francis Poste, who died in 2018. The team claimed to have uncovered forensic evidence and photos from Poste's darkroom, and noted that scars on Poste's forehead matched those they said were described on the killer. They also claimed that removing the letters of Poste's name from one of Zodiac's cryptograms revealed an alternate message. The FBI subsequently stated that the case remained open and that there is "no new information to report," while local law enforcement expressed skepticism of the team's findings to the Chronicle. Riverside police officer Ryan Railsback said the Case Breakers' claims largely relied on circumstantial evidence, and author Tom Voigt, a Zodiac Killer investigator, called the claims "bullshit." Voigt noted that no witnesses in the case described Zodiac as having scars on his forehead.
Arthur Leigh Allen
Robert Graysmith's book Zodiac advanced Arthur Leigh Allen, who died in 1992, as a potential suspect based on circumstantial evidence. Allen had been interviewed by police from the early days of the Zodiac investigations and was the subject of several search warrants over a 20-year period. In 2007, Graysmith noted that several police detectives described Allen as the most likely suspect. In 2010, Dave Toschi stated that all the evidence against Allen ultimately "turned out to be negative". Toschi's daughter said in 2018 that her father had always thought Allen had been the killer, but they did not have the evidence to prove it. Mark Ruffalo, who portrayed Toschi in the 2007 film Zodiac, commented, "If you get into who these cops were, you realize how they have to take their hunches, their personal beliefs, out of it. Dave Toschi said to me, 'As soon as that guy walked in the door, I knew it was him.' He was sure he had him, but he never had a solid piece of evidence. So he had to keep investigating every other lead."
On October 6, 1969, Allen was interviewed by detective John Lynch of the Vallejo Police Department. Allen had been reported in the vicinity of the Lake Berryessa attack against Hartnell and Shepard on September 27, 1969; he described himself scuba diving at Salt Point on the day of the attacks. Allen again came to police attention in 1971 when his friend Donald Cheney reported to police in Manhattan Beach, California, that Allen had spoken of his desire to kill people, used the name Zodiac, and secured a flashlight to a firearm for visibility at night. According to Cheney, this conversation occurred no later than January 1, 1969.
Jack Mulanax of the Vallejo Police Department subsequently wrote Allen had received an other than honorable discharge from the U.S. Navy in 1958, and had been fired from his job as an elementary school teacher in March 1968 after allegations of sexual misconduct with students. He was generally well-regarded by those who knew him, but he was also described as "fixated on young children and angry at women".
In September 1972, San Francisco police obtained a search warrant for Allen's residence. In 1974, Allen was arrested for sexually assaulting a 12-year-old boy; he pleaded guilty and served two years imprisonment.
Vallejo police served another search warrant at Allen's residence in February 1991. Two days after Allen's death in 1992, Vallejo police served another warrant and seized property from Allen's residence. In July 1992, victim Mike Mageau identified Allen as the man who shot him in 1969 from a photo line-up, saying "That's him! That's the man who shot me". However police officer Donald Fouke, who is speculated to have seen the Zodiac fleeing from the Stine killing, said in the 2007 documentary His Name Was Arthur Leigh Allen that Allen weighed about 100 pounds more than the man he saw, adding that his face was "too round". While Nancy Slover, who received the call from the Zodiac in the aftermath of the Mageau/Ferrin shooting said that Allen did not sound like the man on the phone.
Other evidence existed against Allen, albeit entirely circumstantial. A letter sent to the Riverside Police Department from Bates's killer was typed with a Royal typewriter with an Elite type, the same brand found during the February 1991 search of Allen's residence. He owned and wore a Zodiac brand wristwatch. He lived in Vallejo and worked minutes away from where one of the Zodiac victims (Ferrin) lived and from where one of the killings took place.
In 2002, the SFPD developed a partial DNA profile from the saliva on stamps and envelopes of Zodiac's letters. The SFPD compared this partial DNA to the DNA of Arthur Leigh Allen. A DNA comparison was also made with the DNA of Don Cheney, who was Allen's former close friend and the first person to suggest Allen may be the Zodiac Killer. Since neither test result indicated a match, Allen and Cheney were excluded as the contributors of the DNA.
Retired police handwriting expert Lloyd Cunningham, who worked on the Zodiac case for decades, stated, "They gave me banana boxes full of Allen's writing, and none of his writing even came close to the Zodiac. Nor did DNA extracted from the envelopes (on the Zodiac letters) come close to Arthur Leigh Allen."
Public speculation
Ross Sullivan became a person of interest through the possible link between the Zodiac Killer and the murder of Cheri Jo Bates in Riverside. Sullivan was a library assistant at Riverside City College and was suspected by coworkers who said that he went missing for several days after the murder. Sullivan resembled sketches of the Zodiac and wore military-style boots with footprints like those found at the Lake Berryessa crime scene. Sullivan was hospitalized multiple times for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
Lawrence Kaye, later Lawrence Kane: Kathleen Johns, who claimed to have been abducted by the Zodiac Killer, picked out Kane in a photo lineup. Patrol officer Don Fouke, who possibly observed the Zodiac Killer following the murder of Paul Stine, said that Kane closely resembled the man he and Eric Zelms encountered. Kane worked at the same Nevada hotel as possible Zodiac victim Donna Lass. Kane was diagnosed with impulse-control disorder after suffering brain injuries in a 1962 accident. He was arrested for voyeurism and prowling. Fayçal Ziraoui, a French-Moroccan business consultant, claimed in 2021 that he solved the Z13 cipher and the solution to the puzzle reads "My name is Kayr", which he said is a likely typo for Kaye. Others disputed that Ziraoui could have solved the cipher.
Police informants accused Richard Marshall of being the Zodiac Killer, claiming that he privately hinted at being a murderer. Marshall lived in Riverside in 1966 and San Francisco in 1969, close to the scenes of the Bates and Stine murders. He was a silent film enthusiast and projectionist, screening Segundo de Chomón's The Red Phantom (1907), a name used by the author of a possible 1974 Zodiac letter. Detective Ken Narlow said that "Marshall makes good reading but [is] not a very good suspect in my estimation."
In 2007, Dennis Kaufman claimed that his stepfather Jack Tarrance was the Zodiac. Kaufman turned several items over to the FBI, including a hood similar to the one worn by the Zodiac. According to news sources, DNA analysis conducted by the FBI on the items was deemed inconclusive in 2010.
In 2009, former lawyer Robert Tarbox, who was disbarred in August 1975 by the California Supreme Court for failure to pay some clients, said that in the early 1970s a merchant mariner walked into his office and confessed to him that he was the Zodiac Killer. The seemingly lucid seaman, whose name Tarbox would not reveal based on confidentiality, described his crimes briefly but persuasively enough to convince Tarbox. The man said he was trying to stop himself from his "opportunistic" murder spree but never returned to see Tarbox again. Tarbox took out a full-page ad in the Vallejo Times-Herald that he claimed would clear the name of Arthur Leigh Allen as a killer, his only reason for revealing the story 30 years after the fact. Robert Graysmith, the author of several books on Zodiac, said Tarbox's story was "entirely plausible".
In 2009, an episode of the History Channel television series MysteryQuest looked at newspaper editor Richard Gaikowski. During the time of the murders, Gaikowski worked for Good Times, a San Francisco counterculture newspaper. His appearance resembled the composite sketch, and Nancy Slover, the Vallejo police dispatcher who was contacted by the Zodiac shortly after the Blue Rock Springs Attack, identified a recording of Gaikowski's voice as being the same as the Zodiac's.
In 2010, a picture surfaced of known Zodiac victim Darlene Ferrin and an unknown man who closely resembles the composite sketch, formed based on eyewitnesses' descriptions, of the Zodiac Killer. According to America's Most Wanted (February 19, 2011), police believe the photo was taken in San Francisco in the middle of either 1966 or 1967.
Former California Highway Patrol officer Lyndon Lafferty said the Zodiac Killer was a 91-year-old Solano County, California, man he referred to by the pseudonym George Russell Tucker. Using a group of retired law enforcement officers called the Mandamus Seven, Lafferty discovered Tucker and outlined an alleged cover-up for why he was not pursued. Tucker died in February 2012 and was not named because he was not considered a suspect by police.
In February 2014, it was reported that Louis Joseph Myers had confessed to a friend in 2001 that he was the Zodiac Killer after learning that he was dying from cirrhosis of the liver. He requested that his friend, Randy Kenney, go to the police upon his death. Myers died in 2002, but Kenney allegedly had difficulties getting officers to cooperate and take the claims seriously. There are several potential connections between Myers and the Zodiac case; Myers attended the same high schools as victims David Farraday and Betty Lou Jensen, and allegedly worked in the same restaurant as victim Darlene Ferrin. During the 1971–1973 period, when no Zodiac letters were received, Myers was stationed overseas with the military. Kenney says that Myers confessed he targeted couples because he had had a bad breakup with a girlfriend. While officers associated with the case are skeptical, they believe the story is credible enough to investigate if Kenney could produce credible evidence.
Robert Ivan Nichols, also known as Joseph Newton Chandler III, was a formerly unidentified identity thief who committed suicide in Eastlake, Ohio, in July 2002. After his death, investigators were unable to locate his family and discovered that he had stolen the identity of an eight-year-old boy who was killed in a car crash in Texas in 1945. The lengths to which Nichols went to hide his identity led to speculation that he was a violent fugitive. The U.S. Marshals Service announced his identification at a press conference in Cleveland on June 21, 2018. Some Internet sleuths suggested that he might have been the Zodiac Killer, as he resembled police sketches of the Zodiac and had lived in California, where the Zodiac operated.
In 2014, Gary Stewart published a book, The Most Dangerous Animal of All, in which he claimed his search for his biological father, Earl Van Best Jr., led him to conclude Van Best was the Zodiac Killer. In 2020, the book was adapted for FX Network as a documentary series.
The Manson Family: following the capture of Charles Manson and his murderous cult, a 1970 report by the California Bureau of Criminal Identification and Investigation stated that all male members of the Manson Family had been investigated and eliminated as Zodiac suspects.
Ted Kaczynski, also known as the Unabomber, was investigated for possible connections to the Zodiac Killer in 1996. Kaczynski worked in northern California at the time of the Zodiac murders and, like the Zodiac, had an interest in cryptography and threatened the press into publishing his communications. Kaczynski was ruled out by both the FBI and SFPD based on fingerprint and handwriting comparison, and by his absence from California on certain dates of known Zodiac activity.
Convicted serial killer Edward Edwards, who committed five murders between 1977 and 1996, was linked to the Zodiac murders and several other unsolved cases by former cold case detective John A. Cameron. Cameron's theories were met with "almost universal disdain, especially from law enforcement".
Retired police detective Steve Hodel argues in his book The Black Dahlia Avenger that his father, George Hodel, was the Black Dahlia killer, whose victims include Elizabeth Short. The book led to the release of previously suppressed files and wire recordings by the Los Angeles district attorney's office of his father, which showed that the elder Hodel had indeed been a prime suspect in Short's murder. District Attorney Steve Kaye subsequently wrote a letter which is published in the revised edition stating that if George Hodel were still alive he would be prosecuted for the crimes. In a follow-up book, Hodel argued a circumstantial case that his father was also the Zodiac Killer based upon a police sketch, the similarity of the style of the Zodiac letters to the Black Dahlia Avenger letters and questioned document examination.
In 2018 Italian journalist Francesco Amicone implicated Joseph aka Giuseppe Bevilacqua, former superintendent of the Florence American Cemetery and Memorial, as a suspect in both the Zodiac and Monster of Florence murder cases. Amicone alleged that on September 11, 2017 Bevilacqua confessed to being the killer in both cases. In 2021, at the request of the Attorney in charge of the investigation on the Monster, Pm Luca Turco, the investigations into Bevilacqua resulting from Amicone's inquiry were closed. Turco, in justifying his request, affirmed that "this journalistic inquiry is characterized by suggestions, assumptions, asserted intuitions, and it does not contain any factual element likely to rise to the dignity of a clue". Pm Turco also proceeded against Amicone for libel against Bevilacqua.
On October 6, 2021, The Case Breakers, an independent team of 40 former law enforcement investigators, military intelligence officers and journalists, claimed to have identified the Zodiac Killer as Gary Francis Poste, but this information was not confirmed by the Vallejo Police Department. The Case Breakers have requested that police test the Zodiac Killer's DNA evidence to confirm it matches the DNA of Gary Francis Poste. The police, however, said that the case is not solved and that the killer was not identified yet. "The Zodiac Killer case remains open. We have no new information to share at the moment", an FBI spokesman told CNN.
Letters and ciphers gallery
See also
Zodiac Killer in popular culture
List of serial killers in the United States
List of fugitives from justice who disappeared
Texarkana Moonlight Murders
Monster of Florence
Notes
References
Primary sources
FBI Files:
FBI Case File (1 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 89 pages.
FBI Case File (2 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 109 pages.
FBI Case File (3 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 258 pages.
FBI Case File (4 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 208 pages.
FBI Case File (5 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 373 pages.
Further reading
Gary L. Stewart and Susan Mustafa (2014), The Most Dangerous Animal: Searching for My Fatherand Finding the Zodiac Killer, New York: Harper, .
Ronald J. Dayton (2018), Zodiac 340 Cipher, Inner Rapport Publishing .
Michael H. Stone, M.D. & Gary Brucato, Ph.D., The New Evil: Understanding the Emergence of Modern Violent Crime''. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, pp. 113–128. .
External links
"Zodiac Murder Map" – Google Map plotting definite and possible Zodiac attacks (with details).
Detailed account of the Zodiac case
1960s in the United States
1968 murders in the United States
1969 murders in the United States
1970s in the United States
20th-century criminals
American murderers of children
American robbers
American serial killers
Criminals of the San Francisco Bay Area
Murder in Riverside County, California
Fugitives
Fugitives wanted by the United States
History of Napa County, California
Male serial killers
Murder in the San Francisco Bay Area
Possibly living people
Undeciphered historical codes and ciphers
Unidentified serial killers
Unsolved murders in the United States
Vallejo, California | [
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255196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom%20Football%20Conference | Freedom Football Conference | The Freedom Football Conference (FFC) was a college athletic conference that competed in the NCAA's Division III. Member teams were located in New England and New York. It was formed in 1992 and disbanded after the 2003 season. As can be deduced from the conference's name, teams competed within the FFC in football only. The teams competed in other conferences in other sports.
Members
Norwich University (Now in the Eastern Collegiate Football Conference for football only)
Plymouth State College (Now in the New England Football Conference for football only)
Springfield College (Now in the Liberty League for football only)
United States Coast Guard Academy (Now in the New England Football Conference for football only)
United States Merchant Marine Academy (Now in the Liberty League for football only)
Western Connecticut State University (Now in the New Jersey Athletic Conference for football only)
Worcester Polytechnic Institute (Now in the Liberty League for football only)
Conference champions
See also
List of defunct college football conferences
References | [
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255198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notorious%20%281946%20film%29 | Notorious (1946 film) | Notorious is a 1946 American spy film noir directed and produced by Alfred Hitchcock, starring Cary Grant, Ingrid Bergman, and Claude Rains as three people whose lives become intimately entangled during an espionage operation.
The film follows U.S. government agent T.R. Devlin (Grant), who enlists the help of Alicia Huberman (Bergman), the daughter of a German war criminal, to infiltrate a Nazi organization. The situation becomes complicated when the two fall in love as Huberman is instructed to seduce Alex Sebastian (Rains), a leader of the organization who had previously been infatuated with her. It was shot in late 1945 and early 1946, and was released by RKO Radio Pictures in August 1946.
Notorious is considered by critics and scholars to mark a watershed for Hitchcock artistically, and to represent a heightened thematic maturity. His biographer, Donald Spoto, writes that "Notorious is in fact Alfred Hitchcock's first attempt—at the age of forty-six—to bring his talents to the creation of a serious love story, and its story of two men in love with Ingrid Bergman could only have been made at this stage of his life." In 2006, Notorious was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Plot
In April 1946, Alicia Huberman, the American daughter of a convicted Nazi spy, is recruited by government agent T. R. Devlin to infiltrate an organization of Nazis who have moved to Brazil after World War II. When Alicia refuses to help the police, Devlin plays recordings of her fighting with her father and insisting that she loves America.
While awaiting the details of her assignment in Rio de Janeiro, Alicia and Devlin fall in love, though his feelings are complicated by his knowledge of her promiscuous past. When Devlin gets instructions to persuade her to seduce Alex Sebastian, one of her father's friends and a leading member of the group, Devlin fails to convince his superiors that Alicia is not fit for the job. Devlin is also informed that Sebastian once was in love with Alicia. Devlin puts up a stoic front when he informs Alicia about the mission. Alicia concludes that he was merely pretending to love her as part of his job.
Devlin contrives to have Alicia meet Sebastian at a riding club. He recognizes her and invites her to dinner where he says that he always knew they would be reunited. Sebastian quickly invites Alicia to dinner the following night at his home, where he will host a few business acquaintances. Devlin and Captain Paul Prescott of the US Secret Service tell Alicia to memorize the names and nationalities of everyone there. At dinner, Alicia notices that a guest becomes agitated at the sight of a certain wine bottle, and is ushered quickly from the room. When the gentlemen are alone at the end of the dinner, this guest apologizes and tries to go home, but another of the Nazi group insists on driving him, and it is implied that he will be killed.
Soon Alicia reports to Devlin, "You can add Sebastian's name to my list of playmates." When Sebastian proposes, Alicia informs Devlin; he coldly tells her to do whatever she wants. Deeply disappointed, she marries Sebastian.
After she returns from her honeymoon, Alicia is able to tell Devlin that the key ring her husband gave her lacks the key to the wine cellar. That, and the bottle episode at the dinner, lead Devlin to urge Alicia to hold a grand party so he can investigate. Alicia secretly steals the key from Sebastian's ring, and Devlin and Alicia search the cellar. Devlin accidentally breaks a bottle; inside is black sand, later proven to be uranium ore. Devlin takes a sample, cleans up, and locks the door as Sebastian comes down for more champagne. Alicia and Devlin kiss to cover their tracks. Devlin makes an exit. Sebastian realizes that the cellar key is missing – yet overnight it is returned to his key ring. When he returns to the cellar, he finds the glass and sand from the broken bottle.
Now Sebastian has a problem: he must silence Alicia, but cannot expose her without revealing his own blunder to his fellow Nazis. When Sebastian discusses the situation with his mother, she suggests that Alicia "die slowly" by poisoning. They poison her coffee and she quickly falls ill. During a visit from Sebastian's friend Dr. Anderson, Alicia realizes both where the uranium has been mined and what is causing her sickness. Alicia collapses and is taken to her room, where the telephone has been removed and she is too weak to leave.
Devlin becomes alarmed when Alicia fails to appear at their rendezvous for five days and sneaks into Alicia's room, where she tells him that Sebastian and his mother poisoned her. After confessing his love for her, Devlin carries her out of the mansion in full view of Sebastian's co-conspirators. Sebastian and his mother go along with Devlin's story that Alicia must go to the hospital. Outside, Sebastian begs to go with them, knowing that the Nazis suspect the truth, but Devlin and Alicia drive away, leaving Sebastian behind to meet his fate.
Cast
Cast notes
Biographer Patrick McGilligan writes that "Hitchcock rarely managed to pull together a dream cast for any of his 1940s films, but Notorious was a glorious exception." Indeed, with a story of smuggled uranium as a backdrop, "[t]he romantic pairing of Grant and Bergman promised a box office bang comparable to an atomic blast."
Not everyone saw it that way, however, most notably the project's original producer David O. Selznick. After he sold the property to RKO to raise some quick cash, Selznick lobbied hard to get Grant replaced with Joseph Cotten; the United States had just dropped atomic bombs on Japan and Selznick argued that the first film out about atomic weaponry would be the most successful—and Grant was not available for three months. Selznick also believed that Grant would be difficult to manage and make high salary demands, but most telling of all—Selznick owned Cotten's contract. Hitchcock and RKO production executive William Dozier invoked a clause in the project sale contract, blocked Selznick's attempts, and Grant was signed to play opposite Bergman by late August 1945.
Hitchcock had wanted Clifton Webb to play Alexander Sebastian. Selznick pressed for Claude Rains in typical Selznick memo-heavy style: "Rains offers 'an opportunity to build the gross of Notorious enormously... . [D]o not lose a day trying to get the Rains' deal nailed down.'" Whether they were thinking in Selznick's box office terms or in more artistic ones, Dozier and Hitchcock agreed, and Rains' performance transformed Sebastian into a classic Hitchcock villain: sympathetic, nuanced, in some ways as admirable as the protagonist.
The final major casting decision was Mme. Sebastian, Alex's mother. "The spidery, tyrannical Nazi matron demanded a stronger, older presence", and when attempts to obtain Ethel Barrymore and Mildred Natwick fell through, German actor Reinhold Schünzel suggested Leopoldine Konstantin to Hitchcock and Dozier. Konstantin had been one of pre-war Germany's greatest actresses. Notorious was Konstantin's only American film appearance, and "one of the unforgettable portraits in Hitchcock's films".
Alfred Hitchcock's cameo appearance, a signature occurrence in his films, takes place at the party in Sebastian's mansion. At 1:04:43 (1:01:50 on European DVDs and 64:28 of the edited cut) into the film, Hitchcock is seen drinking a glass of champagne as Grant and Bergman approach. He sets his glass down and quickly departs.
Production
Pre-Production
Notorious started life as a David O. Selznick production, but by the time it hit American screens in August 1946, it bore the RKO studio's logo. Alfred Hitchcock became the producer, but as on all his subsequent films, he limited his screen credits to "Directed by" and his possessive credit above the title.
Its first glimmer occurred some two years previously, in August 1944, over lunch between Hitchcock and Selznick's story editor, Margaret McDonell. Her memo to Selznick said that Hitchcock was "very anxious to do a story about confidence tricks on a grand scale [with] Ingrid Bergman [as] the woman ... Her training would be as elaborate as the training of a Mata Hari." Hitchcock continued his conversation a few weeks later, this time dining at Chasen's with William Dozier, an RKO studio executive, and pitching it as "the story of a woman sold for political purposes into sexual enslavement". By this time, he had one of the single-word titles he preferred: Notorious. The pitch was convincing: Dozier quickly entered into talks with Selznick, offering to buy the property and its personnel for production at RKO.
Dozier's interest rekindled Selznick's, which up to that point had only been tepid. Perhaps what started Hitchcock's mind rolling was "The Song of the Dragon", a short story by John Taintor Foote which had appeared as a two-part serial in the Saturday Evening Post in November 1921; Selznick, who owned the rights to it, had passed it on to Hitchcock from his unproduced story file during the filming of Spellbound. Set during World War I in New York, "The Song of the Dragon" told the tale of a theatrical producer approached by federal agents, who want his assistance in recruiting an actress he once had a relationship with to seduce the leader of a gang of enemy saboteurs. Although the story was a nominal starting point that "offered some inspiration, the final narrative was pure Hitchcock".
Hitchcock travelled to England for Christmas 1944, and when he returned, he had an outline for Selznick's perusal. The producer approved development of a script, and Hitchcock decamped for Nyack, New York for three weeks of collaboration with Ben Hecht, whom he had just worked with on Spellbound. The two would work at Hecht's house, with Hitchcock repairing at night to the St. Regis New York. The two had an extraordinarily smooth and fruitful working partnership, partly because Hecht did not really care how much Hitchcock rewrote his work:
Hitchcock delivered his and Hecht's screenplay to Selznick in late March, but the producer was getting drawn deeper into the roiling problems of his western epic Duel in the Sun. At first he ordered story conferences at his home, typically with start times of eleven p.m., to both Hecht's and Hitchcock's profound annoyance. The two would dine at Romanoff's and "pool their defenses about what Hitchcock thought was a first class script". Shortly, though, Duels problems won out and Selznick relegated Notorious to his mental back burner.
Among the many changes to the original story was the introduction of a MacGuffin: a cache of uranium being held in Sebastian's wine cellar by the Nazis. At the time, it was not common knowledge that uranium was being used in the development of the atomic bomb, and Selznick had trouble understanding its use as a plot device. Indeed, Hitchcock later claimed he was followed by the FBI for several months after he and Hecht discussed uranium with Robert Millikan at Caltech in mid-1945. In any event, the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and the release of details of the Manhattan Project, removed any doubts about its use.
By June 1945, Notorious reached its turning point. Selznick "was losing faith in a film that never really interested him"; the MacGuffin still bothered him, as did the Devlin character, and he worried that audiences would dislike the Alicia character. More worrisome, though, was the drain on his cash reserves imposed by the voracious Duel in the Sun. Finally, he agreed to sell the Notorious package to RKO: script, Bergman and Hitchcock.
The deal was a win-win-win situation: Selznick got $800,000 cash, plus 50% of the profits, RKO obtained a prestige production with an ascendant star and an emerging director, and Hitchcock, though he received no money, did escape from under Selznick's stifling thumb. He also got to be his own producer for the first time, an important step for him: "supervising everything from the polishing of the script to the negotiation of myriad post-production details, the director could demonstrate to the industry at large his skill as an executive." RKO assumed the project in mid-July 1945, and furnished office space, studio space, distribution—and freedom.
There was no getting away from Selznick completely, though. He contended that his 50% stake in the profits still entitled him to input into the project. He still dictated sheaves of memos about the script, and tried to oust Cary Grant from the cast in favor of his contractee, Joseph Cotten. When the United States detonated two atomic bombs over Japan in August, the memos commenced anew and centered mainly on Selznick's continuing dissatisfaction with the script. Hitchcock was abroad, so Dozier called on playwright Clifford Odets, who previously wrote None But the Lonely Heart for RKO and Grant, to do a rewrite. With Hitchcock and Selznick both busy, Selznick's script assistant Barbara Keon would be his only contact.
Odets's script tried to bring more atmosphere to the story than had previously been present. "Extending the characters' emotional range, he heightened the passion of Devlin and Alicia and the aristocratic ennui of Alex Sebastian. He also added a soupçon of high culture to soften Alicia: She quotes French poetry from memory and sings Schubert." But his draft did nothing for Selznick, who still thought the characters lacked dimension, that Devlin still lacked charm, and that the couple's sleeping together "may cheapen her in the eyes of the audience". Ben Hecht's appraisal, handwritten in the margin, was straightforward: "This is really loose crap." In the end, the Odets script was a blind alley: Hitchcock apparently used none of it.
What he did have in his hand, though, was the script for "... a consummate Hitchcock film, in every sense filled with passion and textures and levels of meaning".
Production
Principal photography for Notorious began on October 22, 1945 and wrapped in February 1946. Production was structured the way Hitchcock preferred it: with almost all shooting done indoors, on RKO sound stages, even seeming "exterior" scenes achieved with rear projection process shots. This gave him maximum control of his filmmaking through the day; in the evenings he exercised similar control over the nightly soirées at his Bellagio Road home. The only scene requiring outdoor filming was the one at the riding club where Devlin and Alicia contrive to meet Alexander Sebastian on horseback; this scene was shot at the Los Angeles County Arboretum and Botanic Garden in Arcadia, California. Second unit crews shot establishing exteriors and rear-projection footage in Miami, Rio de Janeiro and at the Santa Anita Park racetrack.
With everything stage-bound, production was smooth and problems were few, and small—for instance, Claude Rains, who stood three or four inches shorter than Ingrid Bergman. "[There's] this business of you being a midget with a wife, Miss Bergman, who is very tall", the director kidded with Rains, a good friend. For the scenes where Rains and Bergman were to walk hand-in-hand, Hitchcock devised a system of ramps that boosted Rains's height yet were unseen by the camera. He also suggested Rains try elevator shoes: "Walk in them, sleep in them, be comfortable in them." Rains did, and used them thereafter. Hitchcock gave Rains the choice of playing Sebastian with a German or his English accent; Rains chose the latter.
Ingrid Bergman's gowns were by Edith Head, in one of her many collaborations with Hitchcock.
One of the signature scenes in Notorious is the two-and-a-half-minute kiss that Hitchcock interrupted every three seconds to slip the scene through the three-second-rule crack in the Production Code. "The two stars worried about how strange it felt", writes biographer McGilligan. "Walking along, nuzzling each other with the camera trailing behind them, seemed 'very awkward' to the actors during filming, according to Bergman. 'Don't worry', Hitchcock assured her. 'It'll look right on the screen.
Although the production proceeded smoothly it was not without some unusual aspects. The first was the helpfulness of Cary Grant toward Ingrid Bergman, in a way that "was remarkably calm and pointedly unusual for him". Although this was Bergman's second outing with Hitchcock (the first was the just-finished Spellbound), she was nervous and insecure early on. The often moody, sometimes withdrawn Grant, though, "came to Notorious full of bounce" and coached her through her initial period of adjustment, rehearsing her the way Devlin rehearses Alicia. This began a lifetime friendship for the two.
There were two passionate turmoils going on on-set, and both served to inform the final product: one was Hitchcock's growing infatuation with Bergman, and the other was her torturous affair with Robert Capa, the celebrity battlefield photographer. As a result of this simpatico connection, and "to accomplish the deepest logic of Notorious, Hitchcock did something unprecedented in his career: he made Ingrid his closest collaborator on the picture":
When production wrapped in February 1946, Hitchcock had in the can what François Truffaut later told him "gets a maximum of effect from a minimum of elements ... Of all your pictures, this is the one in which one feels the most perfect correlation between what you are aiming at and what appears on the screen ... To the eye, the ensemble is as perfect as an animated cartoon ..."
Music
The music for Notorious is the least celebrated of the major Hitchcock scores, writes film scholar Jack Sullivan, one that few writers or fans talk about. "The neglect is unfortunate, for Roy Webb composed one of the most deftly designed scores of any Hitchcock film. It weaves a unique spell, one Hitchcock had not conjured before, and the hip, swingy source music is novel as well."
The composer was Roy Webb, a staff composer at RKO, who had most recently scored the dark films of director Val Lewton for that studio. He wrote the fight song for Columbia University while he was there in the 1920s, then served as assistant to film composer Max Steiner until 1935; his reputation was "reliable, but unglamorous". Hitchcock had tried to get Bernard Herrmann for Notorious, but Herrmann was unavailable; Webb too was a Herrmann fan: "Benny writes the best music in Hollywood, with the fewest notes", he said.
Before the sale of the property to RKO, Selznick attempted, with typical Selznick gusto, to steer the course of the music. He was miffed that no hit pop song had come out of his previous Hitchcock picture Spellbound, so he considered eighteen "gooey, sentimental songs" like "Love Nest", "Don't Give Any More Beer to My Father" and "In A Little Love Nest Way Up on a Hill" for inclusion in Notorious. However, the sale removed Selznick as the decision-maker.
Hitchcock was glad to be out from under Selznick's thumb. There would be "no sudsy violins in big love scenes, no more recycling of Selznick's favorite cues from past movies. He made sure there were no south-of-the-border cliches." Selznick's exit also brought Hitchcock and Webb together into their natural sympatico. "Selznick deplored 'Hitchcock's goddamned jigsaw cutting', the dreamlike, jagged images that create his signature subjectivity. But Webb didn't mind jigsaw cutting at all. It complemented his fragmented musical architecture, just as the blocked passions of the film's characters reflect his unresolved harmonies. Like Hitchcock, Webb favored atmosphere and tonal nuance over broad gestures. Both men were classicists dealing in darkness and chaos." They featured complementary personalities, too: "Webb had a modest ego, a handy trait when working for a control addict like Hitchcock." Notorious was, however, their only film together.
Alicia and Devlin fall quickly in love once they arrive in Rio, and Webb uses tambourines, guitars, drums and Brazilian trumpets swinging into Brazilian dance music to provide "sensuous foreplay for the tumultuous love affair". Numbers include "Carnaval no Rio", "Meu Barco", "Guanabara" and two sambas "Ya Ya Me Leva" and "Bright Samba". Yet understatement and atypical use are everywhere:
Often, Webb and Hitchcock use no music at all to undergird a romantic scene. The two-and-a-half minute kiss begins with distant music when it commences out on the balcony, but goes silent when the couple move inside. Other times, they flout conventional wisdom: when Alicia asks the band to stop playing stuffy waltzes and liven things up with Brazilian music to cover her trip to the wine cellar with Devlin, Latin dance tunes replace the expected suspense cue.
Aspects of Hitchcockian humor are present: When Alicia first enters the Sebastian mansion, loaded with sinister Nazis, Schumann is playing. "Wicked they may be, but these terrorists have artistic sensibilities and impeccable taste."
Cinematography
Roger Ebert described Notorious as having "some of the most effective camera shots in his—or anyone's—work". Hitchcock played off Grant's star power in his first scene, introducing his character with shots of the back of the actor's head showing him observing Alicia carefully. The excess of her drinking is reinforced the next morning with a close-up and zoom out from a glass of fizzing aspirin beside her bed. The camera switches to her point of view and the viewer sees Grant as Devlin, backlit and upside down. The film also contains a tracking shot at Sebastian's mansion in Rio de Janeiro: starting high above the entrance hall, the camera tracks all the way down to Alicia's hand, showing her nervously twisting the key there.
Production credits
The production credits on the film were as follows:
Director - Alfred Hitchcock
Screenplay - Ben Hecht
Director of photography - Ted Tetzlaff
Art direction - Albert S. D'Agostino and Carroll Clark (art directors); Darrell Silvera and Claude E. Carpenter (set decorations)
Special effects - Vernon L. Walker and Paul Eagler
Music - Roy Webb (music), Constantin Bakaleinikoff (musical director), Gil Grau (orchestral arrangements)
Editor - Theron Warth
Sound - John E. Tribby and Terry Kellum
Costumes - Edith Head (design of Ingrid Bergman's gowns)
Assistant director - William Dorfman
Production assistant - Barbara Keon
Themes and motifs
The predominant theme in Notorious is trust—trust withheld, or given too freely. T. R. Devlin is a long time finding his trust, while Alexander Sebastian offers his up easily—and ultimately pays a big price for it. Likewise, the film addresses a woman's need to be trusted, and a man's need to open himself to love.
Hitchcock the raconteur positioned it in terms of classic conflict. He told Truffaut that
Sullivan writes that Devlin sets up Alicia as sexual bait, refuses to take any responsibility for his role, then feels devastated when she does a superb job. Alicia finds herself coldly manipulated by the man she loves, sees her notorious behavior exploited for political purposes, then fears abandonment by the lover who put her in the excruciating predicament of spying on her late father's Nazi colleague by sleeping with him—a man who genuinely loves her, perhaps more than Devlin does. Alex is Hitchcock's most painfully sympathetic villain, driven by his profound jealousy and rage—not to mention his enthrallment to an emasculating mother—culminating in an abrupt, absolute imperative to kill the love of his life.
Hitchcock's own mother had died in September 1942, and Notorious is the first time he addresses his mother issues head-on. "In Notorious, the role of mother is at last fully introduced and examined. No longer relegated to mere conversation, she appears here as a major character in a Hitchcock picture, and all at once—as later, through Psycho, The Birds and Marnie—Hitchcock began to make the mother figure a personal repository of his anger, guilt, resentment, and a sad yearning." At the same time, he blurred mother-love with erotic love, and poignantly, in both the film and in its director's life, "both kinds of love were in fact limited to longing and fantasy and unfulfilled expectations".
The theme of drinking weaves its way through the film from beginning to end: for Alicia it is an escape from guilt and pain, or even downright poisonous. When a guest at the opening party tells her she has had enough, she scoffs: "The important drinking hasn't started yet." She camouflages emotional rejection with whiskey, at the opening party, the outdoor cafe in Rio, the apartment in Rio, then drinking becomes even more dangerous as the Sebastians administer their poison through Alicia's coffee. Even the MacGuffin comes packaged in a wine bottle. "All the drinking is valueless and finally dangerous."
Coming as it did on the heels of World War II, the theme of patriotism—and the limits thereof—makes it "astonishing that the movie was produced at all (and that it was such an immediate success), since it contains such blunt dialogue about government-sponsored prostitution: The sexual blackmail is the idea of American intelligence agents, who are blithely willing to exploit a woman (and even to let her die) to serve their own ends. The depiction of the moral murkiness of American officials was unprecedented in Hollywood—especially in 1945, when the Allied victory ushered in an era of understandable, but ultimately dangerous, chauvinism in American life."
Reception
The film was the official selection of the 1946 Cannes Film Festival. Notorious had its premiere at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on August 15, 1946, with Hitchcock, Bergman, and Grant in attendance.
Box office
The film made $4.85 million in theatrical rentals in the United States and Canada on its first release, making it one of the highest-grossing films of the year. Overseas, it earned $2.3 million, for worldwide rentals of $7.15 million, generating RKO a profit of $1,010,000.
Reviews
Writing in The New York Times, Bosley Crowther praised the film, writing, "Mr. Hecht has written, and Mr. Hitchcock has directed in brilliant style, a romantic melodrama which is just about as thrilling as they come—velvet smooth in dramatic action, sharp and sure in its characters, and heavily charged with the intensity of warm emotional appeal." Leslie Halliwell, usually terse, almost glowed about Notorious: "Superb romantic suspenser containing some of Hitchcock's best work." Decades later, Roger Ebert also praised the film, adding it to his "Great Movies" list and calling it "the most elegant expression of the master's visual style". On the website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an overall positive rating of 96%, with an average rating of 8.9/10 based on 48 reviews, with a consensus of: "Sublime direction from Hitchcock, and terrific central performances from Ingrid Bergman and Cary Grant make this a bona-fide classic worthy of a re-visit."
As of January 2021, "Notorious" is one of only eight films with a 100 (perfect) score on the movie critic aggregator website, Metacritic (two other Hitchcock films, "Vertigo" and "Rear Window", are also on the list).
Notorious was Patricia Hitchcock O'Connell's favorite of her father's pictures. "What a perfect film!", she told her father's biographer, Charlotte Chandler. "The more I see Notorious, the more I like it."
Claude Rains was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, and Ben Hecht was nominated for an Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay.
Legacy
Film critic Roger Ebert included Notorious in his Ten Greatest Films of All Time list in 1991, citing it as his favourite of Hitchcock’s films. Entertainment Weekly voted it at No. 66 on their list of The Greatest Films of All Time in 1999. The Village Voice ranked Notorious at No. 77 in its Top 250 "Best Films of the Century" list in 1999, based on a poll of critics. In 2005, Hecht's screenplay was voted by the two Writers Guilds of America as one of the 101 best ever written.
The following year, Notorious was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". American Film Institute included the film as No. 38 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills and as No. 86 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions. Time magazine listed it among the All-TIME 100 films (a list of the greatest films since the magazine's inception) as chosen by Richard Corliss and Richard Schickel. The film was voted at No. 38 on the list of "100 Greatest Films" by the prominent French magazine Cahiers du cinéma in 2008. Notorious was ranked 68th in BBC's 2015 list of the 100 greatest American films.
Adaptations
The silent film Convoy (1927), co-produced by Victor Halperin, was based on the same Saturday Evening Post story.
A Lux Radio Theater adaptation was broadcast on January 26, 1948, with Ingrid Bergman reprising her role as Alicia Huberman and Joseph Cotten taking Cary Grant's role of T. R. Devlin. Another radio adaptation was produced for The Screen Guild Theater, again starring Ingrid Bergman, although this time with John Hodiak, and was broadcast on January 6, 1949.
The film was remade in 1992 as the TV film Notorious directed by Colin Bucksey, with John Shea as Devlin, Jenny Robertson as Alicia Velorus, Jean-Pierre Cassel as Sebastian, and Marisa Berenson as Katarina.
In the animated television series Star Wars: The Clone Wars the season two episode "Senate Spy" is a "compressed" adaptation of Notorious, even going so far as to frame the final shot of the episode the same way as the movie.
Mission: Impossible 2 paid strong homage to Notorious, but the plot is about a deadly virus instead of uranium, with the core story, many of the scenes, and some of the dialogue from Notorious being used.
The operatic adaption Notorious by Hans Gefors was premiered in Gothenburg in September 2015, starring Nina Stemme as Alicia Huberman.
Tribute to Hitchcock
On March 7, 1979, the American Film Institute honored Hitchcock with its Life Achievement Award. At the tribute dinner, Ingrid Bergman presented him with the original ÚNICA key to the wine cellar - the single most notable prop in Notorious. After filming had ended, Cary Grant had kept it. A few years later he gave the key to Bergman, saying that it had given him luck and hoped it would do the same for her. When presenting it to Hitchcock, to his surprise and delight, she expressed the hope that it would be lucky for him as well.
References
Sources
Brown, Curtis F. The Pictorial History of Film Stars – Ingrid Bergman. New York: Galahad Books, 1973. , p. 76–81
Humphries, Patrick. The Films of Alfred Hitchcock. Crescent Books, a Random House company, 1994 revised edition. , p. 88–93
External links
Notorious an essay by William Rothman at the Criterion Collection
Notorious radio adaptation on MP3 aired January 26, 1948 on Lux Radio Theatre (59 minutes, with Ingrid Bergman and Joseph Cotten)
Reprints of historic reviews, photo gallery at CaryGrant.net
Streaming audio
Notorious radio adaptation on MP3 aired January 26, 1948 on Lux Radio Theatre (59 minutes, with Ingrid Bergman and Joseph Cotten)
Notorious on Screen Guild Theater: January 6, 1949
1946 films
1940s romantic thriller films
1940s political thriller films
1940s spy thriller films
American films
American black-and-white films
American romantic thriller films
American spy thriller films
1940s English-language films
Film noir
Films scored by Roy Webb
Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock
Films produced by Alfred Hitchcock
Films set in Rio de Janeiro (city)
American political thriller films
RKO Pictures films
United States National Film Registry films
Films about nuclear war and weapons
Films adapted into operas
Films set in 1946
Films set in country houses
Films with screenplays by Ben Hecht | [
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255199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road%20Apples%20%28album%29 | Road Apples (album) | Road Apples is the second studio album by Canadian rock band The Tragically Hip. The album contains the hit singles "Three Pistols", “Little Bones,” and “Twist My Arm." During the Hip's last tour, in 2016, songs from this album were played live on a regular basis, featuring the above mentioned songs as well as ”Long Time Running”, “Last of the Unplucked Gems”, “The Luxury”, and “Fiddler's Green.” References to many prominent figures were used, including Tom Thomson and Jacques Cousteau, as well as political situations in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. The track “Fiddler's Green" was written for Gord Downie’s young nephew, who died during the writing of the album. Because of the personal nature of the song, the Hip did not play it live often, but they played it on a regular basis during their final tour.
Title
The name of the album is a Canadian slang term for horse droppings; with allusion to the fact that along the side of a road they can be found in shape and size of apples. The album's original working title was Saskadelphia, but this was rejected by the record label as likely to confuse listeners; however, the title was later reused for a 2021 EP of previously unreleased rarities from the Road Apples sessions.
Commercial performance
Road Apples was the band's first album to reach in Canada. The album has been certified Diamond in Canada.
Deluxe edition
A deluxe edition of the album was reissued in 2021 to mark its 30th anniversary. The reissue included a remastered version of the original album, the six-song Saskadelphia EP, a live concert performance recorded at the Roxy Theatre in 1991, and a disc of outtakes and demo versions of the album's songs.
Track listing
References
1991 albums
The Tragically Hip albums
MCA Records albums | [
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255202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr%20J%C3%A1gr | Jaromír Jágr | Jaromír Jágr (; born 15 February 1972) is a Czech professional ice hockey right winger for and the owner of HC Kladno of the Czech Extraliga (ELH). He has previously played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Pittsburgh Penguins, Washington Capitals, New York Rangers, Philadelphia Flyers, Dallas Stars, Boston Bruins, New Jersey Devils, Florida Panthers and Calgary Flames, serving as captain of the Penguins and the Rangers. After leaving the Rangers in 2008, he played three seasons in the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) with Avangard Omsk. He returned to the NHL in 2011 with the Flyers and remained in the league for seven more years before being assigned by the Flames in 2018 to HC Kladno. Having played in 33 professional seasons (as of 2021) and over 2,000 professional games, Jágr has had one of the longest careers in professional ice hockey history.
Jágr has the second-most points in NHL history, after Wayne Gretzky. He is the most productive European player who has ever played in the NHL and is considered one of the greatest ice hockey players of all time. In 1990, at age 18, he was the youngest player in the NHL. Until his transfer, at age 45, he was the oldest player in the NHL, and is the oldest player to record a hat-trick. In 2017, Jágr was named one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players in history.
Jágr was the fifth overall selection in the 1990 NHL Entry Draft. He won consecutive Stanley Cups in the 1991 and 1992 seasons with the Penguins. Individually, he has won the Art Ross Trophy as the NHL scoring champion five times (four times in a row), the Lester B. Pearson Award for the NHL's outstanding player as voted by the NHL Players' Association (NHLPA) three times and the Hart Memorial Trophy as the league's most valuable player once, while finishing second four times.
Jágr is a member of the Triple Gold Club, individuals who have played for teams that have won the Stanley Cup (1991, 1992), the Ice Hockey World Championships (2005, 2010) and the Olympic gold medal in ice hockey (1998). Jágr is one of only two Czech players (the other being Jiří Šlégr) in the Club, achieving this feat in 2005. Jágr was the Czech Republic's flag bearer at the 2010 Winter Olympics. Jágr is also one of only three players from 1981 to 2001 to win the Art Ross Trophy as the leading point-scorer during the regular season; the others are Wayne Gretzky and Mario Lemieux. Jágr has won the award more times than any other non-Canadian player. He is a member of the Czech Ice Hockey Hall of Fame.
Playing career
Jágr began skating at age three, and he immediately showed exceptional abilities. At age 15, he was playing at the highest level of competition in Czechoslovakia for HC Kladno, and when he was 17, he became the youngest member of the Czechoslovakia national team.
As a youth in his native country, he kept a photograph of American president Ronald Reagan in his school gradebook, in detest of the policies of the Soviet Union.
Pittsburgh Penguins (1990–2001)
Jágr was the first Czechoslovak player to be drafted by the NHL without first having to defect to the West; his selection in the NHL draft came as the Iron Curtain was falling. Because of this, after Jágr was selected by the Pittsburgh Penguins with the fifth overall pick in the 1990 NHL Entry Draft, he was able to immediately relocate to North America from Czechoslovakia. When he attended the draft, in Vancouver, he was the first Czechoslovak player present at the NHL draft with his government's blessings.
Jágr was a supporting player with the powerhouse Penguins that won back-to-back Stanley Cups in 1991 and 1992. He was one of the youngest players in NHL history, at age 20, to score a goal in the Stanley Cup Finals.
Before he had a clear grasp of the English language, Jágr could be heard reading the daily weather forecast on Pittsburgh radio station WDVE in his broken, thickly-accented English. He and teammate (and fellow countryman) Jiří Hrdina were promoted as the "Czechmates", a play on the term "checkmate" from chess. He would also play Scrabble in an attempt to increase his English vocabulary. Some Penguins fans realized that the letters in his first name could be scrambled to form the anagram "Mario Jr.", a reference to teammate Mario Lemieux.
In the 1994–95 season, Jágr won his first Art Ross Trophy after finishing the regular season with the most points in the NHL; he tied Eric Lindros with 70 points but won based on his 32 goals to Lindros' 29. The next year, Jágr set a record for most points, 149, by a European-born player. Both his 62 goals and 87 assists from that season still stand as career-highs. His 1995–96 totals for assists and points stand as the records for right-wingers in those categories. After the 1997–98 season, Penguins captain Ron Francis signed with the Carolina Hurricanes, leaving Jágr the Penguins' captaincy. From 1997–98 to 2000–01, Jágr would win four-straight NHL scoring titles. In 1999, he would win the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player, as well as the Lester B. Pearson Award. In 1998, he led the Czech Republic to a gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics.
On 30 December 1999, against the New York Islanders, Jágr scored three goals and four assists for a career-high seven-point night. He would later match this feat on 11 January 2003 by once again scoring three goals and four assists in a game against the Florida Panthers as a member of the Washington Capitals.
In 2000–01, Jágr was struggling to find his scoring touch and faced criticisms about his relationship with Penguins head coach Ivan Hlinka. With the return of Mario Lemieux from retirement, the Penguins had two superstars, but friction developed between the two; Jágr held the captaincy but many fans regarded Lemieux as the talisman of the team. Additionally, the struggling, medium-market Penguins could, with Lemieux back, no longer hope to afford Jágr's high salary. Thus, on 11 July 2001, the organization traded him, along with František Kučera, to the Washington Capitals in exchange for Kris Beech, Michal Sivek and Ross Lupaschuk.
In 806 games with Pittsburgh, Jágr became only the second player (after Lemieux) to score 1,000 points as a Penguin. Jágr sits second behind Lemieux in career goals in franchise history and third in games played, assists and points, having since been surpassed by Sidney Crosby.
Washington Capitals (2001–2004)
Later in 2001, the Capitals signed Jágr to the then-largest contract ever in NHL history at $77 million over seven years, an average annual value of $11 million, with an option for an eighth year. However, Jágr did not live up to expectations in Washington, as the Capitals failed to defend their division title and missed the 2002 Stanley Cup playoffs. For the first time during his tenure with the Capitals, Jágr failed to finish among the NHL's top scorers, help his team qualify for the Stanley Cup playoffs or make the NHL All-Star Team. During the summer of 2002, the Capitals reunited Jágr with former linemate Robert Lang. In 2002–03, Washington finished sixth overall in the Eastern Conference but lost to the upstart Tampa Bay Lightning in the first round of the 2003 playoffs despite winning the series' first two games.
The lack of organizational success prompted the Capitals to unload much of their high-priced talent in order to save money—not just a cost-cutting spree, but also an acknowledgement that their attempt to build a contender with high-priced veteran talent had failed. Disgruntled, Washington ownership spent much of 2003 trying to trade Jágr, but a year before a new Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) was to be signed, few teams were willing to risk $11 million on Jágr.
On 23 January 2004, Jágr was eventually traded to the New York Rangers in exchange for Anson Carter and an agreement that Washington would pay approximately $4 million per year of Jágr's salary. Jágr also agreed to defer (with interest) $1 million per year for the remainder of his contract to allow the trade to go through.
New York Rangers (2004–2008)
Due to the new CBA signed before the start of the 2005–06 season, Jágr's salary was reduced to $7.8 million, the maximum allowed under the terms of the new salary cap.
During the NHL labor dispute in 2004–05, he had played for HC Kladno in the Czech Republic, and afterward for Avangard Omsk in the Russian Superleague (RSL).
Jágr led the Czech Republic to gold at the 2005 World Hockey Championships in Austria and was elected a tournament all-star in the process. He also became a member of hockey's prestigious Triple Gold Club, players who have won a Stanley Cup, a World Hockey Championship and an Olympic gold medal.
Prior to the 2005–06 season, the Rangers had missed the playoffs for seven consecutive seasons. Following the fire sale of the high-priced, underachieving veterans that made up the team's roster (as well as the retirement of long-time captain Mark Messier), many experts picked the Rangers to be the worst team in the NHL. Jágr disagreed and promised the team would surprise a lot of people and make the Stanley Cup playoffs. He started strong during the beginning of the 2005 season and the return from the lockout of the NHL. He became only the fourth player in NHL history to score ten or more goals in less than ten games at the start of a season. His return to dominance helped the Rangers return to the Stanley Cup playoffs, but injuries to Jágr and others contributed to a four-game sweep in the first round by the New Jersey Devils.
Jágr scored his 1,400th point on a power-play goal against the Philadelphia Flyers on 2 March 2006, pushing him past Jari Kurri into second place all-time among European-born players. He later passed Stan Mikita to become the all-time leader.
On 18 March 2006, against the Toronto Maple Leafs, Jágr became only the sixth Rangers player in team history to break the 100-point barrier, and became the only Ranger right winger to score 100 points in a season.
On 27 March 2006, against the Buffalo Sabres, Jágr had a goal and an assist, which tied both the Rangers' single-season goal record of 52 (Adam Graves, 1993–94) and the Rangers' single-season points record of 109 (Jean Ratelle, 1971–72). Two nights later, on 29 March, Jágr passed Ratelle when he assisted on Petr Průcha's first-period goal against the New York Islanders' Rick DiPietro. On 8 April, against the Boston Bruins, Jágr scored his NHL-leading 53rd goal of the season, breaking the Rangers' single-season goals record.
After leading the NHL in points and goals for most of the 2005–06 season, Jágr was surpassed by the San Jose Sharks' duo of Joe Thornton (125 points) and Jonathan Cheechoo (56 goals), losing both the Art Ross and Maurice Richard trophies in the final week of the season. Jágr finished with 123 points, 54 goals and 24 power-play goals, second in the NHL in all three categories. He also finished third in the NHL in both assists (69) and plus-minus (+34). However, just as in Washington, playoff success was not to be for Jágr, whose Rangers were swept in four games by New Jersey. In the series, he suffered a dislocated shoulder in the third period of the first game of the series, which kept him from playing at his top form for the rest of the series. Jágr had surgery on the shoulder after the Rangers were eliminated from the playoffs.
Despite being inched out by Joe Thornton for the Art Ross Trophy and Hart Trophy (league MVP), Jágr won his third Lester B. Pearson Award as the NHL's most outstanding player. During his acceptance speech for the Award, Jágr said, "With this award, you get voted on by players you play against every night and I think they understand the game better than the media." He has been named to seven NHL First All-Star Teams.
On 5 October 2006, before the first game of the 2006–07 season (against his former team Washington), Jágr was named as the 24th captain in the history of the New York Rangers, replacing Mark Messier, who had retired before the 2005–06 season. Jágr then proceeded to score a goal on his first shift in the game, just under 30 seconds into the new season.
Jágr scored his 600th career NHL goal on 19 November 2006 against Tampa Bay goaltender Johan Holmqvist, making him the 16th player in NHL history to do so. Power play linemate Brendan Shanahan had scored his 600th goal almost three weeks earlier, making them the first teammates in NHL history to score their 600th goal in the same season.
On 10 February 2007, against Washington, Jágr earned an assist on a goal by Michal Rozsíval to record his 1,500th career point. He is only the 12th NHLer to reach this mark, and the fourth-fastest player to do so after Marcel Dionne, Mario Lemieux and Wayne Gretzky.
On 5 April 2007, against the Montreal Canadiens, Jágr scored his 30th goal of the 2006–07 season to record 15 consecutive seasons of 30 or more goals, tying the NHL record held by Mike Gartner.
After a regular season slowed by a weak shoulder, Jágr then led the New York Rangers to a sweep of the Atlanta Thrashers in the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals, the Rangers would fall to the Buffalo Sabres in Game 6 of the Conference Semifinals.
On 14 November 2007, against New Jersey, Jágr scored his fourth goal of the 2007–08 season at the Prudential Center in Newark, making him the first player to score a goal in 53 different NHL arenas.
Avangard Omsk (2008–2011)
On 3 July 2008, Jágr, an unrestricted free agent for the first time in his career, was informed by Rangers general manager Glen Sather that the club would not offer him a new contract. Sather admitted that the two sides never engaged in detailed negotiations for a new contract, and that after many months of speculation, Jágr was "seriously considering" going to Russia to finish his career, despite offers from other NHL teams. Jágr expressed a desire to possibly finish out his career at his father's club, HC Kladno. On 4 July, Jágr agreed to a two-year contract with Avangard Omsk of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL); the contract was reported to pay Jágr the equivalent of US$5 million annually.
Jágr was named Avangard's captain on 30 January 2009. As a member of Avangard, Jágr was sitting next to Alexei Cherepanov, a first-round pick of the New York Rangers, who died during a game against Vityaz Chekhov. They were discussing the past shift when the 19-year-old Cherepanov collapsed onto Jágr on the bench at the Ice Hockey Center 2004 in Chekov.
In April 2009, Jágr publicly stated an interest in returning to the NHL, stating that he really just needed a break from the pressures of an 82-game NHL schedule. Jágr, who claimed to have lost 15 pounds since his last NHL season, and who was "practicing a lot harder than [he] ever did in [his] life", stated that he would be interested in joining the Edmonton Oilers because of the interest they showed in July 2008. However, following the expiration of his initial contract with Avangard, Jágr signed a new contract with Avangard for the 2010–11 season.
Philadelphia Flyers, Dallas Stars, and Boston Bruins (2011–2013)
On 1 July 2011, Jágr returned to the NHL, but rather than signing with his original NHL team in Pittsburgh, he signed a one-year, $3.3 million contract with the Philadelphia Flyers, the Penguins' cross-state rival. He scored his 1,600th NHL point during his debut game with the Flyers, assisting on a Claude Giroux goal as the Flyers won their season opener 2–1 over the Boston Bruins on 6 October 2011. Typically playing on the first line with Giroux and Scott Hartnell, Jágr was among the top scorers during the start of the 2011–12 season. He scored his first and second goals as a Flyer on 24 October against the Toronto Maple Leafs. On 29 October 2011, against the Carolina Hurricanes, he scored his 650th and 651st NHL goals. He scored his only goal of the 2012 playoffs during Philadelphia's series against Pittsburgh. The Flyers were eliminated by the New Jersey Devils, who would ultimately become the 2012 Eastern Conference champions.
On 3 July 2012, Jágr signed a one-year contract with the Dallas Stars reportedly worth $4.5 million. The signing marked Jágr's first time playing for a club in the Western Conference. Jágr said during a conference call two days later that the Montreal Canadiens had been his first choice as a free agent. "I always wanted to play in Canada and I wanted to go to Montreal if I had a chance, but Montreal wasn't interested," Jágr said. "All of a sudden I got a phone call from Stars' general manager Joe Nieuwendyk that Dallas was interested."
During the 2012–13 NHL lockout, Jágr played for his own team, Rytíři Kladno, in the Czech Extraliga. During the lockout, he scored 24 goals and 33 assists in 34 games and, before leaving Kladno for the Stars, was in second place of Czech Extraliga's scoring list. After the NHL lockout ended, he made his debut as a Star on 19 January 2013, when he tallied two goals and two assists in a 4–3 victory over the Phoenix Coyotes.
Jágr reached the 1,000-assist mark on 29 March 2013 in a game against the Minnesota Wild, becoming just the 12th player to do so and the first non-Canadian NHLer to reach the milestone.
On 2 April 2013, Jágr was traded to the Boston Bruins in exchange for Lane MacDermid, Cody Payne and a conditional third-round pick in the 2013 NHL Entry Draft. He made his Bruins debut on 4 April, scoring the lone goal in Boston's 1–0 win over the New Jersey Devils, and with his second Bruins goal, the first scored in a 3–0 shutout over the Florida Panthers on 21 April 2013, Jágr tied the record for the most game-winning goals in an NHL career (118), previously set by Phil Esposito.
When Jágr played in the first game of the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals, he set a new record for the longest gap between Finals appearances at 21 years, surpassing the previous record of 19 years, which was established by Gary Roberts in 2008; coincidentally, both instances involved someone with the Penguins at one end of those streaks. Also coincidental was that, as in his previous Stanley Cup appearance, Jágr's opponents were the Chicago Blackhawks. After the Bruins lost the Finals to Chicago, the team announced on 26 June 2013 that they did not intend to offer Jágr a new contract.
New Jersey Devils (2013–2015)
On 22 July 2013, Jágr signed a one-year contract with the New Jersey Devils; the contract included $2 million guaranteed and another $2 million as an incentive bonus if Jágr was to play in at least 40 games. Jágr, at age 41, hoped to help the Devils overcome the loss of Ilya Kovalchuk, who had previously departed for the KHL. Jágr scored his first goal as a Devil on 7 October 2013 in a 5–4 shootout loss to the Edmonton Oilers. The goal came on the 23rd anniversary of his first NHL goal which, coincidentally, was against the Devils.
On 21 November 2013, Jágr tied Gordie Howe's record of game-winning goals with 121, with his 690th goal, which tied him in ninth place (with former teammate Mario Lemieux) for all-time goal-scoring leaders. On 20 December, he scored his 693rd goal, putting him in eighth place over Steve Yzerman. A day later, Jágr tied Mark Messier for seventh place in NHL history for goals scored with 694. Later in the season, on 14 January 2014, he scored his 695th goal, passing Messier, putting him 14 goals away from passing Mike Gartner. On 1 March, Jágr scored his 700th career NHL goal as the Devils won 6–1 against the New York Islanders at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum. On 8 April, near the conclusion of the Devils' season, he was awarded the New Jersey Devils MVP Award at their annual team awards ceremony. He scored two points in his final game of the season (two assists in the third period), surpassing Gordie Howe for eighth place on the NHL's all-time list for career assists and tying Steve Yzerman for sixth on the all-time points list at 1,755. Jágr finished the season as the team's leading scorer, with his highest points total in a season since 2007–08. Jágr's play led the Devils to re-sign him to another one-year contract on 30 April. He became the joint sixth-highest scorer in NHL history in November 2014 after scoring his 708th NHL goal for the Devils against Boston. On 8 December, in his 1,500th NHL game, he moved ahead of Marcel Dionne for fifth place on the NHL's all-time points list with 1,772. On 3 January 2015, in a game against the Philadelphia Flyers, Jágr became the oldest player in NHL history to score a hat-trick at 42 years and 322 days. The record was previously held by Detroit Red Wings defenceman Nicklas Lidström.
Florida Panthers (2015–2017)
On 26 February 2015, Jágr was traded to the Florida Panthers in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft and a third-round pick in 2016. He made his team debut on 28 February in a 5–3 Panthers win over the Buffalo Sabres and registered his first points with the team in the following game on 1 March, posting a goal and an assist in a 4–3 win over the Tampa Bay Lightning. On 19 March, Jágr scored his 718th career goal against Detroit to move him past Phil Esposito and fifth on the all-time goal-scoring list. In a 9 April, 4–2 Panthers victory over the Bruins, Jágr registered two assists to give him 1,800 career points in the NHL and sole possession of fourth place on the all-time points list, surpassing former Penguins teammate Ron Francis. On 11 April, in the Panthers' season finale, Jágr reached 2,000 NHL points (including playoff games) when he assisted on a Jonathan Huberdeau goal. He then scored his 800th NHL goal (including playoffs) later in the third period. On 12 April, one day after the end of the 2014–15 regular season, Jágr signed a new one-year, $3.5 million contract with Florida for the 2015–16 season.
Jágr reached multiple milestones as a Panther. On 20 December 2015, he moved into fourth all-time on the NHL scoring list, scoring his 732nd goal to move past Marcel Dionne for fourth place in NHL history. On 4 February 2016, Jágr became the sixth player in NHL history to record 1,100 career assists. On 20 February, he scored his 742nd goal, surpassing Brett Hull for third place in NHL history. In a 7 March, 5–4 overtime loss to the Bruins, an assist on Aleksander Barkov's goal put Jágr at 1,851 career points, passing Gordie Howe on the all-time points list and putting him in sole possession of third place overall. With the Panthers qualifying for the 2016 playoffs, Jágr played in his first playoff series since the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals. Though he only registered two assists in the Panthers' six-game first-round exit to the Islanders (who would win their first playoff series since 1993), he became the fifth NHL player all-time to record 200 career playoff points.
At age 44, Jágr led the Panthers in scoring with 66 points. In reward for his strong play and leadership abilities, the team announced on 5 May 2016 that they had signed Jágr to a new one-year, $4 million contract.
On 20 October 2016, Jágr became the third player in NHL history to score 750 goals. On 22 December 2016, he scored his 1,888th career point, surpassing Mark Messier to become second in career points, and on 15 February 2017, his 45th birthday, he became the second player to register his 1,900th NHL point.
In 2017 on Twitter, as a free agent, Jágr tweeted: "FA 1994 - all GMs called, FA 2017- 0 calls" accompanied by a trophy emoji and a smiley emoji, as well as pictures taken in 1994 and 2017. In the 1994 picture, a smiling Jágr is on the phone with an unspecified general manager. In the 2017 picture, he is seen looking at his mobile phone with a puzzled expression on his face. The Panthers organization announced shortly after that they would not offer Jágr a new contract.
Calgary Flames (2017–2018)
On 4 October 2017, Jágr signed a one-year contract with the Calgary Flames. Jágr had indicated before that he would like to play professionally until age 50, but later said that it would be very likely that he would stop playing after the 2017–18 season, at which point he would be 46. He noted the tendency of teams to focus on younger players to the exclusion of older ones like himself, which he considers understandable and in light of which he remarked, "I was pretty lucky." The Flames were Jágr's ninth NHL team, but his first Canadian team, which prompted him to say, "I want to get the experience so I can one day say I played for a Canadian team. So I'm here."
On 9 November 2017 against the Detroit Red Wings, Jágr scored his first goal as a Flame, earning two points in a 6–3 win. However, on 6 January 2018, it was reported that Jágr and the Flames were negotiating the termination of his contract, as injuries had limited Jágr to a career-low seven points (including the aforementioned one goal) in 22 games. On 14 January 2018, Jágr was placed on the injured reserve, retroactive to 31 December 2017, while the Flames called up Ryan Lomberg from their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Stockton Heat, in his place. On 28 January, it was reported that Jágr was placed on waivers, signalling the end of his brief tenure with the Flames; he cleared waivers the following day and was assigned to HC Kladno in the WSM Liga.
HC Kladno (2018–present)
On 3 February 2018, Jágr played his first game for his hometown team, and his first game since 31 December 2017, playing nearly 20 minutes and recording three assists. In his fifth game for Kladno, he was injured and remained sidelined for the rest of the season with a knee injury. In order to be eligible for participation in the playoff finals, he played a few seconds in ten playoff games. On 14 May, Jágr announced his plans to remain with Kladno for his 30th professional season. On 19 April, Jágr scored four goals in one game as Kladno was promoted to the top-flight Czech Extraliga.
Off-ice incidents
Although he has repeatedly denied that he has a gambling problem, Jágr admitted in 2003 that he settled debts totaling $950,000 with two internet gambling sites between 1998 and 2002. The first of these incidents centered on Belize-based website CaribSports and its owner, William Caesar, to which Jágr owed $500,000. Sports Illustrated reported that Jágr agreed to make monthly payments to Caesar to settle the debt, and Caesar leaked the story to the press when Jágr stopped making payments. In 2003, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) filed a $3.27 million lien against him for unpaid taxes for the 2001 tax year. Only a few months before, Jágr had settled a $350,000 claim for taxes dating to 1999. In the summer of 2006, Jágr sued his former accountant over a tax form that was supposed to have been filed in 2003, claiming that the form would have saved him $6 million had it been timely filed.
Personal life
Jágr resides in the Czech Republic during the off-season. His father, also named Jaromír Jágr, owns a chain of hotels and serves as president of HC Kladno.
Jágr wears the number 68, which he has worn through his entire career, in honour of the Prague Spring that occurred in Czechoslovakia in 1968 and his grandfather, who died while in prison that same year, and had earlier been imprisoned for opposing the collectivization of his farm in the post-war Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia. In any interviews when asked about his number, Jágr explains that he wears it not due to bad relations with Russian people, but rather due to disaffection with Communism. During his time with the New Jersey Devils, Jágr was granted special exception to keep wearing number 68, as then-general manager Lou Lamoriello had a policy in place which generally forbade players from wearing any number higher than 35. Jágr names former United States President Ronald Reagan as his hero for his work towards ending communism in Europe.
Jágr has been a long-time supporter of the liberal conservative Civic Democratic Party (ODS), stating in 2004 that he "had always" voted for the party. In the previous election, he appeared on the party's billboards and was among its sponsors. On 26 May 2010, Jágr announced that he was backing the Civic Democrats and its leader Petr Nečas. At the press conference, he said, "I realize that there will be elections in two to three days. I would like their outcome to be good." He also urged the party not to forget about sports when distributing money. "We all know what would happen if the young did not practice any sport. If children practice some sport, they do not have time for other things such as alcohol."
Jágr is an Orthodox Christian; he was baptized in 2001 by Prague's metropolitan. He began to speak more publicly about his faith during his three-year stint in Russia, a historically Orthodox nation.
Jágr's longevity in the NHL has spawned a fan club known as "The Traveling Jagrs", a group of hockey fans from the Alberta cities of Calgary and Camrose who share interest in the player. The group dresses in the sweater, hockey socks and pant shells of 11 of Jágr's teams (his nine NHL teams, the NHL All-Star Team and the Czech national team) plus long black wigs in reference to Jágr's traditional hair-style. Usually, the club would travel once or twice a year to see him play in person, but with Jágr signing with the Flames, they announced that they would be a more regular fixture at games.
International play
Jágr has represented his country many times. In 1994, he and Pittsburgh Penguins teammate Martin Straka arrived in the middle of the 1994 World Championships after Pittsburgh's elimination from the Stanley Cup playoffs. Czech fans' expectations were high as Jágr was an NHL star, but before the team was able to integrate him into the team, the Czechs lost their quarterfinal game and were eliminated from tournament. Jágr was also hurt in numerous other games.
The 1996 World Cup of Hockey also did not see Jágr at his best. His performance was hampered by the flu and it only underscored the poor play of the whole team — after losing 7–3 to Finland, 3–0 to Sweden and even 7–1 to a relatively weak Germany, the team did not qualify for the tournament's playoffs.
The team's recent failures, however, were mitigated in 1998 when the Czech Republic won the men's gold medal in the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. It was only the third gold medal for Czech or Czechoslovak sportsmen from the Winter Olympics and it is still fondly remembered.
Jágr did not play in the 1996, 1999, 2000 nor 2001 World Championships in which the Czech Republic won the gold medals. He was, however, a member of the team at the 2004 World Championship in Prague, where the expectations were high. However, after the team won all the games in the group, they lost in the quarterfinals game, stumbling out of the tournament.
It was the 2005 edition of the tournament that finally brought a gold medal to Jágr. Although he broke his finger in an early game against Germany, he played with it bandaged during the rest of the tournament and led his team to victory.
More injuries struck Jágr in the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin. He was injured after a hit from Finland's Jarkko Ruutu, requiring stitches to his eyebrow. However, the injury was not as serious as first anticipated, and Jágr was able to play in the following games, though he was unable to finish the bronze medal game due to muscle injury. Despite the trouble, Jágr won his second-career Olympic medal, the bronze. In 2010, Jágr was his nation's flag bearer at the 2010 Winter Olympics, but in the men's ice hockey tournament, the Czechs finished a disappointing seventh after a defeat in the quarterfinals to Finland. Jágr again represented his country at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, scoring two goals and one assist in five games as the Czech Republic again lost in the quarterfinals.
After losing to Sweden in a battle for a bronze medal on 2014 IIHF World Championship in Minsk, Jágr announced the end of his career in international play with the Czech national team, focusing his efforts on returning to the NHL playoffs after New Jersey failed to qualify in 2014. However, Jágr stepped back from his decision after being called up to the Czech team for the 2015 IIHF World Championship in Prague and Ostrava, making the team's roster. On 1 May, he scored a goal in the Czechs' 6–5 loss to Sweden, his 50th for the national team, to become the oldest player to score at the World Championship.
In the Czech Republic's quarterfinal game against Finland, Jágr scored one assist and two goals, including the game-winning goal. At the end of the tournament, despite the Czechs' loss in the bronze medal game, Jágr was named the tournament's most valuable player.
NHL records
These records are for regular season games unless stated otherwise.
Most career game-winning goals – 135
Most career points by a right wing – 1921
Most career assists by a right wing – 1142
Most single-season points by a right wing – 149
Most single-season assists by a right wing – 87
Most single-season points by a European-born player – 149
Most single-season assists by a European-born player – 87
Most career goals by a European-born player – 766
Most career assists by a European-born player – 1142
Most career points by a European-born player – 1921
Most career game-tying goals by a European-born player – 11 (tied with Teemu Selänne)
Most career playoff game-winning goals by a European-born player – 16
Most consecutive 30-goal seasons (1991–2007) – 15 (shared with Mike Gartner and Alexander Ovechkin; included the shortened 1994–95 season, 48 games)
Most consecutive 70-point seasons (15) (including the shortened 1994–95 NHL season, 48 games)
Longest gap between Stanley Cup Finals appearances – 21 years (1992–2013)
Only player to play in the Stanley Cup Finals as a teenager and at over 40 years of age
Oldest player to score 60 points in a season
Oldest player to score a hat-trick (42 years and 322 days old)
Most different teams played on by a 1000-point scorer - 9 (tied with Paul Coffey)
Pittsburgh Penguins records
Most single-season points by a right wing – 149
Most single-season assists by a right wing – 87
Most single-season assists by a European-born player – 87
Most single-season power-play goals by a European-born player – 20
Most single-season game-winning goals – 12
Most single-season shots on goal – 403
Most career points by a right wing – 1079
Most career points by a European-born player – 1079
Most career goals by a right wing – 439
Most career goals by a European-born player – 439
Most career assists by a right wing – 640
Most career assists by a European-born player – 640
Most career playoff game-winning goals – 78
Most career power-play goals by a right wing – 110
Most career power-play goals by a European-born player – 110
Most career shorthanded goals by a European-born player – 9
Most career overtime goals – 9
Most career game-tying goals – 10
Most career shots on goal by a right wing – 2911
Most career shots on goal by a European-born player – 2911
Most career playoff goals by a right wing – 65
Most career playoff goals by a European-born player – 65
Most career playoff points by a right wing – 147
Most career playoff points by a European-born player – 147
Most career playoff shorthanded goals by a right wing – 2 (tied with Ed Olczyk)
Most career playoff shorthanded goals by a European-born player – 2
Most career playoff game-winning goals – 14
Most career playoff overtime goals – 4
Most career playoff shots on goal – 461
Most career playoff power-play goals by a right wing – 19
Most career playoff power-play goals by a European-born player – 19
New York Rangers records
Most single-season goals (2005–06) – 54
Most single-season points (2005–06) – 123
Most single-season power-play goals (2005–06) – 24
Most single-season shots on goal (2005–06) – 368
Most single-season game-winning goals (2005–06) – 9 (tied with Mark Messier 1996–97 and Don Murdoch 1980–81)
Most single-season assists by a right wing (2005–06) – 69
NHL scoring achievements
Jágr is second in NHL career regular season points and is fifth in career playoff points.
He is also amongst the career leaders in several other major NHL regular season statistical categories: goals (3rd), assists (5th), games played (3rd), overtime goals (1st), game-winning goals (1st), even-strength goals (2nd), power-play goals (T-11th), points per game (20th) and shots on goal (2nd).
Also amongst all-time leaders in NHL playoff statistical categories, Jágr ranks in the top 20 in points (5th), goals (11th), assists (9th), overtime goals (T-3rd), game-winning goals (8th), games played (T-15th), power-play goals (T-15th) and shots on goal (3rd).
Awards
NHL
Czech awards
International
KHL
Other
Career statistics
Regular season and playoffs
Bold indicates led league
International
References
Further reading
External links
Jaromír Jágr stats at hokej.cz
1972 births
Living people
Art Ross Trophy winners
Avangard Omsk players
Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy winners
Bolzano HC players
Boston Bruins players
Calgary Flames players
Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy
Czech anti-communists
Czech expatriate ice hockey people
Czech expatriate sportspeople in Russia
Czech expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Czech ice hockey right wingers
Czechoslovak ice hockey right wingers
Dallas Stars players
Eastern Orthodox Christians from the Czech Republic
Expatriate ice hockey players in Russia
Florida Panthers players
Hart Memorial Trophy winners
Rytíři Kladno players
Ice hockey players at the 1998 Winter Olympics
Ice hockey players at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Ice hockey players at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Ice hockey players at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Ice hockey players at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Lester B. Pearson Award winners
Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 1998 Winter Olympics
National Hockey League All-Stars
National Hockey League first round draft picks
New Jersey Devils players
New York Rangers players
Olympic bronze medalists for the Czech Republic
Olympic gold medalists for the Czech Republic
Olympic ice hockey players of the Czech Republic
Olympic medalists in ice hockey
Sportspeople from Kladno
Philadelphia Flyers players
Pittsburgh Penguins draft picks
Pittsburgh Penguins players
Recipients of Medal of Merit (Czech Republic)
Stanley Cup champions
Triple Gold Club
Washington Capitals players | [
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255205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartland%20Collegiate%20Athletic%20Conference | Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference | The Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference (HCAC) is an intercollegiate athletic conference affiliated with the NCAA's Division III. Member institutions are located in Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio. Founded as the Indiana Collegiate Athletic Conference (ICAC) in 1987, it reincorporated under its current name in 1998 with the addition of several schools from Ohio.
Original members of the HCAC included Anderson, Bluffton, Franklin, Hanover, Manchester, Mount St. Joseph, Wabash, and Wilmington. Of the ten current members, six were founding members of the former ICAC.
Former members include DePauw (1987-1998), Taylor (1988-1991), Wabash (1987-1999), and Wilmington (1998-2000). Rose–Hulman Institute of Technology (1988-1998) re-joined as of July 1, 2006.
History
The Indiana Collegiate Athletic Conference (ICAC) was formed in June 1987, with 1990–91 being the first full season of competition (all eight teams competing in eight varsity sports).
Charter members in 1987 included Anderson University, DePauw University, Franklin College, Hanover College, Manchester College, and Wabash College. Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology and Taylor University later joined in 1988.
The addition of three Ohio schools (Bluffton College, the College of Mount St. Joseph, and Wilmington College) and the departure of two Indiana schools (DePauw and Rose-Hulman) during the 1998–99 season prompted a change in name to Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference. Wabash and Wilmington later departed in the 1998–99 and 1999–2000 seasons respectively. Transylvania University joined in 2001. Rose-Hulman re-joined the HCAC, effective for the 2006–07 season.
The most recent expansion was when Earlham College of Richmond, Indiana was accepted as the 10th member of the conference in October 2009 to begin competition in the fall of 2010.
Member schools
Current members
All of the conference's members throughout its history have been private schools. All have a religious affiliation except current member Rose-Hulman and former member Wabash.
Notes
Former members
Notes
Membership timeline
Sports
Member teams compete in women's basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, tennis, track and field and volleyball and men's baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, tennis and track and field.
References
External links
Sports in Indianapolis
Organizations based in Indianapolis | [
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255206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20G.%20Carroll | Leo G. Carroll | Leo Gratten Carroll (25 October 1886 – 16 October 1972) was an English actor. In a career of more than forty years, he appeared in six Hitchcock films including Spellbound, Strangers on a Train and North by Northwest and in three television series, Topper, Going My Way, and The Man from U.N.C.L.E..
Early life
Carroll was born in Weedon Bec, Northamptonshire, to William and Catherine Carroll. His Roman Catholic parents named him after then-Pope Leo XIII. In 1897, his family lived in York, where his Irish-born father was a foreman in an ordnance store. In the 1901 census for West Ham, Essex, his occupation is listed as "wine trade clerk". In the 1911 census, he is living at the same address and described as a "dramatic agent".
Stage career
Carroll made his stage debut in 1912. His acting career was on hold during the First World War, when he served in the British Army. He then performed in London and on Broadway. His American stage debut came in The Vortex. In 1933, he was a member of the Manhattan Theatre Repertory Company in the inaugural season of the Ogunquit Playhouse in Ogunquit, Maine.
During 1933–34 Carroll had the role of "impeccable valet" Trump in the Broadway play The Green Bay Tree (which has no relation to the novel by Louis Bromfield apart from the shared title), and in 1941 starred with Vincent Price and Judith Evelyn in Patrick Hamilton's Angel Street (better known as Gaslight), which ran for three years at the Golden Theatre on West 45th Street in New York City.
After the production closed, he starred in the title role in John P. Marquand's The Late George Apley. In 1947 he starred in John Van Druten's The Druid Circle at the Morosco Theatre.
Films and television
Carroll, who had moved to Hollywood, made his film debut in Sadie McKee (1934). He often played doctors or butlers, but he made appearances as Marley's ghost in A Christmas Carol (1938) and as Joseph in Wuthering Heights (1939). In the original version of Father of the Bride (1950), he played an unctuous wedding caterer. In the 1951 film The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel he played a sympathetic German Field marshal, Gerd von Rundstedt, presenting him as a tragic, resigned figure completely disillusioned with Hitler.
Carroll is perhaps best known for his roles in six Alfred Hitchcock films: Rebecca (1940), Suspicion (1941), Spellbound (1945), The Paradine Case (1947), Strangers on a Train (1951) and North by Northwest (1959). He appeared in more Hitchcock films than anyone other than Clare Greet (1871–1939) (who appeared in seven) and Hitchcock himself, whose cameos were a trademark. As with earlier roles, he was often cast as doctors or other authority figures (such as the spymaster "Professor" in North by Northwest). He also appeared in a couple of Charlie Chan films, one being "City of Darkness" (1939) as a shady French locksmith, followed by a role in
Charlie Chan's "Murder Cruise" (1940) as a passenger on ship.
Carroll also had a central role in the highly rated movie We're No Angels with Humphrey Bogart, Peter Ustinov and Basil Rathbone, among others.
In addition to appearing as Rev. Mosby with actress Hayley Mills in The Parent Trap (1961), Carroll is remembered for his role as the frustrated banker haunted by the ghosts of George and Marion Kerby in the television series Topper (1953–1956), with co-stars Anne Jeffreys, Robert Sterling and Lee Patrick. He appeared as the older Father Fitzgibbon from 1962 to 1963 in ABC's Going My Way, a series about two Roman Catholic priests at St. Dominic's parish in New York City. In 1963–1964, he portrayed John Miller in Channing on ABC. Carroll subsequently starred as spymaster Alexander Waverly on The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1964–1968). Several U.N.C.L.E. films were derived from the series, and a spin-off television series, The Girl from U.N.C.L.E. in 1966. He was one of the first actors to appear in two different television series as the same character. Leo G. Carroll is mentioned in The Rocky Horror Show opening song "Science Fiction/Double Feature".
He appeared in spots on the first two regular episodes of Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In, the series that replaced U.N.C.L.E., and in fact appears as Mr. Waverly in the very first episode party scene where he is seen using a pen communicator to call Kuryakin to report that he believes he has found THRUSH headquarters.
Death
In 1972, Carroll died in Hollywood of cancer-induced pneumonia. He is interred at the Grand View Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.
In popular culture
Carroll was posthumously referenced in the lyrics of "Science Fiction/Double Feature", the opening song of the musical stage production The Rocky Horror Show and its 1975 film adaptation. The song refers to Carroll in connection with his role in the film Tarantula.
Selected filmography
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Director
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1934
| Sadie McKee
| Phelps Finnegan
| Clarence Brown
|
|-
| 1934
| Stamboul Quest
| Kruger, #117 aka Bertram Church
| Sam WoodJack Conway (uncredited)
| uncredited
|-
| 1934
| The Barretts of Wimpole Street| Dr. Ford-Waterlow
| Sidney Franklin|
|-
| 1934
| Outcast Lady| Dr. Masters
| Robert Z. Leonard|
|-
| 1935
| Clive of India| Mr. Manning
| Richard Boleslawski|
|-
| 1935
| The Right to Live| Dr. Harvester
| William Keighley|
|-
| 1935
| Murder on a Honeymoon| Joseph B. Tate
| Lloyd Corrigan|
|-
| 1935
| The Casino Murder Case| Smith
| Edwin L. Marin|
|-
| 1936
| The Man I Marry| Mr. Furthermore,
| Ralph Murphy| uncredited
|-
| 1937
| Captains Courageous| Burns
| Victor Fleming| uncredited
|-
| 1937
| London by Night| Correy
| Wilhelm Thiele|
|-
| 1938
| A Christmas Carol| Marley's Ghost
| Edwin L. Marin|
|-
| 1939
| Bulldog Drummond's Secret Police| Henry Seaton
| James P. Hogan|
|-
| 1939
| Wuthering Heights| Joseph
| William Wyler|
|-
| 1939
| The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex| Sir Edward Coke
| Michael Curtiz|
|-
| 1939
| Tower of London| Lord Hastings
| Rowland V. Lee|
|-
| 1939
| Charlie Chan in City in Darkness| Louis Santelle
| Herbert I. Leeds|
|-
| 1940
| Charlie Chan's Murder Cruise| Professor Gordon
| Eugene Forde|
|-
| 1940
| Waterloo Bridge| Policeman
| Mervyn LeRoy| uncredited
|-
| 1940
| Rebecca| Dr. Baker
| Alfred Hitchcock|
|-
| 1941
| Scotland Yard| Craven
| Norman Foster|
|-
| 1941
| This Woman Is Mine| Angus 'Sandy' McKay
| Frank Lloyd|
|-
| 1941
| Bahama Passage| Delbridge
| Edward H. Griffith|
|-
| 1941
| Suspicion| Captain Melbeck
| Alfred Hitchcock|
|-
| 1945
| The House on 92nd Street| Col. Hammersohn
| Henry Hathaway|
|-
| 1945
| Spellbound| Dr. Murchison
| Alfred Hitchcock|
|-
| 1947
| Time Out of Mind| Capt. Fortune
| Robert Siodmak|
|-
| 1947
| Song of Love| Professor Wieck
| Clarence Brown|
|-
| 1947
| The Paradine Case| Sir Joseph
| Alfred Hitchcock|
|-
| 1947
| Forever Amber| Matt Goodgroome
| Otto Preminger|
|-
| 1948
| So Evil My Love| Jarvis
| Lewis Allen|
|-
| 1948
| Enchantment| Proutie
| Irving Reis|
|-
| 1950
| Father of the Bride| Mr. Massoula
| Vincente Minnelli|
|-
| 1950
| The Happy Years| The Old Roman
| William Wellman|
|-
| 1951
| The First Legion| Father Rector Paul Duquesne
| Douglas Sirk|
|-
| 1951
| The Desert Fox| Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt
| Henry Hathaway|
|-
| 1951
| Strangers on a Train| Sen. Morton
| Alfred Hitchcock|
|-
| 1952
| The Snows of Kilimanjaro| Uncle Bill
| Henry King|
|-
| 1952
| The Bad and the Beautiful| Henry Whitfield
| Vincente Minnelli|
|-
| 1953
| Treasure of the Golden Condor| Raoul Dondel
| Delmer Daves|
|-
| 1953
| Rogue's March| Col. Henry Lenbridge
| Geoffrey Barkas|
|-
| 1953
| Young Bess| Mr. Mums
| George Sidney|
|-
| 1955
| We're No Angels| Felix Ducotel
| Michael Curtiz|
|-
| 1955
| Tarantula| Prof. Gerald Deemer
| Jack Arnold|
|-
| 1956
| The Swan| Caesar
| Charles Vidor|
|-
| 1959
| North by Northwest| the Professor
| Alfred Hitchcock|
|-
| 1961
| The Parent Trap| Rev. Dr. Mosby
| David Swift|
|-
| 1961
| One Plus One| Professor Logan
|
|
|-
| 1963
| The Prize| Count Bertil Jacobsson
| Mark Robson|
|-
| 1965
| That Funny Feeling| O'Shea
| Richard Thorpe|
|-
| 1968
| From Nashville with Music| Arnold
|
|
|-
|}
As Alexander Waverly (The Man from U.N.C.L.E.)
The Vulcan Affair (1964) (S1/Ep01)
The Spy with My Face (1965)
One Spy Too Many (1966)
One of Our Spies Is Missing (1966)
The Spy in the Green Hat (1967)
The Karate Killers (1967)
The Helicopter Spies (1968)
How to Steal the World'' (1968)
References
External links
1886 births
1972 deaths
20th-century English male actors
Actors from Northamptonshire
British Army personnel of World War I
British expatriate male actors in the United States
Burials at Grand View Memorial Park Cemetery
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from pneumonia in California
English expatriates in the United States
English male film actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English people of Irish descent
Male actors from Los Angeles
People from Weedon Bec | [
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] |
255207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mayors%20of%20Milwaukee | List of mayors of Milwaukee | This is a list of mayors of Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
List
External links
JS Online
Milwaukee
Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Mayors | [
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255212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil%20Wallber | Emil Wallber | Emil Wallber (April 1, 1841June 2, 1923) was a German American lawyer and judge. He was the Mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, at the time of the Bay View massacre and labor strike, and adopted the city's first ordinance on an eight-hour work day.
Early life and career
Born in Berlin, Prussia, Wallber immigrated to the United States with his family in 1850. He is the son of Julius and Henrietta Krohn Wallber, both of whom had also been born in Berlin. They settled in New York City, where he was educated in the public schools and the New York free academy.
At age 14, Wallber moved to Milwaukee, intent on studying law. He first took a position as a clerk for Charles F. Bode, who was then justice of the peace. He then went to study in the law offices of Edward Salomon and Winfield Smith, who would later become the Governor and Attorney General of Wisconsin, respectively. Salomon was elected Lieutenant Governor in 1861, and became Governor on the death of Governor Harvey in April 1862. On ascending to the Governorship, Salomon hired Wallber as his chief clerk, serving with the Governor until the end of his term in January 1864. Wallber meanwhile continued his study of the law and was admitted to the State Bar of Wisconsin later that year. He then returned to the service of Winfield Smith as an assistant Attorney General and remained in that role until the end of Smith's term in 1866.
Elected office
Wallber then returned to Milwaukee and practiced law. He was elected as a school commissioner, and served as president of the school board from 1871 to 1873. He was elected to serve in the Wisconsin State Assembly for the 1872 session, and served as Milwaukee City Attorney from 1873 to 1878. He was County court commissioner for ten years, and from 1883 to 1890 was a regent of the state normal schools.
He was elected Mayor of Milwaukee in 1884 and was re-elected in 1886. During his second term as mayor, there was a major labor walkout during agitation for the eight-hour workday. The strikes closed virtually every business in Milwaukee, starting on May Day, May 1, 1886. At Wallber's request, the Governor, Jeremiah McLain Rusk, called up the Wisconsin National Guard. In what's now known as the Bay View massacre, on May 5, the national guard fired into the protesters as they marched on the North Chicago Rolling Mills in Bay View. Seven people died as a result, including a thirteen year old boy.
In April 1889, the year after he left the Mayors office, Wallber was elected judge of the municipal court. He was re-elected in 1895 and left office in 1902. In his later life, he served as a German consular agent in Milwaukee from 1906 to his retirement in 1917.
Wallber is buried at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee.
Electoral history
Wisconsin Assembly (1871)
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;background-color: #e9e9e9;"| General Election, November 7, 1871
References
External links
German emigrants to the United States
Mayors of Milwaukee
Lawyers from Milwaukee
Wisconsin lawyers
Wisconsin Republicans
Wisconsin state court judges
Members of the Wisconsin State Assembly
1841 births
1923 deaths
Burials in Wisconsin
19th-century American lawyers | [
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255213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Stuart%20Rose | David Stuart Rose | David Stuart Rose Democrat (June 30, 1856 – August 8, 1932) was an American lawyer and Democratic politician.
Background
Born in Darlington, Wisconsin, Rose joined his father's law firm in Darlington. He served as mayor of Darlington in 1883 and 1884 and was county judge of Lafayette County, Wisconsin.
Move to Milwaukee
In 1886, he moved to Milwaukee where he practiced law and was twice elected mayor of the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin serving from 1898 to 1906 and from 1908 to 1910, when he was defeated by Socialist Emil Seidel. He was the 1902 Democratic nominee for Governor of Wisconsin, running a conservative campaign losing to incumbent Robert M. La Follette by a wide margin.
His administration was known for widespread corruption. Under "All the Time Rosy", Milwaukee had a reputation as a "wide-open" town that tolerated prostitution, gambling and late-night saloons. As historian John Gurda put it, "Virtually everything that was not nailed down - from public hay supplies to aldermanic votes - was for sale to the highest bidder." After spending some time in California trying to promote trade with China, Rose returned to Milwaukee and ran once again for mayor in 1924 but lost the election to Socialist Daniel Hoan.
Back to Lafayette County
Rose later returned to Darlington and in 1931 ran once more (unsuccessfully) for county judge of Lafayette County. He died in Milwaukee on August 8, 1932, and is buried in Darlington.
See also
Twin Buttes, Arizona
Notes
External links
1856 births
1932 deaths
People from Darlington, Wisconsin
Mayors of Milwaukee
Wisconsin lawyers
Wisconsin state court judges | [
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255215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil%20Seidel | Emil Seidel | Emil Seidel (December 13, 1864 – June 24, 1947) was a prominent German-American politician. Seidel was the mayor of Milwaukee from 1910 to 1912. The first Socialist mayor of a major city in the United States, Seidel became the Vice Presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America in the 1912 presidential election.
Biography
Early years
Seidel was born December 13, 1864 in the town of Ashland in Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, the son of ethnic German emigrants from Pomerania. His family moved to Wisconsin in 1867, living first in Prairie du Chien before moving to the state capital of Madison. Seidel's father, Otto Seidel, was a carpenter, and his mother, Henrietta Knoll Seidel, was a homemaker.
Seidel attended public school up to the age of 13, when he dropped out to become a woodcarver. He continued to study after leaving school, reading extensively. At the age of 19 he started a trade union of local woodworkers, becoming the organization's first secretary.
At the age of 22, Seidel went abroad to refine his skills as a woodcarver. He lived for six years in Berlin, working at his trade during the day and attending school at night. It was in this period that Seidel first became an active socialist.
In 1895, Seidel married the former Lucy Geissel. They had one son, Lucius, who died in infancy, and one daughter, Viola. The pair would ultimately divorce in 1924.
Political career
When Seidel returned to the United States in 1892 he joined the Socialist Labor Party of America. Seidel was a charter member of the first SLP branch in Milwaukee. He also became an active member of the Pattern Makers Union.
Seidel later joined the Social Democracy of America (established 1897), the Social Democratic Party of America (established 1898), and the Socialist Party of America (established 1901) in turn. He resided briefly in Washington state, serving as the first secretary of Local Redmond SPA in the fall of 1901.
In 1904 Seidel was one of nine Socialists to win electoral victory as Milwaukee city aldermen, elected in the city's 20th ward. He served two terms in that position before making his first mayoral run in 1908. He was returned as a city alderman at large in the election of 1909.
In 1910, Seidel was elected mayor of Milwaukee, becoming the first Socialist mayor of a major city in the United States. During his administration the first public works department was established, the first fire and police commission was organized, and a city park system came into being. Seidel cleaned up the town with strict regulation of bars and the closing of brothels and sporting parlors (modern-day casinos). During his administration Seidel employed the noted American poet and author Carl Sandburg as his personal secretary. Seidel's socialist inclinations had attracted Sandburg to Milwaukee.
In his Spring 1912 bid for re-election, Seidel faced the combined forces of the Democratic and Republican parties, who ran a single candidate in order to defeat Seidel and the Socialists. Despite winning more votes in 1912 than in 1910, Seidel was defeated by Gerhard Bading, local doctor, professor of surgery, and commissioner of health, on a fusion Democratic-Republican ticket.
Freed of his mayoral duties by electoral defeat, Seidel became a logical choice as the Socialist Party's nominee for Vice President of the United States on the ticket with Eugene V. Debs. The pair won 901,551 votes in the 1912 presidential election, 6% of the total vote.
Seidel tried to win re-election as mayor of Milwaukee in 1914, but was soundly defeated. He was returned to the city council as an alderman at large in the city election of 1916. He won re-election in 1918, remaining at the post until 1920.
Seidel, an opponent of World War I, voted against Milwaukee's purchase of Liberty bonds to help finance the war effort. He also was an outspoken opponent of a proposed Milwaukee "loyalty ordinance". In the superheated wartime political climate, marked by political repression of the anti-war movement, Seidel ran afoul of the law when he was arrested on November 12, 1917, in Horicon, Wisconsin following a speech he made there. Charged with "tending to provoke an assault or breach of peace during an address", he was fined $50.
In 1932 Seidel ran for a seat in the United States Senate from Wisconsin, winning 6% of the vote. He served a final four-year stint as a Milwaukee city alderman from 1932 until 1936.
Later years
Seidel retired from political life in the middle 1930s. He remained a resident of Milwaukee, living on the northwest side of the city, passing his time painting, composing music, creating poetry, and writing his autobiography.
Death and legacy
Seidel died in Milwaukee on June 24, 1947, following an illness of several months' duration related to complications from a heart condition. He was 82 years old.
Seidel's unpublished memoirs reside in Madison at the Wisconsin Historical Society, where they are available to scholars on microfilm.
See also
List of elected socialist mayors in the United States
Daniel Hoan
Frank P. Zeidler
Social-Democratic Party of Wisconsin
References
Works
What We Have Done in Milwaukee. Chicago, IL: National Office of the Socialist Party, 1911.
Which Must Go? America or Private Ownership of Railroads? Milwaukee: Socialist Party of Wisconsin, 1923.
Thy Kingdom Come: Sketches from My Life: Autobiography of Emil Seidel. [1944] Madison, WI: State Historical Society of Wisconsin.
Joining the Socialist Movement. Corvallis, OR: 1000 Flowers Publishing, 2013.
Building the Social Democratic Party. Corvallis, OR: 1000 Flowers Publishing, 2013.
Further reading
External links
|-
1864 births
1947 deaths
American trade unionists of German descent
American woodcarvers
Mayors of Milwaukee
Milwaukee City Council members
Patternmakers (industrial)
People from Ashland, Pennsylvania
Socialist Party of America politicians from Wisconsin
1912 United States vice-presidential candidates
Writers from Pennsylvania
Writers from Wisconsin | [
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255217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamo%20theory | Dynamo theory | In physics, the dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by which a celestial body such as Earth or a star generates a magnetic field. The dynamo theory describes the process through which a rotating, convecting, and electrically conducting fluid can maintain a magnetic field over astronomical time scales. A dynamo is thought to be the source of the Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic fields of Mercury and the Jovian planets.
History of theory
When William Gilbert published de Magnete in 1600, he concluded that the Earth is magnetic and proposed the first hypothesis for the origin of this magnetism: permanent magnetism such as that found in lodestone. In 1919, Joseph Larmor proposed that a dynamo might be generating the field. However, even after he advanced his hypothesis, some prominent scientists advanced alternative explanations. Einstein believed that there might be an asymmetry between the charges of the electron and proton so that the Earth's magnetic field would be produced by the entire Earth. The Nobel Prize winner Patrick Blackett did a series of experiments looking for a fundamental relation between angular momentum and magnetic moment, but found none.
Walter M. Elsasser, considered a "father" of the presently accepted dynamo theory as an explanation of the Earth's magnetism, proposed that this magnetic field resulted from electric currents induced in the fluid outer core of the Earth. He revealed the history of the Earth's magnetic field through pioneering the study of the magnetic orientation of minerals in rocks.
In order to maintain the magnetic field against ohmic decay (which would occur for the dipole field in 20,000 years), the outer core must be convecting. The convection is likely some combination of thermal and compositional convection. The mantle controls the rate at which heat is extracted from the core. Heat sources include gravitational energy released by the compression of the core, gravitational energy released by the rejection of light elements (probably sulfur, oxygen, or silicon) at the inner core boundary as it grows, latent heat of crystallization at the inner core boundary, and radioactivity of potassium, uranium and thorium.
At the dawn of the 21st century, numerical modeling of the Earth's magnetic field has not been successfully demonstrated. Initial models are focused on field generation by convection in the planet's fluid outer core. It was possible to show the generation of a strong, Earth-like field when the model assumed a uniform core-surface temperature and exceptionally high viscosities for the core fluid. Computations which incorporated more realistic parameter values yielded magnetic fields that were less Earth-like, but indicated that model refinements may ultimately lead to an accurate analytic model. Slight variations in the core-surface temperature, in the range of a few millikelvins, result in significant increases in convective flow and produce more realistic magnetic fields.
Formal definition
Dynamo theory describes the process through which a rotating, convecting, and electrically conducting fluid acts to maintain a magnetic field. This theory is used to explain the presence of anomalously long-lived magnetic fields in astrophysical bodies. The conductive fluid in the geodynamo is liquid iron in the outer core, and in the solar dynamo is ionized gas at the tachocline. Dynamo theory of astrophysical bodies uses magnetohydrodynamic equations to investigate how the fluid can continuously regenerate the magnetic field.
It was once believed that the dipole, which comprises much of the Earth's magnetic field and is misaligned along the rotation axis by 11.3 degrees, was caused by permanent magnetization of the materials in the earth. This means that dynamo theory was originally used to explain the Sun's magnetic field in its relationship with that of the Earth. However, this hypothesis, which was initially proposed by Joseph Larmor in 1919, has been modified due to extensive studies of magnetic secular variation, paleomagnetism (including polarity reversals), seismology, and the solar system's abundance of elements. Also, the application of the theories of Carl Friedrich Gauss to magnetic observations showed that Earth's magnetic field had an internal, rather than external, origin.
There are three requisites for a dynamo to operate:
An electrically conductive fluid medium
Kinetic energy provided by planetary rotation
An internal energy source to drive convective motions within the fluid.
In the case of the Earth, the magnetic field is induced and constantly maintained by the convection of liquid iron in the outer core. A requirement for the induction of field is a rotating fluid. Rotation in the outer core is supplied by the Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth. The Coriolis force tends to organize fluid motions and electric currents into columns (also see Taylor columns) aligned with the rotation axis. Induction or creation of magnetic field is described by the induction equation:
where u is velocity, B is magnetic field, t is time, and is the magnetic diffusivity with electrical conductivity and permeability. The ratio of the second term on the right hand side to the first term gives the magnetic Reynolds number, a dimensionless ratio of advection of magnetic field to diffusion.
Tidal heating supporting a dynamo
Tidal forces between celestial orbiting bodies cause friction that heats up their interiors. This is known as tidal heating, and it helps keep the interior in a liquid state. A liquid interior that can conduct electricity is required to produce a dynamo. Saturn's Enceladus and Jupiter's Io have enough tidal heating to liquify their inner cores, but they may not create a dynamo because they cannot conduct electricity. Mercury, despite its small size, has a magnetic field, because it has a conductive liquid core created by its iron composition and friction resulting from its highly elliptical orbit. It is theorized that the Moon once had a magnetic field, based on evidence from magnetized lunar rocks, due to its short-lived closer distance to Earth creating tidal heating. An orbit and rotation of a planet helps provide a liquid core, and supplements kinetic energy that supports a dynamo action.
Kinematic dynamo theory
In kinematic dynamo theory the velocity field is prescribed, instead of being a dynamic variable: The model makes no provision for the flow distorting in response to the magnetic field. This method cannot provide the time variable behaviour of a fully nonlinear chaotic dynamo, but can be used to study how magnetic field strength varies with the flow structure and speed.
Using Maxwell's equations simultaneously with the curl of Ohm's law, one can derive what is basically a linear eigenvalue equation for magnetic fields (), which can be done when assuming that the magnetic field is independent from the velocity field. One arrives at a critical magnetic Reynolds number, above which the flow strength is sufficient to amplify the imposed magnetic field, and below which the magnetic field dissipates.
Practical measure of possible dynamos
The most functional feature of kinematic dynamo theory is that it can be used to test whether a velocity field is or is not capable of dynamo action. By experimentally applying a certain velocity field to a small magnetic field, one can observe whether the magnetic field tends to grow (or not) in response to the applied flow. If the magnetic field does grow, then the system is either capable of dynamo action or is a dynamo, but if the magnetic field does not grow, then it is simply referred to as “not a dynamo”.
An analogous method called the membrane paradigm is a way of looking at black holes that allows for the material near their surfaces to be expressed in the language of dynamo theory.
Spontaneous breakdown of a topological supersymmetry
Kinematic dynamo can be also viewed as the phenomenon of the spontaneous breakdown of the topological supersymmetry of the associated stochastic differential equation related to the flow of the background matter. Within stochastic supersymmetric theory, this supersymmetry is an intrinsic property of all stochastic differential equations, its interpretation is that the model’s phase space preserves continuity via continuous time flows. When the continuity of that flow spontaneously breaks down, the system is in the stochastic state of deterministic chaos. In other words, kinematic dynamo arises because of chaotic flow in the underlying background matter.
Nonlinear dynamo theory
The kinematic approximation becomes invalid when the magnetic field becomes strong enough to affect the fluid motions. In that case the velocity field becomes affected by the Lorentz force, and so the induction equation is no longer linear in the magnetic field. In most cases this leads to a quenching of the amplitude of the dynamo. Such dynamos are sometimes also referred to as hydromagnetic dynamos.
Virtually all dynamos in astrophysics and geophysics are hydromagnetic dynamos.
The main idea of the theory is that any small magnetic field existing in the outer core creates currents in the moving fluid there due to Lorentz force. These currents create further magnetic field due to Ampere's law. With the fluid motion, the currents are carried in a way that the magnetic field gets stronger (as long as is negative). Thus a "seed" magnetic field can get stronger and stronger until it reaches some value that is related to existing non-magnetic forces.
Numerical models are used to simulate fully nonlinear dynamos. The following equations are used:
The induction equation, presented above.
Maxwell's equations for negligible electric field:
The continuity equation for conservation of mass, for which the Boussinesq approximation is often used:
The Navier-Stokes equation for conservation of momentum, again in the same approximation, with the magnetic force and gravitation force as the external forces:
where is the kinematic viscosity, is the mean density and is the relative density perturbation that provides buoyancy (for thermal convection where is coefficient of thermal expansion), is the rotation rate of the Earth, and is the electric current density.
A transport equation, usually of heat (sometimes of light element concentration):
where is temperature, is the thermal diffusivity with thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and density, and is an optional heat source. Often the pressure is the dynamic pressure, with the hydrostatic pressure and centripetal potential removed.
These equations are then non-dimensionalized, introducing the non-dimensional parameters,
where is the Rayleigh number, the Ekman number, and the Prandtl and magnetic Prandtl number. Magnetic field scaling is often in Elsasser number units
Energy conversion between magnetic and kinematic energy
The scalar product of the above form of Navier-Stokes equation with gives the rate of increase of kinetic energy density, , on the left-hand side. The last term on the right-hand side is then , the local contribution to the kinetic energy due to Lorentz force.
The scalar product of the induction equation with gives the rate of increase of the magnetic energy density, , on the left-hand side. The last term on the right-hand side is then Since the equation is volume-integrated, this term is equivalent up to a boundary term (and with the double use of the scalar triple product identity) to (where one of Maxwell's equations was used). This is the local contribution to the magnetic energy due to fluid motion.
Thus the term is the rate of transformation of kinetic energy to magnetic energy. This has to be non-negative at least in part of the volume, for the dynamo to produce magnetic field.
From the diagram above, it is not clear why this term should be positive. A simple argument can be based on consideration of net effects. To create the magnetic field, the net electric current must wrap around the axis of rotation of the planet. In that case, for the term to be positive, the net flow of conducting matter must be towards the axis of rotation. The diagram only shows a net flow from the poles to the equator. However mass conservation requires an additional flow from the equator toward the poles. If that flow was along the axis of rotation, that implies the circulation would be completed by a flow from the ones shown towards the axis of rotation, producing the desired effect.
Order of magnitude of the magnetic field created by Earth's dynamo
The above formula for the rate of conversion of kinetic energy to magnetic energy, is equivalent to a rate of work done by a force of on the outer core matter, whose velocity is . This work is the result of non-magnetic forces acting on the fluid.
Of those, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force are conservative and therefore have no overall contribution to fluid moving in closed loops. Ekman number (defined above), which is the ratio between the two remaining forces, namely the viscosity and Coriolis force, is very low inside Earth's outer core, because its viscosity is low (1.2–1.5 ×10 pascal-second) due to its liquidity.
Thus the main time-averaged contribution to the work is from Coriolis force, whose size is though this quantity and are related only indirectly and are not in general equal locally (thus they affect each other but not in the same place and time).
The current density is itself the result of the magnetic field according to Ohm's law. Again, due to matter motion and current flow, this is not necessarily the field at the same place and time. However these relations can still be used to deduce orders of magnitude of the quantities in question.
In terms of order of magnitude, and , giving or:
The exact ratio between both sides is the square root of Elsasser number.
Note that the magnetic field direction cannot be inferred from this approximation (at least not its sign) as it appears squared, and is, indeed, sometimes reversed, though in general it lies on a similar axis to that of .
For earth outer core, is approximately 104 kg/m3, = 2/day = 7.3×10−5/second and is approximately 107Ω−1m−1 .
This gives 2.7×10−4 Tesla.
The magnetic field of a magnetic dipole has an inverse cubic dependence in distance, so its order of magnitude at the earth surface can be approximated by multiplying the above result with {{nowrap| () = 0.093 ,}} giving 2.5×10−5 Tesla, not far from to the measured value of 3×10−5 Tesla at the equator.
Numerical models
Broadly, models of the geodynamo attempt to produce magnetic fields consistent with observed data given certain conditions and equations as mentioned in the sections above. Implementing the magnetohydrodynamic equations successfully was of particular significance because they pushed dynamo models to self-consistency. Though geodynamo models are especially prevalent, dynamo models are not necessarily restricted to the geodynamo; solar and general dynamo models are also of interest. Studying dynamo models has utility in the field of geophysics as doing so can identify how various mechanisms form magnetic fields like those produced by astrophysical bodies like Earth and how they cause magnetic fields to exhibit certain features, such as pole reversals.
The equations used in numerical models of dynamo are highly complex. For decades, theorists were confined to two dimensional kinematic dynamo models described above, in which the fluid motion is chosen in advance and the effect on the magnetic field calculated. The progression from linear to nonlinear, three dimensional models of dynamo was largely hindered by the search for solutions to magnetohydrodynamic equations, which eliminate the need for many of the assumptions made in kinematic models and allow self-consistency.
The first self-consistent dynamo models, ones that determine both the fluid motions and the magnetic field, were developed by two groups in 1995, one in Japan and one in the United States. The latter was made as a model with regards to the geodynamo and received significant attention because it successfully reproduced some of the characteristics of the Earth's field. Following this breakthrough, there was a large swell in development of reasonable, three dimensional dynamo models.
Though many self-consistent models now exist, there are significant differences among the models, both in the results they produce and the way they were developed. Given the complexity of developing a geodynamo model, there are many places where discrepancies can occur such as when making assumptions involving the mechanisms that provide energy for the dynamo, when choosing values for parameters used in equations, or when normalizing equations. In spite of the many differences that may occur, most models have shared features like clear axial dipoles. In many of these models, phenomena like secular variation and geomagnetic polarity reversals have also been successfully recreated.
Observations
Many observations can be made from dynamo models. Models can be used to estimate how magnetic fields vary with time and can be compared to observed paleomagnetic data to find similarities between the model and the Earth. Due to the uncertainty of paleomagnetic observations, however, comparisons may not be entirely valid or useful. Simplified geodynamo models have shown relationships between the dynamo number (determined by variance in rotational rates in the outer core and mirror-asymmetric convection (e.g. when convection favors one direction in the north and the other in the south)) and magnetic pole reversals as well as found similarities between the geodynamo and the Sun's dynamo. In many models, it appears that magnetic fields have somewhat random magnitudes that follow a normal trend that average to zero. In addition to these observations, general observations about the mechanisms powering the geodynamo can be made based on how accurately the model reflects actual data collected from Earth.
Modern modelling
The complexity of dynamo modelling is so great that models of the geodynamo are limited by the current power of supercomputers, particularly because calculating the Ekman and Rayleigh number of the outer core is extremely difficult and requires a vast number of computations.
Many improvements have been proposed in dynamo modelling since the self-consistent breakthrough in 1995. One suggestion in studying the complex magnetic field changes is applying spectral methods to simplify computations. Ultimately, until considerable improvements in computer power are made, the methods for computing realistic dynamo models will have to be made more efficient, so making improvements in methods for computing the model is of high importance for the advancement of numerical dynamo modelling.
See also
Antidynamo theorem
Rotating magnetic field
Secular variation
References
Geomagnetism
Plasma physics
Magnetohydrodynamics
Structure of the Earth
Computational physics
Unsolved problems in physics
Magnetism in astronomy | [
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255221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Zeidler | Carl Zeidler | Carl Frederick Zeidler (January 4, 1908 – December 11, 1942) was an American politician and the mayor of the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, from 1940 to 1942, winning election by unseating six-term Socialist mayor Dan Hoan. After just two years in office Zeidler resigned his position as mayor to enlist in the United States Navy Reserve to fight in World War II. His merchant marine ship and all hands were lost off the coast of South Africa in December 1942.
Biography
Early years
Zeidler was born January 4, 1908 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to parents of German ancestry. He graduated from Marquette University in 1929 and received a J.D. in 1931.
Political career
Serving as an assistant city attorney for Milwaukee (1936–1940), Zeidler stunned the city when he upset six-term Socialist mayor Daniel Hoan to become mayor of Milwaukee in 1940. Hoan had served as mayor for the past 24 years.
His rise to power was orchestrated by young writers Robert Bloch (later the author of Psycho) and Harold Gauer, who created elaborate campaign shows. In Bloch's autobiography, Once Around the Bloch, he gives an inside account of the campaign, and the innovations he and Gauer came up with ... for instance, the original "releasing-balloons-from-the-ceiling" schtick. He comments bitterly on how, after Zeidler's election, they were ignored and not even paid their promised salaries, while credit was taken by local establishment figures like Milton Rice Polland instead.
Bloch ends the account with a philosophical point:
Death and legacy
Zeidler's election was attracting attention on the national political scene as World War II broke out. After a year in office, Zeidler came to believe he could best help the war effort by enlisting; he resigned his position as mayor and accepted a Naval Reserve commission on April 8, 1942. He asked for the most dangerous job on ship and became officer in charge of a gun battery on board the merchant ship SS La Salle.
The ship and all hands were reported missing off the coast of South Africa on December 11, 1942, sunk by a German U-boat U-159 torpedo attack. Zeidler was officially presumed dead November 7, 1944. A gravestone cenotaph marks his plot at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee.
Carl's brother, socialist Frank P. Zeidler later became mayor of Milwaukee and served in that position from 1948 to 1960. Carl's personal and mayoral papers are archived at Milwaukee Public Library alongside those of his brother Frank.
See also
Frank P. Zeidler
List of mayors of Milwaukee
References
1908 births
1940s missing person cases
1942 deaths
20th-century American politicians
American people of German descent
Marquette University alumni
Marquette University Law School alumni
Mayors of Milwaukee
Military personnel from Milwaukee
Missing in action of World War II
Missing person cases in Africa
People who died at sea
United States Navy officers
United States Navy personnel killed in World War II
United States Navy reservists | [
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255222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illini%E2%80%93Badger%20Football%20Conference | Illini–Badger Football Conference | The Illini-Badger Football Conference (IBFC) was an athletic conference with the NCAA's Division III. Member teams were located in Illinois and Wisconsin. As the name indicates, member teams only competed in football. They participated in other athletic conferences in other sports. The conference's last season was in 2007.
Member teams during final season
Aurora University
Benedictine University
Concordia University Chicago
Concordia University Wisconsin
Eureka College
Greenville College
Lakeland College
MacMurray College
Former members
Iowa Wesleyan College (1989–1992)
Milton College (1976–1982)
Northeastern Illinois University (1976–1988)
Principia College (1989–1992)
Quincy University (1993–1996)
Conference champions
1975 - Milton
1976 - Milton
1977 - Northeastern Illinois
1978 - Milton
1979 - Lakeland
1980 - Milton
1981 - Concordia (WI), Milton & Northeastern Illinois
1982 - Northeastern Illinois
1983 - Concordia (IL)
1984 - Northeastern Illinois
1985 - Lakeland
1986 - Lakeland
1987 - Concordia (IL)
1988 - Concordia (WI)
1989 - Greenville
1990 - Concordia (WI)
1991 - Eureka
1992 - Greenville
1993 - Quincy
1994 - Quincy
1995 - Eureka
1996 - Lakeland
1997 - Lakeland
1998 - Aurora
1999 - Aurora
2000 - Aurora
2001 - MacMurray
2002 - MacMurray
2003 - Concordia (WI)
2004 - Aurora, Concordia (WI) & Lakeland
2005 - Lakeland
2006 - Concordia (WI)
2007 - Concordia (WI) & Lakeland
See also
Lake Michigan Conference
Northern Illinois-Iowa Conference
St. Louis Intercollegiate Athletic Conference
Northern Athletics Conference
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255226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Zeidler | Frank Zeidler | Frank Paul Zeidler (September 20, 1912 – July 7, 2006) was an American socialist politician and mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, serving three terms from April 20, 1948, to April 18, 1960. Zeidler, a member of the Socialist Party of America, is the last Socialist Party candidate to be elected mayor of a large American city.
Early life and career
Zeidler was born in Milwaukee on September 20, 1912. He studied at both the University of Chicago and Marquette University, but was never able to graduate due to ill health. He became a socialist because of socialism's emphasis on peace and improving the conditions for workers. In an interview, Zeidler said he chose the ideology of socialism in 1933 "because of several things in its philosophy. One was the brotherhood of people all over the world. Another was its struggle for peace. Another was the equal distribution of economic goods. Another was the idea of cooperation. A fifth was the idea of democratic planning in order to achieve your goals. Those were pretty good ideas". He distanced himself from the beliefs of communism, especially communism linked in any way to the Soviet Union. Indeed, he was (and remained) an active Lutheran, a religious commitment which he saw as being fulfilled rather than contradicted by his Socialist activism. Later however, he credited his adoption of socialism to reading left-wing literature, with the majority being written by Eugene V. Debs and Norman Thomas during the Great Depression.
Zeidler became an active member of the Young People's Socialist League (YPSL), the youth branch of the Socialist Party of America, he later became the leader of the Milwaukee branch of the Red Falcons during the 1930s.
Elections
Zeidler was elected Milwaukee County Surveyor in 1938 on the Progressive Party ballot line (the Socialist Party and Progressives were in coalition in Milwaukee at that time). He was elected to a six-year term on the Milwaukee Board of School Directors (a non-partisan office) in 1941, just after his brother Carl Zeidler was elected Mayor of Milwaukee in 1940. In 1942, Frank Zeidler was the Socialist nominee for Governor of Wisconsin, receiving 1.41% of the vote in a six-way race. He was re-elected to the Milwaukee School Board in 1947.
After two years in office, Carl Zeidler enlisted in the Navy at the height of World War II. Carl was killed at sea when his ship was lost and became a local hero, helping to pave the way for his younger brother to become mayor. In 1948 Frank Zeidler ran for mayor in a crowded field of fourteen candidates and won, undoubtedly aided by the familiarity of his surname. The large field of candidates was due to Mayor John Bohn declining to seek re-election in 1948. Among the candidates that year was attorney Henry S. Reuss, a Democrat who later went on to win election to Congress in 1954. Zeidler was re-elected in 1952 and 1956, but declined to seek another term in 1960, citing health reasons.
Zeidler was Milwaukee's third Socialist mayor (after Emil Seidel [1910-12] and Daniel Hoan [1916-40]), making Milwaukee the largest American city to elect three Socialists to its highest office.
Mayoralty
During Frank Zeidler's administration, Milwaukee grew industrially and never had to borrow money to repay loans. During this period, Milwaukee nearly doubled its size with an aggressive campaign of municipal annexations: large parts of the Town of Lake and most of the Town of Granville were annexed to the city. The park system was upgraded. Zeidler spearheaded planning and construction of the beginning of Milwaukee's freeway system, and turned it over to Milwaukee County in 1954. A transportation advocate claims that Zeidler always maintained that the projected Milwaukee freeway system should have been built and that the city's competitiveness had been compromised by the failure to complete the planned system.
Zeidler's plans for the city were only a partial success. Milwaukee doubled in area through annexation and it experienced very little decline in population during a period of American urban decline starting in the 1960s and lasting until about 1990. Suburban residents and governments fiercely resisted annexation and the politics of regional Milwaukee became highly factional. An attorney who sued to block annexation claimed Zeidler planted listening devices in his office. Zeidler, angry about the resistance to his plans, said in 1958: "The city consults with suburban governments, but we do not believe they have reason for existing."
Zeidler faced the vexing issue of race relations as Milwaukee's African-American population tripled during the 1950s. Zeidler was a vocal supporter of the civil rights movement and his opponents tried to exploit this to their advantage. Zeidler's political enemies spread false rumors that Zeidler had put billboards in the South asking blacks to come north. Many workers in Milwaukee were threatened for supporting Zeidler. One manufacturer even threatened to fire employees who voted for Zeidler. Zeidler cited bad personal health and the race issue as reasons for not running for re-election in 1960.
After leaving office
After leaving office, Frank Zeidler worked as a mediator, as development director for Alverno College, and served in the administration of Wisconsin Governor John W. Reynolds. As a leader of the Public Enterprise Committee, Zeidler was a frequent and severe critic of his successor, Henry Maier. He supported a number of unsuccessful attempts to defeat Maier in subsequent elections.
Zeidler was instrumental in re-forming the Socialist Party USA in 1973, and served as its National Chair for many years. He was the party's presidential nominee in 1976, getting on ten state ballots. The party had 400-600 members nationwide at the time. Zeidler agreed to run when other leading members of the SPUSA declined to do so. He and his running mate, J. Quinn Brisben, received 6,038 votes, including approximately 2,500 in Milwaukee County, Wisconsin.
On July 26, 2004 Zeidler appeared at the 2004 Green Party National Convention in Milwaukee to welcome delegates to the convention.
He died July 7, 2006, and is buried at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee. His mayoral and personal papers are archived at Milwaukee Public Library alongside those of his brother Carl Zeidler. Several additional boxes of his papers are archived at the Golda Meir Library of the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.
Writing and scholarship
Zeidler wrote several books, including not only treatises on municipal government, labor law, socialism, and Milwaukee history, but poetry, renditions of four of Shakespeare's plays into present-day English, and children's stories. His 1961 memoir of his time as mayor, A Liberal in City Government, was published in 2005 by Milwaukee Publishers LLC, a local company formed for the purpose.
On June 13, 1958 Zeidler was the first person to receive an honorary doctorate from the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee., which now sponsors the Frank P. Zeidler International
Graduate Student Travel Award, a scholarship enabling a non-American scholar to study for a master's degree in American history at UWM. The Wisconsin Labor History Society also sponsors an annual undergraduate Frank P. Zeidler Scholarship in labor history. The Milwaukee Public Library's historic collections are housed in the Frank P. Zeidler Humanities Room, named in his honor. On May 21, 2006 he received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Cardinal Stritch University in Milwaukee.
Jeanne Zeidler
Zeidler's daughter, Jeanne Zeidler, served as mayor of Williamsburg, Virginia, from 1998 until 2010, when she retired.
See also
List of elected socialist mayors in the United States
References
Further reading
Hayes, Paul G. "Remembering Zeidler". Wisconsin People & Ideas, vol. 52, no. 4 (Fall 2006), pp. 30–32.
External links
Oral History Interview with Frank Zeidler, July 17, 1981
"The Last Socialist Mayor". Interviewer, Amy Goodman. Democracy Now!. June 21, 2004.
"Before Bernie Sanders, There Was Zeidler, a Religious Socialist", The New York Times
Funeral service video clips includes tributes by Mayor Tom Barrett and historian John Gurda
1912 births
2006 deaths
American Christian pacifists
American Christian socialists
American Lutherans
American people of German descent
American political party founders
University of Chicago alumni
Marquette University alumni
Mayors of Milwaukee
Politicians from Milwaukee
Socialist Party of America politicians from Wisconsin
Socialist Party USA presidential nominees
Candidates in the 1976 United States presidential election
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee alumni
Writers from Wisconsin
School board members in Wisconsin
Socialist Party USA politicians from Wisconsin
Lutheran socialists
20th-century American politicians
20th-century Lutherans | [
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255231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards | 1991 Governor General's Awards | Each winner of the 1991 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit received $10,000 and a medal from the Governor General of Canada. The winners were selected by a panel of judges administered by the Canada Council for the Arts.
English Language
Fiction
Winner:
Rohinton Mistry, Such a Long Journey
Other Finalists:
Margaret Atwood, Wilderness Tips
Don Dickinson, Blue Husbands
Douglas Glover, A Guide to Animal Behaviour
Terry Griggs, Quickening
Poetry
Winner:
Don McKay, Night Field
Other Finalists:
Don Domanski, Wolf-Ladder
Judith Fitzgerald, Rapturous Chronicles
Patrick Lane, Mortal Remains
Anne Michaels, Miner's Pond
Drama
Winner:
Joan MacLeod, Amigo's Blue Guitar
Other Finalists:
Sally Clark, The Trial of Judith K.
Don Druick, Where is Kabuki?
Linda Griffiths, The Darling Family
Daniel David Moses, Coyote City
Non-fiction
Winner:
Robert Hunter and Robert Calihoo, Occupied Canada: A Young White Man Discovers His Unsuspected Past
Other Finalists:
Northrop Frye, Words With Power
Kristjana Gunnars, Zero Hour
D. L. MacDonald, Poor Polidori: A Critical Biography of the Author of "The Vampyre"
Rosemary Sullivan, By Heart: Elizabeth Smart, A Life
Children's Literature – Text
Winner:
Sarah Ellis, Pick-Up Sticks
Other Finalists:
Martha Brooks, Two Moons in August
Roch Carrier, A Happy New Year's Day
Jean Little, Stars Come Out Within
Monty Reid, The Last Great Dinosaurs
Children's Literature – Illustration
Winner:
Joanne Fitzgerald, Doctor Kiss Says Yes
Other Finalists:
Kady MacDonald Denton, The Travelling Musicians
Michèle Lemieux, Peter and the Wolf
Gilles Pelletier, A Happy New Year's Day
Jacqueline White, Coyote Winter
Translation (from French to English)
Winner:
Albert W. Halsall, A Dictionary of Literary Devices: Gradus, A-Z
Other Finalists:
Linda Gaboriau, Lilies or the Revival of a Romantic Drama
Peter Keating, Physics and the Rise of Scientific Research in Canada
Patricia Smart and Dorothy Howard, The Diary of André Laurendeau
French Language
Fiction
Winner:
André Brochu, La croix du Nord
Other Finalists:
Flora Balzano, Soigne ta chute
Georges-Hébert Germain, Christophe Colomb: Naufrage sur les côtes du paradis
Hans-Jürgen Greif, L'Autre Pandore
Hélène Rioux, Les Miroirs d'Éléonore
Poetry
Winner:
Madeleine Gagnon, Chant pour un Québec lointain
Other Finalists:
Claude Beausoleil, Une certaine fin de siècle
François Charron, L'Intraduisible amour
Herménégilde Chiasson, Vous
Rachel Leclerc Les vies frontalières
Drama
Winner:
Gilbert Dupuis, Mon oncle Marcel qui vague vague près du métro Berri
Other Finalists:
Victor-Lévy Beaulieu, La maison cassée
Michel Marc Bouchard, L'Histoire de l'oie
Dominic Champagne, La répétition
Suzanne Lebeau, Conte du jour et de la nuit
Non-fiction
Winner:
Bernard Arcand, Le Jaguar et le Tamanoir
Other Finalists:
Betty Bednarski, Autour de Ferron : littérature, traduction, altérité
Guy Bourgeault, L'Éthique et le droit : face aux nouvelles technologies biomédicales
Jacques Jaffelin, Le Promeneur d'Einstein
Robert Major, Jean Rivard ou l'art de réussir: idéologies et utopie dans l'oeuvre d'Antoine Gérin-Lajoie
Children's Literature – Text
Winner:
François Gravel, Deux heures et demie avant Jasmine
Other Finalists:
Ginette Anfousse, Un terrible secret
Johanne Mercier, L'Été des autres
Daniel Sernine, Quatre destins
Children's Literature – Illustration
Winner:
Sheldon Cohen, Un champion
Other Finalist:
Stéphane Poulin, Un voyage pour deux : contes et mensonges de mon enfance
Translation (from English to French)
Winner:
Jean-Paul Sainte-Marie and Brigitte Chabert Hacikyan, Les Enfants d'Aataentsic: l'histoire du peuple huron
Other Finalists:
Jean Antonin Billard and Christine Le Boeuf, Orages électriques
Brigitte Chabert Hacikyan, Le Canada au temps des aventuriers
Michèle Marineau, Sur le rivage
Colette Tonge, Un heureux canular
References
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards | [
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255232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate%20Management%20Admission%20Test | Graduate Management Admission Test | The Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT ( ())) is a computer adaptive test (CAT) intended to assess certain analytical, writing, quantitative, verbal, and reading skills in written English for use in admission to a graduate management program, such as an MBA program. It requires knowledge of certain specific grammar and knowledge of certain specific algebra, geometry, and arithmetic. According to the test-owning company, the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC), the GMAT assesses analytical writing and problem-solving abilities while also addressing data sufficiency, logic, and critical reasoning skills that it believes to be vital to real-world business and management success. It can be taken up to five times a year but no more than eight times total. Attempts must be at least 16 days apart.
GMAT is a registered trademark of the Graduate Management Admission Council. More than 7,000 programs at approximately 2,300+ graduate business schools around the world accept the GMAT as part of the selection criteria for their programs. Business schools use the test as a criterion for admission into a wide range of graduate management programs, including MBA, Master of Accountancy, Master of Finance programs and others. The GMAT is administered online and in standardized test centers in 114 countries around the world. According to a survey conducted by Kaplan Test Prep, the GMAT is still the number one choice for MBA aspirants. According to GMAC, it has continually performed validity studies to statistically verify that the exam predicts success in business school programs. The number of test-takers of GMAT plummeted from 2012 to 2021.
History
In 1953, the organization now called the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC) began as an association of nine business schools, whose goal was to develop a standardized test to help business schools select qualified applicants. In the first year it was offered, the assessment (now known as the Graduate Management Admission Test), was taken just over 2,000 times; in recent years, it has been taken more than 230,000 times annually. Initially used in admissions by 54 schools, the test is now used by more than 7,000 programs at approximately 2,300 graduate business schools around the world. On June 5, 2012, GMAC introduced an integrated reasoning section to the exam that aims to measure a test taker's ability to evaluate information presented in multiple formats from multiple sources. In April of 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the closing of in-person testing centers around the world, GMAC quickly moved to launch an online format of the GMAT exam.
Criticism
In 2013, an independent research study considered three full-time MBA programs and reported that the GMAT Total score had a 0.29 correlation with the first-year GPA (Grade Point Average) of the MBA programs while undergraduate GPA had a 0.35 correlation. When the GMAT Total score was combined with undergraduate GPA, the AACSB score provided the best predictive power (0.45) for the first-year performance on MBA core courses.
In 2017, GMAC conducted a large-scale validity study involving 28 graduate business programs, and the results showed that the median correlation between the GMAT Total score and graduate GPA was 0.38, the median correlation between the GMAT IR score and graduate GPA was 0.27, and the median correlation between undergraduate GPA and graduate GPA was 0.32. The results also showed that undergraduate GPA and GMAT scores (i.e., Verbal, Quant, IR, and AWA) jointly had 0.51 correlation with graduate GPA.
Format and timing
The GMAT exam consists of four sections: an analytical writing assessment, an integrated reasoning section, a quantitative section, and a verbal section. Total testing time is three hours and seven minutes. Test takers have 30 minutes for the analytical writing assessment and another 30 minutes to work through 12 questions, which often have multiple parts, on the integrated reasoning section and are given 62 minutes to work through 31 questions in the quantitative section and another 65 minutes to get through 36 questions in the verbal section.
The quantitative and verbal sections of the GMAT exam are both multiple-choice and are administered in the computer-adaptive format, adjusting to a test taker's level of ability. At the start of the quantitative and verbal sections, test takers are presented with a question of average difficulty. As questions are answered correctly, the computer presents the test taker with increasingly difficult questions and as questions are answered incorrectly the computer presents the test taker with questions of decreasing difficulty. This process continues until test takers complete each section, at which point the computer will have an accurate assessment of their ability level in that subject area and come up with a raw score for each section.
On July 11, 2017, the GMAC announced that from now on the order in which the different parts of the GMAT are taken can be chosen at the beginning of the exam.
Three options will be available at the test center:
Analytical Writing Assessment, Integrated Reasoning, Quantitative, Verbal (original order)
Verbal, Quantitative, Integrated Reasoning, Analytical Writing Assessment
Quantitative, Verbal, Integrated Reasoning, Analytical Writing Assessment
In April 2018, the GMAC officially shortened the test by half an hour, shortening the verbal and quantitative sections from 75 minutes each to 65 and 62 minutes, respectively, and shortening some of the instruction screens.
Analytical Writing Assessment (AWA)
The AWA consists of a 30-minute writing task—analysis of an argument. It is important to be able to analyze the reasoning behind a given argument and write a critique of that argument. The essay will be given two independent ratings and these ratings are averaged together to determine the test taker's AWA score. One rating is given by a computerized reading evaluation and another is given by a person at GMAC who will read and score the essay themselves without knowing what the computerized score was. The automated essay-scoring engine is an electronic system that evaluates more than 50 structural and linguistic features, including organization of ideas, syntactic variety, and topical analysis. If the two ratings differ by more than one point, another evaluation by an expert reader is required to resolve the discrepancy and determine the final score.
The analytical writing assessment is graded on a scale of 0 (minimum) to 6 (maximum) in half-point intervals. A score of 0 indicates that the response was either nonsensical, off-topic, or completely blank.
Integrated reasoning section
Integrated Reasoning (IR) is a section introduced in June 2012 and is designed to measure a test taker's ability to evaluate data presented in multiple formats from multiple sources. The skills being tested by the integrated reasoning section were identified in a survey of 740 management faculty worldwide as important for today's incoming students. The integrated reasoning section consists of 12 questions (which often consist of multiple parts themselves) in four different formats: graphics interpretation, two-part analysis, table analysis, and multi-source reasoning. Integrated reasoning scores range from 1 to 8. Like the Analytical Writing Assessment (AWA), this section is scored separately from the quantitative and verbal section. Performance on the IR and AWA sections do not contribute to the total GMAT score.
The integrated reasoning section includes four question types: table analysis, graphics interpretation, multi-source reasoning, and two-part analysis. In the table analysis section, test takers are presented with a sortable table of information, similar to a spreadsheet, which has to be analyzed. Each question will have several statements with opposite-answer options (e.g., true/false, yes/no), and test takers click on the correct option. Graphics interpretation questions ask test takers to interpret a graph or graphical image. Each question has fill-in-the-blank statements with pull-down menus; test takers must choose the options that make the statements accurate. Multi-source reasoning questions are accompanied by two to three sources of information presented on tabbed pages. Test takers click on the tabs and examine all the relevant information, which may be a combination of text, charts, and tables to answer either traditional multiple-choice or opposite-answer (e.g., yes/no, true/false) questions. Two-part analysis questions involve two components for a solution. Possible answers are given in a table format with a column for each component and rows with possible options. Test takers have to choose one response per column.
Quantitative section
The quantitative section of the GMAT seeks to measure the ability to reason quantitatively, solve quantitative problems, interpret graphic data, and analyze and use information given in a problem. Questions require knowledge of certain algebra, geometry, and arithmetic. There are two types of quantitative questions: problem solving and data sufficiency. The use of calculators is not allowed on the quantitative section of the GMAT. Test takers must do their math work out by hand using a wet erase pen and laminated graph paper which are given to them at the testing center. Scores range from 0 to 60, although GMAC only reports scores between 6 and 51.
Problem solving questions are designed to test the ability to reason quantitatively and to solve quantitative problems. Data sufficiency is a question type unique to the GMAT designed to measure the ability to understand and analyze a quantitative problem, recognize what information is relevant or irrelevant and determine at what point there is enough information to solve a problem or recognize the fact that there is insufficient information given to solve a particular problem.
Verbal section
The verbal section of the GMAT exam includes the following question types: reading comprehension, critical reasoning, and sentence correction. Each question type gives five answer options from which to select. Verbal scores range from 0 to 60; however, scores below 9 or above 44 are rare.
According to GMAC, the reading comprehension question type tests ability to analyze information and draw a conclusion. Reading comprehension passages can be anywhere from one to several paragraphs long. According to GMAC, the critical reasoning question type assesses reasoning skills. According to GMAC, the sentence correction question type tests grammar and effective communication skills. From the available answer options, the test taker should select the most effective construction that best expresses the intent of the sentence.
Scoring
The total GMAT score ranges from 200 to 800 and measures performance on the quantitative and verbal sections together (performance on the AWA and IR sections do not count toward the total score, those sections are scored separately). Scores are given in increments of 10 (e.g. 540, 550, 560, 570, etc.).
The score distribution conforms to a bell curve with a standard deviation of approximately 120 points, meaning that about 68% of examinees score between 430 and 670. More precisely, over the three-year period 2014–2017 the mean score was 556.04 with a standard deviation of 120.45 points.
The final score is not based solely on the last question the examinee answers (i.e. the level of difficulty of questions reached through the computer adaptive presentation of questions). The algorithm used to build a score is more complicated than that. The examinee can make a mistake and answer incorrectly and the computer will recognize that item as an anomaly. If the examinee misses the first question, the final score will not necessarily fall in the bottom half of the range.
At the end of the exam, an unofficial preview of the GMAT score earned is shown to the test taker, who then has two minutes to decide whether to keep or cancel the score at the test center. A test taker can also cancel a score online within the 72 hours after the scheduled exam start time. A cancelled score can be reinstated for 4 years and 11 months after the date of the test for a fee of $50.
Use by clubs for intellectuals
Scores at or above the 99th percentile are accepted as qualifying evidence to join Intertel, and a score of at least 746 qualifies one for admission to the International Society for Philosophical Enquiry. According to an official study conducted by the GMAC, a score of at least 760 is required to reach the 99th percentile.
Scheduling and preparing for the exam
Test takers may register for the GMAT either online at mba.com or by calling one of the test centers. To schedule an exam, an appointment must be made at one of the designated test centers. The GMAT may not be taken more than once within 16 days but no more than five times in a rolling 12-month period and no more than eight times total, even if the scores are canceled. Official GMAT exam study materials are available on the mba.com online store and through third-party vendors. The cost of the exam is $250. All applicants are required to present valid ID when taking the test. Upon completion of the test, test takers have the option of canceling or reporting their scores. As of July 2014, test takers were allowed to view their score before making this decision.
There are test preparation companies that offer GMAT courses, private and group instruction as well as practice platforms. Other available test preparation resources include university text books, GMAT preparation books and online material, sample tests, and free web resources.
Because of the COVID-19 outbreak, the GMAT was made available to take online and at home starting April 20, 2020. Top business schools, including Harvard Business School and MIT Sloan, announced that they would accept scores from the virtual exam.
See also
Business school
Master of Accountancy
Master of Business Administration
List of admissions tests
References
External links
Graduate Management Admission Council
1953 establishments in the United States
Standardized tests
Business education
Standardized tests in the United States | [
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255236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Temple%20Bell | Eric Temple Bell | Eric Temple Bell (7 February 1883 – 21 December 1960) was a Scottish-born mathematician and science fiction writer who lived in the United States for most of his life. He published non-fiction using his given name and fiction as John Taine.
Early life and education
Eric Temple Bell was born in Peterhead, Aberdeen, Scotland as third of three children to Helen Jane Lyall and James Bell Jr. His father, a factor, relocated to San Jose, California, in 1884, when he was fifteen months old. After his father died on 4 January 1896, the family returned to Bedford, England.
Bell was educated at Bedford Modern School, where his teacher Edward Mann Langley inspired him to continue the study of mathematics.
Bell returned to the United States, by way of Montreal, in 1902. He studied at Stanford University, the University of Washington, and Columbia University (where he was a student of Cassius Jackson Keyser).
Career
Bell was part of the faculty first at the University of Washington and later at the California Institute of Technology.
He researched number theory; see in particular Bell series. He attempted—not altogether successfully—to make the traditional umbral calculus (understood at that time to be the same thing as the "symbolic method" of Blissard) logically rigorous. He also did much work using generating functions, treated as formal power series, without concern for convergence. He is the eponym of the Bell polynomials and the Bell numbers of combinatorics. In 1924 he was awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize for his work in mathematical analysis. He died in 1960 in Watsonville, California.
Work
Fiction and poetry
During the early 1920s, Bell wrote several long poems. He also wrote several science fiction novels, which independently invented some of the earliest devices and ideas of science fiction. Only the novel The Purple Sapphire was published at the time, using the pseudonym John Taine; this was before Hugo Gernsback and the genre publication of science fiction. His novels were published later, both in book form and serialised in magazines. Basil Davenport, writing in The New York Times, described Taine as "one of the first real scientists to write science-fiction [who] did much to bring it out of the interplanetary cops-and-robbers stage." But he concluded that "[Taine] is sadly lacking as a novelist, in style and especially in characterization."
Writing about mathematics
Bell wrote a book of biographical essays titled Men of Mathematics (one chapter of which was the first popular account of the 19th century mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaya), which is still in print. He originally wrote it under the title The Lives of Mathematicians, but the publishers, Simon and Schuster, cut about a third of it (125,000 words), and, in order to tie in with their book Men of Art (by Thomas Craven), gave it the title Men of Mathematics which he did not like. The book inspired notable mathematicians including Julia Robinson, John Forbes Nash, Jr., and Andrew Wiles to begin a career in mathematics. However, historians of mathematics have disputed the accuracy of much of Bell's history. In fact, Bell does not distinguish carefully between anecdote and history. He has been much criticized for romanticizing Évariste Galois. For example: "[E. T.] Bell's account [of Galois's life], by far the most famous, is also the most fictitious." His treatment of Georg Cantor, which reduced Cantor's relationships with his father and with Leopold Kronecker to stereotypes, has been criticized even more severely.
While this book was under printing, he also wrote and had published another book, The Handmaiden of the Sciences. Bell's later book Development of Mathematics has been less famous, but his biographer Constance Reid finds it has fewer weaknesses.
His book on Fermat's Last Theorem, The Last Problem, was published the year after his death and is a hybrid of social history and the history of mathematics. It inspired mathematician Andrew Wiles to solve the problem.
Non-fiction books
An Arithmetical Theory of Certain Numerical Functions, Seattle Washington, The University, 1915, 50p. PDF/DjVu copy from Internet Archive.
The Cyclotomic Quinary Quintic, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, The New Era Printing Company, 1912, 97p.
Algebraic Arithmetic, New York, American Mathematical Society, 1927, 180p.
Debunking Science, Seattle, University of Washington book store, 1930, 40p.
The Queen of the Sciences, Stechert, 1931, 138p.
Numerology, Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Co., 1933, 187p.
Reprint: Westport, CT: Hyperion Press, 1979, , 187p. – "Reprint of the ed. published by Century Co., New York"
The Search for Truth, Baltimore, Reynal and Hitchcock, 1934, 279p.
Reprint: Williams and Wilkins Co, 1935
The Handmaiden of the Sciences, Williams & Wilkins, 1937, 216p.
Man and His Lifebelts, New York, Reynal & Hitchcock, 1938, 340p.
Reprint: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1935, 2nd printing 1946
Reprint: Kessinger Publishing, 2005
Men of Mathematics, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1937, 592p.
Reprint: Touchstone (Simon & Schuster paperback), 1986.
The Development of Mathematics, New York, McGraw–Hill, 1940, 637p.
Second Edition: New York, McGraw–Hill, 1945, 637p.
Reprint: Dover Publications, 1992
The Magic of Numbers, Whittlesey House, 1946, 418p.
Reprint: New York, Dover Publications, 1991, , 418p.
Reprint: Sacred Science Institute, 2006
Mathematics: Queen and Servant of Science, McGraw-Hill, 1951, 437p.
The Last Problem, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1961, 308p.
Reprint: Mathematical Association of America, 1990, , 326p.
Scholarly papers
"Arithmetical paraphrases". In: Transactions of the American Mathematical Society 22, 1921, pp. 1–30 and 198–219
"Arithmetical equivalents for a remarkable identity between theta functions". In: Mathematische Zeitschrift 13, 1922, pp. 146–152
"Existence theorems on the numbers of representations of odd integers as sums of 4t + 2 squares". In: Crelles Journal 163, 1930, pp. 65–70
"Exponential numbers". In: The American Mathematical Monthly 41, 1934, pp. 411–419
Novels
The Purple Sapphire (1924)
The Gold Tooth (1927)
Quayle's Invention (1927)
Green Fire (1928)
The Greatest Adventure (1929)
The Iron Star (1930)
The White Lily (1930)
The Time Stream (1931)
Seeds of Life (1931)
Before the Dawn (1934)
Tomorrow (1939)
The Forbidden Garden (1947)
The Cosmic Geoids and One Other (1949)
The Crystal Horde (1952)
G.O.G. 666 (1954)
Poetry
The Singer (1916)
References
Sources
Reid, Constance (1993). The Search for E. T. Bell, Also Known as John Taine. Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America. x + 372 pp. . .
Rothman, T. (1982). "Genius and biographers: the fictionalization of Evariste Galois". American Mathematics Monthly 89, no. 2, 84–106.
Further reading
External links
Biographical sketch by Constance Reid
MAA presidents: Eric Temple
(distinct from Bell)
(distinct from Taine)
Author profile in the database zbMATH
1883 births
1960 deaths
People educated at Bedford Modern School
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American mathematicians
American science fiction writers
Scottish science fiction writers
Historians of mathematics
Scottish expatriates in the United States
Scottish mathematicians
Combinatorialists
Mathematics popularizers
Presidents of the Mathematical Association of America
20th-century Scottish writers
American male novelists
Stanford University alumni
University of Washington alumni
Columbia University alumni
University of Washington faculty
California Institute of Technology faculty
People from Peterhead
People from Watsonville, California
Scottish novelists
Novelists from California
Novelists from Washington (state)
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences | [
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] |
255239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HKL | HKL | HKL may refer to:
Handball Korea League
Hattha Kaksekar, a Cambodian microfinace organization
Helsinki City Transport
Hongkong Land, a land developer in Hong Kong
Kuala Lumpur Hospital (Malay: )
Miller index (hkℓ), describing crystal lattice planes | [
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255242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki%20City%20Transport | Helsinki City Transport | Helsinki City Transport or HKL (Finnish: Helsingin kaupungin liikennelaitos, Swedish: Helsingfors stads trafikverk, abbreviated to HST) is the official city-owned public transport company in Helsinki, Finland. It operates the Helsinki Metro, the Helsinki tram system and the ferry system. HKL's bus operations were merged with another city-owned company, Suomen Turistiauto, to form a new bus company called Helsingin Bussiliikenne, which has since been acquired by Koiviston Auto. Until the founding of HSL in January 2010, HKL was responsible for the planning and organization of all public transport in Helsinki.
See also
Public transport in Helsinki
Helsinki metro
Helsinki tram
Helsinki City Bikes
References
External links
Official HKL site
Journey Planner for Helsinki region
Public transport operators
Transport in Helsinki
Transport in Finland | [
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255244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater | Seawater | Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/l, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximately of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium () and chloride () ions). Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/l. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/l at ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. In comparison, most human physiological saline levels are approximately one quarter of this, for example blood is 9g/l (0.9% w/v). The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about . The coldest seawater still in the liquid state ever recorded was found in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier: the measured temperature was . Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.
Geochemistry
Salinity
Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g/kg and 38 g/kg, that is 3.1–3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with freshwater runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. Monsoon), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still - about ten times higher in the case of the Dead Sea. Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the "Practical Salinity Scale" where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (PSU)". The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity" scale with the salinity expressed in units of "g/kg".
Thermophysical properties of seawater
The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3. Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity. Brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure is 1088 kg/m3. Seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s (whereas speed of sound is usually around 330 m/s in air at roughly 101.3kPa pressure, 1 atmosphere), and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and a salinity of 35 g/kg.
The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature.
Chemical composition
Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater. However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water, the percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of all dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% for seawater. Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chloride have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and calcium. Its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/l.
Small amounts of other substances are found, including amino acids at concentrations of up to 2 micrograms of nitrogen atoms per liter, which are thought to have played a key role in the origin of life.
Microbial components
Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline, but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli-like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA, enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million."
Bacteria are found at all depths in the water column, as well as in the sediments, some being aerobic, others anaerobic. Most are free-swimming, but some exist as symbionts within other organisms – examples of these being bioluminescent bacteria. Cyanobacteria played an important role in the evolution of ocean processes, enabling the development of stromatolites and oxygen in the atmosphere.
Some bacteria interact with diatoms, and form a critical link in the cycling of silicon in the ocean. One anaerobic species, Thiomargarita namibiensis, plays an important part in the breakdown of hydrogen sulfide eruptions from diatomaceous sediments off the Namibian coast, and generated by high rates of phytoplankton growth in the Benguela Current upwelling zone, eventually falling to the seafloor.
Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's biomass, clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane, an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers.
Pandoravirus salinus, a species of very large virus, with a genome much larger than that of any other virus species, was discovered in 2013. Like the other very large viruses Mimivirus and Megavirus, Pandoravirus infects amoebas, but its genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA, is twice as large as that of Megavirus, and it differs greatly from the other large viruses in appearance and in genome structure.
In 2013 researchers from Aberdeen University announced that they were starting a hunt for undiscovered chemicals in organisms that have evolved in deep sea trenches, hoping to find "the next generation" of antibiotics, anticipating an "antibiotic apocalypse" with a dearth of new infection-fighting drugs. The EU-funded research will start in the Atacama Trench and then move on to search trenches off New Zealand and Antarctica.
The ocean has a long history of human waste disposal on the assumption that its vast size makes it capable of absorbing and diluting all noxious material.
While this may be true on a small scale, the large amounts of sewage routinely dumped has damaged many coastal ecosystems, and rendered them life-threatening. Pathogenic viruses and bacteria occur in such waters, such as Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae the cause of cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and polio, along with protozoans causing giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. These pathogens are routinely present in the ballast water of large vessels, and are widely spread when the ballast is discharged.
Origin and history
The water in the sea was thought to come from the Earth's volcanoes, starting 4 billion years ago, released by degassing from molten rock. More recent work suggests much of the Earth's water may come from comets.
Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that don't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering".
Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt.
Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of a chemical/tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore-water burial, and reactions with seafloor basalts.
Human impacts
Climate change, rising levels of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, excess nutrients, and pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry. Rates of change for some aspects greatly exceed those in the historical and recent geological record. Major trends include an increasing acidity, reduced subsurface oxygen in both near-shore and pelagic waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources.
One of the most striking features of this is ocean acidification, resulting from increased CO2 uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO2 and higher temperatures, because it severely affects coral reefs, mollusks, echinoderms and crustaceans (see coral bleaching).
Human consumption
Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself. In normal circumstances, it would be considered ill-advised to consume large amounts of unfiltered seawater.
The renal system actively regulates the levels of sodium and chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g/L (0.9% by weight).
In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia.
Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater. A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed the negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated.
The temptation to drink seawater was greatest for sailors who had expended their supply of fresh water, and were unable to capture enough rainwater for drinking. This frustration was described famously by a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner:
"Water, water, everywhere,And all the boards did shrink; Water, water, everywhere,Nor any drop to drink."
Although humans cannot survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book, Kon-Tiki, Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.
During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the medical use of this practice in the UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of this practice to other countries, notably France, in the 20th century. Currently, it is widely practiced in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries.
Most oceangoing vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator, or, more recently, reverse osmosis. These energy-intensive processes were not usually available during the Age of Sail. Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson's , were fitted with distilling apparatus in their galleys.
Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles, and seabirds, such as penguins and albatrosses, have adapted to living in a high saline habitat. For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies through their tear ducts.
Mineral extraction
Minerals have been extracted from seawater since ancient times. Currently the four most concentrated metals – Na, Mg, Ca and K – are commercially extracted from seawater. During 2015 in the US 63% of magnesium production came from seawater and brines. Bromine is also produced from seawater in China and Japan. Lithium extraction from seawater was tried in the 1970s, but the tests were soon abandoned. The idea of extracting uranium from seawater has been considered at least from the 1960s, but only a few grams of uranium were extracted in Japan in the late 1990s. The main issue is not one of technological feasibility but that current prices on the uranium market for uranium from other sources are about three to five times lower than the lowest price achieved by seawater extraction. Similar issues hamper the use of reprocessed uranium and are often brought forth against nuclear reprocessing and the manufacturing of MOX fuel as economically unviable.
Standard
ASTM International has an international standard for artificial seawater: ASTM D1141-98 (Original Standard ASTM D1141-52). It is used in many research testing labs as a reproducible solution for seawater such as tests on corrosion, oil contamination, and detergency evaluation.
See also
global ocean salinity
References
External links
Technical Papers in Marine Science 44, Algorithms for computation of fundamental properties of seawater, ioc-unesco.org, UNESCO 1983
Tables
Tables and software for thermophysical properties of seawater, MIT
Aquatic ecology
Chemical oceanography
Liquid water
Physical oceanography
Oceanographical terminology | [
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255245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fubini%27s%20theorem | Fubini's theorem | In mathematical analysis Fubini's theorem is a result that gives conditions under which it is possible to compute a double integral by using an iterated integral, introduced by Guido Fubini in 1907. One may switch the order of integration if the double integral yields a finite answer when the integrand is replaced by its absolute value.
As a consequence, it allows the order of integration to be changed in certain iterated integrals.
Fubini's theorem implies that two iterated integrals are equal to the corresponding double integral across its integrands. Tonelli's theorem, introduced by Leonida Tonelli in 1909, is similar, but applies to a non-negative measurable function rather than one integrable over their domains.
A related theorem is often called Fubini's theorem for infinite series, which states that if is a doubly-indexed sequence of real numbers, and if is absolutely convergent, then
Although Fubini's theorem for infinite series is a special case of the more general Fubini's theorem, it is not appropriate to characterize it as a logical consequence of Fubini's theorem. This is because some properties of measures, in particular sub-additivity, are often proved using Fubini's theorem for infinite series. In this case, Fubini's general theorem is a logical consequence of Fubini's theorem for infinite series.
History
The special case of Fubini's theorem for continuous functions on a product of closed bounded subsets of real vector spaces was known to Leonhard Euler in the 18th century. extended this to bounded measurable functions on a product of intervals. conjectured that the theorem could be extended to functions that were integrable rather than bounded, and this was proved by . gave a variation of Fubini's theorem that applies to non-negative functions rather than integrable functions.
Product measures
If X and Y are measure spaces with measures, there are several natural ways to define a product measure on their product.
The product X × Y of measure spaces (in the sense of category theory) has as its measurable sets the σ-algebra generated by the products A × B of measurable subsets of X and Y.
A measure μ on X × Y is called a product measure if μ(A × B) = μ1(A)μ2(B) for measurable subsets A ⊂ X and B ⊂ Y and measures µ1 on X and µ2 on Y. In general there may be many different product measures on X × Y. Fubini's theorem and Tonelli's theorem both need technical conditions to avoid this complication; the most common way is to assume all measure spaces are σ-finite, in which case there is a unique product measure on X×Y. There is always a unique maximal product measure on X × Y, where the measure of a measurable set is the inf of the measures of sets containing it that are countable unions of products of measurable sets. The maximal product measure can be constructed by applying Carathéodory's extension theorem to the additive function μ such that μ(A × B) = μ1(A)μ2(B) on the ring of sets generated by products of measurable sets. (Carathéodory's extension theorem gives a measure on a measure space that in general contains more measurable sets than the measure space X × Y, so strictly speaking the measure should be restricted to the σ-algebra generated by the products A × B of measurable subsets of X and Y.)
The product of two complete measure spaces is not usually complete. For example, the product of the Lebesgue measure on the unit interval I with itself is not the Lebesgue measure on the square I × I. There is a variation of Fubini's theorem for complete measures, which uses the completion of the product of measures rather than the uncompleted product.
For integrable functions
Suppose X and Y are σ-finite measure spaces, and suppose that X × Y is given the product measure (which is unique as X and Y are σ-finite). Fubini's theorem states that if f is X × Y integrable, meaning that f is a measurable function and
then
The first two integrals are iterated integrals with respect to two measures, respectively, and the third is an integral with respect to the product measure. The partial integrals and need not be defined everywhere, but this does not matter as the points where they are not defined form a set of measure 0.
If the above integral of the absolute value is not finite, then the two iterated integrals may have different values. See below for an illustration of this possibility.
The condition that X and Y are σ-finite is usually harmless because in practice almost all measure spaces one wishes to use Fubini's theorem for are σ-finite.
Fubini's theorem has some rather technical extensions to the case when X and Y are not assumed to be σ-finite . The main extra complication in this case is that there may be more than one product measure on X×Y. Fubini's theorem continues to hold for the maximal product measure, but can fail for other product measures. For example, there is a product measure and a non-negative measurable function f for which the double integral of |f| is zero but the two iterated integrals have different values; see the section on counterexamples below for an example of this. Tonelli's theorem and the Fubini–Tonelli theorem (stated below) can fail on non σ-finite spaces even for the maximal product measure.
Tonelli's theorem for non-negative measurable functions
Tonelli's theorem (named after Leonida Tonelli) is a successor of Fubini's theorem. The conclusion of Tonelli's theorem is identical to that of Fubini's theorem, but the assumption that has a finite integral is replaced by the assumption that is a non-negative measurable function.
Tonelli's theorem states that if (X, A, μ) and (Y, B, ν) are σ-finite measure spaces, while f from X×Y to [0,∞] is non-negative measurable function, then
A special case of Tonelli's theorem is in the interchange of the summations, as in , where are non-negative for all x and y. The crux of the theorem is that the interchange of order of summation holds even if the series diverges. In effect, the only way a change in order of summation can change the sum is when there exist some subsequences that diverge to and others diverging to . With all elements non-negative, this does not happen in the stated example.
Without the condition that the measure spaces are σ-finite it is possible for all three of these integrals to have different values.
Some authors give generalizations of Tonelli's theorem to some measure spaces that are not σ-finite but these generalizations often add conditions that immediately reduce the problem to the σ-finite case. For example, one could take the σ-algebra on A×B to be that generated by the product of subsets of finite measure, rather than that generated by all products of measurable subsets, though this has the undesirable consequence that the projections from the product to its factors A and B are not measurable. Another way is to add the condition that the support of f is contained in a countable union of products of sets of finite measure. gives some rather technical extensions of Tonelli's theorem to some non σ-finite spaces. None of these generalizations have found any significant applications outside abstract measure theory, largely because almost all measure spaces of practical interest are σ-finite.
Fubini–Tonelli theorem
Combining Fubini's theorem with Tonelli's theorem gives
the Fubini–Tonelli theorem (often just called Fubini's theorem), which states that if X and Y are σ-finite measure spaces, and if f is a measurable function, then
Besides if any one of these integrals is finite, then
The absolute value of f in the conditions above can be replaced by either the positive or the negative part of f; these forms include Tonelli's theorem as a special case as the negative part of a non-negative function is zero and so has finite integral. Informally all these conditions say that the double integral of f is well defined, though possibly infinite.
The advantage of the Fubini–Tonelli over Fubini's theorem is that the repeated integrals of the absolute value of |f| may be easier to study than the double integral. As in Fubini's theorem, the single integrals may fail to be defined on a measure 0 set.
For complete measures
The versions of Fubini's and Tonelli's theorems above do not apply to integration on the product of the real line R with itself with Lebesgue measure. The problem is that Lebesgue measure on R×R is not the product of Lebesgue measure on R with itself, but rather the completion of this: a product of two complete measure spaces X and Y is not in general complete. For this reason one sometimes uses versions of Fubini's theorem for complete measures: roughly speaking one just replaces all measures by their completions. The various versions of Fubini's theorem are similar to the versions above, with the following minor differences:
Instead of taking a product X×Y of two measure spaces, one takes the completion of some product.
If f is a measurable on the completion of X×Y then its restrictions to vertical or horizontal lines may be non-measurable for a measure zero subset of lines, so one has to allow for the possibility that the vertical or horizontal integrals are undefined on a set of measure 0 because they involve integrating non-measurable functions. This makes little difference, because they can already be undefined due to the functions not being integrable.
One generally also assumes that the measures on X and Y are complete, otherwise the two partial integrals along vertical or horizontal lines may be well-defined but not measurable. For example, if f is the characteristic function of a product of a measurable set and a non-measurable set contained in a measure 0 set then its single integral is well defined everywhere but non-measurable.
Proofs
Proofs of the Fubini and Tonelli theorems are necessarily somewhat technical, as they have to use a hypothesis related to σ-finiteness. Most proofs involve building up to the full theorems by proving them for increasingly complicated functions with the steps as follows.
Use the fact that the measure on the product is a product measure to prove the theorems for the characteristic functions of rectangles.
Use the condition that the spaces are σ-finite (or some related condition) to prove the theorem for the characteristic functions of measurable sets. This also covers the case of simple measurable functions (measurable functions taking only a finite number of values).
Use the condition that the functions are measurable to prove the theorems for positive measurable functions by approximating them by simple measurable functions. This proves Tonelli's theorem.
Use the condition that the functions are integrable to write them as the difference of two positive integrable functions, and apply Tonelli's theorem to each of these. This proves Fubini's theorem.
Riemann integrals
For Riemann integrals, Fubini's theorem is proven by refining the partitions along the x-axis and y-axis as to create a joint partition of the form , which is a partition over . This is used to show that the double integrals of either order are equal to the integral over .
Counterexamples
The following examples show how Fubini's theorem and Tonelli's theorem can fail if any of their hypotheses are omitted.
Failure of Tonelli's theorem for non σ-finite spaces
Suppose that X is the unit interval with the Lebesgue measurable sets and Lebesgue measure, and Y is the unit interval with all subsets measurable and the counting measure, so that Y is not σ-finite. If f is the characteristic function of the diagonal of X×Y, then integrating f along X gives the 0 function on Y, but integrating f along Y gives the function 1 on X. So the two iterated integrals are different. This shows that Tonelli's theorem can fail for spaces that are not σ-finite no matter what product measure is chosen. The measures are both decomposable, showing that Tonelli's theorem fails for decomposable measures (which are slightly more general than σ-finite measures).
Failure of Fubini's theorem for non-maximal product measures
Fubini's theorem holds for spaces even if they are not assumed to be σ-finite provided one uses the maximal product measure.
In the example above, for the maximal product measure, the diagonal has infinite measure so the double integral of |f| is infinite, and Fubini's theorem holds vacuously.
However, if we give X×Y the product measure such that the measure of a set is the sum of the Lebesgue measures of its horizontal sections, then the double integral of |f| is zero, but the two iterated integrals still have different values. This gives an example of a product measure where Fubini's theorem fails.
This gives an example of two different product measures on the same product of two measure spaces. For products of two σ-finite measure spaces, there is only one product measure.
Failure of Tonelli's theorem for non-measurable functions
Suppose that X is the first uncountable ordinal, with the finite measure where the measurable sets are either countable (with measure 0) or the sets of countable complement (with measure 1). The (non-measurable) subset E of X×X given by pairs (x,y) with x<y is countable on every horizontal line and has countable complement on every vertical line. If f is the characteristic function of E then the two iterated integrals of f are defined and have different values 1 and 0. The function f is not measurable. This shows that Tonelli's theorem can fail for non-measurable functions.
Failure of Fubini's theorem for non-measurable functions
A variation of the example above shows that Fubini's theorem can fail for non-measurable functions even if |f| is integrable and both repeated integrals are well defined: if we take f to be 1 on E and –1 on the complement of E, then |f| is integrable on the product with integral 1, and both repeated integrals are well defined, but have different values 1 and –1.
Assuming the continuum hypothesis, one can identify X with the unit interval I, so there is a bounded non-negative function on I×I whose two iterated integrals (using Lebesgue measure) are both defined but unequal. This example was found by .
The stronger versions of Fubini's theorem on a product of two unit intervals with Lebesgue measure, where the function is no longer assumed to be measurable but merely that the two iterated integrals are well defined and exist, are independent of the standard Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms of set theory. The continuum hypothesis and Martin's axiom both imply that there exists a function on the unit square whose iterated integrals are not equal, while showed that it is consistent with ZFC that a strong Fubini-type theorem for [0, 1] does hold, and whenever the two iterated integrals exist they are equal. See List of statements undecidable in ZFC.
Failure of Fubini's theorem for non-integrable functions
Fubini's theorem tells us that (for measurable functions on a product of σ-finite measure spaces) if the integral of the absolute value is finite, then the order of integration does not matter; if we integrate first with respect to x and then with respect to y, we get the same result as if we integrate first with respect to y and then with respect to x. The assumption that the integral of the absolute value is finite is "Lebesgue integrability", and without it the two repeated integrals can have different values.
A simple example to show that the repeated integrals can be different in general is to take the two measure spaces to be the positive integers, and to take the function f(x,y) to be 1 if x = y, −1 if x = y + 1, and 0 otherwise. Then the two repeated integrals have different values 0 and 1.
Another example is as follows for the function
The iterated integrals
and
have different values. The corresponding double integral does not converge absolutely (in other words the integral of the absolute value is not finite):
See also
− an early particular case
− generalization to geometric measure theory
Disintegration theorem – theorem in measure theory − a restricted converse to Fubini's theorem
Kuratowski–Ulam theorem – analog of Fubini's theorem for arbitrary second countable Baire spaces
Symmetry of second derivatives − analogue for differentiation
References
Further reading
External links
Theorems in measure theory
Theorems in calculus
Articles containing proofs | [
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255247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingelheim%20am%20Rhein | Ingelheim am Rhein | Ingelheim (), officially Ingelheim am Rhein (), is a town in the Mainz-Bingen district in the Rhineland-Palatinate state of Germany. The town sprawls along the Rhine's west bank. It has been Mainz-Bingen's district seat since 1996.
From the later half of the 8th century, the Ingelheim Imperial Palace, which served emperors and kings as a lodging and a ruling seat until the 11th century, was to be found here.
Etymology
The typically Rhenish-Hessian placename ending —heim might well go back to Frankish times, that is to say, likely as far back as the 5th or 6th century. Settlements or estates then took their lords’ names and were given this suffix, which means "home" in German. The name is recorded in later documents as Ingilinhaim, Ingilinheim (782), Ingilenhaim, Engelheim, Hengilonheim, Engilonheim (822), Engilinheim (826), Hingilinheim (855), Ingilunheim (874), Ingulinheim (889), Ingelesheim (891), Ingelenheim (940), Anglia sedes (1051), Ingilheim and Ingelnheim (1286), among other forms.
Since 1269, a distinction has been made between Nieder-Ingelheim and Ober-Ingelheim (Lower and Upper Ingelheim)
Geography
Location
Ingelheim am Rhein lies in the north of Rhein Hessen on the so-called Rhein Knee, west of the state capital, Mainz. The Rhein forms the town's northern limit. Southwards, the town stretches into the valley of the river Selz, which empties into the Rhein in the constituent community of Frei-Weinheim or Ingelheim-Nord ("North").
The constituent communities of Ingelheim-Mitte and Ingelheim-Süd ("Middle" and "South") are nestled against the corner of the so-called ("Mainz Mountain").
The municipal area's lowest point is the harbour on the Rhein at 80.8 m above sea level. The two highest points are the Mainzer Berg at 247.8 m above sea level and the at 247.5 m above sea level.
An obelisk on the south side of the village in direction Wackernheim, marks the road begun by Charlemagne, and completed by Napoleon. From this point a fine prospect of the entire Rheingau could be obtained.
Municipal area’s extent
The municipal area's north-south extent is 7.9 km, while the east-west extent is 5 km.
Neighbouring municipalities
Clockwise from the north, these are Geisenheim, Oestrich-Winkel on the Rhine's right bank, and on the left bank Budenheim, Finthen, the Verbandsgemeinde of Nieder-Olm, Schwabenheim, Gau-Algesheim (both belonging to the Verbandsgemeinde of Gau-Algesheim) and Bingen am Rhein. Since 1 July 2019 Wackernheim and Heidesheim are incorporated into the city of Ingelheim.
Constituent communities
Ingelheim is currently divided into six Stadtteile: Ingelheim-Mitte, Ingelheim-Nord, Ingelheim-Süd, Sporkenheim, Groß-Winternheim and Ingelheim-West. Before Ingelheim became a town in 1939, the first three centres bore the names Nieder-Ingelheim, Frei-Weinheim and Ober-Ingelheim. Official changes notwithstanding, the old names are still quite often used.
Climate
The town lies in the temperate zone. The average yearly temperature in Ingelheim is 9.8 °C. The warmest months are July and August with average temperatures of 18.0 and 18.5 °C respectively, and the coldest month is January at 1.0 °C on average. The most precipitation falls in June and August with an average of 64 mm, and the least in March with an average of 31 mm. Like all Rhenish Hesse, Ingelheim, too, is sheltered from the weather by the Hunsrück, the Taunus, the Odenwald and the Donnersberg, thereby limiting the yearly precipitation to only 560 mm.
History
The Ingelheim area was already settled in prehistoric times. The place first earned itself particular importance, though, only under Charlemagne and his successors. Charlemagne had built the Ingelheim Imperial Palace (Ingelheimer Kaiserpfalz) here, where synods and Imperial diets were held in the time that followed. His son and successor, Emperor Louis the Pious, died on 20 June 840 in Ingelheim.
In the High and Late Middle Ages, the Palatinate's, and thereby also Ingelheim's, importance shrank.
For German justice history, the Ingelheimer Oberhof ("Ingelheim Upper Court") is of particular importance, as a unique collection of judgments from the 15th and 16th centuries that it handed down has been preserved.
Late 19th century Ingelheim was the residence of the Dutch writer Multatuli (Eduard Douwes Dekker).
In 1939, the formerly self-administering municipalities of Nieder-Ingelheim, Ober-Ingelheim and Frei-Weinheim were merged into the Town of Ingelheim am Rhein.
From the Second World War, Ingelheim emerged as the only unscathed town between Mainz and Koblenz. Today, Ingelheim is a middle centre in Rhineland-Palatinate, a Great District-Bound Town (Große kreisangehörige Stadt – a status deriving from the Rhineland-Palatinate Municipal Order) and the seat of district administration for Mainz-Bingen.
Furthermore, Ingelheim harbours the business Boehringer Ingelheim which is active worldwide.
Population data
Religion
In 2004, 36% of Ingelheim's inhabitants belonged to the Lutheran faith, and 34% were Catholic, while 24% were without any religious faith; from 2% of the population, no data were forthcoming.
The six Catholic parishes belong, within the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz to the Deanery of Bingen.
The five Protestant parishes of the EKHN belong to the Provostship (Propstei) of Mainz, and within this to the Deanery of Ingelheim.
Besides these, the Baptists, Religious humanists and Muslims each have small communities in Ingelheim, as do the Jehovah's Witnesses and Buddhists.
Until 1942 there was a Jewish community, whose beginnings went back to the 16th century. About 1850, roughly 200 Jewish inhabitants lived in Ober-Ingelheim, and by 1933 there were still 134 all together in Oberingelheim and Niederingelheim. In 1840 and 1841, a synagogue that was important to architectural history was built. It was dedicated on 27 August 1841 and destroyed on 9 November 1938 – Kristallnacht. Many Jewish inhabitants lost their lives after being deported to the death camps during the time of the Third Reich.
Amalgamations
On 22 April 1972 the municipality of Groß-Winternheim was amalgamated. The former municipalities Heidesheim am Rhein and Wackernheim were merged into Ingelheim am Rhein on 1 July 2019.
Population development
Before 1939
Beginning in 1939
Politics
Town council
The municipal election held in 2004 yielded the following results:
Mayor
In the last mayoral elections, held on 26 May 2019, Ralf Claus, mayor of Ingelheim since 2012, was reelected as mayor:
Results of council elections since 1946
1946
CDU: 42.2%
SPD: 26%
KPD: 9.2%
Liste Gemünden/Gaul: 22.6%
Eligible voters: 6,899
Voter turnout: 88.6%
1948
CDU: 35.1%
SPD: 33.1%
DP: 25.3%
KP: 6.5%
9 November 1952
Freie Bürgerliste Rausch: 40.1%, 2,882 votes — 11 seats
SPD: 23.04%, 1,656 votes — 6 seats
CDU: 22.43%, 1,612 votes — 6 seats
FDP: 10.21%, 734 votes — 2 seats
KPD: 4.2%, 303 votes
Eligible voters: 9,488
Voter turnout: 77.76%, 7378 votes, 7,187 valid votes
1956
SPD: 36.79%, 2,611 votes — 9 seats
CDU: 27.06%, 1,920 votes — 7 seats
Wählergruppe Bambach: 24.45%, 1,735 votes — 6 seats
FDP: 11.7%, 830 votes — 3 seats
Eligible voters: 9,979
Voter turnout: 72.62%, 7,247 votes, 7,096 valid votes
23 October 1960
SPD: 42.61%, 3,114 votes — 11 seats
CDU: 36.65%, 2,679 votes — 10 seats
FDP: 16.92%, 1,237 votes — 2 seats
Wählergruppe Kaufmann: 3.82%, 279 votes
Eligible voters: 10,695
Voter turnout: 70.14%, 7,502 votes, 7,309 valid votes
25 October 1964
SPD: 51.7% — 13 seats (absolute majority)
CDU: 34.7%, 2,800 votes — 9 seats
FDP: 13.6%, 1,098 votes — 3 seats
Eligible voters: 11,369 (50a CDU) 11,312 (40a Ing)
Voter turnout: 72.77%, 8,231 votes (50a CDU) 8,232 (40a Ing)
8 June 1969
CDU: 37.15%, 3,397 votes — 12 seats
SPD: 34.45%, 3,150 votes — 11 seats
FDP: 10.45%, 956 votes — 3 seats
Freie Wählergruppe Kaege: 17.95%, 1,641 votes — 5 seats
Eligible voters: 12,295
Voter turnout: 75.51%, 9,309 votes, 9,144 valid votes
23 April 1972
SPD: 41.99%, 4,263 votes — 14 seats (according to 40a 4,264)
CDU: 38.92%, 3,952 votes — 12 seats
FDP: 8.79%, 892 votes — 2 seats
Wählergruppe Kaege: 10.28%, 1,044 votes — 3 seats
Eligible voters: 13,992
Voter turnout: 73.46%, 10,280 votes, 10,153 valid votes
17 March 1974
CDU: 46.6%, 5,092 votes — 17 seats (40a: 46.40%)
SPD: 34.34%, 3,769 votes — 12 seats
FDP: 10.26%, 1,126 votes — 3 seats
FWG: 8.98%, 986 votes — 3 seats
Eligible voters: 14,027
Voter turnout: 79.17%, 11,106 votes, 10,973 valid votes
10/11 June 1979
SPD: 42.12%, 4,322 votes — 14 seats
CDU: 41.52%, 4,261 votes — 13 seats
FDP: 8.21%, 842 votes — 2 seats
FWG: 8.15%, 837 votes — 2 seats
Eligible voters: 14,238
Voter turnout: 73.54%, 10,470 votes, 10,262 valid votes
17 June 1984
CDU: 40.7%, 4,576 votes — 15 seats
SPD: 44.1%, 4,966 votes — 16 seats
FDP: 7.8% — 2 seats
FWG: 10.6% — 2 seats
DKP: 1% — 112 votes
Eligible voters: 15,408
Voter turnout: 74.9%, 11,252 valid votes
18 June 1989
SPD: 41.0% — 15 seats
CDU: 31.2% — 11 seats
FWG: 10.6% — 4 seats
FDP: 7.75% — 3 seats
Grüne: 7.38% — 2 seats
12 June 1994
SPD: 36.6% — 13 seats
CDU: 31.0% — 11 seats
FWG: 6 seats
Grüne: 4 seats
FDP: 2 seats
Voter turnout: 70%, 11,781 votes
Mayors before 1939
Nieder-Ingelheim
Weitzel about 1881
Leonard Muntermann (DDP, 1912 - 7 April 1932)
Ober-Ingelheim
Dr. Georg Rückert (February 1932 - April 1933)
Gaul (1933-)
(Chief) Mayors since 1939
Mayors (Bürgermeister) from 1946, Chief Mayors (Oberbürgermeister) from 1972:
1939-1945: Franz Bambach (NSDAP)
15 April 1945 - 23 June 1945: Georg Schick
23 June 1945 - : Dr. iur. Georg Rückert (SP)
22 September 1946 – 1948: Dr. iur. Georg Rückert (SP)
1949 - 1 October 1956: Dr. rer. pol. Heinz Brühne (SPD)
1957-1964: Heinz Kühn
1964-1965: Albert Saalwächter
1966-1972: Hans-Ulrich Oehlschlägel, BM (SPD)
1972-1975: Hans-Ulrich Oehlschlägel, OB (SPD)
1975-1995: Anno Vey (CDU)
1995-2011: Dr. Joachim Gerhard (CDU)
2011- : Ralf Claus (SPD)
Coat of arms
The town's arms might be described thus: Argent an eagle displayed sable armed and langued gules.
The eagle is the Imperial Eagle. The arms have their roots in the Imperial Freedom enjoyed by the Ingelheimer Grund (Ingelheim area).
Old coats of arms
Nieder-Ingelheim: Argent a wall embattled gules masoned sable, issuant therefrom a demi-eagle displayed of the third beaked and langued of the second.
Ober-Ingelheim: Argent an eagle displayed sable armed, beaked and langued gules.
Sponsorships
Airbus Ingelheim am Rhein D-ABJE, Boeing 737-530, SN 25310/2126
Until her decommissioning on 28 June 2001 there was a partnership with S58 Pinguin, a German Navy Fast Attack Craft.
Twin towns – sister cities
Ingelheim am Rhein is twinned with:
Stevenage, England, United Kingdom (1963)
Autun, France (1963)
San Pietro in Cariano, Italy (1984)
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg (Berlin), Germany (1971)
Limbach-Oberfrohna, Germany (1990)
Nysa, Poland (2002)
On 24 October 1975, the three-way partnership between Ingelheim, Autun and Stevenage was officially sealed.
Culture and sightseeing
Ingelheimer Fassenacht
There is in Ingelheim a well-developed carnival culture, which admittedly is very much under the Mainz carnival’s influence. All together, the town counts four Carnival clubs:
Carneval-Verein "Wäschbächer" 1885
Carnevalverein Frei-Weinheim
Ingelheimer Carnevalverein
Narrenclub Ingelheim 1987 ("Fools’ Club")
Museums
The Museum bei der Kaiserpfalz ("Museum at the Imperial Palace") has an exhibit dedicated to the Imperial Palace built in Ingelheim after 785 by Charlemagne. On show are small archaeological finds, objects from architectural sculpture and a demonstrative model of the once imposing building. Remnants of the Imperial Palace can be seen right near the museum. Of Europe-wide importance is the golden solidus found in 1996, which is hitherto still the only gold coin ever found struck with Charlemagne's effigy.
Music
Further Education Centre Symphony Orchestra
Ingelheimer Konfettis (performing and singing group)
Ingelheim church choir
Bläserchöre Ingelheim (wind choirs)
Carolus Magnus-Ingelheimer Kaiserpfalzbläser (wind ensemble)
Telemann-Chor Ingelheim (choir)
Singing clubs
GV Liederkranz 1857
GV Einigkeit 1885
GV Germania 1862
MGV 1866
Schubert-Quartett 1924 e.V.
Boehringer Jazz & Pop Chor 2009
Buildings
The town has at its disposal a range of historical buildings worth seeing:
Others
St. Michael with Plague Cross
Carolingian aqueduct
Heidesheimer Tor (gate)
Bismarck Tower
Ohrenbrücker Tor (gate)
Jewish graveyard
Old market hall in Nieder-Ingelheim
Parks
Kommerzienrat-Boehringer-Anlage
Emmerlingscher Park
Rosengärtchen
Uffhubtor-Anlage
Natural monuments
Drifting chalk sands and dunes
In the cadastral areas of Nieder-Ingelheim and Frei-Weinheim, mainly north of the Autobahn along Konrad-Adenauer-Straße, but also south of the Autobahn – even within the Boehringer Ingelheim industrial lands – are found drifting chalk sands. Likewise a deposit is to be found in the area of the Griesmühle (mill).
These formations are under conservational protection under the Rhineland-Palatinate State Care Law. Damaging them or removing them, among other acts, is considered an incompensable encroachment on nature and the landscape. Municipal building uses in drifting chalk sand areas are therefore routinely excluded or only approved in very special cases. Two such exceptions were the building of Konrad-Adenauer-Straße (from the Autobahn bridge to Rheinstraße) and the building of the daycare centre on Sporkenheimer Straße.
Sport
1. Schwimmsportverein Ingelheim 1966 e.V. (swimming)
RV Ingelheim
SpVgg Ingelheim
TUS Ober-Ingelheim
Turngemeinde 1847 Corp. Nieder-Ingelheim (gymnastics)
SV Ingelheim 1949 e.V.
VfL Frei Weinheim
HSC Ingelheim
TV Frei-Weinheim (gymnastics)
MFG-Ingelheim e.V. - Modellfluggruppe Ingelheim e.V.
TSC Ingelheim
FSC Ingelheim 07
Bridgeclub Ingelheim
Common welfare
Mütter- und FamilienZentrum e.V. MütZe
The MütZe ("Mothers’ and Families’ Centre", with the abbreviation resembling the word Mütze – "cap") is to be found at the old Gymnasium. The MütZe takes upon itself a generation-spanning exchange for all Ingelheim residents. A babysitter exchange, handicraft classes, breakfast and lunch, housework and holiday support are regularly offered, as well as courses and events covering every family theme from babies to health to creativity.
In Ingelheim there are also a House of Youth (Haus der Jugend, although this is soon to become a shopping centre and will be replaced with another House of Youth) and a Mehrgenerationshaus.
Regular events
Since 1972 there has been a yearly folk music event, the Eurofolkfestival Ingelheim, on the Burgkirche Fairgrounds. It is said to be one of the successor festivals to the famous Waldeck-Festivals. A great number of the visitors are people from the hippie culture and youths from the local area and from throughout Germany. The number of visitors varies from 2,000 to 3,000. It is usually held between mid-June and mid-July and always lasts from Friday to Sunday. Out of the Eurofolkfestival grew the OpenOhr Festival (a youth cultural festival) in Mainz in 1974 and 1975.
Hafenfest auf der Jungau ("Harbour Festival on the Jungau"), each year in early August.
Ingelheimer Rotweinfest ("Ingelheim Red Wine Festival") on the Burgkirche Fairgrounds, is held each year from the last weekend in September to the first weekend in October.
Kerb in Groß-Winternheim ("kermis, or church consecration festival"), second weekend in September
Internationale Tage ("International Days"), each year since 1959. Organized for Boehringer Ingelheim by François Lachenal till 1997.till 2000 curated by Patricia Rochat and since then by Ulrich Luckhardt.
Umsonst-und-drinnen, international music festival for new blood groups.
Kinderfest der DPSG Ingelheim ("Ingelheim DPSG Children’s Festival"), each year on Ascension Day since 1969 on the Jungau in Frei-Weinheim.
Entekerb ("Harvest Kermis"), in October in Frei-Weinheim.
Altstadtfest ("Old Town Festival"), second weekend in August, staged by NCI
Fest der Generationen, second Saturday in September around the old Gymnasium, staged by the MütZe
Culinary specialities
Regional Rhenish-Hessian specialities are asparagus and morello cherries (a cultivar of sour cherries).
Economy and infrastructure
Transport
The Autobahn A 60 runs through the municipal area and has two interchanges there. Bundesstraße 41 ends in Ingelheim. The Autobahnen A 61 and A 63 lie right nearby. Frankfurt Airport can be reached by Autobahn in roughly 30 minutes. Frankfurt-Hahn Airport can be reached in roughly 50 minutes by Autobahnen A 60 and A 61 or Bundesstraße 50. A Bus to Hahn can be caught in Mainz
Ingelheim lies on the Mainz-Bingen-Cologne (West Rhine Railway) and Saarbrücken-Mainz-Frankfurt railway lines. Between Ingelheim-Nord and Oestrich-Winkel runs a Rhine ferry. The constituent communities and the surrounding municipalities are served by city and regional bus routes of Omnibusverkehr Rhein-Nahe GmbH. The local rail transport is served by the Rhein-Nahe-Nahverkehrsverbund.
Established businesses
Boehringer Ingelheim, pharmaceutical enterprise
Envision Entertainment GmbH, formerly EA Phenomic, a video game developer
Goldener Engel, brewery
Karl Gemünden, building company
Rheinhessische Energie- und Wasserversorgungs-GmbH, energy and water supply
Vereinigte Obst- und Gemüsemärkte (VOG), Europe's biggest transshipment centre for sour cherries
WetterKontor, supplier of weather information
Agricultural produce
Of the 4,987-hectare municipal area, 641 ha is used for winegrowing and 1 373 ha is used for crops. The main agricultural produce is sour cherries, white asparagus and Wine. Although the town lies in a region dominated by white wine, 54.9% of the vineyard area in Ingelheim am Rhein is used for growing red wine varieties. With 641 ha in vineyards, the town is moreover one of Rhenish Hesse’s biggest winegrowing centres after Worms, (1,490 ha), Nierstein (783 ha), Alzey (769 ha), Westhofen (764 ha), Alsheim (704 ha) and Bechtheim (654 ha), and one of the biggest in the whole state of Rhineland-Palatinate.
"The red wines of Ingelheim and Heidesheim (…) opposite to Eltville (…) enjoy a high reputation."
The Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute’s vegetable farming department runs an experimental asparagus field in Ingelheim. The research results can be viewed on the Internet.
Media
Local daily newspaper: Allgemeine Zeitung Ingelheim within the Rhein Main Presse, published by the Verlagsgruppe Rhein Main, Mainz.
Municipal television: "Blickpunkt Ingelheim", which is broadcast every Monday and Thursday on regional channel K3.
Public institutions
Since 1996, Ingelheim has been the seat of district administration for Mainz-Bingen.
Education
Ingelheim is home to:
three primary schools (Präsident-Mohr-Grundschule, Theodor-Heuss-Grundschule, Brüder-Grimm-Grundschule)
a combination primary school and Hauptschule (Pestalozzi-Grund- u. Hauptschule)
a professional college, die BBS Ingelheim
a school for those with learning difficulties (Albert-Schweitzer-Sonderschule)
a Realschule (Kaiserpfalz-Realschule)
an integrated comprehensive school (Kurt Schumacher)
a Gymnasium (Sebastian-Münster-Gymnasium)
Under the umbrella of the Ingelheim Further Education Centre Weiterbildungszentrum Ingelheim the following institutions work:
Volkshochschule (folk high school)
Fridtjof-Nansen-Akademie für politische Bildung (political education)
Music school
Jugendbildungswerk (youth education)
Notable people
Honorary citizens
Robert Boehringer, entrepreneur and lyricist, named an honorary citizen of Ingelheim in 1974
Christian Rauch (1878–1976), archaeologist, named an honorary citizen of Ingelheim 16 December 1974
Sons and daughters of the town
Sebastian Münster (1488–1552), scientist (cosmographer, Hebraist)
Johannes Anspach (1752–1823), pastelist, draftsman, painter, owner of an artist's studio in the Netherlands
Klaus Knopper (born 1968), developer of Linux distribution Knoppix
Markus Kreuz (born 1977), footballer
Other celebrities
Charlemagne, held court in Ingelheim in 807
Louis the Pious, died in 840 in a summer tent on an island in the Rhine off Ingelheim
The House of Ingelheim, among them Anselm Franz von Ingelheim, Archbishop of Mainz
Jean-Baptiste Kléber, during the Siege of Mainz in 1793 headquartered in Ingelheim
Eduard Douwes Dekker, known as Multatuli (2 March 1820 in Amsterdam – 19 February 1887 in Ingelheim am Rhein)
Richard von Weizsäcker, from 1962 to 1966 managing partner of Boehringer Ingelheim
Pope Joan, Johanna von Ingelheim, a perhaps real, perhaps fictitious figure
See also
Universal Synod of Ingelheim
References
Further reading
Hans-Georg Meyer; Gerd Mentgen: Sie sind mitten unter uns: zur Geschichte der Juden in Ingelheim. Ingelheim 1998
Friedrich, Reinhard [Hrsg.]: Karl der Große in Ingelheim: Bauherr der Pfalz und europäischer Staatsmann; Katalog zur Ausstellung im Alten Rathaus Nieder-Ingelheim, 29. August bis 27. September 1998. Ingelheim 1998.
Landesamt für Vermessung und Geobasisinformation Rheinland-Pfalz: Ingelheim am Rhein. Topographische Karte 6014 (1:25.000).
Documents
picture of Oberingelheim from J.F. Dielmann, A. Fay, J. Becker (draughtsman): F.C. Vogels Panorama des Rheins, Bilder des rechten und linken Rheinufers, Lithographische Anstalt F.C. Vogel, Frankfurt 1833
External links
Town’s official webpage
Official Website of the Ingelheim Imperial Palace
Deutsch-Israelischer Freundeskreis Ingelheim e.V.
The Stevenage-Ingelheim-Autun Association
Towns in Rhineland-Palatinate
Mainz-Bingen
Rhenish Hesse
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255250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broussaisia | Broussaisia | Broussaisia arguta, the kanawao, is a species of perennial flowering plant in the Hydrangea family, Hydrangeaceae, that is endemic to Hawaii. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Broussaisia.
Kanawao is a widespread species occurring in mesic and wet forests on all of the main Hawaiian Islands. It is a dioecious, evergreen plant that either grows as a shrub or a tree. The obovate leaves are long and wide with finely serrated margins.
Relationship to other Organisms
The Orthotylus broussaisia (O. broussaisiae) from Kauai feeds on Broussaisia arguta. Although there has been extensive research on Broussaisia arguta, only the Orthotylus broussaisiae species has been found feeding on it.
References
Hydrangeaceae
Cornales genera
Trees of Hawaii
Endemic flora of Hawaii
Monotypic asterid genera
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255252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finns%20Party | Finns Party | The Finns Party, formerly known as the True Finns (, PS, , Sannf.), is a right-wing populist political party in Finland. It was founded in 1995 following the dissolution of the Finnish Rural Party.
The party achieved its electoral breakthrough in the 2011 parliamentary election, when it won 19.1% of votes, becoming the third largest party in the Finnish Parliament. In the 2015 election the party got 17.7% of the votes, making it the parliament's second-largest political party. The party was in opposition for the first 20 years of its existence. In 2015 it joined the government coalition formed by Prime Minister Sipilä. Following a 2017 split, over half of the party's MPs left the parliamentary group and were subsequently expelled from their party membership. This defector group, Blue Reform, continued to support the government coalition, while the Finns Party went into opposition. The party, having been reduced to 17 seats after the split, increased its representation to 39 seats in the 2019 parliamentary election, while Blue Reform failed to win any seats.
History
Finnish Rural Party
The predecessor of the Finns Party was the Finnish Rural Party (SMP), founded by Agrarian League dissident Veikko Vennamo in 1959. Vennamo ran into serious disagreement with Arvo Korsimo, the Agrarian League's party secretary, and was excluded from the parliamentary group. As a result, Vennamo immediately started building his own organization and founded the Finnish Rural Party. Vennamo was a populist and became a critic of President Urho Kekkonen and of political corruption within the "old parties", particularly the Centre Party (the renamed Agrarian League). The Rural Party achieved two major victories in the elections of 1970 and 1983, winning 18 and 17 seats respectively. In the 1970s, Vennamo's personalized leadership style alienated some in the party, which led to a split in the parliamentary group in 1972. After the Rural Party's new rise in 1983 under Vennamo's son Pekka, the party became a partner in two coalition governments. However, the party's support declined steadily in the late-1980s and early-1990s. In 1995, the party won only one seat in the Finnish parliament and soon filed for bankruptcy.
Founding of the Finns Party and its rise in popularity
In the summer of 1995, following the collapse of the Finnish Rural Party, the decision to found the Finns Party was made by Timo Soini, Raimo Vistbacka, Urpo Leppänen and Kari Bärlund. Soini had been the Rural Party's last party secretary and Vistbacka its last chairman and MP. The party collected the five thousand signatures needed for registration and was added to the official party register on 13 October 1995. The first party congress was held in November. Vistbacka was elected party chairman and Soini the party secretary.
It took some time before the Finns Party gained ground in Finnish elections. At the time of its founding in 1995, the party's sole MP was Vistbacka, who was reelected in the 1999 election. In 2003, the party won three seats: besides Vistbacka, Soini and Tony Halme were elected. In the 2007, the party gained two further seats for a total of five. In the 2008 municipal election, the Finns Party were most successful in those districts where the Social Democrats and the Left Alliance lost most. In the 2011 election, the Centre Party suffered the largest blow from the Finns Party's success.
According to a 2008–2009 study, Finns Party supporters viewed themselves as centrist: on a scale where 1 was extreme left and 10 was extreme right, the average supporter placed themselves at 5.4. According to the same study, the supporters were united by patriotism and social conservatism. A 2011 study indicated that the Finns Party was the most popular party among voters with an annual income of 35,000–50,000 euros, while over a quarter of the party's voters earn over 50,000 per year. The same study also indicated that the party's voters included a higher percentage of blue collar workers than those of the Social Democrats.
Timo Soini
Timo Soini led the Finns Party for twenty years, from 1997 until 2017. He was first elected to the parliament in 2003. He was the party's candidate in the 2006 presidential election, and was elected to the European Parliament in 2009 with the highest personal vote share in the country. He served as an MEP for two years, returning to the Finnish parliament in the 2011 election. Soini was the party's presidential candidate for a second time in the election of 2012. Jussi Halla-aho succeeded Soini as party chairman in 2017.
2011–2017
The Finns Party obtained 39 seats in the 2011 election, making them the third largest party, narrowly behind the National Coalition Party (44) and the Social Democrats (42). Soini received 43,212 personal votes, the highest number of all candidates, leaving behind the Foreign Minister Alexander Stubb and the Finance Minister Jyrki Katainen in their Uusimaa electoral district. The popularity of the party rose from 4.1% to 19.1% in just four years. Helsingin Sanomat wrote in an editorial that the party and Soini had "rewritten the electoral history books". According to political analyst Jan Sundberg, Soini had the ability to appeal to common people and make complicated things look easy. The election result was also referred to as "shocking" and "exceptional".
After the election, the National Coalition Party (NCP) began negotiations aiming to form a cabinet between the NCP, the Social Democrats, and the Finns Party. However, when it became clear that the NCP and the Social Democrats would continue to support EU bailouts, which the Finns Party vehemently opposed during the electoral campaign, the party voluntarily broke from the negotiations to become the leading opposition party. Soini said that the party would not compromise its core principles just to enter the government. According to an opinion poll, most of the party's supporters accepted this decision.
The Finns Party's popularity initially continued to rise after the 2011 election: in one opinion poll from June 2011 gave the party a record popularity of 23 percent. The party's membership rose to over 8,000 members by 2013 (up from circa 5,500 in 2011 and circa 1,000 in 2005). Membership in the party's youth organisation rose as well, going from 800 before the 2011 election to over 2,200 in 2013.
The party nominated Soini as its candidate for the 2012 presidential election; Soini finished fourth with 9.4 percent. Soini interpreted the result by saying that half of the party's voters wanted him for president, while the other half wanted to him to remain as party chairman. In municipal elections later in 2012, the party got 12.3 percent of votes and 1,195 seats in the municipal councils, up more than 750 from the previous municipal election. However, this result saw the votes for the party shrink significantly from the 2011 parliamentary election result. The party got 12.9 percent of votes in the 2014 European Parliament election and increased its number of MEPs to two.
In the 2015 election, the Finns Party got 17.7% of the votes and 38 seats. This meant that they were the third largest party by votes but the second largest party by seats. The Finns Party subsequently entered into a coalition government with the Centre Party and the NCP, led by Prime Minister Juha Sipilä. The party's participation in the Sipilä Cabinet marked a softening of its Eurosceptic positions. On 22 June 2016, Finns Party MP Maria Tolppanen joined the Social Democrats, after which the Finns Party had 37 seats in the parliament. In March 2017, Soini announced that he would step down as party chairman in the next party congress in June.
2017 leadership election and split
In June 2017, Jussi Halla-aho and Sampo Terho faced off in the leadership election, in which Halla-aho received 949 votes against Terho's 646 votes and thus succeeded Soini as party chairman. Sipilä and Finance Minister Petteri Orpo soon announced that they would not continue their coalition with the Finns Party if it was led by Halla-aho. Subsequently, twenty Finns Party MPs, including Soini and Terho, defected to form a new parliamentary group under the name New Alternative, later renamed into Blue Reform. As all cabinet ministers were among the defectors, the Blue Reform made an agreement with Sipilä to stay in the government.
Following the split, MPs Veera Ruoho and Arja Juvonen left the Finns Party parliamentary group to continue as independents, after which the party's seats were reduced to fifteen. All of the defecting MPs were subsequently expelled from the Finns Party. In the following weeks, MPs Ritva Elomaa and Arja Juvonen regretted their decision and re-joined the party, raising the amount of MPs to seventeen.
The party nominated MP Laura Huhtasaari as its candidate for the 2018 presidential election. In the election, Huhtasaari placed third with 6.9 percent of the votes, while the incumbent president Sauli Niinistö went on to secure his second term with a majority of votes. At the 2019 Finnish parliamentary election the Finns Party finished in second place and increased its number of MPs to 39 (with its strongest result being in Satakunta) while the breakaway Blue Reform party lost all of its seats.
On June 21, 2021, Jussi Halla-aho announced that he will retire from his position as a party leader in August 2021. He was succeeded by MP Riikka Purra on August 14.
In the European Parliament
When the Finns Party first gained representation in the European Parliament in 2009, it became a founding member of the Europe of Freedom and Democracy Group (EFD) in the Parliament. After the 2014 election, however, the party chose to leave the EFD to join the European Conservatives and Reformists Group (ECR). Commenting on the party's choice of group, party secretary Riikka Slunga-Poutsalo said in 2014 that joining a right-wing parliamentary group would not change the party's characteristic of being a "centre-left workers' party". After the 2019 election the party joined the Identity and Democracy Group.
Ideology
Ideologically, the Finns Party has been described as right-wing and far-right. It is a nationalist and national-conservative party that opposes immigration, while on foreign stances they are eurosceptic. The party combines left-wing economic policies and economic nationalism with socially conservative values, and ethnic nationalism. Several researchers have described the party as fiscally centre-left, socially conservative, a "centre-based populist party" or the "most left-wing of the non-socialist parties", whereas other scholars have described them as radically right-wing populist. In the parliament seating order, the party was seated in the centre of the plenary until 2019 when they were moved to the right of the plenary despite their opposition to the move. The party's supporters have described themselves as centrists. The party has drawn people from left-wing parties but central aspects of their manifesto have gained support from right-wing voters as well. The Finns Party has been compared by international media to the other Nordic populist parties and other similar nationalist and right-wing populist movements in Europe, whilst noting its strong support for the Finnish welfare state.
Policies and platform
In evaluating the Finns Party's 70-page programme for the 2011 election Mikko Lahtinen, political scientist in the University of Tampere, and Markku Hyrkkänen, historian of ideas in the University of Turku, note that nationalism is a theme consistently repeated throughout the programme. According to them the party presents populism as a noble ideology, which seeks to empower the people. Lahtinen describes the rhetoric used in the program as a refreshing change to the politically correct "jargon" of mainstream media, and believes that the Finns Party may have succeeded in gaining supporters from the traditional left-wing parties by presenting a more attractive form of criticism of neoliberalism than those parties.
Ville Pernaa, political scientist, described the party's 2015 electoral program by saying that the Finns Party combines elements of both right-wing and left-wing politics along with populist rhetoric.
Policies of the Finns Party in 2011 include the following:
Fiscal policies
Progressive taxation and the welfare state
The Finns Party has proposed more progressivity to taxes to avoid the establishment of flat taxation. The party has called for the raising of the capital gains tax and the re-institution of the wealth tax. According to the party, the willingness to pay taxes is best guaranteed by a society unified by correct social policies – the electoral program warns against individualist policies, which weaken the solidarity among citizens. "The willingness to pay taxes is guaranteed by having a unified people", the program reads (p. 46).
Some observers have compared the Finns Party's fiscal policies to the old national Social Democratic taxation policy, which has given the left-wing brand to the Finns Party. During the electoral campaign in 2011 Soini stated that he preferred the Social Democrats over the center-right National Coalition Party as a possible coalition partner in a future cabinet. Soini has stated that the Finns Party is a "workers' party without socialism". A researcher for the opinion polling company Taloustutkimus agreed, describing the Finns Party as a "non-socialist workers' party".
State support for rural regions, including support for agriculture
The Finns Party's rural policy program suggests state subsidies to relieve the effect of structural changes on the rural areas. This policy is shared by the Centre Party in Finland and originates from the agrarian and rural policies of both parties.
Increased state investment in infrastructure and industry
The Finns Party favours state investments in infrastructure and industry as well. A tendency towards favouring old industrial policies have led some political analysts to label the Finns Party as a center-left party.
Energy policies
Aspiration to energy self-reliance and support for nuclear energy
Pro-industry environmental policy – opposition to green tax reform and to taxpayers' involvement in emission trading funds
Cultural policies
Teaching "healthy national pride" in schools, because the unity of citizens is the basis of society.
Removal of the obligatory character of the second official language (Swedish in Finnish-language schools and vice versa) in curriculums on all levels of education, freeing up time for the learning of other foreign languages such as English, German, French, Spanish and Russian (especially in the eastern part of the country). Obviously allowance regarding the use of the Swedish language and its teaching will have to be made for those communes where Swedish-speaking populations are in the majority or a large percentage of the population – Swedish is one of Finland's national languages.
Support for cultural activities that "promote Finnish identity"
The cultural program of the Finns Party, which proposed subsidizing traditional art over postmodernist art, prompted criticism from outside the party and generated debate within the party as well. Some critics of the policy called it overtly populist or said that the state should not interfere with the content of art. A poll commissioned by Helsingin Sanomat at the time of the controversy found that a majority, 51 percent, of Finns agreed with the party's stance on ending subsidies for postmodern art.
Social policies
Rejection of gender identity, opposition to same-sex marriage, same-sex adoption and in vitro fertilization given to same-sex couples and single women.
Immigration policies
Regarding immigration policy the 2011 manifesto emphasises:
Limiting humanitarian immigration strictly to refugee quotas (which should be adapted to correspond with the economic situation),
Limiting family unification to proven direct relatives only, and requiring means of subsistence from the immigrant,
Deporting those immigrants guilty of serious or recurrent crimes or those that does not meet the Immigration laws,
Welcoming work-based immigration, provided the immigrants pay taxes and abide by Finnish labour laws,
Granting Finnish nationality after five years' residence in Finland, provided the immigrant masters Finnish, has no criminal record, and has means of subsistence
The party also requires that immigrants accept Finnish cultural norms. The only written declaration to the European Parliament made by a True Finn MEP also concerns immigration matters. The party underlines the role of national sovereignty in immigration issues:
In 2015 the party's immigration programme included demands like:
Lowering the refugee quota
Opposition to the planned burden-sharing mechanisms of the Common European Asylum Policy
Opposition to using public funds to advance multiculturalism
Tightening the conditions of family unification by migrants
Allowing the immigration of workers from outside the EU and EEA countries only if they are found to be necessary in a given field in a means test by the Finnish Labour Office
Making sure that migrants living on welfare benefits are not concentrated in the same areas
Outlawing begging in public places
Ending positive discrimination
In their 2019 election manifesto the party called for a prohibition on wearing the burqa and the niqab in public.
Timo Soini signed a pan-European charter against racism in 1998. However, in 2009, before the European Parliament election, Soini refused to sign an anti-racism appeal, saying that the appeal was an attempt to influence the party's choice of candidates (the appeal was drawn up by another political party). All other Finnish parties signed this appeal against racism. In May 2011, following controversies surrounding the remarks of the Finns Party's MP Teuvo Hakkarainen, the Finns Party's parliamentary group issued a statement condemning all racism and discrimination, including affirmative action. The party invited other parties to sign the statement as well, but no other party did so. In December 2011, an opinion poll revealed 51% of Finns Party voters agreed with the statement, "People of certain races are unsuited for life in a modern society."
Foreign and defence policies
The party also does:
Opposition to the integration of the European Union
Opposition to admission to NATO
Reductions in foreign aid
Timo Soini has been an outspoken critic of both the EU and NATO, but has stated that if a choice had to be made, NATO is a lesser evil than the EU. The Finns Party favors non-alliance or neutrality, as international activities abroad for the Defence Forces would undermine the defence budget's funds for sustaining a large conscript army of war-time personnel (which is 350,000) to guarantee the defence of all of Finland. When the Finnish Parliament voted to ratify the Ottawa Treaty, banning anti-personnel mines, in November 2011, the Finns Party was the only party unified in opposing the treaty.
The party believes in national sovereignty:
Shortly after the leadership election of Jussi Halla-aho, the party hardened its position towards the European Union. In 2017, Laura Huhtasaari stated that she would support leaving the EU should she win the 2018 Finnish presidential election citing the growth of the Union's power at the expense of the member states. Other party members have supported the idea of Finland withdrawing from both the Schengen Agreement and the Eurozone. In its latest platform, the Finns Party states that it supports a "European policy" based on appreciation for Western and Christian shaped values. The party argues that Finland is needed in the European Parliament to defend Finnish interests in the short-term, but states the "long-term strategic goal" is to take gradual steps to withdraw Finland from the European Union and proposes introducing a parallel currency within Finland to initiate phasing out Finnish membership of the Eurozone.
Judicial policies
During the 2011 election the party's judicial programme included:
Tougher punishments for violent crime
More resources for police and prosecutors
Opposition to any incorporation of Sharia law into judicial practices
Election results
Parliamentary elections
Presidential elections
European Parliament elections
Municipal elections
Leadership
Chairmanship and party secretaries
The party chairmanship is divided between four persons, elected at party congress biannually. Riikka Purra is the party's chair. The first deputy chair is Leena Meri, the second deputy chair is Mauri Peltokangas and the third deputy chair is Sebastian Tynkkynen.
Raimo Vistbacka chaired the Finns Party from 1995 to 1997. The party secretary Timo Soini succeeded Vistbacka as chairman in 1997.
Rolf Sormo followed Timo Soini as party secretary and served from 1997 to 1999. The third party secretary, Hannu Purho, served for eight years, from 1999 to 2007. After him, Timo Soini's parliamentary assistant, Ossi Sandvik, was elected party secretary in 2007. He was succeeded by Riikka Slunga-Poutsalo, who was elected as party secretary in 2013. She was succeeded by Simo Grönroos in 2019, who was in turn succeeded by Arto Luukkanen.
Board
The board of the Finns Party has 13 members: the party chairman, the three deputy chairs, the party secretary, chair of the parliamentary group and seven other members.
Foundations
The foundation Perussuomalaisten tukisäätiö ("The Finns Party support fund") was founded in 1990. It used the name SMP:n tukisäätiö until 2006. The fund borrowed 1.7 million euros from the party in 2012 to buy a 450 m2 commercial property in downtown Helsinki on Yrjönkatu for use as the Party's new headquarters. The Party rented these premises from the fund. Following the split of 2017, this foundation was left in the control the defector group, Blue Reform.
Another foundation, Suomen Perusta ("The Foundation of Finland"), was set up in 2012. Its role is to function as a think tank affiliated with the party.
Elected representatives and leaders
Current Members of the Finnish Parliament
Ville Tavio is the current chairman of the parliamentary group.
Sanna Antikainen (Savonia-Karelia, 2019–)
Juho Eerola (South-East, 2011–)
Kike Elomaa (Finland Proper, 2011–)
Jussi Halla-aho (Helsinki, 2011–14, 2019–)
Petri Huru (Satakunta, 2019–)
Olli Immonen (Oulu, 2011–)
Vilhelm Junnila (Finland Proper, 2019–)
Kaisa Juuso (Lapland, 2019–)
Arja Juvonen (Uusimaa, 2011–)
Toimi Kankaanniemi (Central Finland, 2015–)
Ari Koponen (Uusimaa, 2019–)
Jari Koskela (Satakunta, 2019–)
Jouni Kotiaho (Central Finland, 2019–)
Sheikki Laakso (South-East, 2019–)
Rami Lehto (Tavastia, 2015–)
Mikko Lundén (Finland Proper, 2019–)
Leena Meri (Uusimaa, 2015–)
Juha Mäenpää (Vaasa, 2019–)
Jani Mäkelä (South-East, 2015–)
Jukka Mäkynen (Vaasa, 2019–)
Veijo Niemi (Pirkanmaa, 2019–)
Mika Niikko (Uusimaa, 2011–)
Tom Packalén (Helsinki, 2011–)
Mauri Peltokangas (Vaasa, 2019–)
Sakari Puisto (Pirkanmaa, 2019–)
Riikka Purra (Uusimaa, 2019–)
Lulu Ranne (Tavastia, 2019–)
Mari Rantanen (Helsinki, 2019–)
Minna Reijonen (Savonia-Karelia, 2019–)
Jari Ronkainen (Tavastia, 2015–)
Sami Savio (Pirkanmaa, 2015–)
Jenna Simula (Oulu, 2019–)
Riikka Slunga-Poutsalo (Uusimaa, 2019–)
Ville Tavio (Finland Proper, 2015–)
Sebastian Tynkkynen (Oulu, 2019–)
Veikko Vallin (Pirkanmaa, 2019–)
Ville Vähämäki (Oulu, 2011–)
Jussi Wihonen (Savonia-Karelia, 2019–)
Ano Turtiainen was expelled from the parliamentary group in June 2020 due to a tweet he made about the murder of George Floyd. Since Turtiainen became an independent MP, the parliamentary group of the Finns Party is no longer the biggest opposition group (tied with the National Coalition).
Former Members of the Finnish Parliament
Simon Elo (2015–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Tiina Elovaara (2015–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Teuvo Hakkarainen (2011–2019)
Tony Halme (2003–07)
James Hirvisaari (2011–13; expelled from the party in 2013)
Reijo Hongisto (2011–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Laura Huhtasaari (2015–2019)
Laila Koskela (2011–14; defected to the Centre Party in 2014)
Lauri Heikkilä (2011–15)
Ari Jalonen (2011–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Anssi Joutsenlahti (2011–15; Rural MP 1979–87)
Johanna Jurva (2011–15)
Pietari Jääskeläinen (2009–15)
Pentti Kettunen (2011–15; Rural MP 1983–87, 1989–91)
Kimmo Kivelä (2011–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Osmo Kokko (2011–15)
Kari Kulmala (2015–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Jari Lindström (2011–17, Minister for Justice and Employment 2015–19; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Maria Lohela (2011–17, Speaker of the Parliament 2015–2018; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Anne Louhelainen (2011–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Pirkko Mattila (2011–17; Minister for Social Affairs and Health 2016–19, defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Lea Mäkipää (2011–17; Rural MP 1983–95; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Hanna Mäntylä (2011–17, Minister for Social Affairs and Health 2015–2016; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Martti Mölsä (2011–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Jussi Niinistö (2011–17, Minister for Defence 2015–19; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Pentti Oinonen (2007–11; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Mika Raatikainen (2014–19)
Veera Ruoho (2015–17; defected to the National Coalition Party in 2017)
Pirkko Ruohonen-Lerner (2007–15)
Vesa-Matti Saarakkala (2011–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Timo Soini (2011–17, 2003–09, Minister for Foreign Affairs 2015–19; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Ismo Soukola (2011–15)
Sampo Terho (2015–17, Minister for European Affairs, Culture and Sports 2017–19; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Maria Tolppanen (2011–16; defected to the SDP in 2016)
Reijo Tossavainen (2011–15)
Ano Turtiainen (2019–20, expelled from the parliamentary group in 2020 and from the party in 2021)
Kaj Turunen (2011–17; defected to Blue Reform in 2017)
Kauko Tuupainen (2011–15)
Markku Uusipaavalniemi (2010–11; Centre MP 2007–10)
Veltto Virtanen (2007–15; Ecological Party MP 1995–99)
Raimo Vistbacka (1995–11; Rural MP 1987–95)
Juha Väätäinen (2011–15)
Current Members of the European Parliament
Teuvo Hakkarainen (2019–)
Laura Huhtasaari (2019–)
Former Members of the European Parliament
Jussi Halla-aho (2014–19)
Pirkko Ruohonen-Lerner (2015–19)
Timo Soini (2009–11)
Sampo Terho (2011–15)
Party chairmen
Riikka Purra (2021–)
Jussi Halla-aho (2017–2021)
Timo Soini (1997–2017)
Raimo Vistbacka (1995–97)
Party secretaries
Arto Luukkanen (2021–)
Simo Grönroos (2019–2021)
Riikka Slunga-Poutsalo (2013–19)
Ossi Sandvik (2007–13)
Hannu Purho (1999–2007)
Rolf Sormo (1997–99)
Timo Soini (1995–97)
Controversies
Several True Finns MPs and other party leaders have made public statements which others have interpreted as being racist or otherwise inflammatory. In 2011 True Finn MP James Hirvisaari was fined 1,425 euro by the Kouvola Court of Appeals for comments he made on his blog about Muslims. In 2011 President Tarja Halonen was quoted characterizing some True Finn voters as racist. Her comments were broadly condemned by the True Finn party. A 2011 book by Swedish journalist Lisa Bjurwald made a similar characterization, that the party's leaders support racist positions, while publicly denying that they do so.
In 2011 MP Pentti Oinonen declined an invitation to the presidential Independence Day ball, citing his aversion to seeing same-sex couples dance. In a judgement given on 8 June 2012, MP Jussi Halla-aho, then Chairman of the Administration Committee was found guilty by the Supreme Court of both disturbing religious worship and ethnic agitation for statements he made about Muhammad in his blog.
In October 2013 it was reported that a Finns Party member of parliament, James Hirvisaari, had invited far-right activist Seppo Lehto as his guest to the parliament. During his visit, Lehto made several Nazi salutes, including at least one instance where Hirvisaari took a photo of Lehto performing the Nazi salute from the spectator gallery overlooking the Parliament House's Session Hall. Photos and videos of Lehto performing the Nazi salute in the Parliament House were then distributed on Lehto's public Facebook page and on YouTube. After newspapers broke news of the incident, Speaker of the Parliament Eero Heinäluoma issued a notice of censure to Hirvisaari for the incident and the Finns Party leadership unanimously decided to expel Hirvisaari from the party, citing multiple cases of acting against the party's interest. Hirvisaari then became affiliated with the Change 2011 party as the party's MP, until he was unseated in the parliamentary election of 2015.
In 2020, a number of members of The Finns party in parliament criticised the Academy of Finland for funding the research of Oula Silvennoinen at the University of Helsinki on The Holocaust, the genocide of the European Jews.
Finns party politicians have frequently supported far-right and neo-nazi movements such as the Finnish Defense League, Soldiers of Odin, Nordic Resistance Movement (NRM), Rajat Kiinni (Close the Borders), and Suomi Ensin (Finland First). An anti-mosque demonstration was supported by the youth branch of the PS, whose chairman, Jarmo Keto, said that, "Islam as an ideology is responsible for many conflicts and terror attacks. Thus such a mosque project is an irresponsible idea." There have been numerous cases where members of the Finns Party have attracted criticism from the other parties and antifascists for attending events organized by or with the NRM. Several members of the Finns Party took part in an event where the participants shot and threw knives at targets, using photos of members of the Rinne Cabinet and attended an event commemorating Eugen Schauman who assassinated Nikolay Bobrikov.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Right-wing populism in Finland
Nationalist parties in Finland
Eurosceptic parties in Finland
Anti-Islam sentiment in Europe
Anti-Islam political parties in Europe
Economic nationalism
European Conservatives and Reformists member parties
1995 establishments in Finland
Political parties established in 1995
Parties represented in the European Parliament
Registered political parties in Finland
Right-wing populist parties
National conservative parties
Social conservative parties
Conservative parties in Finland
Right-wing parties in Europe
Nordic agrarian parties | [
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255253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenteria | Carpenteria | Carpenteria californica , the tree anemone or bush anemone, is a species of flowering plant in the hydrangea family Hydrangeaceae. It is the sole species in the monotypic genus Carpenteria, which is closely related to the similar genus Philadelphus. It is a flowering evergreen shrub native to the Sierra Nevada foothills in California.
The genus was named in honor of Dr. William Marbury Carpenter, a noted botanist from Louisiana.
Note that Carpenteria should not be confused with the similarly spelled Carpentaria, a genus of palms native to northern Australia.
Description
Carpenteria californica grows to tall, with flaky bark on older stems. The leaves are opposite, lanceolate, long and broad, glossy green above, blue-green to whitish and downy beneath.
The sweetly-scented flowers are across with five to eight pure white petals and a cluster of yellow stamens. It flowers from late spring to midsummer. The fruit is a leathery capsule in diameter, containing numerous seeds.
Distribution and habitat
The bush anemone is a rare species, endemic to only seven sites in Fresno and Madera Counties, where it grows in chaparral and oak woodlands at altitude, between the San Joaquin River and Kings River. It is well adapted to wildfire, reproducing by stump sprouts after burning. Natural seedlings are rare.
Cultivation
Carpenteria californica is cultivated as an ornamental plant, grown for its lush foliage, large scented flowers and drought tolerance. It is used in traditional and wildlife gardens in subtropical and temperate locations in the northern hemisphere. It is hardy down to in sheltered locations in full sun.
It has been in cultivation since 1875, and is now much more common in gardens than in its natural habitat. It first flowered in England for the famed plantswoman Gertrude Jekyll at Godalming in 1885.
Cultivars include:
'Bodnant' — cold-tolerant cultivar, hardy to in the British Isles
'Elizabeth' — masses of smaller white flowers, more compact growth habit
'Ladham's' — large flowers
The cultivars ‘Elizabeth’ and ‘Bodnant’ have gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.
References
Hydrangeaceae
Cornales genera
Monotypic asterid genera
Endemic flora of California
Taxa named by John Torrey
Garden plants of North America
Drought-tolerant plants | [
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255255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Halme | Tony Halme | Tony Christian Halme (January 6, 1963 – January 8, 2010) was a Finnish politician, athlete, author, actor, and singer. He was a member of the Finnish Parliament from 2003 to 2007, representing the True Finns party as an independent politician. Halme was also known by the pseudonym Viikinki, which he used while appearing in Gladiaattorit, a Finnish version of the TV game show Gladiators, in the 1990s. He was also a professional wrestler best known for his appearances with Catch Wrestling Association (CWA), New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) and World Wrestling Federation (WWF) under the ring name Ludvig Borga; a mixed martial artist and the first fighter from the Nordic countries to ever compete in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC); and a professional boxer who held the Finnish heavyweight title.
During his time in CWA, he was an accomplished main eventer, who headlined many events for the company including the company's flagship event Euro Catch Festival three times.
Early life
In his memoirs, Halme cites living his childhood in a broken family. His father had left his family when Tony was only six months old, with his elder brother - who was five years older than Tony - taking role of his childhood father figure. Halme said he had heard from his father only a couple of times since. The mother of the family was alcoholic and her male friends changed frequently. Even as an adult, Halme considered his brother to be his only true friend.
Tony Halme spent his childhood in Lauttasaari, Helsinki. In mid-1970s, he moved with his mother and brother to Soukka, Espoo.
In his memoirs, he says he was a target of severe school bullying. Halme was very athletic from a young age, and with his brother, actively played sports such as handball, football and ice hockey. At the age of 16, Tony Halme finally left his childhood home and moved in with his uncle.
Halme gained his education from and a oppikoulu. He also attended a Swedish-language school and studied at the electrician line at the Strömberg School of Engineering. However, he dropped his studies after two years.
He trained Power training and weightlifting came along in his late teens when he enjoyed watching his brothers training, who were on the Finnish national team. At age of 17, he had gained silver at Finnish Championship bodybuilding. He had worked, among other things, as a fishmonger, gatekeeper, glass cutter, singer, page, stuntman, TV and radio presenter, and coach.
He later enlisted in the army and continued his training with the Finnish military sports team. After the army, he became involved in boxing and worked as a bouncer in bars.
Halme had been fascinated by moving to the United States since she saw Martin Scorsese’s film Taxi Driver at the age of 12.
He left Finland to live in Los Angeles in the 1980s and lived there for 15 years. There, he did bodybuilding and began to take steroids regularly. He also worked as a bodyguard for the music group Cheap Trick and musician Gene Simmons. He also worked as an actor, professional wrestler and a professional boxer.
Professional wrestling career
Early career (1989–1990)
His earlier career in show-fighting and boxing gave Halme a "tough guy" image, enhanced by well-publicized instances when he defended himself in bar brawls. Halme was trained by Verne Gagne as a powerhouse professional wrestler.
Universal Wrestling Federation (1990)
He made his debut for Herb Abrams's Universal Wrestling Federation (UWF) on October 29, 1990 as The Viking. In his first match, he defeated The Patriot, He then went on to defeat Kevin Benjamin.
New Japan Pro-Wrestling (1990–1993)
On October 25, 1990, Halme made his debut for the Japanese promotion New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), defeating The Soul Taker in what was billed as a "boxer vs. wrestler" match. Halme was brought in as an outsider and billed as a professional boxing champion with his matches billed as Mixed martial arts matches. He was instantly pushed as a big deal, scoring wins over the likes of Scott Norton, Vader and most notably Shinya Hashimoto on December 26, 1990. Halme was main eventing shows regularly as he was pushed as the biggest star of a crew that included the likes of Bobby Eaton, Chris Benoit, Dean Malenko, Eddy Guerrero and Fit Finlay. Despite Halme not getting over with NJPW fans, the company was doing strong business during his push.
On April 30, 1991, Halme defeated Masashi Aoyagi in a boxer versus karate match. He remained undefeated in NJPW until September 23, 1991, when he was defeated by Shinya Hashimoto in their third match against each other in front of 18,000 fans at the Yokohama Arena. While Halme's matches with Hashimoto were not considered quality matches, he has been credited with helping Hashimoto take his career to another level as the win made Hashimoto look like a "real fighter" as opposed to a professional wrestler. Halme's "boxer versus wrestler" gimmick was ended on October 18, 1991, when he was defeated by Vader.
In 1992, Halme was teamed in matches with Scott Norton, Bam Bam Bigelow and Barry Windham. He also competed in the NJPW Super Grade Tag League II teaming with Masahiro Chono, together scoring 8 points and finishing fourth overall. The tournament was won by Shinya Hashimoto and Riki Choshu. On November 22, 1992, Halme and Norton won the IWGP Tag Team Championship from The Steiner Brothers (Rick and Scott). However, the next night, Halme and Norton were forced to face each other with separate tag team partners with Halme and Ron Powers losing to Norton and TNT.
On December 14, Halme and Norton lost the IWGP Tag Team Championship to the Hell Raisers (Hawk Warrior and Power Warrior). On January 4, 1993, at Fantastic Story in Tokyo Dome (in North America aired on PPV as WCW/New Japan Supershow III), Halme was pinned by Ron Simmons. On February 16, 1993, Halme teamed up with Monsieur Rambo for the IWGP Tag Team Championship against the Hell Raisers, but lost.
Behind the scenes, Halme started having problems with Hawk Warrior and Scott Norton. It also came out that Halme had knocked out Norton in a legitimate street fight, though some claimed this was the result of a sucker punch by Halme. Fearing that Norton would be looking for retribution on Halme, NJPW officials took a secret vote on what to do with the two. Afterwards, Halme started losing matches more regularly and eventually left the promotion in June 1993. His last match took place on June 17, when he and The Barbarian lost to John Tenta and Haku.
World Wrestling Federation (1993–1994)
On Superstars aired on July 24, Halme debuted in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) as Ludvig Borga, a heel Finn who appeared in a series of vignettes castigating Americans for their perceived deficiencies in issues such as environmental laws and their educational system. His singlet was adorned with the Finnish flag, and his entrance music was Maamme, the country's national anthem. After an initial streak of squash victories over enhancement talent, Borga defeated former Intercontinental Champion Marty Jannetty at SummerSlam.
Borga was immediately pushed to main event status as he entered a feud with the federation's top babyface, "Made in the USA" Lex Luger. On the October 30, 1993 edition of Superstars (filmed September 28), Borga ended Tatanka's undefeated streak of nearly two years, dominating him throughout their match and ultimately knocking him out with a steel chair while the referee was distracted by Mr. Fuji at ringside. In a mockery of Luger's past "Narcissist" gimmick, Borga pinned Tatanka with one finger. At Survivor Series, Borga participated in the main event, teaming up with Yokozuna, Quebecer Jacques and Crush as the "Foreign Fanatics" against "All-Americans" Lex Luger, The Undertaker and The Steiner Brothers. Borga and Luger were the final two remaining participants and Borga was eliminated by Luger after a running forearm smash. On December 14, Borga pinned Intercontinental Champion Razor Ramon at a house show, but the win was overturned and the match resumed because Razor's foot was on the bottom rope. Borga pinned Razor again after Shawn Michaels hit Razor with a title belt, but the decision was reversed and Borga disqualified.
On January 17, 1994, Halme injured his ankle in a match with Rick Steiner, forcing the WWF to cancel future plans for the Borga character that included a scheduled appearance at the 1994 Royal Rumble and a proposed WrestleMania match against Earthquake. Halme left the company soon after.
Catch Wrestling Association (1995–1997)
Halme wrestled as Ludvig Borga for Catch Wrestling Association (CWA) in 1995. On December 20, Borga won the World Heavyweight Championship, his first and only singles championship, by defeating Rambo at the 1995 Euro Catch Festival. Borga held the title for over a year, including a major title defense against August Smisl at the Euro Catch Festival in July. He then lost the title back to Rambo at Euro Catch Festival on December 21.
Mixed martial arts
After retiring from professional wrestling in 1997, Halme went on to fight in the RINGS and Ultimate Fighting Championship, though without appreciable success, notably a 56-second submission loss to Randy Couture at UFC XIII.
Political career
During his parliamentary career, Halme raised controversies. The day after the elections, Halme referred to President Tarja Halonen as a lesbian in a radio interview. Halme stated that if a lesbian can be president of Finland and he can be a member of Parliament, anything seems possible. A huge uproar ensued as much of the Finnish media treated the statement as a personal attack on Halonen; Halonen herself made no comment. Halme later apologized, stating that he was sorry that the statement had been interpreted as an insult and that he had been under the genuine impression that Halonen was a lesbian.
Personal life
Halme was divorced from his wife Katja Talus. He had a Schutzstaffel tattoo on his calf. Borga was made to put tape over the tattoo when he wrestled in the WWF.
On July 4, 2003, a handgun was fired inside Halme's apartment. No one was injured, but the gun was unlicensed. Halme was subsequently hospitalized, as he had only days before been in a boxing match and was using prescription painkillers, but his blood had additionally contained trace amounts of amphetamines, while a police search of his House of Parliament office turned up illegal steroids. Halme claimed that somebody had put the amphetamines into his drink without his knowledge. In January 2004, his trial was broadcast live on television by the MTV3 digital television channel. Halme received a four-month suspended sentence and a fine, but continued to serve as Member of Parliament. In 2006, he was convicted for driving while impaired.
In early March 2006, Halme was involuntarily committed to a mental hospital, reportedly due to delirium caused by excessive alcohol use. Earlier in 2006 he had been diagnosed with alcohol-related cirrhosis and acute pancreatitis. After spending almost the entire year of 2006 on sick leave, he went on disability pension at end of the Parliamentary term.
In December 2009, Halme told a newspaper that he was suffering from impairment of his short-term memory and had trouble remembering anything, but was still trying to write a book on his political career.
Death
On January 8, 2010, two days after his 47th birthday, Halme died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound, from an unlicensed handgun. His body was found two days later.
Filmography
Other media
Halme authored five books and recorded one album called Mestarit salilla. Halme had a modest film career starring in Finnish movies Ponterosa and Kohtalon kirja, and in 1995 had small roles overseas in Die Hard with a Vengeance and Fist of the North Star. Halme was also cast in a minor role in the 1997 blockbuster film Titanic but had to withdraw due to a filming delay.
In 1993, Halme's professional wrestling persona was part of the Japanese wrestling video game Shin Nippon Pro Wrestling: Chou Senshi in Tokyo Dome for Super Famicom (Super Nintendo Entertainment System).
Books
Jumala armahtaa, minä en (1998) (Title translation: God Has Mercy, I Don't)
Tuomiopäivä (2001) (Title translation: The Judgment Day)
Viikingin voimaopas (2003) (Title translation: The Viking's strength guide)
Kovan päivän ilta (2003) (Title translation: A Hard Day's Night)
Testamentti (2010, posthumously) (Title translation: The Testament)
Albums
Mestarit salilla (Title translation: The champions at the gym) (2001)
Singles
"I Am Ironman" (1998)
"Viikinki" (Title translation: "The Viking") (1999)
"Mä oon tällainen" (Title translation: "I am like this") (2000)
"Painu pelle hiiteen" (Title translation: "Sod off, clown") (2001)
"Isätön poika" (Title translation: "The fatherless son") (2002)
Championships and accomplishments
Catch Wrestling Association
CWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
New Japan Pro-Wrestling
IWGP Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Scott Norton
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him #145 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1993
Professional boxing record
Mixed martial arts record
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 1–4
| Randy Couture
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| UFC 13: Ultimate Force
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:56
| Augusta, Georgia, USA
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 1–3
| Dick Vrij
| TKO (doctor stoppage)
| Rings - Extension Fighting 2
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:42
| Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 1–2
| Mitsuya Nagai
| Submission
| Rings - Budokan Hall 1996
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 8:58
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 1–1
| Dick Vrij
| KO
| Rings - Budokan Hall 1995
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:55
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 1–0
| Tariel Bitsadze
| KO
| Rings: Battle Dimensions Tournament 1994
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| N/A
| Tokyo, Japan
|
See also
List of premature professional wrestling deaths
References
External links
1963 births
2010 deaths
Sportspeople from Helsinki
Swedish-speaking Finns
Finns Party politicians
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2003–07)
Finnish actor-politicians
Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan
Finnish male actors
Finnish emigrants to the United States
Finnish expatriates in Japan
Finnish male mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists utilizing boxing
Mixed martial artists utilizing wrestling
Finnish male professional wrestlers
20th-century Finnish male singers
Finnish sportsperson-politicians
Finnish writers
Heavyweight boxers
Finnish male boxers
Finnish people convicted of drug offenses
Finnish politicians who committed suicide
Suicides by firearm in Finland
2010 suicides
Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters | [
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255256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking%20Machine | Talking Machine | Talking Machine is an indies demo EP of Japanese rock band 9mm Parabellum Bullet. All of the songs listed appeared again on later releases.
Track list
Personnel
Takuro Sugawara – lead vocals, lyricist, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar (track 6)
Yoshimitsu Taki – backing vocals, lead guitar
Kazuhiko Nakamura – bass guitar, screaming (tracks 1 and 12)
Chihiro Kamijo – drums
References
2004 EPs
9mm Parabellum Bullet albums | [
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255257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decumaria | Decumaria | Decumaria, the woodvamps, is a genus of two species of flowering plants in the family Hydrangeaceae, one (D. barbara) native to the southeastern United States, and the other (D. sinensis) native to central China.
They are shrubby lianas growing to 4–10 m high through shrubs and trees, climbing by means of aerial adhesive rootlets. The leaves are variably deciduous to evergreen (with D. barbara tending to be more often deciduous, D. sinensis more evergreen), 3–10 cm long, ovate with an acute apex, and a smooth to obscurely toothed margin. The flowers are 5–10 mm diameter, white to creamy colored, fragrant, produced in dense panicles 3–8 cm broad. The fruit is a dry capsule containing several seeds.
References
Hydrangeaceae
Cornales genera
Flora of North America | [
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255258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutzia | Deutzia | Deutzia ( or ) is a genus of about 60 species of flowering plants in the family Hydrangeaceae, native to eastern and central Asia (from the Himalayas east to Japan and the Philippines), and Central America and also Europe. By far the highest species diversity is in China, where 50 species occur.
The species are shrubs ranging from in height. Most are deciduous, but a few subtropical species are evergreen. The leaves are opposite, simple, with a serrated margin. The flowers are produced in panicles or corymbs; they are white in most species, sometimes pink or reddish. The fruit is a dry capsule containing numerous small seeds. Identification of the species is very difficult, requiring often microscopic detail of the leaf hairs and seed capsule structure.
Deutzia is named after the 18th century Dutch patron of botany, Johan van der Deutz.
Selected species
Cultivation and uses
The deutzias are fairly new to gardens: the exception, D. scabra, was noticed in Japanese gardens by Engelbert Kaempfer (1712) and Carl Peter Thunberg (1784) but not actually seen in Europe till the 1830s; two-thirds of the species noted in the R.H.S. Dictionary were gathered in from the wild during the 20th century.
Deutzias are commonly grown as ornamental plants for their white and pink flowers. Many cultivars and hybrids have been selected for garden use, including selections with double flowers. For example, Deutzia × lemoinei is a hybrid of D. gracilis and D. parviflora. The following cultivars and hybrids have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-
Deutzia gracilis 'Nikko'
Deutzia monbeigii
Deutzia scabra ‘Candidissima’
Deutzia scabra ‘Codsall Pink’
Deutzia setchuenensis var. corymbiflora
Deutzia × elegantissima 'Rosealind'
Deutzia × hybrida ‘Contraste’
Deutzia × hybrida 'Mont Rose'
Deutzia × hybrida 'Strawberry Fields'
The temperate deutzias are mostly hardy shrubs from far eastern regions where winters are dependably frozen; in milder climates, like much of England, the early-flowering species and hybrids are coaxed into premature bloom by mild spells, then spoilt by frost. Alice Coats remarks that deutzias have done better in Edinburgh, on the chilly east coast of Scotland, than in London. A solution in milder climates might be to site deutzia in the garden's most exposed, coldest microclimate, as is often done with early-flowering magnolias.
Identification can be difficult, and in particular, many of the plants in cultivation sold as D. scabra are actually D. crenata (Huxley 1992). The selected hybrid white double "Pride-of-Rochester", already in cultivation in 1881, was originated by the Rochester, New York nurserymen Ellwanger and Barry.
Deutzia scabra is used by joiners in Japan to polish wood.
References
External links
Flora of Pakistan: Deutzia
Flora of Nepal checklist: Deutzia
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255261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fendlera | Fendlera | Fendlera is a genus of shrubs in the Hydrangeaceae. They are most commonly known as fendlerbush. The name fendlerbush is also used for the closely related genus Fendlerella.
The genus was named for Augustus Fendler in 1852.
References
Hydrangeaceae
Cornales genera
Flora of North America | [
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255262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbicarian%20diocese | Suburbicarian diocese | The seven suburbicarian dioceses are Roman Catholic dioceses located in the vicinity of Rome, whose (titular) bishops are the (now six) ordinary members of the highest-ranking order of cardinals, the cardinal bishops (to which the cardinal-patriarchs were added). Pope Francis has, in addition, co-opted five cardinals of the Latin Church to join the ranks of the Cardinal-Bishops.
Seven suburbicarian sees
The suburbicarian dioceses have varied slightly over time and nowadays consist of:
the Diocese of Ostia (since 1150 the additional see of the Dean of the College of Cardinals)
the Diocese of Velletri-Segni
the Diocese of Porto-Santa Rufina
the Diocese of Frascati (Tusculum)
the Diocese of Palestrina
the Diocese of Albano
the Diocese of Sabina-Poggio Mirteto
The see of Ostia is conferred on the Dean of the College of Cardinals in addition to the see he already had. (Until 1914, the dean received the see of Ostia and Velletri in place of the see he had earlier. The sees of Ostia and Velletri were separated in 1914.) The cardinal-dean used to be the longest-serving cardinal bishop, but is now chosen by the six cardinal bishops with the approval of the Pope.
Incumbents
Diocesan administration
The increasing involvement of the cardinal bishops in the administration of the papal curia resulted in a detachment from their dioceses. Therefore, some of them, in particular the cardinal-bishops of Sabina and Velletri, have for centuries had auxiliary bishops and in 1910 Pope Pius X's apostolic constitution Apostolicae Romanorum made this practice obligatory for all suburbicarian dioceses.
In 1962, Pope John XXIII in his decree Suburbicarii sedis made the cardinal bishops into titular bishops and made provision for the appointment of separate residential diocesan bishops for Velletri-Segni, Porto-Santa-Rufina, Frascati, Palestrina, Albano and Sabina. For the diocese of Ostia — the titular diocese of the Dean of the College of Cardinals — no resident diocesan bishop was appointed; it is entrusted to an apostolic administrator, which is always the Cardinal Vicar of Rome. Though the diocesan bishops exercise all episcopal administrative functions, the cardinal bishops still formally take possession of their titular dioceses.
See also
Diocese of Rome#Suburbicarian sees
Titular church
References
Titular sees | [
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255263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il%20Risorgimento%20%28newspaper%29 | Il Risorgimento (newspaper) | Il Risorgimento ("The Resurgence" in English) was a liberal, nationalist newspaper founded in Turin 15 December 1847 by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour and Cesare Balbo, who was a backbone of the "neo-Guelph" party that saw in future a rejuvenated Italy under a republican government with a papal presidency—ideas with which Cavour did not agree. The two men were soon joined by Pietro di Santa Rosa and Michelangelo Castelli, who soon assumed the position of vice-director. Publication began as a result of the relaxation of stringent press control which made the newspaper financially viable. Within weeks the paper, conceived as a weekly, was published daily, as revolutionary events, initiated by an insurgency in Palermo and demonstrations in Genoa, gained momentum. The paper was initiated to form a moderate middle-class "respectable" balance to the more radical "democratic" program of Concordia, which was initiated at the same time. The initial editorial by Cavour made the following claim: "Our aim not being of making money but of enlightening the country and of cooperating with the grand works of "Resurgence" initiated by the government".
Thus without seeming to lead, Cavour's Risorgimento offered a regimen of liberal political ideas, of constitutionalism and freedom from foreign control. From its inception, the paper advocated a constitution to be granted by Carlo Alberto of Savoy, the absolute monarch of Sardinia-Piedmont. The eventual constitution was the Statuto Albertino, which was decreed on 8 February 1848. Cavour's editorials were produced with the longer view of preparing Sardinia-Piedmont for a leading role in the coming upheavals, which came to the fore in the revolutionary events of 1848-49. As editor of the newspaper, Cavour gained a great degree of influence in Sardinian politics; in an editorial on 23 March he pressed for a war to drive the Austrians from Lombardy and Venice, where urban revolutions were under way. This proved disastrous for the kingdom with its overwhelming defeat at the Battle of Novara (1849).
Though he withdrew as editor in October 1848, Il Risorgimento paved Cavour's way towards entering the government—he was appointed prime minister to Vittorio II Emanuele in 1852, after Carlo Alberto's resignation— and a decade's career engineering Italian unification.
In May 1849 Il Risorgimento combined with the more conservative La Nazione, continuing to support government measures.
In the course of the unification of Italy, the term "risorgimento" came to be applied to the process of unification itself.
Notes
References
Emiliana P. Noether, "Risorgimento (newspaper)"
[Rosario Romeo, Cavour e il suo tempo, (Laterza, Bari) 1977] excerpt concerning Il Risorgimento (Italian)
1847 establishments in Italy
1849 disestablishments in Italy
Defunct newspapers published in Italy
Italian-language newspapers
Newspapers published in Turin
Newspapers established in 1847
Publications disestablished in 1849
Daily newspapers published in Italy | [
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] |
255265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fendlerella | Fendlerella | Fendlerella is a monotypic genus of shrubs in the Hydrangeaceae containing the single species Fendlerella utahensis. This plant is known as Utah fendlerella, yerba desierto, or sometimes as Utah fendlerbush (it having previously been included in the closely related genus Fendlera, the fendlerbushes).
The species was named for Augustus Fendler in 1898.
References
External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
USDA Plants Profile
Hydrangeaceae
Cornales genera
Monotypic asterid genera
Flora of Northwestern Mexico
Flora of the Southwestern United States
Taxa named by Amos Arthur Heller | [
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255266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamesia | Jamesia | Jamesia is a genus of shrubs in the Hydrangeaceae, most commonly known as Jamesia, cliffbush or waxflower. It is native to interior western North America, in the U.S. states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming, growing in mountains at 1600–3000 m altitude.
There are just two species in the genus, Jamesia americana, and Jamesia tetrapetala.
It is a shrub growing to 1–2 m tall and to 3 m or more broad, with opposite simple leaves 3–7 cm long and 2–5 cm broad, with a serrated margin and a crinkled surface. The flowers are produced in erect terminal panicles, each flower white, 15–20 mm diameter, with five (rarely four) petals. The fruit is a dry capsule with numerous small seeds.
The genus is named in honor of Edwin James, the botanist on Stephen Long's expedition in 1820 that explored the territory between the Platte and Arkansas Rivers. James was the first to collect this genus for botanical study.
Notes
References
External links
Photo gallery
Hydrangeaceae
Flora of the Southwestern United States
Flora of North America
Cornales genera
Monotypic asterid genera | [
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255267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphus | Philadelphus | Philadelphus () (mock-orange) is a genus of about 60 species of shrubs from 3–20 ft (1–6 m) tall, native to North America, Central America, Asia and (locally) in southeast Europe.
They are named "mock-orange" in reference to their flowers, which in wild species look somewhat similar to those of oranges and lemons (Citrus) at first glance, and smell of orange flowers and jasmine (Jasminum). But Philadelphus is a basal asterid, not closely related to Jasminum (advanced asterids), and among the eudicots quite distant from Citrus (advanced rosids). An entirely misleading name for Philadelphus that is sometimes encountered is syringa; this properly refers to the lilacs, which are fairly close relatives of jasmine. The connection of the two shrubs lies in their introduction from Ottoman gardens to European ones, effected at the same time by the Holy Roman emperor's ambassador to the Sublime Porte, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, who returned to Vienna in 1562. The two shrubs appear together in John Gerard's Herball, as "Blew Pipe" (the lilac) and "White Pipe Tree", for the woods of both are pithy and easily hollowed out.
Philadelphus is named after an ancient Greek king of Egypt, Ptolemy II Philadelphus.
Description and ecology
Most are deciduous but a few species from the south of the genus' range are evergreen. The leaves are opposite, simple, with serrated margins, from 0.5-6 inches (1–14 cm) long. The flowers are white, with four petals and sepals, 0.5-2 inches (1–4 cm) diameter, and commonly (but not in all species) sweetly scented. The fruit is a small capsule, containing numerous small seeds. The bark is thin and flaky, finely shredding in longitudinal strips.
Mock-oranges are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the engrailed (Ectropis crepuscularia). A noted pathogen of the sweet mock-orange (P. coronarius) is the undescribed proteobacterium called "Pseudomonas tomato" (pv. philadelphi).
Cultivation
For a long time, Philadelphus coronarius was the only mock-orange of gardens, though some adventurous Americans grew the native P. inodorus that Mark Catesby had discovered growing on the banks of the Savannah River. It appeared in Lady Skipwith's garden lists and George Washington ordered some from Bartram in 1792. Mock-oranges are popular shrubs in parks and gardens, grown for their reliable display of late spring flowers; the scented species are particularly valued. In addition to the species, there are numerous garden origin hybrids and cultivars available, selected for doubleness and large flowers, with some compromise as to scent.
AGM cultivars
The following hybrid cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-
’Aureus’ (P. coronarius)
'Beauclerk'
'Belle Étoile'
’Innocence’
'Manteau d'Hermine'
'Sybille'
’Variegatus’ (P. coronarius)
In culture
Lewis' mock-orange (P. lewisii) is the state flower of Idaho.
Selected species
Asia
Philadelphus brachybotrys (southeast China)
Philadelphus delavayi – Delavay's mock-orange (southwest China)
Philadelphus incanus (Hubei, Shaanxi)
Philadelphus kansuensis – Chinese evergreen mock-orange (northwest China)
Philadelphus laxiflorus (Gansu, Hubei, Shaanxi)
Philadelphus laxus Schrad. ex DC. – Japanese mock-orange (Japan; formerly P. satsumi
Philadelphus purpurascens (southwest China)
Philadelphus satsumanus – Downy Japanese mock-orange (Japan)
Philadelphus schrenkii – Korean mock-orange (northeast China, Korea, southeast Russia)
Philadelphus sericanthus (Sichuan, Hubei)
Philadelphus pekinensis – Beijing mock-orange (northern China)
Philadelphus subcanus (southwest China)
Philadelphus tenuifolius – Slenderleaf mock-orange (Korea, southeast Russia)
Philadelphus tomentosus – Fuzzy mock-orange (Himalaya)
Philadelphus triflorus – Himalayan mock-orange (Himalaya)
Europe
Philadelphus caucasicus – Caucasus mock-orange (Caucasus) – likely syn. of P. coronarius
Philadelphus coronarius – Sweet mock-orange, English Dogwood (southeast Europe)
North America
Pancontinental hybrids
Philadelphus × lemoinei (horticultural hybrid)
Philadelphus × purpureomaculatus (horticultural hybrid)
Philadelphus × virginalis (horticultural hybrid)
References
External links
Cornales genera
Flora of North America | [
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255270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jigger | Jigger | Jigger may refer to:
Tools and machines
Jigger (bartending), used to measure out a jigger (1.5 US fluid ounces) of liquor
Pallet jack, used to lift and move pallets
Hydraulic jigger, a hydraulically powered mechanical winch
Ice jigger, used for setting fish nets under ice between two distant holes
Jigger, a machine for the shaping of clay body into flatware; see
Transportation
Handcar (hand-operated) or railroad speeder (motorized), a railway car mostly used for maintenance
Jiggermast, the aftmost mast of a four-masted sailing ship
Arts and entertainment
"Jigger", a work by Li Cheng (painter) (919–967)
Jigger, a large statue in Brownhills, West Midlands, England
Jigger Craigin, a character in the musical Carousel
Places
Jigger, Louisiana, United States, an unincorporated community
Jigger, a local name for the settlement of South Tunbridge; see Tunbridge, Vermont, United States
People
Jigger (nickname), a list of people
Jigger, a person who engages in jigging, i.e. fishing with a jig lure
Other uses
Tunga penetrans or chigoe flea, a tropical parasitic arthropod
Jigger, the inner button of a double-breasted coat or jacket
Jigger, an obsolete golf club that was a very low lofted iron with a shortened shaft
See also
Jiggerpole, a very long fishing pole used with a very short and very heavy line | [
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255272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Florida | West Florida | West Florida () was a region on the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico that underwent several boundary and sovereignty changes during its history. As its name suggests, it was formed out of the western part of former Spanish Florida (East Florida formed the eastern part, with the Apalachicola River the border), along with lands taken from French Louisiana; Pensacola became West Florida's capital. The colony included about two thirds of what is now the Florida Panhandle, as well as parts of the modern U.S. states of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.
Great Britain established West and East Florida in 1763 out of land acquired from France and Spain after the Seven Years' War. As the newly acquired territory was too large to govern from one administrative center, the British divided it into two new colonies separated by the Apalachicola River. British West Florida included the part of formerly Spanish Florida which lay west of the Apalachicola, as well as parts of formerly French Louisiana; its government was based in Pensacola. West Florida thus encompassed all territory between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, with a northern boundary which shifted several times over the subsequent years.
Both West and East Florida remained loyal to the British crown during the American Revolution, and served as havens for Tories fleeing from the Thirteen Colonies. Spain invaded West Florida and captured Pensacola in 1781, and after the war Britain ceded both Floridas to Spain. However, the lack of defined boundaries led to a series of border disputes between Spanish West Florida and the fledgling United States known as the West Florida Controversy.
Because of disagreements with the Spanish government, American and English settlers between the Mississippi and Perdido rivers declared that area as the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810. (None of the short-lived Republic lay within the borders of the modern U.S. state of Florida; it comprised the Florida parishes of today's Louisiana.) Within months it was annexed by the United States, which claimed the region as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1819 the United States negotiated the purchase of the remainder of West Florida and all of East Florida in the Adams–Onís Treaty, and in 1822 both were merged into the Florida Territory.
Background
The area known as West Florida was originally claimed by Spain as part of La Florida, which included most of what is now the southeastern United States. Spain made several attempts to conquer and colonize the area, notably including Tristán de Luna's short-lived settlement in 1559, but it was not settled permanently until the 17th century, with the establishment of missions to the Apalachee. In 1698 the settlement of Pensacola was established to check French expansion into the area.
Beginning in the late 17th century, the French established settlements along the Gulf Coast and in the region as part of their colonial La Louisiane, including Mobile (1702) and Fort Toulouse (1717) in present-day Alabama and Fort Maurepas (1699) in present-day coastal Mississippi. After years of contention between France and Spain, they agreed to use the Perdido River (the modern border between Florida and Alabama) as the boundary between French Louisiana and Spanish Florida.
Before 1762 France had owned and administered the land west of the Perdido River as part of La Louisiane. The secret Treaty of Fontainebleau, concluded in 1762 but not made public until 1764, had effectively ceded to Spain all of French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River, as well as the Isle of Orleans.
However, under the treaty that had concluding the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War) in 1763, Britain obtained immediate title to all of French Louisiana east of the Mississippi River. This included the land between the Perdido and Mississippi. Spain also ceded to Great Britain its territory of La Florida, in exchange for Cuba, which the British had captured during the war. As a result, for the next two decades, the British controlled nearly all of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi River. Most of the Spanish population left Florida at that time, and its colonial government records were relocated to Havana, Cuba.
Spain, meanwhile, failed to make good by occupancy its title to Louisiana until 1769, when it took formal possession. For six years, therefore, Louisiana as France possessed it, and as Spain received it, included none of the territory between the Mississippi and Perdido rivers, as the title to that territory had passed immediately from France to Britain in 1763.
Colonial period
British era
Finding this new territory too large to govern as one unit, the British divided it into two new colonies, West Florida and East Florida, separated by the Apalachicola River, as set forth in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. East Florida consisted of most of the formerly Spanish Florida, and retained the old Spanish capital of St. Augustine. West Florida comprised the land between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, including land from what had been Spanish Florida and French Louisiana, with Pensacola designated as its capital. The northern boundary was arbitrarily set at the 31st parallel north.
Many English Americans and Scotch-Irish Americans moved to the territory at this time. The Governor of West Florida in November 1763 was George Johnstone; his lieutenant governor, Montfort Browne, was a major landowner in the province who heavily promoted its development. Seven General Assemblies were convoked between 1766 and 1778.
In 1767, the British moved the northern boundary to the 32° 22′ north latitude, extending from the Yazoo to the Chattahoochee River, which included the Natchez District and the Tombigbee District. The appended area included approximately the lower halves of the present states of Mississippi and Alabama. Many new settlers arrived in the wake of the British garrison, swelling the population. In 1774 the First Continental Congress sent letters inviting West Florida to send delegates, but this proposal was declined as the inhabitants were overwhelmingly Loyalist. During the American War of Independence the Governor of West Florida was Peter Chester. The commander of British forces during the war was John Campbell. The colony was attacked in 1778 by the Willing Expedition.
Spanish era
Spain entered the American Revolutionary War on the side of France, but not the Thirteen Colonies. Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Spanish Louisiana, led a military campaign along the Gulf Coast, capturing Baton Rouge and Natchez from the British in 1779, Mobile in 1780, and Pensacola in 1781.
In the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the war, the British agreed to a boundary between the United States and West Florida at 31° north latitude between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers. However, a separate Anglo-Spanish agreement, which ceded both Florida provinces back to Spain, did not specify a northern boundary for Florida, and the Spanish government assumed that the boundary was the same as in the 1763 agreement under which Britain acquired the territory from Spain. This sparked the first West Florida Controversy. Spain claimed the expanded 1764 boundary, while the United States claimed that the boundary was at the 31° parallel. Negotiations in 1785–1786 between John Jay and Don Diego de Gardoqui failed to reach a satisfactory conclusion. The border was finally resolved in 1795 by the Treaty of San Lorenzo, in which Spain recognized the 31° parallel as the boundary.
Spain continued to maintain East and West Florida as separate colonies. When Spain acquired West Florida in 1783, the eastern British boundary was the Apalachicola River, but Spain in 1785 moved it eastward to the Suwannee River. The purpose was to transfer the military post at San Marcos (now St. Mark's) and the district of Apalachee from East Florida to West Florida.
In the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso of 1800, Spain agreed to return Louisiana to France; however, the location of the boundary between Louisiana and West Florida was not explicitly specified. After France sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803, another boundary dispute erupted. The United States laid claim to the territory from the Perdido River to the Mississippi River, which the Americans believed had been a part of the old province of Louisiana when the French agreed to cede it to Spain in 1762. The Spanish insisted that they had administered that portion as the province of West Florida and that it was not part of the territory restored to France by Charles IV in 1802, as France had never given West Florida to Spain, among a list of other reasons.
Republic of West Florida
The United States and Spain held long, inconclusive negotiations on the status of West Florida. In the meantime, American settlers established a foothold in the area and resisted Spanish control. British settlers, who had remained, also resented Spanish rule, leading to a rebellion in 1810 and the establishment for 74 days of the Republic of West Florida.
In West Florida from June to September 1810, many secret meetings of those who resented Spanish rule, as well as three openly held conventions, took place in the Baton Rouge district. Out of those meetings grew the West Florida rebellion and the establishment of the independent Republic of West Florida, with its capital at St. Francisville, in present-day Louisiana, on a bluff along the Mississippi River.
Early in the morning on September 23, 1810, armed rebels stormed Fort San Carlos at Baton Rouge and killed two Spanish soldiers "in a sharp and bloody firefight that wrested control of the region from the Spanish." The rebels unfurled the flag of the new republic, a single white star on a blue field. After the successful attack, organized by Philemon Thomas, plans were made to take Mobile and Pensacola from the Spanish and incorporate the eastern part of the province into the new republic. Reuben Kemper led a small force in an attempt to capture Mobile, but the expedition ended in failure.
Support for the revolt was far from unanimous. The presence of competing pro-Spanish, pro-American, and pro-independence factions, as well as the presence of scores of foreign agents, contributed to a "virtual civil war within the Revolt as the competing factions jockeyed for position." The faction that favored the continued independence of West Florida secured the adoption of a constitution at a convention in October. The convention had earlier commissioned an army under General Philemon Thomas to march across the territory, subdue opposition to the insurrection, and seek to secure as much Spanish-held territory as possible. "Residents of the western Florida Parishes proved largely supportive of the Revolt, while the majority of the population in the eastern region of the Florida Parishes opposed the insurrection. Thomas' army violently suppressed opponents of the revolt, leaving a bitter legacy in the Tangipahoa and Tchefuncte River regions."
On November 7, 1810, Fulwar Skipwith was elected as governor, together with members of a bicameral legislature. Skipwith was inaugurated on November 29, 1810. A week later, he and many of his fellow officials still lingered at St Francisville preparing to go to Baton Rouge, where the next session of the legislature was to consider his ambitious program. The impending U.S. takeover apparently came as a surprise to Skipwith when the Mississippi Territory governor, David Holmes, and his party approached the town. Holmes persuaded all except a few leaders, including Skipwith and Philemon Thomas, the general of the West Florida troops, to acquiesce to American authority.
Skipwith complained bitterly to Holmes that, as a result of seven years of U.S. tolerance of continued Spanish occupation, the United States had abandoned its right to the country and that the West Florida people would not now submit to the American government without conditions. Skipwith and several of his unreconciled legislators then departed for the fort at Baton Rouge, rather than surrender the country unconditionally and without terms.
At Baton Rouge on December 9, 1810, Skipwith informed Holmes that he would no longer resist but could not speak for the troops in the fort. Their commander was John Ballinger, who upon the assurance of Holmes that his troops would not be harmed, agreed to surrender the fort. The Orleans Territory governor, William C. C. Claiborne and his armed forces from Fort Adams landed above the town. Holmes reported to Claiborne that "the armed citizens ... are ready to retire from the fort and acknowledge the authority of the United States" without insisting upon any terms. Claiborne agreed to a respectful ceremony to mark the formal act of transfer. Thus, at 2:30 p.m. that afternoon, December 10, 1810, "the men within the fort marched out and stacked their arms and saluted the flag of West Florida as it was lowered for the last time, and then dispersed."
The boundaries of the Republic of West Florida included all territory south of parallel 31°N, east of the Mississippi River, and north of the waterway formed by the Iberville River, Amite River, Lake Maurepas, Pass Manchac, Lake Pontchartrain, and the Rigolets. The Pearl River with its branch that flowed into the Rigolets formed the eastern boundary of the republic.
American annexation of the territory
On October 27, 1810, U.S. President James Madison proclaimed that the United States should take possession of West Florida between the Mississippi and Perdido Rivers, based on a tenuous claim that it was part of the Louisiana Purchase. (See The U.S. claim, below.) The West Florida government opposed annexation, preferring to negotiate terms to join the Union. Governor Fulwar Skipwith proclaimed that he and his men would "surround the Flag-Staff and die in its defense". William C. C. Claiborne was sent to take possession of the territory, entering the capital of St. Francisville with his forces on December 6, 1810, and Baton Rouge on December 10, 1810. Claiborne refused to recognize the legitimacy of the West Florida government, however, and Skipwith and the legislature eventually agreed to accept Madison's proclamation. Congress passed a joint resolution, approved January 15, 1811, to provide for the temporary occupation of the disputed territory and declaring that the territory should remain subject to future negotiation.
On February 12, 1812, Congress secretly authorized President James Madison to take possession of the portion of West Florida located west of the Perdido River that was not already in the possession of the United States, with authorization to use military and naval force as deemed necessary. On April 14, 1812, Congress authorized the portion of the territory west of the Pearl River to be incorporated into the state of Louisiana, which would be formally created on April 30, but it was not formally attached until the state's legislature approved it on August 4. The U.S. annexed the Mobile District of West Florida to the Mississippi Territory on May 14, 1812, although this decision was not effected with military force until nearly a year later. (See Major Gen. James Wilkinson's role.) According to one historian, "The incorporation of West Florida into the Orleans district represents the emergence of infant American imperialism by the newly constructed union. Using force, not negotiations, Claiborne and his army, with Madison's proclamation, forced Skipwith and his sympathizers to accept foreign rule."
United States claim
By the secret treaty of October 1, 1800, between France and Spain, known as the St. Ildefonso treaty, Spain returned to France in 1802 the province of Louisiana as at that time possessed by Spain, and such as it was when France last possessed it in 1769.p 48 (In contrast, Madison's 1810 proclamation alluded to the time of France's original, not last, possession.)
It is important that in the transfer of Louisiana to the United States, the identical language in Article 3 of the 1800 St. Ildefonso treaty was used. The ambiguity in this third article lent itself to the purpose of U.S. envoy James Monroe, although he had to adopt an interpretation that France had not asserted nor Spain allowed.p 83 Monroe examined each clause of the third article and interpreted the first clause as if Spain since 1783 had considered West Florida as part of Louisiana. The second clause only served to render the first clause clearer. The third clause referred to the treaties of 1783 and 1795, and was designed to safeguard the rights of the United States. This clause then simply gave effect to the others.p 84-85
According to Monroe, France never dismembered Louisiana while it was in her possession. (He regarded November 3, 1762, as the termination date of French possession, rather than 1769, when France formally delivered Louisiana to Spain.) After 1783 Spain reunited West Florida to Louisiana, Monroe held, thus completing the province as France possessed it, with the exception of those portions controlled by the United States. By a strict interpretation of the treaty, therefore, Spain might be required to cede to the United States such territory west of the Perdido as once belonged to France.p 84-85
Counters to the U.S. claim
As part of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase treaty, France repeated verbatim Article 3 of its 1800 treaty with Spain, thus expressly subrogating the United States to the rights of France and Spain.p 288-291
In 1800, denominated Louisiana did not include West Florida.p 288-291
Spain in all negotiations with France refused to cede any part of Florida.p 288-291
In 1801 Spain informed the Spanish governors in North America that the territory ceded to France did not include West Florida.p 87-88
In Spanish government ordinances and treaties, the Floridas were always specified as distinct from all other Spanish possessions.p 49-50
France's 1801 Treaty of Aranjuez with Spain stipulated the cession of Louisiana to be a "restoration," not a retrocession.p 50-52
France never gave any part of Florida to Spain, so Spain could not give it back.p 50-52
In the time Spain held the Floridas, they were always called the Floridas and never referred to as a portion of Louisiana. Treaties between United States and Spain also called them the Floridas.p 50-52
In 1803 France began negotiating with Spain to acquire West and East Florida, confirming that France did not consider West Florida to have already been acquired.p 50-52
During his negotiations with France, U.S. envoy Robert Livingston wrote nine reports to Madison in which he stated that West Florida was not in the possession of France.p 43-44
President Jefferson asked U.S. officials in the border area for advice on the limits of Louisiana, the best informed of whom did not believe it included West Florida.p 87-88
When Louisiana was formally delivered to the United States, the U.S. did not demand possession of West Florida.p 97-100
In the summer of 1804, when the United States and Spain appealed to France to influence the treaty interpretation, Napoleon strongly sided with Spain.p 109-110
In November 1804, in response to Livingston, France declared the American claim to West Florida absolutely unfounded.p 113-116
In January 1805, the French and Spanish ambassadors jointly informed Madison that the American claim to West Florida was untenable. Madison pointed to pre-1763 maps that showed West Florida as part of the former French Louisiana territory. The French ambassador pointed out to Madison's dismay that the same applied to Tennessee and Kentucky.p 116-117
Upon the failure of Monroe's 1804–1805 special mission, Madison was ready to abandon the American claim to West Florida altogether.p 118
In 1805, Monroe's last proposition to Spain to obtain West Florida was absolutely rejected.p 293
In an 1809 letter, Jefferson virtually admitted that West Florida was not a possession of the United States.p 46-47
The U.S. title to the Louisiana territory was itself a vitiated title by virtue of the 1800 France-Spain treaty.p 46
General Andrew Jackson personally accepted the delivery of title to West Florida from its Spanish governor on July 17, 1821.
Later history and legacy
The Spanish continued to dispute the annexation of the western parts of its West Florida colony, but their power in the region was too weak to do anything about it. They continued administering the remainder of the colony (between the Perdido and Suwannee Rivers) from the capital at Pensacola.
On February 22, 1819, Spain and the United States signed the Adams-Onís Treaty. In this treaty Spain ceded both West and East Florida to the United States in exchange for compensation and the renunciation of American claims to Texas. Following ratification by Spain on October 24, 1820, and the United States on February 19, 1821, the treaty took effect, thereby establishing the current boundaries.
President James Monroe was authorized on March 3, 1821, to take possession of East Florida and West Florida for the United States and provide for initial governance. As a result, the U.S. military took over and governed both Floridas with Andrew Jackson serving as governor. The United States soon organized the Florida Territory on March 30, 1822, by combining East Florida and the rump West Florida east of the Perdido River and establishing a territorial government; it was admitted to the Union as a state on March 3, 1845.
West Florida had an effect on choosing the location of Florida's current capital. At first, the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida determined to rotate between the historic capitals of Pensacola and St. Augustine. The first legislative session was held at Pensacola on July 22, 1822; this required delegates from St. Augustine to travel 59 days by sea to attend. To get to the second session in St. Augustine, Pensacola members traveled 28 days over land. During this session, the council decided future meetings should be held at a half-way point to reduce the distance. Eventually Tallahassee, site of an 18th-century Apalachee settlement, was selected as the midpoint between the former capitals of East and West Florida.
The portions of West Florida now located in Louisiana are known as the Florida Parishes. The Republic of West Florida Historical Museum is located in Jackson, Louisiana, run by the Republic of West Florida Historical Association. In 1991 a lineage society, The Sons & Daughters of the Province & Republic of West Florida 1763–1810, was founded for the descendants of settlers of the period. Its objective included "collect and preserve records, documents and relics pertaining to the history and genealogy of West Florida prior to December 7, 1810". In 1993, the Louisiana State Legislature renamed Interstate 12, the full length of which is contained in the Florida Parishes, as the "Republic of West Florida Parkway".
In 1998, Leila Lee Roberts, a great-granddaughter of Fulwar Skipwith, donated the original copy of the constitution of the West Florida Republic and the supporting papers to the Louisiana State Archives in Baton Rouge. Southeastern Louisiana University in Hammond also holds an archival collection of documents from British West Florida and the Republic of West Florida, some of them dating back to 1764.
Governors
Governors under British rule:
George Johnstone (1763–1766)
Montfort Browne (acting, 1766–1769)
John Eliot (appointed 1767, arrived April 1769, committed suicide shortly afterward)
Montfort Browne (acting, 1769)
Elias Durnford (acting, 1769–1770)
Peter Chester (1770–1781)
Governors under Spanish rule:
Arturo O'Neill de Tyrone: (May 9, 1781 – 1794)
Enrique White: (1794–1796)
Francisco de Paula Gelabert: (1796)
Vicente Folch y Juan: (June 1796 – March 1811)
Francisco San Maxent: (March 1811 – 1812)
Mauricio de Zúñiga: (1812–1813)
Mateo González Manrique: (1813–1815)
José de Soto: (1815–1816)
Mauricio de Zúñiga: (1816)
Francisco San Maxent: (1816)
José Masot: (1816 – May 26, 1818)
William King: (United States military governor, May 26, 1818 – February 4, 1819)
José María Callava: (February 4, 1819 – July 17, 1821)
See also
East Florida
Republic of West Florida
West Florida Controversy
Alabama Territory
Adams–Onís Treaty
Spanish colonization of the Americas
New Spain
Spanish Florida
Spanish West Florida
Louisiana (New Spain)
Spanish Texas
French colonization of the Americas
New France
Louisiana (New France)
British colonization of the Americas
British North America
British West Florida
Thirteen Colonies
American Revolutionary War
Dominion of British West Florida (2005)
References
Bibliography
— online here
Gannon, Michael (1996). The New History of Florida. University Press of Florida. .
West Florida Collection, Center for Southeast Louisiana Studies, Linus A. Sims Memorial Library, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond. For a summary of the holdings, click here.
External links
British West Florida, by Robin Fabel (2007) at Encyclopedia of Alabama
History of West Florida – Histories and Source Documents — includes full text of Arthur (1935) and other materials (compiled by Bill Thayer)
"Not Merely Perfidious but Ungrateful": The U.S. Takeover of West Florida, by Robert Higgs (2005)
West Florida, by Ann Gilbert (2003) <--Broken link, February 2017.
Map of West Florida, 1806, by John Cary
A Page of History from the Deepest of the Deep South – British West Florida, by Charlsie Russell (2006)
The Sons & Daughters of the Province & Republic of West Florida 1763 – 1810 — Republic of West Florida descendants' organization
1783 establishments in New Spain
1821 disestablishments in New Spain
1821 disestablishments in the United States
Colonial United States (Spanish)
Former colonies in North America
Former countries in North America
Former regions and territories of the United States
Former Spanish colonies
History of the Southern United States
International territorial disputes of the United States
New Spain
Pre-statehood history of Alabama
Pre-statehood history of Florida
Pre-statehood history of Louisiana
Pre-statehood history of Mississippi
Spanish Florida
States and territories disestablished in 1821
States and territories established in 1783
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255274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Florida | East Florida | East Florida () was a colony of Great Britain from 1763 to 1783 and a province of Spanish Florida from 1783 to 1821. Great Britain gained control of the long-established Spanish colony of La Florida in 1763 as part of the treaty ending the French and Indian War (as the Seven Years' War was called in North America). Deciding that the territory was too large to administer as a single unit, Britain divided Florida into two colonies separated by the Apalachicola River: East Florida with its capital in St. Augustine and West Florida with its capital in Pensacola. East Florida was much larger and comprised the bulk of the former Spanish territory of Florida and most of the current state of Florida. However, most of the Spanish population, including all of St Augustine emigrated after the treaty.
The sparsely populated Florida colonies remained loyal to Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War. However, as part of the 1783 treaty in which Britain officially recognized the independence of its former American colonies, it also ceded both Floridas back to Spain, which maintained them as separate colonies while moving the boundary east to the Suwannee River.
By the early 1800s, Spain had proved uninterested in and incapable of organizing or defending either of the two Floridas much beyond the two small capital cities. American settlers moved into the territory without authorization, causing conflict with the Seminoles, a new Native American culture which had coalesced from refugees of nearby southern states. British operatives fomented turmoil in Florida during the War of 1812 and prompted the involvement of American troops, all in Spanish territory. American settlers in East Florida further weakened Spanish control in 1812 when a group calling themselves the Patriots declared the short-lived Republic of East Florida at Amelia Island with semi-official support from the U.S. government.
Border disputes between the Americans and Seminoles in Florida continued after the war. By 1817, much of Spanish West Florida had been occupied and annexed by the United States over Spanish objections, with the land eventually becoming portions of the states of Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi. After a decade of intensifying border disputes and American incursions, Spain ceded both Floridas to the U.S. in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. The U.S. officially took possession in 1821, and in 1822, all of East Florida and the remaining portions of West Florida were combined into a single Florida Territory with borders that closely approximated those of the current state of Florida.
British period
Under the terms of the 1763 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years' War (the French and Indian War), Spain ceded Spanish Florida to Britain. At the same time, Britain received all of French Louisiana east of the Mississippi River, with the exception of New Orleans, from France. Determining the new territory too large to administer as one unit, Britain divided its new southeastern acquisitions into two new colonies separated by the Apalachicola River: East Florida, with its capital in the old Spanish city of St. Augustine, and West Florida, with its capital at Pensacola. However, most of the Spanish population departed following the signing of the treaty, with the entirety of St Augustine emigrating to Cuba.
The settlement of East Florida was heavily linked in London with the same interests that controlled Nova Scotia. The East Florida Society of London and the Nova Scotia Society of London had many overlapping members, and Council frequently followed their suggestions on the granting of lands to powerful merchant interests in London.
The apportionment of lands in the new colonies fell to the same group of English and Scottish entrepreneurs and merchant interests, led chiefly by the Englishman Richard Oswald, later a diplomat, and the British general James Grant, who would later become governor of East Florida. A list of the grantees in both Florida and Canada show that the plums fell to a well-connected—and inter-connected—group. Lincoln's Inn barrister Levett Blackborne, grandson of Sir Richard Levett, a powerful merchant and Lord Mayor of London, came in for grants of in both locales, for instance. Other aristocrats, nobles and merchants did the same.
The most powerful lubricant between the East Florida speculators and the Nova Scotia speculators was Col. Thomas Thoroton of Flintham, Nottinghamshire. Thoroton, the stepbrother of Levett Blackborne, had married an illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Rutland and often lived at Belvoir Castle, where he acted as principal agent to the Duke, who, along with his son the Marquis of Granby, were heavily involved in overseas ventures. Thoroton frequently acted as the go-between for Richard Oswald and James Grant, particularly after those two gave up their Nova Scotia Grants to focus on East Florida, where a drumbeat of steady speculation (particularly from Dr. Andrew Turnbull and Dr. William Stork) had fanned the flames of interest in London. It was not until March 1781 that the Governor of East Florida, Patrick Tonyn, called elections for a provincial legislature.
Both Floridas remained loyal to Great Britain during the American War of Independence. Spain participated indirectly in the war as an ally of France and captured Pensacola from the British in 1781. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, the British ceded both Floridas to Spain. The same treaty recognized the independence of the United States, directly to the north.
Demography
During the period of British rule in East Florida, the black population came to outnumber the white population in the province by a ratio of 2 to 1. The ratio of blacks to whites in East Florida was lower than in British West Florida but higher than in the other southern British colonies. Those who were white in Florida generally served in the military or worked as overseers, artisans, or merchants. There were very few white yeomen farmers. White residents generally lived in or around St. Augustine with an exception being generally made for overseers and those who resided in New Smyrna. It is unclear what the population of East Florida was prior to the American Revolution but it is estimated to have had a population of close to 3,000 making it much larger in population that West Florida which is believed to have had only several hundred residents. The British did try to encourage settlement in East and West Florida as they thought it would take pressure off the proclamation line that colonists in the northern British colonies wanted to move beyond. However, this plan would be generally unsuccessful as many of those who got land grants did not end up settling on those lands.
Slavery and economics
East Florida did not establish a formal slave code until 1782. Those who were black or of mixed race of European and African origin and could not prove they were free were considered to be slaves. During the American Revolution, many Georgians and Carolinians moved to Florida along with their slaves. The colonial government, along with slave-owners, used slaves to construct defensive fortifications. A militia act that allowed for conscripting slaves as laborers and soldiers was passed in 1781.
Goods produced and exported in East Florida included sugar, timber, indigo, rice, naval stores, and barrel staves; most of these goods came from plantations along the St. Marys and St. Johns rivers that used slave labor.
Spanish period: Florida Oriental
Under Spanish rule, the provinces of East Florida and West Florida initially remained divided by the Apalachicola River, the boundary established by the British. But Spain in 1785 moved it eastward to the Suwanee River.
Spain continued to administer East and West Florida as separate provinces. The Spanish offered favorable terms for acquiring land, which attracted many settlers from the newly formed United States. There were several territorial disputes between the US and Spain, some resulting in military action.
An American army under Andrew Jackson invaded East Florida during the First Seminole War. Jackson's forces captured San Marcos on 7 April 1818; as well as Fort Barrancas at West Florida's capital, Pensacola, on 24 May 1818.
James Monroe's Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, defined the American position on this issue. Adams accused Spain of breaking Pinckney's Treaty by failing to control the Seminoles. Faced with the prospect of losing control, Spain formally ceded all of its Florida territory to the US under the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819 (ratified in 1821), in exchange for the US ceding its claims on Texas and the US paying any claims its citizens might have against Spain, up to $5,000,000.
In 1822, the US Congress organized the Florida Territory. In 1845, Florida was admitted as the 27th state of the United States.
Governors
List of governors of East Florida
See also
The Republic of East Florida
George Mathews (Georgia), Patriot War of East Florida (1812)
Seminole Wars
Mosquito County, Florida
West Florida
History of Florida
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Spanish Florida
References
External links
Spalding Plate at A History of Central Florida Podcast
1763 establishments in the British Empire
Colonial United States (British)
Colonial United States (Spanish)
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
Former regions and territories of the United States
Pre-statehood history of Florida
Spanish colonization of the Americas
States and territories disestablished in 1822
British Florida | [
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255275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20IIc | Apple IIc | The Apple IIc, the fourth model in the Apple II series of personal computers, is Apple Computer's first endeavor to produce a portable computer. The result was a notebook-sized version of the Apple II that could be transported from place to place — a portable alternative and complement to the Apple IIe. The c in the name stood for compact, referring to the fact it was essentially a complete Apple II computer setup (minus display and power supply) squeezed into a small notebook-sized housing. While sporting a built-in floppy drive and new rear peripheral expansion ports integrated onto the main logic board, it lacks the internal expansion slots and direct motherboard access of earlier Apple II models, making it a closed system like the Macintosh. However, that was the intended direction for this model — a more appliance-like machine, ready to use out of the box, requiring no technical know-how or experience to hook up and therefore attractive to first-time users.
History
The Apple IIc was released on April 24, 1984, during an Apple-held event called Apple II Forever. With that motto, Apple proclaimed the new machine was proof of the company's long-term commitment to the Apple II series and its users, despite the recent introduction of the Macintosh. The IIc was also seen as the company's response to the new IBM PCjr, and Apple hoped to sell 400,000 by the end of 1984. While essentially an Apple IIe computer in a smaller case, it was not a successor, but rather a portable version to complement it. One Apple II machine would be sold for users who required the expandability of slots, and another for those wanting the simplicity of a plug and play machine with portability in mind.
The machine introduced Apple's Snow White design language, notable for its case styling and a modern look designed by Hartmut Esslinger which became the standard for Apple equipment and computers for nearly a decade. The Apple IIc introduced a unique off-white coloring known as "Fog", chosen to enhance the Snow White design style. The IIc and some peripherals were the only Apple products to use the "Fog" coloring. While relatively light-weight and compact in design, the Apple IIc was not a true portable in design as it lacked a built-in battery and display.
Codenames for the machine while under development included Lollie, ET, Yoda, Teddy, VLC, IIb, IIp.
Overview of features
Improving the IIe
Technically the Apple IIc was an Apple IIe in a smaller case, more portable and easier to use but also less expandable. The IIc used the CMOS-based 65C02 microprocessor which added 27 new instructions to the 6502, but was incompatible with programs that used deprecated illegal opcodes of the 6502. (Apple stated that the Apple IIc was compatible with 90–95% of the 10,000 software packages available for the Apple II series.) The new ROM firmware allowed Applesoft BASIC to recognize lowercase characters and work better with an 80-column display, and fixed several bugs from the IIe ROM. In terms of video, the text display added 32 unique character symbols called "MouseText" which, when placed side by side, could display simple icons, windows and menus to create a graphical user interface completely out of text, similar in concept to IBM code page 437 or PETSCII's box-drawing characters. A year later, the Apple IIe would benefit from these improvements in the form of a four-chip upgrade called the Enhanced IIe.
Built-in cards and ports
The equivalent of five expansion cards were built-in and integrated into the Apple IIc motherboard: An Extended 80 Column Card, two Apple Super Serial Cards, a Mouse Card, and a disk floppy drive controller card. This meant the Apple IIc had 128 KB RAM, 80-column text, and Double-Hi-Resolution graphics built-in and available right out of the box, unlike its older sibling, the Apple IIe. It also meant less of a need for slots, as the most popular peripheral add-on cards were already built-in, ready for devices to be plugged into the rear ports of the machine. The built-in cards were mapped to phantom slots so software from slot-based Apple II models would know where to find them (i.e. mouse to virtual slot 4, serial cards to slot 1 and 2, floppy to slot 6, and so on). The entire Apple Disk II Card, used for controlling floppy drives, had been shrunk down into a single chip called the "IWM" which stood for Integrated Woz Machine.
In the rear of the machine were its expansion ports, mostly for providing access to its built-in cards. The standard DE-9 joystick connector doubled as a mouse interface, compatible with the same mice used by the Lisa and early Macintosh computers. Two serial ports were provided primarily to support a printer and modem, and a floppy port connector supported a single external 5.25-inch drive (and later "intelligent" devices such as 3.5-inch drives and hard disks). A Video Expansion port provided rudimentary signals for add-on adapters but, alone, could not directly generate a video signal (Apple produced an LCD and an RF-modulator for this port; the latter shipped with early IIcs). A port connector tied into an internal 12 V power converter for attaching batteries; this is where the infamous external power supply (dubbed "brick on a leash" by users) that was included plugged in. The same composite video port found on earlier Apple II models remained present; however, gone were the cassette ports and internal DIP-16 game port.
Built-in accessories and keyboard
The Apple IIc had a built-in 5.25-inch floppy drive (140 KB) along the right side of the case—the first Apple II model to include such a feature. Along the left side of the case was a dial to control the volume of the internal speaker, along with a -inch monaural audio jack for headphones or an external speaker. A fold-out carrying handle doubled as a way to prop up the back end of the machine to angle the keyboard for typing, if desired.
The keyboard layout mirrored that of the Apple IIe; however, the "Reset" key had been moved above the "Esc" key. Two toggle switches were also located in the same area: an "80/40"-column switch for (specially written) software to detect which text video mode to start up in, and a "Keyboard" switch to select between QWERTY and Dvorak layout—or between US and national layout on non-American machines. The keyboard itself was built into the front half of the case, much like a notebook computer, and early models had a rubber mat placed beneath the keycaps which acted as a liquid spill guard.
Reception
Although Apple predicted that it would sell 100,000 IIc computers per month, it sold an average of 100,000 per year over four years; even the unsuccessful PCjr outsold it during each computer's first year on the market. The IIe was much more popular than the IIc because of its greater expandability, but Apple almost stopped production of the IIe because of the IIc's expected popularity, causing a shortage of the former and glut of the latter.
While noting its lack of an internal modem and inability to use expansion cards such as the popular Z-80 SoftCard, BYTE in May 1984 described the Apple IIc as a "head-to-head [competitor] with the IBM PCjr" for novice computer users. Creative Computing agreed, stating in July 1984 that "This war will have no clear winner. Apple fans will buy the IIc, and IBM fans will buy the PCjr. I believe the Apple II will live forever", with the IIc as the "final transmutation" of the Apple II series because it was about as small as a computer with a full-sized keyboard and 5 1/4" drive could be. The magazine said in December 1984 that the IIe and IIc were the best home computers with prices above $500, with the IIc better for those using word processing and business software.
Specifications
Microprocessor
65C02 running at 1.023 MHz
8-bit data bus
Memory
128 KB RAM built-in
32 KB ROM built-in (16 KB ROM in original)
Expandable from 128 KB to 1 MB (only through non-conventional methods in original)
Video
40 and 80 columns text, with 24 lines
Low-Resolution: 40 × 48 (16 colors)
High-Resolution: 280 × 192 (6 colors)
Double-Low-Resolution: 80 × 48 (16 colors)
Double-High-Resolution: 560 × 192 (16 colors)
Audio
Built-in speaker; 1-bit toggling
User-adjustable volume (manual dial control)
Built-in storage
Slim-line internal 5.25-inch floppy drive (140 KB, single-sided)
Internal connectors
Memory Expansion Card connector (34-pin)*
* Only available on ROM 3 motherboard and higher; original IIc: NONE
Specialized chip controllers
IWM (Integrated Woz Machine) for floppy drives
Dual 6551 ACIA chips for serial I/O
External connectors
Joystick/Mouse (DE-9)
Printer, serial-1 (DIN-5)
Modem, serial-2 (DIN-5)
Video Expansion Port (D-15)
Floppy drive SmartPort (D-19)
15-Volt DC connector input (DIN-7, male)
NTSC composite video output (RCA connector)
Audio-out (-inch mono phone jack)
Revisions
The Apple IIc was in production from April 1984 to August 1988, and during this time accrued some minor changes. These modifications included three new ROM updates, a bug-fix correction to the original motherboard, a newly revised motherboard, and a slight cosmetic change to the external appearance of the machine. The ROM revision for a specific Apple IIc is determined by entering the Applesoft BASIC programming language and typing in the command PRINT PEEK (64447) which returns the value indicating the particular ROM version.
Original IIc (ROM version '255')
The initial ROM, installed in machines produced during the first year and a half of production, was 16 KB in size. The only device which could be connected to the disk port was (one) external 5.25-inch floppy drive; software could be booted from this external drive by typing the command "PR#7". The serial port did not mask incoming linefeed characters or support the XON/XOFF protocol, unlike all later firmware revisions to come. There was no self-test diagnostic present in this ROM; holding down the solid-Apple key during cold boot merely cycled unusual patterns on screen which served no useful purpose or indication of the machine's health.
Serial port timing fix
The original Apple IIc motherboard (manufactured between April and November 1984) derived the timing for its two serial ports through a 74LS161 TTL logic chip. It was later found that this method's timing was 3% slower than the minimum requirement specified and caused some third-party (i.e. non-Apple) modems and printers, which operated at 1200 bits per second (baud) or faster, to function improperly. Slower serial devices operating at 300 baud or less were unaffected, as well as some faster devices which could tolerate the deviation. The solution to ensure all devices were compatible was to replace the TTL chip with an oscillator during manufacture. Apple would swap affected motherboards for users who could prove they had an incompatible serial device (e.g. a third-party 1200-baud modem which presented problems; not all did). It is important to note the problem did not affect all owners; it was more or less a hit-or-miss issue depending on the specific device connected.
UniDisk 3.5 support (ROM version '0')
This update, introduced in November 1985, came in the form of an upgrade to the ROM firmware which doubled in size from 16 KB to 32 KB. The new ROM supported "intelligent" devices such as the Apple UniDisk 3.5-inch (800 KB) floppy drive and Smartport-based hardisks, in addition to an external 5.25-inch floppy drive. A new self-test diagnostic was provided for testing built-in RAM and other signs of logic faults. The Mini-Assembler, absent since the days of the Apple II Plus, made a return, and new Monitor "Step" and "Trace" commands were added as well. The upgraded ROM added rudimentary support for an external AppleTalk networking device which was yet to be developed. When attempting to boot virtual slot 7, users would encounter the message "APPLETALK OFFLINE". The IIc, however, had no built-in networking capabilities, and no external device was ever released. The upgrade consisted of a single chip swap (and a trivial motherboard modification), which Apple provided free only to persons who purchased a UniDisk 3.5 drive. A small sticker with an icon of a 3.5-inch floppy diskette was placed next to the existing 5.25-inch diskette icon above the floppy drive port indicating the machine had been upgraded.
Memory Expansion IIc (ROM version '3')
Introduced in September 1986 simultaneously with the Apple IIGS, this model introduced a new motherboard, new keyboard and new color scheme. The original Apple IIc had no expansion options and required third-party cards (e. Legend Industries) to perform various hardware tricks. This could be done by removing the CPU and MMU chips and inserting a special board into these sockets, which then used bank switching to expand memory up to 1 Megabyte (RAM). This was similar to the function of the slots in the original Apple II, II+ as well as the auxiliary slot in the Apple IIe. The new motherboard added a 34-pin socket for plugging in memory cards directly, which allowed for the addressing of up to 1 megabyte (MB) of memory using Slinky-type memory cards. The onboard chip count was reduced from 16 memory chips (64K×1) to four (64K×4). The new firmware removed the code for the cancelled AppleTalk networking device and replaced it with support for memory cards. Bumping out the non-supported AppleTalk functionality, memory now lived in virtual slot 4, and mouse support moved to slot 7. The new keyboard no longer had the rubber anti-spill mat and offered generally more tactile and responsive keys that felt more "clicky". At the same time, the color of the keyboard, floppy drive latch, and power supply cords changed from beige to light grey, which matched the new Platinum color scheme of the Apple IIGS. The case style, however, remained Snow White. Owners of the previous IIc model were entitled to a free motherboard upgrade if they purchased one of Apple's IIc memory expansion boards (they did not receive the new keyboard or the cosmetic changes).
Memory Expansion fix (ROM version '4')
In January 1988, a new ROM firmware update was issued to address bugs in the new memory-expandable IIc. Changes included better detection of installed RAM chips, correction of a problem when using the serial modem port in terminal mode, and a bug fix for keyboard buffering. The ROM upgrade was available free of charge only to owners of the memory expansion IIc. This was the final change to the Apple IIc; it would be superseded that September by the Apple IIc Plus (identified as ROM version '5').
International versions
Like the Apple IIe before it, the Apple IIc keyboard differed depending on what region of the world it was sold in. Sometimes the differences were very minor, such as extra local language characters and symbols printed on certain keycaps (e.g. French accented characters on the Canadian IIc such as "á", "é", "ç", etc., or the British Pound "£" symbol on the UK IIc) while other times the layout and shape of keys greatly differed (e.g. European IIcs). In order to access the local character set, the "Keyboard" switch above the keyboard was depressed, which would instantly switch text video from the US character set to the local set. The DVORAK keyboard layout was not available on international IIcs—the feature had been intended to switch between international keyboards; the DVORAK layout was merely added to give the switch a function on US IIcs. In some countries these localized IIcs also supported 50 Hz PAL video and the different 220/240-volt power of that region by means of a different external power supply — this was a very simple change, since the IIc had an internal 12-volt power converter. The international versions replaced any English legends printed on the case (specifically the "keyboard" toggle switch, "Power" and "Disk Use" drive-activity labels) with graphical icons that could be universally understood.
Add-on accessories
Portability enhancements
At the time of the Apple IIc's release, Apple announced an optional black and white (1-bit) LCD screen designed specifically for the machine called the Apple Flat Panel Display. While it was welcomed as a means of making the IIc more portable, it did not integrate well as a portable solution, not attaching in a secure or permanent manner and not able to fold-over face down. Instead, it sat atop the machine and connected via ribbon cable to a somewhat bulky rear port connector. Its main shortcoming was that it suffered from a very poor contrast and no backlighting, making it very difficult to view without a strong external light source. The display itself had an odd aspect ratio as well, making graphics look vertically squashed. A third-party company would later introduce a work-alike LCD screen called the C-Vue, which looked and functioned very much like Apple's product, albeit with a reportedly slight improvement in viewability. Consequently, both sold poorly and had a very short market life span, making these displays fairly uncommon (and as a result, extremely rare today).
Third parties also offered external rechargeable battery units for the Apple IIc (e.g. Prairie Power Portable System available from Roger Coats) with up to eight hours per charge or longer. Although they aided in making the machine more of a true portable, they were nonetheless bulky and heavy, and added more pieces that would have to be carried. Adapter cables were sold as well that allowed the Apple IIc to plug into an automobile's DC power cigarette lighter.
To help transport the Apple IIc and its accessory pieces around, Apple sold a nylon carrying case with shoulder strap that had a compartment for the computer, its external power supply, and the cables. It had enough room to squeeze in one of the above-mentioned LCD display units. The case was grey in color with a stitched-on Apple logo in the upper right corner.
Expansion capabilities
While the Apple IIc had many built-in features to offer, many users wanted to extend the machine's capabilities beyond what Apple provided. It proved difficult since the IIc was a closed system that initially was designed with no expansion capabilities in mind; however, many companies figured out ingenious ways of squeezing enhancements inside the tiny case. Real-time clocks, memory expansion, and coprocessors were popular, and some companies even managed to combine all three into a single add-on board. Typically, in order to add these options, key chips on the motherboard were pulled and moved onto the expansion board offering the new features, and the board was then placed into the empty sockets. While sometimes a tight squeeze, this trickery worked quite well, and most importantly of all offered users a way to expand memory—something Apple did not themselves support until the Memory Expansion IIc model was introduced.
Some companies devised a method for squeezing in an entire CPU accelerator product, by means of placing all the specialized circuitry (i.e. cache and logic) into one tall chip that outright replaced the 40-pin 65C02 microprocessor, speeding up the machine from 4–10 MHz. Notable examples are the Zip Chip and Rocket Chip.
Although the IIc lacked a SCSI or IDE interface, external hard drives were produced by third parties that connected through the floppy SmartPort as an innovative alternative connection method (e.g. ProApp, Chinook). While these specialized hard drives were relatively slow due to the nature of how data was transferred through this interface (designed primarily for floppy drives) they did allow for true mass storage. The CDrive however did mount internally and was very fast due to its direct connection to the CPU. Other innovations that used existing expansion ports led to add-on speech and music synthesis products by means of external devices that plugged into the IIc's serial ports. Three popular such devices were the Mockingboard-D, Cricket and Echo IIc. Applied Engineering offered an ever increasing and improved line of "Z-Ram" internal memory expansion boards, which also included a Z-80 CPU for Apple CP/M software capability.
General accessories
For those wishing to use the Apple IIc as a standard desktop machine, Apple sold the Monitor IIc, a monochrome CRT display with an elevated stand. The Color Monitor IIc followed in 1985. Alternatively, a color composite monitor could be used. A mouse was another popular add-on, especially since it required no interface card and simply plugged directly into back of the machine (MousePaint, a clone of MacPaint, shipped with the IIc's mouse). An external 5.25-inch floppy drive, matching the style of the IIc, was also made available. Later, 3.5-inch floppy storage became an option with the "intelligent" UniDisk 3.5 which contained its own miniature computer inside (CPU, RAM, firmware) to overcome the issue of using a high-speed floppy drive on a 1 MHz machine.
See also
Apple II family
Apple IIc Plus
Apple IIe
Apple IIGS
Notes
References
Blechman, Fred. Apple IIc: an intelligent guide, New York : Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1985 ()
DeWitt, William H. HiRes/Double HiRes graphics for the Apple IIc and Apple II family, New York: Wiley, c1986 ()
Gilder, Jules H. Apple IIc and IIe assembly language, New York : Chapman and Hall, 1986 ()
External links
A2Central.com — Apple II news and downloads
Applefritter has an Apple II forum
Big Mess o' Wires - modern hardware for vintage Apple IIs
PCB pictures of the Apple II
ReactiveMicro.com — An Apple II hardware production company (cloned items)
Vintage IIc unboxing at Flickr.com — Photo series of a virgin IIc being unboxed
Apple2Online - A Free Public-Access Library of Apple II Software, Games, Photos, Documentation & more
C
Snow White design language
Computer-related introductions in 1984
fr:Apple II#Apple IIc (avril 1984) | [
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255284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van%20Allen | Van Allen | Van Allen may refer to:
People
Given name
Van Allen Plexico (born 1968), U.S. professor
Surname
George Van Allen (1890–1937), politician in Alberta, Canada
James Van Allen (1914–2006), American space scientist
John Delbert Van Allen (1850–1928), retail dry goods merchant and department store owner
Mark van Allen (born 1954), American musician
Shaun Van Allen (born 1967), former hockey player
Van Allen Plexico (born 1968), science fiction and fantasy author
Places
Van Allen Range, a mountain range in Oates Land, Antarctica
Van Allen Building, Clinton, Iowa, US
Van Allen Hall, University of Iowa
Van Allen House, Oakland, Bergen, New Jersey, US
Other uses
Van Allen radiation belt, a torus of energetic charged particles around Earth
Van Allen Probes, two robotic NASA spacecraft
See also
Van Allen Belt (band), a Canadian rock band
Allen (disambiguation)
Van Alen (disambiguation)
Van Halen (disambiguation)
Surnames of Dutch origin | [
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255286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Van%20Allen | James Van Allen | James Alfred Van Allen (September 7, 1914August 9, 2006) was an American space scientist at the University of Iowa. He was instrumental in establishing the field of magnetospheric research in space.
The Van Allen radiation belts were named after him, following his discovery using Geiger–Müller tube instruments on the 1958 satellites (Explorer 1, Explorer 3, and Pioneer 3) during the International Geophysical Year. Van Allen led the scientific community in putting scientific research instruments on space satellites.
Early years and education
Van Allen was born on 7 September 1914 on a small farm near Mount Pleasant, Iowa. As a child, he was fascinated by mechanical and electrical devices and was an avid reader of Popular Mechanics and Popular Science magazines. He once horrified his mother by constructing a Tesla coil that produced foot-long sparks and caused his hair to stand on end.
A fellowship allowed him to continue studying nuclear physics at the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C., where he also became immersed in research in geomagnetism, cosmic rays, auroral physics and the physics of Earth's upper atmosphere.
World War II
In August 1939, Van Allen joined the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (DTM) of the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C. as a Carnegie Research Fellow. In the summer of 1940, he joined DTM's national defense efforts with his appointment to a staff position in Section T with the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) in Washington, D.C. where he worked on the development of photoelectric and radio proximity fuzes, which are detonators that increase the effectiveness of anti-aircraft fire. Another NDRC project later became the atomic bomb Manhattan Project in 1941. With the outbreak of World War 2, the proximity fuze work was transferred to the newly created Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) of Johns Hopkins University in April 1942. He worked on improving the ruggedness of vacuum tubes subject to the vibration from a gun battery. The work at APL resulted in a new generation of radio-proximity fuses for anti-aircraft defense of ships and for shore bombardment.
Van Allen was commissioned as a U.S. Navy lieutenant in November 1942 and served for 16 months on a succession of South Pacific Fleet destroyers, instructing gunnery officers and conducting tests on his artillery fuses. He was an assistant staff gunnery officer on the battleship USS Washington when the ship successfully defended itself against a Japanese kamikaze attack during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, (June 19–20, 1944). For his actions at the Pacific, Van Allen was awarded four battle stars. He was promoted to lieutenant commander in 1946. "My service as a naval officer was, far and away, the most broadening experience of my lifetime," he wrote in a 1990 autobiographical essay.
1946-1954 Aerobee and Rockoon
Discharged from the Navy in 1946, Van Allen returned to civilian research at APL. He organized and directed a team at Johns Hopkins University to conduct high-altitude experiments, using V-2 rockets captured from the Germans at the end of World War II. Van Allen decided a small sounding rocket was needed for upper atmosphere research. The Aerojet WAC Corporal and the Bumblebee missile were developed under a US Navy program. He drew specifications for the Aerobee sounding rocket and headed the committee that convinced the U.S. government to produce it. The first instrument-carrying Aerobee was the A-5, launched on March 5, 1948 from White Sands, New Mexico, carrying instruments for cosmic radiation research, reaching an altitude of 117.5 km.
Van Allen elected chairman of the V-2 Upper Atmosphere Panel on December 29, 1947. The panel was renamed Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel on March 18, 1948; then Rocket and Satellite Research Panel on April 29, 1948. The panel suspended operations on May 19, 1960 and had a reunion on February 2, 1968.
Cmdr. Lee Lewis, Cmdr. G. Halvorson, S.F. Singer, and James A. Van Allen developed the idea for the Rockoon on March 1, 1949 during the Aerobee rocket firing cruise on the research vessel U.S.S. Norton Sound.
On April 5, 1950, Van Allen left the Applied Physics Laboratory, to accept a John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation research fellowship at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. The following year (1951) Van Allen accepted the position as head of the physics department at the University of Iowa. Before long, he was enlisting students in his efforts to discover the secrets of the wild blue yonder and inventing ways to carry instruments higher into the atmosphere than ever before. By 1952, Van Allen was the first to devise a balloon-rocket combination that lifted rockets on balloons high above most of the Earth's atmosphere before firing them even higher. The rockets were ignited after the balloons reached an altitude of 16 kilometers.
As Time magazine later reported, "Van Allen’s ‘Rockoons’ could not be fired in Iowa for fear that the spent rockets would strike an Iowan or his house." So Van Allen convinced the U.S. Coast Guard to let him fire his Rockoons from the icebreaker Eastwind that was bound for Greenland. "The first balloon rose properly to 70,000 ft., but the rocket hanging under it did not fire. The second Rockoon behaved in the same maddening way. On the theory that extreme cold at high altitude might have stopped the clockwork supposed to ignite the rockets, Van Allen heated cans of orange juice, snuggled them into the third Rockoon’s gondola, and wrapped the whole business in insulation. The rocket fired."
In 1953, the Rockoons and their science payloads fired off Newfoundland detected the first hint of radiation belts surrounding Earth. The low-cost Rockoon technique was later used by the Office of Naval Research and The University of Iowa research groups in 1953–55 and 1957, from ships at sea between Boston and Thule, Greenland.
In 1954, in a private discussion about the Redstone project with Ernst Stuhlinger, Wernher von Braun expressed his belief that they should have a "real, honest-to-goodness scientist" involved in their little unofficial satellite project. Stuhlinger followed up with a visit to Van Allen at his home in Princeton, New Jersey, where Van Allen was on sabbatical leave from Iowa to work on stellarator design. Van Allen later recounted, "Stuhlinger’s 1954 message was simple and eloquent. By virtue of ballistic missile developments at Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), it was realistic to expect that within a year or two a small scientific satellite could be propelled into a durable orbit around the earth (Project Orbiter).... I expressed a keen interest in performing a worldwide survey of the cosmic-ray intensity above the atmosphere."
International Geophysical Year 1957-58
In 1955, the U.S. announced Project Vanguard as part of the US contribution to the International Geophysical Year. Vanguard planned to launch an artificial satellite into an orbit around the Earth. It was to be run by the US Navy and developed from sounding rockets, which had the advantage of being primarily used for non-military scientific experiments.
A symposium on "The Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites" was held on January 26 and 27, 1956 at the University of Michigan under sponsorship of the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel, chaired by Dr. Van Allen. 33 scientific proposals were presented for inclusion in the IGY satellites. Van Allen's presentation highlighted the use of satellites for continuing cosmic-ray investigations. At this same time his Iowa Group began preparations for scientific research instruments to be carried by 'Rockoons' and Vanguard for the International Geophysical Year. Through "preparedness and good fortune," as he later wrote, those scientific instruments were available for incorporation in the 1958 Explorer and Pioneer IGY launches.
July 1, 1957: The International Geophysical Year begins. IGY is carried out by the International Council of Scientific Unions, over an 18-month period selected to match the period of maximum solar activity (e.g. sun spots). Lloyd Berkner, one of the scientists at the April 5, 1950 Silver Spring, Maryland meeting in Van Allen's home, serves as president of the ICSU from 1957 to 1959.
September 26, 1957: Thirty-six Rockoons (balloon-launched rockets) were launched from Navy icebreaker U.S.S. Glacier in Atlantic, Pacific, and Antarctic areas ranging from 75° N. to 72° S. latitude, as part of the U.S. International Geophysical Year scientific program headed by Van Allen and Lawrence J. Cahill of The University of Iowa. These were the first known upper atmosphere rocket soundings in the Antarctic area. Launched from IGY Rockoon Launch Site 2, Atlantic Ocean; Latitude: 0.83° N, Longitude: 0.99° W.
October 4, 1957: The Soviet Union (USSR) successfully launches Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite, as part of their participation in the IGY.
January 31, 1958: The first American satellite, Explorer 1, was launched into Earth's orbit on a Juno I four-stage booster rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Aboard Explorer 1 were a micrometeorite detector and a cosmic ray experiment designed by Van Allen and his graduate students, with the satellite deployment of the sensor package supervised by Ernst Stuhlinger, who also had an expert cosmic ray background. Data from Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 (launched March 26, 1958) were used by the Iowa group to make "the first space-age scientific discovery": "the existence of a doughnut-shaped region of charged particle radiation trapped by the Earth’s magnetic field".
July 29, 1958: United States Congress passed the National Aeronautics and Space Act (commonly called the "Space Act"), which created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as of October 1, 1958 from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and other government agencies.
December 6, 1958: Pioneer 3, the third intended U.S. International Geophysical Year probe under the direction of NASA with the Army acting as executive agent, was launched from the Atlantic Missile Range by a Juno II rocket. The primary objective of the flight, to place the 12.95 pound (5.87 kg) scientific payload in the vicinity of the moon, failed. Pioneer III did reach an altitude of 63,000 miles (101 000 km), providing Van Allen additional data that led to discovery of a second radiation belt. Trapped radiation starts at an altitude of several hundred miles from Earth and extends for several thousand miles into space. The Van Allen radiation belts are named after Van Allen, their discoverer.
Pioneer of space science and exploration
The May 4, 1959 issue of Time magazine credited James Van Allen as the man most responsible for giving the U.S. "a big lead in scientific achievement." They called Van Allen "a key figure in the cold war’s competition for prestige. .... Today he can tip back his head and look at the sky. Beyond its outermost blue are the world-encompassing belts of fierce radiation that bear his name. No human name has ever been given to a more majestic feature of the planet Earth."
James Van Allen, his colleagues, associates and students at The University of Iowa continued to fly scientific instruments on sounding rockets, Earth satellites (Explorer 52 / Hawkeye 1), and interplanetary spacecraft including the first missions (Pioneer program, Mariner program, Voyager program, Galileo spacecraft) to the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Their discoveries contributed important segments to the world's knowledge of energetic particles, plasmas and radio waves throughout the solar system.
Van Allen was the principal investigator for scientific investigations on 24 Earth satellites and planetary missions.
Professor emeritus
Van Allen stepped down as the head of the Dept. of Physics & Astronomy in 1985, but continued working at the University of Iowa as the Carver Professor of Physics, Emeritus. On October 9, 2004, the University of Iowa and the UI Alumni Association hosted a celebration to honor Van Allen and his many accomplishments, and in recognition of his 90th birthday. Activities included an invited lecture series, a public lecture followed by a cake and punch reception, and an evening banquet with many of his former colleagues and students in attendance. In August 2005, an elementary school bearing his name opened in North Liberty, Iowa. There is also a Van Allen elementary school in Escalon, CA.
In 2009, Van Allen's boyhood home in Mt. Pleasant, once maintained as a museum, was slated to be demolished. The new owner, Lee Pennebaker, chose not to demolish the home. It was donated to the Henry County Heritage Trust, which plans to move the house next to the old Saunders School which will be the home of the Henry County museum.
Personal life and death
Van Allen's wife of 61 years was Abigail Fithian Halsey II of Cincinnati (1922–2008). They met at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) during World War II. They were married October 13, 1945 in Southampton, Long Island. Their five children are Cynthia, Margot, Sarah, Thomas, and Peter.
On August 9, 2006, James Van Allen died at University Hospitals in Iowa City from heart failure.
Professor Van Allen and his wife Abigail are buried in Southampton, New York, where Mrs. Van Allen was born and the couple were married.
Legacy and honors
Time magazine Man of the Year in 1960
Elliott Cresson Medal in 1961
Iowa Award in 1961
Distinguished Fellow, Iowa Academy of Science in 1975
Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1978
National Medal of Science in 1987
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1988
Crafoord Prize in 1989
Vannevar Bush Award in 1991
NASA's Lifetime Achievement Award in 1994
National Air and Space Museum Trophy in 2006
Van Allen Probes (NASA mission, renamed from the Radiation Belt Storm Probes) in 2012
Van Allen Probes mission
On Nov. 9, 2012 NASA renamed the Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP), a mission to study Earth's Van Allen radiation belts, as the Van Allen Probes mission in honor of the late James A. Van Allen, U.S. space pioneer and longtime distinguished professor of physics in the University of Iowa College of Liberal Arts and Sciences.
The Applied Physics Laboratory, where Dr. Van Allen worked for a decade, is responsible for the overall implementation and instrument management for RBSP. The primary mission is scheduled to last 2 years, with expendables expected to last for 4 years.
NASA BARREL mission
Eighty years after the Second Byrd Expedition, the Balloon Array for RBSP Relativistic Electron Losses (BARREL), a NASA mission began to study Earth's Van Allen radiation belts at the Antarctic (South Pole) managed by Dartmouth College. BARREL launched 20 balloons from Antarctica during each of two balloon campaigns in January–February 2013 and December 2013 – February 2014. This scientific data will complement the Van Allen Probes data over the two-year mission.
See also
George H. Ludwig
Stamatios Krimigis (Tom Krimigis)
Explorer program
Sputnik program
Sputnik crisis
Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Pioneer H
Notes
References
Brief biography
Brief NASA biography
Foerstner, Abigail; James van Allen: The first eight billion miles, 2007.
Krimigis, Stamatios M.; Planetary Magnetospheres: Van Allen Radiation Belts of the Solar System Planets
Ludwig, George; The First Explorer Satellites
Ludwig, George; James Van Allen, From High School to the Beginning of the Space Era: A Biographical Sketch
Organization of the James A. Van Allen Papers, 1938–1990
McIlwain, Carl; Discovery of the Van Allen Radiation Belts
NASA, NASA Radiation Belt Storm Probes Mission
NASA; Silver Anniversary of Pioneer 10
Nature; Obituary: James A. Van Allen (1914–2006) in Nature, 14 September 2006.
Dvorak, Todd. (9 August 2006) U.S. Space Pioneer James Van Allen Dies at 91. Space.com
Tabor, Robert; Artist Robert Tabor Depicts the Discovery of Van Allen Radiation Belts
Thomsen, Michelle; Jupiter's Radiation Belt and Pioneer 10 and 11
University of Iowa; Van Allen Day - October 9, 2004 University of Iowa Foundation and UI Department of Astronomy & Physics
University of Iowa; U.S. Space Pioneer, UI Professor James A. Van Allen Dies
Van Allen, James A. "Space Science, Space Technology and the Space Station"; Scientific American, January 1986, page 22.
Van Allen, James; What Is A Space Scientist? An Autobiographical Example
Van Allen Elementary School in North Liberty, IA; Van Allen elementary homepage
Van Allen Elementary School in Mt. Pleasant, IA; Van Allen elementary homepage
Wade, Mark; Timeline
Wolverton, Mark; The Depths of Space: The Story of the Pioneer Planetary Probes . 2004
External links
Explorer's Legacy, University of Iowa site including the downloadable data sets from the digitized Explorer I data tapes.
James Van Allen Papers at the University of Iowa Special Collections & University Archives intro to the collection , and finding aid.
James Van Allen Papers digital collection – Iowa Digital Library
1914 births
2006 deaths
American nuclear physicists
American people of Dutch descent
Iowa Wesleyan University alumni
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
National Medal of Science laureates
People from Mount Pleasant, Iowa
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
University of Iowa alumni
University of Iowa faculty
Vannevar Bush Award recipients
20th-century American physicists | [
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255290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavour | Cavour | Cavour may refer to:
Places
Italy
Cavour, Piedmont
Cavour (Rome Metro)
Ponte Cavour, a bridge in Rome
Via Cavour (disambiguation), a street in Rome and Florence
United States
Cavour, South Dakota
Cavour, Wisconsin
Ships
Italian aircraft carrier Cavour (550)
Italian battleship Conte di Cavour
Other uses
Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (1810–1861), first Prime Minister of Italy
Liceo classico Cavour, a school in Turin
Cavor, a character in the novel The First Men in the Moon | [
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255295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finale%20%28scorewriter%29 | Finale (scorewriter) | Finale is a proprietary music notation software developed and released by MakeMusic for Microsoft Windows and macOS. Finale has been regarded as one of the industry standards for music notation software.
Finale is used by composers, songwriters, transcribers, and arrangers for creating sheet music, including the score for an entire ensemble (e.g., orchestra, concert band, big band, educational ensembles, etc.) and parts for the individual musicians.
MakeMusic also offers several less expensive versions of Finale, which do not contain all of the main program's features. These include PrintMusic and a freeware program, Finale Notepad, which allows only rudimentary editing and playback. Discontinued versions include Finale Guitar, Notepad Plus, Allegro, SongWriter, and the free Finale Reader.
Appearance
The default Untitled document is a 31-measure piece for a single treble clef instrument. A Setup Wizard, an alternative method of starting a project, consists of a sequence of dialogs allowing the user to specify the instrumentation, time signature, key signature, pick-up measure, title, composer, and some aspects of score and page layout. Finale's current default music notation font is Maestro.
Functionality
Finale's tools are organized into multiple hierarchically organized palettes, and the corresponding tool must be selected to add or edit any particular class of score element, (e.g., the Smart Shape tool to generate and edit trill lines and dynamics "hairpins" (so-named because the symbols resemble hair pins); the Staff tool to add and edit the parameters of individual staves). Alongside these tools, additional controls are available to view or hide up to four superimposed layers of music that can be entered onto any particular staff, for purposes of organizing multiple contrapuntal voices on the same staff. Several of Finale's tools provide an associated menu just to the left of the Help menu, available only when that particular tool is selected. Thus, the operation of Finale bears at least some surface similarities to Adobe Photoshop.
On the screen, Finale provides the ability to color code several elements of the score as a visual aid; on the print-out all score elements are black (unless color print-out is explicitly chosen). With the corresponding tool selected, fine adjustment of each set of objects in a score are possible either by clicking and dragging or by entering measurements in a dialog box. A more generalized selection tool is also available to select large measure regions for editing key and time signatures, or transposing, among other uses. This tool also provides the ability to reposition several classes of score object directly, and more recent versions of the software have implemented extensive contextual menuing via this tool.
Finale automatically manages many of the basic rules of harmony and music notation, such as correct beaming, stem direction, vertical alignment of multiple rhythmic values, and established rules for positioning noteheads on chords. In other situations, without careful advance user customization, the program makes what can be described as good guesses, especially in the area of enharmonic spelling of newly entered data generated from a MIDI keyboard, while respecting the current key signature. It is "smart" enough to spell an enharmonic pitch when secondary dominants are used in a piece.
For the majority of Western tonal music, Finale chooses the correct spelling for chords of the tonic and dominant keys correctly, but when the music wanders to tonal regions further away from the tonic, Finale tends to make enharmonic "spelling" mistakes by treating chords as if they belonged to the tonic key in some way. When using a nonstandard key, experts have recommended that the user "assign a spelling for each pitch in the chromatic scale" using a dialog box available from the Preferences menu.
Version history
The lead programmer for Finale version 1.0 in 1988 was Phil Farrand, known in some circles as an author of Nitpicker's Guides for Star Trek and The X-Files. He wrote the original version software for Coda Music Software, which was later sold to Net4Music and then became MakeMusic. After Finale version 3.7, Finale's marketers made the switch to years as identifiers for each new release, starting with Finale 97. Those early versions of Finale used a file format called Enigma Transportable File with extension ETF.
Finale 2004, released in early 2004, was the first release to run natively on Macintosh computers running Mac OS X Panther (v10.3). This was considered a late release by MakeMusic, and full support for the features of Mac OS X was limited at first. More comprehensive support was brought "on-line" through maintenance releases going forward into 2004. Finale 2004 also continued to support PowerPC Macs running Mac OS 9. This release shortened the development cycle for Finale 2005, which was released the following August. While the number of new features in Finale '05 were necessarily limited, this was the first release to have both Windows and Mac versions on the same distribution CD.
The most advertised new feature of Finale 2006 (released in the summer of 2005) included the Garritan Personal Orchestra, an integrated sound library with upgradeable selections from the Garritan Personal Orchestra for more lifelike playback than the SmartMusic SoftSynth (which is still included in the program). A limited-functionality music-scanning module, SmartScore Lite, was also included. Along with Page View and Scroll View, the 2006 release added StudioView, a display mode which is similar to Scroll View with the addition of a sequencer interface. This feature offers an environment for creation, evaluation, and experimentation with different musical ideas in a multi-track environment. In StudioView, an additional staff appears above the notation, called TempoTap, allowing for complete control over tempo changes like rubati, accelerandi, and ritardandi.
A key new feature of the Finale 2007 release was an integrated "linked" score and part management system. A properly-set-up "full score for extraction" could now contain all the data and formatting necessary to generate a full set of linked ensemble parts, ensconced within a single Finale master document. Limitations on the scope of format and layout control between parts and conductor score (including measure numbers and staff system breaks) suggested that this new feature was targeted to media production work, where quick turnaround and accuracy is a crucial factor, rather than publishing, though publishers still may use some aspects of linked parts to improve the part creation process. The 2007 release was a Universal binary, and runs natively on both PowerPC and Intel-based Macs.
Finale 2008 was the first version to come out with full Vista (32-bit only) support. It also changed the way several editing modes are accessed, by introducing the multi-purpose “selection tool” described above. The 2008 release offers the importation and/or recording of synchronized real-time audio as an additional single track in a document.
Finale 2009 was identified as the 20th Anniversary edition. It offers many fundamental workflow changes not seen since the program's inception, such as the organization of expressions by category. Also notable is the re-designed Page View, which enables the viewing and editing of multiple pages within the same document window: these pages may either be arranged in a horizontal line or tiled vertically within a window. Finale 2009 includes Garritan's new Aria Player Engine, and has new samples for this. The older Kontakt 2 Player is still supported, and the samples load under this also.
Finale 2010 was released in June 2009 with improvements to percussion notation and chord symbols. This version also introduced measure number enhancements, auto-ordered rehearsal marks, support for additional graphic formats, and a new Broadway Copyist font option resembling the look of handwritten scores.
Finale 2011 was released in June 2010 with additional Garritan Sounds, Alpha Notes (notation with note names inside), a new lyric entry window and other lyric enhancements, and, most notably, a reworking of staff, system, and page layout handling. In Finale versions before 2011, systems could be optimized to remove empty staves from them and also permit staves in a system to be positioned independently from other systems. Eliminating empty staves from systems with many staves (sometimes called French scoring) is a common notation practice used to economize (or optimize) the use of the page. Users needed to take caution while optimizing, because if measures with notes were moved into an optimized system, or notes were added to staves while viewing the score in Scroll View that had been optimized out, they could be omitted in the printed score. The recommended solution was to always optimize as the last step in the score editing process, immediately before printing. Finale resolved this with a number of solutions in Finale 2011, including the new "Hide Empty Staves" command under the Staff menu, which hides all empty staves in systems. If notes are added to the system, the staff reappears automatically. (The capability of intentionally hiding staves containing notes is still available using a Staff Style). Also, any staff or staves can be positioned in systems independently (based on the selection). These improvements resolved some of the longstanding frustrations novice and advanced users could encounter when working with multi-staff scores. Other improvements to this Finale version include easier capo chords and a new Aria Player.
Finale 2012 was released in October 2011 with new functions as Finale's ScoreManager™, unicode text support, creation of PDF files, an updated setup Wizard, improved sound management and more Garritan sounds built-in.
Finale 2014 was released in November 2013 with new functions. As with all previous releases, a new file format was introduced, which is incompatible with older versions of Finale. However, this time easier file exchange with future versions of Finale was promised. Finale 2014's new functions include a rewritten file format for forward and backward file compatibility, improved Apple OS X support, a new audio engine, additional Garritan sounds, and a new user interface. 2014d is the last version.
An updated version, Finale 2014.5 fixes several problems.
Finale Version 25 was released on August 16, 2016. The Finale Blog says that "highlights of the new release include 64-bit support, additional Garritan sounds [100+], transposed instrument entry, ReWire compatibility, significant streamlining, and more." Some new features include: ReWire support, so that Finale can be used simultaneously and in sync with digital audio software, including Logic, Pro Tools, and Digital Performer. Allows 64-bit sound libraries to be used directly in Finale, without 3rd-party software. The new "Aria Player" speeds up and simplifies the choosing of Garritan instruments. Workflow was simplified. Beginning with this version, the user manual is found entirely online. Band-in-a-Box and a couple of other plug-ins were removed. The ability to import scanned documents was removed. Several other features were added.
Finale Version 26 was released on October 10, 2018. This release includes new features such as automatically stacking articulations, automated slur collision avoidance, expedited processes for entering chord symbols and expressions, and additional templates.
Finale Version 27 was released on June 15, 2021. This release includes new features like interactive music sharing functionality, Standard Music Font Layout (SMuFL) support, an improved instrument list, MusicXML 4.0, and numerous bug fixes (such as unexpected installer behavior, unusable display scaling in Windows, crashes from macOS quirks, and printing problems).
Abilities
Finale 2007 introduced linked parts, which allow ensemble parts to remain linked to the master score, so that changes to the master score will be instantly reflected in the parts.
Finale can notate anything from a textbook chorale to a cut-out score including new symbols invented by the composer. It is also capable of working with guitar tablature and includes a jazz font similar to that used in the Real Book. Nearly all score elements can be positioned or adjusted, either by dragging (with the appropriate tool selected) or by using dialog boxes with measurements in inches, centimeters or picas.
Music can be entered in a variety of ways: using the computer keyboard alone in real time or via a command line window; using user-determined combinations of mouse clicks, computer keyboard, and MIDI piano keyboard; or by MIDI keyboard alone. It also includes a function for optically recognising printed music from a scan, similar to OCRring text. From Finale 2001 onward, the program included MicNotator, a module able to notate melodic pitches played on a single-pitch acoustic instrument via a microphone connected to the computer.
Finale can import and export MIDI files, and it can play back music using a large range of audio samples, notably from the Garritan library. As of Finale 2009, it can use VST and AU plug-ins. A feature called 'Human playback' aims to create a less mechanical feel, by incorporating playing styles into the playback, including ornaments, ritardandos and accelerandos. Finale can export audio files as .aif, .wav or .mp3.
Finale 2004 also introduced FinaleScript, a scripting language for the automation of tasks such as transcribing music for other instruments to use.
Prominent users
It is used by prominent composers such as Brian Ferneyhough, large publishers such as Alfred Music, the Hal Leonard Corporation</ref>, and smaller, specialist publishers such as G. Henle Verlag, Edition HH, Promethean Editions, and Acoustic Guitar magazine. It is also used by institutions such as the New England Conservatory, the Juilliard School, Millikin University, the Berklee College of Music, the Lemmensinstituut, and George Mason University.
Academy Award-nominated films such as Million Dollar Baby, The Aviator, Spider-Man 2, Sideways, Polar Express, The Village, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, The Passion of the Christ, Finding Neverland, Ratatouille, Michael Clayton, and The Golden Compass were all scored with Finale.
Alfred Music involvement
In 2013, MakeMusic signed an exclusive distribution agreement with Alfred Music, a music publishing company with a focus on materials for music education. Under this agreement, Alfred Music is now the sole distributor of Finale and Garritan products in several markets, including North America. The move builds upon the existing relationship between the two companies, in which Alfred Music had previously licensed content for use in MakeMusic’s SmartMusic software.
Awards
Best Book/Video/Software at the 2015 Music & Sound Awards
See also
List of scorewriters
Colored music notation
List of music software
References
General references
Matthew Nicholl & Richard Grudzinski, Music Notation: Preparing Scores and Parts, ed. Jonathan Feist. Boston: Berklee Press (2007)
Inline citations
External links
Scorewriters
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255296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Xiaoting | Battle of Xiaoting | The Battle of Xiaoting（猇亭之戰）, also known as the Battle of Yiling and the Battle of Yiling and Xiaoting, was fought between the state of Shu and the state of Wu, between the years 221 and 222 in the early Three Kingdoms period of China. The battle is significant because Wu was able to turn the situation from a series of initial losses into a defensive stalemate, before proceeding to win a decisive victory over Shu. The Wu victory halted the Shu invasion and preceded the death of Liu Bei, Shu's founding emperor.
Background
In late 219, Lü Meng, a general serving under Sun Quan, led an army to invade Liu Bei's territories in southern Jing Province. Guan Yu, Liu Bei's general in charge of guarding Jing Province, was away at the Battle of Fancheng and did not know about the invasion until after he returned from his Pyrrhic victory at Fancheng. He was surrounded by Sun Quan's forces in Maicheng (麥城; in Dangyang, Hubei), captured in an ambush while trying to break out of the siege, and eventually executed by Sun Quan's forces in Linju (臨沮; present-day Nanzhang County, Hubei).
On 25 November 220, Emperor Xian, the figurehead monarch of the Eastern Han dynasty, abdicated in favour of Cao Pi and ended the Eastern Han dynasty. On 11 December, Cao Pi established the state of Wei to replace the Eastern Han dynasty and became its first emperor. On 10 May 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and established a new state, historically known as Shu, to contest Cao Pi's claim to the Han throne. Around the same time, Sun Quan shifted the capital of his territories from Gong'an County to E County, which he renamed "Wuchang" (). On 23 September 221, Sun Quan pledged allegiance to Cao Pi and became a vassal of the Wei state; in return, Cao Pi awarded Sun Quan the title "King of Wu" ().
Prelude
Liu Bei desired to avenge Guan Yu and take back Jing Province, so he made preparations for war against Sun Quan. When Zhao Yun, a veteran general under Liu Bei, tried to dissuade his lord from going to war with Sun Quan, Liu Bei ignored him. Later, when Liu Bei launched the campaign against Sun Quan, he did not bring Zhao Yun along and instead left him behind to guard Jiangzhou. Qin Mi, an official under Liu Bei, also advised his lord against going to war with Sun Quan but ended up being thrown into prison.
Liu Bei ordered Zhang Fei to lead 10,000 troops from Langzhong to join him at Jiangzhou. During the mobilisation, Zhang Fei was assassinated by his subordinates Fan Qiang () and Zhang Da (), who cut off his head and brought it along with them as they defected to Sun Quan's side. Zhang Fei's adjutant wrote a report to Liu Bei. When Liu Bei heard that Zhang Fei's adjutant sent him a report, he exclaimed: "Oh! (Zhang) Fei is dead."
In August 221, Liu Bei personally led his army to attack Sun Quan. He also gave higher appointments to some mid-ranking Shu officers from Jing Province, such as Feng Xi and Zhang Nan, to further raise his army's morale for the campaign. Sun Quan sent Zhuge Jin as his representative to meet Liu Bei and start peace talks. When Zhuge Jin met Liu Bei, he said: Liu Bei refused to listen to him.
The battle
Opening moves
In August 221, Liu Bei sent his generals Wu Ban and Feng Xi to attack the Wu positions at the Wu Gorge, which were guarded by Li Yi () and Liu E (). After Wu Ban and Feng Xi achieved success, the Shu army, comprising over 50,000 troops, advanced further to Zigui County. Liu Bei also sent messengers to request reinforcements from the local tribes in Wuling Commandery (武陵郡). At Zigui, Liu Bei met up with Liao Hua, a former subordinate of Guan Yu. Liao Hua became a prisoner-of-war in Wu after Guan Yu's death but managed to escape and make his way back to Shu. Liu Bei appointed him as the Administrator of Yidu.
In response to the Shu invasion, Sun Quan appointed Lu Xun as his Grand Chief Controller () and ordered him to lead 50,000 troops to resist the enemy. Lu Xun had under his command several Wu officers such as Zhu Ran, Pan Zhang, Song Qian, Han Dang, Xu Sheng, Xianyu Dan (), and Sun Huan.
The Shu army's approach
In February 222, Liu Bei planned to lead his army from Zigui（秭歸）further into Jing Province to reclaim the province. However, the Shu general Huang Quan noted that the Wu forces were powerful and had used the Yangtze to their advantage, so he volunteered to lead the attack and suggested that Liu Bei remain behind as backup. Liu Bei refused to listen to him, appointed him as General Who Guards the North (), and put him in charge of a separate Shu army to defend the northern flank (the northern bank of the Yangtze) from any possible attack by Wei forces. He then personally led the main Shu army, which travelled along the southern bank of the Yangtze.
Liu Bei also ordered Wu Ban (吳班) and Chen Shi （陳式）to lead the Shu navy to Yiling on the banks of the Yangtze. In the meantime, he also sent Ma Liang as an envoy to meet the tribes in Wuling Commandery and seek to bribe their chiefs with money and official titles to win their support. As the tribes in Wuling grew restless upon the Shu army's approach, Sun Quan sent Bu Zhi to guard Yiyang and deal with any unrest.
When Wu generals wanted to attack the Shu army as it approached, Lu Xun objected and said: The Wu generals did not understand Lu Xun's reasoning and thought that he feared the enemy so they were very unhappy with him.
Stalemate
The Shu army passed through the Wu Gorge, Jianping (), Lianping (), and Lianwei (), and arrived at the border of Yiling, where they constructed about 10 fortified garrisons. Liu Bei appointed Feng Xi as the Grand Controller (), Zhang Nan as the vanguard commander (), and Fu Kuang, Zhao Rong (), Liao Hua, and Fu Rong as detachment commanders (). The Shu and Wu forces were locked in a stalemate for about six months from February to July 222.
Liu Bei ordered Wu Ban to lead a few thousand soldiers out of the mountainous regions to set up camps on flat terrain and provoke the Wu forces to attack them. When the Wu officers wanted to respond to the taunts and attack the enemy, Lu Xun said: "This must be a trick. We should observe first."
As Lu Xun suspected, there were actually 8,000 Shu troops waiting in ambush in the nearby valleys. Since the Wu forces did not respond to the taunts, Liu Bei abandoned his plan to lure the enemy into the ambush and ordered the 8,000 soldiers to come out of the valleys. When Lu Xun heard about it, he told the Wu officers: "The reason why I did not follow your suggestions to attack the enemy is because I suspected there was something fishy about it." He then wrote a memorial to Sun Quan to emphasize the strategic importance of Yiling, point out some of Liu Bei's weaknesses, and reassure Sun Quan that he would defeat the enemy.
The Wu counter-attack and the burning of the Shu camps
Several days later, the Wu officers told Lu Xun: Lu Xun replied:
Lu Xun then targeted one enemy camp and attacked it but failed to capture it. The Wu officers complained: "We are sacrificing our soldiers' lives for nothing." Lu Xun replied: "I have devised a strategy for defeating the enemy." He then ordered his men to carry a pile of straw each and launch a fire attack on the enemy. Upon the commencement of the fire attack, Lu Xun led all the Wu units on an all-out assault on the Shu forces. Zhu Ran defeated the Shu vanguard force, cut off its retreat route and forced Liu Bei to retreat. Pan Zhang's subordinates killed Feng Xi and inflicted heavy casualties on Feng's unit. Song Qian also destroyed five Shu garrisons and killed its defending officers. Zhang Nan, Shamoke (a tribal king allied with Shu), Ma Liang, and Wang Fu were killed in action, while Du Lu () and Liu Ning () were forced to surrender to Wu. Over 40 Shu camps were destroyed by the Wu forces. Throughout the Shu army, only Xiang Chong's unit managed to retreat without sustaining any losses.
The actual location of the battle is at the juncture between the west of Yidu County and east of Changyang County in Yichang, Hubei.
Liu Bei's retreat to Baidicheng
Liu Bei and his remaining troops retreated to the Ma'an Hills (馬鞍山; east of present-day Changyang County, Hubei), where they continued to be fiercely assaulted by the Wu forces from all directions. At the same time, landslides occurred at the Ma'an Hills and caused the Shu forces to sustain thousands of casualties. The Wu general Sun Huan fought with his life and managed to break through enemy lines and capture the key positions in the hills. Liu Bei was forced to retreat through the hazardous mountainous terrain and barely escaped alive at night. During the retreat, he ordered his men to pile up their armour and set them on fire to create barriers for the pursuing Wu forces.
Liu Bei regrouped his scattered forces and ordered them to abandon their boats and travel on foot towards Yufu County, which he renamed "Yong'an" (永安; literally "everlasting peace"). The Wu officers Li Yi () and Liu E () led their troops in pursuit of Liu Bei and garrisoned at Nanshan (). In late September or early October 222, Liu Bei and his forces retreated further to the Wu Gorge.
By the time Liu Bei reached the safety of Baidicheng, all his boats, military equipment, and supplies had been captured by Wu forces. The dead bodies of Shu soldiers floated in the river and obstructed its flow. Liu Bei was extremely upset and furious with his defeat. He exclaimed: "Is it not the will of Heaven that I must be humiliated by Lu Xun?" When Zhao Yun showed up at Yong'an with reinforcements from Jiangzhou, the pursuing Wu forces had already retreated on their own.
Incidents during the battle
Lu Xun refusing to help Sun Huan
In the earlier stages of the battle, Sun Huan led a separate force to attack the Shu vanguard force at Yidao but ended up being besieged by the enemy. He requested for reinforcements from Lu Xun but was denied. The other Wu officers told Lu Xun: "General Sun is a relative of our lord. He is currently under siege, so shouldn't we help him?" Lu Xun replied: "He has the support of his men, his base is well defended, and he has sufficient supplies. There is nothing to worry about. When my plans are in motion, even if we don't help him, the siege on him will automatically be lifted." After the Wu victory at Xiaoting, Sun Huan came to see Lu Xun and said: "Earlier on, I was indeed very resentful when you refused to help me. But now, after the victory, I see that you have your own way of doing things."
Wu officers' reluctance to follow Lu Xun's orders
Many of the Wu officers who participated in the battle had either served in Wu since Sun Ce's time or were relatives of Sun Quan's family, so they viewed themselves highly and were unwilling to follow Lu Xun's orders. Lu Xun placed his sword on the desk and said:
The Wu officers began to show greater respect for Lu Xun after the Wu victory, which was largely due to his strategies. Lu Xun did not report this incident to Sun Quan, who found out about it himself after the battle. When Sun Quan asked Lu Xun about it, Lu replied that he valued those officers even though they were insubordinate towards him, and decided to put up with them because he felt it was important to maintain good working relationships with them to fulfil their common goal of resisting the Shu invasion. Sun Quan praised him and rewarded him handsomely.
Heroics of Fu Rong and Cheng Ji
Fu Rong volunteered to cover the rear while the Shu forces were retreating from Yiling and Xiaoting. He continued to hold his ground firmly and vent his fury on the enemy even though all his comrades had already been killed. When the Wu soldiers called for him to surrender, he replied: "Dogs of Wu! Do you think a Han officer will ever surrender?" He was eventually killed in action.
Cheng Ji also covered the rear during the Shu retreat. As the enemy approached, someone urged him to abandon his boat and escape, but he replied: "I have never fled from battle throughout my military career. Besides, the Emperor is currently in a dangerous situation." When the Wu forces showed up, Cheng Ji wielded a ji, fought fiercely and managed to sink some enemy boats before he was eventually overwhelmed by the enemy and killed.
Cao Pi foreseeing Liu Bei's defeat
When Cao Pi received news that the Shu forces had set up linked camps over a distance of more than 700 li, he told his subjects: He received a report about the Wu victory seven days later.
Aftermath
Huang Quan and the separate Shu army on the northern bank of the Yangtze were cut off from the main Shu army during the Wu counterattack and could not return to Shu. In desperation, Huang Quan and his subordinate Pang Lin led their troops to defect to Wei.
Small rebellions broke out in Lingling (零陵) and Guiyang (桂陽) commanderies after the Shu forces retreated. Bu Zhi, who was stationed at Yiyang before the battle, led Wu forces to suppress them.
After the battle, Xu Sheng, Pan Zhang, Song Qian and other Wu officers suggested attacking Baidicheng to capture Liu Bei. When Sun Quan asked Lu Xun for his opinion, Lu Xun, Zhu Ran and Luo Tong said that when Cao Pi amassed his forces and seemed like he was going to help Wu attack Shu, he actually had sinister intentions. They cautioned Sun Quan about this and suggested to abandon their pursuit of Liu Bei and return to Wu. Sun Quan heeded their advice. Not long later, Cao Pi led the Wei armies to invade Wu from three directions.
When Liu Bei heard of the Wei invasion of Wu, he wrote to Lu Xun: Lu Xun replied:
Liu Bei became critically ill in April 223. Before he died on 10 June, he named his son Liu Shan as his successor and appointed Zhuge Liang and Li Yan as regents to assist Liu Shan. After taking over the reins of power, Zhuge Liang made peace with Wu and re-established the Wu–Shu alliance against Wei.
Order of battle
Wu forces
Grand Chief Controller () Lu Xun
General of Illustrious Martial Might () Zhu Ran
General Who Inspires Might () Pan Zhang
Lieutenant General () Han Dang
General Who Builds Martial Might () Xu Sheng
General of the Household Who Pacifies the East () Sun Huan
General of the Household Who Builds Loyalty () Luo Tong
Song Qian
Xianyu Dan ()
Li Yi ()
Liu E ()
Jiang Yi
Non-participants
King of Wu () Sun Quan
General Who Pacifies the Rong () Bu Zhi
Shu forces
Main army
Emperor of Shu Han () Liu Bei
Grand Controller () Feng Xi
Vanguard () Zhang Nan
Detachment Commander () Fu Kuang
Detachment Commander () Zhao Rong ()
Detachment Commander () Liao Hua
Detachment Commander () Fu Rong
Palace Attendant () Ma Liang
General of the Standard () Xiang Chong ()
Aide-de-camp () Li Chao
Assistant Officer and Libationer () Cheng Ji
Wu Ban
Chen Shi
Wang Fu
Du Lu ()
Liu Ning ()
North army
General Who Guards the North () Huang Quan
Assistant Officer in Headquarters Office () Pang Lin
Allies
Shamoke
Non-participants
General of the Assisting Army () Zhao Yun
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
The events before, during, and after the Battle of Xiaoting are mentioned in chapters 81–84 of the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi) by Luo Guanzhong. Some fictitious stories were included and actual events were exaggerated for dramatic effect. The following are some notable events related to the battle, as described in the novel:
Opposition to Liu Bei's decision to go to war
Liu Bei plans to go to war with Sun Quan to avenge Guan Yu and retake Jing Province, but his decision is opposed by many of his subjects. The first person who attempts to dissuade him from going to war is Zhao Yun, who is ignored. After that, other Shu officials such as Ma Liang and Chen Zhen urge Zhuge Liang to stop Liu Bei, so Zhuge Liang brings them along to meet Liu Bei and advise him against his decision, but Liu Bei refuses to accept their advice. Just when Liu Bei is preparing for war, Qin Mi opposes his decision. Liu Bei is so angry that he wants to execute Qin Mi. However, Qin Mi is spared after Zhuge Liang and the rest of the Shu imperial court plead with Liu Bei. Zhuge Liang then writes a memorial to Liu Bei to explain why he should not go to war with Sun Quan, but Liu Bei throws the memorial to the ground after reading it and exclaims, "My decision is final. There is no need to advise me against my decision anymore!"
Historicity
The historical text Sanguozhi did not mention anything about Zhuge Liang opposing Liu Bei's decision to go to war with Sun Quan. However, it did mention that Zhao Yun and Qin Mi attempted to dissuade Liu Bei: Zhao Yun advised Liu Bei against attacking Sun Quan, but was ignored. Qin Mi was imprisoned by Liu Bei when he advised him against the campaign, but was released later.
Huang Zhong's death
The Shu general Huang Zhong participates in the campaign even though he is already over 70 years old at the time. He slays Pan Zhang's subordinate, Shi Ji (), and defeats Pan Zhang in an engagement on the first day. On the second day, while pursuing the retreating Pan Zhang, he falls into an ambush and is surrounded by Zhou Tai, Han Dang, Ling Tong and Pan Zhang. He is hit by an arrow fired by Ma Zhong (). Guan Xing and Zhang Bao save him, but he dies from his wound that night. Liu Bei mourns his death. Since the Battle of Xiaoting historically took place between 221–222, going by the novel's account, Huang Zhong's year of death should be around 221–222.
Historicity
Huang Zhong's biography in the Sanguozhi stated that Huang Zhong died in 220, a year after the Hanzhong Campaign ended. His cause of death is unknown.
Guan Xing killing Pan Zhang
In one of the early engagements, Guan Xing encounters Pan Zhang, who captured his father Guan Yu in an ambush during the Battle of Maicheng. In his eagerness to avenge his father, Guan Xing pursues Pan Zhang into a valley but loses his way inside. After nightfall, Guan Xing wanders around until he finds a house inhabited by an old man and stays there for the night. He sees his father's portrait on the wall in the house. Later that night, Pan Zhang also finds his way to the house and asks to stay there. Guan Xing sees Pan Zhang and shouts at him. Just as Pan Zhang is about to leave, he encounters Guan Yu's ghost and is petrified. Guan Xing catches up with Pan Zhang, kills him, digs out his heart and places it on the altar as an offering to his father's spirit.
Historicity
Pan Zhang's biography in the Sanguozhi stated that he died in 234 – more than 10 years after the Battle of Xiaoting. His cause of death is unknown. Guan Yu's biography mentioned that Guan Xing served as a civil official in Shu after reaching adulthood (around the age of 19) and died a few years later while in office, so Guan Xing was most probably not involved in the battle.
Gan Ning's death
Gan Ning is down with dysentery around the time of the Battle of Xiaoting, but he still participates in the battle regardless of his illness. He is resting when he hears enemy forces approaching, so he quickly mounts his horse and prepares for battle. He encounters a group of tribal warriors led by Shamoke. He sees that the enemy force is too large and decides to withdraw. While retreating on horseback, Gan Ning is hit in the head by an arrow fired by Shamoke. He flees, with the arrow still embedded in his head, reaches Fuchi (富池; in present-day Yangxin County, Hubei), sits down under a tree and dies. Dozens of crows on the tree fly around his body. When Sun Quan learns of Gan Ning's death, he is deeply saddened and gives orders for Gan to be buried with full honours.
Historicity
No details were provided on Gan Ning's cause and time of death in his biography in the Sanguozhi. Gan Ning's death was briefly stated as follows: When Gan Ning died, Sun Quan deeply lamented his death.
Zhao Yun killing Zhu Ran
Liu Bei retreats under the protection of Guan Xing and Zhang Bao after his camps are set on fire by the Wu forces, who continue to pursue him. At a critical moment, Zhao Yun shows up and blocks the attacks from the enemy. Zhao Yun encounters Zhu Ran during the battle and kills him. He protects Liu Bei while the latter heads towards Baidicheng.
Historicity
The Zhao Yun Biezhuan stated that Zhao Yun did not participate in the Battle of Xiaoting. Before the battle, Zhao Yun advised Liu Bei against going to war with Sun Quan but was ignored. Liu Bei ordered him to remain behind and guard Jiangzhou. When Zhao Yun learnt that Liu Bei had been defeated at Zigui, he led troops from Jiangzhou to Yong'an to help his lord.
Zhu Ran's biography in the Sanguozhi stated that he died in 249 at the age of 68 (by East Asian age reckoning) – about 27 years after the Battle of Xiaoting. Besides, he outlived Zhao Yun, who historically died in 229.
Lady Sun's death
News of Liu Bei's defeat in the battle reach his ex-wife Lady Sun, who had returned to Wu. After hearing rumours that Liu Bei had been killed in battle, Lady Sun ventures out to the bank of the Yangtze, where she faces the west and cries before drowning herself.
Historicity
Nothing was recorded in history about what happened to Lady Sun after she left Liu Bei and returned to Wu territory.
Lu Xun's encounter with Zhuge Liang's Stone Sentinel Maze
In popular culture
The battle is featured as a playable stage in Koei's video game series Dynasty Warriors, in which it is known as the "Battle of Yi Ling" or "Battle of Yiling". It has a follow-up, the "Battle of Baidi Castle", which is based on a hypothetical scenario of the Wu forces pressing on to attack Baidicheng, where the Shu forces retreated to after their defeat.
Notes
Citations
References
Chen, Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Luo, Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
Pei, Songzhi. Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
Sima, Guang. Zizhi Tongjian.
220s conflicts
Xiaoting 222
221
222
History of Hubei | [
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255297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal%20mass%20ejection | Coronal mass ejection | A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a significant release of plasma and accompanying magnetic field from the Sun's corona into the solar wind. CMEs are often associated with solar flares and other forms of solar activity, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established.
If a CME enters interplanetary space, it is referred to as an interplanetary coronal mass ejection (ICME). ICMEs are capable of reaching and colliding with Earth's magnetosphere, where they can cause geomagnetic storms, aurorae, and in rare cases damage to electrical power grids. The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, was the solar storm of 1859. Also known as the Carrington Event, it disabled parts of the at the time newly created United States telegraph network, starting fires and shocking some telegraph operators.
Near solar maxima, the Sun produces about three CMEs every day, whereas near solar minima, there is about one CME every five days.
Physical properties
CMEs release large quantities of matter away from the Sun's surface and into the solar wind and interplanetary space. The ejected material is a plasma consisting primarily of electrons and protons. This material can usually be observed with a white-light coronagraph via Thomson scattering of sunlight off of free electrons.
A typical CME may have any or all of three distinctive features: a cavity of low electron density, a dense core (the prominence, which appears on coronagraph images as a bright region embedded in this cavity), and a bright leading edge.
Most ejections originate from active regions on the Sun's surface, such as groupings of sunspots associated with frequent flares. These regions have closed magnetic field lines, in which the magnetic field strength is large enough to contain the plasma. These field lines must be broken or weakened for the ejection to escape from the Sun. However, CMEs may also be initiated in quiet surface regions, although in many cases the quiet region was recently active. During solar minimum, CMEs form primarily in the coronal streamer belt near the solar magnetic equator. During solar maximum, they originate from active regions whose latitudinal distribution is more homogeneous.
CMEs reach velocities from with an average speed of , based on SOHO/LASCO measurements between 1996 and 2003. These speeds correspond to transit times from the Sun out to the mean radius of Earth's orbit of about 13 hours to 86 days (extremes), with about 3.5 days as the average. The average mass ejected is . However, the estimated mass values for CMEs are only lower limits, because coronagraph measurements provide only two-dimensional data. The frequency of ejections depends on the phase of the solar cycle: from about 0.2 per day near the solar minimum to 3.5 per day near the solar maximum. These values are also lower limits because ejections propagating away from Earth (backside CMEs) usually cannot be detected by coronagraphs.
Current knowledge of CME kinematics indicates that the ejection starts with an initial pre-acceleration phase characterized by a slow rising motion, followed by a period of rapid acceleration away from the Sun until a near-constant velocity is reached. Some balloon CMEs, usually the slowest ones, lack this three-stage evolution, instead accelerating slowly and continuously throughout their flight. Even for CMEs with a well-defined acceleration stage, the pre-acceleration stage is often absent, or perhaps unobservable.
Interplanetary coronal mass ejections
ICMEs typically reach Earth one to five days after leaving the Sun. During their propagation, ICMEs interact with the solar wind and the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). As a consequence, slow ICMEs are accelerated toward the speed of the solar wind and fast ICMEs are decelerated toward the speed of the solar wind. The strongest deceleration or acceleration occurs close to the Sun, but it can continue even beyond Earth orbit (1 AU), which was observed using measurements at Mars and by the Ulysses spacecraft. ICMEs faster than about eventually drive a shock wave. This happens when the speed of the ICME in the frame of reference moving with the solar wind is faster than the local fast magnetosonic speed. Such shocks have been observed directly by coronagraphs in the corona, and are related to type II radio bursts. They are thought to form sometimes as low as (solar radii). They are also closely linked with the acceleration of solar energetic particles.
Cause
The phenomenon of magnetic reconnection is closely associated with CMEs and solar flares. In magnetohydrodynamic theory, the sudden rearrangement of magnetic field lines when two oppositely directed magnetic fields are brought together is called "magnetic reconnection". Reconnection releases energy stored in the original stressed magnetic fields. These magnetic field lines can become twisted in a helical structure, with a 'right-hand twist' or a 'left-hand twist'. As the Sun's magnetic field lines become more and more twisted, CMEs appear to be a 'valve' to release the magnetic energy being built up, as evidenced by the helical structure of CMEs, that would otherwise renew itself continuously each solar cycle and eventually rip the Sun apart.
On the Sun, magnetic reconnection may happen on solar arcades—a series of closely occurring loops of magnetic lines of force. These lines of force quickly reconnect into a low arcade of loops, leaving a helix of magnetic field unconnected to the rest of the arcade. The sudden release of energy during this process causes the solar flare and ejects the CME. The helical magnetic field and the material that it contains may violently expand outwards forming a CME. This also explains why CMEs and solar flares typically erupt from what are known as the active regions on the Sun where magnetic fields are much stronger on average.
It was first postulated that CMEs might be driven by the heat of an explosive flare. However, it soon became apparent that many CMEs were not associated with flares, and that even those that were often started before the flare. Because CMEs are initiated in the solar corona (which is dominated by magnetic energy), their energy source must be magnetic.
Because the energy of CMEs is so high, it is unlikely that their energy could be directly driven by emerging magnetic fields in the photosphere (although this is still a possibility). Therefore, most models of CMEs assume that the energy is stored up in the coronal magnetic field over a long period of time and then suddenly released by some instability or a loss of equilibrium in the field. There is still no consensus on which of these release mechanisms is correct, and observations are not currently able to constrain these models very well. These same considerations apply equally well to solar flares, but the observable signatures of these phenomena differ.
Impact on Earth
When the ejection is directed towards Earth and reaches it as an interplanetary CME (ICME), the shock wave of traveling mass causes a geomagnetic storm that may disrupt Earth's magnetosphere, compressing it on the day side and extending the night-side magnetic tail. When the magnetosphere reconnects on the nightside, it releases power on the order of terawatt scale, which is directed back toward Earth's upper atmosphere. It results in events such as the March 1989 geomagnetic storm.
Solar energetic particles can cause particularly strong aurorae in large regions around Earth's magnetic poles. These are also known as the Northern Lights (aurora borealis) in the northern hemisphere, and the Southern Lights (aurora australis) in the southern hemisphere. Coronal mass ejections, along with solar flares of other origin, can disrupt radio transmissions and cause damage to satellites and electrical transmission line facilities, resulting in potentially massive and long-lasting power outages.
Energetic protons released by a CME can cause an increase in the number of free electrons in the ionosphere, especially in the high-latitude polar regions. The increase in free electrons can enhance radio wave absorption, especially within the D-region of the ionosphere, leading to polar cap absorption events.
Humans at high altitudes, as in airplanes or space stations, risk exposure to relatively intense solar particle events. The energy absorbed by astronauts is not reduced by a typical spacecraft shield design and, if any protection is provided, it would result from changes in the microscopic inhomogeneity of the energy absorption events.
While the terrestrial effects of solar flares are very fast (limited by the speed of light), CMEs are relatively slow, developing at the Alfvén speed.
Future risk
According to a report published in 2012 by physicist Pete Riley of Predictive Science Inc., the chance of Earth being hit by a Carrington-class storm between 2012 and 2022 is 12%.
Associated phenomena
Coronal mass ejections are often associated with other forms of solar activity, most notably:
Solar flares
Eruptive prominences
X-ray sigmoids
Coronal dimming (long-term brightness decrease on the solar surface)
Moreton waves
Coronal waves (bright fronts propagating from the location of the eruption)
Post-eruptive arcades
The association of a CME with some of those phenomena is common but not fully understood. For example, CMEs and flares are normally closely related, but there was confusion about this point caused by the events originating beyond the limb. For such events no flare could be detected. Most weak flares do not have associated CMEs; most powerful ones do. Some CMEs occur without any flare-like manifestation, but these are the weaker and slower ones. It is now thought that CMEs and associated flares are caused by a common event (the CME peak acceleration and the flare impulsive phase generally coincide). In general, all of these events (including the CME) are thought to be the result of a large-scale restructuring of the magnetic field; the presence or absence of a CME during one of these restructures would reflect the coronal environment of the process (i.e., can the eruption be confined by overlying magnetic structure, or will it simply break through and enter the solar wind).
History
First traces
The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, coincided with the first-observed solar flare on 1 September 1859. The resulting solar storm of 1859 is referred to as the Carrington Event. The flare and the associated sunspots were visible to the naked eye (both as the flare itself appearing on a projection of the Sun on a screen and as an aggregate brightening of the solar disc), and the flare was independently observed by English astronomers R. C. Carrington and R. Hodgson. The geomagnetic storm was observed with the recording magnetograph at Kew Gardens. The same instrument recorded a crochet, an instantaneous perturbation of Earth's ionosphere by ionizing soft X-rays. This could not easily be understood at the time because it predated the discovery of X-rays by Röntgen and the recognition of the ionosphere by Kennelly and Heaviside. The storm took down parts of the recently created US telegraph network, starting fires and shocking some telegraph operators.
Historical records were collected and new observations recorded in annual summaries by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific between 1953 and 1960.
First clear detections
The first detection of a CME as such was made on 14 December 1971, by R. Tousey (1973) of the Naval Research Laboratory using the seventh Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO-7). The discovery image (256 × 256 pixels) was collected on a Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) vidicon tube, transferred to the instrument computer after being digitized to 7 bits. Then it was compressed using a simple run-length encoding scheme and sent down to the ground at 200 bit/s. A full, uncompressed image would take 44 minutes to send down to the ground. The telemetry was sent to ground support equipment (GSE) which built up the image onto Polaroid print. David Roberts, an electronics technician working for NRL who had been responsible for the testing of the SEC-vidicon camera, was in charge of day-to-day operations. He thought that his camera had failed because certain areas of the image were much brighter than normal. But on the next image the bright area had moved away from the Sun and he immediately recognized this as being unusual and took it to his supervisor, Dr. Guenter Brueckner, and then to the solar physics branch head, Dr. Tousey. Earlier observations of coronal transients or even phenomena observed visually during solar eclipses are now understood as essentially the same thing.
1989–present
On 9 March 1989 a coronal mass ejection occurred. On 13 March 1989 a severe geomagnetic storm struck the Earth. It caused power failures in Quebec, Canada and short-wave radio interference.
On 1 August 2010, during solar cycle 24, scientists at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) observed a series of four large CMEs emanating from the Earth-facing hemisphere of the Sun. The initial CME was generated by an eruption on 1 August that was associated with NOAA Active Region 1092, which was large enough to be seen without the aid of a solar telescope. The event produced significant aurorae on Earth three days later.
On 23 July 2012, a massive, and potentially damaging, solar superstorm (solar flare, CME, solar EMP) occurred but missed Earth, an event that many scientists consider to be Carrington-class event.
On 31 August 2012 a CME connected with Earth's magnetic environment, or magnetosphere, with a glancing blow causing aurora to appear on the night of 3 September. Geomagnetic storming reached the G2 (Kp=6) level on NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center scale of geomagnetic disturbances.
14 October 2014 ICME was photographed by the Sun-watching spacecraft PROBA2 (ESA), Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (ESA/NASA), and Solar Dynamics Observatory (NASA) as it left the Sun, and STEREO-A observed its effects directly at . ESA's Venus Express gathered data. The CME reached Mars on 17 October and was observed by the Mars Express, MAVEN, Mars Odyssey, and Mars Science Laboratory missions. On 22 October, at , it reached comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, perfectly aligned with the Sun and Mars, and was observed by Rosetta. On 12 November, at , it was observed by Cassini at Saturn. The New Horizons spacecraft was at approaching Pluto when the CME passed three months after the initial eruption, and it may be detectable in the data. Voyager 2 has data that can be interpreted as the passing of the CME, 17 months after. The Curiosity rover's RAD instrument, Mars Odyssey, Rosetta and Cassini showed a sudden decrease in galactic cosmic rays (Forbush decrease) as the CME's protective bubble passed by.
Related solar observation missions
NASA mission Wind
On 1 November 1994, NASA launched the Wind spacecraft as a solar wind monitor to orbit Earth's Lagrange point as the interplanetary component of the Global Geospace Science (GGS) Program within the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program. The spacecraft is a spin axis-stabilized satellite that carries eight instruments measuring solar wind particles from thermal to greater than MeV energies, electromagnetic radiation from DC to 13 MHz radio waves, and gamma-rays.
NASA mission STEREO
On 25 October 2006, NASA launched STEREO, two near-identical spacecraft which, from widely separated points in their orbits, are able to produce the first stereoscopic images of CMEs and other solar activity measurements. The spacecraft orbit the Sun at distances similar to that of Earth, with one slightly ahead of Earth and the other trailing. Their separation gradually increased so that after four years they were almost diametrically opposite each other in orbit.
NASA mission Parker Solar Probe
The Parker Solar Probe was launched on 12 August 2018 to measure the mechanisms which accelerate and transport energetic particles i.e. the origins of the solar wind.
Stellar coronal mass ejections
There have been a small number of CMEs observed on other stars, all of which have been found on red dwarfs. These have been detected by spectroscopy, most often by studying Balmer lines: the material ejected toward the observer causes asymmetry in the blue wing of the line profiles due to Doppler shift. This enhancement can be seen in absorption when it occurs on the stellar disc (the material is cooler than its surrounding), and in emission when it is outside the disc. The observed projected velocities of CMEs range from ≈. Compared to activity on the Sun, CME activity on other stars seems to be far less common.
See also
Forbush decrease
Health threat from cosmic rays
K-index
List of solar storms
Magnetic cloud
Orbiting Solar Observatory
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
Space weather
References
Further reading
Books
Internet articles
External links
NOAA/NWS Space Weather Prediction Center
Coronal Mass Ejection FAQ
STEREO and SOHO observed CME rate versus the Sunspot number (PNG plot) / (text version)
Solar phenomena
Stellar phenomena
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255298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascual%20Cervera%20y%20Topete | Pascual Cervera y Topete | Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete (18 February 1839, Medina-Sidonia, Cádiz, Spain – 3 April 1909, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain) was a prominent Spanish naval officer with the rank of Almirante (admiral) who served in a number of high positions within the Spanish Navy and had fought in several wars during the 19th century. Having served in Morocco, the Philippines, and Cuba, he went on to be Spain's naval minister, chief of naval staff, naval attaché in London, the captain of several warships, and most notably, commander of the Cuba Squadron during the Spanish–American War. Although he believed that the Spanish Navy was suffering from multiple problems and that there was no chance for victory over the United States Navy, Cervera took command of the squadron and fought in a last stand during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba.
Early life and service
Pascual Cervera y Topete was born in Medina-Sidonia in the province of Cadiz, the son of a Spanish Army officer who fought against French invasion of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars. Cervera entered the naval college at the age of thirteen and was later made a midshipman during his first voyage to Havana in 1858. He later made lieutenant junior grade at the age of 21 and spent time serving in both Cuba (during the early part of the Ten Years' War) and also Morocco (during the Spanish–Moroccan war). Later, Cervera was deployed to the Spanish Philippines, where, under the command of Admiral Casto Méndez Núñez, in September 1864 he took part in the storming of Fort Pagalungan against the Moro rebels. During that action, he distinguished himself by capturing the enemy flag and was promoted to lieutenant for his service, receiving a mention in the official report on the battle. Afterwards, Cervera took part in expeditions mapping the hundreds of islands of the Philippine archipelago, which became useful to sailors navigating the area. In 1865 he returned to the Spanish homeland and got married.
Due to the political instability that persisted in Spain since Napoleon's invasion, Cervera took part in putting down the Cantonal rebellion during one of the Carlist Wars. He later commanded the schooner Circe and the corvette Santa Lucia back in the Philippines, where Cervera again took part in operations against insurgents. In 1876 the Spanish captain was appointed as the Governor of Jolo, although he later contracted malaria because of the conditions there and barely survived, returning to Madrid to report on the conditions in the Philippines shortly after that at the request of Prime minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. He also asked Cervera to take up the post of Minister of the Navy, but the man refused, saying that he preferred to be at sea rather than at a desk job. In 1879, he was given command of the training corvette Ferolana, where he remained until 1882, when Cervera was transferred to oversee the Cartagena naval base. From 1885 to 1890, he served on the shipbuilding commission of the battleship Pelayo and became its first commander, but had to fight against the bureaucratic procedures of the Spanish Navy that caused delays in her construction.
In the government
In May 1891, the Queen Regent María Cristina assigned Cervera to her court as her naval aide-de-camp. A year later the captain was assigned to oversee the construction of several cruisers for the Spanish Navy at the request of the Queen Regent. Around that time multiple politicians wanted Cervera to become the Minister of the Navy, but he continued to resist because he detested politics. Finally, in 1892, Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta asked the Queen Regent to compel him to accept the position of naval minister in his government. She did so, and Cervera reluctantly accepted, being promoted to Contraalmirante (rear admiral). But the newly promoted flag officer made the prime minister promise to not lower the naval budget in return, which Mateo accepted. However, it was not long before the prime minister broke that promise and so Cervera resigned from the position in 1892, but not before trying to make efforts to improve the Spanish Navy's efficiency. The rear admiral was appointed as the naval attaché in London shortly afterwards, where he witnessed the technical innovations being made by the British Royal Navy, a post he held until the situation in Cuba began escalating around 1896–97.
Service in Cuba
The admiral viewed the escalation of tensions between the kingdom and the United States with alarm, as he believed their defeat would be inevitable in a war because of the United States Navy's advancements between 1892 and 1896. Cervera thought that they were unprepared and did not possess enough ships to defend their colonies. Nonetheless, he accepted the posting of commander of the Cuban squadron on 20 October 1897 and immediately organized training exercises to prepare the crews, since the last time naval drills had been carried out was 1884 (during tensions with the German Empire over the Caroline Islands). Cervera sought to correct the numerous deficiencies in the fleet within a short time period, including lack of training and inadequate supplies. He continued to face difficulties from the naval ministry of Admiral Segismundo Bermejo, however. After the explosion aboard the American battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor in February 1898, the admiral sped back to Spain to speak to the government in person, but received orders from the Admiralty while at Cape Verde to take several ships back to Cuba and prepare for war, despite the severe problems in the fleet. Cervera returned to the Caribbean and slipped past American ships to enter the harbor Santiago de Cuba on May 19, despite several mishaps and having difficulties finding a port to refuel on coal, as most of the European countries with possessions in the Caribbean remained officially neutral. His total force included the cruisers Infanta Maria Teresa, Vizacaya, Almirante Oquendo, and Cristóbal Colón, along with two destroyers.
The U.S. remained unaware of the Spanish squadron's whereabouts for another several days, prior to it being discovered on May 28 or 29 at Santiago harbor by the Flying Squadron under Commodore Winfield Scott Schley. On May 31, the two sides exchanged fire, between the Cristóbal Colón and three American vessels (USS Iowa, USS Massachusetts, and USS New Orleans). After some time, Cervera ordered his squadron's cruiser to return to the harbor, with neither side having taken any damage. The rest of the North Atlantic Squadron under Rear Admiral William T. Sampson, operating in Cuban waters, did not arrive until June 1, and together the U.S. naval forces blockaded Cervera's squadron in Santiago. On June 2–3, the American commander decided to try to blockade the Spanish ships in the harbor by sinking a collier, the USS Merrimac, at the entrance. However, it came under fire from the defenders and was forced aground, at which point the Spanish admiral personally met with its American crewmen, who were taken prisoner. Cervera later sent his chief of staff under a flag of truce to give a note to Admiral Sampson informing him that the collier's crew was alive and safe. It was an act that impressed his American opponents and Sampson later noted that the affair "gave us a favorable impression of the Spanish officers."
The fleet remained mostly inactive in harbor for the next month until July 2, when Ramón Blanco, the military governor of Cuba, gave orders for a sortie against the American blockade. Earlier, Admiral Cervera had argued with the authorities in Madrid against taking such an action, but Blanco settled the matter with his order. They formally departed on July 3. The U.S. fleet sounded the alarm at 9:31 in the morning on July 3. The approaching Spanish ships, with Cervera's flagship Infanta Maria Teresa leading the way, opened fire and engaged the U.S. fleet. They headed west while remaining near the coastline. The American battleships and cruisers pursued them as they made their way along the coast as the Spanish admiral's flagship sustained heavy damage from them. With their engines damaged, Cervera decided to ground the Infanta Maria Teresa, which they did at 10:15 am. Around 10:20, the Almirante Oquendo was forced out of action with heavy damage and grounded. The two destroyers, Plutón and Furor, put up a fight before also the former ran aground and the latter was sunk by 10:30 am.
As the admiral's flagship raised a white flag on the beach, the remaining two cruisers – Vizcaya and Colón – were pursued, with the former being destroyed around 11:00 while the latter made it fifty miles from Santiago before being grounded on a beach. After that, the American ships began rescue operations for the Spanish sailors of the destroyed squadron, and among those captured from the wreck of the Infanta Maria Teresa was Admiral Cervera. That afternoon, he made it onto the USS Iowa, where he and the other Spanish officers met with Captain Robley D. Evans and formally surrendered to them. Afterwards, Cervera and the rest of the captured prisoners were sent to Annapolis, where they were free to roam the United States Naval Academy and were greeted with cheers by Americans. The New York Times reported that he appeared to be "much affected by the genuineness and spontaneity of the feeling manifested." On August 20, he was offered freedom by the U.S. government on the condition that he would not take up arms against the United States, but he refused, saying that accepting conditional freedom was illegal by Spanish law, and did not return to Spain until September 1898. He gained popularity among both the Spanish and American public in the years after the war.
Later life
In February 1901, Cervera was promoted to Vizealmirante (vice admiral) and in December 1902 became the Chief of Staff of the Navy. In May of the following year, King Alfonso XIII of Spain named him a senator of the kingdom for life. By 1906, his health was failing and Cervera was reassigned to manage the naval district of Ferrol before retiring the next year. He died on 3 April 1909.
Personal life
Admiral Cervera was married and had several children, but he lived his private life with a rigid schedule. One of his sons was also in the Spanish Navy and served with his father at Santiago.
Cervera also spoke fluent English.
Recognition
Admiral Cervera continued to be a popular figure in the years following his death, to the point that even the Spanish Navy acknowledged him as a symbol of patriotism by naming a light cruiser after him.
Awards
Order of Isabella the Catholic
Royal and Military Order of Saint Hermenegild
Naval Merit Grand Cross
Naval Merit Cross with white badge
Naval Merit Cross with red badge
Legion of Honor
Notes
Sources
Further reading
1839 births
1909 deaths
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
People from Medina-Sidonia
Recipients of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Recipients of the Royal and Military Order of Saint Hermenegild
Grand Crosses of Naval Merit
Spanish admirals
Spanish military personnel of the Spanish–American War
Spanish–American War prisoners of war held by the United States
Spanish prisoners of war | [
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255300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box%20kite | Box kite | A box kite is a high performance kite, noted for developing relatively high lift; it is a type within the family of cellular kites. The typical design has four parallel struts. The box is made rigid with diagonal crossed struts. There are two sails, or ribbons, whose width is about a quarter of the length of the box. The ribbons wrap around the ends of the box, leaving the ends and middle of the kite open. In flight, one strut is the bottom, and the bridle is tied between the top and bottom of this strut. The dihedrals of the sails help stability.
The box kite was invented in 1893 by Lawrence Hargrave, an English-born Australian, as part of his attempt to develop a manned flying machine. Hargrave linked several of his box kites (Hargrave cells) together, creating sufficient lift for him to fly some 16 ft (4.9 m) off the ground. A winged development of this kite is known as the Cody kite following its development by Samuel Franklin Cody. Military uses also involved a kite/radio transmitter combination issued to pilots during World War II for use in liferafts.
Large box kites are constructed as cellular kites. Rather than one box, there are many, each with its own set of sails.
Most of the altitude records for kite flying are held by large box kites, with Dacron sails, flown with Spectra cable. However in 2014 Robert Moore and a team of kite experts flew a 12 sq metre DT delta to 16,009 ft above their launch point. The location of the flights was near Cobar in Western NSW, Australia. While this was primarily a triangular winged delta kite, it has a triangular box centre cell for additional stability. Future attempts on either the single kite record or multiple kite record (trained), may use Hargrave box kites or a variant. Before Dacron, Spectra, and Kevlar were available, high performance box kites used oiled silk, linen or hemp sails, and were flown with steel cable. Silk, linen and hemp were used because they could be spun finer than cotton and stretched relatively little when wet. Steel had the highest available strength for its weight. After Hargrave invented the box kite, weather stations from around the world saw the potential for his design. Blue hill observatory and the German weather station at Lindenberg used kites routinely until weather balloons took over in the 1920s and 1930s.
See also
Kite
Kite types
References
External links
Cellular kites at the Virtual Kite Zoo
Australian inventions
Kites | [
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255304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd%20Rock%20from%20the%20Sun | 3rd Rock from the Sun | 3rd Rock from the Sun is an American sitcom television series created by Bonnie and Terry Turner, which originally aired from January 9, 1996, to May 22, 2001, on NBC. The show is about four extraterrestrials who are on an expedition to Earth, the third planet from the Sun, which they consider to be a very insignificant planet. The extraterrestrials pose as a human family to observe the behavior of human beings.
Overview
The premise of the show revolves around an extraterrestrial research expedition hailing from a planet in a barred spiral galaxy on the Cepheus-Draco border attempting to live as a normal human family in the fictional city of Rutherford, Ohio, said to be outside of Cleveland where they live in an attic apartment. The show's humor is principally derived from the aliens' attempts to study human society and understand the human condition, while living as humans on Earth, reflecting on human life from the perspective of aliens. Most of the episodes are named after the protagonist, Dick. In later episodes, they have become more accustomed to Earth and are often more interested in their human lives than in their mission.
The show also takes humor from its mirroring of all human anthropological expeditions and their assumptions of superiority to the "natives", as well as their inability to distinguish themselves from the natives. Dr. Mary Albright (Jane Curtin) is a professor of anthropology at fictional Pendelton State University, and many of the issues with which the four aliens struggle appear in her conversation and work. Furthermore, these four alien researchers end up looking more or less like joyriders as they get drawn further and further into human life.
Dick Solomon (John Lithgow), the High Commander and leader of the expedition, is the family provider and a physics professor at Pendelton (with Ian Lithgow, John Lithgow's eldest son, playing one of his less-successful students). Information officer and oldest member of the crew Tommy (Joseph Gordon-Levitt) has been given the body of a teenager and is forced to enroll in high school (later college), leaving security officer Sally (Kristen Johnston) and "the one with the transmitter in his head", Harry (French Stewart) to spend their lives as 20-somethings hanging out at home and bouncing through short-term jobs. The show also involves their relationships with humans, mostly their love interests.
The family often communicates through Harry with their off-world (and usually unseen) boss, the Big Giant Head, who when he finally visits Earth, is played by William Shatner. Harry unexpectedly (and often in inconvenient circumstances) stands up, his arms stiff (acting as the antenna), and proclaims: "Incoming message from the Big Giant Head!"
Cast
Main characters
John Lithgow as Dick Solomon
Kristen Johnston as Sally Solomon
French Stewart as Harry Solomon
Joseph Gordon-Levitt as Tommy Solomon
Jane Curtin as Mary Albright
Simbi Khali as Nina Campbell (seasons 3–6, recurring previously)
Elmarie Wendel as Mamie Dubcek (seasons 3–6, recurring previously)
Wayne Knight as Officer Don Orville (seasons 3–6, recurring previously)
Recurring characters
David DeLuise as Bug Pollone, one of Dick's students
Ian Lithgow as Leon, one of Dick's students
Danielle Nicolet as Caryn, one of Dick's students
Chris Hogan as Aubrey Pitman, one of Dick's students
Ileen Getz as Dr. Judith Draper, professor at Pendelton and colleague of Mary
Shay Astar as August Leffler, Tommy's first girlfriend (seasons 1–3, sparsely appears in seasons 3 and 4)
Larisa Oleynik as Alissa Strudwick, Tommy's second girlfriend (seasons 4–6)
Ron West as Dr. Vincent Strudwick, Alissa's father and rival to Dick (seasons 2–6)
William Shatner as The Big Giant Head, the aliens' boss
Jan Hooks as Vicki Dubcek, daughter of Ms. Dubcek, Harry's on-and-off girlfriend and later the wife of the Big Giant Head and the mother of his child
John Cleese as Dr. Liam Neesam, a professor who briefly has a relationship with Mary, and is later revealed to be an evil alien (seasons 3 and 6)
Chyna as Janice, a muscular female police officer who is briefly Harry's girlfriend
Michael Milhoan as Coach Strickland, a high school physical education teacher at Tommy's high school
Guest stars
Production
Theme music
The show's opening theme music was composed by Ben Vaughn, and for the first four seasons, it was originally a 1950s-style rock-and-roll instrumental piece; the theme was extended slightly in season three, when Simbi Khali, Elmarie Wendel, and Wayne Knight were officially made series regulars and added to the opening credits. During season one, James Earl Jones provided a voice introduction describing the crew. For Christmas episodes, jingle bells were added to the theme. The only major change to the theme was in season five, when the original Ben Vaughn version was replaced by a big band cover of the theme, performed by the group Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, and was only used during that season. For the sixth and final season, the original theme returned and a modern jazz underline version of the theme was used for two episodes.
Title sequence
The opening title sequence, which was produced by the London graphic design firm SVC Television, opens with computerized shots of planets and celestial bodies, some either with the planets dancing or moving in warp speed. It opens and closes with a shot of Earth (which at the open is where the show's title logo appears, after a sunburst appears on the side of Earth). For the sixth and final season only, the typeface of the cast and creators' names was altered.
Episodes
Of 139 episodes of the series, 108 contained "Dick" in the title (in reference to John Lithgow's character). While some of the episode titles with "Dick" in them are innocent (i.e., "Tom, Dick and Mary", "Dick Is From Mars, Sally Is From Venus"), others are more risqué and often are doubles entendres (i.e., "Sensitive Dick", "A Dick Replacement", "Frozen Dick", "Shall We Dick"), because the word "Dick" is both a short form of Richard and a slang term for penis. One episode from season six used an abbreviation for a title, "B.D.O.C.", since the full title ("Big Dick on Campus") was deemed too risqué.
During the show's sixth and final season, John Lithgow commented to several media outlets that 3rd Rock had been moved to more than 15 different time slots in six years, causing its ratings to decrease substantially.
Broadcast
Syndication
In the United States, the series is distributed for syndication by Carsey-Werner Distribution, and entered broadcast syndication in September 1999, where it continued until the fall of 2004, when the show moved into limited-run barter syndication, where it remained until 2016; The Program Exchange handled distribution for Carsey-Werner. ABC Family aired reruns between 2002 and 2006. Reruns of the series aired on TV Land from 2008 through 2010. In the fall of 2010, ReelzChannel began airing the series. The series made its debut on digital broadcast network Laff on July 16, 2018, until May 16, 2021, when it moved to IFC as well on Cozi TV beginning July 18.
This series rerun is now also aired on Malaysia's national broadcast TV channel RTM's TV2 in the 12:30 am time slot on Tuesday and Wednesday nights.
In the United Kingdom, the series originally aired on BBC Two from 1996 to 2002, and ITV2 later reran the entire series from 2005 to 2006. Cable network Virgin Media currently has 40 episodes from seasons one and two available on demand from the Comedy Central menu option. The series began airing from the beginning on Channel 4 from May 12, 2014, but moved to 5Star in January 2019 but was dropped in July 2020.
Beginning on the 29th of March 2021 the series began airing on Comedy Central.
In the fall of 2011, Canada's TVTropolis cable channel began airing the show, and featured a long weekend marathon run of episodes.
Streaming
Netflix made the complete series available online in March 2011. It was removed several months later in the fall of 2011, but returned on March 15, 2015, and was removed again exactly two years later. The series also was available to stream on Hulu.
In the UK, the first two seasons were available to download through the UK iTunes store but are no longer offered, and no episodes or seasons have been made available digitally in the region since.
As of 2021, the series is currently available to stream on Amazon Prime Video, FilmRise, Hoopla, Tubi, Pluto TV, Crackle, Vudu, IMDb TV and Peacock.
Home media
Region 1
Anchor Bay Entertainment released all six seasons of 3rd Rock from the Sun on DVD for the first time in 2005–2006. Seasons 1 & 2 contain the edited, syndicated versions of the episodes instead of the original broadcast versions. As of 2010, these releases have been discontinued and are out of print. On these DVDs, the bloopers segments (on the last disc of each season) are in 16:9 format, indicating the series may have been filmed in 16:9 format.
On May 4, 2011, Mill Creek Entertainment announced they had acquired the rights to re-release the series on DVD in Region 1. They have subsequently re-released seasons 1–4. These releases contain the unedited, original broadcast versions of the episodes.
Seasons 5 and 6 were re-released on January 8, 2013.
On May 14, 2013, Mill Creek released 3rd Rock from the Sun – The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.
Region 2
Network DVD released all six seasons on DVD in the UK. While seasons 1–4 feature unedited versions of the episodes, seasons five and six feature syndicated, edited episodes. Network re-released the series in 2008 in an individual set and a complete collection.
The Complete Season One (released May 17, 2004)
The Complete Season Two (released June 21, 2004)
The Complete Season Three (released August 30, 2004)
The Complete Season Four (released October 25, 2004)
The Complete Season Five (released January 24, 2005)
The Complete Season Six (released January 24, 2005)
The Complete Series (released October 25, 2004)
Series One (re-released November 3, 2008)
Series Two (re-released November 3, 2008)
Series Three (re-released November 3, 2008)
Series Four (re-released November 3, 2008)
Series Five (re-released November 3, 2008)
Series Six (re-released November 3, 2008)
The Complete Series (re-released November 3, 2008)
Region 4
Magna Home Entertainment released all six seasons on DVD in Australia between 2005 and 2007. These releases have been discontinued and are now out of print.
Season 1 and Season 2 (released November 11, 2005)
Season 3 (released February 7, 2006)
Season 4 (July 6, 2006)
Season 5 and Season 6 (released February 16, 2007)
On November 15, 2010, Beyond Home Entertainment re-released all six seasons on DVD in Region 4. The complete collection was also released three days later, on November 18.
Reception
Nielsen rankings
Awards and nominations
In 1997, 3rd Rock won the most Primetime Emmy Awards (five from eight nominations) for a television series:
1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 — Outstanding Lead Actor — Comedy Series — John Lithgow
1997, 1998, 1999 — Outstanding Supporting Actress — Comedy Series — Kristen Johnston
1996, 1997 — Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series — Pixie Schwartz
1996 — Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series — James Burrows
1998 — Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series — Terry Hughes
1997 — Outstanding Special Visual Effects — Glen Bennett, Visual Effects Artists; Patrick Shearn, Visual Effects Supervisor; Chris Staves, Visual Effects Artists
1997, 1999, 2000 — Outstanding Sound Mixing — Comedy Series
1998 — Outstanding Sound Mixing — Comedy Series — "A Nightmare on Dick Street"
1997, 1998 — Outstanding Costume Design — Series — Melina Root
1997, 1998 — Outstanding Comedy Series
1997 — Outstanding Choreography — Marguerite Derricks
1998 — Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series — Jan Hooks as Vicki Dubcek
1998 — Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series — John Cleese as Dr. Neesam
1999, 2000 — Outstanding Multicamera Picture Editing for a Series
1999 — Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series — Kathy Bates as Charlotte Everly and Laurie Metcalf as Jennifer
1999 — Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series — William Shatner as the Big Giant Head
2000 — Outstanding Cinematography for a Multicamera Series
John Lithgow received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for each year the show was broadcast, winning the Emmy in 1996, 1997, and 1999. Accepting the 1999 award, he said, "Many wonderful things have happened to me in my life, but the two best are 3rd Rock and my dear family."
Golden Globe Awards
1997 — Best Actor in a Television Comedy or Musical — John Lithgow
Screen Actors Guild Awards
1996, 1997 — Best Male Actor — Comedy Series — John Lithgow
Other media
A tie-in book, 3rd Rock from the Sun: The Official Report On Earth, was released in 1997. It is essentially a report of the Solomons' findings during their stay on Earth. Primarily a source of humor, the book includes such features as "What to do if you encounter Jell-O", a fan biography of Katie Couric written by Harry, and Sally's version of a Cosmo quiz. Portions of the book are included in the booklets inside each season set of the series.
Despite the report's being set within the fictional world of 3rd Rock, a foreword written by John Lithgow himself is included in which he explains how he was abducted by the 3rd Rock producers and forced to work on their production. A Post-it note is attached to the foreword, apparently written by Dick Solomon, stating he does not know why the foreword is there, but that Lithgow is an Earth actor who appeared in "some helicopter movie".
See also
ALF
Coneheads
Invader Zim
Mork & Mindy
My Favorite Martian
My Parents Are Aliens
The Neighbors
Ready Jet Go!
Solar Opposites
References
External links
3rd Rock from the Sun @ Carsey Werner
Carsey Werner - 3rd Rock from the Sun
1996 American television series debuts
1990s American college television series
1990s American comic science fiction television series
1990s American sitcoms
2000s American college television series
2000s American comic science fiction television series
2000s American sitcoms
2001 American television series endings
Best Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe winners
English-language television shows
NBC original programming
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
Super Bowl lead-out shows
Television series about alien visitations
Television series about extraterrestrial life
Television series by Carsey-Werner Productions
Television shows set in Ohio
Television series about families
Television series created by Bonnie and Terry Turner
Television series about educators
Works about higher education | [
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255307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fully%20Completely | Fully Completely | Fully Completely is the third studio album by Canadian rock band The Tragically Hip. The album was released in October 1992 and produced by Chris Tsangarides. The album produced six singles: "Locked in the Trunk of a Car", "Fifty Mission Cap", "Courage (For Hugh MacLennan)", "At the Hundredth Meridian", "Looking for a Place to Happen", and "Fully Completely".
Background
The Tragically Hip had released two full-length albums (Up To Here and Road Apples) before Fully Completely, working with producer Don Smith. While the albums had been successful in Canada, the Tragically Hip had not broken into the American market in a significant way. Hip guitarist Rob Baker later voiced the opinion that collaborating with the same producer on multiple projects (as the Hip had done with their first two albums) becomes troublesome because "little politics and intrigues enter into things". In late 1992, Producer Chris Tsangarides had just completed production on an album by Concrete Blonde, and was eager to work with the Tragically Hip. MCA, responsible for the financial success of the album, favored Tsangarides because of his proven ability to generate an American radio-friendly sound. During production of the second album, singer Gordon Downie had announced that he would no longer sing lyrics written by other members of the band. Fully Completely was the first album that would follow that decision by Downie.
Recording and production
Fully Completely was recorded under the supervision of producer Chris Tsangarides at Battery Studios in London, England. In contrast to the band’s first two albums, the production techniques did not try to mimic what the band was performing on stage. Each track was built instrument by instrument over the course of five weeks, with only three days dedicated to vocals. The band expected recording in London to be a "grand experience," but had a mixed experience upon arriving. Some band members found the nights and weekends outside the studio to be, "dull and isolating". The art budget for the album was $30,000, and the total budget for the album was an estimated $185,000. The band has described the making of the album as being "about us wanting to learn".
Album artwork
The cover art for Fully Completely was designed by Dutch artist Lieve Prins. Prins was given the idea of a "bacchanalian sort of scene – lots of decadence, decay and rebirth," by Hip guitarist Rob Baker, and was left to work with the idea. Prins also drew inspiration from I ching symbols and numbers. The final artwork was created using a Canon colour photocopier. The cover consists of 30 segmented photocopied images pasted together. The band was granted licensing privileges to the artwork, but Prins retained the ownership of the actual artwork. In the late 1990s, the Tragically Hip bought the piece from a gallery in Los Angeles. It now hangs prominently in their studio near Kingston, Ontario.
Themes
The lyrics on Fully Completely are heavily centred on Canadian icons and history. Writer Rob Mitchell has described the album as, "a trippy Canadiana dream/nightmare – like The Odessy [sic] directed by Atom Egoyan". The title of the first track on the album, "Courage (for Hugh MacLennan)" makes reference to Canadian author Hugh MacLennan, and was inspired by his novel "The Watch That Ends the Night". The second track, "Looking for a Place to Happen", deals with the subject of European encroachment and the eventual annexation of indigenous lands in North America, making specific reference to explorer Jacques Cartier. The third track, "At the Hundredth Meridian", references the line of longitude that separates much of Western Canada from the Central and Atlantic regions. The ninth track. "Fifty Mission Cap", references the life, career, and death of Toronto Maple Leafs player Bill Barilko, as well as fifty mission caps, which were provided to elite bomber pilots of the allied air forces during World War II.
Reception
Fully Completely was extremely well received in Canada. It had initial orders of 150,000 copies in Canada, and 200,000 in Canada by the end of three months. The Tragically Hip and their label, MCA, had high expectations for the U.S. release of Fully Completely. Gord Sinclair described in an interview that the band, "were still holding out for the equivalent American success". The success, however, did not happen. MCA stopped American promotion of Fully Completely after two weeks. Its success in Canada, however, was unquestionable. It reached on the RPM Top 100 albums chart. The album is listed at on The Top 100 Canadian Albums by Bob Mersereau and on The Top 102 Modern Rock Albums of All Time by 102.1 The Edge. The album was certified Diamond in Canada in January 2007 for sales of 1,000,000 copies. Despite the Tragically Hip's great domestic success, this was the only album of theirs to be released in Japan. It was released there on April 21, 1993, with the catalogue number of MVCM-360.
At the 2017 Polaris Music Prize, the album won the public vote for the Heritage Prize in the 1986-1995 category.
Tours
Rather than a normal tour, the Tragically Hip followed the release of Fully Completely with the organization of "Another Roadside Attraction", in 1993. Another Roadside Attraction was a traveling music and arts summer festival which promoted little known bands and traveled across Canada. In 2014 and 2015, the band held a 22nd anniversary tour in
which they played the album from beginning to end during each show.
Reissue
A remastered "deluxe edition" of the album was released in 2014. The reissue included two new tracks from the original recording sessions, as well as a second disc featuring a September 13, 1992 concert performance at the Horseshoe Tavern in Toronto. One of the new tracks, "Radio Show," was released as a single to promote the reissue and reached #29 on Canada's rock chart.
Track listing
Personnel
The Tragically Hip
Gord Downie – lead vocals
Paul Langlois – guitar, backing vocals
Bobby Baker – guitar
Johnny Fay – drums, percussion
Gord Sinclair – bass, backing vocals
Production
Chris Tsangarides – producer, engineering, mixing
Chris 'Wood' Marshall – assistant engineer
Ian Cooper – mastering
Charts
References
Works cited
1992 albums
The Tragically Hip albums
Albums produced by Chris Tsangarides
MCA Records albums | [
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255308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20SOS | Apple SOS | The Sophisticated Operating System, or SOS , is the primary operating system of the Apple III computer. SOS was developed by Apple Computer and released in October 1980.
In 1985, Steve Wozniak, while critical of the Apple III's hardware flaws, called SOS "the finest operating system on any microcomputer ever".
Technical details
SOS is a single-tasking single-user operating system. It makes the resources of the Apple III available in the form of a menu-driven utility program as well as a programming application programming interface (API). A single program is loaded at boot time, called the interpreter. Once loaded, the interpreter can then use the SOS API to make requests of the system. The SOS API is divided into four main areas:
File Calls: Create, destroy, rename, open, close, read, write files; set, get prefix (current working directory); set, get file information; get volume information; set, set mark, EOF, and level of files
Device Calls: Get status, device number, information of a device; send device control data
Memory Calls: Request, find, change, release memory segment; get segment information; set segment number
Utility Calls: Get, set fence (event threshold); get, set time; get analog (joystick) data; terminate.
The Apple III System Utilities program shipped with each Apple III computer. It provides the user interface of the operating system itself, for system configuration and file management. The System Utilities program is menu-driven and performs tasks in three categories:
Device-handling commands: copy, rename, format, verify volumes (drives); list devices; set time and date
File-handling commands: list, copy, delete, rename files; create subdirectories; set file write protection; set prefix (current working directory)
System Configuration Program (SCP): configure device drivers.
SOS has two types of devices it communicates with via device drivers: character devices and block devices. Examples of SOS character devices are keyboards and serial ports. Disk drives are typical block devices. Block devices can read or write one or more 512-byte blocks at a time; character devices can read or write single characters at a time.
Boot sequence
When powered on, the Apple III runs through system diagnostics, then reads block number zero from the built-in diskette drive into memory and executes it. SOS-formatted diskettes place a loader program in block zero. That loader program searches for, loads, and executes a file named SOS.KERNEL, which is the kernel and API of the operating system. The kernel, in turn, searches for and loads a file named SOS.INTERP (the interpreter, or program, to run) and SOS.DRIVER, the set of device drivers to use. Once all files are loaded, control is passed to the SOS.INTERP program.
Apple ProDOS uses the same file system as SOS. On a disk formatted by ProDOS, the ProDOS loader and SOS loader are written to blocks zero and one, respectively. The ProDOS loader includes code that can execute on an Apple III, and which will chainload the SOS loader from block one, so SOS and ProDOS can co-exist on the same volume. Some software, such as ADTPro, makes use of this to store Apple II and Apple III versions of a program on the same disk, which is then bootable on both systems.
References
External links
Washington Apple Pi – Apple /// Resources
The Apple /// FAQ File V5.1 – discusses Apple III and SOS history as well as basic information about the system
apple3.org - Apple /// Articles, Public Domain Software
Apple Inc. operating systems
Disk operating systems
Discontinued operating systems
1980 software | [
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255313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffir%E2%80%93Simpson%20scale | Saffir–Simpson scale | The Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS), formerly the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale (SSHS), classifies hurricanesWestern Hemisphere tropical cyclonesthat exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical stormsinto five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained winds.
To be classified as a hurricane, a tropical cyclone must have one-minute-average maximum sustained winds at 10 m above the surface of at least 74 mph (Category 1). The highest classification in the scale, Category 5, consists of storms with sustained winds of at least 157 mph. See the table to the right for all five categories with wind speeds in various units. The classifications can provide some indication of the potential damage and flooding a hurricane will cause upon landfall.
The Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale is based on the highest wind speed averaged over a one-minute interval 10 m above the surface. Although the scale shows wind speeds in continuous speed ranges, the National Hurricane Center and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center assign tropical cyclone intensities in 5-knot (kn) increments (e.g., 100, 105, 110, 115 kn, etc.) because of the inherent uncertainty in estimating the strength of tropical cyclones. Wind speeds in knots are then converted to other units and rounded to the nearest 5 mph or 5 km/h.
The Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale is used officially only to describe hurricanes that form in the Atlantic Ocean and northern Pacific Ocean east of the International Date Line. Other areas use different scales to label these storms, which are called cyclones or typhoons, depending on the area. These areas (except the JTWC) use three-minute or ten-minute averaged winds to determine the maximum sustained wind speed, creating an important difference which frustrates direct comparison between maximum wind speeds of storms measured using the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (usually 14% more intense) and those measured using a ten-minute interval (usually 12% less intense).
There is some criticism of the SSHWS for not accounting for rain, storm surge, and other important factors, but SSHWS defenders say that part of the goal of SSHWS is to be straightforward and simple to understand.
History
The scale was developed in 1971 by civil engineer Herbert Saffir and meteorologist Robert Simpson, who at the time was director of the U.S. National Hurricane Center (NHC). The scale was introduced to the general public in 1973, and saw widespread use after Neil Frank replaced Simpson at the helm of the NHC in 1974.
The initial scale was developed by Herbert Saffir, a structural engineer, who in 1969 went on commission for the United Nations to study low-cost housing in hurricane-prone areas. While conducting the study, Saffir realized there was no simple scale for describing the likely effects of a hurricane. Mirroring the utility of the Richter magnitude scale for describing earthquakes, he devised a 1–5 scale based on wind speed that showed expected damage to structures. Saffir gave the scale to the NHC, and Simpson added the effects of storm surge and flooding.
In 2009, the NHC made moves to eliminate pressure and storm surge ranges from the categories, transforming it into a pure wind scale, called the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (Experimental) [SSHWS]. The new scale became operational on May 15, 2010. The scale excludes flood ranges, storm surge estimations, rainfall, and location, which means a Category 2 hurricane that hits a major city will likely do far more cumulative damage than a Category 5 hurricane that hits a rural area. The agency cited various hurricanes as reasons for removing the "scientifically inaccurate" information, including Hurricane Katrina (2005) and Hurricane Ike (2008), which both had stronger than estimated storm surges, and Hurricane Charley (2004), which had weaker than estimated storm surge. Since being removed from the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, storm surge predicting and modeling is now handled with the use of computer numerical models such as ADCIRC and SLOSH.
In 2012, the NHC expanded the windspeed range for Category 4 by 1 mph in both directions, to 130–156 mph, with corresponding changes in the other units (113–136 kn, 209–251 km/h), instead of 131–155 mph (114–135 kn, 210–249 km/h). The NHC and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center assign tropical cyclone intensities in 5 knot increments, and then convert to mph and km/h with a similar rounding for other reports. So an intensity of 115 kn is rated Category 4, but the conversion to miles per hour (132.3 mph) would round down to 130 mph, making it appear to be a Category 3 storm. Likewise, an intensity of 135 kn (~155 mph, and thus Category 4) is 250.02 km/h, which, according to the definition used before the change would be Category 5. To resolve these issues, the NHC had been obliged to incorrectly report storms with wind speeds of 115 kn as 135 mph, and 135 kn as 245 km/h. The change in definition allows storms of 115 kn to be correctly rounded down to 130 mph, and storms of 135 kn to be correctly reported as 250 km/h, and still qualify as Category 4. Since the NHC had previously rounded incorrectly to keep storms in Category 4 in each unit of measure, the change does not affect the classification of storms from previous years. The new scale became operational on May 15, 2012.
Categories
The scale separates hurricanes into five different categories based on wind. The U.S. National Hurricane Center classifies hurricanes of Category 3 and above as major hurricanes, and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classifies typhoons of 150 mph or greater (strong Category 4 and Category 5) as super typhoons (although all tropical cyclones can be very dangerous). Most weather agencies use the definition for sustained winds recommended by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), which specifies measuring winds at a height of for 10 minutes, and then taking the average. By contrast, the U.S. National Weather Service, Central Pacific Hurricane Center and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center define sustained winds as average winds over a period of one minute, measured at the same height, and that is the definition used for this scale.
The scale is roughly logarithmic in wind speed.
The five categories are described in the following subsections, in order of increasing intensity. Intensity of example hurricanes is from both the time of landfall and the maximum intensity.
Category 1
Very dangerous winds will produce some damage
Category 1 storms usually cause no significant structural damage to most well-constructed permanent structures; however, they can topple unanchored mobile homes, as well as uproot or snap weak trees. Poorly attached roof shingles or tiles can blow off. Coastal flooding and pier damage are often associated with Category 1 storms. Power outages are typically widespread to extensive, sometimes lasting several days. Even though it is the least intense type of hurricane, they can still produce widespread damage and can be life-threatening storms.
Hurricanes that peaked at Category 1 intensity and made landfall at that intensity include: Agnes (1972), Juan (1985), Ismael (1995), Danny (1997), Stan (2005), Humberto (2007), Isaac (2012), Manuel (2013), Earl (2016), Hermine (2016), Nate (2017), Barry (2019), Lorena (2019), Hanna (2020), Isaias (2020), Nana (2020), Gamma (2020), Nora (2021), Nicholas (2021), and Pamela (2021).
Category 2
Extremely dangerous winds will cause extensive damage
Storms of Category 2 intensity often damage roofing material (sometimes exposing the roof) and inflict damage upon poorly constructed doors and windows. Poorly constructed signs and piers can receive considerable damage and many trees are uprooted or snapped. Mobile homes, whether anchored or not, are typically damaged and sometimes destroyed, and many manufactured homes also suffer structural damage. Small craft in unprotected anchorages may break their moorings. Extensive to near-total power outages and scattered loss of potable water are likely, possibly lasting many days.
Hurricanes that peaked at Category 2 intensity and made landfall at that intensity include: Alice (1954), Ella (1958), Fifi (1974), Diana (1990), Gert (1993), Rosa (1994), Erin (1995), Alma (1996), Juan (2003), Alex (2010), Richard (2010), Tomas (2010), Carlotta (2012), Ernesto (2012), Arthur (2014), Sally (2020), Olaf (2021), and Rick (2021).
Category 3
Devastating damage will occur
Tropical cyclones of Category 3 and higher are described as major hurricanes in the Atlantic or Eastern Pacific basins. These storms can cause some structural damage to small residences and utility buildings, particularly those of wood frame or manufactured materials with minor curtain wall failures. Buildings that lack a solid foundation, such as mobile homes, are usually destroyed, and gable-end roofs are peeled off. Manufactured homes usually sustain severe and irreparable damage. Flooding near the coast destroys smaller structures, while larger structures are struck by floating debris. A large number of trees are uprooted or snapped, isolating many areas. Additionally, terrain may be flooded well inland. Near-total to total power loss is likely for up to several weeks and water will likely also be lost or contaminated.
Hurricanes that peaked at Category 3 intensity and made landfall at that intensity include: Easy (1950), Carol (1954), Hilda (1955), Audrey (1957), Celia (1970), Eloise (1975), Olivia (1975), Alicia (1983), Elena (1985), Roxanne (1995), Fran (1996), Isidore (2002), Jeanne (2004), Lane (2006), Karl (2010), Otto (2016), Zeta (2020), and Grace (2021).
Category 4
Catastrophic damage will occur
Category 4 hurricanes tend to produce more extensive curtainwall failures, with some complete structural failure on small residences. Heavy, irreparable damage and near-complete destruction of gas station canopies and other wide span overhang type structures are common. Mobile and manufactured homes are often flattened. Most trees, except for the hardiest, are uprooted or snapped, isolating many areas. These storms cause extensive beach erosion, while terrain may be flooded far inland. Total and long-lived electrical and water losses are to be expected, possibly for many weeks.
The 1900 Galveston hurricane, the deadliest natural disaster to hit the United States, peaked at an intensity that corresponds to a modern-day Category 4 storm. Other examples of storms that peaked at Category 4 intensity and made landfall at that intensity include: Flora (1963), Betsy (1965), Carmen (1974), Frederic (1979), Joan (1988), Iniki (1992), Luis (1995), Iris (2001), Charley (2004), Dennis (2005), Gustav (2008), Ike (2008), Joaquin (2015), Harvey (2017), Laura (2020), Eta (2020), Iota (2020) and Ida (2021).
Category 5
Catastrophic damage will occur
Category 5 is the highest category of the Saffir–Simpson scale. These storms cause complete roof failure on many residences and industrial buildings, and some complete building failures with small utility buildings blown over or away. The collapse of many wide-span roofs and walls, especially those with no interior supports, is common. Very heavy and irreparable damage to many wood-frame structures and total destruction to mobile/manufactured homes is prevalent. Only a few types of structures are capable of surviving intact, and only if located at least inland. They include office, condominium and apartment buildings and hotels that are of solid concrete or steel frame construction, multi-story concrete parking garages, and residences that are made of either reinforced brick or concrete/cement block and have hipped roofs with slopes of no less than 35 degrees from horizontal and no overhangs of any kind, and if the windows are either made of hurricane-resistant safety glass or covered with shutters. Unless most of these requirements are met, the catastrophic destruction of a structure may occur.
The storm's flooding causes major damage to the lower floors of all structures near the shoreline, and many coastal structures can be completely flattened or washed away by the storm surge. Virtually all trees are uprooted or snapped and some may be debarked, isolating most affected communities. Massive evacuation of residential areas may be required if the hurricane threatens populated areas. Total and extremely long-lived power outages and water losses are to be expected, possibly for up to several months.
Historical examples of storms that made landfall at Category 5 status include: "Cuba" (1924), "Okeechobee" (1928), "Bahamas" (1932), "Cuba–Brownsville" (1933), "Labor Day" (1935), Janet (1955), Camille (1969), Edith (1971), Anita (1977), David (1979), Gilbert (1988), Andrew (1992), Dean (2007), Felix (2007), Irma (2017), Maria (2017), Michael (2018), and Dorian (2019). No Category 5 hurricane is known to have made landfall at that strength in the eastern Pacific basin.
Criticism
Some scientists, including Kerry Emanuel and Lakshmi Kantha, have criticized the scale as being simplistic, indicating that the scale takes into account neither the physical size of a storm nor the amount of precipitation it produces. Additionally, they and others point out that the Saffir–Simpson scale, unlike the Richter scale used to measure earthquakes, is not continuous, and is quantized into a small number of categories. Proposed replacement classifications include the Hurricane Intensity Index, which is based on the dynamic pressure caused by a storm's winds, and the Hurricane Hazard Index, which is based on surface wind speeds, the radius of maximum winds of the storm, and its translational velocity. Both of these scales are continuous, akin to the Richter scale; however, neither of these scales have been used by officials.
Proposed extensions
After the series of powerful storm systems of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season, as well as after Hurricane Patricia, a few newspaper columnists and scientists brought up the suggestion of introducing Category 6, and they have suggested pegging Category 6 to storms with winds greater than . Fresh calls were made for consideration of the issue after Hurricane Irma in 2017, which was the subject of a number of seemingly credible false news reports as a "Category 6" storm, partly in consequence of so many local politicians using the term. Only a few storms of this intensity have been recorded. Of the 37 hurricanes currently considered to have attained Category 5 status in the Atlantic, 18 had wind speeds at or greater and only eight had wind speeds at or greater (the 1935 Labor Day hurricane, Allen, Gilbert, Mitch, Rita, Wilma, Irma, and Dorian). Of the 18 hurricanes currently considered to have attained Category 5 status in the eastern Pacific, only five had wind speeds at or greater (Patsy, John, Linda, Rick, and Patricia), and only three had wind speeds at or greater (Linda, Rick, and Patricia). Most storms which would be eligible for this category were typhoons in the western Pacific, most notably typhoons Tip, Halong, and Surigae in 1979, 2019, and 2021, respectively, each with sustained winds of , and typhoons Haiyan, Meranti, and Goni in 2013, 2016 and 2020, respectively, each with sustained winds of . Occasionally, suggestions of using even higher wind speeds as the cutoff have been made. In a newspaper article published in November 2018, NOAA research scientist Jim Kossin said that the potential for more intense hurricanes was increasing as the climate warmed, and suggested that Category 6 would begin at , with a further hypothetical Category 7 beginning at .
According to Robert Simpson, there are no reasons for a Category 6 on the Saffir–Simpson Scale because it is designed to measure the potential damage of a hurricane to human-made structures. Simpson stated that "... when you get up into winds in excess of you have enough damage if that extreme wind sustains itself for as much as six seconds on a building it's going to cause rupturing damages that are serious no matter how well it's engineered." Nonetheless, the counties of Broward and Miami-Dade in Florida have building codes that require that critical infrastructure buildings be able to withstand Category 5 winds.
See also
Beaufort scaleRelates wind speed to observable conditions at sea and on land
Enhanced Fujita scale – For tornado intensity with damage correlated to wind speeds. The system was also intended for applicability in hurricanes, and is utilized by engineers in hurricane damage assessment.
Hurricane engineering
Hypercane
List of tropical cyclones
Rohn Emergency Scale for measuring the magnitude (intensity) of any emergency
References
External links
Hazard scales
Tropical cyclone meteorology
Wind
Atlantic hurricanes
Pacific hurricanes
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] |
255315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallout%20Boy | Fallout Boy | Fall Out Boy or Fallout Boy may refer to:
Fall Out Boy, a band from Illinois, United States
Fallout Boy (The Simpsons), a fictional character from The Simpsons and Bongo Comics
Vault-Tec's mascot, properly called "Vault Boy", from the Fallout media franchise
See also
Fall guy | [
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255317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Hurricane%20Center | National Hurricane Center | The National Hurricane Center (NHC) is the division of the United States' NOAA/National Weather Service responsible for tracking and predicting tropical weather systems between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific Ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic Ocean. The agency, which is co-located with the Miami branch of the National Weather Service, is situated on the campus of Florida International University in University Park, Florida.
The NHC's Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch (TAFB) routinely issues marine forecasts, in the form of graphics and high seas forecasts year round, with the Ocean Prediction Center having backup responsibility for this unit. The Technology and Science Branch (TSB) provides technical support for the center, which includes new infusions of technology from abroad. The Chief, Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination, All Hurricanes (CARCAH) unit tasks planes, for research and operational purposes, to tropical cyclones during the Atlantic hurricane season and significant weather events, including snow storms, during winter and spring. Research to improve operational forecasts is done through the Hurricane Forecast Improvement Project (HFIP) and Joint Hurricane Test Bed (JHT) initiatives.
During the Atlantic and northeast Pacific hurricane seasons, the Hurricane Specialists Unit (HSU) issues routine tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans. When tropical storm or hurricane conditions are expected within 48 hours, the center issues watches and warnings via the news media and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio.
Although the NHC is an agency of the United States, the World Meteorological Organization has designated it as the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the North Atlantic and eastern Pacific, making it the clearinghouse for tropical cyclone forecasts and observations occurring in these areas. If the NHC loses power or becomes incapacitated, the Central Pacific Hurricane Center backs tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific Ocean while the Weather Prediction Center backs up tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the North Atlantic Ocean.
History
Early history
The first hurricane warning service was set up in the 1870s from Cuba with the work of Father Benito Viñes. After his death, hurricane warning services were assumed by the United States Signal Corps and United States Weather Bureau over the next decade, first based in Jamaica in 1898 and Cuba in 1899 before shifting to Washington, D.C. in 1902.
The central office in Washington, which evolved into the National Meteorological Center and Weather Prediction Center (formerly known as the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center), assumed hurricane warning/advisory responsibility at that time. This responsibility passed to regional hurricane offices in 1935, and the concept of the Atlantic hurricane season was established to keep a vigilant lookout for tropical cyclones during certain times of the year. Hurricane advisories issued every six hours by the regional hurricane offices began at this time.
The Jacksonville hurricane warning office moved to Miami, Florida, in 1943. Tropical cyclone naming began for Atlantic tropical cyclones using the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet by 1947. In 1950, the Miami Hurricane Warning Office began to prepare the annual hurricane season summary articles. In the 1953 Atlantic season, the United States Weather Bureau began naming storms which reach tropical storm intensity with human names.
The National Hurricane Research Project, begun in the 1950s, used aircraft to study tropical cyclones and carry out experiments on mature hurricanes through its Project Stormfury. On July 1, 1956, a National Hurricane Information Center was established in Miami, Florida, which became a warehouse for all hurricane-related information from one United States Weather Bureau office. The Miami Hurricane Warning Office (HWO) moved from Lindsey Hopkins Hotel to the Aviation Building to the northwest on July 1, 1958. Forecasts within the hurricane advisories were issued one day into the future in 1954 before being extended to two days into the future in 1961, three days into the future in 1964, and five days into the future in 2001. The Miami HWO moved to the campus of the University of Miami in 1964, and was referred to as the NHC in 1965. The Miami HWO tropical cyclone reports were done regularly and took on their modern format in 1964.
As the National Hurricane Center
Beginning in 1973, the National Meteorological Center duties (renamed the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center; renamed for a second time in 2013) gained advisory responsibility for tracking and publicizing inland tropical depressions. The World Meteorological Organization assumed control of the Atlantic hurricane naming list in 1977. In 1978, the NHC's offices moved off the campus of the University of Miami across U.S. Highway 1 to the IRE Financial Building. Male names were added into the hurricane list beginning in the 1979 season. The hurricane warning offices remained active past 1983.
In 1984, the NHC was separated from the Miami Weather Service Forecast Office, which meant the meteorologist in charge at Miami was no longer in a supervisory position over the hurricane center director. By 1988, the NHC gained responsibility for eastern Pacific tropical cyclones as the former Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center in San Francisco was decommissioned. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew blew the WSR-57 weather radar and the anemometer off the roof of NHC's/the Miami State Weather Forecast offices. The radar was replaced with a WSR-88D NEXRAD system in April 1993 installed near Metro Zoo, near where Hurricane Andrew made landfall.
In 1995, the NHC moved into a new hurricane-resistant facility on the campus of Florida International University, capable of withstanding 130 mph (210 km/h) winds. Its name was changed to the Tropical Prediction Center in 1995. After the name change to TPC, the Hurricane Specialists were grouped as a separate NHC unit under the Tropical Prediction Center, separating themselves from the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch. On October 1, 2010, the Tropical Prediction Center was renamed the NHC, and the group formerly known as the NHC became known as the Hurricane Specialists Unit (HSU).
Tropical cyclone forecasting uses statistical methods based on tropical cyclone climatology, as well as methods of numerical weather prediction where computers use mathematical equations of motion to determine their movement. The World Meteorological Organization continues to create and maintain the annual hurricane naming lists. Naming lists use a six-year rotation, with the deadliest or most infamous storm names retired from the rotation. The current acting director of the National Hurricane Center is Edward Rappaport following the retirement of Richard Knabb on May 15, 2017. Rappaport was succeeded by Kenneth Graham on April 1, 2018.
Organization
For the fiscal year of 2008, the budget for the NHC was $6.8 million. The NHC staff has 66 members including 12 managers. The NHC is one of nine national centers which compose the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP).
Hurricane Specialists Unit
Known as the NHC from 1995 through 2010, the hurricane specialists within the hurricane specialists unit (HSU) are the chief meteorologists that predict the actions of tropical storms. The specialists work rotating eight-hour shifts from May through November, monitoring weather patterns in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific oceans. Whenever a tropical or subtropical cyclone forms, they issue advisories every six hours until the storm is over. Public advisories are issued more often when the storm expected to be of tropical storm or hurricane intensity threatens land. The specialists coordinate with officials in each country likely to be affected. They forecast and recommend watches and warnings.
During the hurricane season, the HSU routinely issues their Tropical Weather Outlook product, which identifies areas of concern within the tropics which could develop into tropical cyclones. If systems occur outside the defined hurricane season, the HSU issues special Tropical Weather Outlooks. Backup responsibility for their northeast Pacific area resides at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC), and vice versa if CPHC were to have communication issues. North Atlantic responsibilities are backed up by the Weather Prediction Center (WPC). Routine coordination occurs at 1700 UTC each day between the Weather Prediction Center and National Hurricane Center to identify systems for the pressure maps three to seven days into the future within the tropics, and points for existing tropical cyclones six to seven days into the future. Outside of the hurricane season, the specialists concentrate on public education efforts.
On April 30, 2020, senior hurricane specialist Lixion Avila retired after working at the NHC since 1987. On January 3, 2022, it was announced that senior hurricane specialist Stacy Stewart, who also served in the U.S. Navy reserves retired after working at the NHC since 1999, he retired due to surgeries and post-surgical effects after being injured in Iraq.
Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch
The Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch (TAFB, formerly the Tropical Satellite Analysis and Forecast unit and the Tropical Analysis Center) is a part of the National Hurricane Center and was created in 1967. The TAFB is responsible for high seas analyses and forecasts for tropical portions of the Atlantic and Pacific between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific Ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic Ocean. Unlike the Hurricane Specialists Unit (HSU), TAFB is staffed full-time around the year. Other responsibilities of the TAFB include satellite-derived tropical cyclone position and intensity estimates, WSR-88D radar fixes for tropical cyclones, tropical cyclone forecast support, media support, and general operational support. The Ocean Prediction Center backs up TAFB in the event of a communications outage, and vice versa.
Technology and Science Branch
The Technology & Science Branch (TSB) develops and transitions new tools and techniques into operations for tropical weather prediction in conjunction with other government and academic entities. TSB created and continues development of the Automated Tropical Cyclone Forecasting (ATCF) system, used to incorporate various data and model outputs, create and update HURDAT, and to generate tropical cyclone forecasts. The TSB provides support for NHC computer and communications systems including its website. TSB maintains a number of statistical and dynamical models used in predicting both tropical cyclone behavior and associated weather conditions. The Storm Surge Unit, which develops and maintains software to forecast the storm surge of tropical cyclones, is part of this branch. The Techniques Development and Applications Unit (TDAU) is part of TSB.
CARCAH
The Chief, Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination, All Hurricanes (CARCAH) is a subunit of the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron (Hurricane Hunters). CARCAH's mission is to provide a point-of-contact and to coordinate all tropical cyclone operational reconnaissance requirements at NHC and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center for the North Atlantic, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and the North Pacific basin east of the International Date Line in accordance with the National Hurricane Operations Plan (NHOP). During the winter, CARCAH coordinates the Atlantic and Pacific winter storm requirements in support of the National Winter Storms Operations Plan (NWSOP). Missions are flown in advance of the high-impact weather events forecast to affect the U.S., such as heavy snowfall, and at times when there is significant uncertainty within/between numerical weather prediction output.
HLT
The Hurricane Liaison Team (HLT) supports hurricane response through information exchange between the NHC, the National Weather Service (NOAA/NWS), and the emergency management community. The HLT is composed of federal, state, and local emergency managers, as well as NWS meteorologists and hydrologists, who maintain open lines of communication about the progress and threat level of the storm with appropriate Federal, state, and local officials. The team establishes and facilitates video and/or teleconferences with the NHC, FEMA and other Federal agencies, state Emergency Operations Centers (EOCs), Weather Prediction Center (WPC), Storm Prediction Center (SPC), and River Forecast Centers (RFCs). During significant landfalling hurricanes, the President of the United States as well as affected city mayors and state governors join the daily briefing call, which occurs at noon Eastern Daylight Time.
Research
As part of their annual tropical cyclone activity, the agency issues a tropical cyclone report on every tropical cyclone in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Ocean basins, which are available since 1958 and 1988, respectively. The report summarizes the synoptic history, meteorological statistics, casualties and damages, and the post-analysis best track of a storm. The reports were formally known as Preliminary Reports up until 1999. The agency maintains archives and climatological statistics on Atlantic and Pacific hurricane history, including annual reports on every tropical cyclone, a complete set of tropical cyclone advisories, digitized copies of related materials on older storms, season summaries published as the Monthly Weather Review, and HURDAT, which is the official tropical cyclone database.
Programs are dedicated to improving the accuracy of tropical cyclone forecasts from the center. The Joint Hurricane Testbed (JHT) is a joint operation between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and United States Weather Research Program to speed up the transfer of tropical cyclone-related research into forecast operations. Since 2001, with its annual budget of between $1.0 and $1.5 million, the JHT has funded 62 initiatives, with most of them being implemented operationally. The projects have had varied success, ranging from minor to significant advances in the way the NHC operates. The Hurricane Forecast Improvement Program's (HFIP) five-year goal is to lead to a 20 percent improvement within the numerical weather prediction models provided by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction to NHC by 2015 and a 50 percent improvement within tropical cyclone track forecasting and intensity guidance by 2020.
See also
Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)
Canadian Hurricane Centre
Central Pacific Hurricane Center
India Meteorological Department
Japan Meteorological Agency
Joint Typhoon Warning Center
Fiji Meteorological Service
Réunion Meteorological Centre (CMRS Saint-Denis) (La Réunion) in French ()
Meteorological Service of New Zealand Limited
Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre (TCWC Jakarta) (Indonesia) ()
Notes
References
External links
National Hurricane
Florida International University
National Centers for Environmental Prediction
National Weather Service
National Hurricane
Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres
Tropical cyclone meteorology
1965 establishments in Florida
Government agencies established in 1965
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255318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day%20for%20Night%20%28The%20Tragically%20Hip%20album%29 | Day for Night (The Tragically Hip album) | Day for Night is the fourth studio album by the Canadian rock band The Tragically Hip. It is named for the film of the same name.
Commercial performance
The album was very successful in Canada, with domestic sales of 300,000 units within four days of its release. It was the band's first album to debut at #1 on the Canadian Albums Chart. The album has been certified 6x platinum in Canada. Promotional tours for the album included stints touring with The Rolling Stones and Page and Plant. In the Netherlands, Day for Night peaked at #70.
Saturday Night Live
The band appeared on Saturday Night Live in 1995, thanks in large part to the finagling of fellow Canadian and Kingston-area resident Dan Aykroyd. A fan of the band, Aykroyd appeared on the show just to introduce them, despite John Goodman being the host of the episode. The band performed two songs from Day for Night, "Grace, Too" and "Nautical Disaster".
Critical reception
In Have Not Been the Same, the authors note that "the initial response was mixed" due to the "darkness" of the album and its stemming "from the unconscious.". Although AllMusic.com's rating is a lukewarm 3 out of 5, the review calls the album's "signature lyrical mysteries... lush, but much more dark-spirited" than previous albums. "Day for Night stands on the minimalism of Downie's poignancy -- nothing is overproduced and the songs themselves are left alone to arrive on their own." In Chart, Jason Schneider wrote that this was the album that made The Tragically Hip more than "just a rock 'n' roll band... miraculously, the vast distances they had been absorbing for the previous five years merged with the equally limitless vistas of Gord Downie's imagination via a Daniel Lanois-inspired sonic canvas. Day For Night got inside the Canadian psyche in a terrifying way that simple nationalistic tall tales never could. The songs remain gloriously impenetrable, but their landscapes feel like home."
In ChartAttack's three Top 50 Canadian Albums of All Time polls, the album placed #37 in 1996, #13 in 2000 and #21 in 2005.
Track listing
All songs were written by The Tragically Hip.
Personnel
Greg Calbi – Mastering
Jim Herrington – Photography
Mark Howard – Producer, Engineer, Mixing
Andrew McLachlan – Design
Andrew Simon – Drawing
Mark Vreeken – Producer, Engineer, Mixing
References
Links
Official website
1994 albums
The Tragically Hip albums
MCA Records albums | [
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255336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheez%20TV | Cheez TV | Cheez TV was an Australian children's cartoon show, hosted by Ryan Lappin and Jade Gatt, as well as interpreter Karin O’Reilly, that aired on weekday mornings on Network Ten. It began broadcasting on 17 July 1995 and it ended on 31 December 2004 with the presenters leaving. After eight months of being without presenters, it officially ended on 20 August 2005, and was replaced with Toasted TV.
In January 2016, Lappin and Gatt launched the official Cheez TV Facebook page with the help of friend and podcaster Brendan Dando. The page features full episodes of the show from its original run, behind the scenes photos and competitions.
Cheez TV was the first show in Australia to have an internet address in 1995.
History
Initially competing against Agro's Cartoon Connection on the Seven Network, the younger youth hosts, 'edgier' feel, and larger focus on showing cartoons allowed Ten to take the early morning children's TV crown off Seven.
During the show's run, Ryan Lappin was once nominated for Cleo Magazine's Bachelor of the Year only to lose to Australian swimmer Geoff Huegill. Jade Gatt also hosted late night music show Ground Zero.
During the later years of the show, Lappin and Gatt's editorials were quickly becoming notorious for their use of more adult-oriented humour.
On 20 August 2005, the last episode of Cheez TV was broadcast after 10 years on the air, although Lappin and Gatt's final on-air appearance took place on 31 December 2004. In 2005, only cartoons showed during Cheez TV. It was later replaced with Toasted TV in the same time slot, which continues to screen series such as Naruto, One Piece and Winx Club.
In 2010, a Facebook event scheduled for 7 October 2010 appeared, attempting to gain interest in a Cheez TV reunion show. It quickly attracted the attention of Cheez TV fans. Jade and Ryan both had an interview with the E Team from U20 Radio Station which aired on 7 August 2010, where they briefly spoke to Peter Styles about the Facebook group and the show. However, after the group sent hundreds of petitioned emails to the networks, third parties made complaints which led to Facebook closing the group. It is unknown whether any consideration has been taken in relation to a Cheez TV reunion by any network contacted.
On 28 June 2011, the Adelaide Anime and Videogame Convention AVCon announced Cheez TV presenters Ryan Lappin and Jade Gatt as special guests. The pair appeared in multiple guest panels throughout the weekend.
On 22 January 2016, Ryan and Jade launched the official Cheez TV Facebook page with the help of friend and podcaster Brendan Dando, co-host of the Simpsons podcast 'Four Finger Discount', after Lappin discovered all of the tapes containing the episodes in his garage. The page features old episodes of the show as well as some new programming from Lappin and Gatt.
On 30 July 2017, Ryan and Jade started doing livestreams on Twitch, performing an impromptu version of the show.
Programming
Cheez TV had programming from a variety of different studios. Many of its shows were sourced from Saban Entertainment, before the company folded in the early 2000s. The two presenters, Jade Gatt and Ryan Lappin, editorialised and presented small variety segments in between cartoons. These short segments included parodies of Rove Live, Gardening Australia, Men in Black and numerous music video re-enactments. On occasion the hosts would interview special guests as well. For a period on The Big Cheez Gatt and Lappin were joined by another presenter, Lenka Kripac (member of Australian band Decoder Ring).
Cheez TV also aired during Saturday morning under the moniker of The Big Cheez.
Former shows
The following is an incomplete list of series which were shown on Cheez TV in the past.
Action Man (1995)
Action Man (2000)
The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius
The Adventures of Sam and Max: Freelance Police
Avenger Penguins
Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog
The Adventures of T-Rex
The Avengers: United They Stand
Back to the Future
Bad Dog
Beethoven
Beverly Hills Teens
Beyblade
Beyblade G-Revolution
Beyblade V-Force
Big Bad Beetleborgs
Biker Mice from Mars
Bruno the Kid
Bureau of Alien Detectors
Butt-Ugly Martians
Bucky O'Hare and the Toad Wars
C.O.P.S.
Captain Simian and the Space Monkeys
Cardcaptors
Conan the Adventurer
Count Duckula
Crush Gear Turbo
Danger Mouse
Dennis and Gnasher
Dog City
Digimon Adventure
Digimon Adventure 02
Digimon Frontier
Digimon Tamers
Dragon Ball GT
Dragon Ball Z
Dragon Flyz
Duel Masters
Dungeons & Dragons
Eagle Riders
Earthworm Jim
Eek! The Cat
Extreme Dinosaurs
Extreme Ghostbusters
Fievel's American Tails
Fighting Foodons
Gadget & the Gadgetinis
Gadget Boy & Heather
Garfield and Friends
Godzilla: The Series
Gravedale High
Hamtaro
He-Man and the Masters of the Universe (1983)
He-Man and the Masters of the Universe (2002)
Hot Rod Dogs And Cool Car Cats
Hot Wheels: AcceleRacers – Ignition
Hot Wheels: AcceleRacers – The Speed of Silence
Hulk Hogan's Rock 'n' Wrestling
Hurricanes (1993)
The Incredible Hulk (1982 series)
Inspector Gadget
Iznogoud
Jackie Chan Adventures
Jayce and the Wheeled Warriors
Jumanji
The Kids from Room 402
The Littles
The Marvel Action Hour
M.A.S.K.
Medabots
MegaMan NT Warrior
Men in Black: The Series
Mighty Max
The New Archies
The New Woody Woodpecker Show
One Piece
Phantom Investigators
Pokémon (Season 1-7)
Pokémon: Indigo League
Pokémon: Adventures on the Orange Islands
Pokémon: The Johto Journeys
Pokémon: Johto League Champions
Pokémon: Master Quest
Pokémon: Advanced
Pokémon: Advanced Challenge
Project G.e.e.K.e.R.
Red Planet
RoboRoach
Rocket Power
Rude Dog
Rugrats
Saber Rider And The Star Sheriffs
Sailor Moon
The Savage Dragon
The Secret Files of the Spy Dogs
Silver Surfer
Sky Dancers
Sonic X (Series 1)
Sooty's Amazing Adventures
Spider-Man (1967)
Spider-Man: The Animated Series
Spider-Man: The New Animated Series
Spider-Man Unlimited
SpongeBob SquarePants
The Spooktacular New Adventures of Casper
Stuart Little: The Animated Series
Star Wars: Clone Wars (2003)
Street Sharks
Superior Defender Gundam Force (Series 1)
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2003)
Teknoman
Tenko and the Guardians of the Magic
The Adventures of the Galaxy Rangers
The Tick
Thundercats
Totally Spies!
Transformers
Transformers: Armada
Transformers: Energon
Transformers: Robots in Disguise (2001)
Walter Melon (TV series)
WildC.A.T.S.
Willow Town
Wing Commander Academy
Winx Club
X-Men: The Animated Series
Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters
Zoids: Chaotic Century
Zoids: Fuzors
Zoids: New Century
See also
List of Australian television series
Toasted TV
References
External links
Cartoon schedule 2001 to 2005
Cheez TV Official Facebook Page
Network 10 original programming
Australian children's television series
1995 Australian television series debuts
2005 Australian television series endings
Television shows set in Sydney
English-language television shows | [
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255338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anerood%20Jugnauth | Anerood Jugnauth | Sir Anerood Jugnauth, GCSK, PV, (29 March 1930 – 3 June 2021) was a Mauritian politician and barrister who served both as President and Prime Minister of Mauritius. He was Member of Parliament for Piton & Riviere Du Rempart.
A central figure of Mauritian politics in the 1980s and 1990s, he was Leader of the Opposition from 1976 to 1982. He served as Prime Minister from 1982 to 1995 and again from 2000 to 2003. He was then elected as President of Mauritius and served as such from 2003 to 2012. Following his party's victory in the 2014 general elections, he was appointed again to serve his sixth term as Prime Minister by President Kailash Purryag on 14 December 2014.
He served four consecutive terms as Prime Minister from 1982 to 1995 and was then voted out of office from 1995 to 2000. He is the longest serving prime minister with more than 18 years of tenure thus overtaking Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, who held the office for 14 years. As leader of the Militant Socialist Movement, he became Prime Minister again, for a fifth term, after the 2000 election. Often nicknamed Rambo (a film character known to be unbeatable), he maintained a historical political career as, under his leadership, his party/alliances won 5 general parliamentary elections in a row, those in 1976, 1982, 1983, 1987, and 1991. He then led the MMM in its first electoral campaign and was presented as Prime Minister in 1976. The MMM won but could not govern due to a hung parliament and Jugnauth became Leader of the Opposition up to 1982 where the MMM-PSM alliance won all the seats. He became Prime Minister up to 1995. He was appointed again as Prime Minister in 2000 and finally as President in 2003.
He was a cabinet minister during the leadership of Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam from 1965 up to 1969. In 1970, he moved out and went to the newly created political party of the Mauritian Militant Movement, where he eventually became its leader in 1982. He created his own political party called Militant Socialist Movement in 1983 and was once more elected. His party remained in power up to 1995.
He founded the Militant Socialist Movement party in 1983. He was honoured with Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Awards for his continued support for India's causes and concerns and for strengthening India's relationship with Mauritius. Following his tenure as President, Jugnauth led an alliance known as "L'Alliance LEPEP" which won the 2014 general elections. He resigned in January 2017 and was succeeded by his son Pravind Jugnauth as Prime Minister.
He was made Queen's Counsel in 1980 and was made a member of the Privy Council in 1983. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1988 when Mauritius was still one of the Queen's realms and Queen Elizabeth II was Queen of Mauritius.
Early career and education
Jugnauth was born in Palma in a Hindu Ahir family and was brought up there. His grandfather had migrated to Mauritius from the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the 1870s. He had his primary education at Palma Primary School and his secondary education at Regent College. He taught for some time at New Eton College and later worked as a clerk in the Poor Law Department for some time before being transferred to the Judicial Department. In 1951, he left Mauritius for the UK to study law at the Lincoln's Inn, and became a lawyer in 1954.
Councillor
In 1957, Jugnauth was elected President of Palma Village Council. Whilst serving as an IFB member of Legislative Council he was also elected as member of the Municipal Council of Vacoas-Phoenix.
1963 elections
Jugnauth was elected for the first time to the Legislative Council in Constituency No. 14 of Riviere du Rempart at a time when there were 40 Constituencies in the island in October 1963 and was candidate of the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB).
In 1964, he was one of the founders of All Mauritius Hindu Congress but continued to serve in Seewoosagur Ramgoolam's government as State Minister for Development from 1965 to 1966. He was then promoted to Minister of Labour in November 1966. He took part in the London Constitutional Conference on Mauritius, also commonly known as the 1965 Lancaster Conference. He resigned from office in April 1967, joined the Civil Service as Magistrate, and did not take part in the August 1967 General Elections. In 1970 he joined the MMM and became the party's president.
1976 elections
The main contenders of the 1976 elections were the Independence Party (alliance of Mauritian Labor Party and the CAM), PMSD, UDM, IFB and the relatively new MMM led by Paul Bérenger and Jugnauth himself. Despite receiving most of the votes (38.64%) the MMM only secured 34 seats, two short of an absolute majority. The Independence Party scored 37.90% of votes and 28 seats, whilst the PMSD received 16.20% of the votes and 8 seats. By re-establishing its former alliance, which it had since 1969 with the PMSD, Ramgoolam managed to stay in power. The Labour-PMSD-CAM alliance occupied 36 seats with a weak majority of only 2 seats, despite CAM's leader Sir Abdool Razack Mohamed's failure to be re-elected. Jugnauth thus served as Leader of the Opposition until the following general elections in 1982.
1982-1995 Prime minister tenure
From 1976 to 1982, the MLP had been weakened by the defection of part of its coalition partner, the PMSD, while the CAM declined to contest the election. The MMM had formed an alliance with Harish Boodhoo's Parti Socialiste Mauricien known as PSM. The election resulted in a landslide victory for the MMM-PSM alliance (formed by Jugnauth and Berenger in early 1981), which won 64.16% of the vote and all 60 elected seats (42 by the MMM, 18 by the PSM, and two for the allied Organisation du Peuple Rodriguais) (for more detail see 1982 Legislative Assembly election results). Voter turn-out was 87.3%, with 471,196 out of an electorate of 540,000 casting their votes for the 34 parties contesting 62 seats. The LP, which had dominated Mauritian politics since 1948, won no seats and (together with the Muslim Action Committee) only 25.78% of the vote. The PMSD did even worse, receiving only 7.79% of the vote. The LP and the PMSD each did eventually receive two seats in parliament under the best-loser provisions.
Jugnauth became Prime Minister for the first time, Boodhoo Deputy Prime Minister, and Paul Bérenger Minister of Finance. Jugnauth being Prime Minister announced general elections in 1983 again. This time he was not a candidate for the MMM but he proposed to Boodhoo dissolving the PSM to make a new stronger Party called the MSM (Militant Socialist Movement). He created the MSM and in Alliance with the Mauritian Labour Party went to the general elections together trying to fight against Berenger and his MMM. In March 1983, the government collapsed when the dominant faction within the MMM [Mouvement Militant Mauricien], led by Bérenger, split from Jugnauth's leadership and resigned from the cabinet.
In early April 1983, Jugnauth formed a new party, the Mouvement Socialiste Militant (MSM), which, in May, amalgamated with the PSM led by Harish Boodhoo. However, the new government lacked a majority in the legislative assembly, and Jugnauth dissolved the assembly in June. New elections were held on 23 August 1983. Jugnauth was re-elected and returned as prime minister of the MSM-PMSD-Labour alliance, defeating the MMM.
The MMM received 209,845 votes (46.4%) – the highest proportion of the vote ever received by a single party in any Mauritian election. The Alliance received 236,146 votes (52.22%); independents and the Rodrigues parties got the remaining 1.38% and two seats. Of the 552,800 registered voters, 452,221 (81.8%) had voted. When seats were distributed, however, the Alliance held a majority – 46 to the 22 received by the MMM. The disproportionate weighting of seats reflects the fact that MMM votes were concentrated in urban constituencies where large numerical majorities won only three seats, whereas the Alliance swept the rural constituencies where Hindus predominated.
Within months of taking office, the Alliance began a process of fragmentation that by 1986 left the government without a working majority in parliament. When in February 1984, the MLP (Mauritius Labour Party) left the government, 11 of its MPs continued to support the government and formed a faction within the MLP called the Rassemblement des Travaillistes Mauriciens (RTM). Upon proroguing parliament in November 1986, Jugnauth agreed that an election was necessary.
Parliament was dissolved on 3 July, and the election date set for 30 August 1987, one year ahead of schedule. Campaigning started on 22 July 1987. Jugnauth's Alliance fought the election with his MSM (Militant Socialist Movement), Duval's MPSD (Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate), and both major factions of the MLP, the one led by Satcam Boolell and the RTM. The MMM allied itself with two small parties, the Mouvement Travailliste Démocrat (RTD) and the Front des Travailleurs Socialiste (FTS). A total of 639,488 voters were registered (approximately 60% of the total population) and of these, 546,623 (85.5%) cast their votes. A total of 359 candidates ran for the 62 elected seats. During the election campaign, the ruling MSM/MLP/PMSD alliance was known as the Sun (Soleil) and the opposing union (composed of MMM/MTD/FTS) as the Heart (Coeur) after their respective emblems.
While overall participation of voters in the polling amounted to 85.5%, it ran up to 93% in some constituencies. The average size of the multimember constituencies was around 30,000. As in previous elections, the MMM and its partners received the highest percentage of votes, 48.12%, of which a small percentage can be attributed to its two small partners (see 1987 Legislative Assembly election results for more detail). It won 21 seats, comprising 19 of the 30 urban seats, and only two of the 30 rural seats. The Alliance (MSM/PMSD/MLP) won a total of 49.86% and 39 seats. After the best-loser seats were allocated, the Alliance held 46 seats to the MMM's 24. The two seats of the Organisation du Peuple Rodriguais helped to raise those of the Alliance to 46.
The MSM had drawn its main support from the Hindu community (52% of the total population), particularly from the numerically dominant Vaishya caste, which included Jugnauth among its members. The MSM was also favoured by the economically dominant Chinese and Franco-Mauritian communities. The MMM's support was concentrated in the Muslim Indian community (17% of the total population), in sections of the Creole community (27%) and in the lower Hindu castes, particularly those of southern Mauritius disaffected with Vaishya dominance in the north. Of the smaller ruling parties, the MLP also represented higher-caste Hindus, while the PMSD was strong in the Creole community. Jugnauth was once more elected with a majority in the Parliament and was once more elected as Prime Minister and took office for his 3rd term.
On 6 August 1991, Jugnauth dissolved the national assembly and announced that a general election would be held on 15 September, nearly a year early. Jugnauth led an alliance of his MSM (Militant Socialist Movement) with the MMM (Mauritian Militant Movement) and the RTD (Rassemblement des Travaillistes Mauriciens) against an alliance of the MLP (Mauritius Labour Party) and the PMSD (Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate). The MSM/MMM/RTD alliance was better prepared than the opposition. Before the election date had been announced, it had already drawn up its list of candidates for the 20 constituencies and published its election manifesto. The opposition lost valuable time with lengthy negotiations concerning candidates and manifesto. Some 25 parties and independents and 331 candidates were involved. According to official figures, 682,000 voters (about 63% of the total population of 1,083,000) were entitled to vote, and of these about 576,300 (84.5%) turned out. The government alliance's 56.3% of the vote gave it 57 seats in parliament, while the opposition's 39.9% of the vote gave it only three seats. Only four best-loser seats were allocated. Jugnauth once more ruled in Parliament House for a fourth term, and was once more elected prime minister.
1995 and onwards
When Jugnauth lost a vote of confidence over a language issue that required an amendment to the constitution, he dissolved parliament on 16 November 1995 and called a snap election for 20 December. Candidates had to be nominated by 4 December, and the campaign was officially opened on 5 December. A record 506 candidates entered the fray in which some 42 parties and independents participated. A landslide victory for the opposition ended Jugnauth's rule as prime minister which had lasted since 1982. The Labour Party-Mauritian Militant Movement (MMM) alliance captured all 60 of the directly elected seats on the island of Mauritius with only 63.7% of the poll, representing a mere 51.1% of the total electorate. The two seats on the island of Rodrigues went to l'Organisation du Peuple de Rodrigues (OPR). The MSM-RMM alliance obtained 19.3% of the votes cast or the support of 15.4% of the total electorate, but even under the best-loser system it found itself without a single seat in the National Assembly. (Renouveau Militant Mauricien (RMM) was the name adopted by a substantial part of the MMM led by Dr. Prem Nababsing (after Bérenger had broken away from it in 1993 and retained the right to the name of MMM).
Only four best-loser seats were allocated and went to small parties with little national influence – two to the Mouvement Rodriguais in Rodrigues island and the other two respectively to the Hizbullah Party and the Parti Gaëtan Duval (PGD, formerly the PMSD). Jugnauth stood as a candidate at the by-election held in constituency No. 9 (Flacq/Bon Acceuil) in April 1998 but was defeated. He immediately initiated the idea of an MSM/MMM federation which eventually took shape in January 1999. The Federation was dissolved, however, after the defeat of its candidate at the by-election held on 19 September 1999.
Jugnauth founded the MSM/MMM Alliance with Bérenger, leader of the MMM, on 14 August 2000, based on equal sharing of power. At the general elections held on 11 September 2000, he was elected as first member of constituency No 7 (Piton/Rivière du Rempart) and was appointed Prime Minister.
2000 tenure as Prime minister
The outgoing prime minister, Navin Ramgoolam of the Mauritian Labor Party led a coalition with Xavier Luc Duval, the leader of the Parti Mauricien Xavier Duval (PMXD). Duval was Minister of Finance in the previous government alliance formed in mid-1999. The other alliance was formed (for the fourth time) between Jugnauth (MSM) and Bérenger (MMM).
On 15 August 2000, the leaders of these two parties as well several other leaders from much smaller parties signed what they termed a 'historical electoral accord', which included a proposed sharing of the prime ministerial post between MSM leader Jugnauth and MMM leader Bérenger. Under this arrangement, Jugnauth would hold the post of prime minister for the first three years and Bérenger for the remaining two years. After surrendering the premiership to Bérenger, Jugnauth would be called to assume the function of President of the Republic after reforms to strengthen the presidency, which was largely a symbolic post. The accord also provided for a reform of the electoral system to replace the "best losers system" gradually by proportional representation, and to end the Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation's monopoly over the electronic media.
In addition to sharing the post of prime minister, what made the MSM/MMM electoral accord exceptional was the fact that it would allow, for the first time in the history of the island, a non-Hindu Mauritian to become the prime minister. The elections took place on 11 September 2000 with a total of 80.87% of registered voters casting their ballots. The MSM/MMM alliance won 54 of the directly elected seats.
Jugnauth agreed to step down and become president as from 2003. Former president Karl Offmann was also involved. He was put into the office of the president on the condition that he would remain president only for 19 months. Jugnauth became president under the transition with the so-called "sudden" resignation of President Offmann.
Jugnauth resigned as prime minister on 30 September 2003 at 13:30 and also as member of parliament at 15:00, giving his resignation letter to Speaker of the House on the same day. He announced his departure in a 20-minute speech given to the members of parliament stating that he was leaving the office to make room for a new prime minister.
He was sworn into the presidency on 7 October 2003 following the resignation of President Karl Offmann.
Presidential mandates
Jugnauth, along with Lady Jugnauth, took over the keys of the Chateau of Reduit on 7 October 2003. His election to the presidency was largely approved by the entire population as it was considered to be the new era of Mauritian politics, allowing Paul Berenger to become prime minister who was the first person of a non-Hindu religion to become head of government.
In 2003, he handed the leadership of his party to his son Pravind Jugnauth. He announced that he had "reached the end of this road". During his first mandate, due to the constitution, he had to announce general elections, which eventually took place in July 2005.
Due to the end of the mandate of Jugnauth, two persons, Vice President (Angidi Chettiar) and himself were the two persons nominated to the Presidency. He was voted for by both governing members of parliament as well as opposition MPs. Jugnauth was elected to the ceremonial post of President in 2003. After five years in office, he was re-elected by the National Assembly in a unanimous vote on 19 September 2008, supported by both the government and the opposition.
2008–2014
Parliament voted for Jugnauth to remain as President for a second term in 2008. Shortly after, during the by-election of 2008 in constituency No 8, the Militant Socialist Movement won with the support of the Labour Party and Pravind Jugnauth returned as MP for that constituency.
In 2010, two days after his 80th birthday, the Labour-MSM-PMSD alliance was made and Navin Ramgoolam dissolved the parliament in respect of general elections. The alliance won the election and the MSM returned 13 MPs. However, in August 2011, the alliance broke and the MSM left the government leaving a very small majority for the Prime Minister. After having a private meeting with Berenger, the leader of the opposition, Jugnauth made a statement that he might resign as president if the situation got any worse concerning the Medpoint scandal which involved his son, Pravind, and who was summoned and arrested by the Independent Commission Against Corruption on conflict of interest. Eventually he resigned as president on 30 March 2012. He mentioned that he did not support government policies, many thought his disagreement stemmed from the fact that the government refused to help his son, accused of corruption, escape from the law. He stated that he resigned because of his disagreement with the members of the government.
Soon after his resignation from the Presidency in 2012, Berenger proposed a 'remake' of the MSM/MMM coalition, which was approved by both parties' structures (political bureaus and central committees). Jugnauth became leader of the alliance with the same conditions. He would hold office of Prime Minister for three years before resigning to make way for Berenger. Following internal crisis between both parties in 2013 and early 2014, Berenger announced two 'cooling off' periods to allow time to resolve these issues. Berenger announced the end of the MSM/MMM in April 2014. He was criticized as he had (on the eve) attended Jugnauth's birthday party and gave a very flattering speech on his political career. After the party, he went in the same night to meet Ramgoolam at a nearby restaurant to discuss a forthcoming alliance. He further announced an alliance between his MMM and Ramgoolam's Labour Party.
General elections (2014)
In April 2014, Paul Berenger announced the dissolution of the coalition due to major disagreement within both parties. Later Berenger announced a coalition between the Labour Party and the Mauritian Militant Movement. Jugnauth then led a coalition composed of the Militant Socialist Movement, PMSD and the ML which is a break-away group of individuals who resigned from the MMM due to the coalition with the Labour Party. Jugnauth's alliance known as "L'Alliance LEPEP" won the 2014 general elections. When Ramgoolam dissolved parliament in end of November 2014, Jugnauth and the MSM conducted an alliance with the PMSD and Mouvement Liberateur (a dissident MMM party led by its former Deputy Leader, Ivan Collendaveloo). His alliance won 47 out of the 60 seats contested. Jugnauth became prime minister for the sixth time and made history as he led an alliance that won against a Labour Party-MMM alliance, which are considered as the two biggest parties (through their significant electorates) in the country. The MSM which lost much of its rural electorate was since Jugnauth's retirement considered the third national party. It nevertheless got its core electorate (from the 1980s) back following its appeal to vote for Jugnauth for a last time as he announced it would be the last election he would contest due to his advanced age.
On 12 September 2016, Jugnauth announced that he would be resigning as Prime Minister very soon due to his advanced age. On 23 January 2017 he resigned and made his son the prime minister.
Assassination attempts
Overall, there have been 4 attempts on Sir Anerood Jugnauth's life. Two of those attempts were whilst he held office. The first one during his tenure was on 6 November 1988 at an Arya Samaj gathering in the suburb of Trèfles, Rose Hill by Satanand Sembhoo who drew a pistol to Prime Minister Jugnauth's head before being disarmed by bodyguards and onlookers. This was followed by a second attempt on 3 March 1989 at a temple in Ganga Talao when armed with a razor blade and disguised as a Hindu pilgrim, Iqbal Ghani assaulted Prime Minister Jugnauth. Both attempts were believed to be the result of drug cartels, against whom Jugnauth was leading a crack-down.
Personal life
Jugnauth was the owner of a building company on Mauritius, located at the Sun Trust Building situated at La Rue Edith Cavell, Port Louis. This building was the subject of controversies and critics as the owner leased its floor space at high prices which were achieved at the peak of the local property market's cycle. The Government's Ministry of Education department was a tenant of the Sun Trust Building until 1995 when newly elected Minister, James Burty-David, refused to use that building. The government then relocated the department into another building. The penalty paid to Jugnauth in terms of breach of contract amounted to Rs 45 million (US$1.5 million).
He was the patriarch of the Jugnauth family of Mauritius. Jugnauth married Sarojini Ballah on 18 December 1956 and he is the father of two children: Pravind and Shalini Jugnauth-Malhotra. Pravind has been Prime Minister of Mauritius since 2017 and was previously Minister of Finance as a Member of Parliament for the Constituency Moka & Quartier Militaire. Pravind is also the leader of the Mouvement Socialiste Militant (MSM).
He was also the only Mauritian who served as an elected member on each level in the country as he first served as village & town Councillor (being elected as a Councillor for Palma village in 1956 and again Councillor for the town of Vacoas-Phoenix in 1964). He then served as a Member of Parliament (elected in 1963), became Minister of State in 1965 which preceded his appointment as Minister of Labour in 1966 by Seewoosagur Ramgoolam. He was the only prime minister to have had a sibling and his son in his own cabinet from 2000 to 2003.
On 3 June 2021, Jugnauth died at Clinique Darné in Floréal, Mauritius, aged 91, due to illness.
Controversies
Jugnauth was subjected to various controversies over his 35 years of being on the front bench of Mauritian politics. In 1983, he was criticized for breaking the MMM-PSM coalition government and ousting the MMM from power. In 1984, he was criticized as head of government in the Amsterdam boys scandal which involved 4 government MPs who were arrested as they were carrying drugs from the Netherlands. He prorogued parliament in an objective to prevent any questions on the investigation. In 1988, he fired Satcam Boolell, then leader of the Labour Party, due to political disagreements.
In May 1992, a scandal erupted when the Bank of Mauritius issued a new Rs 20 note having the portrait of Sarojini Jugnauth. It was considered to be a birthday gift from Anerood to his wife. This was a major controversy whereby Jugnauth himself had to apologise in parliament to a private notice question from the opposition. He confirmed that he had reluctantly agreed to the proposal of the Bank of Mauritius to issue such a note. He expressed his sincere apologies and assured the population that he shall not commit such a mistake in the future.
In 1995, months before the general elections which Jugnauth would lose, the then government gave a contract to Sun Trust Building (owned by the Jugnauth family) for a period of 10 years. This was controversial as Jugnauth was the owner of the Building and at the same time was prime minister. The newly elected Labour Party-MMM government decided to rescind the contract. Jugnauth sued for damages and received Rs 45 million (US$1.5 million) as compensation. This was criticized in the press and among the Mauritian diaspora.
In 2007, Jugnauth threatened to have Mauritius leave the Commonwealth in protest at the UK's "barbarous" treatment of the people of the Chagos Islands. Jugnauth stated that he might take the United Kingdom to the International Court of Justice over the islanders' plight. The Chagos Islands, a British colony in the Indian Ocean, were leased to the US in the 1960s to build a military base. The residents were forced out, and the government says they cannot return, but have been granted British citizenship and has donated around 40 million pounds to the people who numbered 2,000 at the time. Many of the residents now live in poverty in Mauritius as that state has left them destitute, or as refugees in Britain where they have their housing and costs paid for, and receive financial aid to take the British to court. The American base was built on the large island of Diego Garcia within the Chagos archipelago. Mauritius claims the islands as part of its territory, and Jugnauth claimed his country was forced by the British to accept the Chagossians as a condition of independence.
Honours
QC (1980)
Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (1983)
Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (1988)
Grand Prix of the Order of La Pléiade (1984)
Honorary Doctorate from Aix-Marseille University (March 1985)
Doctor of Civil Law (Honoris Causa) from the University of Mauritius (May 1985)
Order of the Rising Sun (January 1988)
Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (March 1990)
Grand Commander of the Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (2003)
Honorary Doctorate from Middlesex University (July 2009)
Padma Vibhushan from India (2020)
Jugnauth bore the title Right Honourable for life. He was also entitled to use MP post-nominal and prefix, as he was an MP for more than 35 years.
National honours
:
Grand Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (GCSK) (2003)
Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) (1988)
Foreign honours
:
Grand Officer of the National Order of Legion of Honour (1990)
:
Padma Vibhushan (2020)
:
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (1988)
:
Grand Cross of the Order of La Pléiade (1984)
Jugnauth was one of the only two Prime Ministers who served under Queen Elizabeth II and the pre-republic regime. There is one primary school in his former constituency, Riviere du Rempart under his name, known as Sir Anerood Jugnauth Government School, situated in the north of the country.
He has also a commemorative golden Mauritian rupee coin issued by the Bank of Mauritius having his portrait on the obverse and a Dodo on the reverse. The inscriptions are "THE Rt HON SIR ANEROOD JUGNAUTH PC, QC, KCMG " and is followed by "MAURITIUS". It originally holds a value of Rs 1,000 but is sold as a collector's piece at US$1,881. On 19 December 2010, he and his wife, Sarojini Ballah went to receive an official opening of a pictorial biography of the President himself showing his path from small age poor child to him being President of Mauritius in 2010 leaving behind him a rich career as one of the leaders of the country. The biography is entitled The Rise of a Common Man. Present at the ceremony were former Prime Minister Navin Ramgoolam, Vice Prime Minister Pravind Jugnauth and other ministers as well as friends of the latter.
References
External links
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1930 births
2021 deaths
Grand Commanders of the Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Leaders of the Opposition (Mauritius)
Mauritian Hindus
Mauritian lawyers
Mauritian Militant Movement politicians
Mauritian politicians of Indian descent
Members of the National Assembly (Mauritius)
Militant Socialist Movement politicians
People from Rivière du Rempart District
People from Plaines Wilhems District
Presidents of Mauritius
Prime Ministers of Mauritius
Defense ministers of Mauritius
Ministers of Finance of Mauritius
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in public affairs
Independent Forward Bloc politicians
Mauritian Knights Bachelor
Mauritian Queen's Counsel | [
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255339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin%20City | Spin City | Spin City is an American sitcom television series that aired from September 17, 1996, until April 30, 2002, on ABC. Created by Gary David Goldberg and Bill Lawrence, the show is set in a semi-fictionalized version of the New York City mayor's office, and originally starred Michael J. Fox as Mike Flaherty, the Deputy Mayor of New York. Fox departed in 2000 at the conclusion of Season 4 due to symptoms of Parkinson's disease, and Charlie Sheen became the new lead as Charlie Crawford for the final two seasons. The series was cancelled in May 2002.
Premise
The series presents a fictionalized version of the local government of New York City, and follows its mayor Randall Winston (Barry Bostwick) and his staff as they run the city, although the main person in charge is Deputy mayor Mike Flaherty (Fox). Mike is talented at his job, dealing with spin work and general chaos, but not so good managing his personal life, which he neglects. Other members of staff at City Hall include press secretary Paul Lassiter (Richard Kind), the office snitch and a manipulative coward, who has a habit of being a troublemaker and is often kept in the dark about things; chief of staff Stuart Bondek (Alan Ruck), who thinks of himself as a lothario and is highly sexist; and head of minority affairs Carter Heywood (Michael Boatman), a gay black man with a suicidal dog named Rags.
Carter Heywood was seen as a revolution in modern television. As the writer Orville Lloyd Douglas noted on his blog GayBlackCanadianman, "Far too often whenever a character is gay on television it's always a white person. In North America gayness equals whiteness and gay black men are displaced due to race, gender, and sexual orientation. Finally, the writers and producers of Spin City got it right. Carter was a well adjusted young black man he wasn't on the down low, he also wasn't confused or conflicted about his homosexuality." Despite their overwhelming personal differences, Stuart and Carter actually become roommates and best friends.
Also on the staff are speech writer James Hobert (Alexander Chaplin), who is weak-willed and gullible; Mike's secretary Janelle Cooper (Victoria Dillard); and accountant Nikki Faber (Connie Britton). Janelle later becomes the mayor's secretary and Stacey Paterno (Jennifer Esposito) joins the show as Mike's secretary and Paul's nemesis. Together, this group helps run City Hall, improves the Mayor's image, and covers for his frequent mistakes—while sorting out their own personal issues.
At one point in development, the show was simply called Spin. At the start of the series, Mike is dating reporter Ashley Schaeffer (Carla Gugino). In early promos for the series, the relationship is shown to be the main premise of the show. After just a few episodes, however, Ashley and Mike separated and the character was written out.
The nature of Carter and Stuart's relationship became a running gag during the series. The two ended up becoming so close, their friendship was mocked by others, and their arguments sounded so much like husband and wife, a whole episode was dedicated to the notion that the two argued like a married couple. The two ended up meeting an older duo of best friends (one black and one white) who were virtual twins of Carter and Stuart in terms of personality; when it was discovered that the two older versions had become a couple, it ended up scaring Stuart quite a bit. For his part, Stuart tends to be very protective of his time with Carter, going so far as to be genuinely jealous when Carter spends more time with new campaign manager Caitlin (Heather Locklear). In spite of all the jokes and flirtations, they prove to be best friends willing to do anything for each other. This, too, was considered an important moment in television history, with Douglas noting, "I love the fact that the writers of Spin City explored the fact that gay men and heterosexual men can be friends. The straight man doesn't have to worry that the gay man might hit on him."
Later years
In 1998, Michael J. Fox announced he had Parkinson's disease. As a result, a new character, Caitlin Moore (Locklear) was introduced at the start of the 1999–2000 season to help lessen Fox's workload. Caitlin was Mayor Winston's campaign manager as he decided to run for Senator, and much conflict occurred between Mike and Caitlin about who was in charge of the mayor. Their relationship was more complex than a simple feud, and hints were dropped that it would become romantic.
In 2000, as his symptoms got more severe, Fox announced he was leaving the show at the end of the season to spend more time with his family and to raise awareness of Parkinson's. His character left City Hall at the end of the show's fourth season, taking the blame for an alleged Mafia link the mayor unknowingly had. A brief coda to the fourth-season finale revealed that the character moved to Washington, D.C., becoming an environmental lobbyist and there meeting a young senator named Alex P. Keaton, the character Fox played on Family Ties. Executive producer and co-creator Bill Lawrence also left the show, along with a few cast members and writers/producers.
The remaining producers decided to carry on the series with a new lead. For the show's fifth season, Charlie Sheen, as new Deputy Mayor Charlie Crawford, joined Caitlin, Paul, Stuart, Carter, and the mayor. The characters of Nikki, James, and Janelle were written out, to be replaced by assistant Angie Ordonez (Lana Parrilla).
Characters
Michael J. Fox as Mike Flaherty. Deputy Mayor of New York and a playboy, Flaherty lives in a New York City bachelor pad and is constantly balancing his personal life and his job, trying to maintain a healthy distance between the two. Flaherty leaves the mayor's office at the end of season four, after taking the blame for an unknown mob connection the Mayor had. (Fox left the series due to Parkinson's disease, but returns during the first three episodes of the sixth season, culminating in his marriage.)
Carla Gugino as Ashley Schaeffer, a journalist and love interest for Mike during the first 12 episodes. She was written out when the show started to focus more on the workplace, but returned for one episode in season three.
Richard Kind, as Paul Thomas Lassiter, press secretary at City Hall. A known troublemaker and childish member of the group, he is often the victim of practical jokes or mishaps at City Hall. During the show, he marries Claudia Sachs, who in season five leaves him to become a nun. By the end of the show, he moves into an apartment across the hall from Carter and Stuart.
Alan Ruck, as Stuart Bondek, chief of staff at City Hall. He is narcissistic and a love-rat, although he is unsuccessful at maintaining a relationship. Early on in the series, he moves into an apartment with Carter, which generates a rivalry as he is a homophobe and is generally uncomfortable around Carter's dog and his uptight lifestyle, though they eventually become best friends.
Michael Boatman, as Carter Heywood, head of Minority Affairs at City Hall. His character was met with positive reaction because of his portrayal as a prominent gay black character in a TV series. Carter owns a suicidal old dog named Rags, who dies towards the end of the series. In the same season, Carter decides he will adopt a baby; in the final episode he welcomes a boy named Sam.
Connie Britton, as Nikki Faber, a co-worker at City Hall. She is confident and free-spirited and often dates dangerous men. She develops an on/off relationship with Mike. She leaves after season four for unknown reasons.
Alexander Chaplin, as James Leonard Hobert III, a speech writer at City Hall. He is shown to be anxious and shy, and early in the show has a crush on Nikki. During season four, he is fired in favor of Caitlin being hired as marketing campaigner, and James is hired as Mike's secretary, although he is led to believe his position is as 'Deputy Deputy Mayor'. He also leaves after season four for unknown reasons.
Barry Bostwick, as Mayor Randall Winston, the inept Mayor of New York City. It is stated that he was a state assemblyman sometime prior to his election as mayor. At one point during the show he runs for the Senate, although between seasons he apparently changed his mind. He is married at the beginning of the show but gets divorced during its run and his ex-wife writes a tell-all book about life with the Mayor. He develops a relationship with his secretary Janelle during season three. During the final season, he develops a relationship with Judge Claire Simmons (Farrah Fawcett), but she dumps him when she reveals she does not want to live life in the public eye.
Victoria Dillard, as Janelle Cooper, Mike's secretary during the first season, promoted to the Mayor's secretary during the second. She develops a relationship with the Mayor during season three. She leaves after season four for unknown reasons.
Jennifer Esposito, as Stacey Paterno, who replaced Janelle as Mike's secretary for seasons two and three after Janelle became the Mayor's secretary. She is from Brooklyn and is shown to be very outgoing, much like Nikki. She leaves after season three for unknown reasons.
Heather Locklear, as Caitlin Moore, introduced into the show in season four to lessen Michael J. Fox's screentime after he announced he had Parkinson's disease. She is brought onto the staff as marketing campaigner, and takes James' old desk, while James becomes Mike's secretary. She becomes romantically involved with both leads by the end of each of their respective tenures on the show.
Charlie Sheen as Charlie Crawford, Mike's replacement for the final two seasons. He, too, is a playboy and at first struggles to keep his troubled past from getting in the way of his new position. He eventually becomes romantically involved with Caitlin by the end of the series' run. He is also romantically involved with Jennifer Duncan, played by Sheen's real-life partner at the time, Denise Richards; his father is also played by Sheen's real-life father Martin Sheen.
Lana Parrilla, as Angie Ordonez, Charlie's secretary. She was only featured in season five, as Parrilla left following the season, thinking her character was underused. No secretary is shown during season six, and her desk is left empty. Some of the cast are shown using it, albeit not permanently, implying Charlie is no longer using a secretary.
Taylor Stanley as Karen, Mike's assistant in the first season.
Paula Marshall as Mike's girlfriend and - briefly - fiancée, Laurie Parres, in Season 2.
Beth Littleford as Stuart's girlfriend, Deirdre West, in Seasons 3 & 4.
Heidi Klum as herself (or a version of herself) who dates Mike in Season 3 and also appears briefly in Season 4.
Episodes
Awards and nominations
Michael J. Fox won one Primetime Emmy, out of four nominations. The show won four Golden Globes (three for Fox and one for Charlie Sheen), out of its nine nominations.
Syndication
Initially distributed by the original Paramount Television, Spin City entered off-network syndication on UPN, Fox and The WB affiliates from fall 2000 until fall 2005 and aired on FX from fall 2005 until fall 2010. As of 2019, Spin City has not aired on cable channels since then.
In August 2015, the series started airing on digital multicast television network Laff.
In July 2020, every episode was added to Australian streaming service Stan. In February 2021, the entire series was added to Pluto TV in the United States.
Home media
Shout! Factory has released all six seasons of Spin City on DVD in Region 1.
DreamWorks Home Entertainment released two best-of sets entitled "Michael J. Fox – His All Time Favorites" Vols. 1 and 2 in 2003, each containing 11 episodes. All 22 episodes are taken from the four seasons containing Fox, each starting with a brief interview in which he describes what he likes about the episode. In the 2003 interviews, Fox shows symptoms of his ongoing illness. Both DVD boxes contain bonus material with fund-raising TV commercials for Parkinson's disease research, starring the Spin City cast.
See also
List of Spin City episodes
The Drew Carey Show
NewsRadio
Just Shoot Me
Frasier
Notes
References
External links
Spin City at Yahoo! TV
1996 American television series debuts
2002 American television series endings
1990s American political comedy television series
2000s American political comedy television series
1990s American sitcoms
2000s American sitcoms
1990s American workplace comedy television series
2000s American workplace comedy television series
American Broadcasting Company original programming
English-language television shows
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
Television series by DreamWorks Television
Television series by Ubu Productions
Television series created by Bill Lawrence (TV producer)
Television series created by Gary David Goldberg
Television shows filmed in New York (state)
Television shows set in New York City | [
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255341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour%20Party%20%28Norway%29 | Labour Party (Norway) | The Labour Party (; ; A/Ap; ), formerly The Norwegian Labour Party (, DNA), is a social-democratic political party in Norway. It is positioned on the centre-left of the political spectrum, and is led by Jonas Gahr Støre. It was the senior partner of the governing red–green coalition from 2005 to 2013, and its former leader Jens Stoltenberg served as the prime minister of Norway.
The Labour Party is officially committed to social-democratic ideals. Its slogan since the 1930s has been "everyone shall take part" and the party traditionally seeks a strong welfare state, funded through taxes and duties. Since the 1980s, the party has included more of the principles of a social market economy in its policy, allowing for privatisation of state-owned assets and services and reducing income tax progressivity, following the wave of economic liberalisation during the 1980s. During the first Stoltenberg government, the party's policies were inspired by Tony Blair's New Labour agenda in the United Kingdom and saw the most widespread privatisation by any government in Norway to that date. The party has frequently been described as increasingly neoliberal since the 1980s, both by political scientists and opponents on the political left. The Labour Party profiles itself as a progressive party that subscribes to co-operation on a national as well as international level. Its youth wing is the Workers' Youth League. The party is a member of the Party of European Socialists and the Progressive Alliance. It was formerly member of the Comintern (1919–1923), the International Revolutionary Marxist Centre (1932–1935), the Labour and Socialist International (1938–1940), and the Socialist International (1951–2016). The Labour Party has always been a strong supporter of Norwegian NATO membership and has supported Norway joining the European Union during two referendums. During the Cold War, when the party was in government most of the time, the party closely aligned Norway with the United States at the international level and followed an anti-communist policy at the domestic level in the aftermath of the 1948 Kråkerøy speech and culminating in Norway becoming a founding member of NATO in 1949.
Founded in 1887, the party steadily increased in support until it became the largest party in Norway at the 1927 parliamentary election, a position it has held ever since. That year also saw the consolidation of conflicts surrounding the party during the 1920s following its membership in the Comintern. It first formed a government in 1928 and has led the government for all but sixteen years since 1935. From 1945 to 1961, the party had an absolute majority in the Norwegian Parliament, to date the last time this has happened in the history of Norway. The electoral domination by the Labour Party during the 1960s and early 1970s was initially broken by competition from smaller left-wing parties, primarily from the Socialist People's Party. From the late 1970s, the party started to lose voters due to a rise in right-wing parties, leading to a swing to the right for the Labour Party under Gro Harlem Brundtland during the 1980s. In 2001, the party achieved its worst results since 1924. Between 2005 and 2013, Labour returned to power after committing to a coalition agreement with other parties in order to form a majority government. Since losing nine seats in 2013, Labour has been in opposition. The party lost a further six seats in 2017, yielding the second-lowest number of seats Labour has held since 1924. At the 2021 election, the party lost one seat but left-wing opposition gained a majority over the political right, with Støre becoming the prime minister and heading a minority government along with the Centre Party.
History
The party was founded in 1887 in Arendal and first ran in elections to the Storting in 1894. It entered the parliament in 1903 and steadily increased its vote until 1927, when it became the largest party in Norway. The party were members of Communist International (Comintern), a communist organisation, between 1918 and 1923.
From the establishment of Vort Arbeide in 1884, the party had a growing and notable organisation of newspapers and other press outlets. The party press system eventually resulted in Norsk Arbeiderpresse (Norwegian Labour Press, now A-pressen). In January 1913, the party had 24 newspapers and six more newspapers were founded in 1913. The party also had the periodical Det 20de Aarhundre. In 1920, the party had 33 newspapers and 6 semi-affiliated newspapers. The party had its own publishing house, Det norske Arbeiderpartis forlag, succeeded by Tiden Norsk Forlag. In addition to books and pamphlets, Det norske Arbeiderpartis forlag published Maidagen (annual May Day publication), Arbeidets Jul (annual Christmas publication) and Arbeiderkalenderen (calendar).
From its roots as a radical alternative to the political establishment, the party grew to its current dominance through several eras. The party experienced a split in 1921 caused by a decision made two years earlier to join the Comintern and the Social Democratic Labour Party of Norway was formed. In 1923, the party left the Comintern while a significant minority of its members left the party to form the Communist Party of Norway. In 1927, the Social Democrats were reunited with Labour. Some Communists also joined Labour whereas other Communists tried a failed merger endeavor which culminated in the formation of the Arbeiderklassens Samlingsparti. The same year, Helga Karlsen became the party's first Member of Parliament.
In 1928, Christopher Hornsrud formed Labour's first government, but it lasted only two weeks. During the early 1930s, Labour abandoned its revolutionary profile and set a reformist course. Labour then returned to government in 1935 and remained in power until 1965 (except for the World War II exile period between 1940–1945 and one month in 1963). During most of the first twenty years after World War II, Einar Gerhardsen led the party and the country. He is often referred to as Landsfaderen (Father of the Nation) and is generally considered one of the main architects of the rebuilding of Norway after World War II. This is often considered the golden age of the Norwegian Labour Party. The party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1938 and 1940. In 1958, two Workers' Youth League members (Berge Furre and Kåre Sollund) contacted MPs of the Labour Party to have MPs sign a petition as a part of what is known as the Easter Uprising of the Labour Party. All the MPs who signed, except one, later retracted their signatures.
Other periods of the Labour Party's leadership of the national government have been 1971–1972, 1973–1981, 1986–1989, 1990–1997 and 2000–2001. In the 2001 Norwegian parliamentary election, the party reached a low point of 24.3% of the popular vote, but it was still the largest party in the Storting. In the 2005 Norwegian parliamentary election, the party regained support and received 32.7% of the popular vote. It was the leading partner in the centre-left red–green coalition which won a majority in the 2005 Norwegian parliamentary election. Labour leader Jens Stoltenberg became prime minister and lead a coalition government, the first coalition government that the Labour Party has entered. Stoltenberg was previously prime minister from 2000 to 2001.
In 2011, the party changed its official name from the Norwegian Labour Party (Det norske arbeiderparti) to the Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet). The party claimed there had been confusion among voters at polling stations because of the difference between the official name and the common use name of Labour Party. The name change caused Arbeiderpartiet to appear on the ballot, eliminating any potential confusion. On 22 July 2011, a terrorist opened fire at the Labour Party's youth camp (ages 13–25), killing 69 people and killing 8 more in Oslo by a bomb towards a government building (which was led by the Labour Party).
In the 2013 Norwegian parliamentary election, the party-led coalition lost the election, but Labour remained the largest party in the Storting. This election ended the nearly ten years rule of Stoltenberg, who remained the party leader until he stepped down to be appointed Secretary General of NATO. Jonas Gahr Støre was chosen as new party leader on 14 June 2014. In 2017, the party was targeted by hackers suspected to be from Russia.
Organisation
As of 2015, the party has about 56,000 members. They are organised at county level, municipality level and in about 2,500 local associations. The party had about 200,500 members at its peak in 1950.
The supreme body of the party is the Party Congress which is held every two years. The highest body in between the congresses is the National Delegate's Meeting which is made up of the Executive Board and two delegates from each of the 19 counties.
The executive board consists of 16 elected members as well as the leadership of the party. As of 2015, the leadership is party leader Støre, deputy leaders Hadia Tajik and Trond Giske and general secretary Kjersti Stenseng. The party has varied between having one of two deputy leaders
Since 2005, the party has a policy requiring full gender parity at each level of the organisation above ordinary membership.
In 2021, the party won the general election, but had gotten massive amounts of controversy and critique after their lack-luster response to the electricity crisis of 2021 in Norway, where they only offered to pay half of the average cost of electrical bills to people living in standalone houses and apartments. This bill was criticized heavily by the people, for the bills had already risen to 5-10 times the average cost, and it wasn't applicable to 20% of the population, who'm lived in collective blocks and apartments. Studies shown during the crysis show that only 1/3rd of the population were happy with the party's decisions during their time in the parliament by the end of 2021.
The party's youth organisation is the Workers' Youth League and there is a network for women within the party. The party participates in elections to the Sami Parliament of Norway and work related to this has its own organisational structure with seven local groups, a bi-yearly congress, a national council and the Labour group in the Sami parliament. However, due to their controversy in 2021, where they have induced policies to increase the general electricity bill, the party has gotten a bad reputation amongst the general youth.
Party leaders
Anders Andersen (1887–1888)
Hans G. Jensen (1888–1889)
Christian Holtermann Knudsen (1889–1890)
Carl Jeppesen (1890–1892)
Ole Georg Gjøsteen (1892–1893)
Gustav A. Olsen-Berg (1893–1894)
Carl Jeppesen (1894–1897)
Ludvig Meyer (1897–1900)
Christian Holtermann Knudsen (1900–1903)
Christopher Hornsrud (1903–1906)
Oscar Nissen (1906–1911)
Christian Holtermann Knudsen (1911–1918)
Kyrre Grepp (1918–1922)
Emil Stang jr. (1922–1923)
Oscar Torp (1923–1945)
Einar Gerhardsen (1945–1965)
Trygve Bratteli (1965–1975)
Reiulf Steen (1975–1981)
Gro Harlem Brundtland (1981–1992)
Thorbjørn Jagland (1992–2002)
Jens Stoltenberg (2002–2014)
Jonas Gahr Støre (2014–present)
Labour Prime Ministers
Christopher Hornsrud (January–February 1928)
Johan Nygaardsvold (1935–1945)
Einar Gerhardsen (1945–1951)
Oscar Torp (1951–1955)
Einar Gerhardsen (1955–1963)
Einar Gerhardsen (1963–1965)
Trygve Bratteli (1971–1972, 1973–1976)
Odvar Nordli (1976–1981)
Gro Harlem Brundtland (February–October 1981, 1986–1989, 1990–1996)
Thorbjørn Jagland (1996–1997)
Jens Stoltenberg (2000–2001, 2005–2013)
Jonas Gahr Støre (2021–present)
Electoral results
Notes
References
External links
Arbeiderpartiet – official website
Norwegian Labour Party – official website
Election results for the Labour Party in the 2011 local elections
1887 establishments in Norway
Norway
Members of the Labour and Socialist International
Party of European Socialists member parties
Political parties established in 1887
Progressive Alliance
Second International
Social democratic parties
Socialist parties in Norway
Social democratic parties in Europe | [
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255342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Auguste%20de%20B%C3%A9riot | Charles Auguste de Bériot | Charles Auguste de Bériot (20 February 18028 April 1870) was a Belgian violinist, artist and composer.
Biography
He was born in Leuven, where there is now a street named in his honor, he moved to France in 1810, where he studied violin with Jean-François Tiby, a pupil of Giovanni Battista Viotti. He was later encouraged by Viotti himself and briefly worked with Pierre Baillot but did not embrace all their teachings and was also influenced by Paganini. He served as chamber violinist to King Charles X of France and to King William I of the Netherlands and toured with great success to London, Paris and the great music centres of Europe.
De Bériot lived with the opera singer Maria Malibran and had a child (Charles-Wilfrid de Bériot, a piano professor who taught Maurice Ravel, Ricardo Viñes, Enrique Granados and others) with her in 1833. They were married in 1836 when Malibran obtained an annulment of her previous marriage. Felix Mendelssohn wrote an aria accompanied by a solo violin especially for the couple. However, Malibran died the same year from injuries sustained in a fall from a horse.
After Malibran's death, de Bériot lived in Brussels and did not return to performance until 1838. In 1840 in Vienna he married Marie Huber, daughter of a local magistrate.
In 1842, Pierre Baillot died in Paris at the age of 71, and his position as instructor at the Paris Conservatoire was offered to de Bériot. He rejected the offer, however, and in 1843 became chief violin instructor at the Brussels Conservatory where he established the Franco-Belgian school of violin playing. On account of failing eyesight he retired in 1852, and in 1858 became totally blind.
Paralysis of the left arm ended his career in 1866. Surgeons amputated his left arm to relieve pain. Among his students were Hubert Léonard, Henri Vieuxtemps and Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst.
Compositions
De Bériot composed a great amount of violin music including ten concertos. Although these are now rarely heard, his pedagogical compositions are still of use for violin students. In style, however, he was greatly influenced by the works of Rudolphe Kreutzer.
De Bériot's pioneering violin technique and Romantic style of composition make his concertos and etudes an important stepping stone for the serious violin student wishing to gain a firm foundation before studying the major concertos of the Romantic era. His most popular concertos are No. 9 in A minor Op. 104 and No. 7 in G major Op. 76.
Itzhak Perlman released a recording of Scene de Ballet, Op. 100 on his album, "Concertos from My Childhood". This recording features the Juilliard Orchestra conducted by Lawrence Foster. Barbara Barber also released a recordings and sheet music with piano accompaniment of the first movement of de Beriot's Concerto No. 9 in A minor Op. 104 and Scene de Ballet, Op. 100 with her series, "Solos for Young Violinists".
Schirmer publishes his Violin Method Op. 102 and His "First 30 Concert Studies" Op. 123. Peters publishes the famous encore piece for violin and orchestra (in a reduced format for violin and piano) "Scene de Ballet" Op.100.
Honours
1845: Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium.
1853: Cross of merit of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order.
References
External links
Famous Violinists of To-day and Yesterday by Henry Charles Lahee, 1856-1953 Gutenberg.org
1802 births
1870 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century classical violinists
19th-century Belgian male musicians
Belgian classical composers
Belgian male classical composers
Belgian classical violinists
Blind classical musicians
Burials at Laeken Cemetery
Male classical violinists
Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium
Musicians from Leuven
Romantic composers
Royal Conservatory of Brussels faculty
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255346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20the%20Habsburg%20Netherlands | List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands | The governor () or governor-general () of the Habsburg Netherlands was a representative appointed by the Holy Roman emperor (1504-1556), the king of Spain (1556-1598: 1621-1706), and the archduke of Austria (1716-1794), to administer the Burgundian inheritance of the House of Habsburg in the Low Countries when the monarch was absent from the territory. The role of the governor-generals significantly changed over time: initially tutors and advisors of Emperor Charles V, who lived at the Palace of Coudenberg, they served as generals during the 80 Years War between the Kingdom of Spain and the Dutch Republic. Frequently, the governor-general was a close relative of the Austrian or Spanish monarchs, though at other times Spanish or German noblemen filled the role. The governor-general was usually based in Brussels.
List of governors
Thereafter, the French revolutionaries occupied the Low Countries until 1815. The Emperor formally recognized the loss of these territories by the Treaty of Lunéville of 1801. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the Low Countries were re-united in a personal union under the House of Orange-Nassau. In 1830, Belgium declared its independence.
See also
Lord Chamberlain of the Archduchess
List of plenipotentiaries of Austrian Netherlands
List of rulers of the Netherlands
Netherlands
Politicians of the Austrian Netherlands
Habsburg | [
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255347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikoyan%20MiG-27 | Mikoyan MiG-27 | The Mikoyan MiG-27 (; NATO reporting name: Flogger-D/J) is a variable-sweep ground-attack aircraft, originally built by the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau in the Soviet Union and later licence-produced in India by Hindustan Aeronautics as the Bahadur ("Valiant"). It is based on the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 fighter aircraft, but optimised for air-to-ground attack. Unlike the MiG-23, the MiG-27 did not have widespread use outside Russia, as most countries opted for the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23BN and Sukhoi Su-22 instead. It remains in service only with the Kazakh Air Forces in the ground attack role. All Russian, Indian, Sri Lankan and Ukrainian MiG-27s have been retired.
Design and development
The MiG-27 shares the basic airframe of the MiG-23, but with a revised nose – nicknamed "Utkonos" ("Platypus") in Russian service, first introduced on the MiG-23B. Dissatisfaction with the MiG-23BN led to the further development of the basic airframe to accommodate a stronger undercarriage, simpler intakes and a shorter exhaust nozzle, without radar in favor of a downward-sloping profile for improved pilot visibility, a laser rangefinder and marked-target seeker. Among its test pilots, it was also called "Balkon" ("Balcony") because of the increased frontal view from the cockpit. Additional cockpit armor was installed, along with a totally new nav/attack system.
Since the MiG-27 was intended to fly most of its missions at low altitude, the MiG-23's variable intake ramps and exhaust nozzles were discarded in favor of a simpler fixed configuration, reducing weight and maintenance requirements. The aircraft also has larger, heavy-duty landing gear to facilitate operation from poorer-quality airfields. In accordance with the MiG-27's strike and low-level attack requirements, provisions were made to mount missiles and precision-guided munitions, as well as retaining a nuclear capability in line with other Soviet combat aircraft by introducing specialized navigation systems.
The improved MiG-27M/D versions were introduced during the 1980s, followed by the -K version, which could carry a much larger range of weapons including tactical nuclear bombs.
Aircraft deployed to Afghanistan were upgraded with the installation of BVP-50-60 flare dispensers and the NAZ-7B emergency survival kit, as well as engine modifications for the hot and high conditions.
Operational history
The MiG-27 saw service with the Soviet Air Force in Afghanistan. Although several Western observers considered the MiG-27 widely exported, confusing it with the MiG-23BN, the aircraft type was only exported to India and Sri Lanka which also utilized the MiG-27 in regional conflicts.
Soviet Union
The MiG-27 entered frontline service with Soviet Air Force Tactical Aviation in 1975, with the 722nd Regiment. It replaced earlier MiG-23B/BN and outdated Sukhoi Su-7 attack aircraft and equipped 22 of the 40 Soviet fighter-bomber regiments, being deployed all over the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries. Soviet MiG-27s were permanently deployed to five foreign countries: East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Mongolia until the 1990s.
Soviet forces used the MiG-27 during the later stages of the Afghanistan conflict in 1987–89, which was the only time the Soviets used this aircraft in action. During the initial stages of the war, MiG-27s were not deployed to support ground troops in combat, as the Sukhoi Su-17s of the Turkestan and Central Asian military districts together with DRAAF Su-7s were considered sufficient to support the 40th Army's operations against the Afghan Mujahideen. However, in 1988 it was decided to deploy MiG-27s to support the existing forces in theatre. The 134th APIB, formed of three squadrons of MiG-27D/Ms and MiG-23UB trainers, was deployed to Shindand Air Base in October after extensive training in Kazakhstan. The most modern variant, the MiG-27K, was not deployed due to its lack of armour for the pilot. MiG-27s, in common with all other Soviet attack aircraft in the conflict, were limited in effectiveness by the 5,000 metre (16,400 ft) minimum altitude imposed due to the threat from MANPADs. As such they were only able to deploy unguided bombs and rockets against Afghan targets. Missions included bombing of supply convoys, night bombing of troop concentrations, scattering landmines with cluster munitions, and marking or illuminating targets for artillery with SAB-100 flare bombs. The 134th regiment remained in Afghanistan until the Soviet withdrawal, taking part in the siege of Kandahar. They were withdrawn on the 4th February 1989, flying to Kalay-Mor airbase in the Turkmen SSR where they waited in reserve until March of that year, when they returned to their home base in Kazakhstan.
Around the same time, MiG-27s started to be gradually replaced by more advanced Sukhoi Su-24 and SU-25 aircraft in the ground attack role at home. Other MiG-27 units, such as the 642nd GvAIP, re-equipped with MiG-29 fighters.
Additionally, between 1990 and 1994 a single regiment of MiG-27s (the 88th Separate Fighter Bomber Regiment) served with Soviet Naval Aviation as a way to save the unit from being dissolved under the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe.
By the collapse of the Soviet Union, a number of MiG-27s remained in service. These would then be inherited by the air forces of the various former Soviet republics.
Russian Federation
The Air Force of the Russian Federation inherited most of the Soviet MiG-27s. However, on 1 July 1993 the Air Force decreed that single-engined attack aircraft such as the MiG-27 were to be phased out. Most aircraft were scrapped or left to deteriorate in storage.
Sri Lanka
MiG-27 aircraft entered service with the Sri Lanka Air Force in 2000. During the Sri Lankan Civil War, they saw considerable action bombing targets and providing close air support. In August 2000, a MiG-27 crashed near Colombo International Airport, killing its pilot. In July 2001, a second MiG-27 was destroyed and another damaged on the ground during an assault on the same air force base by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. A MiG-27 crashed into the sea near the airport in June 2004. Another MiG-27 fighter jet crashed on a routine training mission on 13 February 2012 near the Dummalasuriya area at around 1.35 pm. The pilot managed to eject from the jet without sustaining injuries.
India
On 27 May 1999, during the Kargil War, one Indian MiG-27L suffered an engine flameout while firing 80 mm rockets, possibly due to a MANPADS hit. Its pilot, Kambampati Nachiketa, ejected and was captured by Pakistani forces.
Since 2001, the Indian Air Force has lost more than 12 MiG-27s to crashes. In mid-February 2010, India grounded its entire fleet of over 150 of the aircraft after a MiG-27 crashed on 16 February 2010 in Siliguri, West Bengal. The crash was attributed to defects in the R-29 engines of the aircraft, suspected to have occurred during the overhauling of the aircraft by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). Another MiG-27 crashed in the Barmer area on 27 January 2015.
India retired the last MiG-27ML squadron on 27 December 2019, when the last two MiG-27 squadrons were retired with a ceremony at Jodhpur airbase.
Kazakhstan
12 MiG-27s remain in service with the Kazakh Air Force.
Variants
MiG-23B
The first Flogger attack variant was powered by the AL-21F. Only 24 were produced, due a lack of engines (the AL-21F was destined for the Sukhoi Su-17/22 and the Su-24 Fencer). It was armed with the GSh-23L cannon, carrying 200 rounds.
MiG-23BN
Derived from the MiG-23B, but powered by the R29B-300 engine. This gave the advantage of making this variant exportable (the AL-21F was a restricted engine at the time, unlike the R29B-300). The R29B-300 also offered commonality with the MiG-23MS and MiG-23MF fighter variants already sold to the rest of world. It was armed with the GSh-23L cannon, with 200 rounds.
MiG-27 (MiG-23BM)
This was the first in the MiG-27 family to have a canopy without the central frame, suggesting that the ejection seat was designed to directly break through the transparency. The dielectric head above the pylon on the MiG-23 was used on the MiG-27 to house electro-optical and radio-frequency gear instead. It was also the first variant armed with a Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-6-30M Gatling gun. Its NATO reporting name was Flogger-D.
MiG-27K
NATO reporting name: Flogger-J2. The MiG-27K was the most advanced Soviet variant, with a laser designator and compatibility with TV-guided electro-optical weapons. It carried the GSh-6-30 cannon. Around 200 were built.
MiG-27M
NATO reporting name: Flogger-J. This model was a cheaper variant than the MiG-27K, but much better than the MiG-23B, MiG-23BN, and MiG-27 (MiG-23BM), with the electro-optical and radio-frequency heads above the glove pylons deleted. It was first armed with the GSh-6-23M Gatling gun, but this was later replaced by a new 30 mm GSh-6-30 six-barrel cannon with 260 rounds of ammunition in a fuselage gondola. It also received much-improved electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems, and a new PrNK-23K nav/attack system providing automatic flight control, gun firing, and weapons release. However, this modification was not very successful because of the heavy recoil from the new cannon, and bursts longer than two or three seconds often led to permanent damage to the airframe. Test pilot V. N. Kondaurov described the first firing of the GSh-6-30А: "As I imposed the central mark on the air target and pressed the trigger to shoot, I heard such noise that I involuntarily drew my hand aside. The whole plane began to vibrate from the shooting and had almost stopped from the strong recoil of the gun. The pilotless target, which was just making a turn ahead of me, was literally disintegrating into pieces. I have hardly come to my senses from unexpectedness and admiration: This is a calibre! Such a beast! If you hit something — it will be plenty enough [to wipe it out]". A total of 200 MiG-27Ms were built from 1978 to 1983, plus 160 for India. Sri Lanka used second-hand Soviet built MiG-27M.
MiG-27D
All MiG-27D are MiG-27s (MiG-23BMs) upgraded to MiG-27M standard. It is very difficult to distinguish from the MiG-27M. 305 were upgraded.
MiG-27ML
This was an export variant of the MiG-27M provided in 1986 to India in knock-down kits for license-assembly. It was the same as the MiG-27M, except the undernose fairing for the infra-red search and track (IRST) sensor had a single window instead of several, like the one on the original MiG-27M. A total of 150 were assembled by India. India refers to this model as the MiG-27M Bahadur, while MiG-27L is the Mikoyan export designation.
MiG-27H
This was a 1988 indigenous Indian upgrade of its license-assembled MiG-27L with French avionics, which provides the same level of performance, but with much reduced size and weight. The capabilities of the aircraft are being enhanced by the incorporation of modern avionics systems consisting primarily of two Multi-Function Displays (MFDs) Mission and Display Processor (MDP), Sextant Ring Laser Gyros (RLG INSI), combined GPS/GLONASS navigation, HUD with UFCP, Digital Map Generator (DMG), jam-resistant Secured Communication, stand-by UHF communication, data link and a comprehensive Electronic Warfare (EW) Suite. A mission planning and retrieval facility, VTR and HUD Camera will also be fitted. The aircraft retains stand-by (conventional) instrumentation, including artificial horizon, altimeter and airspeed indicator, to cater for the failure of HUD and the MFDs. The MiG-27s are also being equipped with the French Agave or Russian Komar radar. The installation of the radar would give the MiG-27 anti-ship and some air-to-air capability. It is expected that at least 140 of the 180 aircraft will be converted from MiG-27MLs.
Operators
The Kazakh Air Force operates at least 12 MiG-27Ms.
Former operators
The Soviet Air Force passed their aircraft on to successor states.
The Belarusian Air Force inherited a small number of aircraft from the 911th Fighter-Bomber regiment based at Lida. These were scrapped or used as instructional airframes at the Minsk State Aviation College.
The Russian Air Force retired their aircraft from front-line use.
Sri Lanka Air Force
The Ukrainian Air Force has retired their aircraft.
The Indian Air Force has retired their aircraft (165 MiG-27Ms licensed built by HAL). The first batch of MiG-27MLs were retired in December 2017. While the final batch was retired from service on 27 December 2019.
Specifications (MiG-27K)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Eden, Paul, ed. "Mikoyan MiG-27". Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber Books, 2004. .
Frawley, Gerard and Jim Thorn. "Mikoyan MiG-27." The International Directory Of Military Aircraft 1996/97. Weston Creek, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 1996. .
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. The Great Book of Fighters. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA: Motorbooks International Publishing, 2001. .
Gordon, Yefim and Komissarov, Dmitry, "Mikoyan MiG-23 and MiG-27", Crecy Publishing, Manchester, 2019 .
Wilson, Stewart. Combat Aircraft since 1945. Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 2000. .
Winchester, Jim, ed. "Mikoyan MiG-27 'Flogger d/J'." Military Aircraft of the Cold War (The Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2006.
External links
MiG-27 Flogger from Global Security.org
MiG-27 Flogger from Global Aircraft
MiG-27 from FAS
Mikoyan MiG-27 Flogger
MiG-027
1970s Soviet attack aircraft
Single-engined jet aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1970 | [
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255353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20American%20Heritage%20Dictionary%20of%20the%20English%20Language | The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (AHD) is an American dictionary of English published by Boston publisher Houghton Mifflin, the first edition of which appeared in 1969. Its creation was spurred by the controversy over the perceived permissiveness of the Webster's Third New International Dictionary. The third edition had more than 350,000 entries and meanings.
History
James Parton (1912–2001), grandson of the English-born American biographer James Parton (1822–1891), and founder, publisher and co-owner of the magazines American Heritage and Horizon, was appalled by the permissiveness of Webster's Third, published in 1961. Parton tried to buy the G. and C. Merriam Company so that he could undo the changes. When that failed, he contracted with Houghton to publish a new dictionary. The AHD was edited by William Morris and relied on a usage panel of 105 writers, speakers, and eminent persons chosen for their well-known conservatism in the use of language. However, Morris made inconsistent use of the panels, often ignoring their advice and inserting his own opinions.
Linguistics
The AHD broke ground among dictionaries by using corpus linguistics for compiling word frequencies and other information. It took the innovative step of combining prescriptive information (how language should be used) and descriptive information (how it actually is used). The descriptive information was derived from actual texts.
Citations were based on a million-word, three-line citation database prepared by Brown University linguist Henry Kučera.
Usage panel
For expert consultation on words or constructions whose usage was controversial or problematic, the American Heritage Dictionary relied on the advice of a usage panel. In its final form, the panel comprised nearly 200 prominent members of professions whose work demanded sensitivity to language. Former members of the usage panel include novelists (Isaac Asimov, Barbara Kingsolver, David Foster Wallace and Eudora Welty), poets (Rita Dove, Galway Kinnell, Mary Oliver and Robert Pinsky), playwrights (Terrence McNally and Marsha Norman), journalists (Liane Hansen and Susan Stamberg), literary critics (Harold Bloom), columnists and commentators (William F. Buckley, Jr. and Robert J. Samuelson), linguists and cognitive scientists (Anne Curzan, Steven Pinker and Calvert Watkins) and humorists (Garrison Keillor, David Sedaris and Alison Bechdel). Pinker, author of the style guide The Sense of Style, was its final chair.
The members of the panel were sent regular ballots asking about matters of usage; the completed ballots were returned and tabulated, and the results formed the basis for special usage notes appended to the relevant dictionary entries. In many cases, these notes not only reported the percentage of panelists who considered a given usage or construction to be acceptable, but would also report the results from balloting of the same question in past decades, to give a clearer sense of how the language changes over time.
Houghton Mifflin dissolved the usage panel on February 1, 2018, citing the decline in demand for print dictionaries.
Illustrations
The AHD is also somewhat innovative in its liberal use of photographic illustrations, which at the time was highly unusual for general reference dictionaries, many of which went largely or completely unillustrated. It also has an unusually large number of biographical entries for notable persons.
First edition
The first edition appeared in 1969, highly praised for its Indo-European etymologies. In addition to the normally expected etymologies, which for instance trace the word ambiguous to a Proto-Indo-European root ag-, meaning "to drive," the appendices included a seven-page article by Professor Calvert Watkins entitled "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans" and "Indo-European Roots", 46 pages of entries that are each organized around one of some thousand Proto-Indo-European roots and the English words of the AHD that are understood to have evolved from them. These entries might be called "reverse etymologies": the ag- entry there, for instance, lists 49 terms derived from it, words as diverse as agent, essay, purge, stratagem, ambassador, axiom, and pellagra, along with information about varying routes through intermediate transformations on the way to the contemporary words.
A compacted American Heritage College Dictionary was first released in 1974.
Second and later editions
The first edition's concise successor, The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition was published in 1982 (without a larger-format version). It omitted the Indo-European etymologies, but they were reintroduced in the third full edition, published in 1992. The third edition was also a departure for the publisher because it was developed in a database, which facilitated the use of the linguistic data for other applications, such as electronic dictionaries.
The fourth edition (2000, reissued in 2006) added an appendix of Semitic language etymological roots, and included color illustrations, and was also available with a CD-ROM edition in some versions. This revision was larger than a typical desk dictionary but smaller than Webster's Third New International Dictionary or the unabridged Random House Dictionary of the English Language. A lower-priced college edition, also the fourth, was issued in black-and-white printing and with fewer illustrations, in 2002 (reprinted in 2007 and 2010).
The fifth and most recent full edition was published in November 2011, with new printings in 2012, 2016, and a 50th Anniversary Printing in 2018, which the publisher states is a "comprehensive update" of the 2011 edition, containing "... [t]housands of revisions to definitions and etymologies, 150 new words and senses, and new usage advice ...."
The various printings of the 5th edition are available in hardcover and, with reduced print size and smaller page count, trade paperback form. The 5th edition dropped several of the supplementary features of the fourth edition, and is not available with a disc-based electronic version. The university-student version was renamed The American Heritage College Writer's Dictionary in 2013, and stripped of biographical and geographical entries to make room for more vocabulary while simultaneously reducing the number of pages compared to the fourth college edition.
The AHD inserts minor revisions (such as a biographical entry, with photograph, for each newly elected U.S. president) in successive printings of any given edition.
Supporting volumes have been issued, including The American Heritage Book of English Usage, The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, The American Heritage Abbreviations Dictionary, The American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms, The American Heritage Thesaurus in various sizes; usage dictionaries of special vocabulary such as The American Heritage Science Dictionary, The American Heritage Medical Dictionary and The American Heritage Dictionary of Business Terms; plus special dictionary editions for children, high-school students, and English-language learners. The American Heritage brand is also used for a series of American history books.
See also
List of dictionaries by number of words
Phonetic notation of the American Heritage Dictionary
References
External links
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language online
Members of the Usage Panel
The American Heritage Dictionary Indo-European Roots Appendix
The American Heritage Dictionary Software
Boston Globe review of the AHD 3rd edition (1992)
1969 non-fiction books
English dictionaries
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255366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince-Archbishopric%20of%20Salzburg | Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg | The Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg () was an ecclesiastical principality and state of the Holy Roman Empire. It comprised the secular territory ruled by the archbishops of Salzburg, as distinguished from the much larger Catholic diocese founded in 739 by Saint Boniface in the German stem duchy of Bavaria. The capital of the archbishopric was Salzburg, the former Roman city of .
From the late 13th century onwards, the archbishops gradually reached the status of Imperial immediacy and independence from the Bavarian dukes. Salzburg remained an ecclesiastical principality until its secularisation to the short-lived Electorate of Salzburg (later Duchy of Salzburg) in 1803. Members of the Bavarian Circle from 1500, the prince-archbishops bore the title of , though they never obtained electoral dignity; actually of the six German prince-archbishoprics (with Mainz, Cologne and Trier), Magdeburg, Bremen and Salzburg got nothing from the Golden Bull of 1356. The last prince-archbishop exercising secular authority was Count Hieronymus von Colloredo, an early patron of Salzburg native Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
Geography
The prince-archbishopric's territory was roughly congruent with the present-day Austrian state of Salzburg. It stretched along the Salzach river from the High Tauern range—Mt. Großvenediger at —at the main chain of the Alps in the south down to the Alpine foothills in the north. Here it also comprised the present-day Rupertiwinkel on the western shore of the Salzach, which today is part of Bavaria. The former archepiscopal lands are traditionally subdivided into five historic parts (Gaue): Flachgau with the Salzburg capital and Tennengau around Hallein are both located in the broad Salzach valley at the rim of the Northern Limestone Alps; the mountainous (Innergebirg) southern divisions are Pinzgau, Pongau around Bischofshofen, and southeastern Lungau beyond the Radstädter Tauern Pass.
In the north and east, the prince-archbishopric bordered on the Duchy of Austria, a former Bavarian margraviate, which had become independent in 1156 and, raised to an archduchy in 1457, developed as the nucleus of the Habsburg Monarchy. The Salzkammergut border region, today a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as an important salt trade region was gradually seized by the mighty House of Habsburg and incorporated into the Upper Austrian lands. In the southeast, Salzburg adjoined the Duchy of Styria, also ruled by the Habsburg (arch-)dukes in personal union since 1192. By 1335, the Austrian regents had also acquired the old Duchy of Carinthia in the south, the Styrian and Carinthian territories were incorporated into Inner Austria in 1379. The Habsburg encirclement was nearly completed, when in 1363 the archdukes also attained the County of Tyrol in the west. Only in the northwest did Salzburg bordered on the Duchy of Bavaria (raised to an Electorate in 1623), and the tiny Berchtesgaden Provostry, which was able to retain its independence until the Mediatisation in 1803.
Previous history
The Vita Sancti Severini biography by the Early Christian chronicler Eugippius reported that during the Decline of the Roman Empire about 450 AD the local capital Iuvavum in the Noricum ripense province was already home to two churches and a monastery. Very little is known of the early bishopric during the Migration Period, and the legendary Saint Maximus of Salzburg is the only abbot-bishop known by name. A disciple of Saint Severinus, he was martyred in the retreat from Noricum, after the Germanic Western Roman officer Odoacer had deposed the last Emperor Romulus Augustulus and declared himself King of Italy in 476. In his conflict with the Rugii tribes, Odoacer had his brother Onoulphus evacuate the Noricum ripense province in 487/88, whereby Iuvavum was abandoned and with it the bishopric. Saint Severinus had already died in 482 in the castrum of Favianis (present-day Mautern in Lower Austria), six years before the departure of the Roman legions from the region.
Bavarian bishopric (c. 543/698–798)
From the 6th century onwards, the northern areas of the later archbishopric were resettled by Germanic Bavarii tribes, who established themselves among the remaining Romance population, while Slavic tribes moved into the southern Pongau and Lungau parts. About 696 Saint Rupert, then Bishop of Worms in Frankish Austrasia and later called the apostle of Bavaria and Carinthia, came to the region from the Bavarian town Regensburg and laid the foundations for the re-establishment of the Salzburg diocese. After erecting a church at nearby Seekirchen he discovered the ruins of Iuvavum overgrown with brambles and remnants of the Romance population, who had maintained Christian traditions. The former theory that he arrived already in c. 543 during the time of the unsourced early Bavarian dukes appears less likely than that he worked during the reign of the Agilolfing duke Theodo II (c. 680–717), when the Bavarian stem duchy came under Frankish supremacy. The bishops of Salzburg traditionally marked the foundation of their diocese as being the year 582, and struck coins commemorating the 1,200 year anniversary of the event in 1782. In any case, it was not until after 700 that Christian civilisation re-emerged in the region.
Rupert established a monastery dedicated to Saint Peter at the site of a Late Antique church in former Iuvavum. St Peter's Abbey received large estates in the Flachgau (Rupertiwinkel) and Tennengau regions from the hands of Duke Theodon II, including several brine wells and salt evaporation ponds which earned Iuvavum its German name Salzburg. In 711 Rupert also founded the Cella Maximiliana in the Pongau region, the later town of Bischofshofen. His niece Erentrude established a Benedictine nunnery at nearby Nonnberg about 713. In 739 Archbishop Boniface, with the blessing of Pope Gregory III, completed the work of Saint Rupert and raised Salzburg to a bishopric, placed under the primatial see of the Archdiocese of Mainz. St. Vergilius, abbot of St. Peter's since about 749, had quarrelled with St. Boniface over the existence of antipodes. He nevertheless became bishop about 767.
Early archbishopric (798–1060)
Arno, bishop since 785, enjoyed the respect of the Frankish king Charlemagne who assigned to him the missionary territory between the rivers Danube in the north, the Rába (Raab) in the east and the Drava in the south, an area which had recently been conquered from the Avars. Monasteries were founded and all of Carinthia was slowly Christianised. While Arno was in Rome attending to some of Charlemagne's business in 798, Pope Leo III appointed him Archbishop over the other bishops in Bavaria (Freising, Passau, Regensburg, and Säben). When the dispute over the ecclesiastical border between Salzburg and the Patriarchate of Aquileia broke out, Charlemagne declared the Drava to be the border.
Archbishop Adalwin (859–873) suffered great troubles when King Rastislav of Moravia attempted to remove his realm from the ecclesiastical influence of East Francia. In 870 Pope Adrian II appointed the "Apostle of the Slavs" St. Methodius the Archbishop of Pannonia and Moravia at Sirmium, entrusting him large territories under the overlordship of the Salzburg diocese. It was only when Rastislav and Methodius were captured by King Louis the German that Adalwin could adequately protest the invasion of his rights. Methodius appeared at the Synod of Salzburg where he was struck in the face and imprisoned in close confinement for two and a half years.
Soon after, the Magyars ravaged Great Moravia and not a church was left standing in Pannonia. Archbishop Dietmar I fell in battle in 907. It was not until the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 that the Magyars suffered a crushing defeat, and ecclesiastical life in Salzburg returned to normal. The following year after Archbishop Herhold allied with Liudolf, Duke of Swabia and Duke Conrad the Red of Lorraine, he was deposed, imprisoned, blinded, and banished. Archbishop Bruno of Cologne, called the Bishop-Maker, appointed Frederick I archbishop and declared the Abbacy of St. Peter independent.
Investiture era (1060–1213)
In the era beginning with Pope Gregory VII, the Latin Christendom entered a period of internal conflict. The first archbishop of the era was Gebhard, who during the Investiture Controversy remained on the side of the Pope. Gebhard thus suffered a nine-year exile, and was allowed to return shortly before his death and was buried in Admont. After King Henry IV abdicated and Conrad I of Abensberg was elected Archbishop. Conrad lived in exile until the Calistine Concordat of 1122. Conrad spent the remaining years of his episcopate improving the religious life in the archdiocese.
The Archbishops again took the side of the Pope during the strife between them and the Hohenstaufens. Archbishop Eberard I of Hilpolstein-Biburg was allowed to reign in peace, but his successor Conrad II of Austria earned the Emperor's wrath and died in 1168 in Admont a fugitive. Conrad III of Wittelsbach was appointed the Archbishop of Salzburg in 1177 at the Treaty of Venice, after the partisans of both Pope and Emperor were deposed.
Prince-archbishopric
Archbishop Eberhard II of Regensberg was made a prince of the Empire in 1213, and created three new sees: Chiemsee (1216), Seckau (1218) and Lavant (1225). In 1241, at the Council of Regensburg he denounced Pope Gregory IX as "that man of perdition, whom they call Antichrist, who in his extravagant boasting says, I am God, I cannot err." During the German Interregnum, Salzburg suffered confusion. Philip of Spanheim, heir to the Dukedom of Carinthia, refused to take priestly consecrations, and was replaced by Ulrich, Bishop of Seckau.
King Rudolph I of Habsburg quarrelled with the archbishops through the manipulations of Abbot Henry of Admont, and after his death the archbishops and the Habsburgs made peace in 1297. The people and archbishops of Salzburgs remained loyal to the Habsburgs in their struggles against the Wittelsbachs. When the Black Death reached Salzburg in 1347, the Jews were accused of poisoning the wells and suffered severe persecution.
In 1473, he summoned the first provincial diet in the history of the archbishopric, and eventually abdicated. It was only Leonard of Keutschach (reigned 1495–1519) who reversed the situation. He had all the burgomasters and town councillors (who were levying unfair taxes) arrested simultaneously and imprisoned in the castle. His last years were spent in bitter struggle against Matthäus Lang of Wellenburg, Bishop of Gurk, who succeeded him in 1519.
Matthäus Lang was largely unnoticed in official circles, although his influence was felt throughout the archbishopric. He brought in Saxon miners, which brought with them Protestant books and teachings. He then attempted to keep the populace Catholic, and during the Latin War was besieged in the Hohen-Salzburg, declared a "monster" by Martin Luther, and two later uprisings by the peasants lead to suffering to the entire archdiocese. Later bishops were wiser in the ruling and spared Salzburg the religious wars and devastation seen elsewhere in Germany. Archbishop Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau gave the Protestants the choice of converting to Catholicism or leaving Salzburg. The Cathedral was rebuilt in such splendour that it was unrivalled by all others north of the Alps.
Archbishop Paris of Lodron led Salzburg to peace and prosperity during the Thirty Years' War in which the rest of Germany was thoroughly devastated. During the reign of Leopold Anthony of Firmian, the remaining Protestants in Salzburg were expelled in 1731. He invited the Jesuits to Salzburg and asked for help from the emperor, and finally ordered the Protestants to recant their beliefs or emigrate. Over 20,000 Salzburg Protestants were forced to leave their homes, most of whom accepted an offer of land by King Frederick William I of Prussia.
The last Prince-Archbishop, Hieronymus von Colloredo, is probably best known for his patronage of Mozart. His reforms of the church and education systems alienated him from the people.
Secularisation
In 1803, Salzburg was secularised as the Electorate of Salzburg for the former Grand Duke Ferdinand III of Tuscany (brother of Emperor Francis II), who had lost his throne. In 1805, it became part of Austria. In 1809, it became part of Bavaria which closed the University of Salzburg, banned monasteries from accepting novices, and banned pilgrimages and processions. The archdiocese was reestablished as the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Salzburg in 1818 without temporal power.
Up to today, the Archbishop of Salzburg has also borne the title Primas Germaniae ("First Bishop of Germany"). The powers of this title – non-jurisdictional – are limited to being the Pope's first correspondent in the German-speaking world, but had once included the right to preside over the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The Archbishop also has the title of Legatus Natus ("born legate") to the Pope, which, although not a cardinal, gives the Archbishop the privilege of wearing red vesture (which is much deeper than a cardinal's scarlet), even in Rome.
Bishops of Salzburg
Frederick III of Leibnitz 1315–1338
Henry of Pirnbrunn 1338–1343
Ordulf of Wiesseneck 1343–1365
Pilgrim II of Pucheim 1365–1396
Gregor Schenk of Osterwitz 1396–1403
Eberhard III of Neuhaus 1403–1427
Eberhard IV of Starhemberg 1427–1429
John II of Reichensperg 1429–1441
Frederick IV Truchseß of Emmerberg 1441–1452
Sigismund I of Volkersdorf 1452–1461
Cardinal Burchard of Weissbruch 1461–1466
Bernhard II of Rohr 1466–1482
John III Peckenschlager 1482–1489
Friedrich V of Schallenburg 1489–1494
Sigismund II of Hollenegg 1494–1495
Leonhard von Keutschach 1495–1519
Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg 1519–1540
Ernest of Bavaria 1540–1554
Michael of Khuenburg 1554–1560
John Jacob of Khun-Bellasy 1560–1586
George of Kuenburg 1586–1587
Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau 1587–1612
Marcus Sittich of Hohenems 1612–1619
Paris von Lodron 1619–1653
Guidobald of Thun 1654–1668
Maximilian Gandalf of Kuenburg 1668–1687
Johann Ernst von Thun 1687–1709
Franz Anton von Harrach 1709–1727
Leopold Anton von Firmian 1727–1744
Jacob Ernest of Liechtenstein-Castelcorno 1744–1747
Andreas Jacob of Dietrichstein 1747–1753
Sigismund III of Schrattenbach 1753–1771
Hieronymus von Colloredo 1772–1812 (last prince-archbishop, lost temporal power in 1803 after secularization)
See Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Salzburg for archbishops since 1812.
See also
Alte Residenz – city palace
Schloss Hellbrunn – summer palace
References
External links
Salzburg at the Catholic Encyclopædia.
Legate at the Catholic Encyclopædia.
Bavarian Circle
Prince-bishoprics of the Holy Roman Empire in Austria
Catholic Church in Austria
Archbishopric
1270s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1278 establishments in Europe
1803 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire | [
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255372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince-Archbishopric%20of%20Bremen | Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen | The Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen () — not to be confused with the modern Archdiocese of Hamburg, founded in 1994 — was an ecclesiastical principality (787–1566/1648) of the Holy Roman Empire, which after its definitive secularization in 1648, became the hereditary Duchy of Bremen (). The prince-archbishopric, which was under the secular rule of the archbishop, consisted of about a third of the diocesan territory. The city of Bremen was de facto (since 1186) and de jure (since 1646) not part of the prince-archbishopric. Most of the prince-archbishopric lay rather in the area to the north of the city of Bremen, between the Weser and Elbe rivers. Even more confusingly, parts of the prince-archbishopric belonged in religious respect to the neighbouring diocese of Verden, making up 10% of its diocesan territory.
History
In the different historical struggles for expansion of territory or privileges and the concerned and disfavoured entity's defence against such annexation or usurpation, plenty of documents have been completely forged or counterfeited or backdated, in order to corroborate one's arguments. "These forgeries have drawn a veil before the early history of the [archbishopric of] Hamburg-Bremen."
The archdiocese before the creation of the prince-archbishopric
The foundation of the diocese belongs to the period of the missionary activity of Willehad on the lower Weser. It was erected on 15 July 787 at Worms, on Charlemagne's initiative, his jurisdiction being assigned to cover the Saxon territory on both sides of the Weser from the mouth of the Aller, northwards to the Elbe and westwards to the Hunte, and the Frisian territory for a certain distance from the mouth of the Weser.
Willehad fixed his headquarters at Bremen, though the formal constitution of the diocese took place only after the subjugation of the Saxons in 804 or 805, when Willehad'''s disciple, Willerich, was consecrated bishop of Bremen, with the same territory. The diocese was conceivably at that time a suffragan of the archbishops of Cologne, this is at least how they later corroborated their claim to supremacy over the Bremian see. When, after the death of Bishop Leuderich (838–45), the see was given to Ansgar, it lost its independence, and from that time on was permanently united with the Archdiocese of Hamburg.
The new combined see was regarded as the headquarters for missionary work in the Nordic countries, and new sees to be erected were to be its suffragans, meaning subject to its jurisdiction. Ansgar's successor, Rimbert, the "second apostle of the north," was troubled by onslaughts first by Normans and then by Wends, and by Cologne's renewed claims to supremacy.
At Archbishop Adalgar's (888–909) instigation Pope Sergius III confirmed the amalgamation of the Diocese of Bremen with the Archdiocese of Hamburg to form the Archdiocese of Hamburg and Bremen, colloquially called Hamburg-Bremen, and by so doing he denied Cologne's claim as metropolia over Bremen. Sergius prohibited the chapter at Hamburg's Concathedral to found suffragan dioceses of its own.
After the Obodrite destruction of Hamburg in 983 the Hamburg chapter was dispersed. So Archbishop Unwan appointed a new chapter with twelve canons, with three each taken from Bremen Cathedral chapter, and the three colleges of Bücken, Harsefeld and Ramelsloh. In 1139 Archbishop Adalbero had fled the invasion of Count Rudolph II of Stade and Count Palatine Frederick II of Saxony, who destroyed Bremen, and established in Hamburg also appointing new capitular canons there by 1140.
Bremen's Diocesan Territory and its SuffragansHamburg-Bremen's diocesan territory covered about today's following territories: The Bremian cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven, the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (north of Elbe), the Lower Saxon counties of Aurich (northerly), Cuxhaven, Diepholz (northerly), Frisia, Nienburg (westerly), Oldenburg in Oldenburg (easterly), Osterholz, Rotenburg upon Wümme (northerly), Stade (except of an eastern tract of land), Wesermarsch, Wittmund, the Lower Saxon urban counties Delmenhorst and Wilhelmshaven, the Schleswig-Holsteinian counties of Ditmarsh, Pinneberg, Rendsburg-Eckernförde (southerly), Segeberg (easterly), Steinburg, Stormarn (easterly) as well as the Schleswig-Holsteinian urban counties of Kiel and Neumünster.
The see of Hamburg-Bremen attained its greatest prosperity and later had its deepest troubles under Archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg (1043–1072). He was after Hamburg-Bremen's upgrade to the rank of a Patriarchate of the North and failed completely. Hamburg stopped being used as part of the diocese's name. The next two archbishops, Liemar and Humbert, were determined opponents of Pope Gregory VII.
Under the latter in 1104 Bremen's suffragan Diocese of Lund (DK) was elevated to an archdiocese supervising all of Bremen's other Nordic former suffragan sees, to wit Århus (DK), Faroe Islands (FO), Gardar (Greenland), Linköping (S), Odense (DK), Orkney (UK), Oslo (N), Ribe (DK), Roskilde (DK), Schleswig (D), Selje (N), Skálholt (IS), Skara (S), Strängnäs (S), Trondheim (N), Uppsala (S), Viborg (DK), Vestervig (DK), Västerås (S) and Växjö (S).Bremen's remaining suffragan sees at that time were only existing by name, since insurgent Wends had destroyed the so-called Wendish dioceses of Oldenburg-Lübeck, Ratzeburg and Schwerin and they were only to be reestablished later. At the stripping of the Duchy of Saxony (7th century - 1180) in 1180 all of these suffragan bishops achieved for parts of their diocesan territories the status of imperially immediate prince-bishoprics. The Bishopric of Livonia (first at Uexküll then Riga) was a suffragan of Bremen in the years 1186–1255.
The Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen after 1180 as a territory of imperial immediacy
Gaining Grounds for a Prince-Archbishopric of Imperial Immediacy
Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and his allies, many of them vassals and former supporters of his paternal cousin Duke Henry III, the Lion, had defeated the Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. In 1180 Frederick I Barbarossa stripped Henry the Lion of his duchies. In 1182 he and his wife Matilda Plantagenêt, the daughter of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine and sister of Richard Lionheart left from Stade to go into exile from the Holy Roman Empire in order to stay with Henry II of England.Frederick I Barbarossa partitioned Saxony in some dozens of territories of Imperial Immediate status allotting each territory to that one of his allies who had conquered them before from Henry the Lion and his remaining supporters. In 1168 the Saxon clan of the Ascanians, allies of Frederick I Barbarossa, had failed to install their family member Count Siegfried of Anhalt, on the see of Bremen.
But in 1180 the Ascanians prevailed twofoldly. The chief of the House of Ascania, Margrave Otto I of Brandenburg, son of Albert the Bear, a maternal cousin of Henry the Lion, provided his sixth brother Bernhard, Count of Anhalt, from then on Bernhard III, Duke of Saxony, with the later on so-called younger Duchy of Saxony (1180 - 1296), a radically belittled territory consisting of three unconnected territories along the river Elbe, from north west to south east, (1) Hadeln around Otterndorf, (2) around Lauenburg upon Elbe and (3) around Wittenberg upon Elbe. Except of the title, Duke of Saxony, Angria and Westphalia, which this younger Duchy of Saxony granted its rulers, even after its dynastic partition in 1296, this territory, consisting only of territorial fringes of the old Duchy of Saxony, had little in common with the latter. In 1260, with effect from 1296 on, its rulers split the younger Duchy into the Duchies of Saxe-Wittenberg () and Saxe-Lauenburg (), the latter holding the unconnected two northern territories, belonging both to the archdiocese of Bremen.Otto and Bernhard helped their second brother Siegfried, who since 1168 had called himself the Bishop Elect of Bremen, to gain the see of Bremen, with part of the diocesan territory being upgraded to form the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen (). Thus the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen became one of the successor states of the old Duchy of Saxony, holding only a small part of its former territory.
In 1186 Frederick I Barbarossa recognised the city of Bremen as a political body by the Gelnhausen Privilege. With the consent of Prince-Archbishop Hartwig II, of Uthlede the emperor declared the city to be governed by its burghers and the emperor, with the Prince-Archbishop waiving his say. The city of Bremen regarded and still regards this privilege to be constitutive for its status as a Free imperial city of imperial immediacy.
Through the history the respective rulers of the Prince-Archbishopric and its successor state Bremen-Verden often denied the city's status. And also the city could and did not always cling to its claim of imperial immediacy, which made the city's status somewhat ambiguous. Through most of the history the city participated in the Prince-Archbishopric's Diets as part of the Estates (see below) and paid its share in the taxes, at least when it had consented to the levying before. Since the city was the major taxpayer, its consent was mostly searched for. Like this the city wielded fiscal and political power within the Prince-Archbishopric, while the city would rather not allow the Prince-Archbishop or his representatives to rule in the city against its consent.
After the Bremen Cathedral chapter, overlooking the three enfranchised Hamburg capitulars, had elected Valdemar of Denmark, the deposed Bishop of Schleswig, archbishop in 1207, Bremen's cathedral dean Burchard of Stumpenhusen, who had opposed this election, fled to Hamburg, then under Danish influence. King Valdemar II of Denmark, in enmity with his father's cousin Archbishop Valdemar, gained the Hamburg chapter to elect Burchard as anti-archbishop in early 1208. Lacking papal support, King Valdemar II himself invested him as Archbishop Burchard I, however, only accepted in North Elbia.
In 1219 the Bremen Chapter again ignored the Hamburg capitulars, fearing their Danish partisanship and elected Gebhard of Lippe archbishop. In 1223 Archbishop Gebhard reconciled the Hamburg chapter and confirmed that three of its capitulars were enfranchised to elect with the Bremen chapter, to wit the provost, presiding the chapter, the dean (Domdechant) and the scholaster, in charge of the education at the cathedral school. Pope Honorius III confirmed this settlement in 1224, also affirming the continued existence of both chapters.
The fortified city of Bremen held its own guards, not allowing prince-archiepiscopal soldiers to enter it. The city reserved an extra very narrow gate, the so-called Bishop's Needle (Latin: Acus episcopi, first mentioned in 1274), for all clergy including the Prince-Archbishop. The narrowness of the gate made it technically impossible to come accompanied by knights. Therefore, the Prince-Archbishops rather preferred to reside outside of the city, first in Bücken and later in the Vörde Castle, which became the principal fortress of Prince-Archbishop Gerhard II, Edelherr zur Lippe in 1219.
The Chapters of Bremen Cathedral (see below) and part of the administration were located within the city boundary in a district of immunity and extraterritorial status (, literally: Cathedral Liberty) around the Cathedral of St. Peter, where the city council would refrain to interfere. The Hamburg Concathedral with chapterhouse and capitular residential courts formed a Cathedral Immunity District of the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen too.
The key, the epithet symbol of the Saint Simon Petrus, has become the symbol of the city of Bremen (see Coat of arms of Bremen), the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen (two criss-crossed argent (silver) keys on a gules (red) background, see in the left part of the Bremen-Verden's seal) and of the Bremian city of Stade.
The territory of the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen consisted of a number of sub-entities. The only thing they all had in common was, that the prior archbishops or capitulars or the Chapter as a collective obtained some secular power in them by way of purchase, application of force, usurpation, commendation, pledge, donation etc. The prior archiepiscopal authorities didn't have succeeded in almost any of the sub-entities to gain all the power, be it judicial, patrimonial, parochial, fiscal, feudal or else what. Almost everywhere the rule was to be shared with one or more competing bearers of authority, e.g. aristocrats, outside ecclesiastical dignitaries, autonomous corporations of free peasants () or chartered towns and the like. Therefore, the archiepiscopal authority used to refer to each sub-entity by different terms like county, parish, shire, bailiwick or patrimonial district, each according to the particular power, which the archiepiscopal authority had achieved in them.
The Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen's former territory consists about of today's following Lower Saxon counties (, or ) of Cuxhaven (southerly), Osterholz, Rotenburg upon Wümme and Stade as well as of the Bremian exclave of the city of Bremerhaven and from 1145 to 1526 today's Schleswig-Holsteinian county of Ditmarsh. The city of Bremen was legally a part of the bishopric until 1646, but de facto ruled by its burghers and didn't tolerate the prince-archbishop's residence within its walls any more since 1313. Therefore, the prince-archbishop moved to Vörde (). Verden's former prince-bishopric's territory is represented about by the eastern part of the modern County of Verden and the southern part of today's County of Rotenburg, both in Lower Saxony.
Constitution and Politics within the Prince-Archbishopric
In relation to the interior the archiepiscopal authority, consisting of Prince-Archbishop and cathedral chapter, had to find ways to interact with the other bearers of authority. These were gradually transforming into the Bishopric's Estates (), a prevailingly advisory body, but decision-taking in fiscal and tax matters. The bishopric's Estates again were by no means homogenous and therefore often quarreled for they consisted of the hereditary aristocracy, the service gentry, non-capitular clergy, free peasants and burghers of chartered towns. The modus vivendi of interplay of the Estates and the archiepiscopal authority, being in itself divided into the Prince-Archbishop and the Chapter, became the quasi constitution of the Prince-Archbishopric. However, the interplay was not determined by fixed standards of behaviour. While the consecutive Archbishops worked on discarding the bishopric's Estates from the political landscape, the latter fought for the enforcement of the modus vivendi to become a real constitution. The Chapter often swung between increasing its influence by fighting the Estates jointly with the Prince-Archbishop and repelling his absolutist intentions by making common cause with the Estates. All parties made use of means like bluffing, threat, obstructionism, corruption, horse-trading and even violence.
In 1542/1547 - 1549 Chapter and Estates managed to dismiss the autocratic and prodigal Prince-Archbishop Christopher the Spendthrift, Duke of Brunswick and Lunenburg-Wolfenbüttel. Especially the Chapter used its power to elect very old candidates, to minimise the time a ruler can be harmful, or to elect minors, which it hoped to dress and tame in time. Once in a while the Chapter took up time and protracted elections for years, being itself the ruler for the time of sede vacante. During the dismissal of Prince-Archbishop Christopher the Spendthrift the chapter ruled together with the Estates which had gained at that time substantial power.
In relation to the outside the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen had the status of an imperial estate (, plural: Reichsstände) with a vote in the Diet () of the Holy Roman Empire. A prerequisite for being an imperial estate was imperial immediacy (, or Reichsfreiheit) of the rulers or ruling bodies, meaning that they had no other authority above them except of the Holy Roman Emperor himself. Furthermore, such rulers or ruling bodies (such as Chapters or city councils) possessed several important rights and privileges, including a degree of autonomy in the rule of their territories.
In their pastoral and religious capacity as Roman Catholic cleric the archbishops led their archdiocese as the hierarchical superior of all Roman Catholic clergy, including the suffragan bishops of Oldenburg-Lübeck, Ratzeburg and Schwerin.
Decline of the Prince-Archbishopric's Independence
The Prince-Archbishopric often suffered from military supremacy of neighbouring powers. Having no dynasty, but prince-archbishops of different descent, the Prince-Archbishopric became a pawn in the hands of the powerful. The establishment of a constitution, which would bind the conflicting Estates, failed.
Schisms in Church and State marked the next two centuries, and in spite of the labours of the Windesheim and Bursfelde congregations, the way was prepared for the Reformation, which made rapid headway, partly because the last Roman Catholic prince-archbishop, Christopher the Spendthrift, was in permanent conflict with the Chapter and the Estates. Being simultaneously the Prince-Bishop of Verden, he preferred to reside in the city of Verden.
By the time he died (1558), in the Prince-Archbishopric nothing was left of the old denomination apart from a few monasteries – such as Harsefeld, Himmelpforten, Lilienthal, Neuenwalde, Osterholz as well as Zeven under the jurisdiction of the Bremian archdiocese and as well as Neukloster under the jurisdiction of Verden's See – and the districts served by them. While between 1523 and 1551 the cities of Bremen and Stade had dissolved all the urban monasteries, except of St Mary's in Stade, which transformed until 1568 into a Lutheran convent, and conveyed their buildings to uses by schools, hospitals, alms houses and senior homes.
The Era of the Lutheran Administrators of the Prince-Archbishopric
The constitution of the Holy Roman Empire provided, that the Emperor may only enfeoff a prince-bishop elect with the regalia, if the Pope would have confirmed his election to the respective See. In default thereof the Emperor could grant a liege indult (), often restricted to some years only, and then notwithstanding enfeoff the prince-bishop elect with the regalia of restricted legitimacy to the effect that the elect could rule with princely power within the prince-bishopric, bearing only title of Administrator, but would be banned from participating in the Diets. Lacking papal confirmation and imperial liege indult could bring a prince-bishop elect into the precarious situation to be dismissed by the Emperor or by any of his vassals powerful enough and keen to do so.
Once the inhabitants of the Prince-Archbishopric had adopted Lutheranism and partially Calvinism, as did the city of Bremen and the territories under its influence downstream the Weser and in the district of Bederkesa, also most capitulars, recruited from burghers of the city of Bremen and rural noble families, turned out to be Calvinists and Lutherans. Thus the capitulars preferred to elect Protestant candidates. The Bremian prince-archbishop elects could only occasionally gain the imperial liege indult.
Many princely houses, such as the House of Guelf (Brunswick and Lunenburg-Wolfenbüttel), the House of Nikloting (Mecklenburg-Schwerin), the House of Wettin (Electorate of Saxony), and the House of Ascania (Saxe-Lauenburg) applied for the See. Before electing a new prince-archbishop the Chapter took its time, ruling the Prince-Archbishopric in accordance with the Estates (1566–1568), and considered the opportunities.
In 1524 the Prince-Archbishopric had subjected the autonomous farmers' republic of the Land of Wursten, but the Wursteners still hoped for a liberation and support from the neighbouring Saxe-Lauenburgian exclave of the Land of Hadeln. Thus on 17 February 1567 the Chapter elected Duke Henry III of Saxe-Lauenburg (*1550-1585*, ruled from 1568 on) prince-archbishop. In return his father Francis I waived any Saxe-Lauenburgian claim to the Land of Wursten as well as to the district of Bederkesa and abandoned the lawsuit, which he had brought to the Imperial Chamber Court to this end.
In his election capitulations Henry III covenanted to accept the privileges of the Estates and the existing laws. Due to his minority he agreed, that Chapter and Estates would rule the Prince-Archbishopric. In this time he should work towards a papal confirmation. De facto he ascended the See in 1568, gained an imperial liege indult in 1570, while de jure still represented by the Chapter until 1580, in order not to complicate a papal confirmation, which never materialised.
While Maximilian II regarded Henry III a true Catholic, Pope Sixtus V remained a skeptic. Henry III was raised Lutheran, but educated Catholic and served before his election as Catholic canon of the cathedral in Cologne. The schism wasn't so definite, as it looks in the retrospect. The Holy See still hoped the Reformation would be a merely temporary phenomenon, while its protagonists still expected all the Roman church to reform, so that there would be no schism.
So Sixtus V tested Henry III once in a while, demanding the succession of Catholic candidates for vacancies in the Bremian Chapter - which it sometimes accepted, sometimes denied -, while Henry succeeded to be also elected by the Chapters of the prince-bishoprics of Osnabrück (1574–1585) and Paderborn (1577–1585), without ever gaining papal confirmation. In 1575 Henry III and Anna von Broich (Borch) married in Hagen im Bremischen.
As to the interior Henry III still had to repay debts from his pre-predecessor Christopher the Spendthrift. In 1580 Henry introduced a Lutheran church constitution for the Prince-Archbishopric. Thus Henry III would not exercise the pastoral functions of a Roman Catholic bishop any more. In 1584 the Holy See founded the Roman Catholic Nordic Missions, an endeavour for pastoral care and mission in the area of the de facto ceased archdioceses of Bremen and of Lund. In 1622 the Nordic Missions were subordinated to the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide in Rome. The Holy See conveyed to the Nuncio to Cologne, Pietro Francesco Montoro, the task to look after the Nordic Missions in - among others - the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen and the Prince-Bishopric of Verden. In 1667 the Holy See further institutionalised the Nordic Missions by establishing the Vicariate Apostolic of the Nordic Missions.
On 22 April 1585 Henry III died in his residence in Beverstedtermühlen after a riding accident. After Henry's early death, Duke Adolf of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp wielded influence at the Bremian Chapter to elect his son John Adolphus of Schleswig-Holstein at Gottorp (*1575-1616*) to the See. To this end, Adolf paid 20,000 rixdollars and promised to work towards the restitution of Ditmarsh to the Prince-Archbishopric.
In 1585 John Adolf covenanted at his election in the obligatory election capitulations, that he would accept the privileges of the Chapter as well as the existing laws and that he would work - at his own expense - towards gaining either papal confirmation or - in default thereof - an imperial liege indult. From 1585 to 1589 Chapter and Estates ruled the Prince-Archbishopsric in custodianship for the minor John Adolf.
The Prince-Archbishopric during the Thirty-Years War (1618-1648)
At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War the Prince-Archbishopric maintained neutrality, as did most of the territories in the Lower Saxon Circle. After 1613 King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway, being in personal union Duke of Holstein within the Holy Roman Empire, turned his attention to gain grounds by acquiring the prince-bishoprics of Bremen, Verden, Minden and Halberstadt.
He skillfully took advantage of the alarm of the German Protestants after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, to stipulate with Bremen's Chapter and Administrator John Frederick, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, his cousin of second degree, to grant coadjutorship of the See of Bremen for his son Frederick, later crown prince of Denmark (September 1621). Coadjutorship usually included the succession of a See. A similar arrangement was reached in November for the Prince-Bishopric of Verden with its Chapter and Administrator Philip Sigismund. In 1623 Christian's son succeeded the late Philip Sigismund as Frederick II, Administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Verden, only to flee the troops of the Catholic League under Count Johan 't Serclaes of Tilly in 1626.
In November 1619 Christian IV of Denmark, Duke of Holstein stationed Danish troops in the Bremian city of Stade, officially on behalf of his son the provided to be Administrator successor, suppressing an unrest of its burghers.
In 1620 Christian, the Younger, titular duke of Brunswick and Lunenburg-Wolfenbüttel, the Lutheran Administrator of the Prince-Bishopric Halberstadt requested that the Lutheran Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen would join the war coalition of the Protestant Union. The Administrator and the Estates of the Prince-Archbishopric met in a Diet and declared for their territory their loyalty to Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, and their neutrality in the conflict.
With Danish troops within his territory and Christian the Younger's request Administrator John Frederick tried desperately to keep his Prince-Archbishopric out of the war, being in complete agreement with the Estates and the city of Bremen. When in 1623 the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, fighting in the Eighty Years' War for its independence against Habsburg's Spanish and imperial forces, requested its Calvinist co-religionist of the city of Bremen to join, the city refused, but started to enforce its fortifications.
In 1623 the territories comprising the Lower Saxon Circle decided to recruit an army in order to maintain an armed neutrality, with troops of the Catholic League already operating in the neighboured Lower Rhenish-Westphalian Circle and dangerously approaching their region. The concomitant effects of the war, debasements and dearness, had already caused an inflation also in the region. The population suffered from billeting and alimenting Baden-Durlachian, Danish, Halberstadtian, Leaguist, and Palatine troops, whose marching through the Prince-Archbishopric had to tolerate in order to prevent entering into armed conflict.
In 1623 the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, diplomatically supported by James I, King of England and of Ireland and as James IV King of Scotland, the brother-in-law of Christian IV of Denmark, started a new anti-Habsburg campaign. Thus the troops of the Catholic League were bound and the Prince-Archbishopric seemed relieved. But soon after the imperial troops under Albrecht von Wallenstein headed for the North in an attempt to destroy the fading Hanseatic League, in order to subject the Hanseatic cities of Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck and to establish a Baltic trade monopoly, to be run by some imperial favourites including Spaniards and Poles. The idea was to win Sweden's and Denmark's support, both of which since long were after the destruction of the Hanseatic League.
In May 1625 Christian IV of Denmark, Duke of Holstein was elected – in the latter of his functions – by the Lower Saxon Circle's member territories commander-in-chief of the Lower Saxon troops. More troops were recruited and to be billeted and alimented in the Lower Saxon territories, including the Prince-Archbishopric. In the same year Christian IV joined the Anglo-Dutch war coalition. In 1625 Tilly warned the Prince-Archbishop John Frederick to further accept the stationing of Danish troops and Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, demanded the immediate end of his and Verden's alliance with Denmark, with Verden being already ruled by Christian's son Frederick, being as well the provided successor of John Frederick. He declared again his loyalty to the Emperor and neutrality in the conflict. But all in vain.
Now Christian IV ordered his troops to capture all the important traffic hubs in the Prince-Archbishopric and entered into the Battle of Lutter am Barenberge, on 27 August 1626, where he was defeated by the Leaguist troops under Tilly. Christian IV and his surviving troops fled to the Prince-Archbishopric and took their headquarters in Stade. Administrator John Frederick, in personal union also Administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Lübeck, fled to the latter and left the rule in the Prince-Archbishopric to the Chapter and the Estates.
In 1626 Tilly and his troops occupied the Prince-Bishopric of Verden, which caused a flight of Lutheran clergy from that territory. He demanded the Bremian Chapter to allow him to enter the Prince-Archbishopric. The Chapter, now holding the baby, declared again its loyalty to the Emperor and delayed an answer to the request, arguing that it had to consult with the Estates in a Diet first, which would be a lengthy procedure.
Meanwhile, Christian IV ordered Dutch, English and French troops for his support to land in the Prince-Archbishopric, while extorting from the latter high war contributions to finance his war. The Chapter's pleas for a reduction of the contributions Christian IV commented by arguing once the Leaguists would take over, his extortions will seem little.
By 1627 Christian IV had de facto dismissed his cousin John Frederick from the Bremian See. In the same year Christian IV withdrew from the Prince-Archbishopric, in order to fight Wallenstein's invasion of his Duchy of Holstein. Tilly then invaded the Prince-Archbishopric and captured its southern parts. The city of Bremen shut its city gates and entrenched behind its improved fortifications. In 1628 Tilly beleaguered Stade with its remaining garrison of 3,500 Danish and English soldiers. On 5 May 1628 Tilly granted them safe-conduct to England and Denmark and the whole Prince-Archbishopric was in his hands. Now Tilly turned to the city of Bremen, which paid him a ransom of 10,000 rixdollars in order to spare its siege. The city remained unoccupied.Wallenstein had meanwhile conquered all the Jutish Peninsula, which made Christian IV to sign the Treaty of Lübeck, on 22 May 1629, in order to regain possession of all his feoffs on the peninsula, he in return agreed to formally end Denmark's participation in the Thirty Years' War and waived for his son Frederick II, Administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Verden, the administration of that prince-bishopric as well as the provided succession as Administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Halberstadt.
Administrator John Frederick, exiled in the Imperial Free City of Lübeck, was in a markedly weak position. So in 1628 he consented that the Lutheran convent in the former Roman Catholic St. Mary's monastery in Stade – under Leaguist occupation – was restituted to Catholic rite and manned with foreign monks, if the Chapter would also agree. Again passing the buck on to the Chapter.
The Leaguist takeover enabled Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, to implement the Edict of Restitution, decreed on 6 March 1629 within the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen and the Prince-Bishopric of Verden. The Bremian monasteries still maintaining Roman Catholic rite – Altkloster Convent, , Neukloster, and Zeven – became the local strongholds for a reCatholicisation within the scope of Counter-Reformation.
Under the threat of the Edict of Restitution John Frederick consented to Canonical Visitations of the remaining monasteries, those clinging to Roman Catholic rite and those converted to voluntary Lutheran convents alike. Nunneries had traditionally been institutions to provide unmarried daughters of the better off, who couldn't be provided a husband befitting their social status or who didn't want to marry, with a decent livelihood. So when an unmarried woman of that status joined a nunnery she would bestow earning assets (real estate) or – restricted to her lifetime – regular revenues paid by her male relatives, on the monastery, making up in the former case part of the nunnery's estates (not to be confused with the political body of the Estates).
In many territories, where the majority of the population adopted Lutheranism, the nunneries' function to provide sustenance for unmarried women wasn't to be given up. So it happened that the Prince-Archbishopric's former Roman Catholic nunneries of Himmelpforten, Lilienthal, Neuenwalde, and Osterholz with all their estates had turned into such Lutheran women's convents (German: das Stift, more particular: Damenstift, literally ladies' foundation), while the nunnery of Zeven was in the process of becoming one, with – among a majority of Catholic nuns – a number of nuns of Lutheran denomination, usually called conventuals. Other expressions like abbess, for the chairwoman, and prioress for conventuals of certain hierarchic function, were – and are partly – continued to be used in such Lutheran Stifte.
Within the scope of the visitations by the end of the year 1629 the Roman Catholic visitators issued an ultimatum to the Lutheran conventuals had been thrown out from the monasteries, with the estates of Himmelpforten and Neuenwalde then being bestowed to the Jesuites, in order to finance them and their missioning in the course of the Counter-Reformation in the Prince-Archbishopric. The expelled conventuals were denied to get the real estate restituted, which they bestowed on the monastery, when they entered it.Ferdinand II suspended the capitulars from penalty, if they would dismiss the Lutheran coadjutor Frederick, later Crown Prince of Denmark from office. The Chapter refused, still backing Frederick, whom it had elected with full legal validity in 1621. So Ferdinand II himself dismissed him by way of using the Edict of Restitution, in favour of his youngest son, the Roman Catholic Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria, already administrator of the prince-bishoprics of Halberstadt (1628–1648), Passau (1625–1662) and Strasbourg (1626–1662).Ferdinand II left John Frederick in office, against Leaguist resistance, for he had always kept loyalty to him. The Catholic League wished the Roman Catholic Count Francis William of Wartenberg, Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück (1625–1634 and again 1648–1661), onto the See. After all, the See included at those years an annual revenue of 60,000 rixdollars at the free disposal of its holder, making up half the Prince-Archbishopric's budget.Francis of Wartenberg, appointed by Ferdinand II as chairman of the imperial restitution commission, carrying out the provisions of the Edict of Restitution in the Lower Saxon Circle, dismissed John Frederick in 1629, who acquiesced.
In September 1629 the Chapter was ordered to render an account of all the capitular and prince-archiepiscopal estates (not to be confused with the Estates), which it refused, arguing first that the order was not authenticated and later that due to disputes with the city council of Bremen, they couldn't freely travel to render an account let alone do the necessary research on the estates. The anti-Catholic attitudes of the burghers and the council of Bremen would make it completely impossible to prepare the restitution of estates from the Lutheran Chapter to the Roman Catholic Church. Even Lutheran capitulars were uneasy in Calvinistic Bremen. In October 1629 the capitular secretary finally rendered the ordered account in Verden and was informed that by the Edict of Restitution the Chapter is regarded to be illegitimate. Lutheran capitulars were interrogated, but the Chapter was left in office, with its decisions subjected to the consent of the restitution commission. Pope Urban VIII appointed additional Roman Catholic capitulars in 1630, including a new provost.
The estates within the boundaries of the unoccupied city of Bremen weren't restituted by order of the city council. The council argued, that the city had long been Protestant, but the restitution commission argued that the city was de jure a part of the Prince-Archbishopric, so Protestantism had illegitimately alienated estates from the Roman Catholic Church. The city council answered under these circumstances it would rather separate from the Holy Roman Empire and join the quasi-independent Republic of the Seven Netherlands (Its independence was finally confirmed by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648). The city was neither to be conquered nor to be successfully beleaguered due to its new fortifications and its access to the North Sea via the Weser river.
Within the occupied Prince-Archbishopric the Leaguist occupants carried out the restitution. In Stade, Tilly's headquarters, all churches, except of St. Nicholas, were handed over to foreign Catholic clerics. But the burghers didn't attend Catholic services. So in March 1630 Tilly expelled all Lutheran clergy, except the one of St. Nicholas. Tilly levied high war contributions from Stade's burghers (e.g. 22,533 rixdollars in 1628 alone) and offered in 1630 to relieve every burgher, who would attend Catholic services, without success. In July 1630 Tilly left to head for the Duchy of Pomerania, where King Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden had landed with his troops, opening a new front in the Thirty Years' War. He had been won by French diplomacy to join a new anti-imperial coalition, soon joined by the Netherlands.
In February 1631 John Frederick conferred with Gustavus II Adolphus and a number of Lower Saxon princes in Leipzig, all of them troubled by Habsburg's growing influence wielded by virtue of the Edict of Restitution in a number of Northern German Lutheran prince-bishoprics. John Frederick speculated to regain the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen and therefore in June/July 1631 officially allied himself with Sweden. For the war being John Frederick accepted the supreme command of Gustavus II Adolphus, who promised to restitute the Prince-Archbishopric to its former Administrator. In October an Army, newly recruited by John Frederick, started to reconquer the Prince-Archbishopric and – supported by Swedish troops – to capture the neighboured Prince-Bishopric of Verden, de facto dismissing Verden's Catholic Prince-Bishop Count Francis of Wartenberg (ruled 1630-1631), and causing the flight of the Catholic clergy wherever they arrived. The Prince-Bishopric of Verden became subject of a Swedish military administration, while John Frederick ascended its See in 1631.
The reconquest of the Prince-Archbishopric – helped by forces from Sweden and from the city of Bremen – was interrupted by Leaguist forces under Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim, coming as a relief to Stade, where they joined the Catholic imperial and Leaguist forces still holding out. On 10 May 1632 they were granted safe-conduct and left a desperately impoverished city of Stade after its siege by John Frederick's forces. John Frederick was back in his office, only to realise the supremacy of Sweden, insisting on its supreme command until the war's end. The Prince-Archbishopric continuously suffered from billeting and alimenting soldiers. The relation between the Estates, who had to maintain administration under Catholic occupation, and the returned Administrator were difficult. The Estates preferred to directly negotiate with the occupants, this time the Swedes. John Frederick wanted to secularise the monasteries in favour of his budget, but the opposing Estates prevented that.
After John Frederick's death in 1634 Chapter and Estates regarded Frederick's (later Danish Crown Prince) dismissal as coadjutor by Ferdinand II by virtue of the Edict of Restitution illegitimate. But the Swedish occupants had to be persuaded first, to accept Frederick's succession. So Chapter and Estates ruled the Prince-Archbishopric until the conclusion of the negotiations with Sweden. In 1635 he succeeded as Lutheran Administrator Frederick II in the Sees of Bremen and of Verden. But he had to render homage to the minor Queen Christina of Sweden.
In the same year Pope Urban VIII provided the Catholic coadjutor Leopold Wilhelm, Archduke of Austria, imposed in 1629 by his father Ferdinand II, with the Archdiocese of Bremen, but due to its persisting occupation by the Swedes he never gained de facto pastoral influence let alone the power as administrator of the prince-archbishopric.
In 1635/1636 the Estates and Frederick II agreed with Sweden upon the prince-archbishopric's neutrality. But this didn't last long, because in the Danish-Swedish Torstenson War (1643–45) the Swedes seized de facto rule in both prince-bishoprics. Christian IV of Denmark had to sign the Second Peace of Brömsebro on 13 August 1645, a number of Danish territories, including the two prince-bishoprics, being ceded into Swedish hands. So Frederick II had to resign as Administrator in both prince-bishoprics. He succeeded his late father on the Danish throne as Frederick III of Denmark in 1648.
With Bremen sede vacante again, the new Pope Innocent X appointed Count Francis of Wartenberg, the expelled short-period Prince-Bishop of Verden (1630–1631) and officiating Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück (1625–1661), as Vicar Apostolic in 1645, i.e. provisional head of the See. Wartenberg never gained pastoral influence, let alone power as prince-bishop due to the persisting Swedish occupation of the Prince-Archbishopric until the end of the Thirty Years' War.
With the impending enfeoffment of the Prince-Archbisporic of Bremen to the political Great Power of Sweden, as under negotiation for the Treaty of Westphalia, the city of Bremen searched for an imperial confirmation of its status of imperial immediacy from 1186 (Gelnhausen Privilege), which Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, granted to the city in 1646 (Diploma of Linz).
The further History of the Prince-Archbishopric after 1648
For the further history see the article about the collectively ruled Duchy of Bremen and Principality of Verden (1648–1823). Then see Stade Region (1823–1978), which emerged by the establishment of the High-Bailiwick of Stade in 1823, comprising the territories of the former Duchies of Bremen and Verden and the Land Hadeln.
Reorganisation of Roman Catholic Church in the former Territory of the Archdiocese and Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen
In 1824 Bremen's former diocesan territory was distributed among the still-existing neighbouring dioceses of Osnabrück, Münster and Hildesheim, the latter of which covers today the former territory of the Prince-Archbishopric proper. Except for the prevailingly Calvinist Free Hanseatic City of Bremen and its territory, which continued to be supervised by the Roman Catholic Vicariate Apostolic of the Nordic Missions. The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen became part of the Diocese of Osnabrück only in 1929, with the Vicariate Apostolic being dismantled in the same year.
Incumbents of the see
See: List of administrators, archbishops, bishops, and prince-archbishops of Bremen
Monasteries in the territory of the prince-archbishopric
: Benedictine Old Nunnery of Ss. Mary's and Lawrence, existed from 1197 to 1648, subject to Verden Diocese
Bremen: Dominican St. Catherine's Friary, Bremen, existed from 1225 to 1528, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Bremen: Franciscan , existed from 1225 to 1528, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Bremen: Benedictine , existed from 1050 to 1523, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Harsefeld: Benedictine of monks, existed from 1104 to 1648, exempt
Hemmingstedt: Benedictine St. Mary's Nunnery, existed from 1502 to 1537, subject to Bremen Archdiocese, Hamburg subchapter; after 1526 not part of the secular prince-archiepiscopal rule any more
Himmelpforten: Cistercian Porta Coeli Nunnery, existed from before 1255 to 1647, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Lilienthal: Cistercian , existed from 1232 to 1646, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Lunden: Franciscan Friary, existed from 1517 to 1536, subject to Bremen Archdiocese, Hamburg subchapter; after 1526 not part of the secular prince-archiepiscopal rule any more
Meldorf: Dominican Marienau Friary, existed from 1380 to 1540, subject to Bremen Archdiocese, Hamburg subchapter; after 1526 not part of the secular prince-archiepiscopal rule any more
Neuenwalde: Benedictine Convent of the Holy Cross, exists since 1219, till 1648 subject to Bremen Archdiocese
: Benedictine New Nunnery, existed from the 1270s to 1647, subject to Verden Diocese
Osterholz: Benedictine Nunnery in the Osterholz, existed from 1182 to 1650, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Stade: Benedictine , existed from 1141 to 1648, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Stade: Franciscan St. John's Friary, existed from the 13th to the 16th century, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Stade: Premonstratensian St. George's Friary, existed from 1132 to about 1527, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Zeven: Benedictine , existed from before 986 to 1650, subject to Bremen Archdiocese
Notable people from the Archdiocese and Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen
A list of interesting people whose birth, death, residence or activity took place in the Archdiocese or Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen. Not included are persons mentioned above in the list of incumbents of the see.
Adam of Bremen (before 1050 - c. 1081), Roman Catholic canon and historiographer
Albert of Bexhövede (c. 1165–1229), Roman Catholic Bishop of Riga and Terra Mariana, seated in Riga, which he founded in 1201
Albert of Stade (c. 1187 - after 1265), abbot of Stade's monastery of St. Mary and chronicler
Bonaventura Borchgreving (died latest 1596), upper Kapellmeister at the court in Copenhagen
(died 1526), Roman Catholic, then Lutheran theologist, martyr
Gertrud von dem Brake (died second half of 15th century), Roman Catholic Prioress of Neukloster
Emma of Lesum (also Imma von Stiepel; c. 975-980 – 1038), benefactor of the Roman Catholic Church, Roman Catholic saint
Augustin van Getelen (end of 15th century – 1556), Roman Catholic Dominican, controversial theologist in København
(c. 1430–1485), Roman Catholic priest, church and monastic reformer
Christoph von Issendorff (1529–1586), Lutheran heritable Cup-bearer of the Prince-Archbishopric, Burgmann of Vörde
, (1488–1524), Roman Catholic Augustine monk, later Protestant Reformator in the city of Bremen
Source
References
Adolf Hofmeister, "Der Kampf um das Erbe der Stader Grafen zwischen den Welfen und der Bremer Kirche (1144–1236)", in: Geschichte des Landes zwischen Elbe und Weser: 3 vols., Hans-Eckhard Dannenberg and Heinz-Joachim Schulze (eds.) on behalf of the Landschaftsverband der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden, Stade: Landschaftsverband der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden, 1995 and 2008, vol. I 'Vor- und Frühgeschichte' (1995; ), vol. II 'Mittelalter (einschl. Kunstgeschichte)' (1995; ), vol. III 'Neuzeit' (2008; ), (=Schriftenreihe des Landschaftsverbandes der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden; vols. 7–9), vol. II: pp. 105–157.
Kai Mathieu, Der Hamburger Dom, Untersuchungen zur Baugeschichte im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert (1245 - 1329) und eine Dokumentation zum Abbruch in den Jahren 1804 - 1807, Hamburg: Museum für Hamburgische Geschichte, 1973.
Heinz-Joachim Schulze, "Die Grafen von Stade und die Erzbischöfe von Bremen-Hamburg vom Ausgang des 10. bis zur Mitte des 12. Jahrhunderts", in: Geschichte des Landes zwischen Elbe und Weser: 3 vols., Hans-Eckhard Dannenberg and Heinz-Joachim Schulze (eds.) on behalf of the Landschaftsverband der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden, Stade: Landschaftsverband der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden, 1995 and 2008, vol. I 'Vor- und Frühgeschichte' (1995; ), vol. II 'Mittelalter (einschl. Kunstgeschichte)' (1995; ), vol. III 'Neuzeit' (2008; ), (=Schriftenreihe des Landschaftsverbandes der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden; vols. 7–9), vol. II: pp. 43–104.
Heinz-Joachim Schulze, "Geschichte der Geschichtsschreibung zwischen Elbe und Weser vom Mittelalter bis zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts", in: Geschichte des Landes zwischen Elbe und Weser: 3 vols., Hans-Eckhard Dannenberg and Heinz-Joachim Schulze (eds.) on behalf of the Landschaftsverband der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden, Stade: Landschaftsverband der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden, 1995 and 2008, vol. I 'Vor- und Frühgeschichte' (1995; ), vol. II 'Mittelalter (einschl. Kunstgeschichte)' (1995; ), vol. III 'Neuzeit' (2008; ), (=Schriftenreihe des Landschaftsverbandes der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden; vols. 7–9), vol. II: pp. 1–21.
Michael Schütz, "Die Konsolidierung des Erzstiftes unter Johann Rode", in: Geschichte des Landes zwischen Elbe und Weser'': 3 vols., Hans-Eckhard Dannenberg and Heinz-Joachim Schulze (eds.), Stade: Landschaftsverband der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden, 1995 and 2008, vol. I 'Vor- und Frühgeschichte' (1995; ), vol. II 'Mittelalter (einschl. Kunstgeschichte)' (1995; ), vol. III 'Neuzeit' (2008; ), (=Schriftenreihe des Landschaftsverbandes der ehem. Herzogtümer Bremen und Verden; vols. 7–9), vol. II: pp. 263–278.
Notes
See also
Duchy of Bremen
Stade Region
Elbe-Weser Triangle
Bremen-Verden
Prince-bishoprics of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany
History of Bremen (city)
History of Bremen (state)
Dioceses established in the 8th century
787 establishments
1180s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1180 establishments in Europe
1648 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Medieval Germany
Former Catholic dioceses in Sweden | [
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255377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20World%20babbler | Old World babbler | The Old World babblers or Timaliidae are a family of mostly Old World passerine birds. They are rather diverse in size and coloration, but are characterised by soft fluffy plumage. These are birds of tropical areas, with the greatest variety in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The timaliids are one of two unrelated groups of birds known as babblers, the other being the Australasian babblers of the family Pomatostomidae (also known as pseudo-babblers).
Morphological diversity is rather high; most species resemble "warblers", jays or thrushes. This group is among those Old World bird families with the highest number of species still being discovered.
Characteristics
Timaliids are small to medium birds. They have strong legs, and many are quite terrestrial. They typically have generalised bills, similar to those of a thrush or warbler, except for the scimitar babblers which, as their name implies, have strongly decurved bills. Most have predominantly brown plumage, with minimal difference between the sexes, but many more brightly coloured species also exist.
This group is not strongly migratory, and most species have short rounded wings, and a weak flight. They live in lightly wooded or scrubland environments, ranging from swamp to near-desert. They are primarily insectivorous, although many will also take berries, and the larger species will even eat small lizards and other vertebrates.
Typical babblers live in communities of around a dozen birds, jointly defending a territory. Many even breed communally, with a dominant pair building a nest, and the remainder helping to defend and rear their young. Young males remain with the group, while females move away to find a new group, and thus avoid inbreeding. They make nests from twigs, and hide them in dense vegetation.
Taxonomy and systematics
The systematics of Old World babblers have long been contested. During much of the 20th century, the family was used as a "wastebin taxon" for numerous hard-to-place Old World songbirds (such as Picathartidae or the wrentit). The German ornithologist Ernst Hartert was only half-joking when in 1910 he summarized this attitude with the statement that, in the passerines: "Was man nicht unterbringen kann, sieht man als Timalien an." (What one can't place systematically is considered an Old World babbler).
The most obviously misplaced taxa were removed piecemeal towards the end of the last century. Since then, with the aid of DNA sequence data, it has been confirmed that even the remaining group is not monophyletic. Analysis of mtDNA cytochrome b and 12S/16S rRNA data (Cibois 2003a) spread the Timaliidae that were studied across what essentially was a badly resolved polytomy with Old World warblers and white-eyes. As the typical warblers (genus Sylvia) grouped with some presumed timaliids (such as the fulvettas), it was suggested that some Sylviidae should be moved to the Timaliidae.
List of genera
The family as currently constituted includes 56 species divided into the following ten genera:
References
Further reading
Collar, N. J. & Robson, C. 2007. Family Timaliidae (Babblers) pp. 70–291 in; del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Christie, D.A. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 12. Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
Schulenberg, T.S. (2003): The Radiations of Passerine Birds on Madagascar. In: Goodman, Steven M. & Benstead, Jonathan P. (eds.): The Natural History of Madagascar: 1130–1134. University of Chicago Press.
Sibley, Charles Gald & Ahlquist, Jon Edward (1990): Phylogeny and classification of birds. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.
External links
Babbler videos on the Internet Bird Collection
.
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors | [
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255380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin%20Tunney | Robin Tunney | Robin Tunney (born June 19, 1972) is an American actress. Tunney made her film debut in the comedy Encino Man (1992) and rose to prominence with leading roles in the cult films Empire Records (1995) and The Craft (1996). Her subsequent performance in Niagara, Niagara (1997) won her the Volpi Cup for Best Actress, and earned nominations from the Gotham and Independent Spirit Awards. She had leading roles in the films End of Days (1999), Supernova and Vertical Limit (both 2000). Tunney earned critical acclaim for playing Veronica Donovan on Prison Break (2005–2006) and Teresa Lisbon on the television series The Mentalist (2008–2015).
Tunney was praised for her portrayal of a victim of sexual assault in the independent drama Open Window (2006). Her subsequent film roles across the 2000s include Cherish and The Secret Lives of Dentists (both 2002), The In-Laws (2003), Hollywoodland (2006), August and The Burning Plain (both 2008), and Passenger Side (2009). She led the thriller film Looking Glass (2018), and starred in the short-lived legal drama series The Fix (2019).
Early life
Tunney was born in Chicago, Illinois, to a car salesman father, Patrick, and a bartender mother, Cathy. Tunney's father was born in Straide, County Mayo, Ireland, while her maternal grandparents were from Clare Island. She is a cousin of Chicago Alderman Tom Tunney.
Tunney grew up in Orland Park, a southwest suburb of Chicago. She was raised Catholic (of Irish descent), attended Saint Ignatius College Prep in Chicago and the Chicago Academy for the Arts in Chicago, and resided in Palos Heights, also in the Chicago area.
Career
Tunney moved to Los Angeles and was cast in roles in Class of '96, Law & Order, Dream On, and Life Goes On amongst other works. She appeared in the film Empire Records, released in 1995, which polarized critics and audiences.
Tunney realized subsequent success in the role of Sarah Bailey in horror-fantasy film The Craft, which she starred in alongside Fairuza Balk, Neve Campbell and Rachel True. The movie was a commercial success, earning $55 million against a budget of $15 million. She later led the independent film Niagara, Niagara which was released in 1997, and earned her critical praise; she won the Volpi Cup for Best Actress at the 1997 Venice International Film Festival.
Tunney was featured opposite Arnold Schwarzenegger in the 1999 supernatural action film End of Days. She appeared in the 2004 pilot episode of the medical drama series House as a kindergarten instructor who suffers from an aphasic condition. She subsequently portrayed Veronica Donovan on the first season of Prison Break, which was released in 2005 to critical acclaim, and Teresa Lisbon on the television series The Mentalist, a role she played from 2008 to 2015.
On June 28, 2006, Tunney won her table in the eighth tournament series of Bravo's Celebrity Poker Showdown, moving on to the final table. The finale aired on July 5, 2006, where she finished second to Jason Alexander, earning $200,000 for her charity of choice, The Children's Health Fund. In August 2006, Tunney played in the World Series of Poker after having her entrance fee covered by the online cardroom PokerRoom.com.
Tunney also appeared in 2007's Closing the Ring. In 2018, she led the thriller film Looking Glass alongside Nicolas Cage, which was negatively received although her performance earned praise. In 2019, she starred in the short-lived legal drama series The Fix.
Personal life
Tunney married producer and director Bob Gosse on October 4, 1995, and divorced in 2006. Tunney was engaged to Australian writer and director Andrew Dominik from 2009 to 2010. Tunney became engaged to Nicky Marmet on December 25, 2012, while on vacation in Rio de Janeiro. They have two children.
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1972 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Chicago
American film actresses
American people of Irish descent
American television actresses
Living people
People from Orland Park, Illinois
People from Palos Heights, Illinois
St. Ignatius College Prep alumni
Volpi Cup for Best Actress winners | [
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255382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAPS%20Shri%20Swaminarayan%20Mandir%20London | BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London | BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir (also commonly known as the Neasden Temple) is a Hindu temple in Neasden, London, England. Built entirely using traditional methods and materials, the Swaminarayan mandir has been described as being Britain's first authentic Hindu temple. It was also Europe's first traditional Hindu stone temple, as distinct from converted secular buildings. It is a part of the Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS) organisation and was inaugurated in 1995 by Pramukh Swami Maharaj. The temple complex also consists of a permanent exhibition entitled "Understanding Hinduism" and a cultural centre housing an assembly hall, gymnasium, bookshop, and offices.
The Mandir
The mandir is the focal point of the complex. Designed according to the Shilpa-Shastras, a Vedic text that develops Hindu architecture to metaphorically represent the different attributes of God, it was constructed almost entirely from Indian marble, Italian marble, Sardinian granite and Bulgarian limestone. No iron or steel was used in the construction, a unique feature for a modern building in the UK.
From the conceptual design and vision of Pramukh Swami, the architect C. B. Sompura and his team only used stone for its construction. It is a shikharbaddha mandir: seven tiered pinnacles topped by golden spires crowd the roofline, complemented by five ribbed domes. The temple is noted for its profusely carved cantilevered central dome, believed to be the only one in Britain that does not use steel or lead. Inside, serpentine ribbons of stone link the columns into arches, creating a sense of levitation.
Light cream Vartza limestone from Bulgaria was chosen for the exterior, and for the interior, Italian Carrara marble supplemented by Indian Ambaji marble. The Bulgarian and Italian stone were shipped to the port of Kandla, Gujarat, where most of the carving was eventually completed by over 1,500 craftsmen in a workshop specially set up for the project. More than 26,300 individually numbered stone pieces were shipped back to London, and the building was assembled like a giant three-dimensional jigsaw.
The mandir was inaugurated on 20 August 1995 by Pramukh Swami Maharaj, the spiritual leader of BAPS, the organisation behind the temple.
The entire mandir complex represents an act of faith and collective effort. Inspired by Pramukh Swami Maharaj, more than 1,000 volunteers worked on the building, and many more contributed and solicited donations, or organised sponsored walks and other activities; children raised money by collecting aluminium cans and foil for recycling.
The mandir serves as the centre of worship. Directly beneath each of the seven pinnacles seen from the outside is a shrine. Each of these seven shrines houses murtis (sacred images of the Deities) within altars. Each murti is revered like God in person and devoutly attended to each day by the swamis (monks) who live in the temple ashram.
Beneath the mandir is the permanent exhibition, "Understanding Hinduism." Through 3-D dioramas, paintings, tableaux, and traditional craftwork, it provides an insight into the wisdom and values of Hinduism. Visitors can learn about the origin, beliefs and contribution of Hindu sages and how this ancient religion is being practised today through traditions such as the BAPS Swaminarayan Sampraday.
The mandir is open to all people regardless of religion or nationality. Entrance is free, except for the £2 fee to see the Understanding Hinduism exhibition.
The Haveli
Adjoining the mandir is BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Haveli, a multi-function cultural centre. Whereas the mandir is carved from stone, the haveli is constructed from wood. English oak and Burmese teak have been fashioned into panels, arches and screens, all carved by craftsmen in India with a cornucopia of geometric patterns, stylised animal heads, and flower garlands.
The Burmese teak used was harvested from sustainable forests. To compensate for the 226 English oak trees used, over 2,300 English oak saplings were planted in Devon. The haveli also incorporates energy-saving features such as light-wells.
Richly carved haveli-style woodwork from Gujarat is the most striking characteristic of the building's façade and foyer. It has been designed according to traditional Indian haveli architecture, to evoke feelings of being in Gujarat, India, where such havelis were once commonplace. It required over 150 craftsmen from all over India three years to carve 1,579 m2 (17,000 square feet) of wood. Behind the traditional wooden façade, the cultural centre houses a vast pillarless prayer hall with space for 3,000 people, a gymnasium, medical centre, dining facilities, bookstall, conference facilities, and offices.
Access
The temple is close to the North Circular Road, and can be reached by bus or on foot from Wembley Park, Stonebridge Park, Harlesden, and Neasden Underground and Overground stations.
The proposed West London Orbital railway would serve the temple.
History
The Mandir and Haveli were built and funded entirely by the Hindu community, and the entire project spanned five years, although the construction itself was completed in two-and-a-half years. Building work began in August 1992. On 24 November 1992, the temple recorded the biggest-ever concrete-pour in the UK, when 4,500 tons were laid in 24 hours to create a foundation mat 6 ft (1.8m) thick. The first stone was laid in June 1993; two years later, the building was complete.
The mandir was cited in Guinness World Records 2000 as follows:
However, since 2000 it has been surpassed in size by other BAPS mandirs elsewhere. The mandir was built and funded entirely by the Hindu community. The entire project spanned five years although the mandir construction itself was completed in two-and-a-half years. Building work began in August 1992. In November 1992, the temple recorded the largest concrete-pour in the UK, when 4,500 tons were put down in 24 hours to create a foundation mat thick. The first stone was laid in June 1993; two years later, the building was complete.
Overview
June 1970: The first BAPS Swaminarayan Mandir in the UK was opened in a converted disused church in Islington, North London, by Yogiji Maharaj
1982: Having outgrown the temple, the congregation moved from the Islington temple to a small, former warehouse in Neasden.
1990: BAPS was again in search of a building that could cope with the growing congregation, and plans for the present temple were made.
1995: They moved to their present temple, built on the site of a disused truck warehouse opposite the previous temple. The old temple building was retained and converted into Shayona, an Indian grocery shop and vegetarian restaurant.
Akshar IT Centre
Adjacent to the Shayona restaurant is the Akshar IT Centre, an adult learning centre providing government-accredited IT course to the public.
The Swaminarayan School
Opposite the Mandir is The Swaminarayan School, Europe's first independent Hindu school. Founded in 1992 by Pramukh Swami Maharaj, it follows the National Curriculum, while promoting aspects of Hinduism and Hindu culture, such as dance, music and language. The school's premises formerly housed Sladebrook High School, which closed in 1990.
The 2007 GCSE results placed the school fourth among all independent schools in the country.
Daily rituals
Before sunrise, the murtis which are adorned in their night attire are woken by the swamis and the shrine doors are opened for the Mangala Aarti, which is the first of five Aarti rituals offered during the day. Aarti is a ritual wherein a specific prayer is recited to a poetic format with music while the swamis wave a lighted lamp in front of the murtis. The swamis recite some shlokas (prayers), serve the deities, offer them food and bathe them, and close the shrine doors.
The shrines are opened again for the second arti (Shangar Arti). The shrines remain open from 9:00 am to approximately 11:00 am, when the shrines are closed and offered thal (food for lunch).
At 11.45 am, the shrines are opened for the midday arti (Rajbhog Arti), and the thal (offering hymn) is recited before the Deities. The shrines are closed after this to allow the Deities to rest during the afternoon.
The shrines re-open at 4:00 pm (3:30 pm on weekends) until 6:30 pm for darshan.
The Sandhya Arti (sunset arti) follows at 7:00 pm. Thereafter, a selection of prayers are recited by the devotees including dhun (where the names of God are chanted and verses of praise are sung). The shrines are closed again for approximately one hour so they can be offered their final meal by the swamis (monks).
The Deities are then prepared for the night and adorned in their evening attire by the swamis.
The shrines are opened a final time for the Shayan Arti (nighttime arti), with the lights dimmed and music lowered. The devotees recite a few hymns, gently sending the Deities to sleep, before the shrines are finally closed for the night.
Awards and recognition
Pride of Place Award
The Mandir was awarded the 'UK Pride of Place' award in December 2007 by Government authorities after a nationwide online poll.
Seven wonders of London
Time Out declared the Mandir as one of the "Seven Wonders of London". In an "epic series... to pay tribute to... the capital's seven most iconic buildings and landmarks", they embarked upon an ambitious search of London's best.
Guinness World Records
In 2000, Guinness World Records presented two certificates to recognise the world record of offering 1,247 vegetarian dishes during the Annakut Festival held at the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, London on 27 October 2000, and secondly to recognise the largest traditionally built Hindu temple outside India.
The Eventful 20th Century – 70 Wonders of the Modern World
Reader's Digest (1998) featured the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir lauding its scale, intricate detail and the extraordinary story of how it was built and inspired by Pramukh Swami Maharaj.
Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England
The 1997/8 Annual Report of the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England, featured the Mandir, and referred to as a "modern building of major importance in our multicultural society."
Most Enterprising Building Award
The Most Enterprising Building Award 1996 was awarded by the Royal Fine Art Commission & British Sky Broadcasting to the Swaminarayan Mandir in London on 5 June 1996.
Natural Stone Award
The Stone Federation issued a special award to the Swaminarayan Hindu Mandir in 1995 as part of its Natural Stone Awards.
See also
Hinduism in England
Shree Sanatan Hindu Mandir
References
External links
londonmandir.baps.org
www.baps.org
1992 establishments in England
Buildings and structures completed in 1995
Swaminarayan temples
Hindu temples in London
Religion in the London Borough of Brent
Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Brent
Tourist attractions in the London Borough of Brent
Gujarati diaspora | [
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255393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychellois%20rupee | Seychellois rupee | The rupee is the currency of the Seychelles. It is subdivided into 100 cents. In the local Seychellois Creole (Seselwa) language, it is called the roupi and roupie in French. The international currency code is SCR. The abbreviation SR is sometimes used. By population, Seychelles is the smallest country to have an independent monetary policy. Several other currencies are also called rupee.
Banknotes
British colony
The British Legislative Council authorized the establishment of a Board of Commissioners of Currency through the Paper Currency Ordinance of 1914, which was enacted by C. R. M. O’Brien, the Governor of the Colony of the Seychelles on 10 August 1914. In 1914, the government produced emergency issues of notes for 50¢, ₨.1/-, ₨.5/- and ₨.10/-.
Standard issue notes began to be issued in 1918, with notes for 50¢ and ₨.1/-, followed by ₨.5/-, ₨.10/- and ₨.50/- in 1928. The 50 cent and ₨ 1 notes were issued until 1951 and phased out in favor of the coins. ₨.20/- and ₨.100/- notes were first introduced in 1968, whilst the ₨.5/- note was replaced by a coin in 1972.
Independent republic
In 1976, the Seychelles Monetary Authority took over the issuance of paper money, issuing notes for ₨.10/-, ₨.25/-, ₨.50/- and ₨.100/-. This series featured the first President of the Seychelles, Sir James Mancham and replaced all colonial notes issued prior to independence.
In 1979, there was a redesign, featuring a more socialist and modernized theme reminiscent of the René regime. This series was also issued by the Central Bank of Seychelles when it took over full responsibility in the same year.
In 1989, a new series was introduced with better security features and colours.
In 1998, another more high-tech series was introduced with a more practical, ergonomic design. This series later saw an additional ₨.500/- note first introduced in 2005.
2011 update
On June 7, 2011, the Central Bank of Seychelles issued updated ₨.50/-, ₨.100/- and ₨.500/- notes with improved security features. Each of the three banknotes has a holographic patch instead of a foil sailfish which currently appears on the notes.
On the ₨.50/- note, the silver holographic sailfish alternates between the number 50 and an image of the Aldabra rail, a flightless bird.
On the ₨.100/- note, the gold holographic sailfish alternates between the number 100 and an image of the Seychelles giant tortoise.
On the ₨.500/- note, the gold holographic sailfish alternates between the number 500 and an image of the Seychelles scops owl.
Additional security upgrades include a 2.5-mm wide fluorescent security thread on the ₨.50/- note, a 2.5-mm wide colour-shifting security thread on the ₨.100/- note, and a 3-mm wide colour-shifting security thread on the ₨.500/- note. The notes are also protected by De La Rue’s unique Gemini technology that fluoresces under ultraviolet light but appears normal in daylight.
The colour schemes of the notes have been revised, with the notes being more green, red, and orange, respectively, than the notes currently in circulation. The new notes also carry the year of printing, as well as the signature of Pierre Laporte, the bank’s current governor. Existing notes remain legal tender and will be removed from circulation as they wear out.
2016 changes
In December 2016, the Central Bank of Seychelles issued a new series of banknotes to commemorate 40 years of Seychelles' independence. The theme of this series is "Seychelles' Unique Biodiversity - the backbone of the economy".
See also
Economy of Seychelles
Mauritian rupee
Notes
References
External links
The banknotes of Seychelles
Circulating currencies
Currencies of the British Empire
Currencies of the Commonwealth of Nations
Rupee, Seychelles
Currencies introduced in 1914 | [
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255394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nico%20%28album%29 | Nico (album) | Nico is a compilation album by American rock band Blind Melon, released in 1996 by Capitol Records. The album was released after lead singer Shannon Hoon's cocaine overdose that resulted in his death in 1995. The album was named for his daughter, Nico Blue, and the proceeds arising from album sales were placed in a college trust for her. It features
unreleased tracks, recordings started by Hoon and finished by the band, unreleased versions of previous songs ("No Rain" and "St. Andrew's Hall") and the cover songs "The Pusher" (Steppenwolf) and "John Sinclair" (John Lennon).
Track listing
All songs by Blind Melon except "The Pusher" (Hoyt Axton, with additional lyrics by Shannon Hoon) and "John Sinclair" (John Lennon).
"The Pusher" – 3:06
Recorded in Mammoth Mountain, California, April 1994.
"Hell" – 2:02
Recorded at Kelsey's Playground, Lafayette, Indiana, 1993.
"Soup" – 3:09
Recorded at Kingsway Studio, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 1994, during the "Soup" sessions.
"No Rain" [Ripped Away Version] – 2:25
Recorded at Bullet Sound Studio, The Netherlands, November 10, 1993.
"Soul One" – 3:15
Demo, recorded at Downtown Rehearsal, Los Angeles, California, 1991.
"John Sinclair" – 3:36
Recorded at Riversound Studio, New York City, March 7, 1995.
"All That I Need" – 2:50
Recorded in Mammoth Mountain, California, April 1994.
"Glitch" – 3:20
Recorded at Kelsey's Playground, Lafayette, Indiana, 1993.
"Life Ain't So Shitty" – 1:50
Recorded in a St. Louis hotel room, 1994.
"Swallowed" – 3:45
Recorded at Kingsway Studio, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 1994, during the "Soup" sessions.
"Pull" – 3:28
Recorded at Kingsway Studio, New Orleans, Louisiana, January 1995, during the "Soup" sessions.
"St. Andrew's Hall" – 3:36
Recorded in various hotel rooms during the 1994 U.S. tour.
"Letters from a Porcupine" – 1:54
Recorded on Christopher Thorn's answering machine by Shannon Hoon, calling from home in Lafayette, Indiana, 1994.
The Japanese edition of the album contained the bonus song "Three Is a Magic Number" as track 14, originally released on the Schoolhouse Rock! Rocks album.
Personnel
Blind Melon – producer, engineer, mixing
David Michael Dill – engineer
Shannon Hoon – acoustic guitar, lead vocals, engineer
Ken Lomas – engineer, assistant engineer
Brad Smith – bass guitar, dumbek, flute, conga, backing vocals, double bass
Rogers Stevens – acoustic guitar, conga, electric guitar, Hammond organ, shaker
Miles Tackett – cello
Andy Wallace – producer, engineer, mixing
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Glen Graham – dumbek, percussion, conga, drums, Mellotron
Liz Heller – executive producer
Tommy Steele – art direction
Jean Krikorian – design
Mike Napolitano – producer, assistant engineer, mixing
Christopher Thorn – acoustic guitar, banjo, electric guitar, tambourine, bells, Mellotron, lap steel guitar
Jeffery Fey – art direction
Danny Clinch – harmonica, photography
Leo Rossi – technical advisor
Lyle Eaves – engineer
Stephen Moses – trombone
Chris Jones – executive producer
John Burton – engineer
Charts
References
External links
Blind Melon - Nico Album Lyrics
Blind Melon albums
1996 compilation albums
Capitol Records albums
Albums produced by Andy Wallace (producer)
Compilation albums published posthumously | [
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255404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcotics%20Anonymous | Narcotics Anonymous | Narcotics Anonymous (NA), founded in 1953, describes itself as a "nonprofit fellowship or society of men and women for whom drugs had become a major problem." Narcotics Anonymous uses a 12-step model developed for people with varied substance use disorders and is the second-largest 12-step organization.
there were more than 70,000 NA meetings in 144 countries.
Narcotics Anonymous program
Membership and organization
The third tradition of NA states that the only requirement for membership is "a desire to stop using." NA says its meetings are where members can "meet regularly to help each other stay clean." All facts and quotes presented in "The Narcotics Anonymous program" section, unless otherwise sourced, come from the Narcotics Anonymous (Basic Text). Membership in NA is free, and there are no dues or fees.
The foundation of the Narcotics Anonymous program is the Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions. Narcotics Anonymous uses a slight variation of wording in both the Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions when compared to other Twelve Step groups.
According to the Basic Text, Narcotics Anonymous "has no opinion on outside issues," including those of politics, science or medicine, and does not endorse any outside organization or institution. The fellowship does not promote itself, but rather attracts new members through public information and outreach. Individuals can also be compelled to attend by courts or rehab programs. NA groups and areas supply outside organizations with factual information regarding the NA program, and individual members may carry the NA message to hospitals and institutions, such as treatment centers and jails.
The Nature of Addiction
According to the philosophy of the NA program, most addicts did not realize they had a problem with drugs until they had no one left. Even if other people pointed out they may have a drug problem they were convinced otherwise. But once an addict on his or her own tries to stop and realizes they cannot, they finally see that drugs have been controlling them. Addicts lived to use and used to live. NA helps show them a different way of life and helps them fight their disease. NA describes addiction as a progressive disease with no known cure, which affects every area of an addict's life: physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual. NA suggests that the disease of addiction can be arrested, and recovery is possible through the NA twelve-step program. The steps never mention drugs or drug use, rather they refer only to addiction, to indicate that addicts have a disease of which drug use is one symptom. In the NA program, all drugs are considered equal, and alcohol is also a drug. Other symptoms include obsession, compulsion, denial, and self-centeredness.
Meetings
Regular meetings, hosted by NA groups, are the basic unit of the NA fellowship. Meetings are held in a variety of places such as church meeting rooms, libraries, hospitals, community centers, parks, or any other place that can accommodate a meeting.
Members who attend the same meeting regularly to establish a recovery network and reliable routine understand this to be their "home group." Home-group members can participate in the group's business and play an important role in deciding how the group's meetings should be conducted.
Formats
There are two basic types of meetings: "open" and "closed." Anyone is welcome to attend an open meeting, while closed meetings are limited to addicts and to people who think they may have a problem with drugs.
Meeting formats vary, but often include time devoted to the reading aloud of NA literature regarding the issues involved in living life clean which is written by and for members of NA. Many meetings are conducted by the chairperson who chooses the speakers. Other meetings include an "open sharing" component, during which anyone attending has the opportunity to share. There is usually no direct feedback during the "share"; thus only one person ever speaks at any given time during this portion of the meeting. These types of meetings are sometimes described as discussion meetings. Some groups choose to host a single speaker (such meetings are usually denoted "speaker meetings") to share for the majority of the meeting time.
Other meeting formats include round-robin (sharing goes around in a circle), tag meeting (each speaker picks the next person to share), and stick meetings (each member draws a stick with a topic to share on). Some meetings focus on reading, writing, and/or sharing about one of the Twelve Steps or some other portion of NA literature. Some meetings are "common needs" (also known as special-interest) meetings, supporting a particular group of people based on gender, sexual identity, age, language, or another characteristic. These meetings are not exclusionary, as any addict is welcome at any NA meeting. NA communities will often make an effort to have a separate meeting run at the same time for members who do not identify with the common-needs meeting.
During the meeting, some groups allot time for NA-related announcements and many meetings set aside time to recognize clean-time "anniversaries" or "birthdays." Individuals are sometimes allowed to announce their clean time to the group. Key tags and medallions, which denote various amounts of clean time, are distributed to those who have achieved various milestones. In some areas, the addict who is celebrating a "clean-time anniversary" will be able to have support group members read the readings for the meeting and he or she will have a speaker carry the NA message. Then the addict celebrating will have their sponsor or a friend or family member give them a medallion at which time the friend will share some of the celebrating addict's achievements during the last year or from during the entire course of their recovery. Then the addict celebrating can share their experience, strength, and hope (ESH) with the group on how they did it.
NA states in the fifth tradition that "each group has but one primary purpose to carry the message to the addict who still suffers." Therefore, the newcomer is considered to be the most important person in any meeting. Our message is hope and the promise is freedom. The NA message, as quoted in the Basic Text, states, "an addict, any addict, can stop using drugs, lose the desire to use, and find a new way to live" (Basic Text p. 68). "NA offers one promise: freedom from active addiction" (Basic Text p. 106). According to the Narcotics Anonymous Basic Text, the "Twelve Steps" are the source of this hope and freedom when worked to the best of one's ability.
Service
NA literature suggests that service work is an essential part of a program of recovery. Service is "doing the right thing for the right reason," and is the best example of "goodwill," which is the basis for the freedom only from active addiction by the NA program. Service work is usually chairing a meeting, but may be as simple as cleaning up after the meeting, putting away chairs, or answering a phone. Additionally, there are basic, formalized service positions at the group level to help the group perform its function, such as treasurer, secretary, and Group Service Representative (GSR), who represents the group in the larger service structure.
The NA service structure operates at the area, regional, and world levels. These levels of service exist to serve the groups and are directly responsible to those groups; they do not govern. World services are accountable to its member regions, who are in turn responsible to member areas. Area service committees directly support member groups and often put on special events, such as dances and picnics. Area service committees also provide special subcommittees to serve the needs of members who may be confined in jails and institutions, and will also provide a public interface to the fellowship.
Literature
The Basic Text called Narcotics Anonymous is divided into two books. Book one discusses the basics of the NA program and the twelve steps and traditions. Book two is composed of many personal stories.
It Works: How and Why offers detailed discussion of the twelve steps and traditions. and is often called the "green and gold" after its cover.
The Step Working Guides is a workbook with questions on each step and is often called the "Flat Book".
Just For Today is a book of daily meditations with quotes from the Basic Text and other NA-approved literature including the "Information Pamphlets".
Sponsorship is an in-depth discussion of the role of sponsorship in NA, including the personal experiences of members.
Miracles Happen describes the early years of the NA organization. This book contains many photographs of early literature and meeting places.
Living Clean: The Journey Continues was approved by the World Service Conference in May 2012. It contains members' experiences of staying clean and in recovery as they go through challenges in life such as illness, death, parenthood, spiritual paths, and employment.
Guiding Principles; The Spirit of Our Traditions was approved by the World Service Conference in May 2016. The book explores the principles found in the 12 Traditions of NA and is a resource for members of NA to learn what the essence of the Traditions are, as well as understanding their application for NA groups, members, and service committees.
NA has also produced dozens of "Informational Pamphlets," or "IPs," of varying length that cover a wide range of recovery-related topics, including questionnaires for those who think they may have a drug addiction and information for those addicts trying to stay clean while still inside hospitals or institutions.
Spirituality
NA calls itself a spiritual program of recovery from the disease of addiction. The NA program places importance on developing a working relationship with a "higher power". The literature suggests that members formulate their own personal understanding of a higher power. The only suggested guidelines are that this power is "loving, caring, and greater than one's self and more powerful than the disease of addiction".
Members are given absolute freedom in coming to an understanding of a higher power that works for them. Individuals from various spiritual and religious backgrounds, as well as many atheists and agnostics, have developed a relationship with their own higher power. NA also makes frequent use of the word "God" and some members who have difficulty with this term substitute "higher power" or read it as an acronym for "Good Orderly Direction".
The twelve steps of the NA program are based upon spiritual principles, three of which are honesty, open-mindedness, and willingness, embodied in the first three steps. These three are hardly exhaustive. The Basic Text of NA says, in Chapter Four, about all twelve steps, "These are the principles which made our recovery possible". According to NA members these principles, when followed to the best of one's ability, allow for a new way of life.
NA meetings usually close with a circle of the participants, a group hug, and a prayer of some sort. Prayers used to close meetings today include the "we" version of the "Serenity Prayer" ("God, Grant us the serenity to accept the things we cannot change, the courage to change the things we can, and the wisdom to know the difference."); the Third Step Prayer ("Take my will and my life. Guide me in my recovery. Show me how to live.") or the "Gratitude Prayer" ("That no addict seeking recovery need ever die. ... My Gratitude speaks when I care and when I share with others the NA way.")
Sponsorship
One addict helping another is an essential part of the NA program. It is therefore highly recommended that NA members find a sponsor. A sponsor is a member of NA who helps another member of the fellowship by sharing their experience, strength, and hope in recovery and serves as a guide through the Twelve Steps. In doing so, NA members often choose a sponsor with experience in applying the NA's Twelve Steps.
To feel most comfortable, many NA members have sponsors of the same sex although members are free to choose any other member as a sponsor. It is also suggested that one should find a sponsor who has not only worked the 12 steps of Narcotics Anonymous, but that person also has a sponsor who has worked the 12 traditions of Narcotics Anonymous.
Anonymity
"Anonymity is the spiritual foundation of all our traditions, ever reminding us to place principles before personalities." (12th Tradition, Basic Text)
Many NA members identify themselves in meetings by their first name only. The spirit of anonymity is about placing "principles before personalities" and recognizing that no individual addict is superior to another and that individual addicts do not recover without the fellowship or its spiritual principles.
The Eleventh Tradition states that NA members "need always maintain personal anonymity at the level of press, radio, and films".
History
NA sprang from the Alcoholics Anonymous Program of the mid-1930s, and was founded by Jimmy Kinnon. Meetings first emerged in the Los Angeles area of California, United States, in the early 1950s. The NA program, officially founded in 1953, started as a small U.S. movement that has grown into the world's largest 12 step recovery program for drug addiction.
Predecessors
Alcoholics Anonymous was the first 12-step program, and through it many with drug and drinking problems found sobriety. The Fourth Tradition gives each AA group the autonomy to include or exclude non-alcoholic addicts from "closed" meetings where only those with an expressed desire to quit drinking may attend. At "open" AA meetings, non-alcoholics are welcome.
In 1944, AA's co-founder Bill Wilson discussed a separate fellowship for drug addicts. In 1947, NARCO (also called Addicts Anonymous) met weekly at the U.S. Public Health Service's treatment center (Federal Medical Center, Lexington) inside the Lexington, Kentucky federal prison for 20 years. In 1948, a NARCO member started a short-lived fellowship also called "Narcotics Anonymous" in the New York Prison System in New York City, New York. This version of NA did not follow the 12 Traditions of NA, which resulted in problems for the fellowship and ultimately the end of that NA in the late 1940s. Jimmy K., who is credited with starting the NA as we know it today, did contact Rae Perez, a leading member of this NA fellowship. Because that fellowship did not want to follow the 12 traditions written by AA, the two NA fellowships never united.
Early history of NA
In 1953 Narcotics Anonymous, was founded in California by Jimmy Kinnon and others. Differing from its predecessors, NA formed a fellowship of mutually supporting groups. Founding members, most of whom were from AA, debated and established the 12 Traditions of the NA fellowship. On September 14, 1953, AA authorized NA the use of AA's 12 steps and traditions on the condition that they stop using the AA name, causing the organization to call itself Narcotics Anonymous.
In 1954, the first NA publication was printed, called the "Little Brown Book". It contained the 12 steps and early drafts of several pieces that would later be included in subsequent literature.
At that time, NA was not yet recognized by society at large as a positive force. The initial group had difficulty finding places that would allow them to meet and often had to meet in people's homes. The first meetings of Narcotics Anonymous were held in the basements of churches for the members' protection because at that time an old law prohibiting convicted felons from congregating was still being upheld and churches offered their basements as a sanctuary. Addicts would have to cruise around meeting places and check for surveillance, to make sure meetings would not be busted by police. It was many years before NA became recognized as a beneficial organization, although some early press accounts were very positive.
In addition, many NA groups were not following the 12 traditions very closely (which were quite new at the time). These groups were at times accepting money from outside entities, conflating AA with NA, or even adding religious elements to the meetings. For a variety of reasons, meetings began to decline in the late 1950s, and there was a four-month period in 1959 when there were no meetings held anywhere at all. Spurred into action by this, Kinnon and others dedicated themselves to restarting NA, promising to hold to the traditions more closely.
Resurgence
In late 1959, meetings began to form again and grow. The NA White Booklet was written in 1962 and became the heart of NA meetings and the basis for all subsequent NA literature. NA was called a "hip pocket program" because the entire literature could fit into a person's hip pocket. This booklet was republished in 1966 as the NA White Book and included the personal stories of many addicts.
The first NA phone line started in 1960, and the first "H&I" group was formed in 1963 (H&I stands for Hospitals and Institutions, a sub-committee of Narcotics Anonymous that carries the message into hospitals and institutions where people cannot get to an outside meeting). That year a "Parent Service Board" (later renamed the World Service Board) was formed to ensure that NA stayed healthy and followed closely to the traditions. Confusingly, in 1962, the Salvation Army started a group also called "Narcotics Anonymous" that followed a different "13-step" program, but this program soon died out. The NA program grew slowly in the 1960s. Members of the program learned what was effective and what was not. Relapse rates declined over time and friction between NA groups began to decrease.
The 1970s was a period of rapid growth in NA's history. In 1970, there were only 20 regular, weekly meetings, all of them in the United States. Within two years there were 70, including meetings in Germany, Australia, and Bermuda. By 1976, there were 200 regular meetings, including 83 in California alone, and in the early 1980s in Brazil, Canada, Colombia, India, the Republic of Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. In 1980, the first London meeting opened in Millman Street, Chelsea, with around six members and a second followed months later. By 1981, there were 1,100 different meetings all over the world. A World Service Office was officially opened in 1977. In 1971, the first NA World Conference was held, and others have followed annually.
The development of NA literature
From the beginnings of NA, the need for official NA literature was evident. Unfortunately, the process of creating and approving official NA literature has seen some of the most contentious periods of debate within the fellowship. Although the Yellow Booklet, Little White Booklet, and Little White Book were used in the 1960s and 1970s, many people desired to have a more detailed book on recovery, paralleling the "Big Book" of Alcoholics Anonymous. Some meetings offered AA literature at meetings, while others considered writing their own books on recovery. One group even planned to print a bootlegged version of AA's Big Book with every instance of the word "alcohol" replaced with "drugs". The need for a unified text approved by the fellowship's "group conscience" was recognized, and in October 1979 the first NA World Literature Conference was held in Wichita, Kansas.
While previous literature had been written by just a few addicts (primarily by Jimmy Kinnon), the NA Basic Text was written as a massive collaboration between hundreds of people. There were a total of seven World Literature Conferences within three years, all of them open to any addict who wished to help. It was decided that the book would use the Little White Book as its outline, filling in and expanding on the subjects discussed in that text.
In November 1981, a finalized version was distributed to all of NA for approval, and the text was approved with a 2/3 majority required for passage. After passage, however, the publication was held up due to a spirited disagreement between the World Service Office and the members who wrote the book regarding a few key sentences which described the nature of the World Service Organization and other NA service entities. The book was printed in 1983 with the passages removed. A second edition that restored the passages quickly followed at the demand of the fellowship. A hasty vote which required Regional Service Representatives to respond within 60 days (even though most regions only met every 90 days) making it impossible to actually poll the NA Groups and membership again removed the sentences in a third edition.
Professional editors and writers were hired in 1986 to improve the Basic Text so that it was more consistent in tone and style. The resultant 4th edition, released in 1987, was improperly reviewed and had many problems, including 30 lines that were missing and text that was inconsistent with other NA literature. A 5th edition was released in 1988, purportedly correcting those problems.
In 2004, the WSC initiated a project to revise the Basic Text. This new edition would remove some of the personal stories from the 5th edition, and supplement the remainder of the original stories with more diverse personal stories from around the world. The first 10 chapters were to remain the same. Also, the preface would remain the same, as well as the "Symbol" page. There is a new preface but the original preface will be called "preface to the 1st edition". There were some other changes to the structure of the book, including the layout and flow of the book, while keeping the original message clear and unchanged. The task of choosing these stories was handed down from the World Service Office to regional meetings, to Area Service Committee meetings, and then to the individual home group meetings, where each member had a chance to review the new text.
When the Approval Draft came out on September 1, 2006, 7,500 copies were distributed (4,493 copies were mailed and 3,009 copies were electronic copies downloaded by members). The approximate number of input received was 350 pieces, of which 60 percent came from individuals, 17 percent came from groups, and 23 percent came from committees. More than 20 percent (161) of the personal stories submitted came from outside of the United States. Submissions were received from the following countries (although later on more personal stories were submitted and the additional statistics are unknown):
Argentina
Australia
Bangladesh
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
Colombia
Egypt
France
Germany
Greece
India
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Mexico
Nepal
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Norway
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
South Africa
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Trinidad
Turkey
United Kingdom
The United States
Venezuela
West Indies
The 6th edition of the NA Basic Text was approved with over forty new "personal stories" from around the world. Because of the addition of so many new stories of NA member experiences, it is larger in size than all earlier editions. After the rapid succession of five editions during the 1980s, this was the first new edition in twenty years.
On October 1, 2008, the 5th edition was replaced by the 6th edition in the Narcotics Anonymous World Services inventory at NA.org. Copies of the Basic Text are sold, or given away for free at the group's expense, at NA meetings, and are available in over 30 different languages. Millions have been sold worldwide, and have been useful to many addicts.
More recent history
The Sixth Edition Basic Text was published in 2008, and there was also a special edition released that same year known as the 25th Anniversary Commemorative (of the First Edition Basic Text) Sixth Edition Basic Text.
In 2003, NA World Services approved a new text entitled Sponsorship. This book endeavors to help people explore the concept of NA sponsorship.
In the more recent months, there has been a motion to revise the pamphlet "In Times of Illness".
A motion for a project to create a new book was put to the World Service Conference in the 2008-2010 conference cycle. The motion was carried by unanimous consent in 2010. over the next two years members of the Narcotics Anonymous fellowship took part in a collective effort to create this new book-length piece of literature. The book was to be titled Living Clean: The Journey Continues. At the 2012 World Service Conference, a motion to approve the final draft of the book was presented to the conference for approval and once again the delegates carried the motion unanimously. Living Clean: The Journey Continues was released to the public in 2012.
Membership demographics
Membership in Narcotics Anonymous is voluntary; no attendance records are kept either for NA's own purposes or for others. Because of this, it is sometimes difficult to provide interested parties with comprehensive information about NA membership. There are, however, some objective measures that can be shared based on data obtained from members attending one of NA world conventions; the diversity of membership, especially ethnic background, seems to be representative of the geographic location of the survey. The following demographic information was revealed in a survey returned by almost half of the 13,000 attendees at the 2003 NA World Convention held in San Diego, California:
• Gender: 55% male, 45% female.
• Age: 3% 20 years old and under, 12% 21–30 years old, 31% 31–40 years old, 40% 41–50 years old, 13% over age 51, and 1% did not answer.
• Ethnicity: 51% Caucasian, 24% African-American, 14% Hispanic, and 11% other.
• Employment status: 72% employed full-time, 9% employed part-time, 7% unemployed, 3% retired, 3% homemakers, 5% students, and 1% did not answer.
• Continuous abstinence/recovery: The 2015 Membership Survey showed the range from less than one year up to 54 years, with a mean average of 8.32 years. The 2015 Membership Survey of 22,803 members is available on NA.org, under the "For the Public" tab.
Rate of growth
Because no attendance records are kept, it is impossible to estimate what percentages of those who come to Narcotics Anonymous remain active in NA over time. The only sure indicator of the program's success in attracting members is the rapid growth in the number of registered Narcotics Anonymous meetings in recent decades and the rapid spread of Narcotics Anonymous outside North America.
In 1978, there were fewer than 200 registered groups in three countries.
In 1983, more than a dozen countries had 2,966 meetings.
In 1993, 60 countries had over 13,000 groups holding over 19,000 meetings.
In 2002, 108 countries had 20,000 groups holding over 30,000 meetings.
In 2005, 116 countries had over 21,500 groups holding over 33,500 weekly meetings.
In 2007, over 25,065 groups were holding over 43,900 weekly meetings in 127 countries.
In 2012, there were over 62,700 meetings worldwide in over 142 countries.
In 2018, there were more than 70,000 weekly meetings in 144 countries.
Organizational structure
Members meet at NA Groups; Representatives of which participate in Area Service Committees (ASC); Several Area Service Committees form a Regional Service Committee (RSC) and the Regional Delegates (RD) make up NA World Service Committee. The foundation for this structure is the Twelve Traditions of NA.
NA Groups
Narcotics Anonymous is fundamentally made up of NA Groups. An NA Group is a number of NA members who meet regularly; usually at the same time and place each week. Some Groups have more frequent meetings but are considered to be part of a single Group. Groups have one primary purpose, to carry the message to the addict who still suffers. Groups are largely independent of one another and members of NA are encouraged to choose a "homegroup" to belong to, a group they attend regularly and where they will be missed if they are absent. Each Group elects any number of leaders, or "trusted servants", to serve the needs of the Group they made include a Group Secretary, a Group Treasurer, a Group Chairperson, a Group Service Representative (GSR), and an alternate GSR. This election process is carried out by the Group Conscience which is a business meeting made up of the members of the Group who strive for consensus-based decisions. With each group being autonomous, without affecting NA as a whole, the responsibilities of trusted servants vary from meeting to meeting. These responsibilities or "group policies" are contrived through the group's business meeting by inviting a Higher Power to guide each recovering person's decision, also known as a group conscience. An example of one specific trusted servant's responsibilities are, "The secretary is responsible for opening the meeting, choosing someone to chair the meeting, making sure coffee gets made, etc. He or she also arranges for purchasing supplies and keeping group records. The treasurer keeps financial records and pays the group's bills. The GSR attends the Area Service Committee meetings and represents the group to the ASC. The alternate GSR assists the GSR and prepares to replace the GSR when need be."
Area service committees
An ASC is made up of all the participating NA Groups in a given area. The Group Service Representatives (GSRs) and alternate GSRs from each Group in an Area meet regularly together for a business meeting where issues are raised and discussed to better meet the needs of the groups in the Area. Each ASC elects its own officers: the chairperson, vice-chairperson, secretary, treasurer, and regional committee members (RCMs). Frequently an ASC will have various subcommittees (such as a but not limited to Hospitals and Institutions (H&I), Public Information (PI), Activities, Website, Outreach, Policy, Literature, Literature Review, Newsletter, Recovery By Mail and Convention) which are led by subcommittee leaders that are elected by the entire ASC. In some regions, several ASCs will be grouped into a Metropolitan Service Committee at the sub-regional level; this is typical in especially large cities, like Los Angeles, that contain multiple ASCs.
Regional service committees
An RSC is composed of the regional committee members (RCMs) of all the participating ASCs in a region. It is similar in organization to an ASC but is further removed from the day-to-day activities of individual home groups. Many of the issues dealt with by RSCs are the same ones that will come before the World Service Conference, with the RSC being the best way for local groups to help craft policies that will affect NA as a whole. In some cases, only the RCMs in a region will meet to vote on issues; in other situations, all GSRs in a region will be invited to attend an RSC meeting. The RSC elects a delegate to attend the World Service Conference.
Zonal Forums
The Zonal Forums are service-oriented organizational structures designed to improve communication between RSCs. They are not decision-making entities.
Some Zonal Forums actively participate in "Fellowship Development" to help NA fellowships grow in new countries and geographic areas where NA is still forming. Zonal Forums help NA groups, areas, or regions to work together to translate literature, inform the local community about NA and create new service committees. This is achieved through annual or biannual Zonal Forum meetings together with development visits to NA groups and members in other countries. Experienced NA members hold workshops, and meetings and present material to help the newer communities.
Zonal forums also provide an important opportunity for World Services and the World Board to interact with newer and growing NA communities to better understand their needs and challenges. Zonal forums are an important part of the growth of NA in some of the most populous and remote parts of the world. Eastern Europe, central and eastern Asia, and Latin America NA communities have grown significantly through the work of Zonal Forums.
Some Zonal Forums are a service-oriented sharing session that provides the means by which NA communities in their zone can communicate, cooperate, and grow with one another. Although not a part of NA's formal decision-making system, Zonal Forums interact with World Services in many ways. Each Zonal Forum provides a biannual report on the floor of the World Service Conference and, when requested by the conference, may also answer specific questions or address the body. To improve communications, the Zonal Forums are provided with conference participant mailings and send each Zonal Forum meeting record to World Services. To more effectively serve the fellowship, World Services and the Zonal Forums maintain an ongoing partnership to plan and conduct the Worldwide Workshop system.
NA World Service Conference
The NA World Service Conference (WSC) is a bi-annual service meeting made up of the Regional Delegates of the seated Regions of the world and the members of the NA World Board. This service conference has the executive right to make decisions for the entire NA Fellowship. This includes electing members to serve on the World Board, approving all new NA Literature, service material, and making policy decisions that affect the fellowship including the organizational structure. This responsibility has been executed as recently as the late 1990s when the World Service Conference voted to re-structure the NA Service structure including the removal of the Board of Trustees, Board of Directors, and several other World Service level committees (Public Information, Hospitals & Institutions, Literature, and Translations) replacing them with a single board elected by the conference.
NA World Service Office
The WSC through the World Board is responsible for the NA World Service Office located in the Chatsworth, a neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States. This office handles the production of all approved literature, provides resources for projects approved by the WSC, and also provides limited services to the fellowship as a whole. The office also administers the legal responsibilities of the fellowship concerning copyrights, intellectual property, and accounting. The office employs many people who carry out these functions.
Finances
Narcotics Anonymous members are not required to pay any dues or fees. NA is committed to being fully self-supporting, declining any outside contributions. Group expenses are covered entirely by voluntary contributions from its members. Groups meet costs such as meeting room rental, tea and coffee, and any literature that the group provides for free from these contributions, after which surplus funds are passed to the service structure. Group often provide some literature items such as IPs (Double sided single sheet pamphlets) and keytags/chips celebrating clean time. Area Service Committees are typically funded from Group contributions plus money raised by events such as dances and recovery events attended by members. In some countries Area committees also supply literature to the Groups. Areas pass funds on to the Regions, which can also receive contributions from Groups and also raise money through conventions attended by hundreds to thousands and tens of thousands of members. Regions also sometimes run Regional Service Offices which buy literature from the World Service Office and its branch offices for sale to Areas and Groups. Because Regional Service Offices can purchase in bulk and sell at list price sometimes this surplus exceeds the running costs of the office. Regions then pass funds to Zonal Forums and also the World Service Conference via the World Service Office according to the decision of the Region.
At the World Service level of Narcotics Anonymous expenses are met partially by the voluntary donations via the service structure and also through the sale of recovery literature. NA does not accept donations from non-members, organizations, or governments. NA recovery literature is produced by the NA World Service Office (NAWS) located in California, USA. Typically NA groups will purchase literature using group funds from local (area or regional) service offices, or direct from NAWS.
Some literature is provided to new members for free (such as the "Information Pamphlets") while other, typically book-length pieces, are sold at the purchase cost to the group. Literature is also purchased from Group contributions and made available to new members. NAWS receives 87% (2004/5) of its income from the sale of literature. Other expenses include group refreshments, meeting-place rent, etc. Financial information is publicly available on the NA website. The 2007 World Convention of NA ran at a net financial loss of $596,000.
Effectiveness
The first sophisticated outcome studies of NA were conducted in the early 1990s in London, England. The first study found a roughly linear relationship between the length of membership and abstinence with reduced anxiety and increased self-esteem While the NA sample had higher anxiety than the non-addicted comparison groups, these levels were equivalent for those with three or more years of membership, which is consistent with the hypothesis that NA membership reduces anxiety as well as substance use. This study also, contrary to the authors' expectations, found that spiritual beliefs and disease concept beliefs were not prerequisites for attendance of NA and even if these beliefs were adopted they were not found to cause external attributions for previous drug use or possible future lapse events.
A study of the early experience of new NA members in Victoria Australia in 1995 interviewed 91 members initially and 62 (68%) after 12 months and found that higher self-help participation as measured by service role involvement, step work, and stable meeting attendance, in the 12 months before the follow-up was associated with a four-fold reduction in levels of hazardous drug and alcohol use, less illicit income and sickness benefits and higher emotional support at reinterview.
One approach is to provide professional 12-step facilitation (TSF) either in an individual or group setting. TSF sessions are designed to introduce the patient to 12-step concepts and facilitate the entry of the patient into community-based 12-step programs. It must be emphasized that TSF is not NA, it is an implementation of 12-step program elements by a professional counsellor. NA recommends 12 step work with another member who has worked the steps.
One study, sponsored by NIDA, randomly assigned people using cocaine into four groups, individual drug counseling plus group drug counseling (GDC), cognitive therapy plus GDC, supportive expressive therapy plus GDC, or GDC alone. Individual drug counseling was based on the 12-step philosophy. Group drug counseling was designed to educate patients about the stages of recovery from addiction, to strongly encourage participation in 12-step programs, and to provide a supportive group atmosphere for initiating abstinence and an alternative lifestyle. Nearly 500 patients participated in the study.
The results suggested that all four treatment conditions resulted in similar reductions in cocaine use with the IDC + GDC group (TSF) more effective than the other three groups. One issue with this study is that there was significant attrition of patients, with significantly larger numbers of dropouts from the TSF groups than from the others.
Fiorentine 1999
Fiorentine 1999 was a 24-month longitudinal study measuring the effectiveness of Alcoholics Anonymous and NA. Like other longitudinal studies, it shows a strong correlation between 12-step attendance and being both clean from drugs and sober from alcohol: People who went to 12-step meetings in the study had about a 75% success rate.
In more detail, at the 24 month follow up, 77.7% of people who went to one or more meetings a week self-reported being clean; urinalysis was very close to that figure, showing some 76.4% of the regular attenders begin clean. For participants who did not regularly go to meetings, the self-reported figure for being abstinent was 56% and the drug test showed 57.9% being clean. The self-reported figures for excessive alcohol use were similar: 74.8% of regular 12-step attenders self-reported being completely sober, but only 40% of people who did not go to 12-step meetings claimed to be sober. Urinalysis showed 96.6% of people regularly going to meetings as sober, in contrast to the 88.9% of people who didn't go to meetings once a week or more whose urine sample was alcohol-free.
The report then sees if 12-steps meetings have a specific effect (in other words, if there is causation or merely correlation) by using statistical analysis to compare participants self-reported level of motivation, 12-step attendance, and successfully getting clean and sober. The result of this observation was that "Weekly or more frequent 12-step participants are 1.59 times more likely than less-than-weekly participants to maintain abstinence after controlling for the differences in recovery motivation measured by the scale."
Controversies
The NA program attempts to avoid controversy through its application of the 12 traditions, which specify that "Narcotics Anonymous has no opinion on outside issues; hence the NA name ought never be drawn into public controversy." Even so, the Basic Text points out that there are still "communication problems, differences of opinion, internal controversies, and troubles with individuals and groups outside the Fellowship", and various controversies of this type have disturbed NA throughout its history.
Internal controversies
Early in the history of NA, different groups emphasized different aspects of recovery. In particular, the make-up and process of creating an NA text was a contentious period for the fellowship. Different factions supported different versions of the Basic Text, and in the ensuing power struggle there were many accusations made and resentments cultivated. The basis of the dispute was whether the service committees were described as a part of NA, or as a separate entity, basically a tool of the NA groups with no decision-making power; instead being charged collecting the decisions of the NA groups themselves. This dispute reached its nadir when the NA World Service Office sued an NA member in an attempt to prevent him from distributing free versions of the Basic Text. Today there are some NA groups who use a self-produced version of the Basic Text that has come to be known as the Baby Blue which is basically the Third Edition, Revised Basic Text (except that it contains originally approved essays on the Traditions). Some Traditionalist groups use the Second Edition or Approval Draft (both of which contain the original Traditions and are nearly identical to each other).
Approaches of other twelve-step groups
NA is unusual but not unique in its focus on the symptom/substance not being the core problem, but rather the disease of addiction, as is stated in the NA Step 1. In NA, it does not matter what substance you used, and alcohol is seen as a drug. 12-step groups differ in their approach to the treatment of addiction and recovery. Alcoholics Anonymous "is a program for alcoholics who seek freedom from alcohol" but does refer to "some AA members who have misused drugs...in such a manner as to become a threat to the achievement and maintenance of sobriety" and mentions that drugs can "create a dependence just as devastating as dependence on alcohol". However, according to AA literature, "only those with a desire to stop drinking may attend closed meetings." Anyone at all may attend an open meeting of Alcoholics Anonymous, but non-alcoholics attend as observers. Cocaine Anonymous originally formed to address the special needs of cocaine addicts, but "is not a drug specific fellowship" and "welcomes anyone with a drug or alcohol problem and offers a solution". CA's program involves abstaining from cocaine "and all other mind-altering substances", thus taking the same stance as NA pertaining to abstinence from all drugs, including alcohol and marijuana. Methadone Anonymous is similar to NA, but considers the use of methadone to be a tool of recovery and not a drug. NA has no opinion on these groups, as these are outside issues and the traditions suggest against taking a definitive stand on outside issues.
See also
Nar-Anon, a separate organization for family members and friends of Narcotics Anonymous members
References
Further reading
External links
na.org, the official website of Narcotics Anonymous World Services
1953 establishments in California
Addiction and substance abuse organizations
Chatsworth, Los Angeles
Non-profit organizations based in Los Angeles
Organizations established in 1953
Twelve-step programs | [
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255405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce%20Dickinson | Bruce Dickinson | Paul Bruce Dickinson (born 7 August 1958) is an English musician who has been the lead singer of the heavy metal band Iron Maiden since 1981.
Dickinson began his career in music fronting small pub bands in the 1970s while attending school in Sheffield and university in London. In 1979, he joined British new wave heavy metal band Samson, with whom he gained some popularity under the stage name "Bruce Bruce" and performed on two studio records. He left Samson in 1981 to join Iron Maiden, replacing Paul Di'Anno, and debuted on their 1982 album The Number of the Beast. During his first tenure in the band, they issued a series of US and UK platinum and gold albums in the 1980s and early 1990s.
Dickinson quit Iron Maiden in 1993 (being replaced by Blaze Bayley) to pursue his solo career, which saw him experiment with a wide variety of heavy metal and rock styles. He re-joined the band in 1999, along with guitarist Adrian Smith, and has released six subsequent studio albums with the band. Since his return to Iron Maiden, he issued one further solo record in 2005, Tyranny of Souls. His younger cousin, Rob Dickinson, is the former lead singer of British alternative rock band Catherine Wheel, while his son, Austin, fronted the metalcore band Rise to Remain.
Outside his career in music, Dickinson has pursued a number of other activities. He undertook a career as a commercial pilot for Astraeus Airlines, which led to a number of media-reported ventures such as captaining Iron Maiden's converted charter aeroplane, Ed Force One, during their world tours. Following Astraeus' closure, he created his own aircraft maintenance and pilot training company, Cardiff Aviation, in 2012. Dickinson presented his own radio show on BBC Radio 6 Music from 2002 to 2010, and has also hosted television documentaries, authored novels and film scripts, created a beer with Robinsons Brewery and competed at fencing internationally.
Early life
Paul Bruce Dickinson was born on 7 August 1958 in Worksop, Nottinghamshire. His mother, Sonia, worked part-time in a shoe shop, and his father, Bruce, was a mechanic in the British Army. His birth hurried the young couple, who were then just teenagers, into marriage. Initially, he was brought up by his grandparents; his grandfather was a coal-face worker at the local colliery, and his grandmother was a housewife. This is referred to in his song "Born In '58" from the album Tattooed Millionaire. Dickinson started school at Manton Primary in Worksop while his parents moved away to Sheffield. Soon afterwards, when he was six, he was also despatched to Sheffield, where he attended a primary school in Manor Top. After six months, his parents decided to move him to a small private school called Sharrow Vale Junior. Due to constant moving, Dickinson states that this period of his life taught him to be self-reliant as he was unable to make close friends. Dickinson has a younger sister, professional showjumper Helena Stormanns, who was born in 1963. He tried to isolate himself from her as much as he could when he was young, supposedly out of spite because she, unlike him, was a planned pregnancy and birth.
Dickinson's first musical experience was dancing in his grandparents' front room to Chubby Checker's "The Twist", when he still lived with them in Worksop. The first record Dickinson recalls owning was The Beatles single "She Loves You", which he managed to persuade his grandfather to buy him, which made him more interested in music. He tried to play an acoustic guitar belonging to his father, but it blistered his fingers. By the time he moved to Sheffield, Dickinson's parents were earning a good living from buying property, refurbishing it and then selling it for a profit. As a result, much of Dickinson's childhood was spent living on a building site, until his parents bought a boarding house and a bankrupt garage where his father began selling second-hand cars. The income from their business success gave them the opportunity to give Dickinson—then 13 years old—a boarding school education and they chose Oundle, a public school in Northamptonshire. Dickinson was not opposed to moving away from home because he had not built "any real attachment" to his parents, having been raised by his grandparents in Worksop until he was six.
At Oundle, Dickinson was picked on and routinely bullied by the older boys of Sidney House, the boarding house that he belonged to, which he described as "like systematic torture" and meant that he became an outsider. His interests at Oundle were often military; he co-founded the school wargames society with Mike Jordan, and he joined the school's cadet force. This gave him access to live ammunition, which he used to create explosions as booby-traps. Oundle was where Dickinson became attracted to hard rock and early heavy metal after hearing Deep Purple's "Child in Time" being played in another student's room. As a result, the first album he ever bought was Deep Purple's In Rock, which created his interest in rock and metal music. After In Rock, he went on to buy Black Sabbath's debut, Jethro Tull's Aqualung and Tarkus by Emerson, Lake & Palmer. Every term, a band would play at the school, the first of these which Dickinson saw was called Wild Turkey, featuring former Jethro Tull bassist Glenn Cornick. After that, he saw Van der Graaf Generator and Arthur Brown.
Dickinson initially wanted to play the drums, later obtaining a pair of bongo drums from the music room for practice. He remembers playing "Let It Be" with his friend Mike Jordan, during which Dickinson discovered his singing voice while encouraging Jordan to sing the high-notes. Shortly afterwards Dickinson was expelled from Oundle for participating in a prank in which he allegedly urinated in the headmaster's dinner. Returning home to Sheffield in 1976, Dickinson enrolled at King Edward VII School, at which he joined his first band. He had overheard two other pupils talking about their band and that they needed a singer and so volunteered immediately. They rehearsed in the garage of the drummer's father, and the band were impressed by Dickinson's singing, encouraging him to buy his first microphone. Their first gig took place at the Broadfield Tavern in Sheffield. Originally called "Paradox", the band changed their name on Dickinson's suggestion to "Styx", unaware of the American act with the same name. They made local newspaper headlines when a steel worker was awoken by their performance and tried to smash the band's drum kit. Soon afterwards the band split up.
After leaving school with A-levels in English, History, and Economics, Dickinson confessed, "I didn't really know what I wanted to do." The first thing he did was join the Territorial Army for six months. Although he enjoyed his time in the TA, Dickinson realised that it was not a career choice, and so he applied for a place to read history at Queen Mary College, London. His parents wanted him in the army, but he told them that he wanted to get a degree first, which acted as his "cover story", and immediately began playing in bands. At university, Dickinson got involved in the Entertainments Committee: "one day you'd be a roadie for The Jam, the next you'd be putting up the Stonehenge backdrop for Hawkwind or whatever." In 1977, Dickinson met Paul "Noddy" White, a multi-instrumentalist who owned a PA and other equipment, with whom Dickinson, along with drummer Steve Jones, would form a band together called Speed. According to Dickinson, the band was called Speed because of the way in which they played, rather than a reference to drug-taking. In Speed, Dickinson began writing his own material after White taught him how to play three chords on the guitar.
Although Speed would play several gigs at the Green Man pub in Plumstead, the band did not last long, but it encouraged Dickinson to continue to work towards being a musician. Dickinson spotted an advertisement in Melody Maker with the caption "Singer wanted for recording project" and replied immediately. He recorded a demo tape and sent it with a note which read: "By the way, if you think the singing's crap, there's some John Cleese stuff recorded on the other side you might find amusing." They liked what they heard and invited Dickinson down to the studio to make "Dracula", the first song he would ever record, with a band called "Shots", formed by two brothers, Phil and Doug Siviter. The song would later appear on the second disc of The Best of Bruce Dickinson compilation. The brothers were impressed with Dickinson's vocal abilities and asked him to join their group.
Dickinson played pubs with Shots on a regular basis to small audiences. One particular night, Dickinson suddenly stopped in the middle of a song and started interviewing a man in the audience, heckling for not paying enough attention. He got such a good response he started doing it every night until it became a regular routine used to catch the audience's attention. Dickinson states that this experience taught him how to be a frontman. The next step in Dickinson's career was taken in a pub called the Prince of Wales in Gravesend, Kent, where Shots were playing regularly, when Barry Graham ("Thunderstick") and Paul Samson paid a visit. Impressed with his stage-act, they talked with Dickinson afterwards and invited him to be their new singer. Dickinson agreed to join their band, Samson, but only once he'd finished taking his History finals two weeks later. Until that point, he had been neglecting his University education. As a result, the university had tried to kick him out for failing his Second Year exams and not paying his accommodation fees, but he was saved because of his role as Entertainments Officer. After writing 6 months' worth of essays in the space of two weeks and some last minute cramming for his exams, Dickinson achieved a 2:2.
Samson: 1979–1981
After meeting Paul Samson and Barry Purkis at the Prince of Wales, and while still undertaking his final university exams, Dickinson joined Samson onstage at Bishop's Stortford to perform one of their songs, "Rock Me Baby", cementing his role as their new lead vocalist.
The band had already released their debut album, Survivors, in 1979 on an independent label, two months before Dickinson joined. Immediately following the completion of his University work, he met up with the band at Greenwich's Wood Wharf studios to learn the Survivors album. Although the tracks did not suit his vocal style, the band soon wrote the majority of the following Head On album in their earliest rehearsal sessions, some of which were immediately incorporated into their live set.
It was during these early rehearsals that the nickname "Bruce Bruce" came about, derived from Monty Python's "Bruces sketch". The name became very tiresome as the band's management continually wrote dud cheques, made payable to "Bruce Bruce", as a joke. Dickinson later commented that he did not like it but considered it "a sort of stage name" and accepted it.
Dickinson was dismayed to learn that not all rock performers were "great artists"; he felt that some, such as Samson, were only interested in women, drugs and alcohol, which he was unable to relate to. Although he had smoked joints before, Dickinson discovered that it was impossible to communicate with other band members if he was sober, deciding that it was "the price that had to be paid".
While fronting the band, Dickinson also came across Iron Maiden for the first time, who were supporting Samson at the Music Machine in 1980. As Dickinson recalls; "I was watching them, and they were good, really fucking good, and at that moment, I remember thinking, 'I wanna fucking sing for that band. In fact, I'm going to sing for that band! I know I'm going to sing for that band!' ... I just thought, 'This is really me. Not Samson.'"
Dickinson remained in the band for another year, recording two studio albums with them—Head On and Shock Tactics. However, Samson soon ran into difficulties with their record label, Gem, who went out of business and failed to finance their European tour in support of Iron Maiden. The band were turned over to RCA, which began neglecting the group, and so they promptly fired their management team and the resulting injunction meant that their equipment was reclaimed and they could not be paid for their concert performances. The band's last gig was at Reading Festival, after which Dickinson was approached by Iron Maiden's manager, Rod Smallwood, who asked him to audition to be their new lead vocalist.
Iron Maiden
Beginnings and success: 1981–1985
Dickinson went to audition for Iron Maiden at a rehearsal room in Hackney in September 1981 and immediately discovered that this was a much more professional operation than he was used to with Samson. In the practice rooms, the band played through "Prowler", "Sanctuary", "Running Free" and "Remember Tomorrow", before asking Dickinson to sing the same songs again in a recording studio, and he was immediately inducted into the group.
Iron Maiden had a strict and organised routine that suited the band's writing style, which Dickinson described as a "time table". After a few gigs, they began writing new material for their third album, The Number of the Beast, released in 1982. In the wake of Samson's contractual problems, Dickinson could not legally be credited on any of the record's songs, having to make, what he called, a "moral contribution", later revealing that he had contributed to "The Prisoner", "Children of the Damned" and "Run to the Hills". In the documentary 12 Wasted Years, manager Rod Smallwood refers to "The Prisoner" as being co-written by Dickinson and Adrian Smith. The album was a major success, topping the British charts, and earning platinum status in the UK and the US. Following the release, the band embarked on a supporting tour around the globe.
On the following albums, 1983's Piece of Mind and 1984's Powerslave, Steve Harris's song-writing monopoly was pushed aside in favour of other members' ideas, with Dickinson contributing to a number of tracks, including the singles "Flight of Icarus" and "2 Minutes to Midnight". Throughout the World Slavery Tour, as part of the new theatrical elements incorporated into the band's stage-show, Dickinson wore a feathered mask during "Powerslave". This was the band's longest tour to date, during which Dickinson considered going home mid-tour, due to the high number of shows. Iron Maiden's management were continually adding dates, until Dickinson demanded that they stop or he would leave the group.
Growing tensions and departure: 1986–1993
After a six-month break, which Dickinson mostly spent practising fencing, Iron Maiden began writing their next album, Somewhere in Time. Dickinson was disappointed with the effort as he felt that the band needed a more dramatic stylistic departure from past records to remain relevant, despite its introduction of synthesised bass and guitars. He has no writing credits on the release, as his material, based on his own suggestion that the album should be more acoustic-focused, was rejected by the rest of the band. Steve Harris, on the other hand, stated that his material was rejected because it was not good enough, and that Dickinson "was probably more burnt out than anyone at the end of the last tour".
After a subsequent tour, Iron Maiden started working on their next studio effort, Seventh Son of a Seventh Son, which featured more progressive rock elements than the band's previous records. Although it became their second release to top the British charts, it was also Dickinson's first album with the band that did not achieve platinum status in the US. Unlike Somewhere in Time, Dickinson was much more enthusiastic about this album due to its concept and has several song-writing credits. After the following tour in 1988, the band decided to take a year off.
During the next album's writing stage, Adrian Smith left Iron Maiden, and was replaced by Janick Gers. Iron Maiden's eighth studio release, 1990's No Prayer for the Dying, had a raw sound that, according to AllMusic, did not "hold up well" compared to past efforts, as it was recorded in a barn which Steve Harris owned, with a mobile studio owned by the Rolling Stones. The record featured Dickinson's "Bring Your Daughter... to the Slaughter", originally composed for a film soundtrack, which despite receiving a Golden Raspberry Award for worst original song in 1989, became the band's first and only single to top the UK Singles Chart. By 1992, Harris had converted his barn into a proper studio, and the new album, Fear of the Dark, was recorded there, resulting in a better overall sound than No Prayer for the Dying, although Dickinson still claims it had limitations due to its size.
After the Fear of the Dark Tour, Dickinson decided to leave Iron Maiden to concentrate on his solo career. At that point the band had already booked a following tour in 1993, which Dickinson did not enjoy. Throughout the tour, Dickinson drew a lot of criticism from his bandmates, with Steve Harris in particular saying, "I really wanted to kill him." According to Harris, Dickinson would only perform when the press was there, whereas at other concerts he would only mumble his way through songs. Dickinson has since denied the accusations that he was deliberately under-performing, arguing that it was impossible to give a decent performance some nights because of the atmosphere. His last performance with the band on 28 August 1993 was filmed by the BBC at Pinewood Studios and released as a live video the following year, entitled Raising Hell.
Return: 1999–present
Along with Adrian Smith, Dickinson rejoined Iron Maiden in 1999 with Janick Gers remaining in the band, after he was approached by manager Rod Smallwood. Smallwood also spoke to Steve Harris about Dickinson's return, who initially had reservations about the prospect, but soon came round to the idea, deliberating that they knew of his abilities and that it was a case of "better the devil you know". Harris and Dickinson agreed to meet at Smallwood's home in Brighton in January 1999 for the first conversation they would have with each other since 1993. Although both men were nervous about the encounter, upon seeing each other the tension immediately dissipated and both agreed that Dickinson should return to the group.
After embarking on a small tour, the band set about recording Brave New World, their first studio album with Dickinson since 1992. Dickinson insisted that they find a replacement for the now retired Martin Birch, the band's regular producer, and record in a different studio than the one in which they made No Prayer for the Dying and Fear of the Dark, to which Harris agreed. The album was recorded at Guillaume Tell Studios, Paris with producer Kevin Shirley, after which Iron Maiden undertook a supporting tour culminating with a performance at the Rock in Rio festival before a crowd of 250,000.
In 2003 they recorded and released Dance of Death at London's SARM Studios with Kevin Shirley, now the band's new regular producer. After two further stints on the road (Dance of Death World Tour and Eddie Rips Up the World Tour) Iron Maiden returned to SARM in 2006 to record their next studio album, A Matter of Life and Death, and embarked on a supporting tour. In 2008 and 2009, the band set out on the Somewhere Back in Time World Tour, which has since been described as "groundbreaking" for its use of Ed Force One, the band's customised Boeing 757, flown by Dickinson himself, and led to the documentary film Iron Maiden: Flight 666, which had a limited cinema release in April 2009. Iron Maiden held another world tour in 2010 and 2011 in support of The Final Frontier, their first album recorded at Compass Point Studios, Nassau, Bahamas since 1986's Somewhere in Time, and which peaked at No. 1 in 28 countries.
In September 2014, Iron Maiden began recording their sixteenth studio album, The Book of Souls, at Guillaume Tell Studios, Paris. The release features two songs written solely by Dickinson for the first time since Powerslave, "If Eternity Should Fail" and "Empire of the Clouds", the former originally penned for a possible solo record. "Empire of the Clouds" is the band's longest ever song, at over 18 minutes in length, and features Dickinson on piano for the first time, which is how the song was written. The band toured the album in 2016, during which Dickinson once again piloted the band's private plane, Ed Force One (now a Boeing 747-400 jumbo jet).
Ozzfest incident
In 2005, Iron Maiden co-headlined the US festival tour, Ozzfest, with Black Sabbath. Lead singer Ozzy Osbourne's wife, Sharon, encouraged family friends and members of other bands to sabotage Iron Maiden's last performance at Hyundai Pavilion in San Bernardino, California, on 20 August, in an attack which Rod Smallwood criticised as "vile, dangerous, criminal and cowardly", as well as disrespectful to fans who had paid to see the band perform "a full unhindered performance". Osbourne ordered interference with the band's PA, delayed the entrance of Eddie, the band's mascot, and encouraged members of the Osbourne camp to throw eggs, lighters and bottle tops from the front of the audience. According to Dickinson, the attack was in response to his "disparaging remarks about reality-TV shows that she took personally", although The Guardian reported that he slated the Osbournes' reality series and accused Ozzy Osbourne of using a teleprompter. Dickinson has since denied making comments against Ozzy Osbourne and Black Sabbath, but admitted that he criticised Ozzfest throughout the tour, attacking their "corporate" seating layout and saying, "Most of the bands are there because they paid to be there."
Following the concert at San Bernardino, Osbourne released a further statement which accused Dickinson of making several anti-American comments, of which Classic Rock stated that "nobody can present any cast-iron evidence". In addition, Osbourne claimed that the flag-waving during "The Trooper" was disrespectful to American troops, at the time fighting alongside the British in Iraq, even though Dickinson had always held a Union Flag during the song, being based on the Battle of Balaclava during the Crimean War. It was also reported that Steve Harris had spoken to Ozzy Osbourne in San Bernardino, apologising for Dickinson's comments, which Harris denies, stating that his words had been "twisted".
Solo career
In early 1989, Zomba asked Dickinson to produce a track for the movie A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child, providing a budget, a studio, and a producer, Chris Tsangarides. Dickinson took up the opportunity and called an old friend of his, former Gillan guitarist, Janick Gers, and, shortly after meeting up, they had "Bring Your Daughter to the Slaughter" ready for the studio, then recorded with the assistance of bassist Andy Carr, and drummer Fabio del Rio. "I wrote it in about three minutes", states Dickinson, "I don't know where the title 'Bring Your Daughter to the Slaughter' came from, but it just popped into my head. I thought, 'Bloody hell, straight out of AC/DC!' And I thought, Nightmare on Elm Street. Yeah, that'll do.' Impressed with the results, Zomba asked Dickinson if he was willing to record a whole album as well. With the same line-up and producer, Dickinson's solo debut, Tattooed Millionaire, was written and recorded within two weeks, and released in May 1990, followed by a supporting tour.
Later that year, Dickinson participated on a re-recording of Deep Purple's "Smoke on the Water", as part of the humanitarian effort Rock Aid Armenia. Backed by the band Skin, he produced a cover version of Alice Cooper's "Elected", along with Rowan Atkinson (in character as Mr. Bean), which was used in 1992 for Comic Relief, and five years later, on Bean Soundtrack.
For his second solo effort, Dickinson received the collaboration of American producer, Keith Olsen, and, while working on the record in LA, decided to leave Iron Maiden. Unhappy with the direction he was taking with Olsen, Dickinson began working with Tribe of Gypsies guitarist Roy Z and started the album again from scratch. Balls to Picasso was recorded with Tribe of Gypsies as the backing band, and was released in 1994. That same year, Dickinson recorded a cover version of "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath" with the band Godspeed for Black Sabbath's tribute album Nativity in Black. Tribe of Gypsies departed to work on their own material and Dickinson tracked down another band, including his new writing partner and guitarist, Alex Dickson. While touring with this new outfit in 1994, Dickinson performed in Sarajevo, then under siege during the Bosnian War; a documentary film based on the concert, entitled Scream For Me Sarajevo, completed filming in December 2015.
After the Balls to Picasso supporting tour finished, he started working on a new studio record, Skunkworks. Dickinson decided that Skunkworks would be the title of the band as well, but the record company refused to release the album without his name on the cover. Dickinson hired producer Jack Endino, most noted for producing the first Nirvana album. The "Skunkworks" entity ceased to be when the tour ended. "I was devastated by the Skunkworks thing", stated Dickinson, "Skunkworks was a record which I tore myself apart to make and nobody seemed to give a shit."
After a short period of inactivity, Dickinson once again teamed up with Roy Z and Tribe of Gypsies to record his next album, Accident of Birth; "It was actually Roy that dragged me back into some assemblance, because he called up and he said, 'Listen, I've got some stuff and it's like a metal record.' And I wasn't thrilled, I wasn't really sure that I had anything to offer ... Then he played me some backing-tracks he'd done for what was to become Accident of Birth down the phone and I thought 'There is something there.'" Former Iron Maiden guitarist, Adrian Smith, was asked to guest on the record, but remained as a full-time member of Dickinson's solo outfit. The album marked a return to heavy metal for Dickinson, with Sputnikmusic remarking, "The album's heavy feel is very satisfying, and definitely fills that void left by Maiden during the 90's." The follow-up, The Chemical Wedding, was a semi-concept album on alchemy, which drew inspiration from William Blake's writings; with some songs, such as "Book of Thel", having the same title as some of his poems, and the cover artwork featuring one of his paintings. The record was even more successful than its predecessor, with Sputnikmusic commenting, "Bruce had shattered all expectations to create an album that might even be better than the previous one." During The Chemical Weddings supporting tour, the live album, Scream for Me Brazil was recorded in São Paulo, after which Dickinson and Smith returned to Iron Maiden in February 1999.
In 2000, Dickinson performed vocals on the song, "Into the Black Hole", for Ayreon's Universal Migrator Part 2: Flight of the Migrator. Later that year, he collaborated with Judas Priest's front-man, Rob Halford, recording, "The One You Love to Hate", for Halford's debut, Resurrection. A compilation, entitled The Best of Bruce Dickinson, was released in late 2001, including two new songs and a bonus disc of rarities. His latest solo album, Tyranny of Souls was released in May 2005. This time the song-writing was all split between Roy Z and Dickinson and many songs were composed by Z sending recordings of riffs to Dickinson while he was on tour with Iron Maiden. On 21 June 2005, Dickinson's complete solo discography was re-released, featuring bonus discs with rare and remastered tracks. That same year, Dickinson contributed to the song, "Beast in the Light", from Tribuzy's album, Execution, and their subsequent live album. A three-DVD box set, entitled Anthology, was released on 19 June 2006, containing concerts and promo videos from throughout his solo career, as well as an old Samson video, entitled "Biceps of Steel".
A fan of the Monty Python comedy troupe, in 2009 Dickinson appeared in Monty Python: Almost the Truth (Lawyers Cut). He also recorded a new version of the theme song from Monty Python's Life of Brian for the sixth and final episode. In December 2017, Dickinson said that he has tentative plans for his next solo album to be "a whole concept album", with the title being If Eternity Should Fail, the same song name from Iron Maiden's album The Book of Souls, in which he confirmed that it was originally penned as a solo track, "So if I did do another solo album, which I think I will, I might just stick to my original plan and have that as the title track. I mean, I did write it – it was the first track that I wrote for it. So, yeah, I'd probably still include that song. But it would be… the feel would be slightly different – not very much, though – from the Maiden version."
Personal life
Dickinson married Erica "Jane" Barnett in 1984, and they divorced in 1987. With his second wife, psychotherapist Patrice "Paddy" Bowden, he has three children: sons Austin (born 1990) and Griffin (born 1992), and daughter Kia (born 1994). All three were born in the Chiswick area of London, where Dickinson lived for a few decades beginning in 1981. In 2019, it was reported that he and Bowden had separated after almost 30 years of marriage; Bowden died in an accident at her home in May 2020. Dickinson currently lives with his girlfriend Leana Dolci in Paris.
Dickinson's son Austin was the lead singer in metalcore band Rise to Remain until their break-up in 2015, at which point he formed the alternative metal group As Lions. His other son Griffin, who previously worked as a stage carpenter for Iron Maiden during their tours, was the lead singer of melodic hardcore band SHVPES. Dickinson's cousin, Rob Dickinson, was the lead singer of British alternative rock band Catherine Wheel and founded Singer Vehicle Design.
In an interview with Sarah Montague for BBC's HARDtalk in 2012, Dickinson agreed that he is a conservative and a eurosceptic. Dickinson stated in a 2018 interview with French magazine L'Obs that, despite residing mainly in France, he supports Brexit and voted for the UK to leave the EU during the 2016 referendum. In 2021, after the Withdrawal Agreement entered into force, Dickinson said he was angry that British musicians and performers were restricted from free travel through Europe.
In 2015, Dickinson underwent seven weeks of chemotherapy and radiation therapy for a cancerous tumour found at the back of his tongue. Dickinson's medical team expected him to make a full recovery as the tumour was discovered in the early stages. On 15 May, Dickinson was given the all-clear by his specialists.
Honours
On 19 July 2011, Dickinson was presented with an honorary music doctorate from his alma mater, Queen Mary University of London, in honour of his contribution to the music industry.
In 2019, Dickinson was made an honorary citizen of Sarajevo and received the city's prestigious Sixth April Award for his efforts in performing under siege in 1994. According to the city's mayor, it was his arrival in Sarajevo that "was one of those moments that made us realize that we will survive, that the city of Sarajevo will survive, that Bosnia and Herzegovina will survive". He is also credited as a producer on the critically acclaimed 2016 documentary Scream for Me Sarajevo, which chronicles this performance and his return to Sarajevo.
In 2019, Dickinson was also presented with an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Philosophy by the University of Helsinki.
On 6 January 2020, Dickinson was made an Honorary Group Captain of 601 (County of London) Squadron RAF.
Other work
Dickinson's interests and non-musical activities include writing, broadcasting, fencing (at which he has competed internationally, placing 7th in Great Britain, and has founded a fencing equipment company under the brand name "Duellist"), beer brewing and aviation. Due to the wide variety of Dickinson's pursuits, Intelligent Life named him as a living example of a polymath in 2009.
Aviation and entrepreneurship
Dickinson learned to fly recreationally in Florida in the 1990s and now holds an airline transport pilot's licence. He regularly flew Boeing 757s in his role as captain for the now-defunct British charter airline Astraeus, which, from 16 September 2010, employed him as marketing director. One of his key roles in that position was to promote Astraeus' services by increasing their number of videos, leading to the Civil Aviation Authority releasing a video featuring Dickinson on aircraft loading safety in June 2011.
Following Astraeus' closure on 21 November 2011, Dickinson branched into entrepreneurship when he launched Cardiff Aviation Ltd on 1 May 2012, an aircraft maintenance business based at the Twin Peaks Hangar in St Athan, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales. According to The Wall Street Journal, in January 2013 Cardiff Aviation had created 40 jobs and hoped to have over a hundred personnel by the summer of 2013. In June 2013, The Daily Telegraph reported that the business had expanded to between 60 and 70 employees and are in discussions to set up their own airline. In August 2015, Cardiff Aviation signed a deal to provide airline support to Air Djibouti, for whom Dickinson piloted their maiden flight the following year, a Boeing 737 from Cardiff to Djibouti. As a result of his ventures in business, he has delivered keynote speeches at events around the globe, including Queen Mary University of London's Innovation Showcase in November 2012, Connect2Business, Stockholm in March 2013, Aviation Week's MRO Europe Conference, London in October 2015 and "Blog Now, Live Forever", Mumbai in October 2015.
His role as a pilot has led to some high-profile flights, which include returning a group of British RAF pilots from Afghanistan in 2008, 200 British citizens from Lebanon during the Israel/Hezbollah conflict in 2006, and 180 stranded holiday makers from Egypt following the collapse of XL Airways UK in September 2008. In addition, he flew Rangers F.C. and Liverpool F.C. to away matches in Israel and Italy in 2007 and 2010 respectively.
For the 2008–09 "Somewhere Back in Time World Tour", he piloted Iron Maiden's chartered Boeing 757, dubbed "Ed Force One", specially converted to carry the band's equipment between continents, which subsequently led to a documentary film, Iron Maiden: Flight 666. Dickinson flew "Ed Force One" again for "The Final Frontier World Tour" in 2011. For the 2016 The Book of Souls World Tour, the band upgraded to a Boeing 747-400 jumbo jet, which meant that Dickinson had to undertake type conversion to fly the aircraft. In 2014, Dickinson purchased a Fokker Dr.I triplane replica G-CDXR and joined the Great War Display Team, which re-enacts First World War air battles at air shows across the UK.
Radio and TV
Dickinson presented Bruce Dickinson's Friday Rock Show on BBC radio station 6 Music from 2002 to 2010. In March 2010, the BBC announced that, after over eight years, Dickinson's show was to be axed. His final broadcast was on 28 May 2010, with the regular format abandoned in favour of a personal and musical tribute to the recently deceased Ronnie James Dio. Dickinson scorned the BBC executives for the cancellation, playing the Johnny Paycheck version of "Take This Job and Shove It". In addition to his show on 6 Music, Dickinson also hosted a series entitled Masters of Rock on BBC Radio 2 from 2003 to 2007. Dickinson's catalogue of 6 Music programmes were acquired in 2014 by TeamRock radio, who began re-broadcasting episodes in December.
In 2005, Dickinson hosted a 5-part historical TV series about aviation, Flying Heavy Metal, which was shown on the Discovery Channel, and later on Discovery Turbo in the UK. He was a guest on an episode of the Military Channel's The Greatest Ever, where he drove a Russian T-34 tank. In 2006, Dickinson presented a documentary for Sky One entitled Inside Spontaneous Human Combustion with Bruce Dickinson, in which he investigated the phenomenon by enlisting the help of several experts and performing various experiments to determine its possible cause. Other television appearances include guesting on quiz shows such as Never Mind the Buzzcocks and the short-lived Space Cadets, as well as the chat show Clarkson, hosted by Jeremy Clarkson. Dickinson has also appeared in a BBC series called The Paradise Club, undertaking the role of a musician named Jake Skinner. On 27 July 2012, Dickinson spent a day being filmed as a guest star for a season four episode of Ice Pilots NWT, in which he flew a Douglas DC-3 and took part in "touch-and-go drills" in a Douglas DC-4 with Buffalo Airways.
Writing
During a 1986–1987 Iron Maiden tour, and in the wake of a divorce, Dickinson started writing his first book. Inspired by the novels of Tom Sharpe, in addition to Biggles and Penthouse, he created The Adventures of Lord Iffy Boatrace, which Kerrang! describes as "a satirical swipe at fetishism among the upper classes", and whose title character is a "semi-transvestite" British land owner.
Following its completion, Dickinson approached Sidgwick & Jackson, who, according to Dickinson, agreed to publish the book before reading it based on Iron Maiden's album sales alone. Released in 1990 (), the novel sold more than 40,000 copies almost immediately. Due to the high demand, Sidgwick & Jackson asked Dickinson to produce a sequel, which became 1992's The Missionary Position (), a satire of televangelism. No further additions to the series have been published, although Dickinson did write the first 60 pages to a prequel, set during "Lord Iffy's schooldays", which he "just thought was rubbish and ripped it all up. I didn't think it was funny."
Dickinson has turned his hand to scriptwriting, co-authoring Chemical Wedding with director Julian Doyle. The film, in which Dickinson played a few small cameo roles and composed the soundtrack, was released in 2008 and starred Simon Callow.
On 15 October 2015, HarperCollins and Dey Street announced that they would publish Dickinson's memoirs. What Does This Button Do? was released on 19 October 2017.
Beer
In 2013, Iron Maiden collaborated with Robinsons Brewery in Stockport to create Trooper, a 4.8% cask/4.7% bottled ale whose recipe Dickinson formulated with head brewer Martyn Weeks. As of May 2014, the beer has sold 2.5 million pints in 40 countries, making it Robinsons' most successful export.
Following Trooper's success, Dickinson, a fan of traditional English cask beer, stated that he intends to develop more beers in the future, although new products will be "under the umbrella of Trooper and not Iron Maiden [as] Trooper has taken on a life of its own. People drink it because they like the beer, not because they are Maiden fans." Additional beers have included Trooper Red 'N' Black Porter (5.8 per cent ABV), Trooper Hallowed (6.0 per cent ABV), and a limited edition "666" (at 6.66 per cent ABV).
Singing style and stage performance
Although Dickinson never received formal training, he still possesses a wide vocal range which was trademarked by his quasi-operatic tenor. Along with Ronnie James Dio and Rob Halford, Dickinson is one of the pioneers of the operatic vocal style later to be adopted by power metal vocalists and regularly appears near the top in lists of the greatest rock vocalists/front-men of all time. Dickinson says that his style was influenced primarily by Arthur Brown, Peter Hammill (Van der Graaf Generator), Ian Anderson (Jethro Tull) and Ian Gillan (Deep Purple).
Dickinson's singing varied in the 1990s in the recording of albums such as No Prayer for the Dying, Fear of the Dark and his first solo work Tattooed Millionaire, making use of a much more raspy and unpolished sound, befitting their stripped down style. Since returning to Iron Maiden in 1999, his singing style has returned to much like it was in the 1980s, though his voice has lowered with age. According to a report published in the Daily Mirror, Dickinson has an estimated vocal range of 4.25 octaves. His voice led to the nickname "The Air Raid Siren", which Billboard states is "due to the ferocious power of his singing", although Dickinson claims it actually originated from a fan complaint.
In addition to his vocal ability, Dickinson has been described as an energetic stage performer. He considers including the audience "the essence of the Maiden experience" and that his role is to "shrink the venue ... to turn that football stadium into the world's smallest club". To achieve this, Dickinson seeks eye contact with audience members and urges them to join in with the phrase "scream for me" (followed by the concert's location). He is critical of performers who do not connect with their fans, particularly those who "[hide] behind the amps" and use an autocue, remarking that "people pay good money and [they] can't even remember the sodding words".
Discography
Iron Maiden
The Number of the Beast (1982)
Piece of Mind (1983)
Powerslave (1984)
Somewhere in Time (1986)
Seventh Son of a Seventh Son (1988)
No Prayer for the Dying (1990)
Fear of the Dark (1992)
Brave New World (2000)
Dance of Death (2003)
A Matter of Life and Death (2006)
The Final Frontier (2010)
The Book of Souls (2015)
Senjutsu (2021)
Bruce Dickinson
Tattooed Millionaire (1990)
Balls to Picasso (1994)
Skunkworks (1996)
Accident of Birth (1997)
The Chemical Wedding (1998)
Tyranny of Souls (2005)
Samson
Survivors (1979)
Head On (1980)
Shock Tactics (1981)
Live at Reading 1981 (1990)
* Dickinson appeared on the album's re-issue only, as the original version was completed before he joined the band.
Tours
1990: Tattooed Millionaire Tour
1994–1995: Balls to Picasso Tour
1996: Skunkworks Tour
1997: Accident of Birth Tour
1998–1999: The Chemical Wedding Tour
2002: Airraid over Europe Tour
Notes
References
This video on YouTube
External links
Bruce Dickinson Wellbeing Network
1958 births
People from Worksop
Alumni of Queen Mary University of London
People educated at Oundle School
People educated at King Edward VII School, Sheffield
English heavy metal singers
English rock singers
Iron Maiden members
English tenors
English radio DJs
English aviators
English male fencers
Golden Raspberry Award winners
Living people
Singers with a four-octave vocal range
Commercial aviators
Samson (band) members
EMI Records artists
CMC International artists
English autobiographers
BBC Radio 6 Music presenters
20th-century English male singers
21st-century English male singers | [
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255406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatter%27s%20Castle | Hatter's Castle | Hatter's Castle (1931) is the first novel of author A. J. Cronin. The story is set in 1879, in the fictional town of Levenford, on the Firth of Clyde. The plot revolves around many characters and has many subplots, all of which relate to the life of the hatter, James Brodie, whose narcissism and cruelty gradually destroy his family and life. The book was made into a successful film in 1942 starring Robert Newton, Deborah Kerr, and James Mason.
Characters
The main characters are James Brodie (the hatter and tyrannical patriarch of the Brodie family), Mary Brodie (James' elder daughter, also one of the central characters, appearing throughout the first and last section of the novel), Matthew Brodie (James' only son and oldest child in the family who also plays a significant role in the novel), Nessie Brodie (James' younger daughter and favourite, who remains one of the background characters until the end of the story), Mrs. Brodie (James' fragile wife who is never treated as anything more than a servant by her husband), Grandma Brodie (James' mother who lives with the Brodie family), Dennis Foyle (A young Irishman who has a relationship with Mary), Nancy (James' mistress) and Dr. Renwick (a character who becomes more involved in the Brodies' family life towards the end of the novel).
Plot summary
The book is in three sections.
Part 1
The novel begins with some insight into the life of the Brodie household, where James Brodie seems to have everyone under his thumb. The main event that triggers the events in the novel is Mary Brodie's relationship with her first love, Dennis. Early in the story, Mary, who has occasionally met Dennis at the library, is invited by him to go to the fair in the town. She sneaks out without her family's knowledge and not only goes to the fair, but later on that night kisses and eventually makes love to Dennis, which we later learn, results in pregnancy.
This event of her unwanted pregnancy is the main plot in the first third of the novel, titled "Section One". We realise that Mary is pregnant, and when she is six months pregnant she makes a plan with Dennis to elope. Even though Mary was only seventeen, there would have been no legal problem with her marriage since the English law which, until 1970, generally required people under twenty-one to have parental consent to marry, did not apply in Scotland. But three days before Dennis is due to whisk Mary away, there is a massive storm, and she begins to go into labour. Mrs. Brodie stumbles into Mary's room and begins to scream at the fact that her daughter is with child, and calls James himself to sort it out. After being kicked in the stomach repeatedly by her father and thrown out on her face into the pouring rain (whilst in labour), she tries to reach safety. Mary nearly drowns in a river before finding a barn where she gives birth to her premature child, which dies. Dennis, who was, travelling on a train to rescue Mary, is killed when the train derails and plunges into the River Tay below, a retelling of the actual Tay Bridge disaster of 1879.
Part 2
In the second part of the book, James Brodie's business as a hatter is destroyed. A rival company moves next door and attracts all his customers. Part of this is due to Brodie's pride, as the customers are driven away by his delusions of superiority. As his profits decrease, so does the weekly salary, so Mamma is left to deal with making the most of what little they have left for the family. Her illness, cancer of the womb, and the chronic stress of living with James Brodie hasten her death. After her death, Brodie's mistress, Nancy, moves in. Later she goes off abroad with Brodie's son Matt, and Brodie is left with only his younger daughter, Nessie, and his aged mother, Grandma Brodie.
Part 3
In the third part of the book, Brodie forces Nessie to study hard so as to win the "Latta", a valuable bursarship. He wants this not so much to provide a good future for his daughter, as to show that she is better than his rival's son, who is also entered for it. Under his threats and the dreadful fear of failure, she labours on with it, making herself mentally and physically ill. Nessie secretly writes to Mary asking her to come back, so she will have her company and comfort. Under pretext of coming to help with housework, Mary writes to her father, who initially refuses her return. After discovering that Nancy has deserted him, he writes again permitting Mary to come back, so she does.
Nessie obtains notice of the Latta result before her father sees it. Finding that her rival has won it and fearing her father, she sends Mary out to the chemist on the pretext of getting some medicine, then dresses up and hangs herself.
The story concludes with Dr. Renwick, who has been seeing Mary, taking her away with him to marry her.
The novel in other countries
In Russian "Hatter's Castle" was first published in 1955 under the name "Brodie's Castle", which has not changed since then.
See also
Gretna Green
Tay Bridge disaster
External links
Scotland's Bookshelf on Aye Write! website
Text of Hatter's Castle
Downloadable text
Novels by A. J. Cronin
1931 British novels
Hat makers
British novels adapted into films
Novels set in Scotland
Fiction set in 1879
Victor Gollancz Ltd books
Little, Brown and Company books
1931 debut novels | [
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255408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parrotbill | Parrotbill | The parrotbills (sometimes called crow-tits) are a group of peculiar birds native to East and Southeast Asia, though feral populations exist elsewhere. They are generally small, long-tailed birds that inhabit reedbeds and similar habitat. They feed mainly on seeds, e.g. of grasses, to which their bill, as the name implies, is well-adapted. Living in tropical to southern temperate climates, they are usually non-migratory.
The bearded reedling or "bearded tit", a Eurasian species long placed here, is more insectivorous by comparison, especially in summer. It also strikingly differs in morphology, and was time and again placed in a monotypic family Panuridae. DNA sequence data supports this.
As names like "bearded tit" imply, their general habitus and acrobatic habits resemble birds like the long-tailed tits. Together with these and others they were at some time placed in the titmouse family Paridae. Later studies found no justification to presume a close relationship between all these birds, and consequently the parrotbills and bearded reedling were removed from the tits and chickadees and placed into a distinct family, Paradoxornithidae. As names like Paradoxornis paradoxus – "puzzling, paradox bird" – suggest, their true relationships were very unclear, although by the latter 20th century they were generally seen as close to Timaliidae ("Old World babblers") and Sylviidae ("Old World warblers").
Taxonomy
Since 1990 (Sibley & Ahlquist 1990), molecular data has been added to aid the efforts of discovering the parrotbills' true relationships. As Paradoxornis species are generally elusive and in many cases little-known birds, usually specimens of the bearded reedling which are far more easy to procure were used for the analyses. Often, the entire group was entirely left out of analyses, being small and seemingly insignificant in the large pattern of bird evolution (e.g. Barker et al. 2002, 2004). The bearded reedling tended to appear close to larks in phylogenies based on e.g. DNA-DNA hybridization (Sibley & Ahlquist 1990), or on mtDNA cytochrome b and nDNA c-myc exon 3, RAG-1 and myoglobin intron 2 sequence data (Ericson & Johansson 2003). Placement in a superfamily Sylvioidea which contained birds such as Sylviidae, Timaliidae and long-tailed tits – but not Paridae – was confirmed.
Cibois (2003a) analyzed mtDNA cytochrome b and 12S/16S rRNA sequences of some Sylvioidea, among them several species of Paradoxornis but not the bearded reedling. These formed a robust clade closer to the Sylvia typical warblers and some presumed "Old World babblers" such as Chrysomma sinense than to other birds. The puzzle was finally resolved by Alström et al. (2006), who studied mtDNA cytochrome b and nDNA myoglobin intron 2 sequences of a wider range of Sylvioidea: The bearded reedling was not a parrotbill at all, but forms a distinct lineage on its own, the relationships of which are not entirely resolved at present. The parrotbills' presence in the clade containing Sylvia, on the other hand, necessitates that the Paradoxornithidae are placed in synonymy of the Sylviidae. Cibois (2003b) even suggested that these themselves were to be merged with the remaining Timaliidae and the latter name to be adopted. This has hitherto not been followed and researchers remain equivocal as many taxa in Sylviidae and Timaliidae remain to be tested for their relationships. In any case, it is most likely that the typical warbler-parrotbill group is monophyletic and therefore agrees with the modern requirements for a taxon. Hence, whether to keep or to synonymize it is entirely a matter of philosophy, as the scientific facts would agree with either approach.
The interesting conclusion from an evolutionary point of view is that the morphologically both internally homogenous and compared to each other highly dissimilar typical warblers and parrotbills form the two extremes in the divergent evolution of the Sylviidae. This is underscored by looking at the closest living relatives of the parrotbills in the rearranged Sylviidae: The genus Chrysomma are non-specialized species altogether intermediate in habitus, habitat and habits between the typical warblers and the parrotbills. Presumably, the ancestral sylviids looked much like these birds. How dramatic the evolutionary changes wrought upon the parrotbills in their adaptation to feeding on grass caryopses and similar seeds were can be seen by comparing them with the typical fulvettas, which were formerly considered Timaliidae and united with the alcippes (Pasquet 2006). These look somewhat like drab fairy-wrens and have none of the parrotbills' adaptations to food and habitat. Yet it appears that the typical fulvettas' and parrotbills' common ancestor evolved into at least two parrotbill lineages independently (Cibois 2003a) & (Yeung et al. 2006). Only the wrentit, the only American sylviid, resembles the parrotbills much in habitus, though not in color pattern, and of course, as an insectivore, neither in bill shape.
Species of parrotbills
There are 37 species of parrotbills and allies distributed among 16 genera. This list is presented according to the IOC taxonomic sequence and can also be sorted alphabetically by common name and binomial.
Parrotbill egg recognition
Parrotbill egg recognition is the ability of the parrotbill to distinguish its own eggs against the eggs of a brood parasite. Without their own eggs in the nest, parrotbills are not able to identify whether their nest has been intruded by the eggs of a brood parasite. Because the colour and number of eggs may vary, there are varying outcomes to whether parrotbills will reject or accept the eggs whether it be their own or if they are acting host for another species. Cognitive mechanisms including recognition by discordance and template-based recognition are hypothesized to be the manner in which a host's eggs are identified. The common cuckoo lays its eggs in the nests of parrotbills and the two have co-evolved together over time to promote the reproductive success of both species. The common cuckoo is an example of an avian brood parasite that reduces the energy cost of caring for its eggs by placing them in the parrotbill's nest.
Depending on the parrotbill species, the eggs will either be maculate with spots or marks or immaculate, meaning without spots or marks. The cuckoo is also able to lay eggs that replicate the ones of its hosts in a means to have its eggs accepted by the host. Whether the parasitic eggs are accepted by the host is based on two hypothetical cognitive mechanisms. True or template-based recognition predicts that by learning or by instinct, the parrotbill would be able to reject the brood parasite eggs. If learned, the parrotbill would imprint on its own eggs and would be able to use it as a template to compare to foreign eggs. Recognition by discordancy is the least favoured hypothesis among scientists of the two mechanisms, but describes the action of rejecting the eggs which appear to be the minority whether it is their own eggs or the parasite's eggs; it does not require learning or instinctive behaviour. Some studies have predicted discordancy is favoured as certain species demonstrate the behaviour at all life stages; if the behaviour is demonstrated at a young age, it may not be an example of learning as the time for learning could be too short.
One parrotbill species that has been studied is the ashy-throated parrotbill (Paradoxornis alphonsianus) and demonstrated the use of both mechanisms relaying there may not be one "universal method". The eggs of the ashy-throated parrotbill are immaculate and polymorphic in which multiple phenotypic colours in that species is produced; its eggs are placed in competition with the eggs of the common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus). Typically, the female cuckoo lays its eggs in the nest of the parrotbill after taking out one of the host's eggs. The immaculate colours in this species are blue, pale blue and white, but only one colour is present at a time and the female produces only one colour over its lifetime.
If parrotbills do not have their own eggs within the nest, it has been observed they accept the eggs of the avian brood parasite, as the "cue" of the presence of their own eggs has not been established. Time is also important for both male and female parrotbills as it can be the factor in whether the parrotbill will recognize parasitic eggs. For females, it is crucial they learn the egg phenotype as the eggs are being laid, but if this learning is not immediate, parasitic eggs can be accepted and imprinted. Males learn their respective egg phenotype once the clutch has reached completion.
In some species, male parrotbills also incubate eggs, and they are predicted to follow discordancy recognition for this behaviour as the males may encounter multiple egg types with different mates over time. This could lead to rejection of their own eggs based on previous knowledge of egg colour. A possible exception to this idea is if the host parrotbill produces eggs that are monomorphic. If male parrotbills do not imprint on their own eggs, they increase the probability of production of varied phenotypes of egg colour and patterns within the population.
If a host species is new to an area, it is suspected cuckoo parasitism will be favoured as recognition of parasitic eggs has not yet occurred. Over time, the two species co-evolve with the parrotbill first utilizing one of the hypothesized cognitive mechanisms in order to recognize parasitic eggs. In order to compensate for this new behaviour in parrotbills, the parasite produces eggs that are similar to those of the host and leads to the evolution of polymorphisms over time for both species.
References
Alström, Per; Ericson, Per G.P.; Olsson, Urban & Sundberg, Per (2006): Phylogeny and classification of the avian superfamily Sylvioidea. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 38(2): 381–397.
Barker, F. Keith; Barrowclough, George F. & Groth, Jeff G. (2002): A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data. Proc. R. Soc. B 269(1488): 295–308. PDF fulltext
Barker, F. Keith; Cibois, Alice; Schikler, Peter A.; Feinstein, Julie & Cracraft, Joel (2004): Phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation. PNAS 101(30): 11040-11045. PDF fulltext Supporting information
Cibois, Alice (2003a): Mitochondrial DNA Phylogeny of Babblers (Timaliidae). Auk 120(1): 1–20. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0035:MDPOBT]2.0.CO;2 HTML fulltext without images
Cibois, Alice (2003b): Sylvia is a babbler: taxonomic implications for the families Sylviidae and Timaliidae.Bull. B. O. C. 123: 257–261.
Del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie D. (editors). (2007). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 12: Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees. Lynx Edicions.
Jønsson, Knud A. & Fjeldså, Jon (2006): A phylogenetic supertree of oscine passerine birds (Aves: Passeri). Zool. Scripta 35(2): 149–186. (HTML abstract)
Pasquet, Eric; Bourdon, Estelle; Kalyakin, Mikhail V. & Cibois, Alice (2006). The fulvettas (Alcippe), Timaliidae, Aves): a polyphyletic group. Zool. Scripta 35, 559–566. (HTML abstract)
Penhallurick, John. (see )
Sibley, Charles Gald & Ahlquist, Jon Edward (1990): Phylogeny and classification of birds. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.
Walters, Michael (2006): Colour in birds’ eggs: the collections of the Natural History Museum, Tring. Historical Biology 18(2): 141–204. (HTML abstract)
Yeung, C.; Lai, F-M.; Yang, X-J.; Han, L-X.; Lin, M-C. & Li, S-H. (2006). Molecular phylogeny of the parrotbills (Paradoxornithidae). J Ornithol 147: Suppl 1 p 87-88. PDF of all conference abstracts
External links
Parrotbill videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Bird families
Paradoxornithidae
Bird common names | [
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255409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sear | Sear | Sear may refer to:
People
Cliff Sear (1936–2000), a Welsh footballer
Helen Sear (born 1955), a Welsh photographic artist
Morey Leonard Sear (1929–2004), a United States federal judge
Tammy Sear (born 1977), a British former competitive figure skater
Walter Sear (1930–2010), an American recording engineer and musician
Places
Sahar Elevated Access Road, an elevated express access road in Mumbai, India
Other uses
Sear (firearm), part of the trigger mechanism on a firearm
Sear, to cook by searing, a cooking technique which quickly cooks the exterior of a food item
Sear, a client for the WorldForge MMORPG framework
Seir (demon), a Prince of Hell; also spelled Sear
SEAr, the Hughes–Ingold symbol for the electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction
See also
Cere, part of the beak of some birds
Sears (disambiguation)
Seer (disambiguation)
Seir (disambiguation)
Sere (disambiguation) | [
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255410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatter%20%28disambiguation%29 | Hatter (disambiguation) | A hatter or hatmaker is a person engaged in hatmaking.
Hatter(s) or Hatmaker may also refer to:
Sports
Danbury Hatters, an American baseball team 1887–1914
Madison Hatters, an American baseball team
Stetson Hatters, Stetson University's athletics teams
Luton Town F.C. or the Hatters, an English football team
Stockport County F.C. or the Hatters, an English football team
Other uses
Hatter (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland), a character in Lewis Carroll's stories
Hatmaker, Michigan
Háttér Society, an LGBTQI NGO in Hungary
Hatter, demonym of Medicine Hat, Canada
People with the surname
Clyde Hatter (1908–1937), American baseball player
Hamilton Hatter (1856–1942), African American professor
Jen Hatmaker (born 1974), American Christian author and presenter
Steve Hatter (born 1958), English footballer
Terry J. Hatter Jr. (born 1933), an American judge
Tony Hatter, a British automobile designer
See also
Hattar (disambiguation)
Hatter's Castle, a novel
Hatter Fox, a character in Marilyn Harris's stories
Mad as a hatter (disambiguation)
Mad Hatter (disambiguation)
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] |
255412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal | Tidal | Tidal is the adjectival form of tide.
Tidal may also refer to:
Tidal (album), a 1996 album by Fiona Apple
Tidal (king), a king involved in the Battle of the Vale of Siddim
Tidal (livecoding), a live coding environment for music
Tidal (service), a music streaming service
Tidal, Manitoba, Canada
Tidal railway station, Tidal, Manitoba
Tidal: Occupy Theory, Occupy Strategy, a magazine associated with the Occupy Wall Street movement
See also
Tidal flow (traffic), the flow of traffic thought of as an analogy with the flow of tides
Tidal force, a secondary effect of the force of gravity and is responsible for the tides
Tide (disambiguation) | [
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255413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20City%20Police%20Department | New York City Police Department | The New York City Police Department (NYPD), officially the City of New York Police Department, is the primary law enforcement agency within the City of New York, United States. Established on May 23, 1845, the NYPD is the largest and one of the oldest police departments in the United States. The NYPD headquarters is at 1 Police Plaza, located on Park Row in Lower Manhattan near City Hall. The NYPD's regulations are compiled in title 38 of the New York City Rules. The NYC Transit Police and NYC Housing Authority Police Department were fully integrated into the NYPD in 1995. Dedicated units of the NYPD include the Emergency Service Unit, K9, harbor patrol, air support, bomb squad, counter-terrorism, criminal intelligence, anti-organized crime, narcotics, public transportation, and public housing units.
The NYPD employs around 55,000 people, including almost 35,000 uniformed officers. According to the official CompStat database, the NYPD responded to nearly 500,000 reports of crime and made over 200,000 arrests during 2019. In 2020, it had a budget of . However, the NYPD's actual spending often exceeds its budget.
The NYPD has a history of police brutality, corruption, and discrimination on the basis of race, religion and sexuality, which critics argue persists to the present. Due to its high-profile location in the largest city and media center in the United States, fictionalized versions of the NYPD and its officers have frequently been portrayed in novels, radio, television, motion pictures, and video games.
History
The Municipal Police were established in 1845, replacing an old night watch system. Mayor William Havemeyer shepherded the NYPD together. In 1857, it was replaced by a metropolitan force.
The NYPD appointed its first black officer in 1911 and the first female officers in 1918.
In 1961, highly decorated NYPD officer Mario Biaggi, later a US Congressman, became the first police officer in New York State to be made a member of the National Police Officers Hall of Fame.
In the mid-1980s, NYPD began to police street-level drug markets much more intensively, leading to a sharp increase in incarceration.
In 1992, Mayor David Dinkins created an independent Civilian Complaint Review Board for the NYPD. In response to this, some NYPD officers violently protested and rioted. They blocked traffic on the Brooklyn Bridge, demonstrated at City Hall and shouted racial epithets. The protests were sponsored by the NYPD union.
In 1994 the NYPD developed the CompStat computer system for tracking crime geographically, which is now in use by other police departments in the US and Canada. Research is mixed on whether CompStat had an impact on crime rates.
The New York City Transit Police and the New York City Housing Authority Police Department were merged into the NYPD in 1995.
In 2021, the NYPD ceased enforcement of marijuana crimes other than driving under the influence.
Demographics
As of July 2020, the NYPD's current authorized uniformed strength is 35,783. There are also 19,454 civilian employees, including approximately 4,500 auxiliary police officers, 5,500 school safety agents, and 3,500 traffic enforcement agents currently employed by the department. The Police Benevolent Association of the City of New York (NYC PBA), the largest municipal police union in the United States, represents over 50,000 active and retired NYC police officers.
Of the entire 35,783-member police force in 2020: 47% are white and 53% are members of minority groups.
Of 23,464 officers on patrol:
43% (10,162) are non-Hispanic white
57% (13,302) are black, Latino (of any race), or Asian or Asian-American.
Of 5,289 detectives:
52% (2,771) are non-Hispanic white
48% (2,518) are black, Latino (of any race), or Asian or Asian-American.
Of 4,550 sergeants:
52% (2,379) are non-Hispanic white
48% (2,171) are black, Latino (of any race), or Asian or Asian-American.
Of 1,706 lieutenants:
59% (1,014) are non-Hispanic white
41% (692) are black, Latino (of any race), or Asian or Asian-American.
Of 355 captains:
62% (219) are non-Hispanic white
38% (136) are black, Latino (of any race), or Asian or Asian-American.
Of 14 police chiefs:
57% (8) are non-Hispanic white and
43% (6) are non-white.
Women in the NYPD
On January 1, 2022, Keechant Sewell became the first woman to serve as Commissioner of the NYPD. Juanita N. Holmes, appointed Chief of the Patrol Bureau in 2020, was the first black woman to hold this command and at the time of her appointment, was the highest-ranked uniformed woman in the NYPD.
Place of residence
As a rule, NYPD officers can reside in New York City as well as Westchester, Rockland, Orange, Putnam, Suffolk and Nassau counties and approximately half of them live outside the city (51% in 2020, up from 42% in 2016.) Legislation has been introduced to require newly hired officers to reside in New York City.
Services
The NYPD has a broad array of specialized services, including the Emergency Service Unit, K9, harbor patrol, air support, bomb squad, counter-terrorism, criminal intelligence, anti-gang, anti-organized crime, narcotics, public transportation, and public housing units. The NYPD Intelligence Division & Counter-Terrorism Bureau has officers stationed in eleven cities internationally.
In 2019 the NYPD responded to 482,337 reports of crime, and made 214,617 arrests. There were 95,606 major felonies reported in 2019, compared to over half a million per year when crime in New York City peaked during the crack epidemic of the 1980s and 1990s.
Rank structure
Officers graduate from the Police Academy after five and a half to six months (or sometimes more) of training in various academic, physical, and tactical fields. For the first 18 months of their careers, they are designated as "Probationary Police Officers", or more informally, "rookies".
There are three career "tracks" in the NYPD: supervisory, investigative, and specialist. The supervisory track consists of nine ranks; promotion to the ranks of sergeant, lieutenant, and captain are made via competitive civil service examinations. After reaching the rank of captain, promotion to the ranks of deputy inspector, inspector, deputy chief, assistant chief, (bureau) chief and chief of department is at the discretion of the police commissioner. Promotion from the rank of police officer to detective is discretionary by the police commissioner or required by law when the officer has performed eighteen months or more of investigative duty.
Badges
Badges in the New York City Police Department are referred to as "shields" (the traditional term), though not all badge designs are strictly shield-shaped. Some officers have used "Pottsy" badges, "dupes," or duplicate badges, as officers are punished for losing their shield by also losing up to ten days' pay.
Every rank has a different badge design (with the exception of "police officer" and "probationary police officer") and, upon change in rank, officers receive a new badge. Lower-ranked police officers are identified by their shield numbers, and tax registry number. Lieutenants and above do not have shield numbers and are identified by tax registry number. All sworn members of the NYPD have their ID card photos taken against a red background. Civilian employees of the NYPD have their ID card photos taken against a blue background, signifying that they are not commissioned to carry a firearm. All ID cards have an expiration date.
Organization and structure
The department is administered and governed by the police commissioner, who is appointed by the mayor. Technically, the Commissioner serves a five-year term; as a practical matter, they serve at the mayor's pleasure. The commissioner in turn appoints numerous deputy commissioners. By default, the commissioner and their subordinate deputies are civilians under an oath of office and are not sworn officers. However, a commissioner who comes up from the sworn ranks retains the status and statutory powers of a police officer while serving as commissioner. This affects their police pensions, and their ability to carry a firearm without a pistol permit. Some police commissioners carry a personal firearm, but they also have a full-time security detail.
Commissioners and deputy commissioners are administrators who specialize in areas of great importance to the Department, such as counterterrorism, support services, public information, legal matters, intelligence, and information technology. However, as civilian administrators, deputy commissioners are prohibited from taking operational control of a police situation (the commissioner and the first deputy commissioner may take control of these situations, however). Within the rank structure, there are also designations, known as "grades", that connote differences in duties, experience, and pay. However, supervisory functions are generally reserved for the rank of sergeant and above.
Office of the Chief of Department
The Chief of Department serves as the senior sworn member of the NYPD. Kenneth Corey, a longtime NYPD veteran, is the 42nd individual to hold the post. which prior to 1987 was known as the chief of operations and before that as chief inspector.
Bureaus
The department is divided into 20 bureaus, which are typically commanded by a uniformed bureau chief (such as the chief of patrol and the chief of housing) or a civilian deputy commissioner (such as the Deputy Commissioner of Information Technology). The bureaus fit under four umbrellas: Patrol, Transit & Housing, Investigative, and Administrative. Bureaus are often subdivided into smaller divisions and units. All deputy commissioners and bureau chiefs report directly to the Commissioner.
Technology
In the 1990s the department developed a CompStat system of management which has also since been established in other cities. The NYPD has extensive crime scene investigation and laboratory resources, as well as units that assist with computer crime investigations. In 2005, the NYPD established a "Real Time Crime Center" to assist in investigations; this is essentially a searchable database the pulls information from departmental records, including traffic tickets, court summonses, and previous complaints to reports, as well as arrest reports. The database contains databases to identify individuals based on tattoos, body marks, teeth, and skin conditions, based on police records.
NYPD also maintains the Domain Awareness System, a network that provides information and analytics to police, drawn from a variety of sources, including a network of 9,000 publicly and privately owned surveillance cameras, license plate readers, ShotSpotter data, NYPD databases and radiation and chemical sensors. The Domain Awareness System of surveillance was developed as part of Lower Manhattan Security Initiative in a partnership between the NYPD and Microsoft. It allows the NYPD to track surveillance targets and gain detailed information about them. It also has access to data from at least 2 billion license plate readings, 100 million summonses, 54 million 911 calls, 15 million complaints, 12 million detective reports, 11 million arrests and 2 million warrants. The data from the 9,000 CCTV cameras is kept for 30 days. Text records are searchable. The system is connected to 9,000 video cameras around New York City.
In 2020, the NYPD deployed a robotic dog, known as Digidog, manufactured by Boston Dynamics. The robotic dog has cameras which send back real-time footage along with lights and two-way communication, and it is able to navigate on its own using artificial intelligence. Reaction by locals to Digidog was mixed. Deployment of Digidog led to condemnation from the Surveillance Technology Oversight Project and the American Civil Liberties Union due to privacy concerns. In response to its deployment, a city councilmember has proposed a law banning armed robots; this would not apply to Digidog as Digidog is not armed and Boston Dynamics prohibits arming of its robots. On April 24, 2021, U.S. Representative Ritchie Torres proposed new federal legislation requiring police departments receiving federal funds to report use of surveillance technology to the Department of Homeland Security and Congress. The NYPD states that the robot is meant for hostage, terrorism, bomb threat, and hazardous material situations, and that it was properly disclosed to the public under current law. Following continued push back against Digidog, including opposition to the system's $94,000 price tag, the NYPD announced on April 28, 2021 that its lease would be terminated.
Public opinion
The Quinnipiac University Polling Institute has been regularly measuring public opinion of the NYPD since 1997, when just under 50% of the public approved of the job the NYPD were doing. Approval peaked at 78% in 2002 following the World Trade Center terrorist attacks in September 2001, and has ranged between 52 and 72% since.
Approval varies by race/ethnicity, with black and Hispanic respondents consistently less likely to say they approve of the job the NYPD are doing than whites.
In 2017 the Quinnipiac poll found that New York City voters approve of the way NYPD, in general, does its job by a margin of 67-25%. Approval was 79-15 percent among white voters, 52-37 percent among black voters, and 73-24 percent among Hispanic voters. 86% of voters said crime is a serious problem, 71% said police brutality is a serious problem and 61% said police corruption is a serious problem.
A 2020 poll commissioned by Manhattan Institute for Policy Research reported that the public approve of the NYPD 53% to 40% against, again with strong racial differences: 59% of whites and Asians approved, as did 51% of Hispanics, whereas 51% of black residents disapproved.
Corruption and misconduct
The NYPD has a history of police brutality, misconduct, and corruption, as well as discrimination on the basis of race, religion and sexuality. Critics, including from within the NYPD, have accused the NYPD of manipulating crime statistics. In 2009, NYPD officer Adrian Schoolcraft was arrested, abducted by his fellow officers and involuntarily admitted to a psychiatric hospital after he provided evidence of manipulation of crime statistics (intentional under reporting of crimes) and intentional wrongful arrests (to meet arrest quotas). He filed a federal suit against the department, which the city settled before trial in 2015, also giving him back pay for the period when he was suspended.
The Knapp Commission found in 1970 that the NYPD had systematic corruption problems.
The Civilian Complaint Review Board is an all-civilian, 13-member panel tasked with investigating misconduct or lesser abuse accusations against NYPD officers, including use of excessive force, abuse of authority, discourtesy and offensive language. Complaints against officers may be filed online, by mail, by phone or in person at any NYPD station. On June 8, 2020, both houses of the New York state assembly passed the Eric Garner Anti-Chokehold Act, which provides that any police officer in the state of New York who injures or kills somebody through the use of "a chokehold or similar restraint" can be charged with a class C felony, punishable by up to 15 years in prison. New York Governor Andrew Cuomo signed the police reforms into law on June 12, 2020, which he described as "long overdue."
During the 2020 coronavirus pandemic, many NYPD officers refused to wear face masks while policing protests related to racial injustice, contrary to the recommendations of health experts and authorities. During the George Floyd protests, The New York Times reported that more than 60 videos showed NYPD police attacking protesters, many of whom were attacked without cause. Included in these attacks were the 'kettling' of protesters, an officer removing the mask of a protester and pepper spraying him, and an incident where police vehicles were driven into a crowd. An investigation by New York City’s Department of Investigation concluded that the NYPD had exercised excessive force during the George Floyd protests.
According to a 2021 FiveThirtyEight analysis, New York City spent at least an average of $170 million annually in settlements related to police misconduct over a ten-year period.
Affiliations
The NYPD is affiliated with the New York City Police Foundation and the New York City Police Museum. It also runs a Youth Police academy to provide a positive interaction with police officers and to educate young people about the challenges and responsibility of police work. The department also operates the Citizens Police Academy, which educates the public on basic law and policing procedures.
Fallen officers
The NYPD has lost 932 officers in the line of duty since 1849. This figure includes officers from agencies that were later absorbed by or became a part of the modern NYPD, in addition to the NYPD itself. This number also includes 28 officers killed on and off duty by gunfire of other officers on duty. 286 officers have been shot and killed by a criminal. The NYPD lost 23 officers in the September 11, 2001 attacks, not including another 247 who later died of 9/11-related illnesses. The NYPD has more line of duty deaths than any other American law enforcement agency.
Vehicles
Firearms
On duty
New NYPD officers are allowed to choose from one of two 9mm service pistols: the Glock 17 Gen4 and Glock 19 Gen4. All duty handguns were previously modified to a 12-pound (53 N) NY-2 trigger pull, though new recruits were being issued handguns with a lighter trigger pull as of 2021.
The Smith & Wesson 5946 was issued to new recruits in the past; however, the pistol has been discontinued. While it is no longer an option for new hires, officers who were issued the weapon may continue to use it.
Shotgun-certified officers were authorized to carry Ithaca 37 shotguns, which are being phased out in favor of the newer Mossberg 590. Officers and detectives belonging to the NYPD's Emergency Service Unit, Counter-terrorism Bureau and Strategic Response Group are armed with a range of select-fire weapons and long guns, such as the Colt M4A1 carbine and similar-pattern Colt AR-15 rifles, Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun, and the Remington Model 700 bolt-action rifle.
Off duty
The firearms approved by the NYPD for off-duty carry are the Glock 26, Smith & Wesson 3914 DAO, Smith & Wesson 3953TSW, Smith & Wesson Model 640 (.38 revolver), Springfield Armory XD-S, Sig Sauer P365, Smith & Wesson M&P Shield and the Beretta 8000D Mini Cougar.
Discontinued from service
From 1926 until 1986 the standard weapons of the department were the Smith & Wesson Model 10 and the Colt Official Police .38 Special revolvers with four-inch barrels. Female officers had the option to choose to carry a three-inch barrel revolver instead of the normal four-inch model due to its lighter weight. Prior to 1994, the standard weapon of the NYPD was the Smith & Wesson Model 64 DAO a .38 Special revolver with a three- or four-inch barrel and the Ruger Police Service Six with a four-inch barrel. This type of revolver was called the Model NY-1 by the department. After the switch in 1994 to semiautomatic pistols, officers who privately purchased revolvers before January 1, 1994, were allowed to use them for duty use until August 31, 2018. They were grandfathered in as approved off-duty guns.
Prior to the issuing of the 9mm semi-automatic pistol NYPD detectives and plainclothes officers often carried the Colt Detective Special and/or the Smith & Wesson Model 36 "Chief's Special" .38 Special caliber snub-nosed (2-inch) barrel revolvers for their ease of concealment while dressed in civilian clothes.
The Kahr K9 9 mm pistol was an approved off-duty/backup weapon from 1998 to 2011. It was pulled from service because it could not be modified to a 12-pound trigger pull.
See also
Detectives' Endowment Association
Law enforcement in New York City
New York City Office of Administrative Trials and Hearings
Police Benevolent Association of the City of New York
Police surveillance in New York City
Sergeants Benevolent Association
References
Further reading
Darien, Andrew T. Becoming New York's Finest: Race, Gender, and the Integration of the NYPD, 1935–1980. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
Miller, Wilbur R. Cops and bobbies: Police authority in New York and London, 1830–1870 (The Ohio State University Press, 1999)
Monkkonen, Eric H. Police in Urban America, 1860–1920 (2004)
Richardson, James F. The New York Police, Colonial Times to 1901 (Oxford University Press, 1970)
Richardson, James F. "To Control the City: The New York Police in Historical Perspective". In Cities in American History, eds. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (1972) pp. 3–13.
Thale, Christopher. "The Informal World of Police Patrol: New York City in the Early Twentieth Century", Journal of Urban History (2007) 33#2 pp. 183–216.
External links
Police Department in the Rules of the City of New York
"With the Sky Police", Popular Mechanics, January 1932 article about the NY City Police Air Force and the Keystone-Loening Commuter in service at that time, photos pp. 26–30
NYPD Annual Reports 1912–1923 (digitized books) from the Lloyd Sealy Library on the Internet Archive
Historical images from the NYPD Annual Reports, 1923–23 from the Lloyd Sealy Library Digital Collections
1845 establishments in New York (state)
Law enforcement in the New York metropolitan area
Municipal police departments of New York (state)
Government agencies established in 1845 | [
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255415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20World%20barbet | New World barbet | New World barbets are near passerine birds from the family Capitonidae of the order Piciformes, which inhabit humid forests in Central and South America. They are closely related to the toucans.
The New World barbets are plump birds, with short necks and large heads. They get their name from the bristles that fringe their heavy bills. Most species are brightly coloured and live in tropical forest.
These barbets are mostly arboreal birds, which nest in tree holes dug by breeding pairs, laying two to four eggs. They eat fruit and insects. These birds do not migrate.
Ecology
While most New World barbet species inhabit lowland forest, some range into montane and temperate forests, as well. Most are restricted to habitats containing trees with dead wood, which are used for nesting.
The diet of barbets is mixed, with fruit being the dominant part of the diet. Small prey items are also taken, especially when nesting. Barbets are capable of shifting their diet quickly in the face of changes in food availability. Numerous species of fruiting trees and bushes are visited; an individual barbet may feed on as many as 60 different species in its range. They also visit plantations and take cultivated fruit and vegetables. Fruit is eaten whole, and indigestible material such as seed pits is regurgitated later (often before singing). Regurgitation does not usually happen in the nest (as happens with toucans). Like their relatives, New World barbets are thought to be important agents in seed dispersal in tropical forests.
As well as taking fruit, they also take arthropod prey, gleaned from the branches and trunks of trees. A wide range of insects is taken, including ants, beetles, and moths. Scorpions and centipedes are also taken, and a few species take small vertebrates such as frogs.
Relationship with humans
New World barbets have little impact on humans. The loss of forest can have a deleterious effect on barbet species dependent on old growth, to the benefit of species that favour more disturbed or open habitat.
Three species of New World barbets are listed as threatened by the IUCN: The white-mantled barbet of Colombia is listed as endangered and the five-coloured barbet as vulnerable, the two having a relatively small range threatened by deforestation for the timber industry and to create space for agriculture (including coca and marijuana) and livestock, and mining. The quite recently discovered scarlet-banded barbet of Peru is considered vulnerable due to its small population size (estimated at under 1000 birds), although its remote habitat is not immediately threatened.
Systematics, taxonomy, and evolution
Fossil New World barbets have been found dating from the Miocene in Florida. IWith wide agreement, the closest relatives of the barbets are the toucans, and these two families are also closely related to the honeyguides and woodpeckers (with which they form the order Piciformes).
Formerly, the barbets have been treated as one family. This has turned out to be paraphyletic, though, with regard to toucans; thus, only the New World true barbets are retained in the Capitonidae. The African barbets (Lybiidae) and the Asian barbets (Megalaimidae), as well as the two toucan-barbets from the Americas (Semnornithidae) are currently split from this family. Alternatively, the toucans, which evolved from a common ancestor shared with the American barbets, might be included in the traditional all-encompassing barbet family. As they have evolved characteristics that are unique to themselves, they are usually treated separately, thus the barbets are split up according to the four lineages.
Species
FAMILY: CAPITONIDAE
Genus Capitonides (Early – Middle Miocene of Europe) (fossil)
Genus: Capito Scarlet-crowned barbet, Capito aurovirens
Scarlet-banded barbet, Capito wallacei
Spot-crowned barbet, Capito maculicoronatus
Orange-fronted barbet, Capito squamatus
White-mantled barbet, Capito hypoleucus
Black-girdled barbet, Capito dayi
Five-colored barbet, Capito quinticolor
Black-spotted barbet, Capito niger
Gilded barbet, Capito auratus
Brown-chested barbet, Capito brunneipectus
Sira barbet, Capito fitzpatricki
Genus: Eubucco' Lemon-throated barbet, Eubucco richardsoni Red-headed barbet, Eubucco bourcierii Scarlet-hooded barbet, Eubucco tucinkae Versicolored barbet, Eubucco versicolor''
References
External links
Barbet videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Barbet sounds on xeno-canto.org
Don Roberson's Bird Families of the World
Bird families
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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255426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commuting | Commuting | Commuting is periodically recurring travel between one's place of residence and place of work or study, where the traveler leaves the boundary of their home community. By extension, it can sometimes be any regular or often repeated travel between locations, even when not work-related. The modes of travel, time taken and distance traveled in commuting varies widely across the globe. Most people in least-developed countries continue to walk to work, as the ancestors of all people did until the nineteenth century. The cheapest method of commuting after walking is usually by bicycle, so this is common in low-income countries, but is also increasingly practised by people in wealthier countries for environmental and health reasons. In middle-income countries, motorcycle commuting is very common. The next technology adopted as countries develop is more dependent on location: in more populous, older cities, especially in Eurasia mass transit (rail, bus, etc.) predominates, while in smaller, younger cities, and large parts of North America and Australasia, communing by personal automobile is more common. A small number of very wealthy people, and those working in remote locations around the world, also commute by air travel, often for a week or more at a time rather the more typical daily commute. Transportation links that enable commuting also impact the physical layout of cities and regions, allowing a distinction to arise between mostly-residential suburbs and the more economically focused urban core of a city (process known as suburban sprawl), but the specifics of how that distinction is realized remain drastically different between societies, with Eurasian "suburbs" often being more densely populated than North American "urban cores".
History
The first separation between workplace and place of residence occurred as a result of the invention of the steam railway.
The word commuter derives from early days of rail travel in US cities, such as New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Chicago, where, in the 1840s, the railways engendered suburbs from which travellers paying a reduced or 'commuted' fare into the city. Later, the back formations "commute" and "commuter" were coined therefrom. Commuted tickets would usually allow the traveller to repeat the same journey as often as they liked during the period of validity: normally, the longer the period the cheaper the cost per day.
Before the 19th century, most workers lived less than an hour's walk from their work. The Industrial Revolution brought specialization of work and workplaces, and relocated most paid work from households and rural areas to factories in urban areas. Today, many people travel daily to work a long way from their own towns, cities, and villages, especially in industrialised societies. Depending on factors such as the high cost of housing in city centres, lack of public transit, and traffic congestion, modes of travel may include automobiles, motorcycles, trains, aircraft, buses, and bicycles. Where Los Angeles is infamous for its automobile gridlock, commuting in New York is closely associated with the subway; in London and Tokyo and several European cities, "commuter" is automatically associated with rail passengers. In the near future there may be another move away from the traditional "commute" with the introduction of flexible working. Some have suggested that many employees would be far more productive and live healthier, stress-free lives if the daily commute is removed completely.
Suburbs
Commuting has had a large impact on modern life. It has allowed cities to grow to sizes that were previously not practical, and it has led to the proliferation of suburbs. Many large cities or conurbations are surrounded by commuter belts, also known as metropolitan areas, commuter towns, dormitory towns, or bedroom communities. The prototypical commuter lives in one of these areas and travels daily to work or to school in the core city.
As urban sprawl pushes farther and farther away from central business districts, new businesses can appear in outlying cities, leading to the existence of the reverse commuter who lives in a core city but works in the suburbs, and to a type of secondary commuter who lives in a more distant exurb and works in the outlying city or industrial suburb.
Gender differences
A UK study, published in 2009, found that on average women suffer four times as much psychological stress from their work commute as men do.
Education
Institutions that have few dormitories or low student housing populations are called commuter schools in the United States.
Traffic
Most commuters travel at the same time of day, resulting in the morning and evening rush hours, with congestion on roads and public transport systems not designed or maintained well enough to cope with the peak demands. As an example, Interstate 405 located in Southern California is one of the busiest freeways in the United States. Commuters may sit up to two hours in traffic during rush hour. Construction work or collisions on the freeway distract and slow down commuters, contributing to even longer delays.
Pollution
Cars carrying only one occupant use fuel and roads less efficiently than shared cars or public transport, and increase traffic congestion. Commuting by car is a major factor contributing to air pollution. Carpool lanes can help commuters reach their destinations more quickly, encourage people to socialize, and spend time together, while reducing air pollution.
Some governments and employers have introduced employee travel reduction programs that encourage such alternatives as car-pooling and telecommuting. Some are also carpooling using Internet sites to save money. Alternatives like personal rapid transit have also been proposed to reap the energy-efficiency benefits of a mass transit system while maintaining the speed and convenience of individual transport.
Traffic emissions, such as from cars and trucks, also contribute. Airborne by-products from vehicle exhaust systems cause air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities.
The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO and NOx), volatile organic compounds, sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons. (Hydrocarbons are the main components of petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel.) These molecules react with sunlight, heat, ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form the noxious vapours, ground level ozone, and particles that comprise smog.
Social trends
Commuting trends in the United States
In the United States, the Census Bureau's American Community Survey (ACS) collects data on commuting times, allowing an analysis of average commute time by industry, location, and vehicle. According to the 2014 ACS, the average commute time for adults in the United States was 26.8 minutes. The occupations with the longest commutes were Construction and Mining (33.4 minutes), Computer Science and Math (31.8), and Business Operations Specialists (30.2), while those in the military had the shortest commute (21). In general, urban and suburban workers in the US have similar commute times (about 30 minutes), while rural workers have significantly shorter commutes (22.6 minutes). In the US, over 90% of workers commute by car, while about 5% commute by public transportation. Statistical models indicate that in addition to demographics and work duration, commute time is one of the most important determinants of discretionary time allocation by individuals.
Commuting and the scarcity of local employment
Commuting is often made necessary due to local employment market factors which may stem from the decline of manufacturing (i.e., in cities where large manufacturing employers have either closed or laid off workers, with no other employers to absorb that loss) and, in general, the sheer lack of local employment. More specifically, that wages from local employers are seldom the same as what a worker household may require to sustain the household. As a result, the needs of worker households must be sustained and this leads to a wider field of job search beyond a local area to the next nearest city or metropolitan area, resulting in the requirement for commuting. Hence, in areas where little or no transit options exist that can facilitate a journey to work to meet the requirements of a worker schedule, the use of a car is therefore made necessary. This clearly is a personal choice that is borne of financial need, but also acknowledges that the issue of how local economies sustain themselves is the overarching problem which needs to be addressed.
Social and health implications of commuting
Since commuting largely stems from a need to travel outside a home community to sustain a household income while facing a bleak local employment market, this comes with additional social and health implications. First, there is the increased risk of injury and accident while driving as distance and time in the vehicle increases, which is generally observed when operating a vehicle. Fatigue and hazardous road conditions add to this risk. Second, while income from employment is greater in other cities, stress from commuting factors become a factor for personal health. Ironically, stress from having to locate employment or being placed in a low-income situation might lead to a similar outcome. However, this is dichotomous with the satisfaction of a sustainable income and good employment, which is clearly the goal of an individual who is faced with commuting.
See also
Bicycle commuting
Commuter bus
Commuter rail
Commuter worker
Environmental impact of transport
Extreme commuting
Hypermobility (travel)
Journey to work
Light rail
Marchetti's constant
Motorcycle commuting
Park and ride
Rapid Transit
Reverse commuting
Roadway air pollution
Short Commute Vehicle
Slugging
Straphanger
Student transport
Transit-oriented development
Urban planning
References
External links
"Commuters," a poetic rendition of the New Jersey-to-New York commuting life by Steve Peacock (2011) InDigestMag.com
US Commuting Averages (2002)
Some Commuters are travelling from France to London
Platform 11 – Ireland's National Rail Commuter Group
Five Maps That Reveal New Truths About America's Megaregions
Transport and the environment
Urban geography
Types of travel | [
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255432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeyguide | Honeyguide | Honeyguides (family Indicatoridae) are near passerine birds in the order Piciformes. They are also known as indicator birds, or honey birds, although the latter term is also used more narrowly to refer to species of the genus Prodotiscus. They have an Old World tropical distribution, with the greatest number of species in Africa and two in Asia. These birds are best known for their interaction with humans. Honeyguides are noted and named for one or two species that will deliberately lead humans (but, contrary to popular claims, not honey badgers) directly to bee colonies, so that they can feast on the grubs and beeswax that are left behind.
Description
Most honeyguides are dull-colored, though some have bright yellow coloring in the plumage. All have light outer tail feathers, which are white in all the African species. The smallest species by body mass appears to be the green-backed honeyguide, at an average of , and by length appears to be the Cassin's honeyguide, at an average of , while the largest species by weight is the lyre-tailed honeyguide, at , and by length, is the greater honeyguide, at .
They are among the few birds that feed regularly on wax—beeswax in most species, and presumably the waxy secretions of scale insects in the genus Prodotiscus and to a lesser extent in Melignomon and the smaller species of Indicator. They also feed on waxworms which are the larvae of the waxmoth Galleria mellonella, on bee colonies, and on flying and crawling insects, spiders, and occasional fruits. Many species join mixed-species feeding flocks.
Behavior
Guiding
Honeyguides are named for a remarkable habit seen in one or two species: guiding humans to bee colonies. Once the hive is open and the honey is taken, the bird feeds on larvae and wax. This behavior has been studied in the greater honeyguide; some authorities (following Friedmann, 1955) state that it also occurs in the scaly-throated honeyguide, while others disagree. Wild honeyguides understand various types of human calls that attract them to engage in the foraging mutualism. In northern Tanzania, honeyguides partner with Hadza hunter-gatherers, and the bird assistance has been shown to increase honey-hunters rates of finding bee colonies by 560%, and led men to significantly higher yielding nests than those found without honeyguides. Contrary to most depictions of the human-honeyguide relationship, the Hadza did not actively repay honeyguides, but instead, hid, buried, and burned honeycomb, with the intent of keeping the bird hungry and thus more likely to guide again. Some experts believe that honeyguide co-evolution with humans goes back to the stone-tool making human ancestor Homo erectus, about 1.9 million years ago. Despite popular belief, no evidence indicates that honeyguides guide the honey badger; though videos about this exist, there have been accusations that they were staged.
Although most members of the family are not known to recruit "followers" in their quest for wax, they are also referred to as "honeyguides" by linguistic extrapolation.
Breeding
The breeding behavior of eight species in Indicator and Prodotiscus is known. They are all brood parasites that lay one egg in a nest of another species, laying eggs in series of about five during a period of 5-7 days. Most favor hole-nesting species, often the related barbets and woodpeckers, but Prodotiscus parasitizes cup-nesters such as white-eyes and warblers. Honeyguide nestlings have been known to physically eject their hosts' chicks from the nests and they have needle-sharp hooks on their beaks with which they puncture the hosts' eggs or kill the nestlings.
African honeyguide birds are known to lay their eggs in underground nests of other bee-eating bird species. The honeyguide chicks kill the hatchlings of the host using their needle-sharp beaks just after hatching, much as cuckoo hatchlings do. The honeyguide mother ensures her chick hatches first by internally incubating the egg for an extra day before laying it, so that it has a head start in development compared to the hosts' offspring.
Species
The Indicatoridae contains seventeen species in four genera:
FAMILY: INDICATORIDAE
Genus: Indicator
Spotted honeyguide, I. maculatus
Scaly-throated honeyguide, I. variegatus
Greater honeyguide, I. indicator
Malaysian honeyguide, I. archipelagicus
Lesser honeyguide, I. minor
Thick-billed honeyguide, I. (minor) conirostris
Willcocks's honeyguide, I. willcocksi
Least honeyguide, I. exilis
Dwarf honeyguide, I. pumilio
Pallid honeyguide, I. meliphilus
Yellow-rumped honeyguide, I. xanthonotus
Genus: Melichneutes
Lyre-tailed honeyguide, M. robustus
Genus: Melignomon
Yellow-footed honeyguide, M. eisentrauti
Zenker's honeyguide, M. zenkeri
Genus: Prodotiscus
Cassin's honeybird, P. insignis
Green-backed honeybird, P. zambesiae
Brown-backed honeybird, P. regulus
References
External links
Don Roberson's Bird Families of the World
Brood parasites
Honeyguides
Symbiosis | [
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255434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defenders%20of%20the%20Faith | Defenders of the Faith | Defenders of the Faith is the ninth studio album by English heavy metal band Judas Priest, released on 4 January 1984 by Columbia Records. The album was certified platinum by the RIAA, and spawned the singles "Freewheel Burning", "Some Heads Are Gonna Roll", and "Love Bites".
Recording and release
Defenders of the Faith was recorded at Ibiza Sound Studios, Ibiza, Spain, and mixed from September to November 1983 at DB Recording Studios and Bayshore Recording Studios in Coconut Grove, Miami, Florida. The LP and cassette tape were released on 4 January 1984, and the album appeared on CD in July. A remastered CD was released in May 2001. Simultaneously with the album's release, the band kicked off their tour in Europe, with the bulk of concerts taking place in North America during the spring and summer.
Stylistically, Defenders of the Faith did not greatly depart from its predecessor and featured a similar formula of short, up-tempo metal anthems with stadium shout-along choruses, although progressive elements returned on some tracks such as "The Sentinel". The track "Rock Hard Ride Free" is actually a re-recording of a track entitled "Fight for Your Life" which was recorded during the 1982 Screaming For Vengeance sessions but not included on that album.
The album was an immediate success, only going one spot below Screaming for Vengeance on the US Billboard 100 Albums Chart. Some critics nonetheless objected to the lack of a standout single comparable to "Breaking the Law" or "You've Got Another Thing Comin', and the album's general similarity to Screaming for Vengeance.
The 30th-anniversary release of the album (released in March 2015) came with a double CD of a live show recorded on 5 May 1984 at the Long Beach Arena in Long Beach, California on their Defenders of the Faith Tour and was originally recorded for a radio broadcast.
Packaging
The cover art by Doug Johnson (who also designed the Hellion in Screaming for Vengeance) depicts the Metallian, a ram-horned, tiger-like land assault creature with Gatling guns and tank tracks conceptualized by the band. The back cover contains a message:
Controversy
"Eat Me Alive" was listed at number 3 on the Parents Music Resource Center's "Filthy Fifteen", a list of 15 songs the organization found most objectionable. PMRC co-founder Tipper Gore stated the song was about oral sex at gunpoint. In response to the allegations, Priest recorded the song "Parental Guidance" on the follow-up album Turbo.
Promotion
In December 1983, the band released the "Freewheel Burning" single and performed the song in a short UK/Germany tour in the same month. In January 1984, the band embarked on the Metal Conqueror Tour across Europe, North America and Japan. On this tour, the band played every song from the album live, with the exception of "Eat Me Alive". During the band's 2008 tour in support of Nostradamus, they played many songs which had never been played live before, one of them being "Eat Me Alive". To date, this made Defenders of the Faith the second Judas Priest album from which every song had been played live (the first being Rocka Rolla), followed by British Steel during the 2009, British Steel 30th anniversary tour.
Legacy
"Jawbreaker" was covered by Rage for the single "Higher than the Sky" and also appeared on the tribute album A Tribute to Judas Priest: Legends of Metal and All G.U.N. Bonustracks CD. In 2010, "Jawbreaker" was covered by Swedish power metal band Sabaton on the Re-Armed Edition of their album Metalizer. In 2017, "Jawbreaker" was covered by Swiss band Burning Witches on their debut self-titled album.
"The Sentinel" was covered by Machine Head for the special edition version of their 2011 album Unto the Locust as well as Heavens Gate for the Japan version of their 1996 album Planet E.
"Night Comes Down" was covered by Katatonia for the Japanese edition of their 2016 album The Fall of Hearts.
Track listing
30th Anniversary Edition – Bonus Live CDs
Personnel
Judas Priest
Rob Halford – vocals
K. K. Downing – guitars
Glenn Tipton – guitars
Ian Hill – bass
Dave Holland – drums
Production
Produced by Tom Allom
Engineered by Mark Dodson, assisted by Christian Eser, Bruce Hensal, David Roeder, Ben King, and Buddy Thornton
Cover design by Doug Johnson, based on a concept by Judas Priest
Charts
Certifications
References
1984 albums
Albums produced by Tom Allom
Columbia Records albums
Judas Priest albums | [
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255435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masters%20and%20Johnson | Masters and Johnson | The Masters and Johnson research team, composed of William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, pioneered research into the nature of human sexual response and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual disorders and dysfunctions from 1957 until the 1990s.
The work of Masters and Johnson began in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Washington University in St. Louis and was continued at the independent not-for-profit research institution they founded in St. Louis in 1964, originally called the Reproductive Biology Research Foundation and renamed the Masters and Johnson Institute in 1978.
In the initial phase of Masters and Johnson's studies, from 1957 until 1965, they recorded some of the first laboratory data on the anatomy and physiology of human sexual response based on direct observation of 382 women and 312 men in what they conservatively estimated to be "10,000 complete cycles of sexual response". Their findings, particularly on the nature of female sexual arousal (for example, describing the mechanisms of vaginal lubrication and debunking the earlier widely held notion that vaginal lubrication originated from the cervix) and orgasm (showing that the physiology of orgasmic response was identical whether stimulation was clitoral or vaginal, and, separately, proving that some women were capable of being multiorgasmic), dispelled many long-standing misconceptions.
They jointly wrote two classic texts in the field, Human Sexual Response and Human Sexual Inadequacy, published in 1966 and 1970, respectively. Both of these books were best-sellers and were translated into more than thirty languages. The team has been inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame. Additionally, they are the focus of a television series called Masters of Sex for Showtime based on the 2009 biography by author Thomas Maier.
Research work
Masters and Johnson met in 1957 when William Masters hired Virginia Johnson as a research assistant to undertake a comprehensive study of human sexuality. According to author Thomas Maier, as part of their clinical research, Masters and Johnson observed paid volunteers engaging in sexual activity while hooked to wires in their lab. At Masters's request, Masters and Johnson engaged in intercourse as subjects of their own study and eventually became lovers. Maier stated that Masters spent more time in the lab with Johnson than he did with his wife, Libby, and their children and also spent summer vacations together with Johnson. By the time Masters divorced his first wife in 1971, associates believed that he and Johnson essentially lived together and worked and traveled together seven days a week. Masters and Johnson married in 1971 but then later divorced on March 18, 1993 in the Circuit Court of St. Louis County; they nonetheless continued to work together professionally.
Previously, the study of human sexuality (sexology) had been a largely neglected field of study due to the restrictive social conventions of the time, with prostitution as a notable exception.
Alfred Kinsey and colleagues at Indiana University had previously published two volumes on sexual behavior in the human male and female (known as the Kinsey Reports), in 1948 and 1953, respectively, both of which had been revolutionary and controversial in their time. Kinsey's work, however, had mainly investigated the frequency with which certain behaviors occurred in the population and was based on personal interviews, not on laboratory observation. In contrast, Masters and Johnson set about to study the structure, psychology, and physiology of sexual behavior through observing and measuring masturbation and sexual intercourse in the laboratory.
Initially, participants used in their experiments were prostitutes. Masters and Johnson explained that they were a socially isolated group of people, they were knowledgeable about sex, and that they were willing to cooperate with the study. Of the 145 prostitutes who participated, only a select few were further evaluated for their genital anatomy and their physiological responses. In later studies, however, Masters and Johnson recruited 382 women and 312 men from the community. The vast majority of participants were white, they had higher education levels, and most participants were married couples.
As well as recording some of the first physiological data from the human body and sex organs during sexual excitation, they also framed their findings and conclusions in language that espoused sex as a healthy and natural activity that could be enjoyed as a source of pleasure and intimacy.
The era in which their research was conducted permitted the use of methods that had not been attempted before, and that have not been attempted since: "[M]en and women were designated as 'assigned partners' and arbitrarily paired with each other to create 'assigned couples'."
Four-stage model of the sexual response
One of the most enduring and important aspects of their work has been the four stage model of sexual response, which they described as the human sexual response cycle and defined as:
Excitement phase (initial arousal)
Plateau phase (at full arousal, but not yet at orgasm)
Orgasm
Resolution phase (after orgasm)
Their model shows no difference between Sigmund Freud's purported categories of "vaginal orgasm" and "clitoral orgasm": the physiological response was identical, even if the stimulation was in a different place.
Masters and Johnson's findings also revealed that men undergo a refractory period following orgasm during which they are not able to ejaculate again, whereas there is no refractory period in women: this makes women capable of multiple orgasm. They also were the first to describe the phenomenon of the rhythmic contractions of orgasm in both sexes occurring initially in 0.8 second intervals and then gradually slowing in both speed and intensity.
Sexual response in the aging person
Masters and Johnson were the first to conduct research on the sexual responsiveness of older adults, finding that given a state of reasonably good health and the availability of an interested and interesting partner, there was no absolute age at which sexual abilities disappeared. While they noted that there were specific changes to the patterns of male and female sexual responses with aging – for example, it takes older men longer to become aroused and they typically require more direct genital stimulation, and the speed and amount of vaginal lubrication tends to diminish with age as well – they noted that many older men and women are perfectly capable of excitement and orgasm well into their seventies and beyond, a finding that has been confirmed in population-based epidemiological research on sexual function in the elderly.
Laboratory comparison of homosexual male versus homosexual female sex
Masters and Johnson randomly assigned gay men into couples and lesbians into couples and then observed them having sex in the laboratory, at the Masters and Johnson Institute. They provided their observations in Homosexuality in Perspective:
According to Masters and Johnson, this pattern differed in the lesbian couples:
Sexual dysfunction
Their research into the anatomy and physiology of sexual response was a springboard to developing a clinical approach to the treatment of sexual problems in a revolutionary manner. Prior to 1970, when they described their treatment program to the world for the first time, sexual dysfunctions such as premature ejaculation, impotence, vaginismus, and female frigidity had been generally treated by long-term (multi-year) psychotherapy or psychoanalysis with very low rates of success. Masters and Johnson revolutionized things by devising a form of rapid treatment (2 week) psychotherapy always involving a couple, rather than just an individual, working with a male-female therapist team that resulted in a success rate of more than 80%. This was strictly a talking therapy – couples in their sex therapy program were never observed in sexual activity.
Treatment of homosexual behavior
From 1968 to 1977, the Masters and Johnson Institute ran a program to convert homosexuals to heterosexuality. This program reported a 71.6% success rate over a six-year treatment period. At the time of their earlier work, homosexuality was classified as a psychological disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, a classification which was repealed in 1973.
Thomas Maier stated "that Virginia Johnson had serious reservations about Masters' conversion theory, and she suspected that, at worst, the results of the study may have been fabricated by William Masters". Psychiatrist Robert C. Kolodny, a clinical associate of the Masters', also expressed reservations about the veracity of the findings in Masters' book on the topic and alleged that Masters had not kept files of the case studies cited in the book. Shortly before the book was published, he wrote Masters a two-page letter expressing Johnson's and Kolodny's reservations on the alleged successful reconversion findings and urging him to reconsider publication of the book, to no avail. As homosexuality was on the verge of being dropped from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), Masters's insistence on publishing the book proved to be tone-deaf and was shunned by book critics.
Criticisms
Some sex researchers, Shere Hite in particular, have focused on understanding how individuals regard sexual experience and the meaning it holds for them. Hite has criticized Masters and Johnson's work for uncritically incorporating cultural attitudes on sexual behavior into their research; for example, her work concluded that the 70% of women who do not have orgasms through intercourse are able to achieve orgasm easily by masturbation. She, as well as Elisabeth Lloyd, have criticized Masters and Johnson's argument that enough clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm should be provided by thrusting during intercourse, and the inference that the failure of this is a sign of female "sexual dysfunction". While not denying that both Kinsey and Masters and Johnson have made major contributions to sex research, she believes that people must understand the cultural and personal construction of sexual experience to make the research relevant to sexual behavior outside the laboratory. Hite's work, however, has been challenged for methodological defects.
Moreover, Masters and Johnson's research methodology has been criticized. First, Paul Robinson argues that because many of their participants were sex workers, it is highly likely that these individuals have had more sexual experience and are more comfortable with sex and sexuality in general. He says that one must approach these results with caution, because the participants do not represent the general population.
Other researchers have argued that Masters and Johnson eliminated same-sex attracted participants when studying the human sexual response cycle, which also limits the generalizability of their results.
Furthermore, Masters and Johnson have been criticized for studying sexual behaviors in the laboratory. While they attempted to make participants as comfortable as possible in the lab by giving them a "practice session" before their behavior was recorded, critics have argued that two people engaging in sexual activity in a lab is a different experience compared to being in the privacy and comfort of one's home.
Another persistent critique was that despite her extensive years of clinical work, Virginia Johnson never earned a university degree and often did not correct those who referred to her in the press or in person as "Dr. Johnson."
Television
Masters and Johnson appeared together on the NBC daily news program America Alive! in the second half of 1978, as authorities on the subject of sex.
In popular culture
The American cable network Showtime debuted Masters of Sex, a dramatic television series based on the 2009 biography of the same name, on September 29, 2013. The series stars Michael Sheen as Masters and Lizzy Caplan as Johnson.
Masters and Johnson were referenced in a 1974 Italian comedy directed by Bruno Corbucci, Il trafficone.
Masters and Johnson are referenced in season 6 episode 2 (1990) of The Golden Girls.
One character in the film Mallrats (1995) is nicknamed Masters & Johnson for her bizarre school project of studying sex.
Publications
1981 edition .
References
External links
St. Louis Walk of Fame
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
American sexologists
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255446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic%20potential | Thermodynamic potential | A thermodynamic potential (or more accurately, a thermodynamic potential energy) is a scalar quantity used to represent the thermodynamic state of a system. The concept of thermodynamic potentials was introduced by Pierre Duhem in 1886. Josiah Willard Gibbs in his papers used the term fundamental functions.
One main thermodynamic potential that has a physical interpretation is the internal energy . It is the energy of configuration of a given system of conservative forces (that is why it is called potential) and only has meaning with respect to a defined set of references (or data). Expressions for all other thermodynamic energy potentials are derivable via Legendre transforms from an expression for .
In thermodynamics, external forces, such as gravity, are counted as contributing to total energy rather than to thermodynamic potentials. For example, the working fluid in a steam engine has higher total energy due to gravity while sitting on top of Mount Everest than it has at the bottom of the Mariana Trench, but the same thermodynamic potentials. This is because the gravitational potential energy belongs to the total energy rather to thermodynamic potentials such as internal energy.
Description and interpretation
Five common thermodynamic potentials are:
where = temperature, = entropy, = pressure, = volume. The Helmholtz free energy is in ISO/IEC standard called Helmholtz energy or Helmholtz function. It is often denoted by the symbol , but the use of is preferred by IUPAC, ISO and IEC. is the number of particles of type in the system and is the chemical potential for an -type particle. The set of all are also included as natural variables but may be ignored when no chemical reactions are occurring which cause them to change.
These five common potentials are all potential energies, but there are also entropy potentials. The thermodynamic square can be used as a tool to recall and derive some of the potentials.
Just as in mechanics, where potential energy is defined as capacity to do work, similarly different potentials have different meanings:
Internal energy () is the capacity to do work plus the capacity to release heat.
Gibbs energy () is the capacity to do non-mechanical work.
Enthalpy () is the capacity to do non-mechanical work plus the capacity to release heat.
Helmholtz energy () is the capacity to do mechanical plus non-mechanical work.
From these meanings (which actually apply in specific conditions, e.g. constant pressure, temperature, etc), we can say that is the energy added to the system, is the total work done on it, is the non-mechanical work done on it, and is the sum of non-mechanical work done on the system and the heat given to it.
Thermodynamic potentials are very useful when calculating the equilibrium results of a chemical reaction, or when measuring the properties of materials in a chemical reaction. The chemical reactions usually take place under some constraints such as constant pressure and temperature, or constant entropy and volume, and when this is true, there is a corresponding thermodynamic potential that comes into play. Just as in mechanics, the system will tend towards lower values of potential and at equilibrium, under these constraints, the potential will take on an unchanging minimum value. The thermodynamic potentials can also be used to estimate the total amount of energy available from a thermodynamic system under the appropriate constraint.
In particular: (see principle of minimum energy for a derivation)
When the entropy and "external parameters" (e.g. volume) of a closed system are held constant, the internal energy decreases and reaches a minimum value at equilibrium. This follows from the first and second laws of thermodynamics and is called the principle of minimum energy. The following three statements are directly derivable from this principle.
When the temperature and external parameters of a closed system are held constant, the Helmholtz free energy decreases and reaches a minimum value at equilibrium.
When the pressure and external parameters of a closed system are held constant, the enthalpy decreases and reaches a minimum value at equilibrium.
When the temperature , pressure and external parameters of a closed system are held constant, the Gibbs free energy decreases and reaches a minimum value at equilibrium.
Natural variables
The variables that are held constant in this process are termed the natural variables of that potential. The natural variables are important not only for the above-mentioned reason, but also because if a thermodynamic potential can be determined as a function of its natural variables, all of the thermodynamic properties of the system can be found by taking partial derivatives of that potential with respect to its natural variables and this is true for no other combination of variables. On the converse, if a thermodynamic potential is not given as a function of its natural variables, it will not, in general, yield all of the thermodynamic properties of the system.
The set of natural variables for the above four potentials are formed from every combination of the - and - variables, excluding any pairs of conjugate variables. There is no reason to ignore the − conjugate pairs, and in fact we may define four additional potentials for each species. Using IUPAC notation in which the brackets contain the natural variables (other than the main four), we have:
If there is only one species, then we are done. But, if there are, say, two species, then there will be additional potentials such as and so on. If there are dimensions to the thermodynamic space, then there are unique thermodynamic potentials. For the most simple case, a single phase ideal gas, there will be three dimensions, yielding eight thermodynamic potentials.
The fundamental equations
The definitions of the thermodynamic potentials may be differentiated and, along with the first and second laws of thermodynamics, a set of differential equations known as the fundamental equations follow. (Actually they are all expressions of the same fundamental thermodynamic relation, but are expressed in different variables.) By the first law of thermodynamics, any differential change in the internal energy of a system can be written as the sum of heat flowing into the system and work done by the system on the environment, along with any change due to the addition of new particles to the system:
where is the infinitesimal heat flow into the system, and is the infinitesimal work done by the system, is the chemical potential of particle type and is the number of type particles. (Neither nor are exact differentials. Small changes in these variables are, therefore, represented with rather than .)
By the second law of thermodynamics, we can express the internal energy change in terms of state functions and their differentials. In case of reversible changes we have:
where
is temperature,
is entropy,
is pressure,
and is volume, and the equality holds for reversible processes.
This leads to the standard differential form of the internal energy in case of a quasistatic reversible change:
Since , and are thermodynamic functions of state, the above relation holds also for arbitrary non-reversible changes. If the system has more external variables than just the volume that can change, the fundamental thermodynamic relation generalizes to:
Here the are the generalized forces corresponding to the external variables .
Applying Legendre transforms repeatedly, the following differential relations hold for the four potentials:
The infinitesimals on the right-hand side of each of the above equations are of the natural variables of the potential on the left-hand side.
Similar equations can be developed for all of the other thermodynamic potentials of the system. There will be one fundamental equation for each thermodynamic potential, resulting in a total of fundamental equations.
The differences between the four thermodynamic potentials can be summarized as follows:
The equations of state
We can use the above equations to derive some differential definitions of some thermodynamic parameters. If we define to stand for any of the thermodynamic potentials, then the above equations are of the form:
where and are conjugate pairs, and the are the natural variables of the potential . From the chain rule it follows that:
Where is the set of all natural variables of except . This yields expressions for various thermodynamic parameters in terms of the derivatives of the potentials with respect to their natural variables. These equations are known as equations of state since they specify parameters of the thermodynamic state. If we restrict ourselves to the potentials , , and , then we have:
where, in the last equation, is any of the thermodynamic potentials , , , and are the set of natural variables for that potential, excluding . If we use all potentials, then we will have more equations of state such as
and so on. In all, there will be equations for each potential, resulting in a total of equations of state. If the equations of state for a particular potential are known, then the fundamental equation for that potential can be determined. This means that all thermodynamic information about the system will be known, and that the fundamental equations for any other potential can be found, along with the corresponding equations of state.
Measurement of thermodynamic potentials
The above equations of state suggest methods to experimentally measure changes in the thermodynamic potentials using physically measureable parameters. For example the free energy expressions
and
can be integrated at constant temperature and quantities to obtain:
(at constant T, {Nj} )
(at constant T, {Nj} )
which can be measured by monitoring the measureable variables of pressure, temperature and volume. Changes in the enthalpy and internal energy can be measured by calorimetry (which measures the amount of heat ΔQ released or absorbed by a system). The expressions
can be integrated:
(at constant P, {Nj} )
(at constant V, {Nj} )
Note that these measurements are made at constant {Nj } and are therefore not applicable to situations in which chemical reactions take place.
The Maxwell relations
Again, define and to be conjugate pairs, and the to be the natural variables of some potential . We may take the "cross differentials" of the state equations, which obey the following relationship:
From these we get the Maxwell relations. There will be of them for each potential giving a total of equations in all. If we restrict ourselves the , , ,
Using the equations of state involving the chemical potential we get equations such as:
and using the other potentials we can get equations such as:
Euler relations
Again, define and to be conjugate pairs, and the to be the natural variables of the internal energy.
Since all of the natural variables of the internal energy are extensive quantities
it follows from Euler's homogeneous function theorem that the internal energy can be written as:
From the equations of state, we then have:
This formula is known as an Euler relation, because Euler's theorem on homogeneous functions leads to it. (It was not discovered by Euler in an investigation of thermodynamics, which did not exist in his day.).
Substituting into the expressions for the other main potentials we have:
As in the above sections, this process can be carried out on all of the other thermodynamic potentials. Thus, there is another Euler relation, based on the expression of entropy as a function of internal energy and other extensive variables. Yet other Euler relations hold for other fundamental equations for energy or entropy, as respective functions of other state variables including some intensive state variables.
The Gibbs–Duhem relation
Deriving the Gibbs–Duhem equation from basic thermodynamic state equations is straightforward. Equating any thermodynamic potential definition with its Euler relation expression yields:
Differentiating, and using the second law:
yields:
Which is the Gibbs–Duhem relation. The Gibbs–Duhem is a relationship among the intensive parameters of the system. It follows that for a simple system with components, there will be independent parameters, or degrees of freedom. For example, a simple system with a single component will have two degrees of freedom, and may be specified by only two parameters, such as pressure and volume for example. The law is named after Josiah Willard Gibbs and Pierre Duhem.
Chemical reactions
Changes in these quantities are useful for assessing the degree to which a chemical reaction will proceed. The relevant quantity depends on the reaction conditions, as shown in the following table. denotes the change in the potential and at equilibrium the change will be zero.
Most commonly one considers reactions at constant and , so the Gibbs free energy is the most useful potential in studies of chemical reactions.
See also
Coomber's relationship
Notes
References
Further reading
McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), C.B. Parker, 1994,
Thermodynamics, From Concepts to Applications (2nd Edition), A. Shavit, C. Gutfinger, CRC Press (Taylor and Francis Group, USA), 2009,
Chemical Thermodynamics, D.J.G. Ives, University Chemistry, Macdonald Technical and Scientific, 1971,
Elements of Statistical Thermodynamics (2nd Edition), L.K. Nash, Principles of Chemistry, Addison-Wesley, 1974,
Statistical Physics (2nd Edition), F. Mandl, Manchester Physics, John Wiley & Sons, 2008,
External links
Thermodynamic Potentials – Georgia State University
Chemical Potential Energy: The 'Characteristic' vs the Concentration-Dependent Kind
Thermodynamics
Potentials
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255447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz%20free%20energy | Helmholtz free energy | In thermodynamics, the Helmholtz free energy (or Helmholtz energy) is a thermodynamic potential that measures the useful work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system at a constant temperature (isothermal). The change in the Helmholtz energy during a process is equal to the maximum amount of work that the system can perform in a thermodynamic process in which temperature is held constant. At constant temperature, the Helmholtz free energy is minimized at equilibrium.
In contrast, the Gibbs free energy or free enthalpy is most commonly used as a measure of thermodynamic potential (especially in chemistry) when it is convenient for applications that occur at constant pressure. For example, in explosives research Helmholtz free energy is often used, since explosive reactions by their nature induce pressure changes. It is also frequently used to define fundamental equations of state of pure substances.
The concept of free energy was developed by Hermann von Helmholtz, a German physicist, and first presented in 1882 in a lecture called "On the thermodynamics of chemical processes". From the German word Arbeit (work), the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends the symbol A and the name Helmholtz energy. In physics, the symbol F is also used in reference to free energy or Helmholtz function.
Definition
The Helmholtz energy is defined as
where
F is the Helmholtz free energy (sometimes also called A, particularly in the field of chemistry) (SI: joules, CGS: ergs),
U is the internal energy of the system (SI: joules, CGS: ergs),
T is the absolute temperature (kelvins) of the surroundings, modelled as a heat bath,
S is the entropy of the system (SI: joules per kelvin, CGS: ergs per kelvin).
The Helmholtz energy is the Legendre transformation of the internal energy U, in which temperature replaces entropy as the independent variable.
Formal development
The first law of thermodynamics in a closed system provides
where is the internal energy, is the energy added as heat, and is the work done on the system. The second law of thermodynamics for a reversible process yields . In case of a reversible change, the work done can be expressed as (ignoring electrical and other non-PV work) and so:
Applying the product rule for differentiation to , it follows
and
The definition of enables to rewrite this as
Because F is a thermodynamic function of state, this relation is also valid for a process (without electrical work or composition change) that is not reversible, as long as the system pressure and temperature are uniform.
Minimum free energy and maximum work principles
The laws of thermodynamics are most easily applicable to systems undergoing reversible processes or processes that begin and end in thermal equilibrium, although irreversible quasistatic processes or spontaneous processes in systems with uniform temperature and pressure (uPT processes) can also be analyzed based on the fundamental thermodynamic relation as shown further below. First, if we wish to describe phenomena like chemical reactions, it may be convenient to consider suitably chosen initial and final states in which the system is in (metastable) thermal equilibrium. If the system is kept at fixed volume and is in contact with a heat bath at some constant temperature, then we can reason as follows.
Since the thermodynamical variables of the system are well defined in the initial state and the final state, the internal energy increase , the entropy increase , and the total amount of work that can be extracted, performed by the system, , are well defined quantities. Conservation of energy implies
The volume of the system is kept constant. This means that the volume of the heat bath does not change either, and we can conclude that the heat bath does not perform any work. This implies that the amount of heat that flows into the heat bath is given by
The heat bath remains in thermal equilibrium at temperature T no matter what the system does. Therefore, the entropy change of the heat bath is
The total entropy change is thus given by
Since the system is in thermal equilibrium with the heat bath in the initial and the final states, T is also the temperature of the system in these states. The fact that the system's temperature does not change allows us to express the numerator as the free energy change of the system:
Since the total change in entropy must always be larger or equal to zero, we obtain the inequality
We see that the total amount of work that can be extracted in an isothermal process is limited by the free-energy decrease, and that increasing the free energy in a reversible process requires work to be done on the system. If no work is extracted from the system, then
and thus for a system kept at constant temperature and volume and not capable of performing electrical or other non-PV work, the total free energy during a spontaneous change can only decrease.
This result seems to contradict the equation dF = −S dT − P dV, as keeping T and V constant seems to imply dF = 0, and hence F = constant. In reality there is no contradiction: In a simple one-component system, to which the validity of the equation dF = −S dT − P dV is restricted, no process can occur at constant T and V, since there is a unique P(T, V) relation, and thus T, V, and P are all fixed. To allow for spontaneous processes at constant T and V, one needs to enlarge the thermodynamical state space of the system. In case of a chemical reaction, one must allow for changes in the numbers Nj of particles of each type j. The differential of the free energy then generalizes to
where the are the numbers of particles of type j, and the are the corresponding chemical potentials. This equation is then again valid for both reversible and non-reversible uPT changes. In case of a spontaneous change at constant T and V without electrical work, the last term will thus be negative.
In case there are other external parameters, the above relation further generalizes to
Here the are the external variables, and the the corresponding generalized forces.
Relation to the canonical partition function
A system kept at constant volume, temperature, and particle number is described by the canonical ensemble. The probability of finding the system in some energy eigenstate r, for any microstate i, is given by
where
is the energy of accessible state
Z is called the partition function of the system. The fact that the system does not have a unique energy means that the various thermodynamical quantities must be defined as expectation values. In the thermodynamical limit of infinite system size, the relative fluctuations in these averages will go to zero.
The average internal energy of the system is the expectation value of the energy and can be expressed in terms of Z as follows:
If the system is in state r, then the generalized force corresponding to an external variable x is given by
The thermal average of this can be written as
Suppose that the system has one external variable . Then changing the system's temperature parameter by and the external variable by will lead to a change in :
If we write as
we get
This means that the change in the internal energy is given by
In the thermodynamic limit, the fundamental thermodynamic relation should hold:
This then implies that the entropy of the system is given by
where c is some constant. The value of c can be determined by considering the limit T → 0. In this limit the entropy becomes , where is the ground-state degeneracy. The partition function in this limit is , where is the ground-state energy. Thus, we see that and that
Relating free energy to other variables
Combining the definition of Helmholtz free energy
along with the fundamental thermodynamic relation
one can find expressions for entropy, pressure and chemical potential:
These three equations, along with the free energy in terms of the partition function,
allow an efficient way of calculating thermodynamic variables of interest given the partition function and are often used in density of state calculations. One can also do Legendre transformations for different systems. For example, for a system with a magnetic field or potential, it is true that
Bogoliubov inequality
Computing the free energy is an intractable problem for all but the simplest models in statistical physics. A powerful approximation method is mean-field theory, which is a variational method based on the Bogoliubov inequality. This inequality can be formulated as follows.
Suppose we replace the real Hamiltonian of the model by a trial Hamiltonian , which has different interactions and may depend on extra parameters that are not present in the original model. If we choose this trial Hamiltonian such that
where both averages are taken with respect to the canonical distribution defined by the trial Hamiltonian , then
where is the free energy of the original Hamiltonian, and is the free energy of the trial Hamiltonian. By including a large number of parameters in the trial Hamiltonian and minimizing the free energy, we can expect to get a close approximation to the exact free energy.
The Bogoliubov inequality is often formulated in a slightly different but equivalent way. If we write the Hamiltonian as
where is exactly solvable, then we can apply the above inequality by defining
Here we have defined to be the average of X over the canonical ensemble defined by . Since defined this way differs from by a constant, we have in general
where is still the average over , as specified above. Therefore,
and thus the inequality
holds. The free energy is the free energy of the model defined by plus . This means that
and thus
Proof
For a classical model we can prove the Bogoliubov inequality as follows. We denote the canonical probability distributions for the Hamiltonian and the trial Hamiltonian by and , respectively. From Gibbs' inequality we know that:
holds. To see this, consider the difference between the left hand side and the right hand side. We can write this as:
Since
it follows that:
where in the last step we have used that both probability distributions are normalized to 1.
We can write the inequality as:
where the averages are taken with respect to . If we now substitute in here the expressions for the probability distributions:
and
we get:
Since the averages of and are, by assumption, identical we have:
Here we have used that the partition functions are constants with respect to taking averages and that the free energy is proportional to minus the logarithm of the partition function.
We can easily generalize this proof to the case of quantum mechanical models. We denote the eigenstates of by . We denote the diagonal components of the density matrices for the canonical distributions for and in this basis as:
and
where the are the eigenvalues of
We assume again that the averages of H and in the canonical ensemble defined by are the same:
where
The inequality
still holds as both the and the sum to 1. On the l.h.s. we can replace:
On the right-hand side we can use the inequality
where we have introduced the notation
for the expectation value of the operator Y in the state r. See here for a proof. Taking the logarithm of this inequality gives:
This allows us to write:
The fact that the averages of H and are the same then leads to the same conclusion as in the classical case:
Generalized Helmholtz energy
In the more general case, the mechanical term must be replaced by the product of volume, stress, and an infinitesimal strain:
where is the stress tensor, and is the strain tensor. In the case of linear elastic materials that obey Hooke's law, the stress is related to the strain by
where we are now using Einstein notation for the tensors, in which repeated indices in a product are summed. We may integrate the expression for to obtain the Helmholtz energy:
Application to fundamental equations of state
The Helmholtz free energy function for a pure substance (together with its partial derivatives) can be used to determine all other thermodynamic properties for the substance. See, for example, the equations of state for water, as given by the IAPWS in their IAPWS-95 release.
Application to training auto-encoders
Hinton and Zemel "derive an objective function for training auto-encoder based on the minimum description length (MDL) principle". "The description length of an input vector using a particular code is the sum of the code cost and reconstruction cost. [They] define this to be the energy of the code, for reasons that will become clear later. Given an input vector, [they] define the energy of a code to be the sum of the code cost and the reconstruction cost." The true expected combined cost is
"which has exactly the form of Helmholtz free energy".
See also
Gibbs free energy and thermodynamic free energy for thermodynamics history overview and discussion of free energy
Grand potential
Enthalpy
Statistical mechanics
This page details the Helmholtz energy from the point of view of thermal and statistical physics.
Bennett acceptance ratio for an efficient way to calculate free energy differences and comparison with other methods.
References
Further reading
Atkins' Physical Chemistry, 7th edition, by Peter Atkins and Julio de Paula, Oxford University Press
HyperPhysics Helmholtz Free Energy Helmholtz and Gibbs Free Energies
Physical quantities
Hermann von Helmholtz
State functions
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] |
255451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20science%20fiction%20novels | List of science fiction novels | This is a list of science-fiction novels, novel series, and collections of linked short stories. It includes modern novels, as well as novels written before the term "science fiction" was in common use. This list includes novels not marketed as SF but still considered to be substantially science fiction in content by some critics, such as Nineteen Eighty-Four. As such, it is an inclusive list, not an exclusive list based on other factors such as level of notability or literary quality. Books are listed in alphabetical order by title, ignoring the leading articles "A", "An", and "The". Novel series are alphabetical by author-designated name or, if there is none, the title of the first novel in the series or some other reasonable designation.
0-9
334 by Thomas M. Disch
1Q84 by Haruki Murakami
1632 series by Eric Flint
2312 by Kim Stanley Robinson
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea by Jules Verne
A
A Beautifully Foolish Endeavor by Hank Green
Absolution Gap by Alastair Reynolds
Accelerando by Charles Stross
Acidity by Nadeem F. Paracha
Across the Universe by Beth Revis
Adulthood Rites, Book Two of Xenogenesis Series by Octavia Butler
After Doomsday by Poul Anderson
Against the Fall of Night, by Arthur C. Clarke
An Age by Brian Aldiss
Age of Miracles (aka The Day of Star Cities, by John Brunner
The Age of the Pussyfoot, by Frederik Pohl
Air by Geoff Ryman
Alas, Babylon by Pat Frank
Alastor Cluster series by Jack Vance
namely, Trullion: Alastor 2262, Marune: Alastor 933, and Wyst: Alastor 1716
The Alejandra Variations by Paul Cook
Aleriel, or A Voyage to Other Worlds by W. S. Lach-Szyrma
The Algebraist by Iain M. Banks
Alien Tongue by Stephen Leigh, essay by Rudy Rucker
All You Need Is Kill by Hiroshi Sakurazaka
Altered Carbon by Richard K. Morgan
Ammonite by Nicola Griffith
Amped by Daniel H. Wilson
An Absolutely Remarkable Thing by Hank Green
Ancient Echoes by Robert Holdstock
Ancient Shores by Jack McDevitt
Andromeda by Ivan Efremov
The Andromeda Strain by Michael Crichton
Andymon by Angela and Karlheinz Steinmüller
The Angry Espers by Lloyd Biggle, Jr.
Anima by Marie Buchanan
Animorphs by K. A. Applegate
Annals of the Twenty-Ninth Century by Andrew Blair
The Ant Men by Eric North
Anthem by Ayn Rand
Anthony Villiers series by Alexei Panshin
namely, Star Well, The Thurb Revolution, and Masque World
Ares Express by Ian McDonald
Artemis by Andy Weir
The Artist of the Beautiful by Nathaniel Hawthorne
As the Green Star Rises by Lin Carter
Asgard series by Brian Stableford
namely, Asgard's Secret, Asgard's Conquerors, and Asgard's Heart
Attack from Atlantis by Lester del Rey
At the Goings Down of the Suns by Dominic Green
Atlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand
The Atrocity Exhibition by J.G. Ballard
Autour de la Lune (also known as Around the Moon and Round the Moon) by Jules Verne
Autumn Angels by Arthur Byron Cover
Awakeners series by Sheri S. Tepper
namely, Northshore and Southshore
B
Babel-17 by Samuel R. Delany
Bad Faith by Gillian Phillip
The Bane of Yoto by Josh Viola
Barefoot in the Head by Brian Aldiss
Barsoom series by Edgar Rice Burroughs
namely, A Princess of Mars, The Gods of Mars, The Warlord of Mars. Thuvia, Maid of Mars, The Chessmen of Mars, The Master Mind of Mars, A Fighting Man of Mars, Swords of Mars, Synthetic Men of Mars, Llana of Gathol, and John Carter of Mars
Battle Angel Alita by Yukito Kishiro
Battlefield Earth by L. Ron Hubbard
The Beast Master by Andre Norton
Becoming Alien by Rebecca Ore
The Bell-Tower by Herman Melville
Berserker by Fred Saberhagen
Between Planets by Robert A. Heinlein
Beyond Apollo by Barry N. Malzberg
The Beyond the Red trilogy by Gabe (as Ava Jae)
Bicentennial Man by Isaac Asimov
Big Planet series by Jack Vance
namely, Big Planet and Showboat World
The Big Time by Fritz Leiber
The Bikers series by Alex R. Stuart
A Billion Days of Earth by Doris Piserchia
Black by Ted Dekker
Black Legion of Callisto by Lin Carter
Blackstar by Josh Viola
Blast Off at Woomera by Hugh Walters
The Blind Worm by Brian Stableford
Blood Music by Greg Bear
Bloodchild and Other Stories by Octavia Butler
The Blue Barbarians by Stanton A. Coblentz
The Blue Man by Kin Platt
The Blue World by Jack Vance
Borgel by Daniel Pinkwater
Born With the Dead by Robert Silverberg
Borrowed Tides by Paul Levinson
Brasyl by Ian McDonald
Brave New World by Aldous Huxley
Breakfast of Champions (or Goodbye, Blue Monday!) by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.
Briah cycle by Gene Wolfe, several nested sub-series:
The Book of the New Sun
namely, The Shadow of the Torturer, The Claw of the Conciliator, The Sword of the Lictor, The Citadel of the Autarch, The Urth of the New Sun
The Book of the Long Sun
namely, Nightside the Long Sun, Lake of the Long Sun, Calde of the Long Sun, and Exodus from the Long Sun
The Book of the Short Sun
namely, On Blue's Waters, In Green's Jungles, and Return to the Whorl
The Brick Moon by Edward Everett Hale
Brother Termite by Patricia Anthony
Bug Jack Barron by Norman Spinrad
The Bull's Hour by Ivan Yefremov (a sequel to Andromeda)
The Butterfly Kid by Chester Anderson
By the Light of the Green Star by Lin Carter
C
Cadwal Chronicles series by Jack Vance
namely, Araminta Station, Ecce and Old Earth, and Throy
Caesar's Column, by Ignatius Donnelly
The Calcutta Chromosome by Amitav Ghosh
Calling B for Butterfly by Louise Lawrence
Camp Concentration by Thomas M. Disch
The Canopy of Time by Brian W. Aldiss
A Canticle for Leibowitz by Walter M. Miller Jr.
Carnival by Elizabeth Bear
A Case of Conscience by James Blish
Cat Country by Lao She
Cat's Cradle by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.
The Caves of Steel by Isaac Asimov (the sequel is The Naked Sun)
Celestial Matters by Richard Garfinkle
Cemetery World by Clifford D. Simak
The Centauri Device by M. John Harrison
Century Rain by Alastair Reynolds
The Chalk Giants by Keith Roberts
The Changeling by A. E. van Vogt
Chanur series by C. J. Cherryh
namely, The Pride of Chanur, Chanur's Venture, The Kif Strike Back, Chanur's Homecoming, and Chanur's Legacy
Chasm City by Alastair Reynolds
Child of Fortune by Norman Spinrad
Childhood's End by Arthur C. Clarke
Children of Tomorrow by A. E. van Vogt
Chromosome 6 by Robin Cook
Chronocules by D. G. Compton
The Chrysalids by John Wyndham
Cinnabar by Edward Bryant
Cirque by Terry Carr
Citizen of the Galaxy by Robert A. Heinlein
City by Clifford D. Simak
The City and the Stars by Arthur C. Clarke
City of Bones by Martha Wells
City of Illusions by Ursula K. Le Guin
The City Outside the World by Lin Carter
Clans of the Alphane Moon by Philip K. Dick
Clay's Ark by Octavia Butler
A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess
Close to Critical by Hal Clement
Coalescent by Stephen Baxter
Code of the Lifemaker by James P. Hogan
Colony by Ben Bova
The Complete Magnus Ridolph by Jack Vance
Congo by Michael Crichton
The Consciousness Plague by Paul Levinson
Consider Phlebas by Iain M. Banks
Contact by Carl Sagan
Count Zero by William Gibson
Cradle by Arthur C. Clarke and Gentry Lee
Cradle of the Sun by Brian Stableford
Creatures of Light and Darkness by Roger Zelazny
The Crossroads of Time by Andre Norton
Cryptonomicon by Neal Stephenson
also The Baroque Cycle, namely Quicksilver, The Confusion, and The System of the World
Crystal Rain by Tobias S. Buckell
Crystal Witness by Kathy Tyers
Cuckoo's Egg by C. J. Cherryh
Culture series by Iain M. Banks
namely, Consider Phlebas, The Player of Games, Use of Weapons, The State of the Art, Excession, Inversions, Look to Windward, Matter, Surface Detail, The Hydrogen Sonata
The Currents of Space by Isaac Asimov
Cyteen by C. J. Cherryh
D
Daedalus Mission series by Brian Stableford
namely, The Florians, Critical Threshold, Wildeblood's Empire, The City of the Sun, Balance of Power, and The Paradox of the Sets
Daemon by Daniel Suarez
Damnation Alley by Roger Zelazny
The Dancers of Noyo by Margaret St. Clair
Dancing Jack by Laurie J. Marks
Danger: Dinosaurs! by Richard Marsten
Danny Dunn series by Raymond Abrashkin and Jay Williams
namely, Danny Dunn and the Anti-Gravity Paint, Danny Dunn on a Desert Island, Danny Dunn and the Homework Machine, Danny Dunn and the Weather Machine, Danny Dunn on the Ocean Floor, Danny Dunn and the Fossil Cave, Danny Dunn and the Heat Ray, Danny Dunn, Time Traveler, Danny Dunn and the Automatic House, Danny Dunn and the Voice From Space, Danny Dunn and the Smallifying Machine, Danny Dunn and the Swamp Monster, Danny Dunn, Invisible Boy, Danny Dunn Scientific Detective, Danny Dunn and the Universal Glue
Dark Beyond the Stars by Frank M. Robinson
The Darwin Elevator by Jason M. Hough
Darwin's Radio by Greg Bear
Dawn, Book One of the Xenogenesis Series by Octavia Butler
The Day of the Star Cities (aka Age of Miracles by John Brunner
The Day of the Triffids by John Wyndham
Days of Grass by Tanith Lee
The Deadly Sky by Doris Piserchia
The Defiant Agents by Andre Norton (the sequel to Galactic Derelict)
Delta-v by Daniel Suarez
The Demolished Man by Alfred Bester
Demon by John Varley
Demon Princes series by Jack Vance
namely, Star King, The Killing Machine, The Palace of Love, The Face, and The Book of Dreams
Le Dernier Homme (also known as The Last Man and Omegarus and Syderia: A Romance in Futurity) by Jean-Baptiste Cousin de Grainville
Desolation Road by Ian McDonald
Destination Alpha Four by Dominic Green
Destination Mars by Hugh Walters
Destination: Void by Frank Herbert
Dhalgren by Samuel R. Delany
The Diamond Age by Neal Stephenson
The Diamond Lens by Fitz James O'Brien
Dies the Fire by S. M. Stirling
Dies Irae series by Brian Stableford
namely, The Days of Glory, In the Kingdom of the Beasts, and Day of Wrath
Digital Devil Story by Aya Nishitani.
The Dimensioneers by Doris Piserchia
The Disappearance by Philip Wylie
The Dispossessed by Ursula K. Le Guin
Distress by Greg Egan
Divergent trilogy
Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Philip K. Dick
Dog On The Highway by Dominic Green
The Domes of Pico by Hugh Walters
Doomsday Book by Connie Willis
The Dosadi Experiment by Frank Herbert
Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom by Cory Doctorow
Down to a Sunless Sea by David Graham
Downbelow Station by C. J. Cherryh
The Dragon Masters by Jack Vance
The Dragon Never Sleeps by Glen Cook
Dragonriders of Pern by Anne McCaffrey and Todd McCaffrey
Drake Maijstral series by Walter Jon Williams
namely, The Crown Jewels, House of Shards, and Rock of Ages
Dream Park by Larry Niven and Steven Barnes
Dream Park; The Voodoo Game by Larry Niven and Steven Barnes
Dreamsnake by Vonda N. McIntyre
The Drowned World by J. G. Ballard
The Dry Salvages by Caitlín R. Kiernan
Duende Meadow by Paul Cook
Dune by Frank Herbert
also Dune Messiah, Children of Dune, God Emperor of Dune, Heretics of Dune, and Chapterhouse: Dune
Durdane series by Jack Vance
namely, The Anome (a.k.a. The Faceless Man), The Brave Free Men (a.k.a. The Roguskhoi), and The Asutra
Dying Inside by Robert Silverberg
E
Earth Abides by George R. Stewart
Earth Child by Doris Piserchia
Earth in Twilight by Doris Piserchia
Earth Logic by Laurie J. Marks
Earthborn by Orson Scott Card
Earthbound by Milton Lesser
Earthman, Go Home! by Poul Anderson
Earthseed by Pamela Sargent
Echo in the Skull by John Brunner
Einstein's Dreams by Alan Lightman
Elemental series by Laurie J. Marks
namely, Fire Logic, Earth Logic, Water Logic
Emergence by David R. Palmer
Emortality series by Brian Stableford
namely, The Cassandra Complex, Inherit the Earth, Architects of Emortality, Fountains of Youth, Dark Ararat, and The Omega Expedition
Emphyrio by Jack Vance
Empire by Orson Scott Card
Empire of the Atom by A. E. van Vogt
En Iniya Iyanthira by Sujatha
also Meendum Jeano
The End of Eternity by Isaac Asimov
Ender's Game by Orson Scott Card
also Speaker for the Dead, Xenocide, Children of the Mind, Ender's Shadow, Shadow Puppets, Shadow of the Hegemon, Shadow of the Giant, and Ender in Exile
The Enemy Stars by Poul Anderson
Eon by Greg Bear
Erewhon by Samuel Butler
Escape to Witch Mountain by Alexander Key
Eternity Road by Jack McDevitt
Excession by Iain M. Banks
Exit Funtopia by Mick Farren
Exit Pursued by a Bee by Geoff Nelder
The Exodus Towers by Jason M. Hough
Expedition Venus by Hugh Walters
The Eye of the Heron by Ursula K. Le Guin
The Eyes series by Stuart Gordon
F
The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar by Edgar Allan Poe
Faded Sun series by C. J. Cherryh
namely, Kesrith, Shon'jir, and Kutath
Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury
A Fall of Moondust by Arthur C. Clarke
Farewell Horizontal by K. W. Jeter
Farnham's Freehold by Robert A. Heinlein
Fearful Symmetries by S. Andrew Swann
Feersum Endjinn by Iain M. Banks
The Female Man by Joanna Russ
The Fifth Head of Cerberus by Gene Wolfe
The Fifth Sacred Thing by Starhawk
Find the Feathered Serpent by Evan Hunter
Fire Logic by Laurie J. Marks
Firebird by Kathy Tyers
also Fusion Fire and Crown of Fire
First Men in the Moon by H. G. Wells
Five Against Venus by Philip Latham (nom de plume of Robert S. Richardson)
Five Weeks in a Balloon by Jules Verne
Fledgling by Octavia Butler
Flight from Rebirth by J. T. McIntosh
The Flight of the Dragonfly (Rocheworld) by Robert Forward
Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said by Philip K. Dick
Flowers for Algernon (novel version) by Daniel Keyes
The Fluger by Doris Piserchia
Fool's Run by Patricia A. McKillip
Fortress on the Sun by Paul Cook
Fossil by Hal Clement
The Forever War by Joe Haldeman
also Forever Free, Forever Peace
Foundation by Isaac Asimov
also Foundation and Empire, Second Foundation, Foundation's Edge, Foundation and Earth, Prelude to Foundation (prequel), and Forward the Foundation (prequel)
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley
Free Live Free by Gene Wolfe
Friday by Robert A. Heinlein
De la Terre a la Lune (also known as From the Earth to the Moon) by Jules Verne
The Futurological Congress by Stanisław Lem
G
Galactic Derelict by Andre Norton (the sequel to The Time Traders)
Galactic Effectuator by Jack Vance
Galaxies Like Grains of Sand by Brian W. Aldiss
The Gap Cycle by Stephen R. Donaldson
Garden of Rama by Arthur C. Clarke
Gateway by Frederik Pohl
Genesis Alpha by Rune Michaels (2007)
Give Warning to the World by John Brunner (see Echo in the Skull)
The Giver
Gladiator by Philip Wylie
Gladiator-At-Law by C. M. Kornbluth and Frederik Pohl
The Glass Bees by Ernst Jünger
Glory Road by Robert A. Heinlein
Gods of Riverworld by Philip José Farmer
The Gods Themselves by Isaac Asimov
The Golden Age by John C. Wright
The Golden Globe by John Varley
Gone series by Michael Grant
Grass by Sheri S. Tepper
The Gray Prince by Jack Vance
The Great Explosion by Eric Frank Russell
The Great Fetish by L. Sprague de Camp
Greener than you think by Ward Moore
Gridlinked by Neal Asher
The Gripping Hand by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle. Released as The Moat Around Murcheson's Eye in the United Kingdom.
Gulf by Robert A. Heinlein
H
Halo – a video-game novelization series
namely, Halo: The Fall of Reach by Eric Nylund, Halo: The Flood by William C. Dietz, Halo: First Strike by Eric Nylund, Halo: Ghosts of Onyx by Eric Nylund, Halo: The Cole Protocol by Tobias S. Buckell, Halo: Contact Harvest by Joseph Staten, Halo: Evolutions (Essential Stories From The Halo Universe) by various authors, Halo: Evolutions (Volume 2) by various authors, Halo: Cryptum by Greg Bear.
Halo by Paul Cook
Halting State by Charles Stross
The Hammer of Darkness by L. E. Modesitt
The Hampdenshire Wonder by J. D. Beresford
The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood
The Haunted Stars by Edmond Hamilton
Have Spacesuit, Will Travel by Robert A. Heinlein
Hawken Family series by Michael Williams
namely, Arcady and Allamanda
He, She and It by Marge Piercy
Helliconia trilogy by Brian W. Aldiss
comprising Helliconia Spring, Helliconia Summer, and Helliconia Winter
Hellspark by Janet Kagan
Hidden World by Stanton A. Coblentz
The High Crusade by Poul Anderson
Highway of Eternity by Clifford Simak
His Master's Voice by Stanisław Lem
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series by Douglas Adams
namely, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy; The Restaurant at the End of the Universe; Life, the Universe and Everything; So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish; and Mostly Harmless; continued by Eoin Colfier with And Another Thing
Homesmind by Pamela Sargent
The Honour of the Knights by Stephen J Sweeney
Hooded Swan series by Brian Stableford
namely, Halcyon Drift, Rhapsody in Black, Promised Land, The Paradise Game, The Fenris Device, and Swan Song
The House of the Scorpion by Nancy Farmer
The Houses of Iszm by Jack Vance
How I Overcame My Gravity by Fitz James O'Brien
The Hunger games by Suzanne Collins
The Hydrogen Sonata by Iain M. Banks
Hyperion by Dan Simmons
also The Fall of Hyperion, Endymion, and The Rise of Endymion
I
I Am Legend by Richard Matheson
I, Robot by Isaac Asimov
Idlewild by Nick Sagan
Ilium by Dan Simmons
also Olympos
Imago, Book Three of the Xenogenesis Series by Octavia Butler
Imperial Earth by Arthur C. Clarke
Implosion by D.F. Jones
In Solitary by Garry Kilworth
In the Country of the Blind by Michael F. Flynn
In the Courts of the Crimson Kings by S. M. Stirling
Inferno by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle
In the Green Star's Glow by Lin Carter
Infinity Beach by Jack McDevitt. Released as Slow Lightning in the United Kingdom.
Inquestor series by Somtow Sucharitkul
namely, Light on the Sound, The Throne of Madness, Utopia Hunters, and The Darkling Wind
The Integral Trees by Larry Niven
Inter Ice Age 4 by Abe Kōbō
Into the Drowning Deep by Mira Grant
Into the Slave Nebula by John Brunner
The Intuitionist by Con Whitehead
The Invention of Morel by Adolfo Bioy Casares
Inversions by Iain M. Banks
Iron Council by China Miéville
Iron Sunrise by Charles Stross
The Island of Doctor Moreau by H. G. Wells
Islands in the Sky by Arthur C. Clarke
Isle of the Dead by Roger Zelazny
J
J. by William Sanders
Jandar of Callisto by Lin Carter
The Jedi Academy Trilogy by Kevin J. Anderson
Jem, a 1980 book by Frederik Pohl
Jennifer Government by Max Barry
A Journey in Other Worlds by John Jacob Astor IV
Journey to the Center of the Earth by Jules Verne
Journey to Jupiter by Hugh Walters
Journey to Mars by Gustavus W. Pope
Journey to Venus by Gustavus W. Pope
Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton
K
Kaleidoscope Century by John Barnes
Kalimantaan by Lucius Shepard
Killobyte by Piers Anthony
The Kin of Ata Are Waiting for You, by Dorothy Bryant
Kindred by Octavia Butler
King of Morning, Queen of Day by Ian McDonald
King Rat by China Miéville (arguably fantasy)
Knight of Delusions by Keith Laumer
The Kraken Wakes (a.k.a. Out of the Deeps) by John Wyndham
L
Langdon St. Ives series by James Blaylock
namely, Homunculus, Lord Kelvin's Machine, and The Digging Leviathan
The Languages of Pao by Jack Vance
Lankar of Callisto by Lin Carter
Last and First Men by Olaf Stapledon
The Last Castle by Jack Vance
The Lathe of Heaven by Ursula K. Le Guin
League of Peoples series by James Alan Gardner
namely, Expendable, Commitment Hour, Vigilant, Hunted, Ascending, Trapped, Radiant
Learning the World by Ken MacLeod
The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin
The Legacy of Heorot by Larry Niven, Jerry Pournelle and Steven Barnes
Lensman series by E. E. Smith
namely, Triplanetary, First Lensman, Galactic Patrol, Gray Lensman, Second Stage Lensmen, and Children of the Lens
Level 7 by Mordecai Roshwald
Light by M. John Harrison
Little Fuzzy by H. Beam Piper
Lone Star Planet by H. Beam Piper and John J. McGuire (see A Planet for Texans)
The Long Way to a Small, Angry Planet, by Becky Chambers
Look to Windward by Iain M. Banks
Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy
Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen by H. Beam Piper
Lord of Light by Roger Zelazny
Lords of the Psychon by Daniel F. Galouye
Lords of the Starship by Mark S. Geston
The Lost Fleet series by Jack Campbell
The Lost Planet by Angus MacVicar
The Lost World by Michael Crichton
The Lost World by Arthur Conan Doyle
Lovelock by Orson Scott Card and Kathryn H. Kidd
Lucky Starr series by Isaac Asimov (writing as Paul French)
namely, David Starr, Space Ranger, Lucky Starr and the Pirates of the Asteroids, Lucky Starr and the Oceans of Venus, Lucky Starr and the Big Sun of Mercury, Lucky Starr and the Moons of Jupiter, and Lucky Starr and the Rings of Saturn
Lydyard series by Brian Stableford
namely, The Werewolves of London, The Angel of Pain, and The Carnival of Destruction
M
Macroscope by Piers Anthony
Mad Empress of Callisto by Lin Carter
Majipoor series by Robert Silverberg
namely, Lord Valentine's Castle, Valentine Pontifex, Majipoor Chronicles; there are more but of debated quality
Make Room! Make Room! by Harry Harrison
The Malacia Tapestry by Brian W. Aldiss
Mammoth by John Varley
Man in a Cage by Brian Stableford
The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick
Man Plus by Frederik Pohl
The Man Who Fell to Earth by Walter Tevis
The Man Who Folded Himself by David Gerrold
The Man Who Loved Mars by Lin Carter
The Map of Time by Felix J. Palma
Marooned on Mars by Lester del Rey
The Mars trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson
The Martian by Andy Weir
The Martian Chronicles by Ray Bradbury
Maske: Thaery by Jack Vance
The Master by T. H. White
Masters of Time by A. E. van Vogt
Matter by Iain M. Banks
A Maze of Death by Philip K. Dick
The Maze Runner
Mecha Samurai Empire series by Peter Tieryas
Meendum Jeano by Sujatha
A Meeting at Corvallis by S. M. Stirling
Mellonta Tauta by Edgar Allan Poe
The Memory of Earth by Orson Scott Card
also The Call of Earth, The Ships of Earth, Earthfall, Earthborn
The Merchant and the Alchemist's Gate by Ted Chiang
The Midnight Dancers by Gerard F. Conway
Midshipman's Hope by David Feintuch
see the Seafort Saga for its sequels
The Midwich Cuckoos by John Wyndham
Millennium by John Varley
A Million Open Doors by John Barnes
The Mind Cage by A. E. van Vogt
Mind of My Mind by Octavia Butler
The Mind Riders by Brian Stableford
Mind Wizards of Callisto by Lin Carter
Mirabile by Janet Kagan
Missing Men of Saturn by Philip Latham (nom de plume of Robert S. Richardson)
Mission Earth by L. Ron Hubbard
Mission of Gravity by Hal Clement
Mists of Dawn by Chad Oliver
The Moat Around Murcheson's Eye by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle (this was the United Kingdom title, elsewhere it is known as The Gripping Hand)
The Modular Man by Roger MacBride Allen, essay by Isaac Asimov
Mona Lisa Overdrive by William Gibson
The Moon and the Face by Patricia A. McKillip
Moon Base One by Hugh Walters
The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress by Robert A. Heinlein
Moon of Mutiny by Lester del Rey
Moon of Three Rings by Andre Norton
Moon-Flash by Patricia A. McKillip
More Than Human by Theodore Sturgeon
The Moreau Quartet by S. Andrew Swann
The Morgaine Stories by C. J. Cherryh
namely, Gate of Ivrel, Well of Shiuan, Fires of Azeroth, and Exile's Gate
The Mote in God's Eye by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle
Mountains Oceans and Giants by Alfred Döblin
Mr. Justice by Doris Piserchia
The Mummy! - A Tale of the Twenty-Second Century by J. Webb
Mutiny in the Time Machine by Donald Keith
The Mysterious Planet by Kenneth Wright
Mystery of the Third Mine by Robert W. Lowndes
Mythago Wood series by Robert Holdstock
namely, Mythago Wood, Lavondyss, The Bone Forest, The Hollowing, Merlin's Wood, and Gate of Ivory, Gate of Horn
N
The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (also known as The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym's Adventures) by Edgar Allan Poe
Native Tongue by Suzette Haden Elgin
Neanderthal Planet by Brian W. Aldiss
NEQUA or The Problem of the Ages by Jack Adams
Neuromancer by William Gibson
Never Let Me Go by Kazuo Ishiguro
Neverness series by David Zindell
namely, Neverness, The Broken God, The Wild, and War in Heaven
The New Atlantis by Sir Francis Bacon
News from Nowhere by William Morris
Next by Michael Crichton
Nightfall by Isaac Asimov & Robert Silverberg
Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell
Night Lamp by Jack Vance
Night of Light by Philip Jose Farmer
Nightwings by Robert Silverberg
Ninth Step Station, created by Malka Older
The Nome Trilogy by Terry Pratchett
namely, Truckers, Diggers, and Wings
Norstrilia by Cordwainer Smith
Noughts & Crosses series by Malorie Blackman
Nova by Samuel R. Delany
Nova Swing by M. John Harrison
Null-A Three by A. E. van Vogt
O
Ocean on Top by Hal Clement
Odd John by Olaf Stapledon
Oh. My. Gods. by Tera Lynn Childs
The Old Lie by Claire G. Coleman
Old Man's War by John Scalzi
Omega by Jack McDevitt
On the Beach by Nevil Shute
On the Silver Globe by Jerzy Żuławski
On Wings of Song by Thomas M. Disch
One in Three Hundred by J. T. McIntosh
One Million Tomorrows by Bob Shaw
One Mind's Eye by Kathy Tyers
Operation Columbus by Hugh Walters
The Ophiuchi Hotline by John Varley
Optiman by Brian Stableford
Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood.
Otherland series by Tad Williams
namely, City of Golden Shadow, River of Blue Fire, Mountain of Black Glass, and Sea of Silver Light
Out of the Deeps (a.k.a. The Kraken Wakes) by John Wyndham
Out of the Silent Planet by C. S. Lewis
The Outlaws of Mars by Otis Adelbert Kline
P
Parable of the Sower by Octavia Butler
Parable of the Talents by Octavia Butler
Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus by Orson Scott Card
Patternmaster by Octavia Butler
The Patterns of Chaos by Colin Kapp
Pavane by Keith Roberts
The Pawns of Null-A also published as The Players of Null-A by A. E. van Vogt
Pebble in the Sky by Isaac Asimov
Percy Jackson & the Olympians series by Rick Riordan
namely, The Lightning Thief, The Sea of Monsters, The Titan's Curse, The Battle of the Labyrinth, and The Last Olympian
Perdido Street Station by China Miéville
Permanence by Karl Schroeder
Permutation City by Greg Egan
The Pixel Eye by Paul Levinson
The Plague Forge by Jason M. Hough
A Plague of Demons by Keith Laumer
Plague Ship by Andre Norton
A Planet for Texans by H. Beam Piper and John J. McGuire
Planet of Adventure series by Jack Vance
namely, City of the Chasch (a.k.a. The Chasck), Servants of the Wanek (a.k.a. Servants of the Wankh, The Wankh), The Dirdir, and The Pnume
Planet of the Apes by Pierre Boulle
Planet of Exile by Ursula K. Le Guin
Planet of Light by Raymond F. Jones (the sequel to Son of the Stars)
The Player of Games by Iain M. Banks
Player Piano by Kurt Vonnegut
The Pleasures of a Futuroscope by Lord Dunsany
The Plot To Save Socrates by Paul Levinson
Podkayne of Mars by Robert A. Heinlein
Polaris by Jack McDevitt
Ports of Call series by Jack Vance
namely, Ports of Call and Lurulu
The Positronic Man by Isaac Asimov
The Postman by David Brin
Postmarked the Stars by Andre Norton
The Prefect by Alastair Reynolds
The Prestige by Christopher Priest
Prey by Michael Crichton
The Princes of the Air by John M. Ford
Prisoners of Power by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky
A Prophetic Romance by John McCoy
Protector by Larry Niven
The Protector's War by S. M. Stirling
Proxima by Stephen Baxter
Psion series by Joan D. Vinge
namely, Psion, Catspaw, and Dreamfall
The Puppet Masters by Robert Heinlein
Pushing Ice by Alastair Reynolds
The Puzzle Planet by Robert A. W. Lowndes
Q
Quarantine by Greg Egan
Queen of Angels (novel) by Greg Bear
Quest Crosstime by Andre Norton
Quest for the Future by A. E. van Vogt
Quinzinzinzili by Régis Messac (French page on Messac)
R
R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) by Karel Čapek
Radix Tetrad series by A. A. Attanasio
namely, Radix, In Other Worlds, Arc of the Dream, and The Last Legends of Earth
Raising the Stones by Sheri S. Tepper
Rappaccini's Daughter by Nathaniel Hawthorne
Ready Player One by Ernest Cline
Ready Player Two by Ernest Cline
The Realms of Tartarus by Brian Stableford
Red by Ted Dekker
Red Planet by Robert A. Heinlein
Red Thunder by John Varley
Redemption Ark by Alastair Reynolds
Remembrance of Earth's Past by Liu Cixin
Rendezvous with Rama by Arthur C. Clarke
Renegade of Callisto by Lin Carter
Report on Probability A by Brian W. Aldiss
Revelation Space by Alastair Reynolds
Revolt on Alpha C by Robert Silverberg
Ringworld by Larry Niven
also The Ringworld Engineers, The Ringworld Throne, Ringworld's Children The Rise of Renegade X by Chelsea M. Campbell
Rite of Passage by Alexei Panshin
Roadmarks by Roger Zelazny
Roadside Picnic by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky
The Roar by Emma Clayton
Robopocalypse by Daniel H. Wilson
Robots of Dawn by Isaac Asimov
Rocannon's World by Ursula K. Le Guin
Rocheworld by Robert Forward
Rocket Jockey by Philip St. John
Rocket to Limbo by Alan E. Nourse
Rocket to Luna by Richard Marsten
Rockets to Nowhere by Philip St. John
Rocketship Galileo by Robert A. Heinlein
Roderick and Roderick at Random by John Sladek
The Rolling Stones by Robert A. Heinlein
Rule 34 by Charles Stross
Rumors of Spring by Richard Grant
Rynosseros by Terry Dowling
S
Samaria series by Sharon Shinn
namely, Archangel, Jovah's Angel, The Alleluia Files, and Angelica The Sands of Mars by Arthur C. Clarke
Santiago by Mike Resnick
Saraband of Lost Time by Richard Grant
Sargasso of Space by Andre Norton
Saturn's Children by Charles Stross
Saucerers and Gondoliers by Dominic Green
A Scanner Darkly, by Philip K. Dick
The Scar by China Miéville (arguably fantasy)
Schismatrix, by Bruce Sterling
Scissors Cut Paper Wrap Stone by Ian McDonald
The Scourge of God by S. M. Stirling
Search the Sky by Cyril M. Kornbluth and Frederik Pohl
The Secret of the Martian Moons by Donald A. Wollheim
The Secret of the Ninth Planet by Donald A. Wollheim
The Secret of Saturn's Rings by Donald A. Wollheim
Semper Mars by Ian Douglas
Sentinels From Space by Eric Frank Russell
Seveneves by Neal Stephenson
Sewer, Gas, and Electric by Matt Ruff
Shade's Children, by Garth Nix
Shadrach in the Furnace by Robert Silverberg
The Shape of Things to Come, by H. G. Wells
The Shibboleth by John Hornor Jacobs
The Ship Who Sang by Anne McCaffrey
Shivering World by Kathy Tyers
The Shockwave Rider by John Brunner
Side Show by Sheri S. Tepper
Signal, by Cynthia DeFelice
Signs of Life by M. John Harrison
The Silk Code by Paul Levinson
The Silkie by A. E. van Vogt
Sinister Barrier by Eric Frank Russell
The Sirens of Titan by Kurt Vonnegut
Sister Ships and Alastair by Dominic Green
Six Gates from Limbo by J. T. McIntosh
Six Wakes by Mur Lafferty
Sixth Column by Robert A. Heinlein
The Sky People by S. M. Stirling
Sky Pirates of Callisto by Lin Carter
Slan by A. E. van Vogt
Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut
Slaves of the Klau (a.k.a. Gold and Iron) by Jack Vance
Slow Lightning by Jack McDevitt. Released as Infinity Beach in the United States.
Snow Crash by Neal Stephenson
The Snow Queen by Joan D. Vinge
Snow White and the Giants by J. T. McIntosh
Solaris by Stanisław Lem
Solitaire by Kelley Eskridge
Something Wicked This Way Comes by Ray Bradbury
Son of Man by Robert Silverberg
Son of the Stars by Raymond F. Jones (the sequel is Planet of Light)
Son of the Tree by Jack Vance
The Song of Phaid the Gambler by Mick Farren
The Songs of Distant Earth by Arthur C. Clarke
Sons of the Ocean Deeps by Bryce Walton
Space Cadet by Robert A. Heinlein
The Space Merchants by Frederik Pohl and C.M. Kornbluth
The Space Odyssey by Arthur C. Clarke
Space Opera by Jack Vance
Space Trilogy series by C. S. Lewis
namely, Out of the Silent Planet, Perelandra (a.k.a. Voyage to Venus), and That Hideous Strength The Space Vampires by Colin Wilson
Space Viking by H. Beam Piper
Spaceling by Doris Piserchia
Spacemen, Go Home by Milton Lesser
Speaker for the Dead by Orson Scott Card
also Shadow of the Hegemon, Shadow Puppets, Shadow of the Giant, Shadows in Flight Sphere by Michael Crichton
Spin by Robert Charles Wilson
Stadium Beyond the Stars by Milton Lesser
The Stainless Steel Rat by Harry Harrison
also The Stainless Steel Rat's Revenge, The Stainless Steel Rat Saves the World, The Stainless Steel Rat Wants You, The Stainless Steel Rat for President, A Stainless Steel Rat Is Born, The Stainless Steel Rat Gets Drafted, The Stainless Steel Rat Sings the Blues, The Stainless Steel Rat Goes to Hell, The Stainless Steel Rat Joins the Circus Stalker by Boris and Arkady Strugatsky
Stand on Zanzibar by John Brunner
Star Born by Andre Norton (the sequel to The Stars Are Ours)
The Star Conquerors by Ben Bova
Star Gate by Andre Norton
Star Guard by Andre Norton
Star of Gypsies by Robert Silverberg
The Star of Life by Edmond Hamilton
Star of the Unborn by Franz Werfel
Star Maker by Olaf Stapledon
Star Man's Son (AKA, Daybreak 2250) by Andre Norton
Star Rangers by Andre Norton
Star Rider by Doris Piserchia
The Star Seekers by Milton Lesser
Star Smashers of the Galaxy Rangers by Harry Harrison
Star Surgeon by Alan E. Nourse
Starman Jones by Robert A. Heinlein
The Stars Are Ours! by Andre Norton (the sequel is Star Born)
The Stars, Like Dust by Isaac Asimov
The Stars My Destination by Alfred Bester
Starship Through Space by Lee Correy (nom de plume of G. Harry Stine)
Starship Troopers by Robert A. Heinlein
The State of the Art by Iain M. Banks
State of Fear by Michael Crichton
The Status Civilization by Robert Sheckley
The Steam Man of the Prairies by Edward S. Ellis
Steel Beach by John Varley
Step to the Stars by Lester del Rey
The Stepford Wives by Ira Levin
The Steps of the Sun by Walter Tevis
Stories of Your Life and Others by Ted Chiang
Storm Over Warlock by Andre Norton
Stranger in a Strange Land by Robert A. Heinlein
Strata by Terry PratchettSultana's Dream (1905) by Begum Rokheya Sakhawat Hossain The Sunrise Lands by S. M. Stirling
The Super Barbarians by John Brunner
Supermind by A. E. van Vogt
Surface Detail by Iain M. Banks
Sword of Truth series by Terry Goodkind
Wizard's First Rule, Stone of Tears, Blood of the Fold, Temple of the Winds, Soul of the Fire, Faith of the Fallen, Pillars of Creation, Naked Empire, Chainfire, Phantom, Confessor, The Omen Machine, Debt of Bones, The First Confessor: The Legend of Magda Searus The Syndic by C. M. Kornbluth
Synners by Pat Cadigan
T
Tactics of Mistake by Gordon R. Dickson
A Tale of the Ragged Mountains by Edgar Allan Poe
Tatja Grimm's World by Vernor Vinge
Tau Zero by Poul Anderson
Telzey Amberdon by James H. Schmitz
Template by Matthew Hughes
Terror by Satellite by Hugh Walters
tetraktus, the Damn Four (in Persian :تتراكتوس، چهار لعنتي Titrāktūs Chahār La‘natī) by Reza Khoshnazar
That Extraordinary Day by Predrag Vukadinović
Thebes of the Hundred Gates by Robert Silverberg
There Ain't Gonna Be No World War Three by Dominic Green
There Are Doors by Gene Wolfe
They Shall Have Stars by James Blish
The Third Craft by James T. Harris
This Immortal by Roger Zelazny
This Island Earth by Raymond F. Jones
This Perfect Day by Ira Levin
Thorns by Robert Silverberg
The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch by Philip K. Dick
Thrice Upon a Time by James P. Hogan
Through the Heart by Richard Grant
Tik-Tok by John Sladek
Time Enough for Love by Robert A. Heinlein
Time for the Stars by Robert A. Heinlein
Time Held Me Green and Dying by Dominic Green
The Time Machine by H. G. Wells
The Time Traders by Andre Norton (the sequel is Galactic Derelict)
Timelike Infinity by Stephen Baxter
Timeline by Michael Crichton
TimeRiders by Alex Scarrow
Timescape by Gregory Benford
Titan by Stephen Baxter
Titan by John Varley
To Challenge Chaos by Brian Stableford
To Die in Italbar by Roger Zelazny
To Live Forever (a.k.a. Clarges) by Jack Vance
To the Resurrection Station by Eleanor Arnason
To the Tombaugh Station by Wilson Tucker
To Venus in Five Seconds by Fred T. Jane
To Your Scattered Bodies Go by Philip José Farmer
Tower of Glass by Robert Silverberg
Trade Pact by Julie Czerneda
A Transatlantic Tunnel, Hurrah! by Harry Harrison
Transmigration by J. T. McIntosh
Trapped in Space by Jack Williamson
Treason by Orson Scott Card
Trouble on Titan by Alan E. Nourse
Trouble on Triton by Samuel R. Delany
Trouble with Lichen by John Wyndham
The Truth Machine by James L. Halperin
Tunnel in the Sky by Robert A. HeinleinThe Twelve-Fingered Boy by John Hornor Jacobs
The Two Faces of Tomorrow by James P. Hogan
U
Ubik by Philip K. Dick
Uhura's Song by Janet Kagan
Uglies series by Scott Westerfeld
namely, Uglies, Pretties, Specials and Extras Under by Hal Clement (the sequel to Mission of Gravity)
Under the Green Star by Lin Carter
The Universe Maker by A. E. van Vogt
Hans Phaall: A Tale (also known as The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall) by Edgar Allan Poe
Unveiling a Parallel by Alice Ilgenfritz Jones & Ella Merchant
Use of Weapons by Iain M. Banks
V
Valentine Pontifex by Robert Silverberg
Valis by Philip K. Dick
The Valley Where Time Stood Still by Lin Carter
Vandals of the Void by Jack Vance
Vault of the Ages by Poul Anderson
Venus series by Edgar Rice Burroughs
namely, Pirates of Venus, Lost on Venus, Carson of Venus, Escape on Venus and The Wizard of Venus Venus of Dreams by Pamela Sargent
sequels are Venus of Shadows and Children of Venus La Vermine du Lion by Francis Carsac
Views from the Oldest House by Richard Grant
Virtual Light by William Gibson
The Void Captain's Tale by Norman Spinrad
Voodoo Planet by Andre Norton
The Vorkosigan Saga series of books by Lois McMaster Bujold
namely, Falling Free, Shards of Honor, Barrayar, The Warrior's Apprentice, The Vor Game, Cetaganda, Ethan of Athos, Brothers in Arms, Mirror Dance, Memory, Komarr, A Civil Campaign, Diplomatic Immunity Voyage by Stephen Baxter
Voyage from Yesteryear by James P. Hogan
The Voyage of the Space Beagle by A. E. van Vogt
Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea by Theodore Sturgeon
Voyager in Night by C. J. Cherryh
Vulcan's Hammer by Philip K. Dick
Vurt by Jeff Noon
W
The Wailing Asteroid by Murray Leinster
War Against the Chtorr by David Gerrold
The War Against the Rull by A. E. van Vogt
The War of the Worlds by H. G. Wells
War With the Newts (dystopian satire) by Karel Čapek
The Warlock in Spite of Himself by Christopher Stasheff
Wasp by Eric Frank Russell
Watchmen graphic novel by Alan Moore and illustrated by Dave Gibbons
Water Logic by Laurie J. Marks
Wave Without a Shore by C. J. Cherryh
Waves by M. A. Foster
Way Station by Clifford D. Simak
We by Yevgeny Zamyatin
The Weapon Makers by A. E. van Vogt
The Weapon Shops of Isher by A. E. van Vogt
What Entropy Means to Me by George Alec Effinger
When Gravity Fails by George Alec Effinger
When the Green Star Calls by Lin Carter
When Harlie Was One by David Gerrold
Where Time Winds Blow by Robert Holdstock
The Whisper by Emma Clayton
White by Ted Dekker
Wildseed by Octavia Butler
The Wind from Nowhere by J. G. Ballard
Windhover Tapes series by Warren Carl Norwood
namely, An Image of Voices, Fize of the Gabriel Ratchets, Planet of Flowers, and Flexing the Warp The Windup Girl by Paolo Bacigalupi
Wizard by John Varley
The Wizard of Linn by A. E. van Vogt
Wolfbane by Frederik Pohl and C. M. Kornbluth
Woman On the Edge of Time by Marge Piercy
The Wondersmith by Fitz James O'Brien
The World and Thorinn by Damon Knight
The World at Bay by Paul Capon
The World Menders by Lloyd Biggle, Jr.
The World of Null-A by A. E. van Vogt
The World of Ptavvs by Larry Niven
A World Out of Time by Larry Niven
World War Z by Max Brooks
Worm by John McCrae
A Wrinkle in Time by Madeleine L'Engle
Wyrldmaker by Terry Bisson
X
Xenocide by Orson Scott Card
Y
The Year of the Quiet Sun by Wilson Tucker
The Year When Stardust Fell by Raymond F. Jones
Year Zero, by Robert Reid
Yesteryear by Alan Dean Foster
Ylana of Callisto by Lin Carter
The Young Men are Coming by M. P. Shiel
Z
The Zap Gun by Philip K. Dick
Zulu Heart by Steven Barnes
The Z.'' trilogy, by Stephen Cole
Z is for Zero by Andy Weir
See also
List of science fiction short stories
List of science fiction authors
List of alternate history fiction
List of time travel science fiction
List of fiction employing parallel universes
List of cyberpunk works
List of steampunk works
List of Star Trek novels
List of Star Wars books
List of fantasy novels
List of fantasy story collections
List of fantasy authors
References
External links
Classics of Science Fiction - lists and various breakdowns
Nebula Award Winners
The Core Reading List of Fantasy and Science Fiction - from NESFA
Science fiction, fantasy and horror books by award, lists all award-winning books for 14 genre awards
List of science fiction novels
Lists of novels
Lists of books by genre
Novels | [
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255460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Groningen | University of Groningen | The University of Groningen (abbreviated as UG;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ukrant.nl/nieuws/rug-wordt-joedzjie |title=Rug wordt 'joedzjie |publisher=Universiteitskrant|access-date=19 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427055819/http://www.ukrant.nl/nieuws/rug-wordt-joedzjie |archive-date=27 April 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> , abbreviated as RUG) is a public research university of more than 30,000 students in the city of Groningen in the Netherlands. Founded in 1614, the university is one of the most traditional and prestigious in the Netherlands.
The institution has been consistently placed among the top 100 universities worldwide, according to leading ranking tables. In the 2020 ARTU, the University of Groningen is third in the Netherlands, 25th in Europe, and 77th in the world.
The University of Groningen has eleven faculties, nine graduate schools, 27 research centres and institutes, and more than 175-degree programmes. The university's alumni and faculty include Johann Bernoulli, Aletta Jacobs, four Nobel Prize winners, nine Spinoza Prize winners, one Stevin Prize winner, various members of the Royal Dutch Family, multiple mayors, the first president of the European Central Bank, and a secretary general of NATO.
History
The institution was founded as a college in 1614 in an initiative taken by the Regional Assembly of the city of Groningen and the Ommelanden, or surrounding region. There were four faculties – Theology, Law, Medicine, and Philosophy.
The coat of arms of the university was confirmed by The Estates of the City and County of Groningen in 1615. It consists of the provincial arms, charged with an open book inscribed with the abbreviated words VER/BVM/DNI LV/CER/NA, short for Verbum Domini Lucerna Pedibus Nostris. The shield is surmounted by a golden crown of five leaves and four pearls.
In the first 75 years of its existence about 100 students enrolled every year. Almost half of the students and lecturers came from outside the Netherlands – the first rector magnificus, Ubbo Emmius, came from East Frisia in modern-day Germany, for instance – but at the same time there was already a close relationship between the University and the city and the surrounding region.
The development of the University came to a standstill at the end of the seventeenth and during the eighteenth century because of theological differences of opinion, a difficult relationship with the Regional Assembly and political problems that included the siege of the city by ‘Bommen Berend’ in 1672. On average two to three hundred students were registered with the University at any one time during this period.
During the French occupation between 1775 and 1814 the University of Groningen was administrated by the Imperial University of Paris. Unlike Leiden University, it was not shut down and the institute was renamed Imperial University of Groningen (Keizerlijke Universiteit Groningen). During this time period, it remained the only open university in the Kingdom of Holland. In 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars, at the same time as Leiden and Utrecht, the university gained recognition as a national college of higher education, but this was followed by discussions about closure. The situation improved when a new main university building, the Academiegebouw, was constructed in 1850, a building that was largely financed by the people of Groningen. A fire completely destroyed the building in 1906.
In the meantime, the Higher Education Act of 1876 had radically improved the position of the university, which was renamed the "Rijksuniversiteit Groningen" (RUG). Teaching took place in Dutch and Latin and the university was given a research as well as an educational duty.
The University of Groningen developed during the first decades of the twentieth century. The number of faculties and courses grew steadily while the number of students grew rapidly. When the university celebrated its first 300 years in 1914 there were 611 registered students; this had grown to 1,000 by 1924. After a drop back during the Depression, and in particular during the Second World War, the number of students grew rapidly from 1945 to reach 20,000 in 1994. In recent times there are about 32,700 students registered at the University of Groningen with the number of foreign students again growing steadily, and following the tradition set by the first Rector Magnificus, the number of German students and researchers has grown strongly in recent years.
In March 2015, the RUG signed an agreement with the China Agricultural University to establish a campus in the Chinese city of Yantai. This would have made the RUG the first Dutch university to open a campus in China. The plan was heavily criticised, mainly due to worries about the restriction of academic freedom caused by censorship in China. In January 2018, the plans were cancelled by the Executive Board of the UG, based on the "insufficient support for the project".
Facts and figures
Key facts and figures about the University of Groningen are:
The university, as of 2020, has 34,000 students enrolled in various programs from the undergraduate level up to doctorate students. This includes 8,250 international students.
The university currently has 3,600 individuals in its academic staff. The UMCG included, a third of the academic staff is international.
425 full professors
45+ bachelor's degree programmes (35+ bachelor's degree programmes are taught in English)
120+ master's degree programmes taught in English
40+ research master's and top programmes
11 faculties (one in the Frisian capital of Leeuwarden), nine graduate schools
140,000 alumni
120+ nationalities
8,000 research publications
4,350 PhD candidates (51% international)
1.0 billion EUR budget
Research grants from the Dutch Research Council (NWO): 14 starting grants (Veni), 5 experienced research grants (Vidi) and 4 senior research grants (Vici) awarded in 2020
Research grants from the European Research Council (ERC): 1 Starting Grant, 1 Consolidator Grant, 3 Advanced Grants and 1 Proof of Concept Grant awarded in 2020
18 patent applications in 2020
The university operates under the BSA system, under which a first year undergraduate (bachelor) student must achieve a certain number of ECTS in order to progress to the second year. This varies from 30 ECTS to 45 ECTS among various degrees.
The University of Groningen is a member of the so-called Excellence Group of universities in Europe. The Excellence Group has 56 members, which is 1.3 percent of the approximately 4,500 European institutions of higher education.
The University of Groningen belongs to the top 100 large comprehensive research universities in the world.
On the 2021 ranking list, the University of Groningen ranked 80th place in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings.
According to the 2019 U.S. News & World Report the Faculty of Economics and Business ranks as 3rd in The Netherlands, 10th in Europe and 32nd in the world for Economics and Business.
The University ranked 65 in the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) in 2019. ARWU is a global Top 500 published annually by the Shanghai Jiao Tong University. In addition to this overall score, the University falls within the global top 100 for several specific fields and subjects: Psychology (28), Clinical Medicine (51-75), Business Administration (32), Ecology (51-75) and Sociology (50). Automation and Control at the University of Groningen is number one in the Netherlands, 5th in Europe and 29th worldwide (2017).
The University was ranked 73rd in the world in 2019 by the National Taiwan University that publishes the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities.
The University currently holds the 14th position in the European ranking (85 worldwide) of Webometrics.
The University was ranked 8th place in the UI GreenMetric World University Ranking in 2019, which includes 780 universities. UI GreenMetric World University Rankings was launched by Universitas Indonesia (UI) to focus awareness on sustainability in university policy-making. Universities are ranked in the basis of self-reported data in the areas of Setting and Infrastructure, Energy and Climate Change, Waste, Water, Transportation, and Education and Research.
From 2019 to 2020, the University was ranked 91st place in the Centre for World University Rankings (CWUR).
In 2019, Times Higher Education introduced a new ranking: the Europe Teaching Rankings. The University was ranked 26th place, which includes more than 200 universities. This new ranking focusses on higher education institutions' teaching quality and learning environments for students.
The University was ranked 1st in The Netherlands by U-Multirank (UMR)in 2019. UMR was developed by a consortium consisting of the Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS) in Twente, the Centre for Higher Education (CHE) in Germany and the Centre for Science and Technology Studies (CWTS) in Leiden. The University achieved the highest score on 16 indicators that include International Orientation dimension, Research and Knowledge Transfer.
The Faculty of Economics and Business is accredited by both AACSB and EQUIS.
The RUG has its own newspaper: the Universiteitskrant.
The university's Center for Information Technology (CIT) houses an IBM Blue Gene/L supercomputer and data center of Target used by the LOFAR project as well as a Virtual Reality and 3D-visualisation center.
Organisation
The RUG has 6,250 employees.
The university library was renovated between 2013 and 2017. The RUG has a branch in Leeuwarden. Plans to establish a "branch campus" in China's Yantai were called off in January 2018, and the University Museum is now in the process of being established.
The University of Groningen is represented in the Academic Heritage Foundation, a foundation that aims to preserve university collections and cultural treasures.
Faculties
The University of Groningen is organized in eleven faculties that offer programmes and courses in the fields of humanities, social sciences, law, economics and business, spatial sciences, life sciences, and natural sciences and technology. Each faculty (cf., College in the USA or School in Europe) is a formal grouping of academic degree programmes, schools and institutes, discipline areas, research centres, and/or any combination of these drawn together for educational purposes. Each faculty offers Bachelor's, Master's, PhD, and Exchange programmes, while some also offer short certificate courses.
Since 2014, the RUG also has a partly independent liberal arts college, University College Groningen (UCG).
Faculty of Economics and Business
Faculty of Arts
Faculty of Law
Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies
Faculty of Philosophy
Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences
Faculty of Medical Sciences
Faculty of Science and Engineering
Faculty of Spatial Sciences
University College Groningen
National Cooperation
Exposome-NL, Dutch consortium cooperating in the field of exposome research.
International Cooperation
The University of Groningen engages in many types of international cooperation throughout both teaching and research. The main networks and partners of the university are:
Enlight, an alliance of nine European universities, The Guild of European research-intensive universities and the Coimbra group, a network of 37 long established European multidisciplinary universities.
Strategic partnerships (academic connection): Universität Hamburg (UHH) and Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg
Global strategic partnerships: Nanyang Technological University (Singapore), Osaka University (Japan), Macquarie University (Australia), Universitas Gadjah Mada (Indonesia), Universidad de Antioquia (Colombia), Universidad de Chile (Chile), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Mexico), Universidade de São Paulo (Brazil), Stellenbosch University (South Africa)
Campus
The various faculties are housed around the city. Most of the faculties- including the faculties of Law, Arts and Philosophy are located in and around the city center. The university's original building, which acts as the main administrative building, lies exactly in the center of the city at the Broerstraat. The faculty of medical sciences is located close by at the University Medical Center Groningen(UMCG). The Faculties of Economics and Business, Spatial Sciences, and Science and Engineering are housed in the northern outskirts of the city, at the Zernike Campus, named after Nobel Prize winner Frits Zernike. The Zernike campus is also shared by the Hanze University of Applied Sciences, the other big university in the city, making the total number of students studying there around 40,000.
The university has libraries in three locations: the main one at the city center, one in the Duisenberg building in Zernike Campus, and one in the faculty of medicine, that includes a vast array of books and online material for students. The library at the city center also has a Starbucks on its premises. The university has also recently opened another campus in Leeuwarden, Friesland, referred to as "Campus Fryslân", that offers multiple disciplines in both undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
Student life
The city of Groningen is known as the student city of the Netherlands; around one-third of the city's residents are students at either The University of Groningen or at the Hanze University of Applied Sciences. The university, through ACLO, offers a wide range of sporting activities, and courses. Almost each sport has its own association, and offers the use of its facilities at discount rates for students.
The university also has multiple student societies that organize social events for its members, as well as student and study associations, that are mostly concerned with specific faculties and courses.
The use of bicycles as the means for transport is particularly prevalent for locals and students alike, and has integrated, labelled bike paths from the city center to Zernike. The city is popularly referred to as "The World Cycling City" because of this.
Student housing
The University of Groningen does not have student accommodation. It does, however, offer students with accommodation via SSH Student Housing, which operates student houses in various locations in Groningen, and various other cities within the Netherlands. A significant number of students live in private accommodations within the city, however. A recent addition to the housing options for students is The Student Hotel as well. In an effort to combat the annual housing shortage, the city of Groningen has incentivized the construction of short-term accommodation such as The Village which is made of shipping containers for international students. The Dutch government has strict laws for private accommodations for both tenants (students) and the landlords, so that fair rent prices, and renting conditions can be maintained.
In 2018, the university received national attention due to the housing crisis in the city of Groningen. Due to the fact that most incoming students at the university are primarily from other parts of the country, or the world, there has been a lack of housing options for students. Especially in the fall semester of 2021 the housing crisis hit its peak with hundreds of students reportedly not having any accommodation and resorting to emergency shelters. The housing shorting evoked a protest in the city centre which culminated in the Academy building being temporarily occupied by students to put pressure on the city to extend emergency housing.
Research
In 2019, 708 PhD students were admitted to a PhD programme (compared to 816 in 2018). Around 50% of the admitted PhD students came from abroad. In 2019, a total of 546 PhDs took place, 22 of them cum laude. The national share was thus around 11%.
Research schools, centres and institutesHumanities and Social Sciences Center for Language and Cognition Groningen (CLCG)
Centre for Religion and Heritage
Centre for Religion, Conflict and Globalization (CRCG)
Centre Religion, Health and Wellbeing
CRASIS, Culture, Religion and Society in Graeco-Roman Antiquity
Globalisation Studies Groningen (GSG)
Groningen Institute of Archeology (GIA)
Groningen Institute for Educational research (GION)
Groningen Research Institute of Philosophy (GRIPH)
Groningen Research Institute for the Study of Culture (ICOG)
Heymans Institute
Institute of Indian Studies
Interuniversity Center for Social Science Theory and Methodology (ICS)
Qumran Institute
Urban and Regional Studies Institute (URSI)Law Centre for Law, Administration and Society (CRBS)
Groningen Centre of Energy Law (GCEL)Economics & Business SOM research instituteLife Sciences Research School of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences (BCN) / UMCG
Research Institute BCN-BRAIN / UMCG
Cancer Research Center Groningen (CRCG) / UMCG
Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES)
Groningen University Institute for Drug Exploration (GUIDE) / UMCG
Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology (GBB)
Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP)
Science in Healthy Ageing and healthcaRE (SHARE), UMCG
W.J. Kolff Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Materials Science / UMCGScience and Engineering'''
Bernoulli Institute for Mathematics, Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence
ENTEG - Engineering and Technology Institute Groningen
ESRIG - Energy and Sustainability Research Institute Groningen
GBB - Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute
GELIFES - Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences
GRIP - Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy
ISEC - Institute for Science Education and Communication
Kapteyn Astronomical Institute
Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
Van Swinderen Institute for Particle Physics and Gravity
Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials (ZIAM)
Graduate schools
The University of Groningen's Graduate Schools are organized somewhat different from its international counterparts. The main difference is that the Graduate Schools do not contain all Master's programmes; Graduate Schools manage and facilitate the two-year Master's programmes: top master's degree programmes and Research master's degree programmes.
Graduate School of Behavioural and Social Sciences
Graduate School of Economics and Business
Graduate School of Humanities
Graduate School of Law
Graduate School of Medical Sciences
Graduate School of Philosophy
Graduate School of Science
Graduate School of Spatial Sciences
Graduate School of Theology and Religious Studies
Notable alumni
Notable alumni of the University of Groningen include:
Hans van Abeelen, first Dutch behavior geneticist
Johann Heinrich Alting, theologian
Gerbrand Bakker, early 19th century physician
Bart Becht, former CEO of Reckitt Benckiser
Johan van Benthem, logician
Maarten van den Bergh, former Chairman of Lloyds TSB, named the most powerful businessman in Great Britain in 2005 by The Times
Johann Bernoulli, mathematician
Bart Bok, astronomer
Marc Bolland, former CEO of Marks & Spencer
Dolf van den Brink, CEO of Heineken USA
Corina Brussaard, Antarctic researcher in viral ecology and phytoplankton
Anita Buma, Antarctic researcher in marine ecophysiology
Turtle Bunbury, Irish historian and author
James Burnett
Job Cohen, former mayor of Amsterdam and former leader of the Dutch Labour Party
Lex van Dam, hedge fund manager, featured on Million Dollar Traders on BBC2
Wim Duisenberg, first president of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt studied at UG and obtained his PhD on the economics of disarmament
Ubbo Emmius, founder of the University of Groningen and first rector magnificus
Ben Feringa, Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2016 for his work on molecular motors, professor of Chemistry
Pim Fortuyn, lecturer, later politician and founder of the Pim Fortuyn List (and assassinated in 2002)
Willem Frederik Hermans, lecturer and writer
Gerardus Heymans, philosopher and psychologist
Jack Hoeksema, linguist and professor in the Department of Dutch Language and Culture
, jurist, attorney-general of Suriname and acting governor
Peter Hofstee, professor of theoretical physics, joined IBM in 1996, currently the chief architect of the Synergistic Processor Element (SPE) of the Cell microprocessor
Johan Huizinga, historian
Niccolò Invidia, member of parliament Italy
Aletta Jacobs, first woman in the Netherlands to receive an MD
Ashin Jinarakkhita, Indonesian Buddhist monk
Klaas Knot, current President of the Dutch central bank De Nederlandsche Bank (DNB)
Jaap Kunst, ethnomusicologist (studied law)
Wei Ji Ma, professor of psychology and neuroscience
Prince Maurits van Oranje Nassau, first cousin of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
John Nerbonne, professor of humanities computing, expert in dialectology, member of the Dutch Royal Academy of Science
Wubbo Ockels, first Dutch astronaut, received a PhD degree in physics and mathematics, 1973
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his experiments on the properties of matter at low temperatures which made the production of liquid helium possible
Jan Oort, astronomer
Paul Polman, CEO of Unilever
Johannes Jacobus Poortman, philosopher, psychologist
Dagmar Reichardt, professor of Cultural Industry at University of Latvia
James Renwick (Covenanter) James Renwick (15 February 1662 – 17 February 1688) Scottish Covenanter
Willem de Sitter, astronomer
Henk G. Sol, Professor Business Engineering and ICT
Dirk Stikker, Secretary General of NATO
Pieter Jelles Troelstra, lawyer, politician (early 20th century)
Wietse Venema, programmer and physicist
Roel de Vries, Global Head of Marketing at Nissan Motor Corporation* Clemens von Bönninghausen, lawyer, botanist, homeopathic physician
Jacques Wallage, former mayor of Groningen
Hans Wijers, Chairman of the Supervisory Board of ING, former CEO of AkzoNobel
Paramanga Ernest Yonli, Prime Minister of Burkina Faso (2000–2007), studied Economics
Frits Zernike, professor of theoretical physics, received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the phase-contrast optical microscope in 1953. The university campus in the northern part of Groningen is named in his honour.
Epke Zonderland, 2012 Olympics gold medalist
Notable researchers
Mineke Bosch, historian
Cornelis de Bot, linguist
Marijn van Dijk, developmental psychologist
Caroline van Eck, art historian
Paul van Geert, developmental psychologist
Wander Lowie, linguist
Erik Scherder
Diederik Stapel, professor of social psychology known for fabrication of research data
Wolfgang Stroebe, social psychologist
Albert Szent-Györgyi, biochemist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937
Marjolijn Verspoor, linguist
Angus Maddison, British economist
. applied physics
Ben Feringa, synthetic organic chemist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2016
, professor of Ethics and its history
Amina Helmi, an Argentine astronomer, and a professor of dynamics, structure and formation of the milky way
Lodi Nauta, professor of the History of Philosophy
Cisca Wijmenga, a Dutch professor of Human Genetics
Theunis Piersma, a Dutch professor of Global Flyway Ecology
Linda Steg, a professor of environmental psychology, and a pioneer and world leader in the field of environmental psychology
Sijbren Otto, a chemist
Nathalie Katsonis, chemist
See also
Education in the Netherlands
Energy Delta Institute
List of early modern universities in Europe
References
Further reading
Klaas van Berkel: Universiteit van het Noorden. Vier eeuwen academisch leven in Groningen. Part 1 De oude universiteit 1614-1876''. Hilversum, Verloren, 2014.
External links
University of Groningen Datasets
1614 establishments in the Dutch Republic
Buildings and structures in Groningen (city)
Educational institutions established in the 1610s
Supercomputer sites
Groningen, University Of
Law schools
Education in the Dutch Republic | [
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255463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%28e%29%20star | B(e) star | A B[e] star, frequently called a B[e]-type star, is a B-type star with distinctive forbidden neutral or low ionisation emission lines in its spectrum. The designation results from combining the spectral class B, the lowercase e denoting emission in the spectral classification system, and the surrounding square brackets signifying forbidden lines. These stars frequently also show strong hydrogen emission lines, but this feature is present in a variety of other stars and is not sufficient to classify a B[e] object. Other observational characteristics include optical linear polarization and often infrared radiation that is much stronger than in ordinary B-class stars, called infrared excess. As the B[e] nature is transient, B[e]-type stars might exhibit a normal B-type spectrum at times, and hitherto normal B-type stars may become B[e]-type stars.
Discovery
Many Be stars were discovered to have spectral peculiarities. One of these peculiarities was the presence of forbidden spectral lines of ionised iron and occasionally other elements.
In 1973 a study of one of these stars, HD 45677 or FS CMa, showed an infrared excess as well as forbidden lines of [OI], [SII], [FeII], [NiII], and many more.
In 1976 a study of Be stars with infrared excesses identified a subset of stars which showed forbidden emission lines from ionised iron and some other elements. These stars were all considered to be distinct from the classical main sequence Be stars, although they appeared to consist of a wide range of different types of star. The term B[e] star was coined to group these stars.
One type of B[e] star was readily identified as being highly luminous supergiants. By 1985, eight dust-shrouded B[e] supergiants were known in the Magellanic Clouds. Others were found to be definitely not supergiants. Some were binaries, others proto-planetary nebulae, and the term "B[e] phenomenon" was used to make it clear that different types of star could produce the same type of spectrum.
Classification
Following the recognition that the B[e] phenomenon could occur in several distinct types of star, four sub-types were named:
B[e] supergiants (sgB[e])
pre-main sequence B[e] stars (HAeB[e]), a subset of the Herbig Ae/Be star stars
compact planetary nebulae B[e] stars (cPNB[e])
symbiotic B[e] stars (SymB[e])
Around half of the known B[e] stars could not be placed in any of these groups and were called unclassified B[e] stars (unclB[e]). The unclB[e] stars have since been re-classified as FS CMa stars, a type of variable named for one of the earliest known B[e] stars.
Nature
The forbidden emission, infrared excess, and other features indicative of the B[e] phenomenon, themselves provide strong hints at the nature of the stars. The stars are surrounded by ionised gas which produces intense emission lines in the same way as Be stars. The gas must be sufficiently extended to allow the formation of forbidden lines in the outer low density region, and also for dust to form which produces the infrared excess. These features are common to all the types of B[e] star.
The sgB[e] stars have hot fast winds which produce extended circumstellar material, plus a denser equatorial disc. HAeB[e] are surrounded by the remains of the molecular clouds which are forming the stars. Binary B[e] stars can produce discs of material as it is transferred from one star to another through roche lobe overflow. cPNB[e] are post-AGB stars that have shed their entire atmospheres after reaching the end of their lives as actively fusing stars. The FS CMa stars appear to be binaries with a rapidly rotating mass-losing component.
See also
Shell star
References
External links
Star types
1866 in science | [
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255464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaikeyi | Kaikeyi | Kaikeyi was the second consort of King Dasharatha and the Queen of Ayodhya in the Hindu epic, the Ramayan. Out of Dashrath's three wives, Kaikeyi had the most significant role. She was the princess of Kekeya and a powerful warrior, who helped her husband during a war. Kaikeyi was the mother of Bharat. Initially loving and motherly towards her stepson, Ram, Kaikeyi's mind was poisoned by Manthara, her maid. Under her influence, Kaikeyi sent Ram to the forest.
Birth and early life
Kaikeyi was born to King Ashvapati of Kekeya shortly before her mother was exiled. She was raised with her only mother figure being her hunchbacked nursemaid, Manthara. She was very fierce as she was raised with seven brothers, including her twin Yuddhajit.
Manthara's influence and Ram's exile
Later, Dasharatha, with the approval of the royal assembly, selected Ram to be crowned King. Kaikeyi was delighted and as happy as she would have been had it been her own son, Bharat's, coronation. However, Manthara, Kaikeyi's nurse, became worried that Kaikeyi would lose her status as Chief Queen at Court if Ram ascended the throne, as Kausalya would thus become Queen Mother. She decided to instigate trouble. She tried to fuel Kaikeyi's jealousy and envy of Kausalya by reminding her that her son's coronation would give Kausalya her former status as the most important of Dasharatha's Queens and would cut Bharat out of the royal lineage forever, but this had no effect on Kaikeyi at the time.
Manthara later convinced Kaikeyi to demand the two boons granted to her years earlier by Dasharatha. King Dasharatha was obliged to fulfill them. Kaikeyi demanded that Bharata be crowned king and Ram be sent to the forest for fourteen years. Hearing this, Dasharatha fell into a swoon and passed the night in a pitiable condition in Kaikeyi's palace. Kaikeyi said that according to the two boons granted by Dasharatha, Ram should go to the forest for 14 years and Bharat must become the king.
Widowhood and later life
After sending Ram into exile, a grief-stricken Dasharatha died of a broken heart six days after Ram left Ayodhya. Kaikeyi came to blame herself for this death. Furthermore, Bharat swore never to ascend the throne as it was his older brother's birthright. He further blamed her for his father's death and swore never to address her as "Mother" again. It is reported that this is the reason why the name Kaikeyi is seldom heard of. Realizing her mistake, Kaikeyi repented sending her most beloved son away for 14 years.
After Ram's return, she apologized to him for her sins. Ram touched her feet and said there was no need to ask for forgiveness as he did not feel bad about what happened. He insisted to Bharat that he should forgive his mother. Further defending Kaikeyi, Ram also argued to Bharat that this is just what mothers do, whether it is good or bad, it is for the betterment of their children, not for themselves, so it is not good to be angry and sour with them.
Assessment
Kaikeyi's nature and her relationships are quite revealing in Ayodhya Kand of Valmiki Ramayan. Kaikeyi maintained strong relations with her maternal family even after her wedding to King Dasharath. Her brother Yudhajit visits her many times and takes a keen interest in the life of her son Bharat, often taking Bharat and Shatrughna away to the Kaikeya kingdom for vacation.
Kaikeyi helped her husband Dasharath in the Dandaka forest while he was at war. While Kaikeyi saved the king in the war, as per mythology her left hand was strong as a diamond (a boon from a Saint) so the king accompanied her during wars.
Kaikeyi was the king's favorite queen. Kaikeyi's nature is described as being temperamental and unpredictable. While mostly she was sweet mannered, it is evident that she disliked the king spending time with his other queens. King Dasharatha mentions that he did not treat his queen Kausalya deservedly due to fear of Kaikeyi's tantrums.
Kaikeyi seemed almost naive when it came to understanding the rights of the four princes to Ayodhya's throne. She naively mentions to her maid Manthara that Bharat can rule Ayodhya after Ram, not really understanding the genealogical inheritance to the throne. It is Manthara who educates Kaikeyi of the rights to ascension to the throne.
Kaikeyi's naive nature and sweetness were transformed into obstinacy and power-hunger; all in the name of her son Bharat's welfare. Bharat contests her views vociferously and despises her for her act of banishing the rightful heir Ram to forests as if punishing him for no fault of his. King Dasharath tries to reason with her in terms of internal security of the kingdom, people's will, the Court's decision to crown Ram; none of which seems reasonable to her. Dasharath appeals to Kaikeyi to give the kingdom to Ram which was in her power but she fails to do so. Finally, King Dasharatha renounces her, yet he is unable to separate himself from her. He lingers on in grief in her chambers for fear of humiliation from everyone outside those chambers.
See also
Mata Kaushalya Temple
Notes
References
Bibliography
External Links
Mythological queens
Solar dynasty
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255466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangitoto%20Island | Rangitoto Island | Rangitoto Island is a volcanic island in the Hauraki Gulf near Auckland, New Zealand. The wide island is a symmetrical shield volcano cone, reaching a height of . Rangitoto is the youngest and largest of the approximately 50 volcanoes of the Auckland volcanic field, having formed in an eruption about 600 years ago, and covering an area of . It is separated from the mainland of Auckland's North Shore by the Rangitoto Channel. Since World War II, it has been linked by a causeway to the much older, non-volcanic Motutapu Island.
is Māori for 'Bloody Sky', with the name coming from the full phrase ("The days of the bleeding of Tama-te-kapua"). Tama-te-kapua was the captain of the (canoe) and was badly wounded on the island, after having lost a battle with the (tribe) at Islington Bay.
Geology
Rangitoto was formed during a single phase of eruptions that may have lasted only 5–10 years, about 600 years ago. Previous inferences that it was formed by a series of eruptions commencing at least 6000 years ago have been disproved by the most recent research. The first part of the eruption was wet and produced surges of volcanic ash that mantles neighbouring Motutapu Island. The later part of the eruption was dry and built most of Rangitoto, erupting all the lava flows and scoria cones at the apex. The of material that erupted from the volcano was about equal to the combined by all the previous eruptions in the Auckland volcanic field, which were spread over more than 200,000 years.
In 2013, scientists from Auckland University said new studies showed Rangitoto had been much more active in the past than previously thought, suggesting it had been active on and off for around 1000 years before the final eruptions around 550 years ago (BP= before 1950). In February 2014 a deep hole was drilled through the western flank of Rangitoto. The same group of university scientists declared that it revealed a long history of spasmodic eruptions going back at least 6000 years, although the bulk of activity post-dated 650 years. Civil Defence officials said the discovery did not make living in Auckland any more dangerous, but did change their view of how an eruption might proceed. These headline-grabbing results have been controversial and not accepted by all geologists. In 2018, most of the original group of Auckland University geologists reported on their latest research and reinterpretation of the drillhole sequence and pronounced that the island did not erupt off and on prior to its major eruption about 600 years ago and is not a unique polygenetic volcano in the monogenetic Auckland volcanic field, as they had previously inferred. While it is possible that Rangitoto buried one or more smaller volcanoes, to date there is no strong evidence to support this idea.
Subsidence back down the throat during the cooling process has left a moat-like ring around the crater summit, which may be viewed from a path which goes right round the rim and up to the highest point. In some parts of the island, fields of clinker-like black lava stones are exposed, appearing very recent to a casual eye. About 200 metres from the top of the mountain on the eastern side visitors can walk through some of about seven known lava tubes — tubes left behind after the passage of liquid lava. The more accessible of the caves are signposted. Lava tubes are formed when low-viscosity molten lava known as pahoehoe flows and cools on the outside due to contact with the ground and air, to form a hard crust allowing the still-liquid molten lava to continue to flow through inside. At Rangitoto the large tubes are cave-like. A torch is needed to explore the caves. The longest known cave is about 50 m long.
Biology
Because there are virtually no streams on the island, plants rely on rainfall for moisture. It has the largest forest of pohutukawa trees in the world, as well as many northern rata trees. In total, more than 200 species of trees and flowers thrive on the island, including several species of orchid, as well as more than 40 types of ferns. The vegetation pattern was influenced by the more recent eruptions creating lava flow crevices where pohutukawa trees (Metrosideros ssp) grow.
The island is considered especially significant because all stages from raw lava fields to scrub establishment and sparse forests are visible. As lava fields contain no soil of the typical kind, windblown matter and slow breaking-down processes of the native flora are still in the process of transforming the island into a more habitable area for most plants (an example of primary succession), which is one of the reasons why the local forests are relatively young and do not yet support a large bird population. However, the kaka, a New Zealand-endemic parrot, is thought to have lived on the island in pre-European times.
Goats were present on Rangitoto in large numbers in the mid 19th century and survived until the 1880s. Fallow deer were introduced to Motutapu in 1862 and spread to Rangitoto, but disappeared by the 1980s. The brush-tailed rock-wallaby was introduced to Motutapu in 1873, and was common on Rangitoto by 1912, and the brushtail possum was introduced in 1931 and again in 1946. Both were eradicated in a campaign from 1990 to 1996 using 1080 and cyanide poison and dogs. The eradication campaign did not have a significant effect on bird species diversity and abundance, due to the presence of other predators.
Stoats, rabbits, mice, rats, cats and hedgehogs remained a problem on the island, but the Department of Conservation (DOC) aimed to eradicate them beginning with the poisoning of black rats, brown rats and mice and in August 2011, both Rangitoto and neighbouring Motutapu Islands were officially declared pest-free with both islands now also boasting populations of newly translocated North Island saddlebacks.
As the area is a DOC-administered reserve (in partnership with the tangata whenua Ngāi Tai and Ngāti Paoa), visitors may not take dogs or other animals onto the islands.
History
Māori association
The volcano erupted within the historical memory of the local Māori iwi (tribes). Human footprints have been found between layers of Rangitoto volcanic ash on the adjoining Motutapu Island. Ngāi Tai was the iwi living on Motutapu, and considers both islands their ancestral home. Ngāti Paoa also has links with Rangitoto.
A number of Māori myths exist surrounding the island, including that of a 'tupua' couple, children of the Fire Gods. After quarreling and cursing Mahuika, the fire-goddess, they lost their home on the mainland because it was destroyed by Mataoho, god of earthquakes and eruptions, on Mahuika's behalf. Lake Pupuke on the North Shore was created in the destruction, while Rangitoto rose from the sea. The mists surrounding Rangitoto at certain times are called the tears of the tupua for their former home.
Since European colonisation
The island was purchased for £15 by the Crown in 1854, very early in New Zealand's colonisation by Europeans, and for many years served as a source of basalt for the local construction industry. It was set aside as a recreation reserve in 1890, and became a favourite spot for daytrippers. Some development occurred nonetheless. In 1892, salt works were created on near Mackenzies Bay. The wharf and summit road were opened in 1897, with another road linking the summit to Islington Bay by 1900. For over 30 years (from 1898 to 1930), scoria was quarried from near the shoreline on the west side of Islington Bay as building material for Auckland.
From 1925 to 1936, prison labour built roads on the island and a track to the summit. Islington Bay was formed in the southeast area of the island. Formerly known as Drunks Bay, it was used as a drying out area for inebriated crews before they ventured out of the gulf. The bay is used by Auckland boat-owners as a refuge, as it is quite sheltered from the prevailing southwest winds.
Military installations were built during World War II to support the Auckland harbour defences and to house U.S. troops or store mines. The most visited remains of these installations is the old observation post on the summit. The northern shore of the island was used as a wrecking ground for unwanted ships, and the remains of several wrecks are still visible at low tide. At least 13 ships were wrecked from 1887, the last being the former Wellington and, later, Waiheke ferry, Duchess, in June 1947.
Baches (small holiday houses) were built around the island's edge in the 1920s and 1930s. The legality of their existence was doubtful from the start and the building of further baches was banned in 1937. Most have since been removed because of the ban and because the island has become a scenic reserve. However, 30 of the 140 baches remain , and some are being preserved to show how the island used to be, once boasting a permanent community of several hundred people, including many children. The buildings included some more permanent structures like a seawater pool built of quarried stones by convict labour, located close to the current ferry quay.
Access and tourism
Regular ferry services and island tours by tractor-trailer are provided by Fullers from Auckland city centre. A boardwalk with around 300 steps allows visitors to reach the summit and enjoy a view of the wooded crater. The distance to the summit is , a one–hour walk by the most direct route.
An alternative to walking, a land train, coordinated with the ferry sailings, takes visitors to a short way below the summit. Sea kayak trips from the mainland to the island are also available.
There are no campsites on the island, though there is camping at Home Bay on the adjacent Motutapu Island.
See also
Auckland volcanic field
Volcanism in New Zealand
List of volcanoes in New Zealand
Under the Mountain was a novel, TV series and film set around Rangitoto.
References
Further reading
Julian, Andrea (1992). The vegetation pattern of Rangitoto. University of Auckland PhD thesis
Whiting, Diana (1986). Vegetation colonisation of Rangitoto Island: the role of crevice microclimate. University of Auckland Masters thesis
Volcanoes of Auckland: A Field Guide. Hayward, B.W.; Auckland University Press, 2019, 335 pp. .
External links
Rangitoto Island Scenic Reserve at the Department of Conservation
Rangitoto Island Historic Conservation Trust
Photographs of Rangitoto Island held in Auckland Libraries' heritage collections.
Auckland volcanic field
Islands of the Hauraki Gulf
Island restoration
Islands of the Auckland Region
Monogenetic shield volcanoes
Protected areas of New Zealand
Shield volcanoes of New Zealand
Tourist attractions in the Auckland Region
Volcanic islands
Volcanoes of the Auckland Region
Lookouts in Auckland | [
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255468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excretion | Excretion | Excretion is a process in which metabolic waste
is eliminated from an organism. In vertebrates this is primarily carried out by the lungs, kidneys, and skin. This is in contrast with secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the cell. Excretion is an essential process in all forms of life. For example, in mammals, urine is expelled through the urethra, which is part of the excretory system. In unicellular organisms, waste products are discharged directly through the surface of the cell.
During life activities such as cellular respiration, several chemical reactions take place in the body. These are known as metabolism. These chemical reactions produce waste products such as carbon dioxide, water, salts, urea and uric acid. Accumulation of these wastes beyond a level inside the body is harmful to the body. The excretory organs remove these wastes. This process of removal of metabolic waste from the body is known as excretion.
Green plants produce carbon dioxide and water as respiratory products. In green plants, the carbon dioxide released during respiration gets used during photosynthesis. Oxygen is a by product generated during photosynthesis, and exits through stomata, root cell walls, and other routes. Plants can get rid of excess water by transpiration and guttation. It has been shown that the leaf acts as an 'excretophore' and, in addition to being a primary organ of photosynthesis, is also used as a method of excreting toxic wastes via diffusion. Other waste materials that are exuded by some plants — resin, saps, latex, etc. are forced from the interior of the plant by hydrostatic pressures inside the plant and by absorptive forces of plant cells. These latter processes do not need added energy, they act passively. However, during the pre-abscission phase, the metabolic levels of a leaf are high. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.
In animals, the main excretory products are carbon dioxide, ammonia (in ammoniotelics), urea (in ureotelics), uric acid (in uricotelics), guanine (in Arachnida), and creatine. The liver and kidneys clear many substances from the blood (for example, in renal excretion), and the cleared substances are then excreted from the body in the urine and feces.
Aquatic animals usually excrete ammonia directly into the external environment, as this compound has high solubility and there is ample water available for dilution. In terrestrial animals ammonia-like compounds are converted into other nitrogenous materials, i.e. urea, that are less harmful as there is less water in the environment and ammonia itself is toxic. This process is called detoxification.
Birds excrete their nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of a paste. Although this process is metabolically more expensive, it allows more efficient water retention and it can be stored more easily in the egg. Many avian species, especially seabirds, can also excrete salt via specialized nasal salt glands, the saline solution leaving through nostrils in the beak.
In insects, a system involving Malpighian tubules is used to excrete metabolic waste. Metabolic waste diffuses or is actively transported into the tubule, which transports the wastes to the intestines. The metabolic waste is then released from the body along with fecal matter.
The excreted material may be called ejecta. In pathology the word ejecta is more commonly used.
See also
References
External links
UAlberta.ca, Animation of excretion
Brian J Ford on leaf fall in Nature
Pharmacology
Digestive system
Metabolism
Physiology | [
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255469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies%20%28TV%20series%29 | Bodies (TV series) | Bodies is a British television medical drama produced by Hat Trick Productions for the BBC. Created by Jed Mercurio, the series first broadcast on 23 June 2004, and is based on Mercurio's book of the same name. The series is centred on specialist registrar Rob Lake (Max Beesley), who starts in a new post in the Obstetrics and gynaecology department at the fictional South Central Infirmary, under the guidance of consultant obstetrician Roger Hurley (Patrick Baladi).
The series differed from most other archetypal British hospital dramas, in that the surgical scenes were notable for their graphic nature, offering intimate detail of various procedures, and the operational complications dealt with in explicit detail. As a result, the themes were also often dark and depressing, including negligence, manipulation and death. Bodies has been described as a "dark, sometimes funny" take on a genre that had been made popular through shows such as Casualty and Holby City. In December 2009, The Times ranked Bodies in ninth place in its list of "Shows of the Decade", and in January 2010, The Guardian ranked Bodies number twenty of "The Greatest Television Dramas of All Time".
The first series was released on DVD on 30 October 2006. The second series, including the finale, was released on 26 December 2006. A complete box set was released on 9 April 2007. The show was made available via the BBC iPlayer service on 6 April 2019.
Broadcast
The first series started on BBC Three, as the channel was trying to break into hour-long dramas. BBC Two aired the series at the end of 2004. The channels co-commissioned a second series and increased the number of episodes to ten. The second series started in September 2005. The BBC did not order a third series, so a feature-length final episode was subsequently broadcast to conclude the programme in December 2006. The entire first and second series were also broadcast to American audiences on digital channel BBC America during 2005.
Cast
Max Beesley as Mr. Rob Lake
Patrick Baladi as Mr. Roger Hurley
Neve McIntosh as Sister Donna Rix
Keith Allen as Mr. Tony Whitman
Susan Lynch as Dr. Maria Orton
Tamzin Malleson as Miss Polly Grey
Preeya Kalidas as Dr. Maya Dutta
Simon Lowe as Dr. Tim Sibley
Hattie Morahan as Dr. Beth Lucas
Vicky Hall as Chrissy Farrell
Saskia Reeves as Ms. Mary Dodd
Mary Stockley as Ms. Susannah Marshall
Episodes
Series 1 (2004)
Lake (Max Beesley) realises that despite his friendly, professional demeanour and strong academics, his boss, Hurley (Patrick Baladi), is an incompetent surgeon who regularly bungles surgical procedures, to the detriment of his patients. Hurley is, however, protected by the principle "Doctors look after doctors", a phrase often repeated throughout the series. Initially, Lake is also protected by this principle, when his involvement in a death of a patient is covered up, although this death haunts him. Initially, Lake seeks to become a whistleblower, after seeing Hurley's gross incompetence and negligence, particularly after he badly mishandles a birth in which an abruption occurs, leaving the mother with substantial brain damage. The anaesthetist for the operation, Dr. Maria Orton (Susan Lynch), makes an official complaint against Hurley, but her colleagues close ranks around him. The pregnant Dr. Orton is ostracised, and the stress of the situation causes her to miscarry. She is eventually sectioned and admitted to a psychiatric hospital. Pressure from outside authorities, hospital politics and blackmail from Hurley eventually forces Lake into silence. Unable to oust him yet forced to work with him, Lake soon seeks a way out and finds a post at another hospital. But Hurley, despite agreeing that he should move on, changes his mind, ruins Lake's chance to escape by informing his new employers of Lake's mistakes and his real reasons for wanting to leave. At the end of the season, Hurley is shown to be in line for promotion as the hospital's clinical director. Lake, trapped in his job, comes clean to the relatives of the patient whose death he caused, so that, in his own words, he may be judged. The series ends on this cliffhanger.
Series 2 (2005)
The series continues with the main overlying storyline of the constant struggle between Hurley and Lake. This season also saw the arrival of a new departmental manager, Chrissy Farrell (Vicky Hall). At the start of the second series, Lake is about to leave the hospital but, with no real job prospects elsewhere, he decides to remain. Lake and Hurley then begin to form a respectful professional relationship, with Lake turning a blind eye to Hurley's incompetence. Despite this, Donna Rix (Neve McIntosh), a nurse with whom Lake was having an affair, views Hurley's ineptitude with increasing alarm. She starts to voice her distress and sends anonymous letters to management in an attempt to bring wider attention to this issue. Lake, seeing this, pleads with Donna to act with restraint, claiming that Hurley will be brought down but not in this fashion. Towards the end of the series, Hurley's life begins to unravel. Attempts to have a third child are scuppered after he finds out he has a low sperm count and furthermore, is suspected of having an affair with a fellow doctor, soon leading to the breakdown of his marriage.
Finale (2006)
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Bodies at Hat Trick Productions
Bodies makeup special effects at MakeupSFX Ltd.
2004 British television series debuts
2006 British television series endings
2000s British drama television series
2000s British medical television series
BBC medical television shows
BBC television dramas
English-language television shows
Television series by Hat Trick Productions
Television shows set in West Yorkshire
2000s British workplace drama television series | [
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255471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Adams | Ian Adams | Ian Adams (July 22, 1937 — November 7, 2021) was a Canadian author of fiction and non-fiction novels, television, and movies. Originally a journalist, he is now best known for his writing: his most successful novels are S – Portrait of a Spy and Agent of Influence.
Childhood
Ian Adams was born in what is now Tanzania to a Lillian and Richard Adams, Irish lay missionaries administering a medical clinic in the former Belgian Congo. According to family lore, a pregnant Lillian singlehandedly canoed across a narrow stretch of Lake Tanganyika so that Adams would be born in what was then the British colony of Tanganyika rather than in the Belgian colony his parents were working in. He grew up in Central and East Africa. During World War II, both of Adams's parents joined the British Army, his mother as an ambulance driver and his father as an engineer, while three-year old Ian was sent to boarding school. Adams resented his parents for abandoning him at a young age and while the entire family moved to North America, Adams did so separately as a teenager and lived on his own in Winnipeg where he attended the University of Manitoba, studying fine arts.
Career
Journalism
Though an accomplished painter, Adams pursued a career initially as a photojournalist and reporter. As an award-winning investigative journalist, he worked for five years at Maclean's, Canada's national news magazine, covering many national stories including "The Lonely Death of Charlie Wenjack" (Volume 80, February 1967), reprinted under the title "Why did Charlie Wenjack Die?" in The Poverty Wall in 1970. Charlie Wenjack was an Indigenous Canadian child who ran away from a residential school in northern Ontario in an attempt to reach his father, 650 kilometres away. The child was found beside a CNR track, poorly dressed and dead of hunger and cold. In the Maclean's article, he wrote: "Under the heading The Lonely Death of Charlie Wenjack, he wrote, “It’s not so unusual that Indian children run away from the residential schools they are sent to. They do it all the time, and they lose their fingers and toes to frostbite. Sometimes they lose a leg or an arm trying to climb aboard freight trains. Occasionally, one of them dies. And perhaps because they are Indians, no one seems to care very much. So this, then, is the story of how a little boy met a terrible and lonely death, of the handful of people who became involved, and of a town that hardly noticed.” The story resulted in a series of complaints to the magazine by readers, including the CEO of the magazine's publisher, Maclean-Hunter, who wrote Adams telling him he didn't think that sort of writing belonged in the magazine. Adams quit the publication and pursued a freelance career. In September 2012 Adams was interviewed about the Charlie Wenjack story as part of the CBC documentary "Dying For An Education". Gord Downie, lead singer of the Canadian band The Tragically Hip, cited Adams' Maclean's article as the source for his work, "Secret Path".
Adams' international stories included coverage of the Vietnam War and the coup d'état that overthrew Allende in Chile, for publications such as the Globe and Mail.
Literature
During the 1970s and 1980s Adams lived, worked and traveled extensively in South and Central America, mostly covering the so-called "dirty wars". From this period came the novel Becoming Tania (published by McClelland and Stewart), the love story of Che Guevara and his compañera Tania who was killed with Che in the Bolivian jungle. Adams' screenplay adaptation, Tango Duro, was nominated in 2005 for the Writers Guild of Canada's Best Unproduced Screenplay: the Jim Burt Prize.
His 1977 novel, S – Portrait of a Spy, led to a libel suit in which a former RCMP Security Service officer Leslie James Bennett claimed the central character, a Soviet mole who penetrated the RCMP, was modelled after him. The publisher stopped distribution of the book despite the fact that 12,000 copies had already been sold and a deal to turn the book into a movie was cancelled as a result. The case was settled out of court with Adams paying Bennett $30,000 and agreeing to add a disclaimer to the book. The novel was adapted into a play, in 1984 by Adams and Rick Salutin.
Film adaptations
Ian Adams and his writing partner and son, Riley Adams, have turned several of his seven published novels into movies. S – Portrait of a Spy, was scheduled for production as a feature film (by Alberta Filmworks) in the spring of 2006.
The Adams team with Riley as the lead writer has also written the original screenplays for two of the seven MOWs in this fall's CTV lineup. Hunt for Justice, (GalaFilms) starring William Hurt, John Corbett, and Wendy Crewson; the second original screen play, The Clark Todd Story, (ImagiNation Films and Box Films, UK) was scheduled for filming to begin early in 2006.
His 1999 novel, Agent of Influence, based on the true story of Canadian diplomat John Watkins who died while under Royal Canadian Mounted Police interrogation, was adapted by the Adams team, and aired on the national CTV network in 2003–2004. Produced by Alberta FilmWorks and Gala Films, Agent of Influence starred Christopher Plummer. The film has been sold by Alliance-Atlantis to TV networks in 132 countries, and in 2003 was recognized by the European Screenplay Writers' association as the best foreign television screenplay.
The Adams partnership created the screenplay for the full-length feature, Bad Faith, adapted from Ian Adams' novel of the same title and filmed in Calgary and Montreal during March 2000 by Alberta FilmWorks — is now distributed worldwide by Oasis under the title, Cold Blooded.
Ian Adams has also written many hours of produced television for Canadian and U.S. shows.
Bibliography
Novels
The Trudeau Papers (1971)
S: Portrait of a Spy (1977)
Endgame in Paris (1979)
Bad Faith (1983)
Becoming Tania (1990)
Agent of Influence (1999)
Nonfiction
The Poverty Wall (1970) (includes "Why Did Charlie Wenjack Die?")
The Real Poverty Report (1971)
Power of the Wheel - The Falun Gong Revolution (1999)
Plays
S: Portrait of a Spy (with Rick Salutin) (1984)
Awards
Adams' work Agent of Influence has received the following awards:
Best Foreign Television Screenplay Award — given by the Les 16e Rencontres Internationales de Télévision: The Euro International Film and Television Festival held March 16–23, 2003 in Reims, France.
Nominated for best screenplay in the Writers' Guild of Canada's 2004 MOW category.
Nominated for best screenplay 2003 Geminis. Agent of Influence garnered five other Gemini nominations and one Gemini — Ted Whitall best supporting actor.
Awarded a HUGOS "Certificate of Merit" in the Feature-Length Telefilm Drama category at the Chicago International Television Awards, March 2003.
References
1937 births
2021 deaths
Canadian male novelists
Canadian people of Anglo-Irish descent
Writers from Toronto
Maclean's writers and editors
20th-century Canadian novelists
Canadian investigative journalists
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male non-fiction writers
Canadian male screenwriters
Canadian male dramatists and playwrights
Tanganyika (territory) people
British emigrants to Canada
Canadian photojournalists | [
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255473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arndt%20Pekurinen | Arndt Pekurinen | Arndt Juho Pekurinen (29 August 1905 – 5 November 1941) was a Finnish pacifist and conscientious objector.
In 1926, Pekurinen repeatedly refused mandatory conscription, leading to his imprisonment between 1929 and 1931. He refused to either wear a uniform or take arms. While Pekurinen was deeply religious, his motives were not based on his faith. While his contemporaries suggested he was Communist, he was not interested in politics. Because of his pacifist conviction, in the atmosphere of the militaristic 1930s, he was deemed as guilty of high treason, and the Lapua Movement harassed him relentlessly. In 1930, an international petition on his behalf was sent to the Finnish defense minister Juho Niukkanen, which included the signatures of sixty British MPs and notables such as Albert Einstein, Henri Barbusse and H. G. Wells. On 14 April 1931, the Lex Pekurinen, Finland's first alternative to military service, was passed. However, its provisions extended only as far as peacetime.
When the Winter War broke out in 1939, Pekurinen once again found himself imprisoned. At the onset of the Continuation War in autumn 1941, he was sent to the front, with orders to make sure he did wear the uniform, and bear and use a weapon. At the front he still refused to wear a uniform or bear arms. Following an order issued by Captain Pentti Valkonen, he was executed without trial. The first two soldiers (Sergeant Kivelä and Private Kinnunen) ordered to execute him refused; only the third, Corporal Asikainen, obeyed Valkonen's direct order.
After the war, an investigation of Pekurinen's death was launched but never completed. He remained effectively forgotten for over fifty years, until the publication in 1998 of the book Courage: The life and execution of Arndt Pekurinen by Erno Paasilinna. The city of Helsinki named a park Arndt Pekurisen puisto (The park of Arndt Pekurinen) in East Pasila in his memory.
According to the book by Erno Paasilinna, Pekurinen's motto was inspired by Jonathan Swift: "As people are not eaten, butchering them is of no use." ("Kun ihmisiä ei syödä, on niitä turha teurastaa.")
See also
Taavetti Lukkarinen
References
Silvonen, Katri (2004). Conscientious objection in Finland. Peace Review, 16 (2), pp. 207–209.
Citations
1905 births
1941 deaths
20th-century executions by Finland
20th-century Lutherans
Executed Finnish people
Finnish Christian pacifists
Finnish conscientious objectors
Lutheran pacifists
Non-interventionism
Nonviolence advocates
People executed by Finland by firearm
People from Juva
People from Mikkeli Province (Grand Duchy of Finland) | [
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255474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazing%20Stories | Amazing Stories | Amazing Stories is an American science fiction magazine launched in April 1926 by Hugo Gernsback's Experimenter Publishing. It was the first magazine devoted solely to science fiction. Science fiction stories had made regular appearances in other magazines, including some published by Gernsback, but Amazing helped define and launch a new genre of pulp fiction.
As of 2018, Amazing has been published, with some interruptions, for 92 years, going through a half-dozen owners and many editors as it struggled to be profitable. Gernsback was forced into bankruptcy and lost control of the magazine in 1929. In 1938 it was purchased by Ziff-Davis, who hired Raymond A. Palmer as editor. Palmer made the magazine successful though it was not regarded as a quality magazine within the science fiction community. In the late 1940s Amazing presented as fact stories about the Shaver Mystery, a lurid mythos that explained accidents and disaster as the work of robots named deros, which led to dramatically increased circulation but widespread ridicule. Amazing switched to a digest size format in 1953, shortly before the end of the pulp-magazine era. It was sold to Sol Cohen's Universal Publishing Company in 1965, which filled it with reprinted stories but did not pay a reprint fee to the authors, creating a conflict with the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America. Ted White took over as editor in 1969, eliminated the reprints and made the magazine respected again: Amazing was nominated for the prestigious Hugo Award three times during his tenure in the 1970s. Several other owners attempted to create a modern incarnation of the magazine in the following decades, but publication was suspended after the March 2005 issue. A new incarnation appeared in July 2012 as an online magazine. Print publication resumed with the Fall 2018 issue.
Gernsback's initial editorial approach was to blend instruction with entertainment; he believed science fiction could educate readers. His audience rapidly showed a preference for implausible adventures, and the movement away from Gernsback's idealism accelerated when the magazine changed hands in 1929. Despite this, Gernsback had an enormous impact on the field: the creation of a specialist magazine for science fiction spawned an entire genre publishing industry. The letter columns in Amazing, where fans could make contact with each other, led to the formation of science fiction fandom, which in turn had a strong influence on the development of the field. Writers whose first story was published in the magazine include John W. Campbell, Isaac Asimov, Howard Fast, Ursula K. Le Guin, Roger Zelazny, and Thomas M. Disch. Overall, though, Amazing itself was rarely an influential magazine within the genre after the 1920s. Some critics have commented that by "ghettoizing" science fiction, Gernsback harmed its literary growth, but this viewpoint has been countered by the argument that science fiction needed an independent market to develop in to reach its potential.
Origins
By the end of the 19th century, stories centered on scientific inventions, and stories set in the future, were appearing regularly in popular fiction magazines. The market for short stories lent itself to tales of invention in the tradition of Jules Verne. Magazines such as Munsey's Magazine and The Argosy, launched in 1889 and 1896 respectively, carried a few science fiction stories each year. Some upmarket "slick" magazines such as McClure's, which paid well and were aimed at a more literary audience, also carried scientific stories, but by the early years of the 20th century, science fiction (though it was not yet called that) was appearing more often in the pulp magazines than in the slicks.
In 1908, Hugo Gernsback published the first issue of Modern Electrics, a magazine aimed at the scientific hobbyist. It was an immediate success, and Gernsback began to include articles on imaginative uses of science, such as "Wireless on Saturn" (December 1908). In April 1911, Gernsback began the serialization of his science fiction novel, Ralph 124C 41+, but in 1913 he sold his interest in the magazine to his partner and launched a new magazine, Electrical Experimenter, which soon began to publish scientific fiction. In 1920 Gernsback retitled the magazine Science and Invention, and through the early 1920s he published much scientific fiction in its pages, along with non-fiction scientific articles.
Gernsback had started another magazine called Practical Electrics in 1921. In 1924, he changed its name to The Experimenter, and sent a letter to 25,000 people to gauge interest in the possibility of a magazine devoted to scientific fiction; in his words, "the response was such that the idea was given up for two years." However, in 1926 he decided to go ahead, and ceased publication of The Experimenter to make room in his publishing schedule for a new magazine. The editor of The Experimenter, T. O'Conor Sloane, became the editor of Amazing Stories. The first issue appeared on 10 March 1926, with a cover date of April 1926.
Publishing history
1920s
Initially the magazine focused on reprints; the first original story was "The Man From the Atom (Sequel)" by
G. Peyton Wertenbaker in the May 1926 issue.
In the August issue, new stories (still a minority) were noted with an asterisk in the table of contents.
The editorial work was largely done by Sloane, but Gernsback retained final say over the fiction content. Two consultants, Conrad A. Brandt and Wilbur C. Whitehead, were hired to help find fiction to reprint. Frank R. Paul, who had worked with Gernsback as early as 1914, became the cover artist; Paul had produced many illustrations for the fiction in The Electrical Experimenter. Amazing was issued in the large bedsheet format, 8.5 × 11.75 in (216 × 298 mm), the same size as the technical magazines. It was an immediate success and by the following March reached a circulation of 150,000.
Gernsback saw there was an enthusiastic readership for "scientifiction" (the term "science fiction" had not yet been coined), and in 1927 started a Discussions section and issued Amazing Stories Annual. The annual sold out, and in January 1928, Gernsback launched a quarterly magazine, Amazing Stories Quarterly, as a regular companion to Amazing. It continued on a fairly regular schedule for 22 issues.
Gernsback was slow to pay his authors and creditors; the extent of his investments limited his liquidity. On 20 February 1929 his printer and paper supplier opened bankruptcy proceedings against him. It has been suggested that Bernarr Macfadden, another magazine publisher, maneuvered to force the bankruptcy because Gernsback would not sell his titles to Macfadden, but this is unproven. Experimenter Publishing did not file any defence and was declared bankrupt by default on 6 March 1929; Amazing survived with its existing staff, but Hugo and his brother, Sidney, were forced out as directors. Arthur H. Lynch took over as editor-in-chief, though Sloane continued to have effective control of the magazine's contents. The receivers, Irving Trust, sold the magazine to Bergan A. Mackinnon on 3 April 1929.
1930s
In August 1931, Amazing was acquired by Teck Publications, a subsidiary of Bernarr Macfadden's Macfadden Publications. Macfadden's deep pockets helped insulate Amazing from the financial strain caused by the Great Depression. The schedule of Amazing Stories Quarterly began to slip, but Amazing did not miss an issue in the early 1930s. However, it became unprofitable to publish over the next few years. Circulation dropped to little more than 25,000 in 1934, and in October 1935 it switched to bimonthly (publishing every other month).
By 1938, with Amazing's circulation down to only 15,000, Teck Publications was having financial problems. In January 1938 Ziff-Davis took over the magazine and shortly thereafter moved production to Chicago; the April issue was assembled by Sloane but published by Ziff-Davis. Bernard Davis, who ran Ziff-Davis's editorial department, attempted to hire Roger Sherman Hoar as editor; Hoar turned down the job but suggested Raymond A. Palmer, an active local science fiction fan. Palmer was hired that February, taking over editorial duties with the June 1938 issue. Ziff-Davis launched Fantastic Adventures, a fantasy companion to Amazing, in May 1939, also under Palmer's editorship. Palmer quickly managed to improve Amazing's circulation, and in November 1938, the magazine went monthly again, though this did not last throughout Palmer's tenure: between 1944 and 1946 the magazine was bimonthly and then quarterly for a while before returning to a longer-lasting monthly schedule.
1940s
In September 1943 Richard Shaver, an Amazing reader, began to correspond with Palmer, who soon asked him to write stories for the magazine. Shaver responded with a story called "I Remember Lemuria", published in the March 1945 issue, which was presented by Palmer as a mixture of truth and fiction. The story, about prehistoric civilizations, dramatically boosted Amazings circulation, and Palmer ran a new Shaver story in every issue, culminating in a special issue in June 1947 devoted entirely to the Shaver Mystery, as it was called. Amazing soon drew ridicule for these stories. A derisive article by William S. Baring-Gould in the September 1946 issue of Harper's prompted William Ziff to tell Palmer to limit the amount of Shaver-related material in the magazine; Palmer complied, but his interest (and possibly belief) in this sort of material was now significant, and he soon began planning to leave Ziff-Davis. In 1947 he formed Clark Publications, launching Fate the following year, and in 1949 he resigned from Ziff-Davis to edit that and other magazines.
Howard Browne, who had been on a leave of absence from Ziff-Davis to write fiction, took over as editor and began by throwing away 300,000 words of inventory that Palmer had acquired before he left. Browne had ambitions of moving Amazing upmarket, and his argument was strengthened by Street & Smith, one of the longest established and most respected publishers, who shut down all of their pulp magazines in the summer of 1949. The pulps were dying, largely as a result of the success of pocketbooks, and Street & Smith decided to concentrate on their slick magazines. Some pulps struggled on for a few more years, but Browne was able to persuade Ziff and Davis that the future was in the slicks, and they raised his fiction budget from one cent to a ceiling of five cents per word. Browne managed to get promises of new stories from many well-known authors, including Isaac Asimov and Theodore Sturgeon. He produced a dummy issue in April 1950, and planned to launch the new incarnation of Amazing in April 1951, the 25th anniversary of the first issue. However, the economic impact of the Korean War, which broke out in June 1950, led to budget cuts. The plans were cancelled, and Ziff-Davis never revived the idea.
1950s
Browne's interest in Amazing declined when the project to turn it into a slick magazine was derailed. Although he stayed involved with Fantastic Adventures, another Ziff-Davis magazine, he left the editing work on Amazing to William Hamling and Lila Shaffer. In December 1950, when Ziff-Davis moved their offices from Chicago to New York, Hamling stayed behind in Chicago, and Browne revived his involvement with the magazine.
In 1952, Browne convinced Ziff-Davis to try a high-quality digest fantasy magazine. Fantastic, which appeared in the summer of that year, focused on fantasy rather than science fiction and was so successful that it persuaded Ziff-Davis to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest in early 1953 (while also switching to a bimonthly schedule). Circulation fell, however, and subsequent budget cuts limited the story quality in both Amazing and Fantastic. Fantastic began to print science fiction as well as fantasy. Circulation increased as a result, but Browne, who was not a science fiction aficionado, once again lost interest in the magazines.
Paul W. Fairman replaced Browne as editor in September 1956.Ashley, Transformations, p. 353. Early in Fairman's tenure, Bernard Davis decided to try issuing a companion series of novels, titled Amazing Stories Science Fiction Novels. Readers' letters in Amazing had indicated a desire for novels, which Amazing did not have room to run. The novel series did not last; only one, Henry Slesar's 20 Million Miles to Earth, appeared. However, in response to readers' interest in longer fiction, Ziff-Davis expanded Amazing by 16 pages, starting with the March 1958 issue, and the magazine began to run complete novels.
Fairman left to edit Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine at the end of 1958, and his place was taken by Cele Goldsmith. Goldsmith had been hired in 1955 as a secretary and became assistant editor to help cope with the additional work created when Ziff-Davis launched two short-lived magazines, Dream World and Pen Pals, in 1956. Ziff-Davis were not confident of Goldsmith's abilities as an editor, so when Fairman left, a consultant, Norman Lobsenz, was hired to work with her. She performed well, however, and Lobsenz's involvement soon became minimal.
1960s
Goldsmith is well regarded by science fiction historians for her innovation, and the impact she had on the early careers of writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin and Roger Zelazny, but circulation lagged during her tenure. By 1964 Fantastics circulation was down to 27,000, with Amazing doing little better. The following March both Amazing and Fantastic were sold to Ultimate Publishing Company, run by Sol Cohen and Arthur Bernhard.Ashley, Transformations, p. 263. Goldsmith was given the choice of going with the magazines or staying with Ziff-Davis; she stayed, and Cohen hired Joseph Wrzos to edit the magazines, starting with the August and September 1965 issues of Amazing and Fantastic, respectively. Wrzos used the name "Joseph Ross" on the mastheads to avoid mis-spellings. Both magazines immediately moved to a bi-monthly schedule.Ashley, Transformations, p. 325.
Cohen had acquired reprint rights to the magazines' back issues, although Wrzos did get Cohen to agree to print one new story every issue. Cohen was also producing reprint magazines such as Great Science Fiction and Science Fiction Classics, but no payment was made to authors for any of these reprints. This brought Cohen into conflict with the Science Fiction Writers of America (SFWA), a professional writers' organization formed in 1965. Soon SFWA called for a boycott of Ultimate's magazines until Cohen agreed to make payments. Cohen agreed to pay a flat fee for all stories, and then in August 1967 this was changed to a graduated rate, depending on the length of the story. Harry Harrison had acted as an intermediary in Cohen's negotiations with SFWA, and when Wrzos left in 1967, Cohen asked Harrison to take over. SF Impulse, which Harrison had been editing, had folded in February 1967, so Harrison was available. He secured Cohen's agreement that the policy of printing almost nothing but reprinted stories would be phased out by the end of the year, and took over as editor with the September 1967 issue.
By February 1968 Harrison decided to leave, as Cohen was showing no signs of abandoning the reprints. He resigned, and suggested Barry Malzberg to Cohen as a possible successor. Cohen knew Malzberg from his work at the Scott Meredith Literary Agency, and thought that he might be more amenable than Harrison to continuing the reprint policy. Malzberg took over in April 1968, but immediately came into conflict with Cohen over the reprints, and then threatened to resign in October 1968 over a disagreement about artwork Malzberg had commissioned for a cover. Cohen contacted Robert Silverberg, then the president of SFWA, and told him (falsely) that Malzberg had actually resigned. Silverberg recommended Ted White as a replacement. Cohen secured White's agreement and then fired Malzberg; White assumed control with the May 1969 issue.
1970s
When White took over as editor, Amazings circulation was about 38,500, only about 4% of which were subscribers (as opposed to newsstand sales). This was a very low ebb for subscriptions; Analog, by comparison, sold about 35% of its circulation through subscriptions. Cohen's wife mailed out the subscription copies from home, and Cohen had never tried to increase the subscriber base as this would have increased the burden on his wife. White worked hard to increase the circulation despite Cohen's lack of support, but met with limited success. One of his first changes was to reduce the typeface to increase the amount of fiction in the magazine. To pay for this he increased the price of both Fantastic and Amazing to 60 cents, but this had a strong negative effect on circulation, which fell about 10% from 1969 to 1970.Ashley, Gateways, p. 480.
In 1972, White changed the title to Amazing Science Fiction, distancing the magazine slightly from some of the pulp connotations of "Amazing Stories". White worked at a low wage, and his friends often read manuscripts for free, but despite his efforts the circulation continued to fall. From near 40,000 when White joined the magazine, the circulation fell to about 23,000 in October 1975. White was unwilling to continue with the very limited financial backing that Cohen provided, and he resigned in 1975. Cohen was able to convince White to remain; White promised to stay for one more year, but in the event remained as editor until late 1978.
Amazing raised its price from 75 cents to $1.00 with the November 1975 issue. The schedule switched to quarterly beginning with the March 1976 issue; as a result, the 50th anniversary issue had a cover date of June 1976. In 1977, Cohen announced that Amazing and Fantastic had lost $15,000, though Amazing'''s circulation (at nearly 26,000) was as good as it had been for several years. Cohen looked for a new publisher to buy the magazines, but in September of the following year sold his half-share in the company to his partner, Arthur Bernhard.Ashley, Gateways, pp. 85–86. White had occasionally suggested to Cohen that Amazing would benefit from a redesign and investment; he made the same suggestions to Bernhard in early October. According to White, Bernhard not only said no, but told him he would not receive a salary until the next issue was turned in. In late 1978 White resigned, and returned all manuscripts in his possession to their authors, even if copy-edited and ready for publication. White claimed Bernhard had told him to do this, though Bernhard denied it.
1980s to 2000s
Elinor Mavor took over as editor in early 1979. She had worked for Bernhard as an illustrator and in the production department of several of his magazines, though not for Amazing. She had also been an editor at Bill of Fare, a restaurant trade magazine. Mavor had read a good deal of science fiction but knew nothing about the world of science fiction magazines when she took over. She was not confident that a woman would be accepted as the editor of a science fiction magazine, so she initially used the pseudonym "Omar Gohagen" for both Amazing and Fantastic, dropping it late in 1980. Circulation continued to fall, and Bernhard refused to consider Mavor's request to undertake a subscription drive, which might have helped. Instead, in late 1980, Bernhard decided to merge the two magazines. Fantastics last independent issue was October 1980; thereafter the combined magazine returned to a bimonthly schedule. At the same time the title was changed to Amazing Science Fiction Stories. Bernhard cut Mavor's salary after the merger, as she was editing only one magazine. Despite this, she stayed with Amazing, but was unable to prevent circulation from dropping again, down to only 11,000 newsstand sales in 1982.
Shortly after the merger, Bernhard decided to retire, and approached Edward Ferman, the editor of Fantasy and Science Fiction, and Joel Davis, at Davis Publications, among others, about a possible sale of Amazing. Jonathan Post, of Emerald City Publishing, believed he had concluded a deal with Bernhard, and began to advertise for submissions, but the negotiations failed. Bernhard also approached George H. Scithers, who declined, but put Bernhard in touch with Gary Gygax of TSR. On 27 May 1982 TSR, Inc. acquired the trademarks and copyrights of Amazing Stories. Scithers was taken on by TSR as editor beginning with the November 1982 issue. He was replaced by Patrick Lucien Price in September 1986, and then by Kim Mohan in May 1991. TSR ceased publication of Amazing with the Winter 1995 issue, but in 1997, shortly after they were acquired by Wizards of the Coast, the magazine was relaunched, again with Mohan as editor. This version lasted for only ten issues, though it did include a special celebratory 600th issue in early 2000. The science fiction trade journal Locus commented in an early review that distribution of the magazine seemed to be weak. The title proved unable to survive: the last issue of this version was dated Summer 2000. The title was then acquired by Paizo Publishing, who launched a new monthly version in September 2004. The February 2005 issue was the last printed; a March 2005 issue was released in PDF format, and in March 2006 Paizo announced that it would no longer publish Amazing. In September 2011, the trademark for Amazing Stories was acquired by Steve Davidson. Two online issues appeared, in July and August 2012, followed by another in 2014. Davidson relaunched print publication of Amazing Stories with the Fall 2018 issue with Ira Nayman as editor.
Contents and reception
Gernsback era
Gernsback's editorial in the first issue asserted that "Not only do these amazing tales make tremendously interesting reading—they are also always instructive". He had always believed that "scientifiction", as he called these stories, had educational power, but he now understood that the fiction had to entertain as well as to instruct. His continued belief in the instructional value of science fiction was not in keeping with the general attitude of the public towards pulp magazines, which was that they were "trash".
The first issue of Amazing contained only reprints, beginning with a serialization of Off on a Comet, by Jules Verne. In keeping with Gernsback's new approach, this was one of Verne's least scientifically plausible novels. Also included were H. G. Wells's "The New Accelerator", and Edgar Allan Poe's "The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar"; Gernsback put the names of all three authors on the cover. He also reprinted three more recent stories. Two came from his own magazine, Science and Invention; these were "The Man from the Atom" by G. Peyton Wertenbaker and "The Thing from—'Outside'" by George Allan England. The third was Austin Hall's The Man Who Saved the Earth, which had appeared in All-Story Weekly.
In the June 1926 issue Gernsback announced a competition to write a short story to suit a cover drawn by illustrator Frank R. Paul, with a first prize of $250. The competition drew over 360 entries, seven of which were eventually printed in Amazing. The winner was Cyril G. Wates, who sold three more stories to Gernsback in the late 1920s. Two other entrants went on to become successful writers: one was Clare Winger Harris, whose story, "The Fate of the Poseidonia", took third place in the competition, and was published in the June 1927 issue as by "Mrs. F.C. Harris". The other notable entrant was A. Hyatt Verrill, with The Voice from the Inner World, which appeared in July 1927.
A letter column, titled Discussions soon appeared, and became a regular feature with the January 1927 issue. Many science fiction readers were isolated in small communities, knowing nobody else who liked the same fiction. Gernsback's habit of publishing the full address of all his correspondents meant that the letter column allowed fans to correspond with each other directly. Science fiction fandom traces its beginnings to the letter column in Amazing and its competitors, and one historian of the field, author Lester del Rey, has commented that the introduction of this letter column "may have been one of the most important events in the history of science fiction".
For the first year, Amazing contained primarily reprinted material. It was proving difficult to attract new, high-quality material, and Gernsback's slowness at paying his authors did not help. Writers such as H.P. Lovecraft, H.G. Wells, and Murray Leinster all avoided Amazing because Gernsback took so long to pay for the stories he printed. The slow payments were probably known to many of the other active pulp writers, which would have further limited the volume of submissions. New writers did appear, but the quality of their stories was often weak.
Frederik Pohl later said that Gernsback's magazine published "the kind of stories Gernsback himself used to write: a sort of animated catalogue of gadgets". Gernsback discovered that the audience he had attracted was less interested in scientific invention stories than in fantastical adventures. A. Merritt's The Moon Pool, which began serialization in May 1927, was an early success; there was little or no scientific basis to the story, but it was very popular with Amazings readers. The covers, all of which were painted by Paul, were garish and juvenile, leading some readers to complain. Raymond Palmer, later to become an editor of the magazine, wrote that a friend of his was forced to stop buying Amazing "by reason of his parents' dislike of the cover illustrations". Gernsback experimented with a more sober cover for the September 1928 issue, but it sold poorly, and so the lurid covers continued. The combination of poor quality fiction with garish artwork has led some critics to comment that Gernsback created a "ghetto" for science fiction, though it has also been argued that the creation of a specialized market allowed science fiction to develop and mature as a genre.
Among the regular writers for Amazing by the end of the 1920s were several who were influential and popular at the time, such as David H. Keller and Stanton Coblentz, and some who would continue to be successful for much longer, most notably Edward E. Smith and Jack Williamson. Smith's The Skylark of Space, written between 1915 and 1920, was a seminal space opera that found no ready market when Argosy stopped printing science fiction. When Smith saw a copy of the April 1927 issue of Amazing, he submitted it to Sloane, and it appeared in the August–October 1928 issues. It was such a success that Sloane requested a sequel before the second installment had been published. It was also in the August 1928 issue that "Armageddon – 2419 AD", by Philip Francis Nowlan, appeared; this was the first appearance of Buck Rogers in print.
Sloane, Palmer, Browne and Fairman
Sloane took over full control of the content of Amazing when Gernsback left in 1929. He was infamous for his slow response to manuscripts, and when Astounding Stories was launched in January 1930, with better rates and faster editorial response, some of Sloane's writers quickly defected. Little of quality appeared in Amazing during Sloane's tenure, though "The Lost Machine", an early story by John Wyndham, appeared in April 1932, under Wyndham's real name of John Beynon Harris. John W. Campbell and Howard Fast sold their first stories to Sloane; Campbell's "When the Atoms Failed" appeared in the January 1930 issue, and Fast's "Wrath of the Purple" was printed in the October 1932 issue.Ashley, Gernsback Days, p. 156.
Raymond Palmer, who took over in 1938 after production of the magazine was moved to Chicago, was less interested in the educational possibilities of science fiction than Sloane had been. He wanted the magazine to provide escapist entertainment, and had no interest in scientific accuracy. His terse instruction—"Gimme Bang-Bang"—to one pulp writer sums up his approach. Palmer disposed of almost all of Sloane's accumulated inventory, instead acquiring stories from local Chicago writers he knew through his connections with science fiction fandom.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 112. He also added features such as a "Correspondence Corner" and a "Collectors' Corner" to appeal to fans, and introduced a "Meet the Authors" feature, though on at least one occasion the featured author was a pseudonym, and the biographical details were invented. An illustrated back cover was tried, and soon became standard.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 118–119. In 1939 Palmer acquired Isaac Asimov's first sale, "Marooned off Vesta".
In the 1940s, several writers established themselves as a stable of reliable contributors to Amazing. These included David Wright O'Brien and William P. McGivern, both of whom wrote an immense amount for Ziff-Davis, much of it under house names such as Alexander Blade. John Russell Fearn became a prolific contributor, using the pseudonyms "Thornton Ayre" and "Polton Cross". Palmer also encouraged long-time science fiction writers to return, publishing pulp authors such as Ed Earl Repp and Eando Binder. This policy did not always meet with approval from Amazings readers, who, despite a clear preference for action and adventure stories, could not stomach the work of some of the early pulp writers such as Harry Bates.
The first Shaver Mystery story, "I Remember Lemuria", by Richard S. Shaver, appeared in the March 1945 issue. Shaver claimed that all the world's accidents and disasters were caused by an ancient race of deros (short for "detrimental robots") who lived in underground cities. This explanation for the world's ills, coming towards the end of World War II, struck a chord with Amazing's readership. Palmer received over 2,500 letters, instead of the usual 40 or 50, and proceeded to print a Shaver story in every issue. The June 1947 issue was given over entirely to the Shaver Mystery. From March 1948 the Shaver Mystery was dropped as a regular feature of the magazine, at Ziff's insistence. Palmer left the following year, and Browne, his successor, "was determined to make sure that the lunatics were no longer in charge of the asylum", in the words of science fiction historian Mike Ashley.
Browne had acquired some good-quality material in the process of planning the launch of a new slick version of Amazing, and when the plan was abandoned this material appeared in the continuing pulp version. This included "Operation RSVP" by H. Beam Piper, and "Satisfaction Guaranteed" by Isaac Asimov. Despite the cancellation of the planned change to a slick format, news had reached the writing community of Amazings new approach, and Browne began to receive much better material than Palmer had been able to publish. The existing stable of Amazing writers, such as Rog Phillips and Chester S. Geier, were replaced by writers such as Fritz Leiber, Fredric Brown, and Clifford D. Simak. Browne also discovered several writers who went on to success in the field, publishing first stories by Walter M. Miller, Mack Reynolds, John Jakes, Milton Lesser and Charles Beaumont, all within nine months in late 1950 and early 1951. Browne was disappointed by the cancellation of the planned slick version, however, and to some extent reverted to Palmer's policy of publishing sensational fiction. In 1952, for example, he serialized the anonymous Master of the Universe, which purported to be a history of the future from 1975 to 2575.
With the change to digest size in 1953, Browne once again attempted to use higher-quality fiction. The first digest issue, dated April–May 1953, included stories by Ray Bradbury, Robert Heinlein, Richard Matheson, Theodore Sturgeon, and Murray Leinster. Further well-regarded stories appeared over the course of 1953, including Arthur C. Clarke's "Encounter in the Dawn", and Henry Kuttner's "Or Else". Subsequent budget cuts meant that Browne was unable to sustain this level. As in the 1940s, Amazing gained a stable of writers who appeared frequently, though this time the quality of the writers was rather higher—it included Harlan Ellison, Robert Silverberg, and Randall Garrett—and the regular writers were not appearing only in Ziff-Davis magazines. This remained the situation after Browne's departure in 1956 and through Paul Fairman's tenure.
Cele Goldsmith
Cele Goldsmith's tenure as editor began with the opportunity to showcase two very well-established writers: E.E. Smith and Isaac Asimov. Smith's The Galaxy Primes was serialized from March to May 1959. Asimov's first published story "Marooned off Vesta" had appeared in the March 1939 Amazing, and Goldsmith reprinted it in March 1959 along with a sequel "Anniversary" and Asimov's comments. She soon began to publish some of the better new writers. Cordwainer Smith's "Golden the Ship Was—Oh! Oh! Oh!" appeared in April; and by the middle of the following year she had managed to attract stories from Robert Sheckley, Alan E. Nourse, Fritz Leiber, Gordon R. Dickson, Robert Bloch, and James Blish. The changes she made were enough to bring Robert A. Heinlein back as a subscriber; he read the June 1961 issue, which, he wrote to her, "caused me to think I had been missing something."
In September 1960 Amazing began to carry Sam Moskowitz's series of author profiles, which had begun in Fantastic, the sister magazine. The following month the cover and logo were redesigned. In April 1961, the 35th anniversary of the first issue, Goldsmith ran several reprints, including by Ray Bradbury and Edgar Rice Burroughs. Goldsmith had little previous experience with science fiction, and bought what she liked, rather than trying to conform to a notion of what science fiction should be. The result was the debut of more significant writers in her magazines than anywhere else at that time: she published the first stories of Ursula K. Le Guin, Roger Zelazny, Piers Anthony and Thomas M. Disch, among many others. Award-winning stories published during Goldsmith's editorship include Zelazny's "He Who Shapes", a novella about the use of dream therapy to cure phobias. It was serialized in the January and February 1965 issues, and won a Nebula Award from the newly established Science Fiction Writers of America. Goldsmith often wrote long, helpful letters to her authors: Zelazny commented in a letter to her that "Most of anything I have learned was stimulated by those first sales, and then I learned, and possibly even learned more, from some of the later rejections". Disch and Le Guin have also acknowledged the influence Goldsmith had on their early careers`; Le Guin called her in 1975 "as enterprising and perceptive an editor as the science fiction magazines ever had".
Goldsmith's open-minded approach meant that Amazing and Fantastic published some writers who did not fit into the other magazines. Philip K. Dick's sales to magazines had dropped, but his work began to appear in Amazing, and Goldsmith also regularly published David R. Bunch's stories of Moderan, a world whose inhabitants were part human and part metal. Bunch, whose stories were "bewildering, exotic word pictures" according to Mike Ashley, had been unable to sell regularly elsewhere.
The cover art for Amazing had been largely supplied by Ed Valigursky during the late fifties, but during the early sixties a much wider variety of artists appeared, including Alex Schomburg, Leo Summers and Ed Emshwiller. Frank Paul, who had painted all the covers for the first few years of Amazing, contributed a wraparound cover for the April 1961 35th anniversary issue; this was his last cover art for a science fiction magazine.
Reprint era and Ted White
When Sol Cohen bought both Amazing and Fantastic in early 1965, he decided to maximize profits by filling the magazines almost entirely with reprints. Cohen had acquired second serial rights from Ziff-Davis to all stories that had been printed in both magazines, and also in the companion magazines such as Fantastic Adventures. Joseph Wrzos, the new editor, persuaded Cohen that at least one new story should appear in each issue; there was sufficient inventory left over from Goldsmith's tenure for this to be done without acquiring new material. Readers initially approved of the policy, since it made available some well-loved stories from earlier decades that had not been reprinted elsewhere. Both of Wrzos's successors, Harry Harrison and Barry Malzberg, were unable to persuade Cohen to use more new fiction.
When Ted White took over, it was on condition that the reprints be phased out. This took some time: for a while both Amazing and Fantastic continued to include one reprint every issue; with the May 1972 issue the transformation was complete, and all stories were new. As well as eliminating the reprints, White reintroduced features such as a letter column and "The Clubhouse," a fanzine review and fannish news column. He continued the book review column, and a series of science articles by Gregory Benford and David Book. White also redesigned the look of the magazine, making it, in sf historian Mike Ashley's words, "far more modern and sophisticated".
White was willing to print a variety of fiction, mixing traditional stories with more experimental material that was influenced by the British New Wave or by 1960s psychedelia. In 1971 he serialized Ursula K. Le Guin's The Lathe of Heaven, about a man whose dreams can modify reality. One writer influenced by this was James Tiptree, Jr., who later wrote that "after first plowing into the first pulpy pages of the 1971 Amazing in which Lathe came out, my toe-nails began to curl under and my spine hair stood up." White's willingness to experiment led to Amazing running more stories with sexual content than other magazines. One such story, White's own "Growing Up Fast in the City", was criticized as pornographic by some of Amazing'''s readers. Other stories, such as Rich Brown's "Two of a Kind", about the violent rape of a black woman and the subsequent death of her rapists, also led to controversy. White printed more conventional fiction as well, much of it high quality. The magazine was nominated for the Hugo award (a readers' award, named for Hugo Gernsback) for best editor three times during his tenure (1970, 1971 and 1972), finishing third each time.
White's ability to attract new writers suffered because of the low rates he paid: one cent per word, as compared to three or five cents per word at the leading competitive magazines. To compensate, White cultivated new writers whose experimental work was not selling elsewhere. He made a deal in 1971 with Gordon Eklund, who was hesitating to become a full-time writer because of the financial risks. White agreed to buy anything Eklund wrote, on condition that Eklund himself believed it was a good story. The result was that much of Eklund's fiction appeared in Amazing and Fantastic over the next few years.Amazings reputation had been for formulaic science fiction almost since it began, but White was able to take the magazine to a higher standard than any other editor except Cele Goldsmith, and gave Amazing a respected position in the field. His successors were not able to maintain the same level of quality.
After Ted White
When Elinor Mavor took over, in early 1979, she had no experience with science fiction magazines, and was unaware of the history of bad feeling within the science fiction community about the poor payments for reprinted stories. She was given an extremely limited budget to work with, and had few stories on hand to work with initially, and as a result her first issues contained several reprints. Mavor experimented in her first year with some new ideas, such as starting a story on the back cover in order to hook readers into buying the magazine to finish the story. She also began a serial story in graphic format that used reader input to continue its plot. It was not a success and "thankfully", according to Mike Ashley, the experiment was terminated after only three episodes.
Over time Mavor was to some extent able to reverse the negative perceptions of Amazing among established authors, but she was initially forced to work primarily with newer writers. Early discoveries of hers include Michael P. Kube-McDowell, John E. Stith and Richard Paul Russo. In a notice published in her first issue, she asked readers for help in assembling news, reviews and fan information, and soon added columns that covered these areas. In 1981 Robert Silverberg began a series of opinion columns. The artwork was of high quality, including work by Stephen Fabian, and later by David Mattingly.
After the merger with Fantastic, Mavor continued to draw well-known writers to the magazine, including Orson Scott Card, George R. R. Martin, and Roger Zelazny. Brad Linaweaver's Moon of Ice, which appeared in March 1982, was nominated for a Nebula Award; Martin's Unsound Variations, which had appeared the issue before, was nominated for both a Nebula and a Hugo award.
Historian James Gunn's assessment of Amazing in the 1980s is that Mavor, Scithers and Price, who between them edited Amazing for a decade, were unable to sustain the standards established by Ted White in the 1970s. Brian Stableford, by contrast, comments that both Scithers and Price made efforts to publish good material, and that the packaging, from 1991 onwards, was perhaps the best presented of any science fiction magazine.
With the Wizards of the Coast relaunch in 1998 the contents, under editor Kim Mohan, became more media-focused. The initial plan was to have two or three stories per issue based on films, TV, and games. The 600th issue, in early 2000, included a Harlan Ellison story, as well as a story from the 100th issue, the 200th issue, and so on, up to the 500th issue. Pamela Sargent also contributed a story. The Paizo publishing relaunch, in 2004, was even more focused on media content than the Wizards of the Coast version had been, with much more movie and comics-related material than science fiction. Several well-known authors appeared in the first issue, including Harlan Ellison, Bruce Sterling, and Gene Wolfe. Paizo also ran a blog for the magazine. The fiction received positive reviews, but Paizo soon put the magazine on temporary hold, and canceled it permanently the following year. The title remained in limbo until Steve Davidson's online version appeared in 2012.
Influence on the field
Amazing Stories was influential simply by being the first of its kind. In the words of science fiction writer and critic Damon Knight, the magazine was "a snag in the stream of history, from which a V-shape spread out in dozens and then in hundreds of altered lives". Many early fans of the field began to communicate with each other through the letter column, and to publish fanzines—amateur fan publications that helped establish connections among fans across the country. Many of these fans in turn became successful writers; and the existence of an organized science fiction fandom, and of writers such as Ray Bradbury, Arthur C. Clarke, and Isaac Asimov, who came to writing directly from fandom, can be dated to the creation of Amazing Stories. After the first few years, when there was little or no competition, Amazing Stories never again led the field in the eyes of critics or fans. Despite its long history, the magazine rarely contributed much to science fiction beyond the initial creation of the genre, though Gernsback himself is commemorated in the name Hugo, which is the almost universally used term for the World Science Fiction Society's annually presented Science Fiction Achievement Awards. Gernsback has also been called the "Father of Science Fiction" for his role in creating Amazing Stories.
Publication details
Editors
Bibliographers do not always agree who should be listed as editor of any given issue of Amazing. For example, Gernsback was in control for the first three years, but Sloane performed all the editorial duties related to fiction, and he is sometimes described as the editor. Similarly, later editors were sometimes under the supervision of editorial directors. Bernard Davis held the title of "Editor" of all Ziff-Davis magazines when at that company, with the actual editing of the magazines done by respective "Managing Editors".The table below, and the charts above, generally follow the mastheads in the magazines, with short notes added. More details are given in the publishing history section, above, which focuses on when the editors involved actually obtained control of the magazine contents, instead of when their names appeared on the masthead.
Hugo Gernsback (April 1926 – April 1929). Sloane performed almost all the editorial duties related to fiction.
Arthur Lynch (May 1929 – October 1929). As under Gernsback, Sloane was essentially the editor during Lynch's tenure.
T. O'Conor Sloane (November 1929 – May 1938)
Raymond A. Palmer (June 1938 – December 1949)
Howard Browne (January 1950 – August 1956). Fairman actually took over editorial duties with the May or June 1956 issue.
Paul W. Fairman (September 1956 – November 1958)
Cele Goldsmith Lalli (December 1958 – June 1965). Norman Lobsenz was introduced as editor, but in fact Cele Goldsmith did all the editorial work. When she married she used her married name of Cele Lalli.
Joseph Ross (August 1965 – October 1967). A pseudonym for Joseph Wrzos.
Harry Harrison (December 1967 – September 1968)
Barry N. Malzberg (November 1968 – January 1969)
Ted White (March 1969 – February 1979)
Elinor Mavor (May 1979 – September 1982). From May 1979 – August 1981 Mavor used the pseudonym Omar Gohagen; subsequently she used her real name.
George H. Scithers (November 1982 – July 1986)
Patrick Lucien Price (September 1986 – March 1991)
Kim Mohan (May 1991 – Winter 1995 and Summer 1998 – Summer 2000)
Dave Gross (September 2004 – December 2004)
Jeff Berkwits (January 2005 – March 2005)
Steve Davidson (July 2012 – August 2018)
Ira Nayman (August 2018 to present)
Other bibliographic details
Amazing began as a bedsheet format magazine and remained so until October 1933, when it switched to pulp size. With the April–May 1953 issue Amazing became a digest. Seven issues in the early 1980s, from November 1980 to November 1981, were a half-inch taller than the regular digest size, but thereafter the magazine reverted to the standard digest format. In May 1991 the magazine returned to a large format, but this lasted only until the Winter 1994 issue, and the next three issues were digest-sized again. When the magazine reappeared in 1998, it was in bedsheet format and remained that size until the very end. The last issue, March 2005, was distributed only as a PDF download, never as a physical magazine. The volume numbering contained some irregularities: the numbering given in the tables above appears to be in error for the period from 1979 to 1983, but in fact it is given correctly in the table. Vol. 27 no. 8 was a single issue, not two, as it seems to be from the table; it was dated Dec 1953/Jan 1954.
The title of the magazine changed several times:
Two different series of reprints of Amazing appeared in the United Kingdom. First came a single undated issue from Ziff-Davis, in November 1946. In June 1950, Thorpe & Porter began a second series that lasted until 1954, and totalled 32 issues. The Ziff-Davis issue and the first 24 issues from Thorpe & Porter were pulp-sized; the last eight were digests. The Thorpe & Porter issues were undated, but the pulp issues were numbered from 1 to 24, and were initially bimonthly. The March 1951 issue was followed by April and November, however, and in 1952 issues appeared in February, March, April, June, July, September and November. 1953 saw nine pulp issues, omitting only March and May; and with December came the change to digest-size and a perfectly regular bimonthly schedule that lasted until February 1955. These last eight issues were numbered volume 1, numbers 1 to 8. There was also a Canadian edition, which lasted for 24 issues, from September 1933 to August 1935, from Teck Publications; these were identical to the US editions except that the front covers were overprinted with "Printed in Canada on Canadian Paper". A Japanese edition ran for seven issues in mid-1950, selecting stories from Fantastic Adventures as well as from Amazing.
From 1940 to 1943, and again from 1947 to 1951, copies of Amazing Stories were rebound, three at a time, and resold as Amazing Stories Quarterly. A total of 27 of these issues appeared; they should not be confused with the magazine of the same name which ran from 1928 to 1934 as a companion to Amazing Stories.
Several anthologies of stories from Amazing have been published, including:
Media crossovers
Director Steven Spielberg licensed the title for use on an American television show called Amazing Stories that ran from 1985 to 1987. In 2020, a revival of the show debuted on Apple TV+.
Between 1998 and 2000, Amazing Stories published a series of short stories based upon the Star Trek franchise. In 2002, these stories were reissued by Pocket Books in the collection Star Trek: The Amazing Stories.
See also
1926 in science fiction
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Amazing Stories full cover gallery with large scans
Amazing Stories issue checklist, with cover scans
Amazing Stories in "The Pulp Magazine Archive" at Internet Archive
Amazing Stories on the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
1926 establishments in the United States
Science fiction magazines published in the United States
Hugo Gernsback
Magazines established in 1926
Magazines published in Arizona
Magazines published in Chicago
Magazines published in New Hampshire
Magazines published in New York City
Magazines published in Washington (state)
Magazines published in Wisconsin
Pulp magazines
Science fiction magazines established in the 1920s
Shaver Mystery
Wizards of the Coast magazines | [
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