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254855 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titch | Titch | Titch can refer to the following:
As a nickname:
Barclay Bailes (1883–1955), Australian rules footballer
Arthur Edwards (footballer, born 1915) (1915–2002), Australian rules footballer
William Horne (footballer) (1885–1930), English goalkeeper for Plymouth Argyle
Titch Moore (born 1976), South African golfer
Michael Phelan (hurler) (born 1967), Irish former hurler
Other uses:
Titch (TV series), a 1990s television series shown on CITV
Titch, a character in the UK comic strip Ball Boy (Beano)
Crazy Titch, English grime MC
Taylor Titch, a 1960s British homebuilt aircraft design
See also
Tich (disambiguation)
Lists of people by nickname | [
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|
254856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizza%20Haven%20%28Australia%29 | Pizza Haven (Australia) | Pizza Haven is a defunct Australian and New Zealand pizza restaurant chain and franchise operation.
Founded in 1984, four brothers Evan, Louis, Bill and Gabriel Christou started Pizza Haven with the aid of a A$24,000 mortgage on their parents' home. The first Pizza Haven outlet was at Glenelg in Adelaide. Employing twelve people, the Christou brothers were active in the running of the business. Pizza Haven evolved into a small franchised business model.
In January 2005, the New Zealand Pizza Haven stores were bought by Domino's Pizza and the majority were converted to Domino's while some stores were able to stay branded under Pizza Haven. However, eventually all Pizza Haven stores became Domino's.
In July 2008 it was announced that Pizza Haven Australia had been acquired by the Eagle Boys pizza chain (which was in turn acquired by Pizza Hut in 2016). All remaining Pizza Haven stores were eventually converted to Pizza Hut.
See also
List of pizzerias in Australia
List of fast-food restaurants
References
Further reading
External links
Pizza chains of Australia
Pizza franchises
Fast-food franchises
Restaurants established in 1984
Restaurants disestablished in 2008
Australian companies established in 1984
Australian companies disestablished in 2008
Defunct restaurants in Australia | [
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254857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answering%20machine | Answering machine | An answering machine, answerphone or message machine, also known as telephone messaging machine (or TAM) in the UK and some Commonwealth countries, ansaphone or ansafone (from a trade name), or telephone answering device (TAD), is used for answering telephones and recording callers' messages. If a phone rings a number of times predetermined by the phone's owner, and nobody is present to answer the incoming call, the answering machine will activate and play either a generic announcement or the voice of the person being called announcing that nobody is able to come to the phone at the moment. Following the announcement is a beeping tone which prompts the caller to record a message after the tone concludes.
Unlike voicemail, which can be a centralized or networked system that covers, and mostly extends, similar functions, an answering machine is set up in the user's premises alongside—or incorporated within—the user's land-line telephone. Unlike operator messaging, the caller does not talk to a human.
As landlines become less important, due to the shift to cell phone technology, and as unified communications mature, the installed base of TADs is shrinking.
History
Most 20th century answering machines used magnetic recording, which Valdemar Poulsen invented in 1898. The creation of the first practical automatic answering device for telephones, however, is in dispute. Starting in 1930, Clarence Hickman worked for Bell Laboratories, where he developed methods for magnetic recording and worked on the recognition of speech patterns and electromechanical switching systems. In 1934, he developed a tape-based answering machine which phone company AT&T, as the owner of Bell Laboratories, kept under wraps for years for fear that an answering machine would result in fewer telephone calls. Many claim the answering machine was invented by William Muller in 1935, but it may already have been created in 1931 by William Schergens whose device used phonographic cylinders. Ludwig Blattner promoted a telephone answering machine in 1929 based on his Blattnerphone magnetic recording technology. In 1935, inventor Benjamin Thornton developed a machine to record voice messages from the caller. The device reportedly also was able to keep track of the time the recordings were made. Although many sources maintain that he invented it in 1935, Thornton had actually filed a patent in 1930 (Number 1831331) for this machine, which utilized a phonographic record as the recording medium.
A commercial answering machine, the Tel-Magnet, offered in the United States in 1949, played outgoing messages and recorded incoming messages on a magnetic wire. It was priced at $200 but was not a commercial success.
In 1949, the first commercially successful answering machine was the Electronic Secretary created by inventor Joseph Zimmerman and businessman George W. Danner, who founded Electronic Secretary Industries in Wisconsin. The Electronic Secretary used the then state-of-the-art technology of a 45 rpm record player for announcements and a wire recorder for message capture and playback. Electronic Secretary Industries was purchased in 1957 by General Telephone and Electronics.
Another commercially successful answering machine was the Ansafone created by inventor Dr. Kazuo Hashimoto, who was employed by a company called Phonetel. This company began selling the first answering machines in the US in 1960. Another early model known as the Code-a-Phone was introduced in 1966.
Answering machines became more widely used after the restructuring of AT&T in 1984, which was when the machines became affordable and sales reached one million units per year in the US. The first post-breakup device went by the trade name of DuoPhone and was sold by Tandy (Radio Shack). This device and its successors were designed by Sava Jacobson, an electrical engineer with a private consulting business. While early answering machines used magnetic tape technology, most modern equipment uses solid state memory storage; some devices use a combination of both, with a solid-state circuit for the outgoing message and a cassette for the incoming messages.
James P. Mitchell displayed a working prototype of a digital outgoing message with a taped incoming system at an Iowa State University VEISHEA engineering openhouse in April 1982. This system won a gold award from the Engineering department. In 1983, Kazuo Hashimoto received a patent for a digital answering machine architecture with US Patent 4,616,110. The first digital answering machine brought to the market was AT&T's Model 1337; an activity led by Trey Weaver. Mr. Hashimoto sued AT&T but quickly dropped the suit because the AT&T architecture was significantly different from his patent.
Answering and ending calls
There are two possibilities for answering an incoming call: (1) waiting arbitrarily long for operator intervention, or (2) automatically answering after a specified number of rings in a certain state of the TAD (e.g. "toll saving" below). This is useful if the owner is screening calls and does not wish to speak with all callers.
In any case after going off-hook, the calling party should be informed about the call having been answered (in most cases this starts the charging), either by some remark of the operator, or by some greeting message of the TAD, or addressed to non-human callers (e.g. fax machines) by implementing an appropriate protocol over the landline. In some cases the terminal equipment answering a call just sends a slightly modified ringback tone to the caller, while processing the protocol.
Similarly, the called equipment can end a call by going on-hook deliberately, because of some specific signalling, or because of some time out.
Pure voice operation
In case of voice-only environments any accepted call can be directly handed over to a TAD, which may be preemptively superseded by a human-operated handset, taking control by simply going off-hook itself, forcing the TAD (back) on-hook. Voice signals may simply be captured to and replayed from analogue media (mostly tapes), but later TADs shifted to digital storage, with all of its convenience for compression and handling, for both the greeting and for the recorded messages.
Greeting message
Most modern answering machines have a system for greeting. The owner may record a message that will be played back to the caller, or an automatic message will be played if the owner does not record one. This holds especially for the TADs with digitally stored greeting messages or for earlier machines (before the rise of microcassettes) with a special endless loop tape, separate from a second cassette, dedicated to recording.
There have been answer-only devices with no recording capabilities, where the greeting message had to inform callers of a state of current unattainability, or e.g. about availability hours. In recording TADs the greeting usually contains an invitation to leave a message "after the beep".
Greeting messages are partly considered as an art form, expressing the creativity and attractiveness of the operator of the TAD via remarkable wording and sound staging.
Recording messages
On a dual-cassette answerphone, there is an outgoing cassette, which after the specified number of rings plays a pre-recorded message to the caller. Once the message is complete, the outgoing cassette stops and the incoming cassette starts recording the caller's message, and then stops when the caller hangs up.
Single-cassette answering machines contain the outgoing message at the beginning of the tape and incoming messages on the remaining space. They first play the announcement, then fast-forward to the next available space for recording, then record the caller's message. If there are many previous messages, fast-forwarding through them can cause a significant delay. This delay is taken care of by playing back a beep to the caller, when the TAD is ready to record. This beep is often referred to in the greeting message, requesting that the caller leave a message "after the beep".
TADs with digital storage for the recorded messages do not show this delay, of course.
Remote control
A TAD may offer a remote control facility, whereby the answerphone owner can ring the home number and, by entering a code on the remote telephone's keypad, can listen to recorded messages, or delete them, even when away from home.
Many devices offer a "toll-saver" function for this purpose. Thereby the machine increases the number of rings after which it answers the call (typically by two, resulting in four rings), if no unread messages are currently stored, but answers after the set number of rings (usually two) if there are unread messages. This allows the owner to find out whether there are messages waiting; if there are none, the owner can hang up the phone on the, e.g., third ring without incurring a call charge.
Some machines also allow themselves to be remotely activated, if they have been switched off, by calling and letting the phone ring a certain large number of times (usually 10-15). Some service providers abandon calls already after a smaller number of rings, making remote activation impossible.
In the early days of TADs a special transmitter for DTMF tones (dual-tone multi-frequency signalling) was regionally required for remote control, since the formerly employed pulse dialling is not apt to convey appropriate signalling along an active connection, and the dual-tone multi-frequency signalling was implemented stepwise.
Combined operation
This refers to analogue sites, which support voice, fax and data transmission via landlines by adhering to specific protocols established by the ITU-T. Any incoming call is not identifiable with respect to these properties in advance of going "off hook" by the terminal equipment. So after going off hook the calls must be switched to appropriate devices and only the voice-type is immediately accessible to a human, but perhaps, nevertheless should be routed to a TAD (e.g. after the caller has identified itself, or has been identified by a recognized caller ID).
Starting with the integration of faxing devices into computers via Fax modems the automated answering of voice calls by a computer went live via specific software, like e.g. TalkWorks. These systems allowed for quite elaborate voice box systems, navigated via dual-tone multi-frequency signaling, allowing a computer on a (single) telephony line to sound like a professional telephony system with hierarchical fax and message boxes with an automatic call distributor, where a caller might deposit his messages, leave his faxes behind, might listen to specific messages, or start a fax-back service.
Besides these solutions, mostly requiring a constantly running computer, since a wake-on-ring function then (~1995) started to take too much time to boot up an operating system, a few so-called selfmodems were available from e.g. USRobotics or ELSA Technology: the Sportster MessagePlus, the 56K Message Modem External, and the MicroLink Office. These devices answered incoming calls by playing a welcome message while discriminating fax calls (CNG-tone at 1100 Hz) from voice calls, storing an incoming fax, or a voice message, respectively. A computer was only necessary afterwards to retrieve the faxes, or for storing the voice messages. In case of a full storage the devices changed their welcome message to another, prerecorded message, played upon answering an incoming call, possibly explaining that a message cannot be taken at the present time.
See also
Business telephone system
Call-recording hardware
Voicemail
References
External links
Related articles on a diagram
Novelty Greetings for Telephone Answering Machines
Samples of common answering machine outgoing messages
Audiovisual introductions in 1949
Telephony | [
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|
254861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace%20Sells | Peace Sells | "Peace Sells" is a song by American thrash metal band Megadeth from their 1986 album Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?, written by Dave Mustaine. It has since been a constant at Megadeth concerts. According to David Ellefson, it became
quickly apparent when playing the song live prior to recording the album that "Peace Sells" would be a hit. In 2006, VH1 ranked "Peace Sells" at number 11 on their list of the "40 Greatest Metal Songs" of all time. The song is also known for the distinctive bass intro played by Ellefson.
Music video
A music video was produced for the song, directed by the artist Robert Longo and edited by artist Gretchen Bender. The video includes a dramatic pause in the middle of the song. The interstitial features a teenage boy, wearing a Slayer T-shirt, watching a montage of live Megadeth performances and war footage on his living room television set. The boy's father, states "What is this garbage you're watching? I want to watch the news!," and changes the television channel to a news station using the remote control. His son, replying with "This is the news!," changes it back to the Megadeth performance using the TV set's channel knob. This part of the video was parodied by comedian Brian Posehn in his Metal by Numbers video. The beginning of the video also showed the explosion of the original low-cost skull used on the cover of the previous album, Killing is My Business... and Business is Good!.
The video is notable for introducing both the dramatic interlude and the rapid-fire editing of images in the closing segment of the song.
Appearances and covers
The song appears in (2017) Season 2, Episode 4 "The Oath" in the Amazon Prime Series Billions when Bobby Axelrod is getting ready for a deposition with U.S. Attorney for Southern District of New York, Chuck Rhoades.
The song appears in the video games NHL 10, Rock Band 2, True Crime: Streets of LA and downloadable content for Guitar Hero 5 and Rock Band 4 for Rock Band's “Rock Band Rewind” DLC. The song also appears in Grand Theft Auto: Vice City on the fictional in-game radio station "V-Rock".
The opening bassline was used as the theme for MTV News, but Mustaine claims he never received any royalties for MTV's usage of the song.
Tigertailz covered it and it appears on their 1991 B-sides compilation album Banzai!.
An acoustic cover appears on Driving Mrs. Satan's 2016 album Did You Mrs. Me?.
See also
List of anti-war songs
References
External links
Official music video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rdEupVsL07E
1986 singles
1986 songs
Capitol Records singles
Megadeth songs
Protest songs
Songs written by Dave Mustaine | [
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254865 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Cape%20War | East Cape War | The East Cape War, sometimes also called the East Coast War, was a series of conflicts fought in the North Island of New Zealand from April 1865 to October 1866 between colonial and Māori military forces. At least five separate campaigns were fought in the area during a period of relative peace in the long-running 19th century New Zealand Wars.
The east coast hostilities came at the close of the Waikato wars and before the outbreak of Te Kooti's War, both fought nearby, but sprang from causes more closely related to the Second Taranaki War—namely, Māori resentment of punitive government land confiscation coupled with the rise of the so-called Hauhau movement, an extremist part of the Pai Marire religion (also called the Hauhau), which was strongly opposed to the alienation of Māori land and eager to strengthen Māori identity.
Pai Mārire arrived on the east coast from Taranaki about 1865. The subsequent ritual killing of missionary Carl Volkner by Pai Mārire followers at Opotiki on 2 March 1865 sparked settler fears of an outbreak of violence and later that year the New Zealand government launched a lengthy expedition to hunt for Volkner's killers and neutralise the movement's influence. Rising tensions between Pai Mārire followers and conservative Māori led to a number of wars between and within Māori iwi, with kūpapa or "loyal" Māori armed by the government in a bid to exterminate the movement.
Major conflicts within the campaign included the cavalry and artillery attack on Te Tarata pā near Opotiki in October 1865 in which about 35 Māori were killed and the seven-day siege of Waerenga-a-Hika in November 1865. The government, claiming that one of Volkner's killers was being given sanctuary by Māori in the remote Urewera region, confiscated northern parts of the Urewera land in January 1866 in a bid to break down Māori resistance and confiscated additional land in Hawke's Bay a year later after a rout of a Māori party it deemed to pose a threat to the settlement of Napier. In 2013 the Crown paid $23 million in financial redress and expressed "profound regret" over the "unjust attacks" in Hawke's Bay in 1866 and apologised for subsequent land confiscations.
Background
In 1863 the government enacted laws to confiscate the land of Māori deemed to have been "in rebellion" against the government in the land wars. The laws were aimed at punishing Māori for their aggression and also establishing law, order and peace by using areas within the confiscated land to establish settlements for colonisation. From early 1865 the government began confiscating wide areas of Taranaki and Waikato, depriving Māori of their food sources and livelihood. In many parts of the North Island, the resultant resentment and anger found expression in the more radical, nationalistic elements of Pai Mārire, which sought to drive European settlers from the land.
Pai Mārire had begun in Taranaki as a peaceful religion, a combination of Christianity and traditional Māori beliefs, but by 1865 had developed a reputation as a violent and vehemently anti-Pākehā (European) movement. The arrival and rapid spread of Pai Mārire in the East Cape destabilised the region, dividing Māori communities and also causing great alarm among New Zealand settlers despite the fact the area was almost devoid of European settlement. The government responded with several ad hoc measures, including supplying arms to "loyal" factions, organising a force of Arawa tribesmen under European leaders, and a series of small expeditions of volunteer settlers from Hawke's Bay.
Killing of Carl Volkner
In early 1865 Pai Mārire leader Te Ua Haumēne sent two prophets, Kereopa Te Rau and Patara Raukatauri, to convert East Coast tribes. Kereopa, an ageing veteran of the Waikato wars, carried with him the head of Captain P.W.J. Lloyd, who had been killed in the Ahuahu attack of April 1864 in Taranaki. Kereopa had lost his family in the bloody British raid on Rangiaowhia the previous year and blamed much of the massacre of women and children on missionary complicity, so he and his followers sought utu, or revenge, against missionaries. In Whakatane he demanded that Ngāti Awa iwi hand over the local Roman Catholic priest; without waiting for a result the pair continued on to Opotiki, where they succeeded in winning the allegiance of local Māori from the Whakatohea iwi to the Pai Mārire creeds. German-born Lutheran missionary Carl Sylvius Volkner, who had lived in Opotiki for four years, was absent in Auckland and Patara, believing the cleric was acting as a government spy, wrote him a letter stating that missionaries would henceforth not be permitted to live among Māori and ordered him not to return. Ignoring warnings that his life was in danger, Volkner sailed back to Opotiki, arriving on 1 March. The schooner was looted and Volkner and another missionary, Thomas Grace, were taken captive. The following day Volkner was hanged, then beheaded. In a church service that followed, Kereopa swallowed Volkner's eyes—momentarily choking on one of them—and passed around a chalice containing the missionary's blood for it to be consumed by his congregation. Grace remained captive for two weeks before escaping.
A poorly-armed Māori party led by chiefs including Ropata Wahawaha mounted an unsuccessful raid on Pai Mārire adherents at Mangaone, near Pukemaire, on 10 June 1865. After several more small engagements in the Waiapu Valley a delegation of east coast chiefs led by Mokena Kohere appealed to Donald McLean, the new Provincial Superintendent of Hawke's Bay, for arms and reinforcements to subdue the uprising. McLean immediately supplied Mokena with weapons and ammunition, then dispatched about 100 Colonial Defence Force troops under Major James Fraser. landed the troops at Hicks Bay and at the mouth of the Waiapu River on 5 July 1865 in a bid to capture Kereopa and Patara, shelling their Hauhau enemy the next day. When a trading cutter following the troops anchored off Whakatane on 22 July to allow surveyor and government interpreter James Fulloon to go ashore to investigate the local mood, it was boarded by Pai Mārire converts at the orders of Taranaki prophet Horomona. Fulloon and two of its crew were shot and killed and the vessel's mast was taken ashore and erected as a niu or sacred pole for Pai Mārire rites.
East Coast expedition
In Auckland, fears grew that the spread of Pai Mārire could unite tribes against settlers in a tide of religious fanaticism. The problem posed a major challenge for the cash-starved government which, already under pressure from London to release British troops for overseas deployment, had deployed the bulk of available forces in Taranaki and Wanganui, where much of their foe was also aligned with Pai Mārire. Without informing the British commander in New Zealand, General Duncan Cameron, Governor George Grey delegated large powers to McLean to use friendly Māori and local volunteers to put down disturbances and punish Volkner's killers.
Fraser's force continued to strike at Pai Mārire villages through July and August with further significant help from Ropata: 25 enemy were killed and about 30 prisoners taken in a raid on Pa-kairomiromi in the Waiapu basin on 2 August, while eight of Fraser's men were wounded. The captured stockade was then burned. When Pai Mārire forces launched an unsuccessful raid on a loyalist Māori pā at Tokomaru Bay under the control of Ngāti Porou chief Henare Potae, Henare requested help from Ropata, who led a reprisal raid on two nearby Pai Mārire positions, Pukepapa and Tautini pā. Though outnumbered 500 to 200, Ropata captured the positions, then used a revolver to execute prisoners from his own tribe who had converted to the religion. On 18 August at a pā between Tokomaru and Tolaga Bay a heavily outnumbered force of 36 men under Henare Potae was reinforced by another 90 under Ropata in a sharp and bloody engagement. Twelve of the Pai Mārire were killed, prompting survivors to abandon the East Cape region and flee south to the Waerengaahika pā in the Turanganui (Poverty Bay) region.
On 2 September 1865 the government declared martial law on the east coast and announced a new expedition against Volkner's killers, threatening confiscation of land in the area if they were not handed over. The expedition was an entirely colonial force, consisting of Taranaki Military Settlers, Wanganui and Patea Rangers, Wanganui Yeomanry Cavalry, and the Wanganui Native Contingent under Major Thomas McDonnell, and all under the overall command of Major Willoughby Brassey. The 500 troops sailed from Wellington and Wanganui and rendezvoused off Hicks Bay on 7 September, joining additional troops who had sailed from Auckland, including former Forest Ranger commander Major Gustavus von Tempsky.
A small initial landing force came under fire as it attempted to land in gale-force winds and was reinforced with the remainder of the troops the next morning, driving the Māori defenders several kilometres inland. Eight Whakatohea Māori were killed in the two-day clash.
The expeditionary force remained in Opotiki for several weeks, converting Volkner's church into a redoubt and engaging in occasional clashes with Māori, who established the entrenched and palisaded Te Puia pā about 8 km inland. On 4 October McDonnell led a force to Te Tarata, a new pā about 6 km from Opotiki. When the force came under heavy fire, McDonnell sent for cavalry and artillery reinforcement, who surrounded the pā on three sides and began shelling it. As Māori reinforcements began arriving from nearby Te Puia, the cavalry charged through them with swords, killing and wounding about 20. McDonnell's forces maintained heavy fire on Te Tarata past nightfall. About 8 pm a member of the Whakatohea garrison called out, asking for terms of surrender. McDonnell told them Volkner's killers would be tried and the rest would be prisoners of war. The garrison requested an hour's truce while they considered the request, but under cover of darkness launched a breakout, rushing the Rangers while firing their shotguns, then engaging in hand-to-hand battle with revolvers and tomahawks. About 35 Māori were killed and 35 wounded, and three of the colonial forces killed. The East Coast Expedition, now under the control of Major Charles Stapp, moved its base to the captured Te Puia and the Whakatohea fell back to new strongholds in the Waioeka Gorge. Soon after about 200 of the Ngati-Rua hapu of Whakatohea surrendered to Stapp; Ngati-Ira, under Hira Te Popo, remained hostile.
In mid-October McDonnell commanded a three-day expedition in which a force of 150 marched into the Waimana Valley in a bid to capture Kereopa and his followers. Early on 20 October the force reached Koingo, a small village on the Waimana River and set up an ambush of a track; Kereopa was targeted but escaped, although five others accompanying him were shot. Troops then raided the village, killing three Urewera and Ngai Tama Māori and capturing several others. The East Coast Expedition's activities continued till November, prompting the surrender of more Māori including a chief, Mokomoko, whose rope had been used in Volkner's hanging; he was later tried and hanged in Auckland. Another 18 were also tried.
In November 1865 the Native Contingent returned to Major-General Trevor Chute's west coast campaign, while the Rangers and 1st Waikato Militia remained in occupation of Opotiki; the Patea Rangers were recalled to the west coast in May 1866.
Pukemaire
In mid-August 1865 an East Coast Field Force, including members of the Waikato Militia, was formed under the command of Major Willoughby Brassey. Supplemented by volunteers recruited in Napier by Captain Charles Westrup, the force sailed on HMS Brisk to Gisborne, where they built a redoubt, before continuing on 30 September to Waiapu, near East Cape, to reinforce Fraser's force.
The two groups—which, with additional support from Ngāti Porou under Ropata totaled 380 men—marched against Pukemaire on 3 October in heavy rain, facing a garrison estimated to be about 400. They opened a flying sap and managed to destroy part of the frail palisade but abandoned attempts to storm the pa when rain rendered their weapons ineffectual. Nine Pai Marire and two government soldiers were reported killed in the engagement. Forces returned to the pa on the night of 8 October ready for a renewed attack but found it deserted. The pa was later burned.
Their quarry established a new stronghold at Hungahunga-toroa, 30 km north of the pa. In October Ropata and Lieutenant Reginald Biggs led a small force, including Forest Rangers, to the new Pai Marire base, scaling nearby cliffs to launch an effective sniping operation, killing 20 occupants and wounding others. About 500 Ngāti Porou occupants of the pa surrendered and were marched to Waiapu where they were ordered to take an oath of allegiance to the Queen and to salute the Union Jack.
Siege of Waerenga-a-Hika
In late October 1865 McLean began planning an expedition against the Waerenga-a-Hika pā—a Pai Mārire community about 11 km from the European settlement at Turanga (modern-day Gisborne)—where several hundred men, as well as women and children, had sought refuge from the east coast wars. Other Pai Mārire converts occupied two fortified villages further inland, Pukeamionga and Kohanga-Karearea. McLean raised 300 volunteers from loyal Ngāti Porou, who were taken by steamer to Poverty Bay, where they were joined by a mixed force of Hawke's Bay Cavalry, Military Settlers and the East Cape expeditionary force under Fraser and Biggs, who were landed from the Brisk. McLean sent an ultimatum to the pā with a list of demands: all Māori were to take an oath of allegiance to the Queen, all who had "fought against the Government" were to be surrendered, everyone who did not belong to the district be expelled, and that all arms were to be surrendered. McLean warned that if the terms were not complied with, they would be attacked and deprived of their homes. Though some signed the oath of allegiance, most ignored the demands and on 16 November, when the ultimatum expired, McLean directed Fraser to begin the attack.
The government force, comprising up to 200 Europeans and 300 Māori, moved on Waerenga-a-Hika on 16 November and took up positions on three sides of the pā, which had a swampy lagoon to the rear, and began a seven-day siege. The site had three lines of defence—an outer two-metre-high stockade, a main fence three metres high and a 1.5-metre-high earth breastwork. While snipers fired at the pā from the roof of a mission station about 300 metres away, the Colonial Defence Force and Military settlers dug in behind a hawthorn hedge that provided cover from two faces of the pā, and the Forest Rangers took up a position near the lagoon. A squad of 30 Military Settlers began a sap towards the north face of the stockade and neared it before coming under attack from Pai Mārire reinforcements from one of the other villages on 18 November. The European force retreated to the main body in a charge with fixed bayonets, but suffered six fatalities as well as another five wounded.
The following day, a Sunday, Pai Mārire fighters were driven off after advancing on the government soldiers in three groups in an action that left between 34 and 60 Māori dead, although there are conflicting accounts of the engagement. According to historian James Cowan, the Pai Mārire warriors held a ceremony at their sacred niu pole before forming three groups and charging the European forces behind the hawthorn hedge, with each warrior holding up their right hand, palm outwards, apparently to ward off enemy bullets. The force reached the hedge, firing as they ran, but were repulsed at almost point-blank range in a barrage that left 60 Māori dead. One European suffered a leg wound. In Fraser's account of the same events, the armed Pai Mārire force advanced from the pā under a white flag of truce, which Fraser viewed as a ruse, "as no flag of truce should be respected carried by such a large body of armed men, and I ordered them to be fired on before they could come up to us ... the enemy were totally defeated, with the loss of 34 killed, and at least that number wounded, their men falling in all directions as they attempted to regain their pa".
On 22 November, after a week of constant rifle fire, Fraser turned to artillery to end the siege, loading shrapnel-filled salmon tins into a six-pounder cannon from the Sturt to create makeshift canister shot. After two rounds were fired into the pā the demoralised garrison hoisted a white flag and 400 occupants surrendered; they were taken to Gisborne to be either released or shipped to the Chatham Islands for imprisonment. The pā was destroyed. Total Pai Mārire losses from the siege were more than 100 dead and 100 wounded, while government losses totaled 11 dead and 20 wounded. A memorial in Makaraka Cemetery in Gisborne records the names of six Hawke's Bay Military Settlers who died on 18 November during the siege.
Among the kūpapa at Waerenga-a-Hika was future Māori guerrilla leader Te Kooti, who was taken prisoner (but later released) on suspicion of treachery after allegations that he was collaborating with the enemy and firing blanks.
Wairoa expeditions to Waikaremoana
Despite a general surrender at the fall of Waerenga-a-Hika on 22 November, Pai Mārire reinforcements from Turanganui, who had arrived with chiefs Anaru Matete and Te Waru Tamatea during the siege to battle Fraser's forces, were able to escape. A group of about 100 men fled to the upper Wairoa with Anaru, while others went further inland to Waikaremoana in the Urewera mountains. On 25 December Anaru's force was attacked at Omaruhakeke by a pursuing force and then fled to Waikaremoana. On 2 January 1866 the government expedition moved up the Waikaretaheke River, over-running the Tukurangi pā, whose occupants fled across Lake Waikaremoana, taking every canoe with them. The pursuing force reported that it destroyed "no fewer than ten settlements" near Waikaremoana, burning property and taking cattle and horses.
In early January McLean sent a messenger to Waikaremoana chiefs demanding that they abandon "Hauhauism", deliver up their arms and hand themselves in to swear the oath of allegiance if they wished to spare their lives. The messenger was taken prisoner and later killed and decapitated.
On 10 January 1866 a second government expedition, then unaware of the fate of the messenger, set out for Lake Waikaremoana to enforce McLean's demand. The force of 520, under Fraser's command, was mostly kupapa Māori—the majority Ngāti Kahungunu but also a contingent of Ngāti Porou. Two days later they captured a near-empty Pai Mārire pā about 20 km up the Waikaretaheke River, but soon after realised they had been lured into a trap when they were ambushed from hidden rifle pits in the ridges overlooking the track. Fraser's force repulsed the attack, setting fire to dry fern to drive about 150 of the ambush force—a third of them with horses—out of their cover and down to the lake's southern shore at Onepoto, where many fled across the lake on canoe. Fourteen of Fraser's force were killed in the attack and up to 30 wounded, but the allied force killed between 25 and 60 of the Pai Mārire Māori and took 14 prisoners, including five women. Three days later at Onepoto, Ropata seated four of his prisoners in a row—one of them the most senior chief of the upper Wairoa—and executed them with revolver. Binney has claimed Fraser sanctioned the executions, as he had a similar execution at Pukepapa pā near Tokomaru Bay in August 1865.
McLean, meanwhile, continued to hunt for Kereopa. Convinced the Urewera people were giving him sanctuary, McLean declared they were rebelling against the government and on 17 January 1866 the government proclaimed the confiscation of all the low-lying and relatively fertile lands at the northern edges of the Urewera. Binney concluded: "From the government's perspective, the 'sanctuary' of the Urewera had to be broken open. Therefore, its people had to be broken; the most direct way to break them was to take their land."
Confronted with difficult terrain and a general European ignorance of the Urewera region to which most of the survivors fled, the government abandoned plans for a full-scale military invasion and opted to send more kupapa forces into the area on scouting missions, unaccompanied by European officers. On 16 March an exploratory expedition led by Pitiera Kopu set out from Wairoa, reached Onepoto three days later and immediately claimed its first victims. The expedition raided a camp of about 60 people, most of whom escaped. Three of their quarry were killed, with one elderly chief executed by Kopu; McLean viewed that execution as a reprisal for the earlier killing of his envoy to the Waikaremoana chiefs.
In mid-April, a second kupapa expedition was dispatched to the area to capture Anaru, who was said to be returning to Ruatahuna. The force split into several detachments to scour the country; on 24 April they took 30 prisoners and by early May they had taken 260 captives, including women. Some remained prisoners, others were freed after taking the oath of allegiance and 16 were sent to the Chatham Islands, where Pai Mārire captives were being sent in batches throughout 1866. Te Waru and about 15 others surrendered on 9 May and took the oath of allegiance in McLean's presence.
Omarunui and Petane
In September 1866 a party of 80 men from the Ngāti Hineuru iwi—whose main villages were at Te Haroto and Tarawera, midway between Napier and Taupo—marched towards Napier, accompanied by another 20 Māori from elsewhere in the North Island. Two months earlier their chiefs had written to McLean, the Crown's chief land purchase agent and the senior Crown official in Hawke's Bay, responding to his invitation to negotiate peace terms and advising that they would lead a party to Napier to meet him. The chiefs also held grievances over previous land sales in the area which they wished to discuss. The party, led by Pai Mārire prophet Panapa and chiefs Nikora, Kipa, Kingita and Petera Kahuroa, as well as Ngāti Tuwharetoa chief Te Rangitahau, stayed for several weeks at Petane, north of Napier. On 4 October most of the party moved to the village of Omarunui, about 10 km southwest of Napier, while the original occupants moved out. McLean, alerted to their arrival at Omarunui, sent a messenger on 5 October demanding that they explain their intentions and over the following three days the chiefs wrote to McLean indicating they wished to take meet him. On 8 October, concluding they were a threat to the Napier settlement, McLean warned the Omarunui encampment that they should return home or they would be attacked.
McLean instructed retired Colonel George Whitmore, a Crimean War veteran and Hawke's Bay settler, to call out 130 Hawke's Bay Militia for active service, drill them for action and join 45 Napier Rifle Volunteers who were also placed on alert. McLean requested further assistance from Fraser, who arrived in Napier on 11 October with 40 Military Settlers and a party of Wairoa kupapa. The entire force was placed under Whitmore's command.
About midnight on 11 October Whitmore and Fraser both marched out of Napier in separate directions: Whitmore with 180 settlers and 200 kupapa headed west, reaching and surrounding the Omarunui settlement before daybreak, while Fraser's detachment of about 40 men went north to Petane to intercept an expected advance on Napier led by Ngāti Hineuru chief Te Rangihiroa.
At Omarunui, Whitmore sent a messenger into the unfortified pā to demand their surrender within an hour; when the deadline passed with no response Whitmore's force launched an attack on the village, with soldiers approaching it across a stream and up a high bank—an advance watched silently and without reaction from the occupants. Whitmore's force opened fire, quickly cutting down the occupants of the pā, whom it outnumbered almost four to one. In a firefight that lasted about an hour, Whitmore's force killed about 31 Ngāti Hineuru, wounded 28 (of whom many later died in hospital) and captured 44 others who attempted to flee, thus accounting for almost all the occupants. Among those killed was Panapa, the prophet. Whitmore's casualties amounted to two killed and 14 wounded.
Fraser's detachment, meanwhile, intercepted a 25-man mounted party accompanying Te Rangihiroa through a narrow pass at Petane. Heavily outnumbered, the Ngāti Hineuru party was quickly stopped in its tracks: Te Rangihiroa and 11 others were killed, one was wounded and three taken prisoner. The remainder escaped. One of Fraser's men was wounded in the attack. Most of the prisoners in the campaign were transported without trial to the Chatham Islands to be held in harsh conditions for the next two years. In January 1867 the government confiscated the so-called Mohaka-Wakare district under the New Zealand Settlements Act as punishment for the "rebellion" in the Omarunui and Petane areas.
Crown apology
In 2013 the Crown apologised for the injustices involved in Hawke's Bay land dealings, the "unreasonable ultimatum" at Omarunui and the raids, killings and incarcerations that followed. The apology also included the 1867 land confiscations and the subsequent "devastating impact" and long-last poverty that resulted. The Crown agreed to pay $23 million as financial redress.
A separate 2013 Waitangi Tribunal report said the action of Crown forces on the East Coast from 1865 to 1869—the East Coast War and the start of Te Kooti's War—resulted in the deaths of proportionately more Māori than in any other district during the New Zealand wars. It condemned the "illegal imprisonment" of a quarter of the area's adult male population at the Chatham Islands and said the loss in war of an estimated 43 percent of the male population, many through acts of "lawless brutality", was a stain on New Zealand's history and character.
References
Further reading
Maxwell, Peter (2000). Frontier, the Battle for the North Island of New Zealand. Celebrity Books.
Simpson, Tony (1979). Te Riri Pakeha. Hodder and Stoughton.
Vaggioli, Dom Felici (2000). History of New Zealand and its inhabitants, Trans. J. Crockett. Dunedin: University of Otago Press. Original Italian publication, 1896.
"The People of Many Peaks: The Māori Biographies". (1990). From The Dictionary of New Zealand biographies, Vol. 1, 1769-1869. Bridget Williams Books and Department of Internal Affairs, New Zealand.
Conflicts in 1865
Conflicts in 1866
Conflicts in 1867
Conflicts in 1868
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254867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voicemail | Voicemail | A voicemail system (also known as voice message or voice bank) is a computer-based system that allows users and subscribers to exchange personal voice messages; to select and deliver voice information; and to process transactions relating to individuals, organizations, products, and services, using an ordinary phone. The term is also used more broadly to denote any system of conveying a stored telecommunications voice messages, including using an answering machine. Most cell phone services offer voicemail as a basic feature; many corporate private branch exchanges include versatile internal voice-messaging services, and *98 vertical service code subscription is available to most individual and small business landline subscribers (in the US).
History
The term Voicemail was coined by Televoice International (later Voicemail International, or VMI) for their introduction of the first US-wide Voicemail service in 1980. Although VMI trademarked the term, it eventually became a generic term for automated voice services employing a telephone. Voicemail popularity continues today with Internet telephone services such as Skype, Google Voice and ATT that integrate voice, voicemail and text services for tablets and smartphones.
Voicemail systems were developed in the late 1970s by Voice Message Exchange (VMX). They became popular in the early 1980s when they were made available on PC-based boards. In September 2012 a report from USA Today and Vonage claimed that voicemail was in decline. The report said that the number of voicemail messages declined eight percent compared to 2011.
Features
Voicemail systems are designed to convey a caller's recorded audio message to a recipient. To do so they contain a user interface to select, play, and manage messages; a delivery method to either play or otherwise deliver the message; and a notification ability to inform the user of a waiting message. Most systems use phone networks, either cellular- or landline-based, as the conduit for all of these functions. Some systems may use multiple telecommunications methods, permitting recipients and callers to retrieve or leave messages through multiple methods such as PCs, PDA, cell phones, or smartphones.
Simple voicemail systems function as a remote answering machine using touch-tones as the user interface. More complicated systems may use other input devices such as voice or a computer interface. Simpler voicemail systems may play the audio message through the phone, while more advanced systems may have alternative delivery methods, including email or text message delivery, message transfer and forwarding options, and multiple mailboxes.
Almost all modern voicemail systems use digital storage and are typically stored on computer data storage. Notification methods also vary based on the voicemail system. Simple systems may not provide active notification at all, instead requiring the recipient to check with the system, while others may provide an indication that messages are waiting.
More advanced systems may be integrated with a company's PABX, with a call center ACD for automatic call distribution; with mobile or paging terminals for message alert; and computer systems/data bases for delivering information or processing orders. Interactive voice response (IVR) systems may use digital information stored in a corporate data base to select pre-recorded words and phrases stored in a voicemail vocabulary to form sentences that are delivered to the caller.
Message centers
The conventional solution to efficient handling of telephone communication in businesses was the "message center". A message center or "message desk" was a centralized, manual answering service inside a company staffed by a few operators who answered all incoming phone calls. Extensions that were busy or rang "no answer" would forward to the message center using a device called a "call director". The call director had a button for each extension in the company which would flash when that person's extension forwarded to the message center. A little label next to the button told the operator the person being called.
While it was an improvement over basic multi-line systems, the message center had many disadvantages. Many calls would come in simultaneously at peak periods, such as lunch time, and operators were often busy. This left message attendants with little time to take each message accurately. Often, they were not familiar with employees' names and "buzzwords" and how to spell or pronounce them. Messages were scribbled on pink slips and distributed by the internal mail system and messages, often arrived at people's desks after lengthy delays, contained little content other than the caller's name and number, and were often inaccurate, with misspelled names and wrong phone numbers.
Tape-based telephone answering machines had come into the residential telephone market, but they weren't used much in the corporate environment due to physical limitations of the technology. One answering machine was needed for each telephone; messages couldn't be recorded if the user was using the phone; messages had to be retrieved in sequential order; and messages couldn't be retrieved remotely, selectively discarded, saved, or forwarded to others. Further, the manufacturers of PBXs (private branch exchanges—the name for corporate phone systems) used proprietary digital phone sets in order to increase the functionality and value of the PBX. These phone sets were, by design, incompatible with answering machines.
In the 1970s and early 1980s, the cost of long-distance calling decreased and more business communications were conducted by telephone. As corporations grew and labor rates increased, the ratio of secretaries to employees decreased. With more communication by phone, multiple time zones, and fewer secretaries, real-time phone communications were hampered by callers being unable to reach people. Some early studies showed that only 1 in 4 phone calls resulted in a completed call and half the calls were one-way in nature (that is, they did not require a conversation). This happened because people were either not at work (due to time zone differences, being away on business, etc.), or if they were at work, they were on the phone, away from their desks in meetings, on breaks, etc. This bottleneck hindered the effectiveness of business activities and decreased both individual and group productivity. It also wasted the caller's time and created delays in resolving time-critical issues.
Invention
The first public records describing voice recording were reported in a New York newspaper and the Scientific American in November 1877. Thomas A. Edison had announced the invention of his "phonograph" saying "the object was to record telephone messages and transmit them again by telephone." Edison applied for a US patent in December 1877 and shortly thereafter demonstrated the machine to publishers, the US Congress and President Rutherford B. Hayes, recording and playing "Mary had a little lamb..." and "there was a little girl who had a little curl... " and other ditties popular at the time. In an article outlining his own ideas of the future usefulness of his machine Edison's list began with "Letter writing, and all kinds of dictation without the aid of a stenographer." In other words, "voice messages" or "Voice-mail". By 1914, Edison's phonograph business included a dictating machine (the Ediphone) and the "Telescribe", a machine combining the phonograph and the telephone, which recorded both sides of telephone conversations.
For nearly one hundred years, there were few innovations or advances in telephone services. Voicemail was the result of innovations in telephone products and services made possible by developments in computer technology during the 1970s. These innovations began with the Motorola Pageboy, a simple "pager" or "beeper" introduced in 1974 that was generally offered in conjunction with answering services that handled busy / no-answer overloads and after hours calls for businesses and professionals. Operators wrote down a caller's message, sent a page alert or "beep" and when the party called back, an operator dictated the message.
With the introduction of "voice" pagers, like the Motorola Pageboy II operators could transmit a voice message directly to the pager and the user could hear the message. However, messages arrival was often untimely and privacy issues, as well as the high cost, eventually caused the demise of these services. By the mid 1970s digital storage and analog to digital conversion devices had emerged and paging companies began handling client messages electronically. Operators recorded a short message (five to six seconds, e.g. "please call Mr. Smith") and the messages were delivered automatically when the client called the answering service. It would only take a short step for the first voicemail application to be born.
Computer manufacturers, telephone equipment manufacturers, and software firms began developing more sophisticated solutions as more powerful and less expensive computer processors and storage devices became available. This set the stage for a creation of a broad spectrum of computer based Central Office and Customer Premises Equipment that would eventually support enhanced voice solutions such as voicemail, audiotex, interactive voice response (IVR) and speech recognition solutions that began emerging in the 1980s. However, broad adoption of these products and services would depend on the global proliferation of touch tone phones and mobile phone services which would not occur until the late 1980s.
Controversy
Many contributed to the creation of the modern-day voicemail. Legal battles ensued for decades.
The of voicemail, patent number 4,124,773 (Audio Storage and Distribution System), is Robin Elkins.
"Though Elkins received a patent in 1978, telecommunications giants began offering voicemail without paying Elkins a penny in royalties."
"Elkins never expected to spend 10 years of his life battling some of the world's largest corporations, either. But once he patented his system, he figured he should protect it."
Later, Elkins successfully licensed his patented technology to IBM, DEC, and WANG, among many others. Unfortunately, his patent did not address simultaneity of voice message access and storage and the application for patent was filed after the patent application of the system patented by Kolodny and Hughes, as described below.
Pioneering applications
One of the first modern day voicemail applications was invented by Gerald M. Kolodny and Paul Hughes, which was described in an article in the medical journal, Radiology (Kolodny GM, Cohen HI, Kalisky A. Rapid-access system for radiology reports: a new concept. Radiology. 1974;111(3):717–9) A patent was applied for by Kolodny and Hughes in 1975, prior to the patent applications of both Elkins and Matthews and was issued in 1981 (US patent 4,260,854). The patent was assigned to Sudbury Systems of Sudbury Massachusetts who proceeded to market and sell such systems to corporations and hospitals. IBM, Sony and Lanier, as well as several smaller makers of voicemail systems, licensed the Sudbury patent for their voicemail systems. A patent suit, brought by Pitney Bowes, claiming prior art to the Sudbury patent, was denied by the US District Court, District of Connecticut on November 8, 2000. A similar suit brought byVDI Technologies against the Kolodny and Hughes patent claiming prior art was dismissed by the US District Court in New Hampshire on December 19, 1991.
IBM Audio Distribution System
The voice-messaging application, the Speech Filing System, was developed at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in 1973 under the leadership of Stephen Boies. It was later renamed the Audio Distribution System (ADS).
ADS used the human voice and the fixed-line touch-tone telephones that predated computer screens and mobile phones. The first operational prototypes were used by 750 IBM executives mainly in the US for their daily work. Those prototypes ran on an IBM System/7 computer attached to an IBM VM370 for additional storage.
In 1978 the prototype was converted to run on an IBM Series/1 computer. In September 1981 IBM started marketing ADS in America and Europe: the first customer installation was completed in February 1982.
ADS, marketed by IBM and briefly by AT&T Corporation, was well featured for voice messaging, the result of IBM's considerable human-factors research plus observation of operational use. Using a 1980s computer requiring air conditioning, it was expensive and physically large. With further development it grew to handle up to 3000 users, 100 hours of messages, multiple languages, message notification to a host computer, and 16 simultaneous users.
ADS could be connected to exchange lines and private exchanges including the IBM 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems available in Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, and the UK.
IBM sold many systems, Installations including:
The 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games "Olympic Message System" with seven systems serving 7,800 athletes and 6,000 staff, trainers, coaches and officials — and voice prompts in the 12 Olympic official languages (English, French, Spanish, German, Portuguese, Arabic, Japanese, Mandarin, Norwegian, and Italian) for 55,000 messages, totalling over 100,000 message minutes
General Motors, USA with 8 ADS systems saving 30 percent of the costs of its long-distance calls
Systems across America and Europe for insurance-company staff to report their appraisals of damaged vehicles and hear the locations of their next appraisal sites
Esso in France and Mars in England for salesforce coordination
Rowntree's in York, England to liaise with the chocolate-makers' agents across time zones in Europe, North America, the Middle East, and Australia
Italy from early 1985: 10 systems across Italy for the public to call to hear locally-relevant autostrade traffic-delay information
Milan, Italy: two systems for automated airport announcements, handling multiple languages.
Delta 1
Another company, Delphi Communications of California, deserves some partial credit for invention of voicemail. Under the leadership of Jay Stoffer, Delphi developed a proprietary system called Delta 1 that picked up incoming calls directly from the telephone company. Stoffer presented the Delphi concept publicly to the association of Telephone Answering Services around 1973 and the prototype system was launched in San Francisco in 1976 by a Delphi company called VoiceBank. Delphi developed Delta 1 as a purely service-oriented voice messaging system to answer subscriber telephones for businesses and professionals. Delta 1 required human intervention for message deposit. While three machines were built, only one machine was put into operational service. The completely automated voice messaging system (Delta 2) was developed for initial operational use in Los Angeles in 1981. Apparently Delta 2 was built, installed and operational for a short while, but unfortunately Delphi's major early investor, Exxon Enterprises, abruptly shut down Delphi in July 1982. Nothing further was done with Delphi's technology. A patent was applied for and issued for Delphi's Automated Telephone Voice Service System. The patent, US Patent No. 4,625,081, was issued after Delphi's closure, but Delphi's assets (and the patent) were transferred to another Exxon company, Gilbarco, which made equipment for gas pumps at filling stations. Gilbarco is now owned by GEC in the United Kingdom.
AT&T
AT&T developed a system called 1A Voice Storage System to support custom services including voicemail
for the public telephone system. It worked in conjunction with the companies 1A ESS and 5ESS systems. Development started in mid-1976, with first deployment in early 1979. Friendly user service started in March 1980. The service was terminated in 1981 as a result of the US FCC Computer Inquiry II, which prohibited enhanced services from being provided by the regulated network.
VMX
In 1979, a company was founded in Texas by Gordon Matthews called ECS Communications (the name was later changed to VMX, for Voice Message exchange). VMX developed a 3000-user voice messaging system called the VMX/64 and was company to offer a voice messaging system for sale commercially for corporate use. In the early 1980s, VMX sold voice messaging systems to several large corporations, such as 3M, Kodak, American Express, Intel, Hoffmann–La Roche, Corning Glass, Arco, Shell Canada and Westinghouse. The impressive list of early adopters started the ball rolling on corporate voicemail. While VMX began with a good start, it failed at developing the market, and the company was not a commercial success. It took several years before its products could answer outside calls (and then only under certain circumstances), they were physically enormous, expensive, light on important user features and had serious reliability issues. In addition, the user interface was cumbersome, requiring the users to remember non-intuitive multi-digit Touch-tone commands. Matthews, a prolific entrepreneur and patentor, applied for and was granted a patent on voicemail (patent number 4,371,752) which issued in February 1983. The patent was promoted as the pioneering patent for voicemail. However, the patent application was filed on November 26, 1979, five years after, and issued in 1983, two years after that of Kolodny and Hughes as described above, and cannot, therefore, be considered as the pioneering foundation of voicemail.
VMX asserted infringement first with IBM, AT&T and then Wang, but all three companies reportedly would have been able to invalidate the patent on the basis of prior art and their licenses from Sudbury Systems Inc, for their Kolodny and Hughes patent (see above). VMX cleverly achieved a settlement where the patent was let stand, not challenged in court and IBM, Wang and AT&T (in separate settlements) received royalty-free licenses to all VMX patents. Wang, the last of the majors to get such a license for itself and Voice-mail International, essentially paid $20,000 and cross-licensed a few patent applications (not issued patents). IBM and AT&T also cross-licensed a number of patents to VMX, most of which were obsolete or outdated. VMX could claim that several major companies licensed the patent (even though they paid almost nothing to VMX for the rights), but that part wasn't disclosed. The patent was never challenged in court and VMX then continued to assert (incorrectly) that it had invented voicemail and that Matthews was the "father of voice-mail". Following the settlement with Wang, VMX settled with Octel Communications in exchange for a small payment and Octel's agreeing not to litigate any VMX patent, Octel received a paid-up, royalty-free license on all existing and future VMX patents.
IVR Voice Recognition
In 1985, Voice Response Inc. (formerly Call-It Co) a subsidiary of Lee Enterprises, Davenport IA, entered the fast-growing Interactive Voice (IVR) response market under the direction of Bob Ross, President. About a year later, VRI introduced one of the first "successful" IVR applications that utilized voice recognition (rather than touch tone) to capture caller responses. Voice recognition technology had great difficulty with regional and ethnic differences and nuances which resulted in a high incidence of error. VRI discovered that hesitation (delayed response) signaled caller confusion or misunderstanding which often resulted in an inaccurate response. VRI developed proprietary techniques that measured user response times and used the data to make real-time changes to the application's dialog with the caller. VRI found that the confidence level of a "suspect" caller response could be increased by asking "Did you say (Chicago), Yes or No", a standard question heard in order taking or reservation making IVR applications today. VRI pioneering applications, including subscription fulfillment for Time and Life magazines, proved faster and less expensive than call centers using live operators and although VRI did not survive, their voice recognition processes became industry standards and VRI's patent USPTO - patent RE34,587 was eventually licensed by Intel/Dialogic and Nuance.
PC-based Voicemail
Amidst the booming popularity of the IBM PC-AT, a variety of companies popped up to market add-in boards to the AT. These companies aimed to use the PC as an inexpensive hardware platform for hosting add-in boards and software providing voice mail functionality for small businesses that wanted something more sophisticated than an answering machine but couldn't afford pricey conventional voice mail solutions. Among the most successful of these was The Complete PC, founded in 1986 in Silicon Valley. At its peak, The Complete PC was selling over 20,000 voicemail boards per year, some including facsimile capabilities as well for small businesses. The Complete PC was sold to publicly-listed Florida-based Boca Research Inc. in 1993.An early pointer was BIG Mouth, a single line simplified voicemail solution, invented by TT Technology and Charles Wohl, later joined the Swedish tech team under ESSELTE VOICE and produced 2 and 4 line analog cards, to be mounted on standard industry PC Boards.
International Voicemail Association
In 1987, voicemail service providers in the US and Europe joined to form the Voice Mail Association of Europe (VMA) with René Beusch, Radio-Suisse and Paul Finnigan, Finnigan USA serving as VMA Chairman and President respectively. The first VMA meeting was held in Stockholm Huddinge by Voicemail Svenska AB in 1987, organized by its founder Lars Olof Kanngard. The tech team in Voicemail Svenska AB was granted the right to port the Voicemail from PDP systems to their own PC-board solution, which become known as the MiniVoice, later become ESSELTE VOICE AB. The VMA invited service providers, vendors and consultants to attend semi-annual conferences that included presentations, discussions and reporting of experiences. VMA membership was eventually expanded to include representatives from telecommunication organizations worldwide and became "The International Voice-mail Association". By the late 1980s, the Bell Operating companies, Tigon and other independent service providers in the US had joined the VMA. In 1992, VMA members conducted an "Information Week Tour of the U.S.", sharing ideas with major telecom operators. VMA working groups promoted collaboration and adoption of industry standards to the ITU and CCITT and at the 1999 CCITT conference in Geneva, Switzerland, demonstrated worldwide exchange of messages between the major voicemail vendors' platforms using the VPIM networking standard. Beusch and Finnigan led the VMA until 1998 and 1999 respectively and the organization continues to serve the voice services industry today.
Corporate voicemail
In the early 1980s, there were over 30 companies vying for the corporate voicemail market. Among the many contenders were IBM, VMX, Wang, Octel, ROLM, AT&T, Northern Telecom, Delphi Communications, Voice and Data Systems, Opcom, Commterm, Genesis, Brook Trout, Innovative Technology (ITI), Glenayre, BBL, AVT, AVST, Digital Sound, Centigram, Voice-mail International and Active Voice. Only a few of these companies were successful in capturing a significant market share and remain in the voicemail business today.
ROLM Corporation, founded in 1969 by Gene Richeson, Ken Oshman, Walter Loewenstern and Robert Maxfield, was the first PBX manufacturer to offer integrated voicemail with its PhoneMail system, its registered trademark. PhoneMail offered impressive recording quality of its digitized messages. ROLM's digital PBX (called a CBX, for Computerized Branch eXchange) was the first to enable PhoneMail to illuminate a message waiting light on ROLM phones equipped with message waiting lights (also a stutter dialtone is used with analog and digital phones). Rolm was sold to IBM, who later sold it to Siemens who offer PhoneMail in various configurations/sizes (including a micro-sized version) and its unified messaging successor, Xpressions 470. ROLM was purchased by IBM in the mid-1980s (which was a financial disaster for the profitable ROLM, as IBM clearly could not grasp the laid back, "think outside the box" attitude of ROLM, which was the #2 PBX supplier in the US from the mid-'70s to late '80s), then sold half interest to the German company Siemens. In 1992, Siemens bought ROLM entirely from IBM and the original ROLM product line was done for, except for PhoneMail (the only product Siemens did not destroy). VMX suffered from poor product and ineffective management and was about to fold when Opcom merged with it. The surviving company was called VMX, but VMX was all but erased by Opcom except for its name and patent portfolio.
Opcom, a company founded by David Ladd, developed a voicemail system primarily marketed to smaller enterprises. Opcom pioneered and patented the feature of automated attendant (US Patent numbers 4,747,124 and 4,783,796 both issued in 1988), an integral part of any voicemail systems. The automated attendant enables callers to direct calls by pressing single digit keys, e.g. "If you are making domestic reservations, press '1'; for international reservations, press '2'; etc." Opcom later pioneered the concept of Unified Messaging (to be discussed later in this article). Opcom eventually acquired VMX through a reverse merger, (Opcom was private and VMX was public) and the surviving company VMX was eventually acquired by Octel.
Octel Communications, founded in 1982 by Bob Cohn and Peter Olson, broadly commercialized the corporate voice messaging market. While Octel benefited from the work and experiments of others it was the first stand-alone voicemail company to build a strong business and strategy to win in this difficult market. In addition, Octel innovated substantially new technology which contributed heavily to its success including a system architecture that was physically smaller, faster, more reliable, and much less costly than other corporate vendors. Octel's voicemail system, was introduced in 1984, included unique system features, many of which were patented, which gave Octel market leadership. In 1990 Octel was one of the first companies to introduce the concept of Unified Messaging.
AT&T/Lucent created its version of voicemail in the early 1990s (called Audix) but it would only work on AT&T/Lucent PBXs. Northern Telecom developed Meridian Mail and followed the same strategy as AT&T in that Meridian Mail only worked with Northern Telecom PBXs. As a result, neither company achieved much market share with large national or multi-national accounts. AT&T spun off its equipment business into a company called Lucent Technologies, and Northern Telecom changed its name to Nortel.
By the mid-1990s, Octel had become the number one supplier of voicemail both to corporations and to carriers. Octel had about a 60 percent market share in the US, Canada, Europe and Japan (for large corporations) and between 30 percent and 100 percent of the carrier market, depending on the country. By 1997 Octel's biggest competitors were Audix, made by Lucent, and Meridian Mail, made by Nortel. In July 1997, Octel was purchased by Lucent Technology. Lucent's AUDIX division was merged into Octel to form the Octel Messaging Division. By 2000, some estimate that there were over 150,000,000 active users of corporate and carrier voicemail made by the Octel Messaging Division. Shortly thereafter, Lucent spun off its corporate business, including the Octel Messaging Division, into a company known as Avaya.
Boston Technology, uReach Technologies, and Comverse Technology all entered the carrier market in the early 1990s. Boston was eventually acquired by Comverse, making it the second-largest supplier to carriers after Octel. However, in a few years, Comverse became the largest supplier to carriers with Lucent/Octel holding its leadership in the corporate market and second place with carriers. Primal Technologies entered the market in 2003 with Web-based Voicemail and VM-to-Email for corporate clients. For IP-based voicemail systems, Ericsson claims market leadership with its Ericsson Messaging-over-IP (MoIP) solution. Comverse changed its name to Xius in 2015. uReach provided VoiceMail services for Verizon and a host of other Tier 1 and Tier 2 carriers and was the voicemail system used by Verizon FIOS. uReach Technologies was acquired by GENBAND in 2014. In a move to reach more millennials, Primal Technologies NFV Unified Visual Voicemail recently added WhatsApp and Facebook integration for Voicemail deposit notifications.
Public telephone services
In the US, the Bell Operating Companies and their cellular divisions had been prohibited by the FCC from offering voicemail and other enhanced services such as paging and telephone answering services (no such prohibition existed in foreign countries). A ruling by Judge Harold H. Greene on March 7, 1988, removed this barrier and allowed the BOCs to offer voicemail service, however, they were not allowed to design or manufacture equipment used to provide voicemail services.
The opportunity created by the Greene decision, plus Voicemail International's abandonment of its market lead for carrier-grade systems, created a new opportunity for competing manufacturers and those who had been focusing on the corporate market. Unisys, Boston Technology, and Comverse Technology were quick to address the BOC and PTT marketplace. Octel, who had high capacity systems in use internally by all seven Regional Bell Operating companies, launched a new generation of its large system specifically designed for carriers and was compliant with "NEBS standards", the tight standard required by phone companies for any equipment located in their central offices.
While Unisys eventually secured PacBell's residential voicemail services, Boston Technology became the mainstay of Bell Atlantic's residential voicemail offering and Comverse Technology enjoyed some success in the European market; Octel became the provider of voicemail platforms for virtually all of the major US wireless carriers (including the seven RBOCs, AT&T Wireless and McCaw), Canadian cellular carriers and a large percentage of the GSM carriers around the world.
However, it didn't take long for Comverse to become the largest supplier to the BOCs and PTTs with Lucent/Octel holding its leadership in the corporate market and second place with carriers. Boston was eventually acquired by Comverse making it the second-largest supplier to carriers after Octel.
Unified messaging
Unified Messaging integrated voicemail into Microsoft Exchange, the corporate email system made by Microsoft. Unified Messaging had been invented by Roberta Cohen, Kenneth Huber and Deborah Mill at AT&T Bell Labs. The patent for Unified Messaging was received in June 1989 (Patent number 4,837,798).
Unified Messaging allowed users to access voicemail and email messages using either the graphical user interface (GUI) on their PC, or using the telephone user interface (TUI). Using a PC, users could see voicemails and emails mixed together in their email inbox. Voicemails had a little telephone icon next to them and emails had a little envelope icon next to them (see figure below). For voicemail, they'd see the "header information" (sender, date sent, size, and subject). Users could double-click a voicemail from their email inbox and hear the message through their PC or a phone next to their desk.
Using any phone in the world, users could listen to voice messages like they normally did, plus have emails read to them (in synthesized voice). Voice messages could be sent using email or telephone addressing schemes, and the data networking infrastructure was used to send messages between locations rather than the public switched telephone network. It wasn't until the early 2000s and the availability of reliable, high capacity email servers, high speed internet connections and PCs with speakers or microphones that Unified Messaging achieved commercial success.
Virtual telephony
Other interesting markets developed from the carrier market including a concept called "virtual telephony". Virtual Telephony, developed by Octel, used voicemail to provide phone service rapidly in emerging countries without wiring for telephones. The problem this solved was that emerging countries did not have many telephones. Wiring for telephones was very expensive, and many poorer citizens did not have homes to wire. The economies of emerging countries were held back partly because people could not communicate beyond the area where they could walk or ride a bicycle. Giving them phones was one way to help their economies, but there was not a practical way to do it. In some countries, the wait for a phone was several years and the cost was in the thousands of dollars. Cellular phones were not an option at the time because they were extremely expensive (thousands of dollars per handset) and the infrastructure to install cell sites was also costly.
With virtual telephony, each person could be given a phone number (just the number, not the phone) and a voice mailbox. The citizen would also be given a pager. If someone called the phone number, it never rang on an actual phone, but would be routed immediately to a central voicemail system. The voicemail system answered the call and the caller could leave a long, detailed message. As soon as the message was received, the voicemail system would trigger the citizen's pager. When the page was received, the citizen would find a pay phone and call in to pick up the message. This concept was used successfully in South America and South Africa.
Instant messaging in voice
By the year 2000, voicemail had become a ubiquitous feature on phone systems serving companies, cellular and residential subscribers. Cellular and residential voicemail continue today in their previous form, primarily simple telephone answering. Email became the prevalent messaging system, email servers and software became quite reliable, and virtually all office workers were equipped with multimedia desktop PCs.
The increase in wireless mobility, originally through cellular services and today through IP-based Wi-Fi, was also a driver for messaging convergence with mobile telephony. Today it is not only fostering the use of speech user interfaces for message management, but increasing the demand for retrieval of voice messages integrated with email. It also enables people to reply to both voice and email messages in voice rather than text. New services, such as GotVoice, SpinVox and YouMail, are helping to blur the boundaries between voicemail and text by delivering voicemails to mobile phones as SMS text messages.
Instant messaging in voice: The next development in messaging was in making text messaging real-time, rather than just asynchronous store-and-forward delivery into a mailbox. Although in the 1980s Minitel in France was extremely popular and Teletext was widely used in the US, instant messaging on the Internet began with the ICQ application developed in 1996 as a public Internet-based free text "chat" service for consumers, but soon was being used by business people as well. It introduced the concept of Internet Protocol "presence management" or being able to detect device connectivity to the Internet and contact recipient "availability" status to exchange real-time messages, as well as personalized "Buddy list" directories to allow only people you knew to find out your status and initiate a real-time text messaging exchange with you. Presence and Instant Messaging has since evolved into more than short text messages, but now can include the exchange of data files (documents, pictures) and the escalation of the contact into a voice conversational connection.
Unified messaging with VoIP
Corporate voicemail did not change much until the advent of Voice over IP (VoIP—voice being transmitted over the internet) and the development of Internet Protocol (IP) telephony applications to replace legacy PBX telephony (called TDM technologies). IP telephony changed the style and technology of PBXs and the way voicemail systems integrated with them. This, in turn, facilitated a new generation of Unified Messaging, which is now likely to catch on widely. The flexibility, manageability, lower costs, reliability, speed, and user convenience for messaging convergence is now possible where it wasn't before. This might include intra- and inter-enterprise contacts, mobile contacts, proactive application information delivery, and customer contact applications.
The corporate IP telephony-based voicemail customer premises equipment market is served by several vendors including Avaya, Cisco systems, Adomo, Interactive Intelligence, Nortel, Mitel, 3Com, and AVST. Their marketing strategy will have to address the need to support a variety of legacy PBXs as well as new Voice over IP as enterprises migrate towards converging IP-based telecommunications. A similar situation exists for the carrier market for voicemail servers, currently dominated by Comverse Technology, with some share still held by Lucent Technologies.
VoIP telephony enables centralized, shared servers, with remote administration and usage management for corporate (enterprise) customers. In the past, carriers lost this business because it was far too expensive and inflexible to have remote managed facilities by the phone company. With VoIP, remote administration is far more economical. This technology has re-opened opportunities for carriers to offer hosted, shared services for all forms of converged IP telecommunications, including IP-PBX and voicemail services. Because of the convergence of wired and wireless communications, such services may also include support of a variety of multi-modal handheld and desktop end user devices. This service, when offered for multiple extensions or phone numbers is sometimes also called Unified Voice-mail.
Benefits
Voicemail's introduction enabled people to leave lengthy, secure and detailed messages in natural voice, working hand-in-hand with corporate phone systems. The adoption of voicemail in corporations improved the flow of communications and saved huge amounts of money. GE, one of the pioneer adopters of voicemail in all of its offices around the world, claimed that voicemail saved, on average, over US$1,100 per year per employee. Needless to say, the ability to tell someone something without talking to them, can be a powerful reason to choose voicemail for delivery of a particular message.
Voicemail has two main modes of operation: telephone answering and voice messaging. Telephone answering mode answers outside calls and takes a message from any outside caller (either because the extension was busy or rang no-answer). Voice messaging enables any subscriber (someone with a mailbox number) to send messages directly to any or many subscribers' mailboxes without first calling them. Both of these modes are described below.
How voicemail works
This section describes how the original style, standalone, voicemail system worked with a corporate PBX. The principle is the same with Central Office Switches (CO Switches) or Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSOs). More modern voicemail systems work on the same principle, but some of the components may be shared with other systems, such as email systems.
Voicemail systems contain several elements shown in the figure below:
A central processor (CPU) that runs the operating system and a program (software) that gives the system the look-and-feel of a voicemail system. This software includes thousands of pre-recorded prompts that "speak" to the users as they interact with the system
Disk controller and multiple disk drives for message storage
System disks which not only include the software above, but also contain a complete directory of all users with pertinent data about each (name, extension number, voicemail preferences, and pointers to each of the messages stored on the message disk that belong to them)
Telephone interface system that enables many phone lines to be connected to it
The drawing below shows how the voicemail system interacts with the PBX. Suppose an outside caller is calling Fred's extension 2345. The incoming call comes in from the public network (A) and comes into the PBX. The call is routed to Fred's extension (B), but Fred doesn't answer. After a certain number of rings, the PBX stops ringing Fred's extension and forwards the call to an extension connected to the voicemail system (C). It does this because PBXs are generally programmed to forward busy or unanswered calls to another extension. Simultaneously the PBX tells the voicemail system (through signaling link D) that the call it is forwarding to voicemail is for Fred at extension 2345. In this way, the voicemail system can answer the call with Fred's greeting.
There are many microprocessors throughout the system since the system must handle large amounts of data and it is unacceptable to have any wait times (for example, when the system is recording or playing your message, it is unacceptable if the system stops recording momentarily like computers often do while accessing large files).
When Fred's extension forwards to the voicemail system, the Telephone Interface detects ringing. It signals to the Central Processor (CPU) that a call is coming in. The CPU simultaneously receives a signal on the PBX-Voicemail Data Link (D) telling it that extension 2345 is being forwarded on ring-no-answer to the specific extension that is now ringing. The CPU directs the Telephone Interface (which controls the line interface cards) to answer the call. The CPU's program realizes that it is a call for Fred so it looks up Fred's greeting immediately and directs the Disk Controller to start playing it to the caller. It also plays some system prompts instructing the caller what comes next (for example, "When you have finished recording, you may hang up or press ‘#' for more options"). All "talking" to the caller is done through prompts that are selected by the CPU according to the program stored in the voicemail system. The CPU selects the prompts in response to the keys the caller presses.
The caller's message is digitized by the Telephone Interface system and transmitted to the Disk Controller for storage onto the Message Disks. Some voicemail systems will scramble the message for further security. The CPU then stores the location of that message in the System Disk inside Fred's mailbox directory entry. After the caller hangs up and the message has been stored, the CPU sends a signal to the PBX through the link (D) instructing the PBX to turn on the message waiting light on Fred's phone.
When Fred comes back to his desk and sees the light on his phone, he calls a designated extension number for the voicemail system (an actual extension number assigned to the lines in "C" in the figure above).
Again the Telephone Interface alerts the CPU that a call is coming in on a particular line, but this time the signaling from the PBX-Voicemail Data Link (D) indicates that Fred is calling directly, not being forwarded. The CPU directs the Telephone Interface to answer the call.
Since the CPU "knows" it is Fred (from the signaling on the Data Link D), it looks up Fred's information on the System Disk, specifically his password. The CPU then directs Disk Controller to play a log-on prompt to the user: "Please enter your password." Once the password is entered (via Touch-tones), the CPU compares it to the correct one and, if entered correctly, allows Fred to continue.
The CPU then determines (from Fred's directory entry) that Fred has a new message. The CPU then presents Fred his options (e.g., "You have a new message. To listen to your new message, press 1; to record a message, press 2" etc.) The options are presented by the CPU directing the Disk Controller to play prompts, and the CPU listens for Touch-tones from Fred. This interaction of playing prompts and responding with Touch-tones enables Fred to interact with the voicemail system easily.
If Fred presses 1 to listen to his message, the CPU looks up the location of Fred's new message in his mailbox directory (on the System Disk), and directs the Disk Controller to play that message. The Disk Controller finds the message on the Message Disks, and sends the data stream directly to the Telephone Interface. The Telephone Interface then converts the data stream to sound and plays it to Fred through the Line Interface Card which Fred is connected to.
Playback controls (like rewind, pause, fast forward, changing volume, etc.) are all input via Touch-tones, are "read" by the CPU, and the appropriate actions are taken based on the stored program in the system. For example, if Fred wants to pause message playback, he might press 2. Since the CPU is constantly listening for Touch-tones from Fred, his command causes the CPU to direct the Disk Controller to stop playing the message. A variety of playback controls and options are available on most sophisticated voicemail systems so that users can control message playback, store messages in archives, send messages to groups, change their preferences, etc.
The better designed voicemail systems have a user-friendly interface with clear and meaningful prompts so the interaction with the voicemail system is quick and easy.
See also
CDMA
IP Telephony
Visual voicemail
References
Further reading
"A Reactive Telephone Message Network for the Office of the Future", Business Communications Review, July-Aug 1980; "Voice Mail Arrives in the Office", Business Week, June 9, 1980, p. 81.
"The Case for Voice Mail: Confirmed." GE Corporate Telecommunications publication, May 1989, Constance C. Kelly, editor.
"IBM Audio Distribution System", IBM publication GX60-0075-0
"Toward Competitive Provision of Public Record Message Services", Experimental Technology Incentives Program, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC. Publication NBX-GCR-ETIP-81-97 October, 1991.
"Speech Filing System Reference Manual", 1975, by J. W. Schoonard and S. J. Boies, IBM Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, 10598.
"How to Shoulder Aside the Titans", Gene Bylinsky, Fortune, May 18, 1992; "Octel Keeps Bringing You Voice Mail", Global Telecoms Business (UK), February/March 1996, pp. 22–24
"Human Factors Challenges In Creating A Principal Support Office System: The Speech Filing System Approach", by John D. Gould and Stephen J. Boies, IBM Tomas J. Watson Research Center, as quoted in a paper presented to the Association for Computer Machinery. See ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, Vol. 1, No. 4, October 1983, pp. 273–298.
"IBM Audio Distribution System Subscriber's Guide" and "IBM Audio Distribution System, Administrator's Guide". IBM Publications SC34-0400-3 and SC34-0400-1
Correspondence with Jay Stoffer, March 26, 2006: " ... As to Gordon Matthews, I was introduced to him by a Venture Capitalist that later invested in Delphi. I met with Gordon and his wife at their home in Dallas with the objective of ascertaining if he could contribute to our product planning process. I concluded that he would not be likely to add value in that activity but that my colleagues should evaluate his potential contribution to Engineering. To that end, we flew Gordon back to LA where he was interviewed by members of our technical team. It was at this time (1973/1974) that he would have seen a demonstration of the voice application. He had definitely been thinking about a voice-mail system prior to this visit but he had definitely not established his company or raised the capital to do so. Furthermore, his product plan was still very much in the formative stage and never reached the sophistication of the Delphi offering." Needless to say, there was no employment offer made to Matthews by Delphi.
Transcriptions of various seminars sponsored by Probe Research, Inc., September 1982:
"Voice Message Service," Proceedings of Voice Processing Seminar, September 15, 1982;
"BBL Industries, Inc.," Proceedings of Voice Processing Seminar, September 15, 1982;
"Wang Laboratories," Proceedings of Voice Processing Seminar, September 16, 1982;
"American Telephone and Telegraph, Inc.," Proceedings of Voice Processing Seminar, September 16, 1982;
"Commterm, Inc.," Proceedings of Voice Processing Seminar, September 16, 1982.
"Voice Store and Forward for the Automated Office", a presentation by Lawrence E. Bergeron, Dennis B. Howell and Dean Osborne, Wang Laboratories, Inc., Lowell, Mass., transcribed in "Computer Controlled Voice Message Systems and the Office of the Future", Professional Program Session Record (10), Wescon/81, Electronic Show and Convention, September 15–17 September 1981, section 2, pp. 1–8.
"The PhoneMail System for the ROLM CBX", publication by ROLM Corporation.
"Octel Emerges as Rising Star in Voice Messaging Systems", Peninsula Times Tribune, November 7, 1988, page C-1; "Investors Waking Up to Octel's Leadership", Investor's Daily, February 17, 1989; "Octel's Stock Gamble Has Paid Off", USA Today, February 24, 1989, page 3B.
"Octel Communications Corporation", filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission for its prospectus for secondary public offering, August 15, 1989; Various internal manuals and publications from Octel Communications Corporation.
"All Your Messages in One Place", Michael H. Martin, Fortune, May 12, 1997, p. 172.
"Toward Competitive Provision of Public Record Message Services", ETIP (Experimental Technology Incentives Program), National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC, October, 1981; "domestic Public Message Services", FCC publication 71FCC 2d 471; "Telecommunications Competition and Deregulation Act of 1981" (FCC Computer Inquiry II), Docket 20828, December 30, 1980; "Denial of AT&T Petition for Waiver of Section 64.702 of the Commission Rules and Regulations", October 7, 1981, Federal Communications Reports 88FCC 2d.
United States of America (Plaintiff) v. Western Electric Company, Inc., et al. (Defendants). Civil action no. 82–0192, Section VII pp. 51–65: "The judge on review considers the threat to possible competition in the voice-mail and storage business to be less real than the opportunities lost to the public welfare by these services not being broadly available. Hence, the BOCs should be able to provide voice-mail."
AT&T Wireless ultimately bought McCaw Cellular. The combined company was eventually bought by Cingular.
GSM (Global System for Mobile Carriers) is one of the various cellular technologies which include TDMA, CDMA, iDEN and others. GSM is currently the technology used by Cingular in the US and is the prevalent technology in over 100 countries around the world.
Investor's Business Daily, February 1, 1996. "Octel's Robert Cohn: CEO of Voice-Messaging Firm Puts Premium on Speed", by Kathleen Doler.
"Lucent Is Set to Buy Leader in Voice Mail", Seth Schiesel, The New York Times, July 18, 1997, Page C1.
American inventions
Calling features
Computer-mediated communication
Voice over IP
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|
254871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muni | Muni | Muni may refer to:
Municipal
A common US abbreviation for municipal, municipal services, and the like
Municipal bond
Municipal Bridge, the former name of the George Rogers Clark Memorial Bridge in Louisville, Kentucky
"Muni", slang for a municipally owned and operated golf course
The Muny, an outdoor musical theatre in St. Louis, Missouri
Cleveland Public Power, known as Muny Light before 1983
San Francisco Municipal Railway, the public transit agency for San Francisco, California
Springfield Municipal Opera in Springfield, Illinois
Muni Metro in San Francisco
People
Surname
Craig Muni (born 1962), former professional ice hockey player
Marguerite Muni (1929–1999), French actress sometimes credited as simply Muni
Paul Muni (1895–1967), American actor
Scott Muni (1930–2004), American disc jockey
Given name
Muni, baby boy name. Indian meaning: silent.
Munni Begum, Pakistani folk singer
Fictional characters
Munni, child mute character from film Bajrangi Bhaijaan
Munni, item number character from item number Munni Badnaam Hui in the film Dabangg, portrayed by Malaika Arora
Other uses
An abbreviation for mountain unicycling
Muni (film), a Tamil film released in 2007
Muni (film series), a Tamil horror film series
Muni River, a river in Equatorial Guinea
Muni Village, Arua District, Uganda
Río Muni, the continental region of Equatorial Guinea, named after the river Muni
Masaryk University (muni.cz), in Brno, Czech Republic
Rishi Muni, an ascetic who engages himself in devotion with silence
Jain Muni, a Jain monk
Muni (Hinduism), woman in mythology
Muni (Saint) | [
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|
254877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnie%20the%20Minx | Minnie the Minx | Minnie the Minx is a British comic strip and comic strip character published in the comic magazine The Beano. Created and originally drawn by Leo Baxendale, she first appeared in issue 596, dated 19 December 1953, making her the third longest running Beano character behind Dennis the Menace and Roger the Dodger. Minnie is generally considered to be permanently 13 years of age.
Like Desperate Dan from The Dandy, she has a statue in Dundee.
Character history
Leo Baxendale strips (1953–1962)
Minnie the Minx, created and drawn by Leo Baxendale, first appeared in The Beano in December 1953. Her first strip introduced her as "wild as wild can be" and showed her exasperated mother attempting to get her to be more creative rather than fight. Taking a book, Minnie then proceeds to beat her classmates during a revenge scheme using the scrapbook as a weapon. The closing panel shows her thanking her mother for the scrapbook stating she has "won nine scraps with it." Most of Minnie's earlier strips consisted of six-panel boxes; however, as her popularity grew, it quickly became more plausible to give Minnie her own full page with added colour. This introduced her trademark flaming red hair and red and black jersey. Like many other Beano stars at the time, many of her later strips showed Minnie to get her comeuppance towards the end be it a cane, slipper or simply a case of karma. Minnie also appeared alongside Dennis the Menace in his own strip in the edition of 23 January 1954 of The Beano. In the strip, she swapped toys with Dennis for the day as she received his trusty catapult and he proceeded to 'menace' with her doll's pram. In the end, she got out of trouble scot free whilst Dennis had to suffer for all her minxing. It was possibly this that began their future eternal rivalry.
Jim Petrie strips (1962–2001)
In 1962, when Baxendale left D.C. Thomson, a new artist was taken on to continue Minnie's adventures. Young art teacher Jim Petrie was given the opportunity. His first strip, coincidentally, started similarly to Baxendale's in that Minnie is seen being asked by her mother to read rather than minx. Much to her mother's dismay, Minnie's chosen book influences her to take up red Indian traditions in which she gets up to much mischief. In the end, however, after aggravating a sleeping bull Minnie is caught by a farmer and taken home to be slippered by her father. Despite the pain, it appears Minnie still attempts to ensure to the public that she is still an Indian stating her name is 'Minnie – Ha!'. She appeared once again alongside Dennis in issue 1894, in which she states that Dennis' famous jersey are actually her trademark thus he has no right to call them 'Dennis Jerseys'.
The Beanos 50th Anniversary issue in 1988 was significant, as an increase in the number of colour pages in the comic led to Minnie appearing in full colour for the first time. In the strip itself, Minnie dressed up as Pansy Potter in compliance with the editor's wishes. Throughout the strip she attempts impossible feats in hope to appear just like Pansy. This even consists of attempting to sink war submarines, something the old character used to do during The Beano's war times. Despite the fact she is weaker than Pansy, Minnie does manage to withhold four sailors before they finally manage to catch her and tie her up leaving her before her father. However, previously she had filled her father's jumper with balloons and using Pansy's unique hairstyle, manages to burst the balloons causing her father to flee home in the nude, the thought of punishing his daughter forgotten.
Minnie also made a cameo in the 1992 Beano Annual story, "Dennis Through The Beano Book", in which she played the Queen of Hearts. She has also been the star of several Beanotown pantomimes, playing the role of Cinderella in each.
With the turn of the new century, Minnie was featured in a feature-length strip alongside Dennis the Menace, Roger the Dodger and The Bash Street Kids. The plot revolved around treasure which was apparently buried sometime near the end of the 19th century. Minnie was called over to Dennis' house by Roger who had gained a copy of the Treasure Map due to Smiffy, the dipsy member of The Bash Street Kids, leaving the original in the photocopier machine in Beanotown Library. Upon finding out The Bash Street Kids were also hunting for the treasure, the trio followed them to London. Once the mystery had unfolded that the treasure was buried deep in the Millennium Dome and the Bash Street Kids instantly found it and celebrated their victory. However, Dennis attempts to intimidate the treasure off of Fatty but it quickly flattened leaving Minnie and Roger to chase after Danny, who had just ran with the treasure. Finding him hiding in a storage cupboard, Roger forms a plan to get Danny to duel with Dennis for the treasure. Whilst all seems fair at first, it is quickly discovered that the three menaces had no intent on fair play when it comes to treasure and it is revealed that Roger had in fact tied Danny's catapult to a piece of string thus yanking it away at a pinnacle moment. Appearing to have won, the trio leave a humiliated Danny and head home. However, a plot quickly unravels that Roger wasn't the only one who was intent on unfair play. Danny had switched the treasure with pebbles whilst hiding in the storage cupboard. Alongside Dennis, Minnie chased Roger through the streets of Beanotown for giving Danny the opportunity to switch the treasure.
Minnie also attended Dennis the Menace's 50th Birthday House Party. Like the other guests, Minnie bought Dennis a Beano Annual 2001. She participated in all menacing party games but due to her friendship with Dennis she was one of few to not get menaced. She can also be seen fighting in the final food fight and twirling her beret when the celebrities and Dandy characters arrive.
Petrie decided to retire with his final strip appearing on 13 January 2001. The story consisted of Minnie meeting her former artist and bidding farewell. The strip was Petrie's 2000th and last, a tally for one artist drawing the same strip in the Beano only surpassed by David Sutherland on the Bash Street Kids.
Tom Paterson strips (2001–2008)
The following week, Calamity James artist Tom Paterson took over the strip adding his own distinct trademarks and ideas on Minnie's canon. In 2003, Brain Duane from The Dandy visited Beanotown and proceeded to mock Minnie for her lack of intelligence. Choosing brawn over brains and fuelled with jealousy over Duane's new gadget-filled car, Minnie threatened Duane into making her a custom-built skateboard. The next week, after asking to meet Dennis she proceeds to minx him with her new weapon filled vehicle. This causes Dennis to get his revenge the next week with his own Menace Buggy. It was revealed in succeeding issues that this, along with several other strips from around the same time, was a buildup to a brand new PC Game Beanotown Racing. She appeared as a playable character in the video game upon its release date in 2003.
Initially Paterson drew the vast majority of strips, with the occasional story drawn by Keith Reynolds, but by 2003 other artists such as Leslie Reavey began to ghost the strip due to Tom Paterson's workload. Through 2004 and 2005 ghosted strips became increasingly common, and eventually in early 2006 Steve Horrocks took up the artistic duties. However, in the autumn of that year Paterson returned to the strip but in a different style, the most notable change being that Minnie's Parents appeared to look very similar to those of Sweeney Toddler. However, the following year Tom Paterson's style changed again, and the changes made to her parents were largely reversed, although Minnie's Dad's moustache was still absent. In October 2007, Minnie's jumper changed colour from her familiar black and red stripes to red and yellow, with her skirt also changing from black to blue. This style was also seen on the cover of the 1965 Beano book.
Ken Harrison strips (2008–2012)
By 2007, Minnie was struggling in the readers' poll, and in early 2008 several significant changes were made in response to this. Iain McLaughlin took over as writer, and in Beano issue 3422, dated 15 March 2008, former Desperate Dan artist Ken Harrison took over as the strip's artist. Harrison re-introduced many aspects of Leo Baxendale's original depiction of the character and reverted her jumper to its original colours. However, the style of writing changed, with McLaughlin placing greater emphasis on the relationship between Minnie and her Dad. Some minor changes were made to her appearances, with her standard brown or grey school shoes replaced with the more modern trainers. A new tagline was introduced, citing Minnie as the World's Wildest Tom Boy, similar to Dennis the Menace's original tagline of being the World's Wildest Boy. Minnie's Teacher also became a regular character during this time, and Minnie now attends what appears to be an all-girls school. The changes reinvigorated the strip as Minnie soon returned to a top four position in the poll.
Although Harrison has been the main artist throughout this time, when he has been unavailable to draw the strip the main ghost artist has been Laura Howell. Since 2009, occasional Jim Petrie reprints have been used, particularly during the postal strikes in autumn 2009.
In the summer of 2010, Minnie began a quest for fame which received a lot of media attention in the UK. Cheryl Cole, who was spotted sporting a red and black dress in her music video, was featured as well as Wayne Rooney and Jamie Oliver. Each attempt landed Minnie in more trouble than the last so in her final strip she decided to give up the search for fame and instead continue her day-to-day minxing.
On 30 July 2011, Minnie and several of her Beano co-stars were a part of a UK advertising campaign for National Trust. This included a special of The Beano which included a comic strip of her and her father exploring Northern Ireland for Finn McCool and Giant's Causeway.
In November 2012, Minnie loses her second page as it is reserved for Funsize Funnies (Gnash Gnews, Little Plum, Winston and Rasher)
Current Strips (2012–present)
Ken Harrison drew his last Minnie the Minx strip in November 2012, drawing the first Minnie story reduced down to a single page. The week after, Nigel Parkinson took over and both wrote and drew the strip from then on. He confirmed he was the new Minnie artist some months later, on his blog. For the 75th anniversary special, Minnie the Minx met Andy Murray in a tennis battle. Minnie also met Harry Hill, Jeremy Clarkson and Matt Smith (plus others) in the 2013 Comic Relief special. During Parkinson's time he tried to surprise the readers by never following a script template and allowing Minnie's character to dictate storylines. In 2013, Minnie stories went back up to two pages, with Nigel Parkinson and Paul Palmer and, later in 2015, Cavan Scott writing the scripts.
Laura Howell, the first woman to draw Minnie is the current artist, first appearing as Minnie's 65th Year in the comic approached. As of April 4th 2021, her work has appeared in 127 Beano issues.
Personality traits
Minnie is known as a typical tomboy, preferring mischievous and violent antics over those that would be normal for a typical ten-year-old girl. As opposed to Dennis' boisterous menacing methods, Minnie favours a more impish style of causing trouble which she refers to as 'minxing'. Despite this, she is still keen to get into brawls much like her other fellow Beano characters. She also seems to have a distinct hatred for snob-like behaviour and spoilt children. Minnie can be deemed as hyperactive as evident in several strips which show her destroying furniture in her home or a shop whilst playing one of her games. She also considers herself to be a rebel citing she hates people telling her what to do.
Rivalries and friendships
Minnie has had a problem with many of her neighbours. One example is a baby called Delilah, who had a snob of a mother. She got Minnie plenty of punishments, including extra baths. Minnie defeated her by tricking her into eating a frighteningly hot curry and embarrassing her mother. The mother had just entered Delilah in a baby contest. The curry effect on Delilah happened at the time her boastful mother had arranged for a journalist to take her photo. Her mother was similar to another mother called "Mrs Proudpants" who was boasting about her baby who she said was sure to win the contest, just like Delilah's mother. She also appears to have a small rivalry with The Bash Street Kids, as shown in feature-length strips drawn by Mike Pearse. However, she seems to be on friendly terms with the female member, Toots.
Minnie, like most characters, is depicted as a loner; however, she is shown to have a friendship with Dennis the Menace and Roger the Dodger, often seen teaming up with them in crossovers and occasionally with them in the background. Some strips have even hinted at her having a crush on Dennis and a flash-forward in the Beano Annual of 2006 revealed Dennis and Minnie eventually get married, though the canonicity of this story is debatable and two have yet to pursue a romantic interest in one another in the regular strips. This was retconned however, as the two of them are now cousins.
Other characters in the strip
Minnie's family
Like most DC Thomson characters, Minnie's parents are not normally mentioned by name and are referred to simply as Minnie's dad and Minnie's mum. However, in issue 2258 (dated 26 October 1985), her dad reveals that his name is 'Victor'. In a later issue, one of his work colleagues addresses him as 'Mr Minx'. In the Beano Videostars it is said by his boss that Minnie's Dad's name is George. In a recent issue Dennis' Dad calls him Malcomn. Whether any of these names can be considered "official" is unclear.
Chester is Minnie's pet cat. Chester has occasionally been seen in separate strips alongside fellow feline Beano characters Dodgecat (Roger the Dodger's pet cat) and Winston (from the Bash Street Kids).
Other children
Soppy Susan, a character similar to Walter the Softy but a girl. The character appeared during Jim Petrie's time as the artist and has recently returned to the strip, as well as appearing in the 2015 Beano annual.
The Haarm twins, two twins who often tease Minnie but usually end up being beaten up by her. The characters began appearing in the 2000s and appear irregularly.
Skippy Simmy, a new character who is Minnie's best friend, introduced in November 2, 2021. He goes to Posh Street School in Beanotown, attending sixth grade.
Other characters
Frederick "Fatty" Fudge, as his name suggests, is a fat child. He is also sometimes called upon to assist Minnie in a particularly elaborate plot since his services can always be bought with a bag of sweets. He was briefly the subject of a spin-off strip in the early 1990s that parodied famous films, usually in ways involving the character's love of food (examples including 'You Only Eat Rice' and '20,000 Leeks Under The Sea').
PC Thyme is a policeman similar to Dennis the Menace's Sergeant Slipper but this character pre-dates him. This character like the aforementioned Soppy Susan mainly appeared during Jim Petrie's time as artist however a similar character appeared during Tom Paterson's time as the Minnie artist called PC Pimple this character was similar to PC Thyme but as the name suggests had pimples.
Minnie's Teacher is as the name suggests Minnie's teacher this character is one of the newest recurring characters in the strip only appearing since Ken Harrison took over as the artist. It was revealed in Issue 3636 that she was 31. Recently, Minnie has been seen as being in Mrs Creecher's class alongside Dennis the Menace until December 2021.
Reception and legacy
Since her debut in 1953, Minnie has been hallowed as a national treasure amongst British children for generations. Long considered one of the readers' favourite characters, she was created during what many fans feel is the Beano's golden age where other famous characters were created such as Dennis the Menace and Roger the Dodger. Alongside the Dandy'''s Desperate Dan, she was given her own statue in Dundee in 2001 (part of the Dundee Public Art Programme). She was also featured in the line-up of McDonald's happy meal toys in Britain and has several models and figurines. As well as featuring on much of the Beano Merchandise, such as T-shirts and figures, Minnie is often featured in the comic's countless spin-offs such as videos, annuals and video games.
In other media
Videos
Minnie appeared in the direct to video release The Beano Video in 1993, alongside other famous Beano characters. It was re-titled 'The Beano All-Stars' when ported onto DVD. Minnie was voiced by Susan Sheridan. It was aired on ITV.
Minnie was also included in the direct to Video release The Beano Videostars in 1994. In the film, the Beano stars were invited to a premiere of an all-new Beano feature getting up to mischief along the way. Minnie was voiced by Nicola Stapleton. It was aired on ITV.
Video games
Minnie is a playable character in Beanotown Racing using her customised skateboard as a vehicle.
Theme parks
Minnie was a Meet & Greet character in the Beano Land section in Chessington World of Adventures from its opening in 2000 until it was re-furbished into Wild Asia in 2009. Her silhouette could be seen alongside other characters in the main entrance and her image was posted around different areas of the land. She was also featured on the trademark water fountain which would spray water at unsuspecting guests at random intervals.
See also
Beryl the Peril
Dennis the Menace (UK)
Fatty Fudge
References
External links
minnietheminx.com
Minnie the Minx artist retires, BBC News'', 8 January 2001
Beano strips
Child characters in comics
Female characters in comics
Fictional British people
Fictional tricksters
1953 comics debuts
School-themed comics
Comics set in the United Kingdom
British comics characters
Comics characters introduced in 1953
Comics about women | [
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|
254878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastering%20%28audio%29 | Mastering (audio) | Mastering, a form of audio post production, is the process of preparing and transferring recorded audio from a source containing the final mix to a data storage device (the master), the source from which all copies will be produced (via methods such as pressing, duplication or replication). In recent years digital masters have become usual, although analog masters—such as audio tapes—are still being used by the manufacturing industry, particularly by a few engineers who specialize in analog mastering.
Mastering requires critical listening; however, software tools exist to facilitate the process. Results depend upon the intent of the engineer, the skills of the engineer, the accuracy of the speaker monitors, and the listening environment. Mastering engineers often apply equalization and dynamic range compression in order to optimize sound translation on all playback systems. It is standard practice to make a copy of a master recording—known as a safety copy—in case the master is lost, damaged or stolen.
History
Pre-1940s
In the earliest days of the recording industry, all phases of the recording and mastering process were entirely achieved by mechanical processes. Performers sang and/or played into a large acoustic horn and the master recording was created by the direct transfer of acoustic energy from the diaphragm of the recording horn to the mastering lathe, typically located in an adjoining room. The cutting head, driven by the energy transferred from the horn, inscribed a modulated groove into the surface of a rotating cylinder or disc. These masters were usually made from either a soft metal alloy or from wax; this gave rise to the colloquial term waxing, referring to the cutting of a record.
After the introduction of the microphone and electronic amplifier in the mid-1920s, the mastering process became electro-mechanical, and electrically driven mastering lathes came into use for cutting master discs (the cylinder format by then having been superseded). Until the introduction of tape recording, master recordings were almost always cut direct-to-disc. Only a small minority of recordings were mastered using previously recorded material sourced from other discs.
Emergence of magnetic tape
In the late 1940s, the recording industry was revolutionized by the introduction of magnetic tape. Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by Valdemar Poulsen in 1898. Not until the end of World War II could the technology be found outside Europe. The introduction of magnetic tape recording enabled master discs to be cut separately in time and space from the actual recording process.
Although tape and other technical advances dramatically improved the audio quality of commercial recordings in the post-war years, the basic constraints of the electro-mechanical mastering process remained, and the inherent physical limitations of the main commercial recording media—the 78 rpm disc and later the 7-inch 45 rpm single and 33-1/3 rpm LP record—meant that the audio quality, dynamic range, and running time of master discs were still limited compared to later media such as the compact disc.
Electro-mechanical mastering process
From the 1950s until the advent of digital recording in the late 1970s, the mastering process typically went through several stages. Once the studio recording on multi-track tape was complete, a final mix was prepared and dubbed down to the master tape, usually either a single-track mono or two-track stereo tape. Prior to the cutting of the master disc, the master tape was often subjected to further electronic treatment by a specialist mastering engineer.
After the advent of tape it was found that, especially for pop recordings, master recordings could be made so that the resulting record would sound better. This was done by making fine adjustments to the amplitude of sound at different frequency bands (equalization) prior to the cutting of the master disc.
In large recording companies such as EMI, the mastering process was usually controlled by specialist staff technicians who were conservative in their work practices. These big companies were often reluctant to make changes to their recording and production processes. For example, EMI was very slow in taking up innovations in multi-track recording and did not install 8-track recorders in their Abbey Road Studios until the late 1960s, more than a decade after the first commercial 8-track recorders were installed by American independent studios.
Digital technology
In the 1990s, electro-mechanical processes were largely superseded by digital technology, with digital recordings stored on hard disk drives or digital tape and mastered to CD. The digital audio workstation (DAW) became common in many mastering facilities, allowing the off-line manipulation of recorded audio via a graphical user interface (GUI). Although many digital processing tools are common during mastering, it is also very common to use analog media and processing equipment for the mastering stage. Just as in other areas of audio, the benefits and drawbacks of digital technology compared to analog technology are still a matter for debate. However, in the field of audio mastering, the debate is usually over the use of digital versus analog signal processing rather than the use of digital technology for storage of audio.
Digital systems have higher performance and allow mixing to be performed at lower maximum levels. When mixing to 24-bits with peaks between -3 and -10 dBFS on a mix, the mastering engineer has enough headroom to process and produce a final master. It is important to allow enough headroom for the mastering engineer's work. Reduction of dynamics by the mix or mastering engineer has resulted in a loudness war in commercial recordings.
Process
The source material, ideally at the original resolution, is processed using equalization, compression, limiting and other processes. Additional operations, such as editing, specifying the gaps between tracks, adjusting level, fading in and out, noise reduction and other signal restoration and enhancement processes can also be applied as part of the mastering stage. The source material is put in the proper order, commonly referred to as assembly (or 'track') sequencing. These operations prepare the music for either digital or analog, e.g. vinyl, replication.
If the material is destined for vinyl release, additional processing, such as dynamic range reduction or frequency-dependent stereo–to–mono fold-down and equalization may be applied to compensate for the limitations of that medium. For compact disc release, start of track, end of track, and indexes are defined for playback navigation along with International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) and other information necessary to replicate a CD. Vinyl LP and cassettes have their own pre-duplication requirements for a finished master. Subsequently, it is rendered either to a physical medium, such as a CD-R or DVD-R, or to computer files, such as a Disc Description Protocol (DDP) file set or an ISO image. Regardless of what delivery method is chosen, the replicator factory will transfer the audio to a glass master that will generate metal stampers for replication.
The process of audio mastering varies depending on the specific needs of the audio to be processed. Mastering engineers need to examine the types of input media, the expectations of the source producer or recipient, the limitations of the end medium and process the subject accordingly. General rules of thumb can rarely be applied.
Steps of the process typically include the following:
Transferring the recorded audio tracks into the Digital Audio Workstation (DAW)
Sequence the separate songs or tracks as they will appear on the final release
Adjust the length of the silence between songs
Process or sweeten audio to maximize the sound quality for the intended medium (e.g. applying specific EQ for vinyl)
Transfer the audio to the final master format (CD-ROM, half-inch reel tape, PCM 1630 U-matic tape, etc.)
Examples of possible actions taken during mastering:
Editing minor flaws
Applying noise reduction to eliminate clicks, dropouts, hum and hiss
Adjusting stereo width
Equalize audio across tracks for the purpose of optimized frequency distribution
Adjust volume
Dynamic range compression or expansion
Peak limit
Inserting ISRC codes and CD text
Arranging tracks in their final sequential order
Fading out the ending of each song (if required)
Dither
Notable audio mastering engineers
Bernie Grundman
Bob Katz
Bob Ludwig
Brad Blackwood
Brian Gardner
Chris Gehringer
Doug Sax
Emily Lazar
Eric Pillai
George Marino
George "Porky" Peckham
Greg Calbi
H. Sridhar
Howie Weinberg
Leon Zervos
Mandy Parnell
P. A. Deepak
Randy Merrill
Ray Staff
Shadab Rayeen
Stephen Marcussen
Steve Hoffman
Ted Jensen
Tony Dawsey
See also
Album era
Remaster
2008 Universal Studios fire
Notes
References
Audio engineering
Optical disc authoring
Sound recording
Music industry | [
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|
254879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widow | Widow | A widow is a woman whose spouse has died; a widower is a man whose spouse has died.
Terminology
The state of having lost one's spouse to death is termed widowhood. An archaic term for a widow is "relict," literally “someone left over”. This word can sometimes be found on older gravestones. The word “widow” comes from an Indo-European root meaning “widow” and has cognates across Indo-European languages. The male form, “widower”, is first attested in the 14th century, by the 19th century supplanting “widow” with reference to men.
The term widowhood can be used for either sex, at least according to some dictionaries, but the word widowerhood is also listed in some dictionaries. Occasionally, the word viduity is used. The adjective for either sex is widowed. These terms are not applied to a divorcé(e) following the death of an ex-spouse.
Effects on health
The phenomenon that refers to the increased mortality rate after the death of a spouse is called the widowhood effect. It is "strongest during the first three months after a spouse's death, when they had a 66-percent increased chance of dying". There remains controversy over whether women or men are worse off, and studies have attempted to make each case, while others suggest there are no sex-based differences.
While it is disputed as to whether sex plays a part in the intensity of grief, sex often influences how a person's lifestyle changes after a spouse's death. Research has shown that the difference falls in the burden of care, expectations, and how they react after the spouse's death. For example, women often carry more of an emotional burden than men and are less willing to go through the death of another spouse. After being widowed, men and women may react very differently and frequently change their lifestyles. Women tend to miss their husbands more if they died suddenly; men tend to miss their wives more if they died after suffering a long terminal illness. In addition, both men and women have been observed to experience lifestyle habit changes after the death of a spouse. Both sexes tend to have a harder time looking after themselves without their spouse to help, though these changes may differ based on the sex of the widow and the role the spouse played in their life.
The older spouses grow, the more aware they are of being alone due to the death of their husband or wife. This negatively impacts the mental as well as physical well-being in both men and women.
Mourning practices
In some parts of Europe, including Russia, Slovakia, Czechia, Greece, Italy and Spain, widows used to wear black for the rest of their lives to signify their mourning, a practice that has since died out. Orthodox Christian immigrants may wear lifelong black in the United States to signify their widowhood and devotion to their deceased husband.
After the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856 in India, the status of widowhood for Indians was accompanied by a body symbolism - The widow's head was shaved as part of her mourning, she could no longer wear a red dot sindur on her forehead and was forbidden to wear wedding jewellery and she was expected to walk barefoot. These customs are mostly considered backward now and have more or less disappeared.
In some parts of South Asia, a woman is often accused of causing her husband's death and is not allowed to look at another person as her gaze is considered bad luck.
Some Nigerians prefer a widow to drink the water her dead husband’s body was washed in, or otherwise sleep next to her husband's grave for three days.
In the folklore of Chiloé of southern Chile, widows and black cats are important elements that are needed when hunting for the treasure of the carbunclo.
Economic position
In societies where the husband is the sole provider, his death can leave his family destitute. The tendency for women generally to outlive men can compound this.
In 19th-century Britain, widows had greater opportunity for social mobility than in many other societies. Along with the ability to ascend socio-economically, widows—who were "presumably celibate"—were much more able (and likely) to challenge conventional sexual behaviour than married women in their society.
It may be necessary for a woman to comply with the social customs of her area because her fiscal stature depends on it, but this custom is also often abused by others as a way to keep money within the deceased spouse's family. It is also uncommon for widows to challenge their treatment because they are often "unaware of their rights under the modern law…because of their low status, and lack of education or legal representation.". Unequal benefits and treatment generally received by widows compared to those received by widowers globally has spurred an interest in the issue by human rights activists. During the HIV pandemic, which particularly hit gay communities, companions of deceased men had little recourse in estate court against the deceased family. Not yet able to have been legally married the term widower was not considered socially acceptable. This situation was usually blessed with an added stigma being attached to the surviving man.
As of 2004, women in United States who were widowed younger are at greater economic hardship risk. Married women who are in a financially unstable household are more likely to become widows "because of the strong relationship between mortality [of the male head] and wealth [of the household]." In underdeveloped and developing areas of the world, conditions for widows continue to be much more severe. The United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (ratified by 135 countries) while slow, is working on proposals which will make certain types of discrimination and treatment of widows (such as violence and withholding property rights) illegal in the countries that have joined CEDAW.
In the United States, Social Security offers a Survivor's Benefit to qualified people once for a loss through their 50th birthday after which a second marriage may be considered when applying for benefits. The maximum still remains the same but here the survivor has options between accessing their earned benefits or one of their qualifying late spouses at chosen intervals to maximize the increased benefits for delaying a filing (i.e. at age 63 claim husband one's reduced benefit, then husband two's full amount at 67 and your own enhanced benefit at 68).
Abuse
Sexual violence
In parts of Africa, such as Kenya, widows are viewed as impure and in need of cleansing. This often requires having sex with someone. Those refusing to be cleansed risk getting beaten by superstitious villagers, who may also harm the woman's children. It is argued that this notion arose from the idea that if a husband dies, the woman may have performed witchcraft against him.
Use of widows in harem has been recorded in Ancient Egypt, medieval Europe, and Islamic empires.
Ritual killing
Sati was a practice in South Asia where a woman would immolate herself upon her husband's death. These practices were outlawed in 1827 in British India and again in 1987 in independent India by the Sati Prevention Act, which made it illegal to support, glorify or attempt to commit sati. Support of sati, including coercing or forcing someone to commit sati, can be punished by death sentence or life imprisonment, while glorifying sati is punishable with one to seven years in prison.
The people of Fiji practised widow-strangling. When Fijians adopted Christianity, widow-strangling was abandoned.
Witch hunts
Those likely to be accused and killed as witches, such as in Papua New Guinea, are often widows.
Forced remarriage
Widow inheritance (also known as bride inheritance) is a cultural and social practice whereby a widow is required to marry a male relative of her late husband, often his brother.
Banned remarriage
The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856, enacted in response to the campaign of the reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, to encourage widow remarriage and provided legal safeguards against loss of certain forms of inheritance for remarrying a Hindu widow, though, under the Act, the widow forsook any inheritance due her from her deceased husband.
Social stigma in Joseon Korea required that widows remain unmarried after their husbands' death. In 1477, Seongjong of Joseon enacted the Widow Remarriage Law, which strengthened pre-existing social constraints by barring the sons of widows who remarried from holding public office. In 1489, Seongjong condemned a woman of the royal clan, Yi Guji, when it was discovered that she had cohabited with her slave after being widowed. More than 40 members of her household were arrested and her lover was tortured to death.
Theft
In some parts of the world, such as Zimbabwe, the property of widows, such as land, is often taken away by her in-laws. While illegal, since most marriages are conducted under customary law and not registered, redressing the issue of property grabbing is complicated.
See also
Estate planning
International Widows Day
Orphan
Remarriage
Single parent
Sati
Widow conservation
Saint Bridget of Sweden
References
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|
254882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Jobson | Richard Jobson | Richard Jobson may refer to:
Richard Jobson (explorer), 17th-century English explorer
Richard Jobson (footballer) (born 1963), English former footballer
Richard Jobson (television presenter) (born 1960), filmmaker, TV presenter, and musician, formerly of Skids | [
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|
254884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottrop | Bottrop | Bottrop () is a city in west-central Germany, on the Rhine–Herne Canal, in North Rhine-Westphalia. Located in the Ruhr industrial area, Bottrop adjoins Essen, Oberhausen, Gladbeck, and Dorsten. The city had been a coal-mining and rail center and contains factories producing coal-tar derivatives, chemicals, textiles, and machinery. Bottrop grew as a mining center beginning in the 1860s, was chartered as a city in 1921, and bombed during the Oil Campaign of World War II. In 1975, it unified with the neighbouring communities of Gladbeck and Kirchhellen, but Gladbeck left it in 1976, leading to Kirchhellen becoming a district of Bottrop as Bottrop-Kirchhellen. It is also twinned with Blackpool, England.
Boroughs
The total area of the municipal territory is about . The longest north-south distance is , and from west to east . The highest peak within the city's territory is , the lowest one being above sea level.
Bottrop is divided into three boroughs: Bottrop-Mitte (Bottrop-Center), Bottrop-Süd (Bottrop South) and Bottrop-Kirchhellen, each having a borough representation and a borough ruler.
These boroughs are further subdivided into city parts, partly named after their traditional names, while the newly built parts are only recently named:
Bottrop-Mitte: Eigen, Fuhlenbrock, Stadtmitte, and Marktviertel
Bottrop-Süd: Batenbrock, Boy, Ebel, Lehmkuhle, Vonderort, Gartenstadt Welheim (Garden city Welheim), and Welheimer Mark
Bottrop-Kirchhellen: Ekel, Feldhausen, Grafenwald, Hardinghausen, Holthausen, Im Loh, Kirchhellen, Kuhberg, and Overhagen
For statistical reasons, Bottrop is also divided into statistical boroughs. They are (with their official numbering):
Kirchhellen
From 1919 until 1976, Kirchhellen was its own town. Following a communal reorganization reform in 1975, both Kirchhellen and Gladbeck joined the city of Bottrop. This resulted in the nickname "GlaBotKi". Gladbeck left the city in 1976, and became part of the district of Recklinghausen.
Most of Kirchhellen is Catholic (around 65%). It has three churches, including one Lutheran church.
Politics
Mayor
The current Mayor of Bottrop is Bernd Tischler of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) since 2009. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:
! colspan=2| Candidate
! Party
! Votes
! %
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Bernd Tischler
| align=left| Social Democratic Party
| 31,795
| 73.1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Andrea Swoboda
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens
| 4,117
| 9.5
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Andreas Bucksteeg
| align=left| Free Democratic Party
| 3,023
| 7.0
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Michael Gerber
| align=left| German Communist Party
| 2,071
| 4.8
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Marianne Dominas
| align=left| Ecological Democratic Party
| 1,334
| 3.1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Günter Blocks
| align=left| The Left
| 1,153
| 2.7
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 43,493
! 97.5
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid votes
! 1,114
! 2.5
|-
! colspan=3| Total
! 44,607
! 100.0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 92,241
! 48.4
|-
| colspan=5| Source: State Returning Officer
|}
City council
The Bottrop city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:
! colspan=2| Party
! Votes
! %
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
| 17,668
| 40.2
| 7.4
| 24
| 2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
| 10,513
| 23.9
| 3.2
| 14
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
| 5,639
| 12.8
| 7.4
| 8
| 5
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
| 3,076
| 7.0
| 5.2
| 4
| 3
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP)
| 1,856
| 4.2
| 0.4
| 2
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| German Communist Party (DKP)
| 1,832
| 4.2
| 0.2
| 2
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
| 1,821
| 4.1
| 1.5
| 2
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
| 1,507
| 3.4
| 0.7
| 2
| ±0
|-
! colspan=2| Valid votes
! 43,912
! 98.5
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=2| Invalid votes
! 672
! 1.5
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=2| Total
! 44,584
! 100.0
!
! 58
! 4
|-
! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout
! 92,241
! 48.3
! 0.2
!
!
|-
| colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
|}
Culture and attractions
Theaters, museums, and buildings
Main Post Office, constructed 1921-1923
The Quadrat is a museum housing permanent exhibitis on local history and displaying works by Josef Albers and many temporary exhibitions.
City Hall (Neo-Renaissance 1910–1916) is regarded as the emblem of the city.
Schloss Beck theme park and castle (late baroque period 1766–1777)
Villa Dickmann, constructed 1901–1903 (art nouveau)
Alte Apotheke (Old Pharmacy, Wilhelminian style 1895)
Catholic churches
Heilige Familie
Heilig Kreuz, built 1955–57, windows by Georg Meistermann
Herz Jesu, built 1929
Liebfrauen
St. Antonius
St. Barbara
St. Bonifatius
St. Cyriakus, Propstei, built 1861/62 by Emil von Manger
St. Elisabeth, built 1954
St. Franziskus
St. Johannes Baptist (BOT-Boy)
St. Johannes der Täufer (BOT-Kirchhellen)
St. Joseph
St. Ludger
St. Mariä Himmelfahrt
St. Matthias
St. Michael
St. Paul
St. Peter
St. Pius
St. Suitbert, built 1955
Protestant churches
Auferstehungskirche
Friedenskirche
Gnadenkirche
Martin-Niemöller-Kirche
Martinskirche, erbaut 1884
Paul-Gerhardt-Kirche
Pauluskirche
Malakow-Turm (1872) of the coal mine Prosper II
Coal Mining Tip Haniel with an open-air theater (Amphitheater) and the Kreuzweg designed by Tisa von der Schulenburg and Adolf Radecki and opened in 1995.
Saalbau, convention center
Attractions
Alpincenter - the world's longest indoor ski slope
Tetraeder is a 50-m-tall walkable steel tetrahedron, placed on a 90-m slag heap. It has been the town's landmark since its construction in 1995.
Movie Park Germany - theme park (in Bottrop-Kirchhellen)
Schloss Beck is a castle turned into an amusement park (in Bottrop-Kirchhellen).
Indoor Skydiving Bottrop, a powerful vertical wind tunnel, attracts skydivers from all over Europe.
Since September 12, 2005, so called Stolpersteine have been placed by artist Gunter Demnig all over the city in remembrance of the people deported and killed by the Nazis.
Periodic events
January: Festival Orgel PLUS (music festival started in 1989)
February: Rose Monday Parade and Carnival
May: Horse Market
May: Asparagus - Farmers' Market in Kirchhellen
Brezelfest (Pretzel Festival) in Kirchhellen
May/June/July: Schützenfeste (marksmen festivals) of Bottrops marksmen companies (BSV Bottrop Batenbrock, BSV Bottrop Eigen, BSV Bottrop Fuhlenbrock, BSV Bottrop Vonderort, BSV Andreas Hofer, Alte Allgemeine Bürgerschützengesellschaft, BSV Bottrop Boy)
September: Michaelismarket
Religion
Catholic: 50% (19 churches)
Protestant (Lutheran): 20% (8 churches)
Atheist/agnostic: 20%
Muslim: 2%
Notable people
Josef Albers (1888–1976), painter, graphic artist, designer, art teacher
August Everding (1928–1999), director of the Hamburgische Staatsoper 1973–77, general director of the Bavarian State Theater rector
Sabine Gaudzinski-Windheuser (born 1965), archaeologist
Paul Holz (1952–2017), football player
Martin Honert (born 1953), artist, professor at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
Da Hool (born 1968), DJ and music producer
Theo Jörgensmann (born 1948), jazz musician and composer
Gisela Kinzel (born 1961), athlete and Olympian
Ulla Kock am Brink (born 1961), television presenter
Bernhard Korte (born 1938), mathematician and computer scientist
Werner Münch (born 1940), politician (CDU), prime kinister of Saxony-Anhalt (1991–1993)
Christian Scheuß (born 1966), journalist and writer
Claus Spahn (born 1940), journalist and author
Andy Vine (1948–1985), author and poet
Twin towns – sister cities
Bottrop is twinned with:
Blackpool, England, United Kingdom (1980)
Gliwice, Poland (2007)
Merseburg, Germany (1989)
Mitte (Berlin), Germany (1983)
Tourcoing, France (1967)
Veszprém, Hungary (1987)
References
External links
Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia
Province of Westphalia | [
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|
254911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochlear | Cochlear | Cochlear, the adjective form of cochlea, may refer to:
Cochlear implant, a sensory aid for the deaf
Cochlear nuclei, the ventral cochlear nucleus and the dorsal (or lateral) cochlear nucleus
Vestibular-cochlear or Vestibulocochlear nerve, the eighth cranial nerve
Cochlear nerve, a division of the eighth cranial nerve
Cochlear aqueduct, or aqueduct of cochlea, a communication between the perilymphatic space and the subarachnoid space
Cochlear artery, a division of the internal auditory artery
Cochlea, part of the Labyrinth (inner ear)
Cochlear duct, also known as the scala media, the endolymph-filled part of the cochlea
Cochlear, an alternate term for the spoon (liturgy) used in the Eastern Orthodox Church in serving the sacramental wine, sometimes with a particle of the sacramental bread
The spoon-like tip of the scape found on the epigyne of some female spiders
Cochlear Limited, manufacturer of Nucleus Cochlear Implant
Cochlear Bone Anchored Solutions, manufacturer of Baha bone anchored hearing aid | [
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|
254913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eof | Eof | Eof (also Eoves) was a swineherd who claimed to have seen a vision of the Virgin Mary at Evesham in England, about 701. Eof related this vision to Egwin, Bishop of Worcester, who founded the great Evesham Abbey on the site of the apparition. Evesham means Eof's ham (homestead).
Legend
The standard Lives, and Saint Egwin and his Abbey of Evesham say Eof was a swineherd. A letter, apparently written by Ecgwin, says "... primum cuidam pastori gregum ...", and the Acta Sanctorum (Lives of the Saints) states something similar: " ...pastores gregum ..." The Latin means either a shepherd or a herdsman. William Dugdale in Monasticon Anglicanum says "Eoves, a herdsman of the bishop ...". George May, the most eminent of Evesham historians, gives both herdsman and swineherd.
The story that Eof was a swineherd goes back at least to William of Malmesbury, writing in the twelfth century. The obverse of the conventual seal of Evesham Abbey clearly shows stylised pigs rather than sheep; the monks of the Abbey clearly thought Eof kept pigs.
The legend of Eof's vision has been commemorated by a bronze statue sited in the town centre paid for by public subscription and created by the British born sculptor John McKenna. The statue was unveiled in a public ceremony that took place on Sunday 15 June 2008.
Eof vs. Eoves
The question of whether the swineherd was named Eof or Eoves is a long-standing
question still argued about today. Writing in 1920 however, the historian O.G. Knapp argued that "It is impossible that Eoves should have been the Swineherd’s name for several reasons. In the first place the letter ‘V’ is not found in the Saxon alphabet, having been brought to this country by the Normans; so that Eofeshamme, given in one of the charters, indicates the older and better form of the name ... But even if Eofes is older and more accurate than Eoves it cannot be the original form of the name. A moment’s reflection will show that if Evesham means the meadow of some person, the name of that person must be in what Grammarians call the Genitive (or Possessive) Case, Singular. This in modern English is nearly always denoted by ’s placed at the end of the word; the apostrophe showing that a vowel has dropped out of the termination. Anglo-Saxon had a larger selection of endings for the Genitive Case, but the one in –es (the original form of our modern ’s) belonged to what are called ‘strong’ Masculine nouns, which usually ended in a consonant. Eofes, therefore, would be the natural Genitive of a man’s proper name, Eof. Ferguson suggests that the original form of the name might have been Eofa, but such a name would correspond to the ‘weak’ nouns which made their Genitive by adding not –es but –an; in which case the name of the town would have been Eofanham, as is shown in the case of Offenham, the Ham of Offa or Uffa. We may therefore take it as certain that the real name of the Swineherd was not Eoves, Eofes, or even Eofa, but Eof."
References
External links
Marian visionaries
8th-century English people
7th-century English people | [
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254915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evesham%20Abbey | Evesham Abbey | Evesham Abbey was founded by Saint Egwin at Evesham in Worcestershire, England between 700 and 710 AD following an alleged vision of the Virgin Mary by a swineherd by the name of Eof.
According to the monastic history, Evesham came through the Norman Conquest unusually well, because of a quick approach by Abbot Æthelwig to William the Conqueror. Only one section of walling survives from the actual abbey, although fragments of the chapter house, the bell tower and the gateway remain, which were added later: the chapter house in the 13th century and the bell tower in the 16th century. Simon de Montfort (1208–1265) is buried near the high altar of the ruined abbey, the spot marked by an altar-like memorial monument dedicated by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1965. The abbey is of Benedictine origin, and became in its heyday one of the wealthiest in the country. During the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the abbey was demolished leaving only the bell tower surviving into the 21st century. Other buildings linked to history of the abbey that survive today are the Almonry and Middle Littleton Tythe Barn.
Early foundation
The year of the foundation of Evesham Abbey (that is, when a monastic community was first established) is problematic. William Tindal (1794) comments that "I have a MS. but without name or reference, which says that he [i.e. Ecgwine] began his Abbey in the year 682. This is before he was made bishop, and seems improbable. Tanner [Not. Mon. p.168] says in 701. The date of Pope Constantine’s charter may decide the point as to the consecration of his Abbey, but there is reason to suppose that Egwin began to build as early as the year 702". George May gives 701 as the year that Ethelred conferred on Ecgwine the whole peninsula with the erection of the monastery commencing in the same year.
On the other hand, the year of the consecration derives from the grant of the first privilege to the Abbey from Pope Constantine "written in the seven hundred and ninth year of our Lord’s incarnation." Ecgwine allegedly returned from Rome bearing this charter, which was apparently read out by Archbishop Berhtwald at a council of "the whole of England" held at Alcester, although that meeting was probably fictitious. Thomas of Marlborough records that, in accordance with the apostolic command, a community of monks was then established (meaning the foundation has also been dated to 709):
"When the blessed Ecgwine saw that longed-for day when the place which he had built would be consecrated, and a monastic order established to serve God in that place, he then abandoned all concerns for worldly matters, and devoted himself to a contemplative way of life. Following the example of the Lord by humbling himself, he resigned his bishop’s see, and became abbot of the monastery."
The alleged charter of Ecgwine (purportedly written 714) records that on the feast of All Saints "Bishop Wilfrid and I consecrated the church which I had built to God, the Blessed Mary, and to all Christ’s elect". The feast of All Saints became established in the West after 609 or 610 under Pope Boniface IV; its observance on 1 November dates from the time of Pope Gregory III (died 741). A Bishop Wilfrid was Egwin’s successor to the see of Worcester (though he is sometimes confused with Wilfrid, Bishop of York, who died c. 709).
Although the exact year of the foundation remains unclear, it has sometimes been assumed that the date of the abbey's consecration was the feast of All Saints in 709. That the consecration occurred on this feast day would provide a neat connection with All Saints' Church in Evesham. That Abbot Clement Lichfield lies buried beneath the Chantry Chapel, now known as the Lichfield Chapel in consequence, provides the link to the closing days of the life of the abbey.
Dissolution
During the Dissolution of the Monasteries of the 16th century, on its surrender to the king in 1540, the abbey was plundered and demolished. Only the bell tower survives. The coat of arms of Evesham Abbey is still used in modern times as the crest of Prince Henry's High School, Evesham.
Excavations
The antiquary Edward Rudge began excavations of the abbey, on parts of his property, between 1811 and 1834. The results were given to the Society of Antiquaries of London; illustrations of the discoveries were published in their Vetusta Monumenta with a memoir by his son, Edward John Rudge and illustrations by his wife, Anne Rudge. Rudge commissioned an octagon tower for the site of the battlefield in 1842, to honour Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester.
Relics of saints
Saint Egwin, third bishop of Worcester and founder of Evesham Abbey
Saint Credan, Abbot of the Abbey at Evesham, during the reign of King Offa of Mercia.
Saint Wigstan of Mercia (aka Wulstan and Wystan)
Saint Odulf a ninth century Frisian saint, and missionary(d.855AD) recorded in the Hagiographies of Secgan, 'Saint Ecgwine', and hagiography of St Odulf, the Ave presul gloriose Augustine psalter, and Chronicon Abbatiae de Evesham.
Other burials
Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester
Henry de Montfort
Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer
Robert de Stafford
Thomas of Marlborough
GWR Star Class steam engine
One of the Great Western Railway Star class locomotives was named Evesham Abbey and numbered 4065. It was subsequently rebuilt as a Castle class locomotive being renumbered as 5085 while retaining the name Evesham Abbey.
Conservation
There is now an Evesham Abbey Trust that since May 2017 owns the freehold of much of the site of Evesham Abbey following the gifting of the site by the Rudge family. The Trust in 2019 obtained over £1m of funding from the National Lottery Heritage Fund and Historic England and other local and regional funders to begin the conservation and restoration of the Abbey walls and the creation of a set of interpretive gardens. These will include a nave garden a Monks garden, a stone garden and a cloister garden. The restoration has now commenced and works are scheduled to be completed by the autumn of 2022. The gardens development will commence in the spring of 2022.
http://www.eveshamabbey.org.uk/
See also
Abbot of Evesham, for a list of abbots
Worcester Cathedral
Chronicle of Evesham Abbey
Evesham Bell Tower
References
Bibliography
Thomas of Marlborough (c1190 - 1236) History of the Abbey of Evesham Ed. and trans. by Jane Sayers and Leslie Watkis, Oxford University Press ,
Cox, David, The Church and Vale of Evesham 700-1215: Lordship, Landscape and Prayer Boydell Press, 2015. .
Evesham Abbey and the Parish Churches: A Guide
Victoria History of the County of Worcester
Walker, John A., Selection of curious articles from the Gentleman's magazine, vol. 1, 1811, Chap. LXXXV, Historical Account of the Abbey of Evesham, pp. 334–342. Accessed 31 July 2012.
External links
Abbey Bell Tower:
Abbey Ruins and Artifacts: ,
Evesham Parish Church:
Evesham Abbey, A History of the County of Worcester: Volume 2, Victoria County History
Anglo-Saxon monastic houses
Christian monasteries established in the 8th century
Benedictine monasteries in England
Monasteries in Worcestershire
Evesham
Burial sites of the House of Montfort
Grade I listed buildings in Worcestershire
8th-century establishments in England
Religious buildings and structures completed in the 700s | [
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254920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fra%20Diavolo | Fra Diavolo | Fra Diavolo (lit. Brother Devil; 7 April 1771–11 November 1806), is the popular name given to Michele Pezza, a famous guerrilla leader who resisted the French occupation of Naples, proving an "inspirational practitioner of popular insurrection". Pezza figures prominently in folk lore and fiction. He appears in several works of Alexandre Dumas, including The Last Cavalier: Being the Adventures of Count Sainte-hermine in the Age of Napoleon, not published until 2007 and in Washington Irving's short story "The Inn at Terracina".
Biography
The nickname "Fra Diavolo" came about due to an old Itrano custom: Until early in the twentieth century Itrani boys and girls who had recently recovered from serious illnesses were dressed as monks on the second Sunday after Easter, for a procession in honor of St. Francis of Paola, the patron of sick children. On one of these solemn occasions little Michele, who was apparently a handful to begin with, proved so naughty that someone called him "Fra Diavolo" (Friar Devil) which stuck.
Early life
The notion that Pezza "was born of low parentage" has received wide circulation but is hardly accurate; it forms part of a hostile tradition derived from French propaganda. The Pezzas had some land in olives and were also engaged in the wool trade. The family home has some interesting architectural details, which also suggests some wealth, and they were related to several of the most prominent families in Itri, such as the Ialongo and the Pennachia.
Although little is known with certainty of his early life, Pezza learned to read and write, hardly a common accomplishment at the time, and further indication of some wealth in the family. As a young man he secured employment as a courier for the Neapolitan Royal Mail, making the round trip between Terracina and Naples twice a week for 50 ducats a year, a considerable sum, while becoming intimately familiar with the local terrain, which had a reputation for brigandage, knowledge that would later serve him in good stead. In 1797, while so employed, he vied for the affections of a young woman with another young man. One night his rival and another man ambushed Pezza, intending to do him some harm. Pezza, who reportedly had a "fiery temper," managed to kill both of his attackers. He took to the hills, but was soon caught. Tried, he was convicted of manslaughter, since the slaying had been committed in self-defense, and on 25 October 1797 he was sentenced to a tour in the army in lieu of prison.
On 20 January 1798 Pezza was enrolled in the Reggimento di Messapi, stationed at Fondi, about a dozen miles north of Itri and perhaps a dozen south of the frontier with the Papal States. Pezza rose quickly, becoming a sergeant, probably because he was literate and, as a member of the middle class and a former Royal courier, already familiar with firearms. In November of late 1798 Pezza took part in the disastrous attempt of the Neapolitan Army to oust the French from the Papal States.
The French responded quickly to the Neapolitan incursion, forcing them to retreat, and then undertook an invasion of the Kingdom of Naples. Plagued by cold and heavy rains, the Neapolitans fell back along the Appian Way. Thousands of troops deserted and many more were captured. Pezza, who was with the rear guard, was almost captured by the French, but escaped by donning peasant dress, and took to the hills above Itri. During the retreat, the Neapolitan Reggimento di Lucania fortified an old Roman villa, the Fortino di San Andrea, located about a mile north of Itri, where a pass carries the Appian Way over the Aurunci Mountains. On 26 December, reinforced by some irregulars hastily recruited by Pezza, the regiment ambushed elements of the French "Polish Legion", touching off a three-day skirmish. Unable to get through the easily defended defile, some French troops passed down the coast road, along the ancient Via Flacca, from Terracina to capture Sperlonga. The weather was foul, very cold with incessant rains that turned to ice. From Sperlonga, the French began working their way overland across the mountains, to outflank the Neapolitans at the old villa, and by dawn on the 29th were in position to attack. But the French movement had been detected by Pezza's irregulars, who were patrolling the hills, and they guided the Neapolitan troops safely out of the encirclement, so that they could fall back on the great fortress of Gaeta, about 15 miles down the coast. The French pressed on, and over the next few weeks, despite unusually cold and icy weather, overran the rest of Naples, capturing the city itself on 22 January 1799 and proclaiming the Parthenopaean Republic. For Pezza, the most critical event of this period occurred on 30 December, when French and Polish troops captured Itri. A band of peasants from the vicinity attempted to resist, but were rapidly overcome. The invaders then shot their prisoners, plundered the town a bit, proclaimed a new age of freedom, erected a "Liberty Tree," and held a ball.
Resistance to French rule 1798–1799
Though many reform-minded nobles and some intellectuals backed it, the French puppet regime in Naples, the Parthenopaean Republic, had little popular support. In addition, French and Polish troops acted abominably; looting and rape were common. French atrocities were so blatant that their commander in Naples, General Jean Étienne Championnet, was sacked by Guillaume-Charles Faipoult, one of the government representatives on mission, and subsequently imprisoned.
Irregular resistance had begun almost as soon as the invaders entered the country, and French atrocities only served to send more young men into the hills to join the insurgency. Attacks on French soldiers became common. The French retaliated swiftly and brutally, which only made matters worse. The experience of Itri was typical. On 15 January two French soldiers were killed while patrolling the Appian Way near the town. The next day a mixed force of French and Polish troops inflicted severe reprisals on the town, looting, raping, and murdering, leaving 60 men, women, and children lying dead in the streets; Michele Pezza's 67-year-old father was among the dead.
Meanwhile, although in exile in Sicily, the Neapolitan government, effectively controlled by Queen Maria Carolina, wife of King Ferdinand IV of Naples, appointed Fabrizio Ruffo, a progressive government minister and one of the last laymen to hold the dignity of cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church, to organize a resistance movement. On 8 February 1799, British and Neapolitan ships landed 5,000 troops and volunteers under Ruffo's command in Calabria. This force soon expanded into an unruly army of laymen and clerics, nobles and peasants, rich and poor, men, women, and children. Dubbed la Armata cristiana della Santa Fede ("the Christian Army of the Holy Faith"), this horde made up for its lack of training and equipment with enthusiasm, ferocity, and suicidal courage.
Pezza had already organized a small band of irregulars in the northern part of the Terra di Lavoro, and soon became one of Ruffo's principal subordinate commanders. His massa ("band") quickly grew to some 4,000 men, including his three brothers and the scions of a number of the leading families of Itri, such as Pasquale-Maria Nofi, who served as his adjutant with the rank of lieutenant. With these men, he raided French outposts far and wide. On one occasion he slipped into heavily occupied Fondi in the guise of a priest — thus becoming once again "Fra Diavolo" — to cut down the "Liberty Tree" which the French had planted there, replacing it with a cross that still stands. He even harassed French forces holding Gaeta, the great fortress dominating the northwestern route into the Kingdom of Naples, ambushing supply trains (once making off with 1,400 sheep) and couriers. Pezza made the Fortino di San Andrea his base of operations, and spread terror against French supporters over a wide area. He soon had a substantial price on his head.
The city of Naples was liberated from the French in June, Gaeta was recaptured at the end of July by royal troops and Pezza's men, aided by the British fleet. By late September the French had largely been driven out of the kingdom, and a Neapolitan army had gone on to liberate Rome. The Neapolitan insurrection had probably cost the lives of 50,000 or 60,000 people in the kingdom.
A hard, tough leader, Pezza gave no quarter. His men committed "most monstrous misdeeds," torturing and murdering hundreds of prisoners of war, including a French general. He was so ferocious that for a time Cardinal Ruffo placed him under arrest for his many atrocities. Nevertheless, for his services, Pezza was made a colonel in the army, ennobled as the Duke of Cassero, granted an annual pension of 2,500 ducats — making him one of the richest men in the district — and even given a lock of the queen's hair. He settled down near Itri with his wife, Fortunata Rachele Di Franco, a local beauty whom he had married in July 1799, when she was just 18, and he was en route to the liberation of Rome. For the next few years they lived quietly, while producing two sons.
Resistance to French rule 1806
In 1806 Napoleon, Emperor of the French, decided to place his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Neapolitan throne. Some 32,000 French troops invaded Naples in January, in three columns under General Laurent de Gouvion-Saint-Cyr, later a Marshal of France; about 12,000 men marched down the Adriatic coast, 15,000 more attacked down the Apennines, which form the spine of Italy, and General Jean Louis Reynier led about 10,000 troops down the Appian Way. The Neapolitan Army, with barely 13,000 men available for mobile operations, fell back on Calabria as the French quickly occupied frontier areas and pressed on. By February Reynier's column had captured Fondi and continued on towards Itri. Some Neapolitan troops were garrisoned at Pezza's old base, the Fortino di San Andrea,, but they fled south to Itri when the French turned up. The French pursued. There was a short skirmish at Itri, which hardly impeded the French advance. Reynier sent a regiment ahead to seize Gaeta by a coup de main, but the fortress, commanded by Louis, Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal, resisted stoutly. The Siege of Gaeta lasted until 18 July. The French found the rest of Naples easier prey. The capital fell on 14 February as the king and queen once more fled to Sicily, and the French soon overran most of the rest of the kingdom.
When the French invaded, Pezza was recalled to active duty, and ordered to organize a guerrilla column to resist the attackers. But the French moved so fast he was barely able to escape, and fled with his brothers to Sicily. He soon returned, however, and, on 23 March 1806, clashed with the French near Itri. Shortly afterwards, Pezza was recalled to Sicily to gather more forces, and in April joined an expedition to reinforce Gaeta that was led by the British admiral Sir Sidney Smith, one of Napoleon's most inveterate foes.
Hesse-Philippsthal gave Pezza command of a band of irregulars who were landed along the coast near the mouth of the Garigliano River, about 20 miles southeast of Gaeta, with instructions to stir up guerrilla resistance in the French rear. Pezza conducted several raids against French outposts, but then undertook an ill-advised attack against a substantial French force. Defeated, he fled back to Gaeta, assuming a disguise so as to trick a French officer into giving him a pass through the siege lines. To Hesse-Philippsthal this smacked of treachery, and he decided that Pezza was secretly in league with the French. Pezza was arrested and sent in chains to Palermo in May 1806. Sir Sidney quickly cleared Pezza's name, however, and for a few weeks he conducted seaborne raids against French outposts along the coast from Ponza and the other islands in the Gulf of Gaeta.
On 4 June a small British army inflicted a stunning defeat on the French in the Battle of Maida, in Calabria. Hoping to follow up this victory, Pezza and a band of followers landed at Amante, in Calabria, on the 26th. Pezza proved to be the most effective of the many guerrilla leaders who had sprung up in the aftermath of the invasion, and soon attracted considerable local support. The French were soon closely invested at Cosenza. Given time the guerrillas might have taken the city. But Gaeta had fallen to the French on 18 July, after twelve days of heavy bombardment, during which Hesse-Phillipsthal had been gravely wounded. This released some 10,000 French troops, most of whom were promptly sent into Calabria. The various guerrilla leaders unwisely attempted to make a stand at Lauria. There, on 8 August, Marshal André Masséna defeated them, virtually annihilating their forces in a no quarter fight. Although on 14 August, with the support of Sir Sydney's ships, Pezza managed to capture Fort Licosa from the enemy, that very same day the French relieved Cosenza. As by this time enormously superior French forces were on the march, the British decided to withdraw their expedition; this withdrawal arguably prevented the Neapolitan insurgency from developing into an "ulcer" such as the Peninsular War in Spain beginning in 1808.
Despite the withdrawal of the British, for a time the guerrilla fighting in Calabria intensified. It was a horribly bloody affair, with the French often slaughtering whole villages, and the people massacring French prisoners. Surprisingly, Pezza proved far less ferocious than he had been in 1799. He even turned French prisoners over to the British in return for money and supplies, and once proved enormously courteous to the some French officers' wives whom he had captured. Nevertheless, the French posted a 50,000 ducat reward for anyone who killed or captured him, a sum equivalent to millions of dollars today.
Capture and death
Late in August 1806, Sir Sidney transferred Pezza and about 300 of his guerrillas by sea to the coast near Sperlonga, north of Gaeta. For a couple of weeks Pezza caused considerable trouble for the French, raiding local garrisons and ambushing convoys. On 5 September he ambushed and massacred a considerable French force near Itri. As a result, the French organized a "flying column," which pinned him down near Itri on the 28th. A hot battle resulted, but the French were able to storm his position from three different directions, resulting in the defeat of Pezza's band, which lost more than one hundred killed and about 60 taken prisoner, all of whom were immediately shot by the French. Pezza himself was reported dead, but survived.
With the remnants of his band, Pezza fled eastwards over the mountains. He was soon operating near Sora in the Abruzzi, with two thousand men and two cannon, having joined forces with other guerrilla leaders. A much stronger French force converged on his base. Pezza failed to retreat in time, and the French closed in on 24 October, storming his base camp. Most of his men were killed or captured, and Pezza was again initially thought to be dead, but he had escaped, though wounded; it was, however, to no avail. On 1 November, while at Baronissi, near Avellino, he was betrayed and captured in a pharmacy by French Corsican troops under the command of Major Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo, father of the novelist Victor Hugo.
The French offered Pezza an enormous bribe if he would join them. When he refused, they tried him on charges of banditry, and sentenced him to death. The French spurned an offer by Queen Maria Carolina to exchange 200 French prisoners for him, and on 9 November they hanged him in the Piazza del Mercato at Naples, ostensibly for banditry.
Pezza's last words reportedly were "It pains me that I am condemned as a bandit and not a soldier".
Pezza's death did not end the insurrection against the French, as it was not until 1811 that widespread resistance came to an end, and there were still sporadic outbreaks as late as 1815. Over 33,000 suspected guerrillas were arrested during the fighting, and thousands – men, women, and children alike – were killed.
Legacy
In addition to the works by Alexandre Dumas and Washington Irving, noted above, Pezza figures in a number of other artistic endeavors.
Daniel Auber's opera Fra Diavolo is founded on traditions associated with the legend, but has very little historical accuracy. Laurel and Hardy starred as "Stanlio" and "Ollio" in the 1933 feature film The Devil's Brother (sometimes titled as Fra Diavolo) based on Auber's opera.
There are several other films about Fra Diavolo, a complete listing of which may be found in the Italian Wikipedia site. The most important of these is Fra Diavolo, made in 1942 by Luigi Zampa and based on a play of the same name by Luigi Bonelli, later a prolific screenwriter. In the film, Pezza is a Robin Hood-like figure fighting the French.
The only Italian film about Pezza to be available in English is the 1964 Giovanni production, The Legend of Fra Diavolo, with an Italian cast, but starring Tony Russel, which was released in the US by Globe Films International. The film is rather more realistic than the Bonelli effort.
Paul Féval, père used the character of Fra Diavolo in his Les Habits Noirs book series. In it, Michele Bozzo (sic) is the nearly immortal Colonel Bozzo-Corana, feared leader of an international criminal brotherhood.
Fra diavolo sauce is believed to be named after Pezza.
References
Further reading
Bruto Amante (1796–1806). Fra Diavolo e il Suo Tempo (reprint: Attivita bibliografica editoriale, 1974)
Anna Franchi (1946). Fra Diavolo. VIR.
Giuseppi dall'Ongaro (1985). Fra Diavolo. De Agostini.
Francesco Barra (1999). Michele Pezza, detto Fra' Diavlo. Avagliano. .
External links
Notes about Fra Diavolo on Around Napoli
A short life of Pezza on the Itri town website
Fra Diavolo and Museo del Brigantaggio in Itri
1771 births
1806 deaths
18th-century Neapolitan people
19th-century Neapolitan people
Fugitives
Fugitives wanted by France
Italian counter-revolutionaries
Italian guerrillas | [
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|
254921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Nougat | Operation Nougat | Operation Nougat was a series of 44 nuclear tests conducted (with one exception) at the Nevada Test Site in 1961 and 1962, immediately after the Soviet Union abrogated a testing moratorium, with the US' Mink test shot taking place the day before the Soviets test-detonated the Tsar Bomba. Most tests were limited-yield underground test shots. New designs would be further developed in atmospheric testing during Operation Dominic I and II.
Operation Dominic I and II would follow Operation Nougat, with some testing overlap. Operation Hardtack II preceded Nougat and the testing moratorium.
British tests
Some accounts include the first British nuclear weapons test at the Nevada Test Site, shot Pampas, as part of Nougat. See British nuclear testing in the United States for more details.
Tests
References
Explosions in 1961
Explosions in 1962
Nougat
1961 in military history
1962 in military history
1961 in Nevada
1962 in Nevada
1961 in the environment
1962 in the environment | [
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|
254922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond%20%28dog%29 | Diamond (dog) | Diamond was, according to legend, Sir Isaac Newton's favourite dog, which, by upsetting a candle, set fire to manuscripts containing his notes on experiments conducted over the course of twenty years. According to one account, Newton is said to have exclaimed: "O Diamond, Diamond, thou little knowest the mischief thou hast done." The story is largely apocryphal: according to another account, Newton simply left a window open when he went to church, and the candle was knocked over by a gust of wind. In fact, some historians claim that Newton never owned pets.
It is also possible that he had a cut piece of glass or gemstone that he referred to as "Diamond", from his famous work in optics. Such a diamond may have easily focused the light from the open window and started the fire that consumed his work. Apocryphal accounts of this event aside, consider if such an intelligent man would have left an open flame unattended for any amount of time.
The story of "Newton's Mischief" has been reproduced over the centuries as early as 1833 in "The Life of Sir Isaac Newton" by David Brewster and later in St. Nicholas Magazine. In 1816 Walter Scott used the story in the third of his Waverley Novels, The Antiquary (volume 2, chapter 1).
This pet of Newton's was also mentioned in Thomas Carlyle's book The French Revolution: A History, employed in discussing the deathbed of Louis XV. Carlyle writes "To the eye of History many things, in that sick room of Louis, are now visible, which to the courtiers there present were invisible. For indeed it has been well said, 'in every object there is inexhaustible meaning; the eye sees in it what the eye brings means of seeing.' To Newton and to Newton's dog Diamond, what a different pair of Universes; while the painting on the optical retina of both was, most likely, the same!"
Nevertheless, Diamond is the subject of several anecdotes concerning Newton. In another tale, Newton is said to have claimed that the dog discovered two theorems in a single morning. He added, however, that "one had a mistake and the other had a pathological exception."
See also
List of historical dogs
Notes
Individual dogs
Urban legends
Isaac Newton | [
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|
254926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming%20%28disambiguation%29 | Swimming (disambiguation) | Swimming is the self-propulsion of a human through water or another liquid, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival.
Swimming may also refer to:
Movement and sport
Aquatic locomotion, animal movement through water
Swimming (sport), the competitive sport
Media
Swimming (Mac Miller album), a 2018 album
Swimming (French Kicks album), a 2008 album
Swimming (The Names album), a 1982 album
Swimming (band), an art rock band from Nottingham, United Kingdom
Swimming (film), a 2000 film directed by Robert J. Siegel
"Swimming", an episode of the television series Zoboomafoo
See also
Swim (disambiguation)
Swimmer (disambiguation) | [
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|
254930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band-pass%20filter | Band-pass filter | A band-pass filter or bandpass filter (BPF) is a device that passes frequencies within a certain range and rejects (attenuates) frequencies outside that range.
Description
In electronics and signal processing, a filter is usually a two-port circuit or device which removes frequency components of a signal (an alternating voltage or current). A band-pass filter allows through components in a specified band of frequencies, called its passband but blocks components with frequencies above or below this band. This contrasts with a high-pass filter, which allows through components with frequencies above a specific frequency, and a low-pass filter, which allows through components with frequencies below a specific frequency. In digital signal processing, in which signals represented by digital numbers are processed by computer programs, a band-pass filter is a computer algorithm that performs the same function. The term band-pass filter is also used for optical filters, sheets of colored material which allow through a specific band of light frequencies, commonly used in photography and theatre lighting, and acoustic filters which allow through sound waves of a specific band of frequencies.
An example of an analogue electronic band-pass filter is an RLC circuit (a resistor–inductor–capacitor circuit). These filters can also be created by combining a low-pass filter with a high-pass filter.
A bandpass signal is a signal containing a band of frequencies not adjacent to zero frequency, such as a signal that comes out of a bandpass filter.
An ideal bandpass filter would have a completely flat passband: all frequencies within the passband would be passed to the output without amplification or attenuation, and would completely attenuate all frequencies outside the passband.
In practice, no bandpass filter is ideal. The filter does not attenuate all frequencies outside the desired frequency range completely; in particular, there is a region just outside the intended passband where frequencies are attenuated, but not rejected. This is known as the filter roll-off, and it is usually expressed in dB of attenuation per octave or decade of frequency. Generally, the design of a filter seeks to make the roll-off as narrow as possible, thus allowing the filter to perform as close as possible to its intended design. Often, this is achieved at the expense of pass-band or stop-band ripple.
The bandwidth of the filter is simply the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies. The shape factor is the ratio of bandwidths measured using two different attenuation values to determine the cutoff frequency, e.g., a shape factor of 2:1 at 30/3 dB means the bandwidth measured between frequencies at 30 dB attenuation is twice that measured between frequencies at 3 dB attenuation.
Q factor
A band-pass filter can be characterized by its factor. The -factor is the reciprocal of the fractional bandwidth. A high- filter will have a narrow passband and a low- filter will have a wide passband. These are respectively referred to as narrow-band and wide-band filters.
Applications
Bandpass filters are widely used in wireless transmitters and receivers. The main function of such a filter in a transmitter is to limit the bandwidth of the output signal to the band allocated for the transmission. This prevents the transmitter from interfering with other stations. In a receiver, a bandpass filter allows signals within a selected range of frequencies to be heard or decoded, while preventing signals at unwanted frequencies from getting through. Signals at frequencies outside the band which the receiver is tuned at, can either saturate or damage the receiver. Additionally they can create unwanted mixing products that fall in band and interfere with the signal of interest. Wideband receivers are particularly susceptible to such interference. A bandpass filter also optimizes the signal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity of a receiver.
In both transmitting and receiving applications, well-designed bandpass filters, having the optimum bandwidth for the mode and speed of communication being used, maximize the number of signal transmitters that can exist in a system, while minimizing the interference or competition among signals.
Outside of electronics and signal processing, one example of the use of band-pass filters is in the atmospheric sciences. It is common to band-pass filter recent meteorological data with a period range of, for example, 3 to 10 days, so that only cyclones remain as fluctuations in the data fields.
Loudspeaker enclosures
Compound or band-pass
A 4th order electrical bandpass filter can be simulated by a vented box in which the contribution from the rear face of the driver cone is trapped in a sealed box, and the radiation from the front surface of the cone is into a ported chamber. This modifies the resonance of the driver. In its simplest form a compound enclosure has two chambers. The dividing wall between the chambers holds the driver; typically only one chamber is ported.
If the enclosure on each side of the woofer has a port in it then the enclosure yields a 6th order band-pass response. These are considerably harder to design and tend to be very sensitive to driver characteristics. As in other reflex enclosures, the ports may generally be replaced by passive radiators if desired.
An eighth order bandpass box is another variation which also has a narrow frequency range. They are often used to achieve sound pressure levels in which case a bass tone of a specific frequency would be used versus anything musical. They are complicated to build and must be done quite precisely in order to perform nearly as intended.
Economics
Bandpass filters can also be used outside of engineering-related disciplines. A leading example is the use of bandpass filters to extract the business cycle component in economic time series. This reveals more clearly the expansions and contractions in economic activity that dominate the lives of the public and the performance of diverse firms, and therefore is of interest to a wide audience of economists and policy-makers, among others.
Economic data usually has quite different statistical properties than data in say, electrical engineering. It is very common for a researcher to directly carry over traditional methods such as the "ideal" filter, which has a perfectly sharp gain function in the frequency domain. However in doing so, substantial problems can arise that can cause distortions and make the filter output extremely misleading. As a poignant and simple case, the use of an "ideal" filter on white noise (which could represent for example stock price changes) creates a false cycle. The use of the nomenclature "ideal" implicitly involves a greatly fallacious assumption except on scarce occasions. Nevertheless, the use of the "ideal" filter remains common despite the filter's serious limitations and likelihood of key deceptions.
Fortunately, band-pass filters are available that steer clear of such errors, adapt to the data series at hand, and yield more accurate assessments of the business cycle fluctuations in major economic series like Real GDP, Investment, and Consumption - as well as their sub-components. An early work, published in the Review of Economics and Statistics in 2003, more effectively handles the kind of data (stochastic rather than deterministic) arising in macroeconomics. In this paper entitled "General Model-Based Filters for Extracting Trends and Cycles in Economic Time Series", Andrew Harvey and Thomas Trimbur develop a class of adaptive band pass filters. These have been successfully applied in copious situations involving business cycle movements in myriad nations in the international economy.
Other fields
In neuroscience, visual cortical simple cells were first shown by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel to have response properties that resemble Gabor filters, which are band-pass.
In astronomy, band-pass filters are used to allow only a single portion of the light spectrum into an instrument. Band-pass filters can help with finding where stars lie on the main sequence, identifying redshifts, and many other applications.
See also
Atomic line filter
Audio crossover
Band-stop filter
Difference of Gaussians
Sallen–Key topology
References
External links
Filter frequency response
Linear filters
Synthesiser modules | [
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|
254935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Martens | Dr. Martens | Dr. Martens, also commonly known as Doc Martens, Docs or DMs, is a British footwear and clothing brand, headquartered in Wollaston in the Wellingborough district of Northamptonshire, England. Although famous for its footwear, Dr. Martens also makes a range of accessories – such as shoe care products, clothing, and bags. The footwear is distinguished by its air-cushioned sole (dubbed Bouncing Soles), upper shape, welted construction and yellow stitching. Dr Martens' design studio is in Camden Town, London; the manufacturing is in the UK, China, and Thailand. The company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.
History
Founding
Klaus Märtens was a doctor in the army of Nazi Germany during World War II. After he injured his ankle in 1945, he found that his standard-issue army boots were too uncomfortable on his injured foot. While recuperating, he designed improvements to the boots, with soft leather and air-padded soles made of tyres. When the war ended and some Germans recovered valuables from their own cities, Märtens took leather from a cobbler's shop. With that leather he made himself a pair of boots with air-cushioned soles.
Märtens did not have much success selling his shoes until he met up with an old university friend, Herbert Funck, a Luxembourger, in Munich in 1947. Funck was intrigued by the new shoe design, and the two went into business that year in Seeshaupt, Germany, using discarded rubber shaped by moulds. The comfortable soles were a big hit with housewives, with 80% of sales in the first decade to women over the age of 40.
United Kingdom
Sales had grown so much by 1952 that they opened a factory in Munich. In 1959, the company had grown large enough that Märtens and Funck looked at marketing the footwear internationally. Almost immediately, British shoe manufacturer R. Griggs Group bought patent rights to manufacture the shoes in the United Kingdom. Griggs anglicised the name to "Dr. Martens", slightly re-shaped the heel to make them fit better, added the trademark yellow stitching, and trademarked the soles as AirWair.
The first Dr. Martens boots in the UK, with an eight-eyelet cherry red-coloured smooth leather design known as style 1460 and still in production today, although in many variations, were introduced on 1 April 1960. The three-eyelet shoe arrived exactly one year later with the style number 1461 (1/4/61). Dr. Martens boots were made in their Cobbs Lane factory in Wollaston, Northamptonshire, where they continued to be made, in addition to production elsewhere, until at least 2018. In addition, a number of shoe manufacturers in the Northamptonshire area and further afield produced the boots under licence, as long as they passed quality standards. The boots were popular among workers such as postmen, police officers and factory workers. By the later 1960s, skinheads started to wear them, "Docs" or "DMs" being the usual naming, and by the late 1970s, they were popular among scooter riders, punks, some new wave musicians, and members of other youth subcultures. The shoes' popularity among politically right-wing skinheads led to the brand gaining an association with violence. Alexei Sayle sang the song "Dr. Martens' Boots" in a 1982 episode of the British TV comedy The Young Ones.
In 1989 Accent Group became the first manufacturer of Dr. Martens outside the UK, obtaining the rights to make them in Dunedin, New Zealand, which they did for several years. The boots and shoes became popular in the 1990s as grunge fashion arose. In late November 1994, a six-storey Dr. Martens department store was opened in Covent Garden in London which also sold food, belts, and watches. At this time the R. Griggs company employed 2,700 people, expected to earn annual revenue of £170 million, and could produce up to 10 million pairs of shoes per year.
Dr. Martens sponsored Rushden & Diamonds F.C. from 1998 to 2005. Diamonds approached owner and local businessman Max Griggs to request sponsorship from his company. A new main stand was built at Nene Park in 2001, named the Airwair Stand. Dr. Martens were also the principal sponsors of Premier League club, West Ham United F.C., renaming the upgraded west stand 'The Dr Martens Stand'.
In 1999 Dr. Martens fought lawsuits in US courts. The brand filed a number of lawsuits in 2016 based primarily on trademark law.
Expansion
In the 2000s, Dr. Martens were sold exclusively under the AirWair name in dozens of different styles, including conventional black shoes, sandals and steel-toed boots. AirWair International Ltd revenue fell from US$412 million in 1999 to $127 million in 2006. In 2003 the Dr. Martens company came close to bankruptcy. On 1 April that year, under pressure from declining sales, the company ceased making shoes in the UK, and moved all production to China and Thailand. Five factories and two shops were closed in the UK, and more than of the firm's employees lost their jobs. Following the closures, the R. Griggs company employed only 20 people in the UK, all in the firm's head office. Five million pairs of Dr. Martens were sold during 2003, half the 1990s level of sales.
In 2004 a new range of Dr. Martens was launched in an attempt to appeal to a wider market, especially young people. The shoes and boots were intended to be more comfortable, and easier to break in, and included some new design elements. Dr. Martens also began producing footwear again at the Cobbs Lane Factory in Wollaston, England in 2004 as part of the "Vintage" line, which the company advertises as being made to the original specifications. Sales of these shoes are low in comparison to those made in Asia, however; in 2010, the factory was producing about 50 pairs per day. In 2005, under turnaround CEO David Suddens the R. Griggs company was given an award by the "Institute for Turnaround" for implementing a successful restructure.
In 2006, Griggs' 1460 Dr. Martens AirWair boot was named in the list of British design icons which included Concorde, Mini, Jaguar E-Type, Aston Martin DB5, Supermarine Spitfire, Tube map, World Wide Web and the AEC Routemaster bus.
Worldwide sales of Dr. Martens shoes grew strongly in the early 2010s, and in 2012 it was the eighth-fastest-growing British company. Over 100 million pairs of Dr. Martens shoes were sold from 1960 to 2010, and in 2010 the company offered 250 different models of footwear. The R. Griggs company opened fourteen new Dr. Martens retail stores in the United Kingdom, United States and Hong Kong between 2009 and 2011, and also launched a line of clothing during 2011.
The private equity company Permira acquired R. Griggs Group Limited, the owner of the Dr. Martens brand, for £300 million in October 2013. For a time Dr. Martens footwear was sold under a "for life" scheme, under which it would repair or replace worn-out DM shoes forever for a price somewhat more than twice the normal price for a pair. This offer was available in 2016, but was withdrawn for new sales from May 2018. After Permira purchased Dr. Martens, Steve Murray, former brand president of Vans was hired as CEO. Murray went on to hire Leslie Lane away from DaKine to serve as President of the Americas, former colleague Dan Le Vesconte of Vans as President of EMEA, Darren Campbell of Asics as Head of Product, and Kyle Duford from Nau.
In 2018 ten million pairs of Dr. Martens shoes were produced, only one percent in the UK. Annual revenue in 2019 was £454 million, six times more than in 2013. The most popular model remained the 1460 boots. In 2019 Dr. Martens announced plans to double the production of shoes and boots in the UK, to 165,000 pairs annually in 2020. Dr Martens' design studio is in Camden Town, London.
In 2019 The Guardian reported concerns that the quality of Dr. Martens shoes had declined since either production was moved to Asia or Permira acquired the brand. Many of the newspaper's readers reported that recently produced Dr. Martens products did not last as long as older production. The company responded that there had been no change in the materials used or production processes since manufacturing was moved to Asia, and only 0.5% of its footwear was defective.
Dr. Martens was listed on the London Stock Exchange at a value of £3.7bn in January 2021.
Gallery
See also
Solovair - a footwear brand, not made by Dr. Martens, made in the original factory in Wollaston
Totectors - safety footwear brand based in Corby
References
External links
Official Dr. Martens website
Clothing brands of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Northamptonshire
Clothing companies established in 1947
North Northamptonshire
1947 establishments in England
Shoe brands
Shoe companies of the United Kingdom
Skinhead
Wellingborough
1980s fashion
1990s fashion
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
2020s fashion | [
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254938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scissors | Scissors | Scissors are hand-operated shearing tools. A pair of scissors consists of a pair of metal blades pivoted so that the sharpened edges slide against each other when the handles (bows) opposite to the pivot are closed. Scissors are used for cutting various thin materials, such as paper, cardboard, metal foil, cloth, rope, and wire. A large variety of scissors and shears all exist for specialized purposes. Hair-cutting shears and kitchen shears are functionally equivalent to scissors, but the larger implements tend to be called shears. Hair-cutting shears have specific blade angles ideal for cutting hair. Using the incorrect type of scissors to cut hair will result in increased damage or split ends, or both, by breaking the hair. Kitchen shears, also known as kitchen scissors, are intended for cutting and trimming foods such as meats.
Inexpensive, mass-produced modern scissors are often designed ergonomically with composite thermoplastic and rubber handles.
Terminology
The noun scissors is treated as a plural noun, and therefore takes a plural verb (e.g., these scissors are). Alternatively, the tool is referred to by the singular phrase a pair of scissors. The word shears is used to describe similar instruments that are larger in size and for heavier cutting.
History
The earliest known scissors appeared in Mesopotamia 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. These were of the 'spring scissor' type comprising two bronze blades connected at the handles by a thin, flexible strip of curved bronze which served to hold the blades in alignment, to allow them to be squeezed together, and to pull them apart when released.
Spring scissors continued to be used in Europe until the 16th century. However, pivoted scissors of bronze or iron, in which the blades were pivoted at a point between the tips and the handles, the direct ancestor of modern scissors, were invented by the Romans around 100 AD. They entered common use in not only ancient Rome, but also China, Japan, and Korea, and the idea is still used in almost all modern scissors.
Early manufacture
During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, spring scissors were made by heating a bar of iron or steel, then flattening and shaping its ends into blades on an anvil. The center of the bar was heated, bent to form the spring, then cooled and reheated to make it flexible.
The Hangzhou Zhang Xiaoquan Company in Hangzhou, China, has been manufacturing scissors since 1663.
William Whiteley & Sons (Sheffield) Ltd. was producing scissors by 1760, although it is believed the business began trading even earlier. The first trade-mark, 332, was granted in 1791. The company is still manufacturing scissors today, and is the oldest company in the West to do so.
Pivoted scissors were not manufactured in large numbers until 1761, when Robert Hinchliffe of Sheffield produced the first pair of modern-day scissors made of hardened and polished cast steel. His major challenge was to form the bows; first, he made them solid, then drilled a hole, and then filed away metal to make this large enough to admit the user's fingers. This process was laborious, and apparently Hinchliffe improved upon it in order to increase production. Hinchliffe lived in Cheney Square (now the site of Sheffield Town Hall), and set up a sign identifying himself as a "fine scissor manufacturer". He achieved strong sales in London and elsewhere.
During the 19th century, scissors were hand-forged with elaborately decorated handles. They were made by hammering steel on indented surfaces known as 'bosses' to form the blades. The rings in the handles, known as bows, were made by punching a hole in the steel and enlarging it with the pointed end of an anvil.
In 1649, in Swedish-ruled Finland, an ironworks was founded in the village of Fiskars between Helsinki and Turku. In 1830, a new owner started the first cutlery works in Finland, making, among other items, scissors with the Fiskars trademark.
Modern Manufacturing Regions
China
The vast majority of global scissor manufacturing takes place in China. As of 2019, China was responsible for 64.3% of worldwide scissors exports. When combined with Chinese Taipei exports, this rises to 68.3%. The primary scissors producing region in China is in Guandong Province.
The Hangzhou Zhang Xiaoquan Company, founded in 1663, is one of the oldest continuously operating scissor manufacturers in the world. The company was nationalized in 1958 and now employs 1500 people who annually mass produce an estimated 7-million pairs of inexpensive scissors that retail for an average of $4 USD each.
France
In the late 14th century the English word “scissors” came into usage. It was derived from the Old French word, “cisoires” which referred to shears.
There are several historically important scissor-producing regions in France: Haute-Marne in Nogent-en Bassigny, Châtellereault, Thiers and Rouen. These towns, like many other scissor-producing communities, began with sabre, sword and bayonet production, which transitioned to scissors and other blades in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
Thiers, in the Puy-de-Dôme department of Auvergne, remains an important centre of scissor and cutlery production. It is home to both the Musée de la Coutellerie, which showcases the town’s 800 year history of blade-making, as well as Coutellia, an industry tradeshow that advertises itself as one of the largest annual gatherings of artisanal blade-makers in the world.
Germany
Germany was responsible for manufacturing just under 7% of global scissors exports in 2019. Often called “The City of Blades”, Solingen, in North-Rhine Westphalia, has been a center for the manufacturing of scissors since medieval times. At the end of the 18th century it’s estimated that there were over 300 scissorsmiths in Solingen.
In 1995 the City of Solingen passed The Solingen Ordinance, an update to a 1930s law that decreed “Made in Solingen” stamps could only be applied to products almost entirely manufactured in the old industrial area of Solingen. In 2019 this applied to approximately 150 companies making high-quality blades of all kinds, including scissors.
Freidrich Herder, founded in Solingen in 1727, is one of the oldest scissors manufacturers still operating in Germany.
Italy
Premana, in Lecco Province, has its origins in ironworks and knife manufacturing beginning in the 16th century. In 1900 there were ten scissor manufacturing workshops, 20 in 1952 and 48 by 1960. Today, Consorzio Premax, an industrial partnership, organizes over 60 local companies involved in the manufacture of scissors for global markets. In 2019 Italy exported 3.5% of scissors manufactured globally.
One of the oldest Premanese scissor manufacturing firms still in operation is Sanelli Ambrogio, which was founded in 1869.
Japan
Scissormaking in Japan evolved from sword making in the 14th century. Seki, in Gifu Prefecture, was a renowned center of swordmaking beginning in the 1200s. When citizens were no longer permitted to carry katana, the city’s blacksmiths turned to making scissors and knives. There are many specialized types of Japanese scissors, but sewing scissors were introduced by American Commodore Matthew Perry from the United States in 1854.
The Sasuke workshop in Sakai City south of Osaka is run by Yasuhiro Hirakawa, a 5th generation scissorsmith. The company has been in operation since 1867. Yasuhiro Hirakawa is the last traditional scissormaker in Japan, making scissors in the traditional style where the blades are believed to be thinner, lighter and sharper than European scissors. In 2018 he was profiled in a documentary that featured a pair of his bonsai snips which retailed for $35,000 USD.
Spain
In Solsona, Spain, scissor manufacturing began in the 16th century. At the industry’s peak in the 18th century there were 24 workshops, organized as the Guild of Saint Eligius, the patron saint of knife makers. By the mid-1980s there were only two, and by 2021, Pallarès Solsona, founded in 1917 by Lluìs and Carles Pallarès Canal, and still family-operated, was the town’s sole remaining artisanal scissor manufacturer.
United Kingdom
Sheffield, York, was home to the first mass production of scissors beginning in 1761. By the 19th century there were an estimated 60 steel scissor companies in Sheffield. However, since the 1980s, industry globalization and a shift towards cheaper, mass-produced scissors created price deflation that many artisanal manufacturers could not compete with. The Sheffield scissor industry consisted of just two local companies in 2021.
The two remaining Sheffield scissor manufacturers are William Whiteley, founded in 1760, and Ernest Wright, which was established in 1902. Both now focus on high-end/niche crafting of “products for life” rather than mass production. Between these two firms it is estimated that there are no more than ten “Putter-Togetherers” or “Putters” who are the master-trained craftspeople responsible for high quality Sheffield scissor assembly. In 2020, Ernest Wright was recognized with the Award for Endangered Crafts by the British Heritage Crafts Association.
Description and operation
A pair of scissors consists of two pivoted blades. In lower-quality scissors, the cutting edges are not particularly sharp; it is primarily the shearing action between the two blades that cuts the material. In high-quality scissors, the blades can be both extremely sharp, and tension sprung – to increase the cutting and shearing tension only at the exact point where the blades meet. The hand movement (pushing with the thumb, pulling with the fingers) can add to this tension. An ideal example is in high-quality tailor's scissors or shears, which need to be able to perfectly cut (and not simply tear apart) delicate cloths such as chiffon and silk.
Children's scissors are usually not particularly sharp, and the tips of the blades are often blunted or 'rounded' for safety.
Mechanically, scissors are a first-class double-lever with the pivot acting as the fulcrum. For cutting thick or heavy material, the mechanical advantage of a lever can be exploited by placing the material to be cut as close to the fulcrum as possible. For example, if the applied force (at the handles) is twice as far away from the fulcrum as the cutting location (i.e., the point of contact between the blades), the force at the cutting location is twice that of the applied force at the handles. Scissors cut material by applying at the cutting location a local shear stress which exceeds the material's shear strength.
Some scissors have an appendage, called a finger brace or finger tang, below the index finger hole for the middle finger to rest on to provide for better control and more power in precision cutting. A finger tang can be found on many quality scissors (including inexpensive ones) and especially on scissors for cutting hair (see hair scissors pictured below). In hair cutting, some claim the ring finger is inserted where some place their index finger, and the little finger rests on the finger tang.
For people who do not have the use of their hands, there are specially designed foot-operated scissors. Some quadriplegics can use a motorized mouth-operated style of scissor.
Right-handed and left-handed scissors
Most scissors are best suited for use with the right hand, but left-handed scissors are designed for use with the left hand. Because scissors have overlapping blades, they are not symmetric. This asymmetry is true regardless of the orientation and shape of the handles: the blade that is on top always forms the same diagonal regardless of orientation. Human hands are also asymmetric, and when closing, the thumb and fingers do not close vertically, but have a lateral component to the motion. Specifically, the thumb pushes out from the palm and the fingers pull inwards. For right-handed scissors held in the right hand, the thumb blade is closer to the user's body, so that the natural tendency of the right hand is to force the cutting blades together. Conversely, if right-handed scissors are held in the left hand, the natural tendency of the left hand would be to force the cutting blades laterally apart. Furthermore, with right-handed scissors held by the right hand, the shearing edge is visible, but when they are used with the left hand, the cutting edge of the scissors is behind the top blade, and one cannot see what is being cut.
There are two varieties of left-handed scissors. Many common left-handed scissors (often called “semi” left-handed scissors) simply have reversed finger grips. The blades open and close as with right-handed scissors, which forces users to pull the blades apart as they are cutting. This can be challenging for craftspeople as the blades still obscure the cut. “True” left-handed scissors have both reversed finger grips and a reversed blade connection; they are basically mirror images of right-handed scissors. If someone is accustomed to using semi-left handed scissors they may find using true left handed scissors difficult at first as they may have learned to rely heavily on the strength of their thumb to pull the blades apart vs. pushing the blades together in order to cut.
Some scissors are marketed as ambidextrous. These have symmetric handles so there is no distinction between the thumb and finger handles, and have very strong pivots so that the blades simply rotate and do not have any lateral give. However, most "ambidextrous" scissors are in fact still right-handed in that the upper blade is on the right, and hence is on the outside when held in the right hand. Even if they cut successfully, the blade orientation will block the view of the cutting line for a left-handed person. True ambidextrous scissors are possible if the blades are double-edged and one handle is swung all the way around (to almost 360 degrees) so that the back of the blades become the new cutting edges. has been awarded for true ambidextrous scissors.
Specialized scissors
Among specialized scissors and shears used for different purposes are:
Gardening, agriculture and animal husbandry
Food and drug
Grooming
Metalwork
Medical
Ceremonial
Sewing and clothes-making
In popular culture
Due to their ubiquity across cultures and classes, scissors have numerous representations across world culture.
Art
Numerous art forms worldwide enlist scissors as a tool/material with which to accomplish the art. For cases where scissors appear in or are represented by the final art product, see Commons:Category:Scissors in art.
Film
Dead Again is a 1991 film starring Kenneth Branagh and Emma Thompson in a thriller revolving around repressed memories of scissors.
Edward Scissorhands is a 1990 film starring Johnny Depp as a young man who has hands made of multiple pairs of scissors.
Running with Scissors is a 2006 film based on the memoir of the same title.
Us is a 2019 psychological horror film directed by Jordan Peele about a family confronted by their scissor-wielding doppelgängers.
Games
The game Rock paper scissors involves two or more players making shapes with their hands to determine the outcome of the game. One of the three shapes, 'scissors', is made by extending the index and middle fingers to mimic the shape of most scissors.
In the horror video game franchise, Clock Tower, there is a character called Scissorman. Although the identity is usually taken by multiple individuals throughout the series, Scissorman is usually portrayed as a demonic serial killer with a giant pair of scissors, and kills anyone without showing any signs of mercy or remorse.
An anthropomorphic pair of scissors appears as a boss in Paper Mario: The Origami King. Various additions of scissor related activity appear as well, such as a variation of Rock paper scissors.
Literature
Heinrich Hoffmann's 1845 children's book Struwwelpeter includes Die Geschichte vom Daumenlutscher ("The Story of the Thumb-Sucker") in which a child continues to suck his thumbs despite his mother's warnings about The Great Tall Scissorman.
Augusten Burroughs' 2002 memoir Running with Scissors spent eight weeks on the New York Times best seller list. The book was later adapted into a film.
Music
Running with Scissors is the title of a 1999 album by "Weird Al" Yankovic.
The song "The Tailor Shop on Enbizaka (円尾坂の仕立屋 Enbizaka no Shitateya)" from Vocaloid producer Akuno-P tells a story about a tailor that kills a man and his family, whom she mistakes for her unfaithful lover and his three mistresses, using her sewing scissors.
The XTC song "Scissor Man", later covered by Primus.
"Save Your Scissors" – song by City and Colour.
The song "Scissors" by American Rock Band "Slipknot"
Sport
The term 'scissor kick' may be found in several sports, including:
Scissor kick (strike), a generic martial arts term for any of a number of moves that may resemble the appearance or action of a pair of scissors.
Bicycle kicks in football are sometimes known as 'scissor kicks'.
Swimming strokes including the sidestroke incorporate a leg movement often known as a 'scissor kick'.
Superstition
Scissors have a widespread place in cultural superstitions. In many cases, the details of the superstition may be specific to a given country, region, tribe, religion or even situation.
Africa
In parts of North Africa, it was held that scissors could be used to curse a bridegroom. When the bridegroom was on horseback, the person enacting the curse would stand behind him with the scissors open and call his name. If the bridegroom answered to his name being called, the scissors would then be snapped shut and the bridegroom would be unable to consummate his marriage with his bride.
Asia
In Pakistan, some believe that scissors should never be idly opened and closed without purpose; this is believed to cause bad luck.
Western Europe
As iron was believed to ward off fairies, British parents traditionally hung a pair of iron scissors over cradles to keep fairies away. Sometimes the scissors were kept open to make the shape of a cross for extra protection.
North America
United States
In New Orleans, some believed that putting an open pair of scissors underneath your pillow at night was a sound method for sleeping well, even if one is cursed.
Eastern Europe
In some Eastern European countries, it is believed that leaving scissors open causes fights and disagreements within a household.
China
In China, it is believed that to give scissors to a friend or loved one is to be cutting ties with them.
Science
Scissors have been used in the sciences for various purposes, including descriptions of animals or natural features.
Nature
Animals named after scissors include:
Birds
The scissor-tailed flycatcher of North and Central America.
The scissor-tailed hummingbird
The scissor-tailed kite, a bird that is widespread throughout Africa.
The scissor-tailed nightjar of South America.
Fish
The scissor-tail rasbora, several species of fish that are commonly used for freshwater aquariums.
Gallery
See also
Hemostat resembles a pair of scissors, but is used as a clamp in surgery and does not cut at all.
Nippers cut (break) small pieces out of tile.
Pliers used for holding and crimping metal or wire.
Tijeras Canyon a geological feature in New Mexico, USA and Tijeras a village in the same canyon, after "scissors" in Spanish.
References
External links
Cutting tools
Embroidery equipment
Mechanical hand tools
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|
254945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinge | Hinge | A hinge is a mechanical bearing that connects two solid objects, typically allowing only a limited angle of rotation between them. Two objects connected by an ideal hinge rotate relative to each other about a fixed axis of rotation: all other translations or rotations being prevented, and thus a hinge has one degree of freedom. Hinges may be made of flexible material or of moving components. In biology, many joints function as hinges, like the elbow joint.
Door hinges
Barrel hinge A barrel hinge consists of a sectional barrel (the knuckle) secured by a pivot. A barrel is simply a hollow cylinder. The vast majority of hinges operate on the barrel principle.
Butt hinge / Mortise hinge Any hinge which is designed to be set into a door frame and/ or door is considered to be a butt hinge or a mortise hinge. A hinge can also be made as a half-mortise, in which case only one half of the hinge is mortised and the other is not. Most mortise hinges are also barrel hinges by virtue of how they pivot (i.e., a pair of leaves secured to each other by knuckles through which runs a pin).
Butterfly/ Parliament (UK) hinge These are a decorative variety of barrel hinge with leaves somewhat resembling the wings of a butterfly
Case hinges Case hinges are similar to a butt hinge however usually more of a decorative nature most commonly used in suitcases, briefcases, and the like.
Concealed hinge These are used for furniture doors (with or without self-closing feature, and with or without damping systems). They are made of two parts: One part is the hinge cup and the arm, the other part is the mounting plate. Also called "cup hinge", or "Euro hinge", as they were developed in Europe and use metric installation standards. Most such concealed hinges offer the advantage of full in situ adjustability for standoff distance from the cabinet face as well as pitch and roll by means of two screws on each hinge.
Continuous/ Piano hinge This variety of barrel hinge runs the entire length of a door, panel, box., etc. Continuous hinges are manufactured with or without holes.
Flag hinge these consist of a single leaf attached (in the male variety) to a pin. When used, the pin is inserted into the other (female) portion of the hinge. This allows the objects to be easily removed (for example, a removable door). They are manufactured in right-hand and left-hand configurations.
H hinge These barrel hinges are shaped like an H and used on flush-mounted doors. Small H hinges () tend to be used for cabinets hinges, while larger hinges () are for passage doors or closet doors.
HL hinge These were common for passage doors, room doors, and closet doors in the 17th, 18th, and even 19th centuries. On taller doors, H hinges were occasionally used in the middle along with the HL hinges.
Pivot hinge This hinge pivots in openings in the floor and the top of the door frame. Also referred to as a double-acting floor hinge. This type is found in ancient dry stone buildings and rarely in old wooden buildings. These are also called haar-hung doors. They are a low-cost alternative for use with lightweight doors.
Self-closing hinge This is a spring-loaded hinge with a speed control function. The same as spring hinge, usually use spring to provide force to close the door and provide a mechanical or hydraulic damper to control door close speed. That can prevent door slamming problem while auto closes a door.
Spring hinge This is a spring-loaded hinge made to provide assistance in the closing or the opening of the hinge leaves. A spring is a component of a hinge, that applies force to secure a hinge closed or keep a hinge opened.
Swing Clear hinge Swing Clear Door Hinges (aka Offset Door Hinges) are perfect for residential and commercial doors, as they allow doors to swing completely clear of openings. Swing Clear Hinges can easily comply with Fair Housing Act (FHA) code by providing a minimum ADA 32” clearance clearance when using a 34” door slab.
Living hinge This hinge takes advantage of the flexibility of plastic to create a join between two objects without any knuckles or pins. They are molded as a single piece, never become rusted, do not squeak, and have several other advantages over other hinges, but the plastic makes them more susceptible to breakage.
Other types include:
Coach hinge
Counterflap hinge
Cranked hinge or storm-proof hinge
Double action non-spring
Double action spring hinge
Flush hinge
Friction hinge
Lift-off hinge
Pinge: A hinge with a quick release pin.
Rising butt hinge
Security hinge
Tee hinge
Building access
Since at least medieval times there have been hinges to draw bridges for defensive purposes for fortified buildings. Hinges are used in contemporary architecture where building settlement can be expected over the life of the building. For example, the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, was designed with its entrance ramp on a large hinge to allow settlement of the building built on piles over bay mud. This device was effective until October 2006, when it was replaced due to damage and excessive ramp slope.
Large structures
Hinges appear in large structures such as elevated freeway and railroad viaducts. These are included to reduce or eliminate the transfer of bending stresses between structural components, typically in an effort to reduce sensitivity to earthquakes. The primary reason for using a hinge, rather than a simpler device such as a slide, is to prevent the separation of adjacent components. When no bending stresses are transmitted across the hinge it is called a zero moment hinge.
Spacecraft
People have developed a variety of self-actuating, self-locking hinge designs for spacecraft deployable structures such as solar array panels, synthetic aperture radar antennas, booms, radiators, etc.
Hinge terminology
Components
Pin The rod that holds the leaves together, inside the knuckle. Also known as a pintle.
Knuckle The hollow—typically circular—portion creating the joint of the hinge through which the pin is set. The knuckles of either leaf typically alternate and interlock with the pin passing through all of them. (aka. loop, joint, node or curl)
Leaf The portions (typically two) that extend laterally from the knuckle and typically revolve around the pin.
Characteristics
End play Axial movement between the leaves along the axis of the pin. This motion allows the leaves to rotate without binding and is determined by the typical distance between knuckles (knuckle gap) when both edges of the leaves are aligned.
Gauge Thickness of the leaves.
Hinge width Length from the outer edge of one leaf to the outer edge of the other leaf, perpendicularly across the pin (aka open width).
Hinge length The length of the leaves parallel to the pin.
Knuckle length The typical length of an individual knuckle parallel to the pin.
Leaf width Length from the center of the pin to the outer edge of the leaf.
Pitch Distance from the end of a knuckle to the same edge of its adjacent knuckle on the same leaf
Door Stop A colloquialism referring to loose angular movement of the leaves relative to the pin.
Other types
Butler tray hinge Folds to 90 degrees and also snaps flat. They are for tables that have a tray top for serving.
Carpentier joint A hinge consisting of several thin metal strips of curved cross section.
Card table hinge Mortised into edge of antique or reproduction card tables and allow the top to fold onto itself.
Drop-leaf table hinge Mounted under the surface of a table with leaves that drop down. They are most commonly used with rule joints.
Hinged handcuffs a restraint device designed to secure an individual's wrists in proximity to each other consisting of two cuffs linked with a double or triple hinge. Hinged handcuffs cuffs tend to restrict movement more than chain-linked handcuffs, and they can be used to generate more leverage to force a suspect's hands behind the back, or to apply pain against the wrist, forcing the subject to comply and stop resisting.
Piano hinge (or coffin hinge) a long hinge, originally used for piano lids, but now used in many other applications where a long hinge is needed.
Living hinge a hinge consisting of material that flexes
Gallery
See also
Hinge bender, a tool for adjusting hinges
References
External links
Hinge Terminology—Hingecraft; graphics visualizing many terms
Guden Hinges and Industrial Hardware: Glossary
Hardware (mechanical)
Door furniture
Linkages (mechanical) | [
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|
254951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort-de-France | Fort-de-France | Fort-de-France (, , ; ) is a commune and the capital city of Martinique, an overseas department and region of France located in the Caribbean. It is also one of the major cities in the Caribbean.
History
In 1638, Jacques Dyel du Parquet (1606–1658), nephew of Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc and first governor of Martinique, decided to have Fort Saint Louis built to protect the city against enemy attacks. The fort was soon destroyed, and rebuilt in 1669, when Louis XIV appointed the Marquis of Baas as governor general. Under his orders and those of his successors, particularly the Count of Blénac, the fort was built with a Vauban design.
Originally named Fort-Royal, the administrative capital of Martinique was over-shadowed by Saint-Pierre, the oldest city in the island, which was renowned for its commercial and cultural vibrancy as "The Paris of the Caribbean".
The name of Fort-Royal was changed to a short-lived "Fort-La-Republique" during the French Revolution, and finally settled as Fort-de-France sometime in the 19th century. The old name of Fort-Royal is still used today familiarly in its Creole language form of "Foyal", with the inhabitants of the city being "Foyalais".
The city was captured by a British expedition which captured Martinique in 1762, but the island was returned to French control in the Treaty of Paris. In 1839, the city was struck by a minor earthquake, and in 1890 saw an outbreak of fire which razed part of the city. By the turn of the 20th century, however, Fort-de-France became economically important after the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelée destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre in 1902.
Until 1918, when its commercial growth began, Fort-de-France had an inadequate water supply, was partly surrounded by swamps, and was notorious for yellow fever. Now the swamps are drained to make room for extensive suburbs.
Geography
Fort-de-France, also known as the Fort of France, lies on Martinique's west coast at the northern entrance to the large Fort-de-France Bay, at the mouth of the Madame River. The city occupies a narrow plain between the hills and the sea but is accessible by road from all parts of the island.
Climate
Fort-de-France has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af), characterised by very warm to hot and humid weather year-round. The wettest months are from July to November when hurricanes are a frequent threat, although substantial rainfall occurs in all months. The hottest month on average is September, and the coldest month on average is February.
Population
Naval Port
Fort Saint Louis in Fort-de-France is a French naval base, as is Dégrad des Cannes (French Guiana).
Government
As of the 27th June 2021, the Mayor of Fort de France is Serge Letchimy replacing Alfred Marie-Jeanne as the new mayor of the capitol. With a participation rate of little over 44% the Letchimy Party Alians Matinik received 37,72 of the votes, whereas Marie Jeanna who came in a close second with Gran Sanblé Pou Matinik acquired 35,27% of the votes. The commune of Fort-de-France makes up Martinique's 3rd constituency for the National Assembly.
Main sights
In addition to Fort Saint Louis, there are three other forts:
Fort Desaix
Fort Tartenson
Fort Gerbault
Other sites of interest include:
Place de la Savane
Schoelcher Library
Jardin de Balata, a botanical garden
Sacré-Cœur de Balata Church, a replica of the parisian Montmartre Church lodged on a cliff surrounded by tropical forest
Fort-de-France Cathedral
A statue commemorating Martinique-born Empress Josephine, the wife of Napoleon, is in the gardens of La Savane. It was vandalized in the 1990s, presumably by individuals who blamed her for supporting the reestablishment of slavery on the island. They removed the head and splashed the body with red paint. It has been further vandalized and destroyed in 2020.
Transport
Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport is located in a suburb outside Fort-de-France and is accessible via the A1 autoroute.
Notable people
Julienne Salvat (1932–2019), teacher, poet, femme de lettres, actress
Frantz Fanon (1925-1961), psychiatrist, political philosopher and revolutionary
See also
Communes of the Martinique department
References
External links
Official website
Capitals in the Caribbean
Communes of Martinique
Martinique–Saint Lucia border crossings
Populated places in Martinique
Port cities in the Caribbean
Prefectures in France | [
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|
254954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Pel%C3%A9e | Mount Pelée | Mount Pelée or Mont Pelée ( ; , ; , meaning "bald mountain" or "peeled mountain") is an active volcano at the northern end of Martinique, an island and French overseas department in the Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc of the Caribbean. Its volcanic cone is composed of stratified layers of hardened ash and solidified lava. Its most recent eruption was in 1932.
The stratovolcano's 1902 eruption destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre, killing 29,000 to 30,000 people in the space of a few minutes, in the worst volcanic disaster of the 20th century. The main eruption, on 8 May 1902, left only two survivors in the direct path of the blast flow: Ludger Sylbaris survived because he was in a poorly ventilated, dungeon-like jail cell, and Léon Compère-Léandre, living on the edge of the city, escaped with severe burns.
Geographical setting and description
Mount Pelée is the result of a typical subduction zone. The subduction formed the Lesser Antilles island arc, a curved chain of volcanoes approximately in length, between Puerto Rico and Venezuela, where the Caribbean Plate meets Atlantic oceanic crust belonging to the South American Plate. Other volcanoes in the island arc are also known for their volcanic activity, including Saint Vincent's La Soufrière, Guadeloupe's La Grande Soufriere volcano, Montserrat's Soufrière Hills, and the submarine volcano Kick 'em Jenny.
Geological history
Volcanologists have identified three different phases in the evolution of Mount Pelée volcano: initial, intermediate, and modern. In an initial phase, called the "Paléo-Pelée" stage, Mount Pelee was a common stratovolcano. The cone of Paléo-Pelée was composed of many layers of lava flows and fragmented volcanic debris. Remains of the Paléo-Pelée cone are still visible at the northern view at the volcano today.
A second stage, now called the intermediate phase, started around 100,000 years ago, after a long period of quiescence. This stage is grouped by the formation of the Morne Macouba lava dome, then later on, the Morne Macouba caldera. During the intermediate phase, there were several eruptions which produced pyroclastic flows like those that destroyed Saint-Pierre in the 1902 eruption. Around 25,000 years ago, a large southwest sector collapse occurred, forming a landslide. This event was similar to the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980.
The modern stage of the evolution of Mount Pelée has created most of the current cone, with deposits of pumice and the results of past pyroclastic flows. More than 30 eruptions have been identified during the last 5,000 years of the volcano's activity.
3,000 years ago, following a large pumice eruption, the Étang Sec (French for Dry Pond) caldera was then formed. The 1902 eruption took place within the Étang Sec crater. This eruption formed many pyroclastic flows and produced a dome that filled the caldera. Mount Pelée continued to erupt until 4 July 1905. Thereafter, the volcano was dormant until 1929.
On 16 September 1929, Mount Pelée began to erupt again. This time, there was no hesitation on the part of authorities and the danger area was immediately evacuated. The 1929 eruption formed a second dome in the Étang Sec caldera and produced pyroclastic flows emptying into the Blanche River valley. Although there were pyroclastic flows, the activity was not as violent as the 1902 activity. It culminated in another "spine" or lava plug, albeit smaller than the 1902 plug, being emplaced at the summit. The activity ended in late 1932.
Current status
The volcano is currently active. A few volcano tectonic earthquakes occur on Martinique every year, and Mount Pelée is under continuous watch by geophysicists and volcanologists (IPGP). Before the 1902 eruption—as early as the summer of 1900—signs of increased fumarole activity were present in the Étang Sec crater (Scarth, p. 30). Relatively minor phreatic (steam) eruptions that occurred in 1792 and 1851 were evidence that the volcano was active. Signs of unrest are likely to precede any future eruptive activity from Mount Pelée, and its past activity (including the violent eruptions uncovered by carbon dating) is an extremely important factor for hazard assessment.
The city of Saint-Pierre was never fully rebuilt, though some villages grew up in its place. The estimated population of the Commune of Saint-Pierre in 2004 was 4,544.
On December 6, 2020, The Martinique Volcano Observatory (MVO) raised Mount Pelee's alert level to Yellow [Restless] from Green [Normal] due to an increase in seismicity under the volcano beginning in April 2019, and observations of tremor last month.
As far as is known, this is the first sign of activity since the end of the 1929-32 eruption. This volcano is, of course, highly dangerous, and great vigilance of its activity is required. Whether or not it is going to enter a new eruptive period is currently unknown.
According to the MVO press release "The increase in seismicity of superficial volcanic origin (up to 4-5 km below the summit) observed since April 2019, is therefore clearly above the base level characteristic for Mount Pelée.
In April 2019, volcanic seismicity appeared at depth around and under Mount Pelée (more than 10 km below sea level). It could correspond to the arrival at depth of magmatic fluids.
Finally, new recorded tremor-type signals were observed on November 8 and 9, 2020: they could correspond to a reactivation of the hydrothermal system.
Even if, in the current state of measurements, there is no deformation of the volcano on the scale of the observation network, the appearance, in a few months, of these three different types of seismic signals of volcanic origin shows a clear change in the behavior of the volcanic system, the activity of which is increasing from the base level observed over several decades."
Biology
The Martinique volcano frog, Allobates chalcopis, is endemic to Mount Pelée, and the only species among related frogs (family Aromobatidae) endemic to an oceanic island.
Important Bird Area
A 9,262 ha largely forested tract, encompassing the mountain and extending to the sea on its north-western side, has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of bridled quail doves, Lesser Antillean swifts, green and purple-throated caribs, blue headed and Antillean crested hummingbirds, Caribbean elaenias, Lesser Antillean flycatchers, Lesser Antillean pewees, scaly-breasted and pearly-eyed thrashers, brown and grey tremblers, rufous-throated solitaires, Antillean euphonias, Martinique orioles, Lesser Antillean saltators and Lesser Antillean bullfinches.
In literature
The Day The World Ended by Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan Witts (Stein and Day, 1969, 306 pp). The authors used contemporary records and survivor accounts to construct a historical novel of the events and lives of residents of Martinique, leading up to and through the eruption of May 8, 1902.
Texaco by Patrick Chamoiseau (Gallimard, 1992. Trans. Rose-Myriam Réjouis and Val Vinokurov, Vintage International, 1998). In this novel that retraces several generations of Martinique's history, Esternome, the protagonist of the novel's first part, witnesses firsthand the destruction caused by the volcano. Marie-Sophie Laborieux, Esternome's daughter and the novel's narrator, recounts her father's experiences and also discusses the traces of this event she has seen herself, including burn scars on her father's body and ossuaries in the ruins of Saint-Pierre. The eruption and its aftermath are discussed in the section "Amour grillée" ("Barbecued Love").
See also
List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
Mount Pinatubo
Mount Vesuvius
References
External links
The eruption of Pelée : a summary and discussion of the phenomena and their sequels, Angelo Heilprin, Linpincott, 1908.
Eruption of Mt. Pelée (1902)
"A Pioneering Volcanologist Narrowly Beats the Reaper"
La montagne Pelée
Photos of Mount Pelée volcanic rocks (with text in French) retrieved 2009-05-17
Mt. Pelee volcano, St. Pierre, Martinique 61 digitized photographs of the Mount Pelée volcano eruption, May 1902.
Mountains of Martinique
Natural history of Martinique
Mountains of the Caribbean
Stratovolcanoes of France
Volcanoes of Martinique
Active volcanoes
VEI-4 volcanoes
Subduction volcanoes
Important Bird Areas of Martinique | [
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|
254956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon%20King | Dragon King | The Dragon King, also known as the Dragon God, is a Chinese water and weather god. He is regarded as the dispenser of rain as well as the zoomorphic representation of the yang masculine power of generation. He is the collective personification of the ancient concept of the lóng in Chinese culture. He can take a variety of forms, the most important ones being the cosmological Sihai Longwang ( "Dragon King of the Four Seas") who, with the addition of the Yellow Dragon ( Huánglóng) of Xuanyuan, represent the watery and chthonic forces presided over by the Five Forms of the Highest Deity ( Wǔfāng Shàngdì), or their zoomorphic incarnation. One of his epithets is Dragon King of Wells and Springs. The dragon king is the king of the dragons and he also controls all of the creatures in the sea. The dragon king gets his orders from the Jade Emperor.
Besides being a water deity, the Dragon God frequently also serves as a territorial tutelary deity, similarly to Tudigong and Houtu.
Dragon worship
The ancient Chinese worship gods of the dragon because the Chinese dragon is an imagined reptile that represents evolution from the ancestors and qi energy. The presence of dragons within Chinese culture dates back several thousands of years with the discovery of a dragon statue dating back to the fifth millennium BC from the Yangshao culture in Henan in 1987, and jade badges of rank in coiled form have been excavated from the Hongshan culture circa 4700–2900 BC. Some of the earliest Dragon artifacts are the pig dragon carvings from the Hongshan culture.
Yellow Dragon
The Yellow Dragon ( Huánglóng) does not have a precise body of water of which he is the patron. However, as the zoomorphic incarnation of the Yellow Emperor, he represents the source of the myriad things.
Dragon Kings of the Four Seas
Each one of the four Dragon Kings of the Four Seas ( Sìhǎi Lóngwáng) is associated to a colour and a body of water corresponding to one of the four cardinal directions and natural boundaries of China: the East Sea (corresponding to the East China Sea), the South Sea (corresponding to the South China Sea), the West Sea (Qinghai Lake), and the North Sea (Lake Baikal). They appear in the classical novels like The Investiture of the Gods and Journey to the West. Each of them has a proper name, and they share the surname Ao (, meaning "playing" or "proud").
Azure Dragon
The Azure Dragon or Blue-Green Dragon ( Qīnglóng), or Green Dragon ( Cānglóng), is the Dragon God of the east, and of the essence of spring. His proper name is Ao Guang ( or ), and he is the patron of the East China Sea.
Red Dragon
The Red Dragon ( Chìlóng or Zhūlóng, literally "Cinnabar Dragon", "Vermilion Dragon") is the Dragon God of the south and of the essence of summer. He is the patron of the South China Sea and his proper name is Ao Qin ().
Black Dragon
The Black Dragon ( Hēilóng), also called "Dark Dragon" or "Mysterious Dragon" ( Xuánlóng), is the Dragon God of the north and the essence of winter. His proper names are Ao Shun () or Ao Ming (), and his body of water is Lake Baikal.
White Dragon
The White Dragon ( Báilóng) is the Dragon God of the west and the essence of autumn. His proper names are Ao Run (), Ao Jun () or Ao Ji (). He is the patron of Qinghai Lake.
Worship of the Dragon God
Worship of the Dragon God is celebrated throughout China with sacrifices and processions during the fifth and sixth moons, and especially on the date of his birthday the thirteenth day of the sixth moon. A folk religious movement of associations of good-doing in modern Hebei is primarily devoted to a generic Dragon God whose icon is a tablet with his name inscribed on it, utilized in a ritual known as the "movement of the Dragon Tablet". The Dragon God is traditionally venerated with dragon boat racing.
In coastal regions of China, Korea, Vietnam, traditional legends and worshipping of whales (whale gods) have been referred to Dragon Kings after the arrival of Buddhism.
Buddhism
Some Buddhist traditions describe a figure named Duo-luo-shi-qi or Talasikhin as a Dragon King who lives in a palace located in a pond near the legendary kingdom of Ketumati. It is said that during midnight he used to drizzle in this pond to cleanse himself of dust.
Artistic depictions
See also
Chinese dragon
Dragon king theory
Lạc Long Quân
Nagaraja
Prince Nezha's Triumph Against Dragon King
Shenlong (神龍)
Tianlong (天龍)
Typhoon Longwang
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Chinese gods
Journey to the West characters
Nāgas
Rain deities
Sea and river gods
Tutelary deities
Water gods | [
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|
254958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Storax | Operation Storax | Operation Storax was a series of 47 nuclear tests conducted by the United States in 1962-1963 at the Nevada Test Site. These tests followed the Operation Fishbowl series and preceded the Operation Roller Coaster series.
British tests
Some accounts include the second British nuclear weapons test at the Nevada Test Site, shot Tendrac, as part of Storax. See British nuclear testing in the United States for more details.
Tests
References
Explosions in 1962
Explosions in 1963
Storax
1962 in military history
1963 in military history
1962 in Nevada
1963 in Nevada
1962 in the environment
1963 in the environment | [
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|
254959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Rode | Pierre Rode | Jacques Pierre Joseph Rode (16 February 1774 – 25 November 1830) was a French violinist and composer.
Life and career
Born in Bordeaux, Aquitaine, France, Pierre Rode traveled in 1787 to Paris and soon became a favourite pupil of the great Giovanni Battista Viotti, who found the boy so talented that he charged him no fee for the lessons. Rode inherited his teacher's style, to which he added more mildness and a more refined tone. It is also recorded that he made extensive use of portamento. He collaborated with Baillot and Kreutzer on the official Violin Method of the Conservatoire de Paris, published in 1802.
Rode served as violin soloist to Napoleon and toured extensively in the Netherlands, Germany, England and Spain, staying with François-Adrien Boieldieu in Saint Petersburg from 1804 until 1809, and later spending much time in Moscow.
When he returned to Paris, he found that the public no longer responded with much enthusiasm to his playing. Spohr, who heard him both before and after his Russian sojourn, wrote that Rode's playing had become “cold and full of mannerism”. However, according to some sources, he suffered from a lymphatic infection caused by streptococcus bacteria that affected his right arm, reducing his ability to bow with any force or rapidity.
Ludwig van Beethoven wrote his last violin sonata (Op. 96) for Rode when the violinist was visiting Vienna. He also performed chamber music, but the backbone of his repertoire was formed by Viotti's concertos, which served as models for his own concertos. These, as well as the 24 Caprices in all the major and minor keys, were written from 1814 to 1819 when he lived in Berlin.
In 1828 Rode made a last attempt at a public concert in Paris. It was such a fiasco that it was widely believed (as reported by Schuenemana, in citation above) that it hastened his death, on 25 November 1830 at Château de Bourbon near Damazan, Lot-et-Garonne, in his native Aquitaine.
Compositions
In all, Pierre Rode composed 13 violin concertos and many other works for violin, including at least four Quatuors brillants for violin and string trio. Although Rode's violin concertos have some significance in the development of the Romantic concerto, they are nowadays rarely performed. His major enduring contribution to the literature are his 24 Caprices, which are a standard part of the repertoire for advanced study of the violin. He also had a major influence on younger violinists, such as Louis Spohr, who adopted his style and developed it further.
French bibliography
Joann Élart, "Circulation des quatre symphonies oeuvre VII de Johann Franz Xaver Sterkel de l'Allemagne à Rouen : un itinéraire singulier du goût musical entre 1770 et 1825", Studien zu den deutsch-französischen Musikbeziehungen im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, bericht über die erste gemeinsame Jahrestagung der Gesellschaft für Musikforschung und der Société française de musicologie Saarbrücken 1999 (Hildesheim : Georg Olms Verlag, 2002), .
Joann Élart and Patrick Taïeb, "La Complainte du Troubadour de Pierre-Jean Garat (1762–1823)", Les Orages, No. 2, L'imaginaire du héros (Besançon : Apocope, May 2003), pp. 137–168.
Joann Élart, "La mobilité des musiciens et des répertoires : Punto, Garat et Rode aux concerts du Musée", Le Musée de Bordeaux et la musique 1783–1793, ed. Patrick Taïeb, Natalie Morel-Borotra and Jean Gribenski (Rouen : PURH, 2005), .
Joann Élart, "Les origines du concert public à Rouen à la fin de l'Ancien Régime", Revue de musicologie, No. 93/1 (2007), .
References
External links
1774 births
1830 deaths
18th-century classical composers
18th-century French composers
19th-century French male classical violinists
19th-century classical composers
18th-century French male classical violinists
19th-century French composers
French male classical composers
French Romantic composers
Musicians from Bordeaux
Pupils of Giovanni Battista Viotti | [
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|
254965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind%20Chao | Rosalind Chao | Rosalind Chao (; born September 23, 1957) is an American actress. Chao's best-known roles have been Soon-Lee Klinger in the mid-1980s CBS show AfterMASH, Rose Hsu Jordan in the 1993 movie The Joy Luck Club, the recurring character Keiko O'Brien on Star Trek: The Next Generation and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine in the 1990s, and Dr. Kim on The O.C. in 2003. She also played Hua Li, Mulan’s mother, in the live-action 2020 remake of Mulan.
Early life
Chao was born in Anaheim, California. Chao's parents ran a successful pancake restaurant, Chao’s Chinese and American Restaurant, across the street from Disneyland, and employed her there from an early age. She attended Pomona College in Claremont, California, and later USC, graduating in 1978.
Career
For some time, Chao worked at Disneyland as an international tour guide.
Chao's parents were instrumental in her decision to pursue acting; she began at the age of five in a California-based Peking opera traveling company at the instigation of her parents who were already heavily involved, and during the summers they sent her to Taiwan to further develop her acting skills.
As a child she played the daughter of a laundry owner (played by James Hong) on the 1970 episode of Here's Lucy entitled "Lucy the Laundress".
Deciding not to pursue acting, Chao enrolled in the communications department at the University of Southern California where she earned her degree in journalism. However, after spending a year as a radio newswriting intern at the CBS-owned Hollywood radio station KNX, she soon returned to acting.
Her big break was with the role of Soon-Lee, a South Korean refugee, in the final episodes of the TV series M*A*S*H. Soon-Lee married longtime starring character Maxwell Klinger (Jamie Farr) in the series finale "Goodbye, Farewell and Amen", the most-watched sitcom television episode of all time (). Chao continued playing the character in the M*A*S*H sequel: 1983's AfterMASH, her first role billed at co-starring status.
Chao regularly portrayed the Japanese exo-botanist Keiko Ishikawa O'Brien on both Star Trek: The Next Generation and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine with eight appearances in the former and nineteen in the latter before DS9's end in 1999. In 2010, a preliminary casting memo for The Next Generation from 1987 was published, revealing that Chao was originally considered for the part of Enterprise security chief Tasha Yar.
In August 2018, Chao was cast as Mulan's mother in the 2020 live-action retelling of Mulan. In 2019, Chao was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences citing her contributions to critically acclaimed films The Joy Luck Club and I Am Sam.
Personal life
While working in theatre at the Mark Taper Forum, Chao met Simon Templeman; the couple would eventually marry. They have two children, a son and a daughter.
Filmography
Television
Film
Theatre
Games
References
External links
1957 births
Living people
American actresses of Chinese descent
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from California
American film actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
People from Anaheim, California
Pomona College alumni
Tour guides
USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism alumni | [
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|
254967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sunrays | The Sunrays | The Sunrays (previously known as the Renegades, the Renegade 5, Larry Tremaine & the Renegades, the Rangers and the Dirt Riders) were an American band from Pacific Palisades, California. The group was led by singer/songwriter/drummer Rick Henn, who was a friend of the Beach Boys member Carl Wilson. Other members of the band were guitarists Eddy Medora and Byron Case, keyboard player Marty DiGiovanni, and bassist Vince Hozier.
Career
Their first job as the Renegades (in the late 1950s) was at the Seaside Session at Palisades Park in Pacific Palisades. In 1961 they teamed up with Larry Tremaine, and became Larry Tremaine and the Renegades, a rock and roll cover band, consisting of: Larry Tremaine, Steve O'Riley (now deceased), Marty DiGiovanni, Rick Henn, Eddy Medora (November 28, 1945 – October 27, 2006), and Vince Hozier (February 26, 1946 – March 18, 2007). Tremaine booked them every week at radio dances, UCLA, clubs, celebrity parties, and corporate events.
They appeared at Crescendo Interlude on the Sunset Strip with Joey Dee and the Starliters, the Teen Age Fair at Pacific Ocean Park, the after party for the 1963 Academy Awards, The Bob Eubanks TV Dance Party, and every Friday night as the house dance party band at the San Bernardino, California Civic Auditorium.
In 1963, Tremaine went into the radio stations KBLA and KRLA, and later television, and became the host of the syndicated nationwide Casino Royale Dance Party.
In 1964, Murry Wilson, the father of Brian, Carl, and Dennis Wilson of the Beach Boys, started managing them and changed their name to The Sunrays. Eddy Medora switched from the saxophone to rhythm guitar. Steve O'Riley, who played lead guitar and sang, left the band when "I Live for the Sun" began to break, saying "I don't wanna be in the group anymore, I think I can make it on my own." O'Riley was replaced by Byron Case.
Their hits included "I Live for the Sun" (1965) (No. 51 US, No. 20 Australia), "Andrea" (1966) (No. 41 US), and "Still" (1966) (No. 93 US).
They toured the United States and opened for the Beach Boys in the U.S. and Canada.
Discography
Singles
"Car Party" / "Outta Gas" — Tower 101—September 1964
"I Live For The Sun" (Billboard #51) / "Bye Baby Bye" — Tower 148—August 1965
"Andrea" (Billboard #41) / "You Don't Phase Me" — Tower 191—December 1965
"Still" (Billboard #93) / "When You're Not Here" — Tower 224—March 1966
"Don't Take Yourself Too Seriously" / "I Look Baby, I Can't See" — Tower 256—July 1966
"Hi, How Are You" / "Just 'Round The River Bend" — Tower 290—November 1966
"Loaded With Love" / "Time (A Special Thing)" — Tower 340—May 1967
Albums
Andrea — Tower T-5017 (Mono)/ST-5017 (Stereo)—1966
Compilation albums
Vintage Rays — Collectable Records—1996
References
External links
Sunrays718
American pop music groups
Musical groups from California | [
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|
254972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crest%20of%20the%20Stars | Crest of the Stars | {{Infobox animanga/Print
| type = manga
| author = Kōichirō Yonemura
| illustrator =
| publisher = Flex Comix
| demographic = Shōnen
| magazine = FlexComix Next (2012) Comic Meteor (2012 – 2021)'
| first = May 8, 2012
| last = April 28, 2021
| volumes = 8
| volume_list =
}}
is a three-volume space opera science fiction novel written by Hiroyuki Morioka with cover illustrations by Toshihiro Ono. This was followed by a second, ongoing novel series, Banner of the Stars (a.k.a. Seikai no Senki, currently six volumes) and a series of books collecting short stories set in the same universe known as . Beginning in 1999, the novels were adapted into anime and manga series, the first of which ran for 13 episodes on WOWOW. A recap movie, Crest of the Stars Special Edition, was also released in 2000.
PlotCrest of the Stars chronicles how Jinto met Lafiel and the events that followed before the war.
When Jinto was a young boy, his world is invaded by the Abh empire. His father who was then president of the Hyde Star System, surrendered the system and earned for himself and his family a nobility within Abh society. Young Jinto is sent off to school in planet Delktou to learn the ways of Abh nobility and the story of Crest of the Stars picks up as he meets the young Abh princess, Lafiel who as a pilot trainee has been assigned to escort him to the patrol ship Gothlauth, a.k.a. Gosroth). Soon, they find themselves unready participants in the incident that would ignite the war between the Abh Empire and the Four Nations Alliance of Humankind — an anti-Abh alliance of the democratic nations of the United Mankind, the Federation of Hania, the Republic of Greater Alcont, and the People's Sovereign Union of Planets.
Characters
Main characters
Years after his father surrendered the Hyde Star System to the Abh Empire, Jinto is on his way to the capital to attend military school in preparation for claiming his title and succeeding his father as the next territorial lord. He befriends Lafiel not knowing that she is royalty. Although completely unused to life in space, he is quite dependable when on a planet surface.
Lafiel is the pilot trainee assigned to escort Jinto from the spaceport of Delktou to the patrol ship Gosroth. Although she is a member of the Abriel Imperial Family, she befriends him and allows him to call her by her name. As a space-dweller, she is somehow clueless of life in the surface world. She is self-sacrificing and strong-willed but eventually begins to have more faith in Jinto. She is a very good shot.
Minor characters
Lexshue Wef-Robell Plakia
The captain of the patrol ship Gosroth, she decides to send Jinto and Lafiel to Sufugnoff once it is confirmed that the ship is about to be attacked.
Atosryua Syun-Atos Lyuf Febdash Klowal
The third Baron of Febdash, an obscure star system where Jinto and Lafiel made a stopover en route to Sufugnoff (Sfagnaumh). He is ambitious and at the same time embarrassed of his heritage. He tried to detain Lafiel and imprison Jinto, which brought dire consequences onto himself.
Atosryua Syun-Atos Lyuf Raika Febdash Srguf
The second Baron of Febdash and father of Klowal and Loïc. Due to his being a genetic "grounder," his own son despised him resulting in confinement and isolation. He became friends with Jinto and aided Lafiel in "punishing" Klowal.
Seelnay
A vassal of the Barony of Febdash who helped Lafiel take over the control room of the baron's mansion.
Inspector Entryua
Chief of the Police Department of Lune Biga, a city on Planet Clasbul in the Sufugnoff Star System. He is forced to cooperate with the invading forces of the United Mankind to search for Jinto and Lafiel.
Lt. Kyte
An Alliance military police officer from the United Mankind who led the search for Jinto and Lafiel in Clasbul. Because he is also genetically engineered, he is despised by most citizens of the United Mankind and is prevented from rising amongst the ranks of the military. This results in deep hatred against the Abh.
Anti-imperialist group of Clasbul
Though not necessarily "anti-Abh", it is a group seeking freedom to run their own shipping, transportation, and trade. They help the pair to flee Sufugnoff and escape the clutches of the United Mankind. For their assistance, as well as to meet the legal requirement for ship leasees to be ranking Abh nobles, they are raised to the rank of an Abh dame/equestrian (reucec).
Development
The series is notable for Morioka's creation of an entire language, Baronh, and an accompanying alphabet, Ath, used by the Abh. Almost all written text in the anime is in Baronh, with occasional text in other invented languages; at least one planet is shown to have adopted Ath to write their own language.
Media
Books
Despite being commonly dubbed as a trilogy, the work is actually a three-volume novel. The three volumes were originally released by Hayakawa Publishing from April to June 1996.
The novels were translated and released in English in softcover format by Tokyopop in 2006 and 2007.
On April 20, 2019, J-Novel Club announced they had licensed both Crest of the Stars and Banner of the Stars for digital and physical release. The J-Novel Club version of Crest of the Stars features a new translation. The digital release followed J-Novel Club's model of releasing "prepub" chapters on their website for premium members before the digital retail release on their site and other platforms like Amazon. The physical release for both series is in hardcover omnibus format, with three volumes per issue, with Crest of the Stars released on March 3, 2020.Crest of the Stars I "Princess of the Empire" / "The Imperial Princess" (星界の紋章I 帝国の王女) (Seikai no Monshō I "Teikoku no Ōjo") (Released September 6, 2006 in U.S. by Tokyopop / June 9, 2019 by J-Novel Club (digital))Crest of the Stars II "A Modest War" / "A War Most Modest" (星界の紋章II ささやかな戦い) (Seikai no Monshō II "Sasayaka na Tatakai") (Released January 9, 2007 in U.S. by Tokyopop / August 10, 2019 by J-Novel Club (digital))Crest of the Stars III "Return to a Strange World" / "The Return to Strange Skies" (星界の紋章III 異郷への帰還) (Seikai no Monshō III "Ikyō e no Kikan") (Released May 8, 2007 in U.S. by Tokyopop / October 12, 2019 by J-Novel Club (digital))
AnimeCrest of the Stars was released in Japan in 1999 and in the United States by Bandai in 2001. At the end of 2002, TechTV announced that Crest of the Stars was to be one of the initial titles as part of their new Anime Unleashed programming and began broadcast at the end of 2002 and through 2003. Following the closure of Bandai Entertainment in 2012, Sunrise announced at Otakon 2013, that Funimation had licensed Crest of the Stars, Banner of the Stars I and II and Passage of the Stars. On December 25, 2019, Crest of The Stars and its sequel series Banner of the Stars were released on Blu-ray in Japan.
Radio drama
Radio drama adaptation was broadcast on FM Osaka, and has been released as CDs in three volumes. The cast is practically the same as the anime version, but with some changes.
Manga
Dengeki Comics released a one-volume manga adaptation of the novel on March 27, 2000, after serializing it in Monthly Comic Dengeki Daioh magazine in 1999. The manga was illustrated by Toshihiro Ono and written by Aya Yoshinaga, who has also written the anime adaptation. Hiroyuki Morioka is also credited on the cover as the original creator.
Much like the anime series, it covers all three volumes. It was licensed by Tokyopop and released on June 8, 2004, under the name Seikai Trilogy, Vol. 1: Crest of the Stars, dubbed the first part of the Seikai Trilogy, since two other companion manga were also released, adapting Banner of the Stars I and II.
The first chapter of a new web manga adaptation of Crest of the Stars by Kōichirō Yonemura was published by Flex Comix in volume five of Nico Nico FlexComix Next digital magazine released on May 8, 2012 and on FlexComix Next site on May 22, 2012; the manga was transferred to Comic Meteor on September 5, 2012. The last chapter was released online on April 28, 2021. The first print volume of the manga went on sale on May 11, 2013 and the eighth and last was released on April 12, 2021. Both were released digitally three days earlier.
Video game
Roughly a year after the anime finished airing, on May 25, 2000 Bandai Visual released a video game adaptation for the PlayStation. It features a story inspired by both the Crest of the Stars and the Banner of the Stars novels, incorporating some of their characters. The game consists of 67 different space battles, with a story split in two paths with three possible endings each.
Reception
In 1996, the world of Japanese science fiction novels was in a slump. Many people considered the genre dead to such an extent that authors avoided it. The appearance of the Crest of the Stars novel was not only a surprise but also earned it the Seiun Award.
References
External links
Crest of the Stars at the Seikai Web
Crest of the Stars (Kōichirō Yonemura's manga) at Comic Meteor
Reviews
Crest of the Stars – Overview of Crest of the Stars with excerpted scenes by AnimeOnDVD
Crest of the Stars – Review of Crest of the Stars by THEM Anime Reviews
Crest of the Stars – Overview of Crest of the Stars and Banner of the Stars I/II by Animerica''
1996 Japanese novels
1999 anime television series debuts
2000 anime films
Bandai Entertainment anime titles
Bandai Namco franchises
Dengeki Comics
Funimation
J-Novel Club books
Japanese films
Japanese science fiction novels
Madman Entertainment anime
Military science fiction novels
Novels by Hiroyuki Morioka
Shōnen manga
Space opera anime and manga
Space opera novels
Sunrise (company)
Tokyopop titles
Wowow original programming | [
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|
254973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Renegades%20%28TV%20series%29 | The Renegades (TV series) | The Renegades is an American action crime drama television series about a street gang that becomes a special police undercover unit in order to avoid jail time. The show starred Patrick Swayze as "Bandit", the leader of the gang.
Cast
Patrick Swayze as "Bandit"
Randy Brooks as "Eagle"
Paul Mones as J.T.
Tracy Scoggins as Tracy
Robert Thaler as "Dancer"
Brian Tochi as "Dragon"
Angel Granados Jr. (2-hour pilot) and Fausto Bara (post-pilot) as Gaucho
James Luisi as Lieutenant Marciano
Kurtwood Smith as Captain Scanlon
Episodes
The two-hour television movie backdoor pilot for this series aired on August 11, 1982.
Broadcast history
After the success of the movie The Warriors, Hollywood looked to take the youth gang concept and market it to TV. In 1981, Swayze did a TV show, Return of the Rebels, about an aging motorcycle gang who get together to help a friend who owns a popular campground that is being threatened by a band of arrogant groupies. However, the show didn't catch on and was quickly canceled.
Brother team Lawrence and Charles Gordon tried to market Swayze's rebel look, combine the gang concept with a police angle and came up with The Renegades. Roger Spottiswoode directed the TV movie pilot that first broadcast on August 11, 1982 and a six-episode series was later broadcast in 1983. It had weak ratings and ABC cancelled the show.
Ratings
References
External links
Episode list
1983 American television series debuts
1983 American television series endings
1980s American crime television series
American crime television series
American action television series
English-language television shows
American Broadcasting Company original programming
Television series by CBS Studios
Television shows set in Michigan | [
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254977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20Philip%20Randolph | A. Philip Randolph | Asa Philip Randolph (April 15, 1889 – May 16, 1979) was an American labor unionist and civil rights activist. In 1925, he organized and led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first successful African-American led labor union. In the early Civil Rights Movement and the Labor Movement, Randolph was a prominent voice. His continuous agitation with the support of fellow labor rights activists against racist unfair labor practices, eventually led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 8802 in 1941, banning discrimination in the defense industries during World War II. The group then successfully pressured President Harry S. Truman to issue Executive Orders 9980 and 9981 in 1948, promoting fair employment, anti-discrimination policies in federal government hiring, and ending racial segregation in the armed services.
Randolph was born and raised in Florida. Although he was able to attain a good education in his community at Cookman Institute, he did not see a future for himself in the discriminatory Jim Crow era south, and moved to New York City just before the Great Migration. There he became convinced that overcoming racism required collective action and he was drawn to socialism and workers' rights. He unsuccessfully ran for state office on the socialist ticket in the early twenties, but found more success in organizing for African American workers' rights.
In 1963, Randolph was the head of the March on Washington, which was organized by Bayard Rustin, at which Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his "I Have A Dream" speech. Randolph inspired the "Freedom Budget", sometimes called the "Randolph Freedom budget", which aimed to deal with the economic problems facing the black community, it was published by the Randolph Institute in January 1967 as "A Freedom Budget for All Americans".
Biography
Early life and education
Philip Randolph was born April 15, 1889, in Crescent City, Florida, the second son of the James William Randolph, a tailor and minister in an African Methodist Episcopal Church, and Elizabeth Robinson Randolph, a skilled seamstress. In 1891, the family moved to Jacksonville, Florida, which had a thriving, well-established African-American community.
From his father, Randolph learned that color was less important than a person's character and conduct. From his mother, he learned the importance of education and of defending oneself physically against those who would seek to hurt one or one's family, if necessary. Randolph remembered vividly the night his mother sat in the front room of their house with a loaded shotgun across her lap, while his father tucked a pistol under his coat and went off to prevent a mob from lynching a man at the local county jail.
Asa and his brother, James, were superior students. They attended the Cookman Institute in East Jacksonville, the only academic high school in Florida for African Americans. Asa excelled in literature, drama, and public speaking; he also starred on the school's baseball team, sang solos with the school choir, and was valedictorian of the 1907 graduating class.
After graduation, Randolph worked odd jobs and devoted his time to singing, acting, and reading. Reading W. E. B. Du Bois' The Souls of Black Folk convinced him that the fight for social equality was most important. Barred by discrimination from all but manual jobs in the South, Randolph moved to New York City in 1911, where he worked at odd jobs and took social sciences courses at City College.
Marriage and family
In 1913, Randolph courted and married Mrs. Lucille Campbell Green, a widow, Howard University graduate, and entrepreneur who shared his socialist politics. She earned enough money to support them both. The couple had no children.
Early career
Shortly after Randolph's marriage, he helped organize the Shakespearean Society in Harlem. With them he played the roles of Hamlet, Othello, and Romeo, among others. Randolph aimed to become an actor but gave up after failing to win his parents' approval.In New York, Randolph became familiar with socialism and the ideologies espoused by the Industrial Workers of the World. He met Columbia University Law student Chandler Owen, and the two developed a synthesis of Marxist economics and the sociological ideas of Lester Frank Ward, arguing that people could only be free if not subject to economic deprivation. At this point, Randolph developed what would become his distinctive form of civil rights activism, which emphasized the importance of collective action as a way for black people to gain legal and economic equality. To this end, he and Owen opened an employment office in Harlem to provide job training for southern migrants and encourage them to join trade unions.
Like others in the labor movement, Randolph favored immigration restriction. He opposed African Americans' having to compete with people willing to work for low wages. Unlike other immigration restrictionists, however, he rejected the notions of racial hierarchy that became popular in the 1920s.
In 1917, Randolph and Chandler Owen founded The Messenger with the help of the Socialist Party of America. It was a radical monthly magazine, which campaigned against lynching, opposed U.S. participation in World War I, urged African Americans to resist being drafted, to fight for an integrated society, and urged them to join radical unions. The Department of Justice called The Messenger "the most able and the most dangerous of all the Negro publications." When The Messenger began publishing the work of black poets and authors, a critic called it "one of the most brilliantly edited magazines in the history of Negro journalism."
Soon thereafter, however, the editorial staff of The Messenger became divided by three issues – the growing rift between West Indian and African Americans, support for the Bolshevik revolution, and support for Marcus Garvey's Back-to-Africa movement. In 1919, most West Indian radicals joined the new Communist Party, while African-American leftists – Randolph included – mostly supported the Socialist Party. The infighting left The Messenger short of financial support, and it went into decline.
Randolph ran on the Socialist Party ticket for New York State Comptroller in 1920, and for Secretary of State of New York in 1922, unsuccessfully.
Union organizer
Randolph's first experience with labor organization came in 1917, when he organized a union of elevator operators in New York City. In 1919 he became president of the National Brotherhood of Workers of America, a union which organized among African-American shipyard and dock workers in the Tidewater region of Virginia. The union dissolved in 1921, under pressure from the American Federation of Labor.
His greatest success came with the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP), who elected him president in 1925. This was the first serious effort to form a labor institution for employees of the Pullman Company, which was a major employer of African Americans. The railroads had expanded dramatically in the early 20th century, and the jobs offered relatively good employment at a time of widespread racial discrimination. Because porters were not unionized, however, most suffered poor working conditions and were underpaid.
Under Randolph's direction, the BSCP managed to enroll 51 percent of porters within a year, to which Pullman responded with violence and firings. In 1928, after failing to win mediation under the Watson-Parker Railway Labor Act, Randolph planned a strike. This was postponed after rumors circulated that Pullman had 5,000 replacement workers ready to take the place of BSCP members. As a result of its perceived ineffectiveness membership of the union declined; by 1933 it had only 658 members and electricity and telephone service at headquarters had been disconnected because of nonpayment of bills.
Fortunes of the BSCP changed with the election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932. With amendments to the Railway Labor Act in 1934, porters were granted rights under federal law. Membership in the Brotherhood jumped to more than 7,000. After years of bitter struggle, the Pullman Company finally began to negotiate with the Brotherhood in 1935, and agreed to a contract with them in 1937. Employees gained $2,000,000 in pay increases, a shorter workweek, and overtime pay. Randolph maintained the Brotherhood's affiliation with the American Federation of Labor through the 1955 AFL-CIO merger.
Civil rights leader
Through his success with the BSCP, Randolph emerged as one of the most visible spokespeople for African-American civil rights. In 1941, he, Bayard Rustin, and A. J. Muste proposed a march on Washington to protest racial discrimination in war industries, an end to segregation, access to defense employment, the proposal of an anti-lynching law and of the desegregation of the American Armed forces. Randolph's belief in the power of peaceful direct action was inspired partly by Mahatma Gandhi's success in using such tactics against British occupation in India. Randolph threatened to have 50,000 blacks march on the city; it was cancelled after President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, or the Fair Employment Act. Some activists, including Rustin, felt betrayed because Roosevelt's order applied only to banning discrimination within war industries and not the armed forces. Nonetheless, the Fair Employment Act is generally considered an important early civil rights victory.
And the movement continued to gain momentum. In 1942, an estimated 18,000 blacks gathered at Madison Square Garden to hear Randolph kick off a campaign against discrimination in the military, in war industries, in government agencies, and in labor unions. Following passage of the Act, during the Philadelphia transit strike of 1944, the government backed African-American workers' striking to gain positions formerly limited to white employees.
Buoyed by these successes, Randolph and other activists continued to press for the rights of African Americans. In 1947, Randolph, along with colleague Grant Reynolds, renewed efforts to end discrimination in the armed services, forming the Committee Against Jim Crow in Military Service, later renamed the League for Non-Violent Civil disobedience. When President Truman asked Congress for a peacetime draft law, Randolph urged young black men to refuse to register. Since Truman was vulnerable to defeat in 1948 and needed the support of the growing black population in northern states, he eventually capitulated. On July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman abolished racial segregation in the armed forces through Executive Order 9981.
In 1950, along with Roy Wilkins, Executive Secretary of the NAACP, and, Arnold Aronson, a leader of the National Jewish Community Relations Advisory Council, Randolph founded the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights (LCCR). LCCR has been a major civil rights coalition. It coordinated a national legislative campaign on behalf of every major civil rights law since 1957.
Randolph and Rustin also formed an important alliance with Martin Luther King Jr. In 1957, when schools in the south resisted school integration following Brown v. Board of Education, Randolph organized the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom with Martin Luther King Jr. In 1958 and 1959, Randolph organized Youth Marches for Integrated Schools in Washington, D.C. At the same time, he arranged for Rustin to teach King how to organize peaceful demonstrations in Alabama and to form alliances with progressive whites. The protests directed by James Bevel in cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery provoked a violent backlash by police and the local Ku Klux Klan throughout the summer of 1963, which was captured on television and broadcast throughout the nation and the world. Rustin later remarked that Birmingham "was one of television's finest hours. Evening after evening, television brought into the living-rooms of America the violence, brutality, stupidity, and ugliness of {police commissioner} Eugene "Bull" Connor's effort to maintain racial segregation." Partly as a result of the violent spectacle in Birmingham, which was becoming an international embarrassment, the Kennedy administration drafted civil rights legislation aimed at ending Jim Crow once and for all.
Randolph finally realized his vision for a March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963, which attracted between 200,000 and 300,000 to the nation's capital. The rally is often remembered as the high-point of the Civil Rights Movement, and it did help keep the issue in the public consciousness. However, when President Kennedy was assassinated three months later, Civil Rights legislation was stalled in the Senate. It was not until the following year, under President Lyndon B. Johnson, that the Civil Rights Act was finally passed. In 1965, the Voting Rights Act was passed. Although King and Bevel rightly deserve great credit for these legislative victories, the importance of Randolph's contributions to the Civil Rights Movement is large.
Religion
Randolph avoided speaking publicly about his religious beliefs to avoid alienating his diverse constituencies. Though he is sometimes identified as an atheist, particularly by his detractors, Randolph identified with the African Methodist Episcopal Church he was raised in. He pioneered the use of prayer protests, which became a key tactic of the civil rights movement. In 1973, he signed the Humanist Manifesto II.
Death
Randolph died in his Manhattan apartment on May 16, 1979. For several years prior to his death, he had a heart condition and high blood pressure. He had no known living relatives, as his wife Lucille had died in 1963, before the March on Washington.
Awards and accolades
In 1942, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People awarded Randolph the Spingarn Medal.
In 1953, the IBPOEW (Black Elks) awarded him their Elijah P. Lovejoy Medal, given "to that American who shall have worked most successfully to advance the cause of human rights, and for the freedom of Negro people."
On September 14, 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson presented Randolph with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
In 1967 awarded the Eugene V. Debs Award
In 1967 awarded the Pacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Award. It was named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of good will to secure peace among all nations.
Named Humanist of the Year in 1970 by the American Humanist Association.
Named to the Florida Civil Rights Hall of Fame in January 2014.
Legacy
Randolph had a significant impact on the Civil Rights Movement from the 1930s onward. The Montgomery bus boycott in Alabama was directed by E.D. Nixon, who had been a member of the BSCP and was influenced by Randolph's methods of nonviolent confrontation. Nationwide, the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s used tactics pioneered by Randolph, such as encouraging African Americans to vote as a bloc, mass voter registration, and training activists for nonviolent direct action.
In buildings, streets, and trains
Amtrak named one of their best sleeping cars, Superliner II Deluxe Sleeper 32503, the "A. Philip Randolph" in his honor.
A. Philip Randolph Academies of Technology, in Jacksonville, Florida, is named in his honor.
A. Phillip Randolph Boulevard in Jacksonville, Florida, formerly named Florida Avenue, was renamed in 1995 in A. Phillip Randolph's honor. It is located on Jacksonville's east side, near TIAA Bank Field.
A. Philip Randolph Heritage Park in Jacksonville, Florida.
A. Philip Randolph Campus High School (New York City High School 540), located on the City College of New York campus, is named in honor of Randolph. The school serves students predominantly from Harlem and surrounding neighborhoods.
The A. Philip Randolph Career Academy in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was named in his honor.
The A. Philip Randolph Career and Technician Center in Detroit, Michigan is named in his honor.
The A. Philip Randolph Institute is named in his honor.
PS 76 A. Philip Randolph in New York City is named in his honor
A. Philip Randolph Pullman Porter Museum is in Chicago's Pullman Historic District.
Edward Waters College in Jacksonville, Florida houses a permanent exhibit on the life and accomplishments of A. Philip Randolph.
Randolph Street, in Crescent City, Florida, was dedicated to him.
A. Philip Randolph Library, at Borough of Manhattan Community College
A. Philip Randolph Square park in Central Harlem was renamed to honor A. Philip Randolph in 1964 by the City Council.
Arts, entertainment, and media
In the 2015 book The Road to Character author David Brooks includes him among the biographical sketches of individuals of good character
In 1994 a PBS documentary A. Philip Randolph: For Jobs and Freedom
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed A. Philip Randolph on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.
The story of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters was made into the 2002 Robert Townsend film 10,000 Black Men Named George starring Andre Braugher as A. Philip Randolph. The title refers to the demeaning custom of the time when Pullman porters, all of whom were black, were just addressed as "George" (short for "George's boys", a reference to Pullman Company founder George Pullman).
A statue of A. Philip Randolph was erected in his honor in the concourse of Union Station in Washington, D.C..
In 1986 a five-foot bronze statue on a two-foot pedestal of Randolph by Tina Allen was erected in Boston's Back Bay station.
Other
James Farmer, co-founder of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), cited Randolph as one of his primary influences as a civil rights leader.
Randolph was inducted into the Labor Hall of Honor in 1989.
See also
List of civil rights leaders
Milton P. Webster
Footnotes
Further reading
Jervis Anderson, A. Philip Randolph: A Biographical Portrait. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1973.
Thomas R. Brooks and A.H. Raskin, "A. Philip Randolph, 1889–1979", The New Leader, June 4, 1979, pp. 6–9.
Daniel S. Davis, Mr. Black Labor: The Story of A. Philip Randolph, Father of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: Dutton, 1972.
Paul Delaney, "A. Philip Randolph, Rights Leader, Dies: President Leads Tributes", New York Times, May 18, 1979, pg. B4.
Andrew E. Kersten, A. Philip Randolph: A Life in the Vanguard. Rowman and Littlefield, 2006.
Andrew E. Kersten and Clarence Lang (eds.), Reframing Randolph: Labor, Black Freedom, and the Legacies of A. Philip Randolph. New York: New York University Press, 2015.
William H. Harris, "A. Philip Randolph as a Charismatic Leader, 1925–1941", Journal of Negro History, vol. 64 (1979), pp. 301–315.
Paul Le Blanc and Michael Yates, A Freedom Budget for All Americans: Recapturing the Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in the Struggle for Economic Justice Today. with Michael D. Yates. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2013.
Manning Marable, "A. Philip Randolph and the Foundations of Black American Socialism", Radical America, vol. 14 (March–April 1980), pp. 6–29.
Paula F. Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, Pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement (1990; Louisiana State University Press, 1996).
Cynthia Taylor, A. Philip Randolph: The Religious Journey of An African American Labor Leader (NYU Press, 2006).
SUMMERVILLE, RAYMOND M. 2020. “Winning Freedom and Exacting Justice”: A. Philip Randolph's Use of Proverbs and Proverbial Language. Proverbium 37:281-310
Sarah E. Wright, A. Philip Randolph: Integration in the Workplace (Silver Burdett Press, 1990),
External links
A. Philip Randolph Pullman Porter Museum
A. Philp Randolph Institute The Senior Constituency Group of the
American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO)
AFL-CIO Labor History Biography of Randolph
A. Philip Randolph's FBI files, hosted at the Internet Archive
Part 1
Part 2
A. Phillip Randolph Collected Papers held by the Swarthmore College Peace Collection
Documentaries
10,000 Black Men Named George entry from the Internet Movie Database
A. Philip Randolph Exhibit at the George Meany Memorial Archives of the National Labor College.
A. Philip Randolph: For Jobs and Freedom 86 minutes, Producer: WETA-TV. Director: Dante James. Distributor: California Newsreel
1889 births
1979 deaths
20th-century African-American activists
Activists for African-American civil rights
Activists from Florida
Activists from New York (state)
African-American trade unionists
American democratic socialists
Leaders of American trade unions
American people in rail transportation
City College of New York alumni
Harlem Renaissance
Members of Social Democrats USA
Nonviolence advocates
People from Crescent City, Florida
People from Jacksonville, Florida
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Socialist Party of America politicians from New York (state)
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|
254980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albino%20%28chess%29 | Albino (chess) | An Albino is a type of chess problem, "in which, at some point in the solution, a white Pawn on its starting square makes each of its four possible moves (forward one square, forward two squares, capture to the left, capture to the right)." When a Black pawn exhibits similar activity or a quadruple defense instead of "Albino" it is termed a "Pickaninny" (see: albino and pickaninny). The Albino is, "the four possible moves of a WP [white pawn] on its initial square (excluding squares a2 and h2)," and, the Pickaninny, "the four possible moves of a BP [black pawn] on its initial square (excluding squares a7 and h7)". The latter term was coined by Frank Janet by 1916.
Examples
A simple example of an Albino is the problem to the right, a mate in 2 (White moves first and must checkmate Black in two moves against any defense). It is by Camil Seneca and was first published in the April 1949 edition of the Bulletin Ouvrier des Echecs. The first move of the solution (or key) is 1.Nb1. This threatens 2.Ra3#. Black has four ways to defend against this, each of which leads to a different move of the White pawn. After 1...Bb3, the only move that mates is 2.cxb3# (the pawn captures to the left). After 1..Bd3, the only mate is 2.cxd3# (capturing to the right). After 1...Bb5 only 2.c3# will do (forward one square; 2.c4 is no good because the b4 square needs to be covered by the pawn now the White queen has been cut off). After 1...Bd5 only 2.c4# will do (2.c3 is no good, because Black could play 2...Bb3).
The Albino pawn moves need not necessarily be in the post-key play of the problem; they can instead be tries: moves which almost solve a problem but which fail to a single Black defense. The mate in 2 to the right, which combines the Albino with a Pickaninny, is an example. It is by Lev Loshinsky and was published in Moskau-Rostow in 1930. The key is 1.Nfd5 (threatening 2. Qf4#) with the variations 1...g5 2. h8=Q#; 1...Rxc3/Rxd5 2.Qf5#; and 1...Rd4 2.Qxg7/f5#. The main point of the problem however, is in the Albino tries, each of which is refuted by a Pickaninny defense. The relevant variations are:
1.exd3 (capture to the left; threatens 2.Nd7#) fails to 1...gxf6 (capture to the right)
1.exf3 (capture to the right; threatens 2.Qg5# and 2.f4#) fails to 1...gxh6 (capture to the left)
1.e3 (one square forward; threatens 2.Qf4#) fails to 1...g5 (two squares forward)
1.e4 (two squares forward; threatens 2. Qf5#) fails to 1...g6 (one square forward)
In each of these cases there are other ways for Black to counter White's threat, but the Pickaninny move is the only one that doesn't give White a new mate (for example, after 1.exf3, Bg6 prevents White's threats, but is not any good because it allows 2.Rxe6#).
The nature of the Albino theme is such that in orthodox chess there must be at least four variations to show the four different moves of the White pawn. However, if the rules of circe chess are applied, the number of required variations can be reduced to two (circe is a chess variant in which captured pieces, rather than being removed from the board, are returned to their home squares). The problem to the right is an example; it is by Adrian Storisteanu and was first published in the British Chess Magazine in 1977. The problem is a helpmate in 2, which means Black moves first and cooperates with White to move to a position where Black is in checkmate after White's second move. This problem features grasshoppers (represented here by inverted queens), a fairy chess piece which moves along the same lines as a queen, but which must "hop" over another piece (friendly or enemy) and land on the square immediately beyond.
There are two solutions to the problem (note that in helpmates, Black's moves are given first):
1.Rd3 c3+ 2.Gaxc3(pc2) cxd3(Ra8)#
1.Rb3 c4+ 2.Gxc4(pc2) cxb3(Ra8)#
The first solution has the White pawn moving forward one square, then, after its rebirth on c2, capturing to the right; the second solution has the pawn first moving two squares and then capturing to the left. Problems like this, showing an Albino with fewer than four variations, are very unusual.
References
External links
A selection of four albino problems, mostly fairy.
A selection of eight pickaninny problems, mostly fairy.
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254991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passport%20to%20Pimlico | Passport to Pimlico | Passport to Pimlico is a 1949 British comedy film made by Ealing Studios and starring Stanley Holloway, Margaret Rutherford and Hermione Baddeley. It was directed by Henry Cornelius and written by T. E. B. Clarke. The story concerns the unearthing of treasure and documents that lead to a small part of Pimlico to be declared a legal part of the House of Burgundy, and therefore exempt from the post-war rationing or other bureaucratic restrictions active in Britain at the time.
Passport to Pimlico explores the spirit and unity of wartime London in a post-war context and offers an examination of the English character. Like other Ealing comedies, the film pits a small group of British against a series of changes to the status quo from an external agent. The story was an original concept by the screenwriter T. E. B. Clarke. He was inspired by an incident during the Second World War, when the maternity ward of Ottawa Civic Hospital was temporarily declared extraterritorial by the Canadian government so that when Princess Juliana of the Netherlands gave birth, the baby was born on Dutch territory, and would not lose her right to the throne.
Passport to Pimlico was well-received on its release. The film was released in the same year as Whisky Galore! and Kind Hearts and Coronets, leading to 1949 being remembered as one of the peak years of the Ealing comedies. Passport to Pimlico was nominated for the British Academy Film Award for Best British Film and the Academy Award for Writing (Story and Screenplay). There have since been two BBC Radio adaptations: the first in 1952, the second in 1996.
Plot
The film's opening credits end with the words "dedicated to the memory of", with an image of Second World War British food and clothing ration coupons.
In post-Second World War London, an unexploded bomb detonates in Miramont Gardens, Pimlico. The explosion reveals a long-buried cellar containing artwork, coins, jewellery and an ancient manuscript. The document is authenticated by the historian Professor Hatton-Jones as a royal charter of Edward IV that ceded a house and its estates to Charles VII, the last Duke of Burgundy, when he sought refuge there after being presumed dead at the 1477 Battle of Nancy. As the charter had never been revoked, an area of Pimlico is declared to still be a legal part of Burgundy.
As the British government has no legal jurisdiction, it requires the local residents to form a representative committee according to the laws of the long-defunct dukedom before negotiating with them. Ancient Burgundian law requires that the duke himself appoint a council. Sébastien de Charolais arrives and presents his claim to the title, which is verified by Professor Hatton-Jones. He forms the governing body, which includes Spiller, the local policeman; Mr. Wix, the manager of the bank branch; and Arthur Pemberton, a neighbourhood shopkeeper, who is appointed as Burgundy's prime minister. The council begin discussions with the government, particularly about the Burgundian treasure.
After the new Burgundians realise they are not subject to post-war rationing or other bureaucratic restrictions, the district is quickly flooded with black marketeers and shoppers. Spiller is unable to handle the rising tide of problems by himself. In response, the British authorities surround the Burgundian territory with barbed wire. The residents retaliate against what they see as heavy-handed bureaucratic action; they stop a London Underground train as it passes through Burgundy, and ask to see passports of all passengers: those without documents are prevented from proceeding.
The British government retaliates by breaking off negotiations and isolating Burgundy. The residents are invited to "emigrate" to England, but few leave. Power, water and deliveries of food are all cut off at the border by the British. Late one night, the Burgundians covertly connect a hose to a nearby British water main and fill a bomb crater, solving the water problem, but this floods the food store. Unable to overcome this new problem, the Burgundians prepare to give up. Sympathetic Londoners begin to throw food parcels across the barrier, and soon others join in; the Burgundians have an ample supply, and decide to stay. A helicopter pumps milk through a hose and pigs are parachuted into the area.
Meanwhile, the British government comes under public pressure to resolve the situation. It becomes clear to the British diplomats assigned to find a solution that defeating the Burgundians through starvation is both difficult and unpopular with the British people, so they negotiate. The sticking point turns out to be the disposition of the unearthed treasure. Wix, now the Burgundian chancellor of the exchequer, suggests a Burgundian loan of the treasure to Britain. With the final piece of the deadlock eliminated, Burgundy reunites with Britain, which also sees the return of rationing for food and clothing to the area. The celebratory outdoor banquet is interrupted by heavy rain.
Cast
Stanley Holloway as Arthur Pemberton
Betty Warren as Connie Pemberton
Barbara Murray as Shirley Pemberton
Paul Dupuis as Sébastien de Charolais, Duke of Burgundy
John Slater as Frank Huggins
Jane Hylton as Molly Reed
Raymond Huntley as Mr. Wix
Philip Stainton as PC Spiller
Roy Carr as Benny Spiller
Sydney Tafler as Fred Cowan
Nancy Gabrielle as Mrs. Cowan
Malcolm Knight as Monty Cowan
Hermione Baddeley as Edie Randall
Roy Gladdish as Charlie Randall
Frederick Piper as Jim Garland
Charles Hawtrey as Bert Fitch
Margaret Rutherford as Professor Hatton-Jones
Naunton Wayne as Straker
Basil Radford as Gregg
Paul Demel as Central European
Themes
Passport to Pimlico contains numerous references to the Second World War to accentuate the spirit within the small Burgundian enclave. The film studies scholar Charles Barr, in his examination of the Ealing films, observes that in opposing the British government, the Burgundians "recover the spirit, the resilience and local autonomy and unity of wartime London". Barr suggests the actions "re-enact, ... in miniature, the war experience of Britain itself". The film historian Mark Duguid, writing for the British Film Institute, considers that the opposition is a "yearning nostalgia for the social unity of the war years". The film historians Anthony Aldgate and Jeffrey Richards describe Passport to Pimlico as a progressive comedy because it upsets the established social order to promote the well-being of a community. The view of the community put forward in the film has been criticised as being anachronistic, as the wartime unity had already passed by 1949. According to Aldgate and Richards, the welcome return to the ration books at the end of the film signifies an acceptance that the measures of the British government are in the best interests of the people.
The device of pitting a small group of British against a series of changes to the status quo from an external agent leads the British Film Institute to consider Passport to Pimlico, along with other of the Ealing comedies, as "conservative, but 'mildly anarchic' daydreams, fantasies". At the close of the story, when the summer heatwave turns to a torrential downpour, the film has "something of the quality of a fever-dream", according to Aldgate and Richards.
According to the film historian Robert Sellers, Passport to Pimlico "captures the most quintessential English traits of individualism, tolerance and compromise"; Duguid sees the examination of the English character as being "at the heart" of the film. This was one of the aspects that appealed to Margaret Rutherford, who liked the way the British were portrayed "accentuating their individuality and decency, while acknowledging some parochial idiosyncracies".
Production
Passport to Pimlico was produced by Michael Balcon, the head of Ealing Studios; he appointed Henry Cornelius as director. The film was one of three comedies to be produced simultaneously, alongside Whisky Galore! and Kind Hearts and Coronets; all three were released into UK cinemas over two months.
The plot was an original story by T. E. B. Clarke, a writer of both comedy and drama scripts for Ealing; his other screenplays for the studio include Hue and Cry (1947), Against the Wind (1948), The Blue Lamp (1950), The Lavender Hill Mob (1951) and The Titfield Thunderbolt (1953). Clarke was inspired by an incident during the Second World War, when the maternity ward of Ottawa Civic Hospital was temporarily declared extraterritorial by the Canadian government so that when the then-Princess Juliana of the Netherlands gave birth to Princess Margriet of the Netherlands, the baby was born on Dutch territory, and would not lose her right to the throne. The airlift of food supplies into the Burgundian enclave was influenced by the flights of food and supplies during the Berlin Blockade of June 1948 – May 1949. The music for the film was composed by Georges Auric, who had been involved in several other productions for Ealing Studios.
The lead part of Pemberton was initially offered to Jack Warner. He turned down the role because he was committed to another film, and so the part was instead offered to Stanley Holloway. Alastair Sim was offered the role of Professor Hatton-Jones, but after he turned it down, Margaret Rutherford was cast instead.
Filming
Passport to Pimlico is set during a heatwave that occurred in Britain in 1947, but, despite this, filming took place during 1948's abnormally wet summer. The poor weather caused delays in production, which led to the film being over-time and over-budget. Shooting started early each day, in an attempt to get the first successful shot completed before 9:00 am. An average of ten takes a day were taken, in an attempt to get two and a half minutes of usable film per day. There were arguments between Cornelius and Balcon throughout the production, because Balcon was unhappy with what he saw as poor direction. Cornelius left Ealing Studios after working on Passport to Pimlico and did not work for the studio again.
The outdoor scenes were not shot in Pimlico, but about a mile away in Lambeth. A set was built on a large Second World War bombsite just south of the Lambeth Road at the junction of Hercules Road. At the conclusion of filming, the site had to be returned to the same bomb-damaged state as before, to enable the locals to claim war damage compensation. The site has since been built on, and now features 1960s municipal flats.
Release and reception
Passport to Pimlico was released into UK cinemas on 28 April 1949; the film was financially successful. For the US release on 23 October 1949, soil was imported and placed in front of the cinema; commissionaires in the uniform of a British policeman would hand out mock passports and invite passers-by to step onto English soil to see the film. The film was shown at the 1949 Cannes Film Festival, although it was not entered into the competition.
Critics warmly praised Passport to Pimlico on its release. Several critics identified that the script was excellent, and the reviewer for The Manchester Guardian thought that "the chief credit for ... [this] joy of a film should go to T. E. B. Clarke". The unnamed reviewer for The Monthly Film Bulletin considered that "every line, every 'gag', is a little masterpiece of wit", while the critic C. A. Lejeune, writing for The Observer, thought that the writing and direction were excellent; she went on to record that "the end comes too soon, which is something that can be said of very few films".
The acting was also praised by many of the critics; Lejeune thought that "the acting of the countless small character parts that the plot brings together is splendid", while the reviewer for The Monthly Film Bulletin considered that "each character, and indeed every individual member of the lengthy cast, provides a gem of comedy acting at its highest and best". The Manchester Guardian reviewer was critical about aspects of the direction which, it was said, was undertaken "with barely sufficient skill to sustain the fun". The critic Henry Raynor, writing for Sight and Sound, thought that the film "sacrificed a comic enquiry into motives and personality to a farcical romp ... It was carried through, not by wit or polish, but by a sometimes hysterical jollity".
Passport to Pimlico was nominated for the British Academy Film Award for Best British Film, alongside Whisky Galore! and Kind Hearts and Coronets, although they lost to The Third Man (1949); the film was also nominated for the Academy Award for Writing (Story and Screenplay), where it lost to Battleground (1949).
Adaptations
In 1952, a radio adaptation, written by Charles Hatton, was broadcast on the BBC's Light Programme. Charles Leno played Pemberton, in a cast that included Christopher Lee, Gladys Henson and Kenneth Williams. A BBC Radio 4 adaptation, written by John Peacock, was broadcast on 20 January 1996. George Cole played the part of Pemberton; Michael Maloney and Joan Sims also appeared.
See also
The Little Switzerland, a 2019 Spanish comedy film partially based on this film
Frestonia, the name of the "republic" adopted by the residents of Freston Road, London, when they attempted to secede from the United Kingdom in 1977
Micronations
BFI Top 100 British films
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Passport to Pimlico at the British Film Institute
Passport to Pimlico at the BFI's Screenonline
1949 comedy films
1949 films
British films
British comedy films
Films set in London
Films set on the London Underground
Films shot in London
Films directed by Henry Cornelius
Films produced by Michael Balcon
Films with screenplays by T. E. B. Clarke
Films scored by Georges Auric
Ealing Studios films
Duchy of Burgundy
Pimlico
Cultural depictions of Charles the Bold
British black-and-white films
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254994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanghua%20Temple%20%28Putian%29 | Guanghua Temple (Putian) | The Guanghua Temple (), also known as the South Mountain Guanghua Temple (), is a Buddhist temple located at the foot of Mount Phoenix (), about south of Putian City, Fujian Province, People's Republic of China.
Built in the penultimate year of the Southern Chen Dynasty (588 CE), it is one of the most influential Chinese Buddhism temples in China as well as one of the most scenic visitor attractions in Fujian Province.
Location
The temple stands about from the entrance to the Longmen Stone Cave () and is spread over an area of more than ,
History and development
Ancient times
Constructed in 558 CE, the second year of Emperor Wu of Chen's Yongding () era, the temple was originally called the Jinxian Monastery (), after its first abbot, Master Jinxian. In 589 CE, founding Sui Dynasty Emperor Wen, a Buddhist adherent, extended the building and renamed it the "Guanghua Temple".
During Emperor Xuanzong of Tang's reign (685–762 CE), Indian monks came to discuss and lecture on Buddhism at the temple. Xuanzong also built a tower in the grounds. The temple changed its name again during the Tang Dynasty when in 771 CE, the second year of his Jingyun () era, Emperor Ruizong of Tang dubbed it the Lingyan Temple () and had a signboard created by the renowned calligrapher Liu Gongquan.
Finally, during the early reign of Emperor Taizong of Song (r. 976–997 CE), the temple once more became the Guanghua Temple.
The establishment flourished during the Song (1279–1368) and Ming (1368–1644) Dynasties. Along with Fuzhou's Gushan Spring Temple (), Quanzhou's Kaiyuan Temple (), and Xiamen's Nanputuo Temple, the Guanghua Temple was known as one of the four great Buddhist monasteries or Conglin () of Fujian Province.
In 1341 CE the Guanghua Monastery was destroyed during a war then rebuilt between 1368-1424 CE only to be once more razed to the ground by fire in 1562. In the second half of the sixteenth century the monastery underwent alterations and reconstruction.
Qing Kangxi Emperor carried out a comprehensive building program at the temple during 1692 and merged it with the nearby Fahai Temple ().
Modern era
By 1886 only the Avalokitesvara Pavilion, with two resident monks, remained of the monastery.
In 1890 Shanhe became president of the Guanghua Monastery and began a rebuilding program. The Jeweled Hall of the Great Heroes, Parlour, the Mediation Hall, the Abbot’s Room and the Brahma-carya Hall were all rebuilt to form the present-day complex. Master Benru built the additional Sutra Pavilion as an extension to the Dharma Hall, after Emperor Xuantong's 1910 donation of more than 7,000 rolls of Dragon Sutra. In 1933, the Avalokitesvara Pavilion and the Heavenly King Palace were also rebuilt.
Until 1949 monasteries were built in other Southeast Asian countries by monks of the Guanghua Monastery to spread Chinese Buddhism. Presently, the Guanghua Monastery has seven branches in the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia.
At the foundation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 the temple had a resident population of 60 monks, a figure which by 1965 had declined to 57. Used as a factory for a period during the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), the monks were dispelled and all statues of deities smashed.
With opening up and reform during the late 1970s and the advent of religious freedom, Master Yuanchan () from the Yechengguang Garden Temple () in Indonesia together with other overseas Chinese began to support the Guanghua Temple. In 1979, a six-year restoration program began under the supervision of then 70-year-old Venerable Master Yuanzhou ().
In 1983 the temple became one of the Chinese Buddhism Regional Temples () whilst 36-year-old Master Yiran () became abbot. The same year, Venerable Master Yuanzhou funded the establishment of the new Fujian Buddhism Academy () on the site.
During the summer of 1996, in association with the Buddhist Association of China, more than 300 novice monks were initiated over a 108-day period. As of 2010, there are around 250 resident monks at the Guanghua Temple.
Recent Abbots
1979–1986, Venerable Master Yuanzhou ()
1986–1990, Master Yiran ()
1990–2021 Master Xuecheng ()
2021- Present Master Benxing
Structure
The temple's principal features are as follows:
Memorial Arch ()
Fangsheng Pool (; literally, Pool of Rebirth)
Gaoshan Gate () (Tall Mountain Gate)
Tianwang Palace () (Hall of the Four Heavenly Kings)
Mahavira () (Hall of the Great Hero)
Fatang () (Buddhist Hall)
Jialan Palace () (Sangharama Hall)
Sanzang Palace () (Tripiţaka Hall)
Dizang Palace () (Hall of Ksitigarbha)
In front of the temple there is a 10-metre stone staircase with 199 steps .
See also
Temple of Great Compassion
Nanshan Temple
Ashin Jinarakkhita
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Voice of Longquan (Official site), Guanghua Monastery
another official site, with a longer history
Buddhist temples in Putian
Pagodas in China
6th-century Buddhist temples
Towers completed in the 6th century
6th-century establishments in China
Religious organizations established in the 6th century
Religious buildings and structures completed in 588 | [
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|
254995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasily%20Zaitsev%20%28sniper%29 | Vasily Zaitsev (sniper) | Vasily Grigoryevich Zaitsev (; 23 March 1915 – 15 December 1991) was a Soviet sniper during World War II. Between 22 September 1942 and 19 October 1942, he killed 40 enemy soldiers. Between 10 October 1942 and 17 December 1942, during the Battle of Stalingrad, he killed 225 enemy soldiers.
Zaitsev became a celebrated figure during the war and later a Hero of the Soviet Union, and he remains lauded for his skills as a sniper. His life and military career have been the subject of several books and films: his exploits, as detailed in William Craig's 1973 book Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for Stalingrad, served as the story for the 2001 film Enemy at the Gates, with Jude Law portraying Zaitsev. He is also featured in David L. Robbins's 1991 historical novel War of the Rats.
Early life
Zaitsev was born in Yeleninskoye, Orenburg Governorate in a peasant family of Russian ethnicity and grew up in the Ural Mountains, where he learned marksmanship by hunting deer and wolves with his grandfather and older brother. He brought home his first trophy at the age of 12, a wolf that he killed with a single bullet from his first personal gun (given to him by his grandfather), a single-shot 20 gauge shotgun.
In 1930, Zaitsev graduated from construction college in the city of Magnitogorsk, where he received the speciality of fitter. He also studied accounting.
From 1937, Zaitsev served in the Pacific Fleet, where he was clerk of the artillery department. After studying at military school, he was appointed head of the finance department of the pacific fleet in Transfiguration Bay.
Military career
Zaitsev was serving in the Soviet Navy as a clerk in Vladivostok when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Zaitsev, like many of his comrades, volunteered for transfer to the front line. He had attained the rank of chief petty officer in the Navy and was assigned the rank of senior warrant officer upon transfer to the army. He was assigned to the 1047th Rifle Regiment of the 284th "Tomsk" Rifle Division, which became part of the 62nd Army at Stalingrad on 17 September 1942.
Zaitsev's accuracy with a rifle led to him becoming a sniper. Zaitsev would conceal himself in various locations, for example on high ground, under rubble, or in water pipes. After a few kills, he would change his position or relocate. Together with his partner, Nikolai Kulikov, Zaitsev perfected his hide and sting tactics. One method was to cover a large area from three positions, with two men at each point – a sniper and a scout. This tactic, known as the "sixes," is still in use today and was implemented during the war in Chechnya.
Zaitsev fought at the Battle of Stalingrad until January 1943, when a mortar attack injured his eyes. Some conflicting stories state it was a landmine, but the doctor who treated Zaitsev and eventually restored his eyesight was opthalmologist Vladimir Filatov, founder of the Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases and Tissue Therapy in Odessa, and a pioneer in corneal transplantation. Had Zaitsev been injured by a landmine, an opthmalogist would not have treated him. Before his injury, he had killed 225 people in the Battle of Stalingrad alone.
On 22 February 1943, Zaitsev was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. Zaitsev recruited and trained other marksmen during his service in Stalingrad. He returned to the front, and finished the war at the Battle of the Seelow Heights in Germany, with the military rank of captain. He became a member of the Communist Party in 1943.
Civilian life
After the war, Zaitsev settled in Kyiv, where he studied at a textile university before obtaining employment as an engineer. He fell victim to the post-war "spy frenzy" paranoia, spending 1951-1953 in a pretrial detention center. However, he rose to become the director of a textile factory in Kyiv, where he remained until his death on 15 December 1991, at the age of 76, 11 days before the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
2006 commemoration
On 31 January 2006, Vasily Zaitsev was reburied with full military honors at the Stalingrad memorial at Mamayev Kurgan in Volgograd.
In popular culture
Film
A feature-length film, Enemy at the Gates (2001), starring Jude Law as Zaitsev, was based on part of William Craig's book Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for Stalingrad (1973), which includes a "snipers' duel" between Zaitsev and a Wehrmacht sniper school director, Major Erwin König. Zaitsev indicates in his own memoirs that a three-day duel did occur and that the sniper he killed was the head of a sniper school near Berlin; however, historian Sir Antony Beevor states that the Russian Ministry of Defence archives contradict this and the duel had been created as Soviet propaganda.
Literature
David L. Robbins's historical novel, War of the Rats (1991) includes a sniper duel in Stalingrad, but between Zaitsev and a German adversary named Colonel Heinz Thorvald, identified in the author's introduction as an actual combatant. Ramón Rosanas wrote a comic about the conflict between Zaitsev and König.
Awards and honors
Hero of the Soviet Union
Four Orders of Lenin
Two Orders of the Red Banner
Order of the Patriotic War 1st Class
Medal "For Courage"
Honorary Citizen of the Hero City of Volgograd
World's Best Sniper of All Time (Moskva)
References
Further reading
Zaitsev, Vassili (2003). Thoughts of a Sniper. Trans. David Givens, Peter Kornakov, Konstantin Kornakov. Ed. Neil Okrent. Los Angeles: 2826 Press Inc. .
Beevor, Antony (1998). Stalingrad. London: Penguin Books Ltd. .
Robbins, David L. (2000). War of the Rats. New York: Bantam Books. .
The Reader's Digest Illustrated History of World War II (1989). London: Reader's Digest Association Limited.
External links
Biography at warheroes.ru
1915 births
1991 deaths
People from Kartalinsky District
People from Orenburg Governorate
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Recipients of the Medal "For Courage" (Russia)
Russian people
Russian people of World War II
Soviet military snipers
Soviet military personnel of World War II
Soviet Navy personnel
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Battle of Stalingrad
Sniper warfare | [
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|
255000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownies%20%28Scouting%29 | Brownies (Scouting) | Brownies are the section in the Girl Guides (or in the United States, Girl Scouts) organization for girls aged seven years old to ten years old. Exact age limits are slightly different in each organization.
History
Brownies, originally called Rosebuds, were first organized by Lord Baden-Powell in 1914, to complete the range of age groups for girls in Scouting. They were first run as the youngest group in the Guide Association by Agnes Baden-Powell, Lord Baden-Powell's younger sister. In 1918 his wife, Lady Olave Baden-Powell, took over the responsibility for the Girl Guides and thus for Brownies.
Originally the girls were called Rosebuds, but were renamed by Lord Baden-Powell after the girls had complained that they did not like their name. Their name comes from the story "The Brownies" by Juliana Horatia Ewing, written in 1870. In the story two children, Tommy and Betty, learn that children can be helpful brownies instead of being lazy boggarts.
Italian history
In Italy, the term was maintained and also extended to boys, coexisting with Wolf Cubs.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, Brownies were originally called Rosebuds. Rosebuds was started in 1914 and was originally for girls aged 8–11. Rosebuds was renamed to Brownies in 1915. In 1937 Princess Margaret became the first royal Brownie.
Brownies is the second youngest section of Girlguiding in the UK; for girls aged 7–10. A group of Brownies who meet together is called a unit. Brownies work in small groups called sixes: each six is named after either fairies or woodland creatures. A six is led by a Sixer and has a Second who acts as deputy. The Brownie programme is called the Brownie Adventure. It is split into 3 parts:
you, community, world.
Brownies work towards interest badges, there are 57. These can be done in meetings with the unit or at home or in clubs such as swimming. Brownies can also work towards their Adventure badges. These are gained over a period of time and require girls to complete many different activities, such as going on an adventure, taking part in an activity with another unit and earning an interest badge.
There are a few Brownie songs that some packs sing at the beginning of the meeting:
Come let us make a Brownie ring, a Brownie Ring a Brownie Ring
Come let us make a Brownie Ring, we hear our Brown Owl Calling.
Under the Brownie bridge we go, bridge we go, bridge we go
Under the Brownie bridge we go, because we are the..... (name of six is entered)
This is usually sung as each six skips under the brownie bridge and into the circle. It is often followed by the next song:
We're Brownie Guides, we're Brownie Guides
We're here to lend a hand
To love our God and serve our Queen
And to help our homes and land
We're Brownie friends, we're Brownie friends
In North, South, East and West
We're joined together in our wish
To try to do our best
There are slight variations of the songs.
Some packs also sing one of the traditional songs to end a meeting, to the tune of the Cambridge Chimes:
O Lord, our God
Thy children call
Grant us Thy peace
And bless us all
O Lord, this week
Thy children seek
Good deeds to do
And to be true
Good-night (everyone then salutes each other)
Motto, Promise and Law
Australia
In Australia (where girls of all ages are now called Girl Guides) the Guiding Promise is:
I promise that I will do my best,
To be true to myself and develop my beliefs,
To serve my community and Australia,
and live by the Guide law.
Prior to 2012, the Promise was:
I promise that I will do my best;
To do my duty to God,
To serve the Queen and my country
To help other people
and keep the Guide law.
The Brownie Guide Law, prior to 1996, was:
A Brownie Guide thinks of others before herself and should do a good turn everyday.
The Brownie Promise 1990: I promise to do my bestTo do my duty to God To serve my Queen & my country To help other peopleAnd to do a good deed every day.Motto 1990: Be prepared.
The Brownie Guide Motto, prior to 1996, was:
Lend a hand
The Guide Law, Promise and Motto, which are followed by all ages of the guiding movement after 1996, are the Laws, Promise and Motto relating to the guide age group.
Canada
In Girl Guides of Canada, the Brownie Promise is:
I promise to do my best,
To be true to myself, my beliefs and Canada,
I will take action for a better world,
And respect the Brownie Law.
The Canadian Brownie Law is:
As a Brownie I am honest and kind. I help take care of the world around me.
The Canadian Brownie Motto is:
Lend a Hand
Old Promise:
The old Brownie Promise is from the 1950s
I promise to do my best,
To do my duty to God and the Queen [or "to God, the Queen, and my country"]
To help other people every day, especially those at home.
The English Brownie
Law is:
A brownie guide thinks of others before herself and does a good turn every day.
The English Brownie Motto is:
"Lend A Hand" (LAH)
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, the Brownie Promise is:
I will promise to do my best,
To be true to myself,
To my God, and my country, and the country in which I live,
To help others and to keep the Brownie Guide Law.
The Law is:
As a Brownie Guide,
I will care for my home, my community and myself.
I will do a good turn every day.
Ireland
In Ireland, the Brownie Promise is:
I promise to do my best,
To do my duty to my God and my country,
To help those at home everyday,
And to obey the Brownie Guide Law.
The word 'God' can be replaced by the word 'faith' according to one's spiritual beliefs.
The Irish Brownie Motto is:
Lend a Hand
Singapore
The Singaporean Brownie Promise is:I promise to do my best,To do my duty to God,To serve my country,And help other people, and to keep the Brownie Law.The Singaporean Brownie Law is:
A brownie obeys and respect her elders.
A brownie thinks of others before herself.
A brownie tells the truth.
A brownie is neat and tidy.
A brownie is thrifty.
A brownie plays and works cheerfully.
The Singaporean Brownie Motto is:Lend a hand
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the Brownie Promise is:
I promise that I will do my best:
To be true to myself and develop my beliefs,
To serve the Queen and my community,
To help other people
and
To keep the Brownie Guide Law.
After a wide public consultation in spring 2013, the promise wording was changed for all sections.
The Brownie promise before September 2013 was:
I promise that I will do my best:
To love my God,
To serve The Queen and my country
To help other people,
And to keep the Brownie Guide Law.
The Brownie Guide Law is:
A Brownie Guide thinks of others before herself and does a good turn every day.
The Brownie Guide Motto used to be 'Lend a hand' (LAH). With the introduction of the new programme in the United Kingdom, the motto was dropped for Brownies.
United States
In the United States, Brownies use the same Promise and Law as the other age groups of the Girl Scouts of the USA.
Girl Scout Promise:
On my honor, I will try:
To serve God and my country,
To help people at all times,
And to live by the Girl Scout Law.
Girl Scout Law:
I will do my best to be
honest and fair,
friendly and helpful,
considerate and caring,
courageous and strong, and
responsible for what I say and do,
and to
respect myself and others,
respect authority,
use resources wisely,
make the world a better place, and
be a sister to every Girl Scout.
References
External links
Girlguiding UK
The Brownies And Other Tales by Juliana Horatia Ewing, 1870, from Project Gutenberg
Girl Guiding and Girl Scouting | [
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|
255007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo%20Soto%20%28software%20developer%29 | Pablo Soto (software developer) | Pablo Soto Bravo (born 1979) is a Spanish software developer. He was municipal councillor of Madrid from 2015 to 2019.
In 2001 he developed the .MANOLITO protocol, Blubster and Piolet - two peer-to-peer file-sharing servants. In May 2006, Soto released Manolito, a third clone application, and new versions of Blubster and Piolet.
He apparently left the MP2P Community in 2004; subsequently Blubster and Piolet slowly began to lose their user base. By the end of 2004, when discussions on P2Pforums.com were focused on whether or not he had left the community for financial reasons, it was known that he has a rare form of muscular dystrophy, that has forced him to move in wheelchair.
Soto later put his energy into , an open source peer-to-peer software for storage space sharing (distributed computing).
In June 2008, Warner Music, Universal Music, Emi, Sony and the Spanish association PROMUSICAE filed a lawsuit against his company MP2P Technologies, demanding 13 million euros for unfair competition. He was acquitted on the charges of copyright violation in December 2011.
After the 2015 local elections Soto became a member of the City Council of Madrid with Ahora Madrid. He announced plans to promote usage of free software for the municipal software platforms, and is head of open government for the city. He has launched Decide Madrid, an online platform whereby citizens can propose policy for the city: a proposal supported by a number of users equal to 1 percent of the adult population is put before voters in a referendum. He renounced to his office as city councillor on 8 October 2019.
References
External links
Pablo Soto Homepage
https://web.archive.org/web/20071022051035/http://www.blubster.com/
https://web.archive.org/web/20001109023200/http://www.piolet.com/
https://web.archive.org/web/20071023182130/http://www.manolito.com/
https://web.archive.org/web/20071123182256/http://www.omemo.com/
https://web.archive.org/web/20100401204330/http://www.foofind.com/
1979 births
Living people
Spanish computer scientists
People with muscular dystrophy
Madrid city councillors (2015–2019)
Madrid city councillors (2019–2023) | [
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255012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias%20Flacius | Matthias Flacius | Matthias Flacius Illyricus (Latin; ) or Francovich () (3 March 1520 – 11 March 1575) was a Lutheran reformer from Istria, present day Croatia. He was notable as a theologian, sometimes dissenting strongly with his fellow Lutherans, and as a scholar for his editorial work on the Magdeburg Centuries.
Biography
Early life and education
Flacius was born in Labin (Albona) in Istria, son of Andrea Vlacich (Andrija Vlačić) alias Francovich and Jacobea (Jakovica) Luciani, daughter of a wealthy and powerful Albonian civic family. Her family was related by marriage to the local Lupetino (Lupetina) family: Jacobea's brother, Luciano Luciani, married Ivanka Lupetina, the sister of the friar Baldo Lupetino (Lupetina), likewise born in Labin, who later was condemned to death in Venice for his Lutheran sympathies.
Andrea Vlacich was a small landowner, who died during his son's early childhood. Flacius went also by the name Franković. He matriculated at the University of Basel in 1539 under the name Mattheus de Francistis [Franković] de Albona. Further, he himself signed a payment slip at the University of Wittenberg as Mathias Francovich Illyricus. The origin of the double surname is not clear, but it might have been a double last name resulting from marriage, his or some of his ancestors'.
At the age of sixteen, Flacius went to study in Venice, where he was taught by the humanist Giambattista Cipelli (Baptista Aegnatius / Battista Egnazio). At the age of seventeen, he intended to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning. His intention, however, was diverted by his uncle-in-law, Baldo Lupetina, provincial of the Franciscans and sympathetic to the Reformation cause, who convinced him to start a university career.
Flacius continued his studies in Basel in 1539, then went to Tübingen and finally ended up in Wittenberg, where in (1541) he was welcomed by Philip Melanchthon. In Tübingen, Flacius was received into the house of Matthias Garbitius (Matija Grbac) a humanist and a professor of Greek at the University of Tübingen, who, like Flacius, was from Istria, and was called "fellow countryman" (conterraneous) by Flacius. There he came under the influence of Martin Luther. In 1544, Flacius was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg. He finished his master's degree on 24 February 1546, ranking first among the graduates.
Career and teachings
Soon, Flacius was prominent in the theological discussions of the time, strenuously opposing the Augsburg Interim, and the compromise of Melanchthon known as the Leipzig Interim. Melanchthon wrote of him with venom as a renegade (aluimus in sinu serpentem, "we have nourished a snake in our bosom"). In 1549, Flacius moved to Magdeburg. On 7 May 1557, he was appointed professor of New Testament at the theological faculty in Jena but was soon involved in controversy with his colleague Victorinus Strigel on the synergistic question (relating to the function of the will in the conversion).
Affirming the natural inability of man, he adopted a position on sin as not being an accident of human nature, but involved in its substance, since The Fall of Man. Holding to a strong view of what Calvinists later called total depravity, Flacius insisted that human nature was entirely transformed by original sin, human beings were transformed from goodness and almost wholly corrupted with evil, making them kin to the Devil in his view, so that within them, without divine assistance, there lies no power even to cooperate with the Gospel when they hear it preached. Human acts of piety are valueless in themselves, and humans are entirely dependent on the grace of God for salvation. Those who agreed with him on this point, for example, Cyriacus Spangenberg, were termed Flacians.
Resisting ecclesiastical censure, he left Jena in December 1561 to found an academy at Regensburg. That assignment was not successful, so in October 1566 he accepted a call from the Lutheran community at Antwerp. Thence he was driven in early 1567 by the exigencies of war, and went to Frankfurt, where the authorities stood against him. He proceeded to Strasbourg where he was well received by the superintendent Johannes Marbach. Here again, his religious views caused controversies. The authorities ordered him to leave the city by May Day 1573. The prioress Catharina von Meerfeld of the Convent of White Ladies secretly harboured him and his family in Frankfurt where he fell ill and died on 11 March 1575.
Impact and aftermath
Flacius' life was eventful in a turbulent epoch. He represents in some sense a move in the direction of the scientific study of church history in the modern sense and similarly of hermeneutics, though no doubt his impelling motive was not dispassionate but polemical, namely to prove the false premises of Roman Catholicism. His characteristic formula, historia est fundamentum doctrinae, is better understood now than in his own day.
According to Emil Petru Rațiu, the Moldovan president of the Andrei Glavina Cultural Association of the Istro-Romanians, Flacius could have been an ethnic Istro-Romanian. He based these claims on the fact that there used to be a notorious Istro-Romanian presence in Labin during the times in which Flacius lived, in the surname of his father ("Vlacich", which could originate from "Vlach" and have been Latinized as "Flacius") and other arguments.
Family life
In 1545, while at Wittenberg, Flacius married a pastor's daughter. He had twelve children with his first wife before she died in 1564. He remarried the same year in Regensburg and had six more children with his second wife. His son was professor of logic and medicine at Rostock.
Works
De vocabulo fidei (1549)
De voce et re fidei (1555)
Antilogia Papae: hoc est, de corrupto Ecclesiae statu et totius cleri papistici perversitate, Scripta aliquot veterum authorum, ante annos plus minus CCC, et interea: nunc primum in lucem eruta, et ab interitu vindicata (1555)
Catalogus testium veritatis, qui ante nostram aetatem reclamarunt Papae (1556)
Confessio Waldensium (1558)
Konfutationsbuch (1559)
Ecclesiastica historia, integram Ecclesiae Christi ideam ... secundum singulas Centurias, perspicuo ordine complectens ... ex vetustissimis historicis ...congesta: Per aliquot studiosos et pios viros in urbe Magdeburgica (1559–1574)
Clavis Scripturae Sacrae seu de Sermone Sacrarum literarum (1567)
Glossa compendiaria in Novum Testamentum (1570)
Notes
References
Luka Ilić, Theologian of Sin and Grace. The Process of Radicalization in the Theology of Matthias Flacius Illyricus (2014)
Oliver K. Olson, Matthias Flacius and the Survival of Luther's Reform (2000)
Matthias Flacius Illyricus, Leben & Werk: Internationales Symposium, Mannheim, February 1991
J. B. Ritter, Flacius’s Leben u. Tod (1725)
M. Twesten, M. Flacius Illyricus (1844)
W. Preger, M. Flacius Illyricus u. seine Zeit (1859—1861)
"Flacius, Matthias," in P. Schaff and J.J. Herzog, eds. New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, vol. 4 (1952), pp. 321–323.
External links
Life and work of Matthias Flacius
Biography of Istrian-born Matthias Flacius (in Croatian, German, English and Italian
Flacius, Matthias (New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge)
Matthias Flacius in the Lutheran Cyclopedia (1899)
Matthias Flacius in the Christian Cyclopedia (2000)
supplemento.htm at riforma.net
Website dedicated to Matthias Flacius Illyricus (in Croatian, German, English and Italian)
1520 births
1575 deaths
16th-century apocalypticists
16th-century Croatian people
16th-century German Protestant theologians
16th-century German male writers
Croatian Lutheran clergy
Croatian theologians
German Lutheran theologians
German male non-fiction writers
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|
255013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Jobson%20%28explorer%29 | Richard Jobson (explorer) | Richard Jobson (fl. 1620–1623) was an English explorer of West Africa. He is only known from his writings on his 1620–1621 voyage to the Gambia River.
Life
He was appointed in 1620 to command an expedition to explore the River Gambia, for a group of adventurers. Former attempts in 1618 and 1619 had been failure, because of consequence of the hostility of the Portuguese and health problems.
Jobson, sailing from England on 25 October 1620, and arriving at the mouth of the Gambia on 17 November, went up the river beyond the Barrakunda Falls, to the Tenda area. He did not find the gold he sought.
Somewhere in Gambia, Jobson refused to purchase some female slaves, stating that "We were a people, who did not deal in any such commodities, neither did wee buy or sell one another, or any that had our owne shapes;"
Works
After his return to England in 1621, Jobson published The Golden Trade. He gives accounts of the Africans, then unknown to Europeans, though they had overland trade
to the north coast.
Notes
External links
Online version of Jobson's The Golden Trade
Attribution
Explorers of Africa
17th-century English writers
17th-century English male writers
English explorers
English travel writers
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing | [
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|
255015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Jobson%20%28television%20presenter%29 | Richard Jobson (television presenter) | Richard Jobson (born 6 October 1960) is a Scottish filmmaker (director, writer, producer) who also works as a television presenter. He is also known as the singer-songwriter of Skids.
Early life
Jobson was born in Kirkcaldy, and grew up in Crosshill, Ballingry, Fife, the son of a miner and a worker at Rosyth Dockyard, attending St Columba's Roman Catholic High School, Dunfermline.
His family were of Irish Catholic descent.
Skids
Jobson is the lead singer with the art-punk rock group Skids, whose original run was from 1977 -1982. Jobson's singing style with Skids was highly distinctive, and he wrote the lyrics, while Stuart Adamson wrote most of the music.
Scared to Dance, the first Skids album, featured the hit 1979 single "Into the Valley", the group's most successful single. Jobson appeared on BBC Television's Top of the Pops singing it. The album also featured "The Saints are Coming, which he said was about the death of a friend in the British Army. Much of Scared to Dance features local references, and also Jobson's fascination with the two world wars.
The fourth album by Skids was released in 1981, Joy, was almost entirely written by Jobson and Russell Webb, as the other two band members left, one of whom was Jobson's long-time songwriting partner Stuart Adamson who moved on to form his new band Big Country.
In September 2006, it was announced that Green Day and U2 were to record a cover version of "The Saints are Coming" for charitable purposes.
Skids including Jobson reformed from 2007 to 2010, and again from 2016 to present.
Other musical work
Jobson and Russell Webb both shared a common interest in the War Poets, a theme which was in evidence for Jobson's solo album Ballad of Etiquette and which bore a credit for "Virginia & Josephine" (Wells). This album was released in November 1981, and peaked on the UK indie charts at number 24. At the same time Astley, Nicky Holland and Kate St John auditioned for Bill Drummond at the Zoo Club in Liverpool where they made their live debut.
In 1983, Jobson formed another rock band with Russell Webb and John McGeoch called The Armoury Show — named after a 1913 New York modernist art exhibition. Jobson and Webb also worked with Virginia Astley. Webb co-produced her first album From Gardens Where We Feel Secure.
Both Astley and Jobson were recording sessions for Les Disques Du Crépuscule, a Belgian record label, and Jobson made several LPs for the label, usually of poetry readings with Astley as his accompanist. At the same time the final Skids album Joy was released, Astley and Nicky Holland appeared as backing vocalists with Astley also playing flute on the single "Fields".
Jobson was doing poetry readings at the Cabaret Futura Club, who issued an album on the Martyrwell label and which was engineered by Astley's brother Jon Astley. Amongst a lot of strange-sounding and difficult music was the first ever recording by Kissing the Pink.
For Crépuscule's various artists compilation LP The Fruit of the Original Sin, Jobson performed a poem called "Homage To Marguerite Duras" with music by Astley.
In the mid-1980s Astley and Jobson toured Japan to promote his album An Afternoon in Company. Much of Jobson's spoken-word material for the Cocteau and Crépuscule labels has been reissued on CD by the LTM label.
Television and film career
In the 1980s, Jobson became a presenter on 01 for London and as film reviewer for Sky Television. In June 2013, Jobson was awarded an honorary degree (Doctor of Arts) from Edinburgh Napier University.
Personal life
He was married to Mariella Frostrup from 1979 to 1984. He has a daughter, Edieline, and a son, Archie.
Discography
With Skids
With The Armoury Show
Solo
Filmography
Features
Wayland's Song (2013) (director, writer)
The Somnambulists (2012) (director, writer)
New Town Killers (2008) (director, writer)
A Woman in Winter (2006) (director, writer)
The Purifiers (2004) (director, writer)
16 Years of Alcohol (2003) (director, writer)
Shorts
I Think You Need a Lawyer (2012)
The Journey (2009)
Am I Digital (2009)
Arab Strap: Speed-Date (2005 music video)
Other
Heartlands (2002) (co-writer, producer)
Tube Tales (1999) (producer, actor)
The Skids Live 2010 (Skids reunion documentary)
He also presented a late-night series in some ITV regions called Hollywood Report. Katie Wagner worked as a reporter on the show. From 1988 to 1992, he presented an arts magazine programme called 01-For London.
References
External links
Official website
Domino Publishing profile
The Guardian article
Scottish film directors
Skids (band) members
People with epilepsy
1960 births
Living people
21st-century Scottish male singers
The Armoury Show members
People from Ballingry
Scottish science fiction writers
Scottish screenwriters
Scottish people of Irish descent
20th-century Scottish male singers | [
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|
255020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Niblick | Operation Niblick | The United States's Niblick nuclear test series was a group of 41 nuclear tests conducted in 1963–1964. These tests followed the Operation Roller Coaster series and preceded the Operation Whetstone series.
List of the nuclear tests
References
Explosions in 1963
Explosions in 1964
Niblick
1963 in military history
1964 in military history
1963 in Nevada
1964 in Nevada | [
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255026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20J.%20Muste | A. J. Muste | Abraham Johannes Muste ( ; January 8, 1885 – February 11, 1967) was a Dutch-born American clergyman and political activist. He is best remembered for his work in the labor movement, pacifist movement, antiwar movement, and civil rights movement.
Early life
Muste was born on January 8, 1885, in the small port city of Zierikzee, Zeeland, in the southwestern Netherlands. His father, Martin Muste, was a coachman who drove for a family that was part of Zeeland's hereditary nobility. With his economic prospects limited in the Netherlands, Martin decided to follow four brothers of his wife, Adriana, and emigrate to America. They made the trans-Atlantic trip as third-class passengers in January 1891.
Muste's mother became ill aboard ship and remained hospitalized for a month at Ellis Island after the family's arrival. Upon her recovery, the family headed west for Grand Rapids, Michigan, where Adriana's four brothers worked at in a variety of small business pursuits.
The family attended services at the Grand Rapids Dutch Reformed Church, a Calvinist congregation in which religious services were conducted in Dutch. Its very existence was testimony to the number of Dutch immigrants in the area. Dancing was prohibited as sin by the church. Also, the singing of secular music and the viewing of dramatic performances were forbidden.
Members of the denomination tended to be of the working class, like most other Dutch people in the area, who were regarded as a source of cheap labor in the years before World War I by the longer-established English-speaking population. Muste later recalled of his fellow Dutch Reformed Church members that they were "all Republicans and would no more have voted for a Democrat than turned horse thief."
Along with the rest of his family, he became naturalized as an American citizen in 1896. He was only 11 years old at the time of his naturalization.
Education and pastoral career
Muste attended Hope College in Holland, Michigan, just west of Grand Rapids, on the coast of Lake Michigan. He graduated in 1905 with a bachelor's degree at the age of 20. At Hope College, he was class valedictorian, captain of the school's basketball team, and played second base for the baseball squad.
After his graduation, Muste taught Latin and Greek for the 1905–06 academic year at Northwestern Classical Academy (now Northwestern College) in Orange City, Iowa.
In the fall of 1906, Muste went east to the Theological Seminary of the Dutch Reformed Church, now the New Brunswick Theological Seminary, located in New Brunswick, New Jersey. There, Muste took courses in philosophy at New York University and Columbia University, attended lectures by William James, and met John Dewey, who became a personal friend. While he remained in training to become a minister of the Reformed Church, Muste seems to have begun to question the church's fundamental principles at that time.
He graduated from that institution in June 1909 and was married shortly thereafter to his sweetheart from his Hope College days, Anna Huizenga. Upon his graduation, Muste was appointed pastor of the Ft. Washington Collegiate Church in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. During his spare time, he availed himself of his parish's proximity to the theologically-liberal Union Theological Seminary to take additional courses there. He ultimately received a Bachelor of Divinity there and graduating from Union magna cum laude.
Muste was influenced by the prevalent theology of the social gospel and began reading the ideas of various radical thinkers of the day. He went so far as to vote for Socialist candidate Eugene V. Debs for US president in 1912. Muste would later claim that he never again voted for a Republican or Democrat for a major national or state office.
Muste remained as pastor of the Fort Washington Collegiate Church on Washington Heights until 1914, when he became increasingly uncomfortable with the Reformed Church and left it.
Thereafter, he became an independent Congregationalist minister and accepted a pastorate at the Central Congregational Church of Newtonville, Massachusetts in February 1915.
A committed pacifist, Muste joined the Fellowship of Reconciliation shortly after its foundation in 1916. He participated in a peace demonstration late in the summer of 1916, with US entry into the First World War looming and some parishioners withdrawing from his congregation. Pressure began to build further over Muste's pacifist views in April 1917, when the United States formally declared war on the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires. After taking two months of vacation leave in the summer of 1917, he decided that the time had come to leave. In December 1917, he formally resigned his pastorate position.
After his resignation, Muste did volunteer work for Boston chapter of the new Civil Liberties Bureau, a legal-aid organization that defended both political and pacifist war resisters.
Later in 1918, he moved to Providence, Rhode Island, where he was enrolled as a Religious Society of Friends (Quaker) minister. He received the use of a home and money for expenses in exchange for pastoral services. An array of political publications was kept in a large room in the basement of the Providence Meeting House, and each Saturday, pacifists, radicals, and an eclectic mix of individuals gathered there to discuss issues of concern.
1919 Lawrence textile strike
Muste became involved in trade union activity in 1919, when he took an active part as a leader of a 16-week-long textile strike in Lawrence, Massachusetts. Workers in the mills worked an average of 54 hours a week, at an average rate of just over 20 cents per hour, and were threatened with a loss of income by an uncompensated cut of working hours. A demand grew among the millworkers for 54 hours of pay for the new working week of 48 hours.
However, as most workers were new immigrants who spoke English poorly or not at all, they were without effective leadership to express their demands. When dissident workers walked off the job in February 1919 only to be met by police truncheons on the picket line, Muste and two friends, also ministers, became involved. He spoke to assembled workers, assured them that he would lend whatever help he could in raising money for the relief of strikers and their families, and was soon invited to become executive secretary of the ad hoc strike committee that had been established by the still unorganized workers.
He became the spokesman for some 30,000 striking workers from more than 20 countries. Himself pulled from the picket line as a strike leader, isolated, and clubbed by police, he was eventually deposited into a wagon and hauled to jail when he could no longer stand. After a week behind bars, the case against Muste for allegedly disturbing the peace was dismissed. More than 100 strikers were jailed but the strike continued.
While the police anticipated more violence and even placed machine guns at critical points along Lawrence's principal streets, Muste and the strike committee chose nonviolence. He advised the striking textile workers to "smile as we pass the machine guns and the police." Despite the efforts of agents provocateurs, the strike remained peaceful.
The strike was eventually settled after 16 weeks, after both sides neared exhaustion and became willing to compromise. The ultimate agreement called for a shortened working week, a 12% hike in hourly and piecework wages, and the recognition of shop grievance committees in all departments.
Amalgamated Textile Workers of America
While the Lawrence textile strike was going on, Muste traveled to New York City to attend a convention of trade union activists in the textile industry. The gathering resulted in the formation of the Amalgamated Textile Workers of America (ATWU). Based upon his prominence as the head of the Lawrence textile strike and shutdown, he was elected secretary of the new union.
Muste would serve as head of the fledgling union for two years until he stepped down from his post in 1921.
Brookwood and CPLA
Upon leaving the ATWU, Muste became the first chairman of the faculty at Brookwood Labor College in Katonah, New York, where he remained from 1921 to 1933. He cemented his reputation as a recognized leader of the American labor movement.
In 1929, Muste attempted to organize radical unionists opposed to the passive policies of American Federation of Labor President William Green under the banner of the new Conference for Progressive Labor Action (CPLA).
Muste also was a member of the League for Independent Political Action (LIPA), a group of liberals and socialists that was headed by philosopher John Dewey and sought the establishment of a new labor-based third party. He resigned his position on the LIPA Executive Committee in December 1930 in protest over Dewey's appeal to US Senator George W. Norris of Nebraska to quit the Republican Party to head the third-party movement. Muste declared that any such movement must start from the bottom up by the action of organized workers if it was to survive and that it was "of the utmost importance to avoid every appearance of seeking messiahs who are to bring down a third party out of the political heavens."
Party politics
In 1933, Muste's CPLA took the step of establishing itself as the core of a new political organization, the American Workers Party, which was informally referred to as "Musteite" by its contemporaries.
The AWP then merged with the Trotskyist Communist League of America in 1934 to establish the Workers Party of the United States. Muste meanwhile remained a labor activist and led the victorious Toledo Auto-Lite strike in 1934.
Return to pacifism
In 1936, Muste resigned from the Workers Party and left socialist politics to return to his roots as a Christian pacifist. He became director of the Presbyterian Labor Temple in New York City from 1937 to 1940 where he paid special attention to combating Marxism and to proclaiming Christianity as a revolutionary doctrine. He also lectured at Union Theological Seminar and Yale Divinity School.
Muste supported the presidential candidacies of Debs and Robert M. La Follette, Sr. and also had close friendships with Dewey and socialist leader Norman Thomas. Muste's support for civil liberties led him to oppose McCarthyism during the Cold War. That led to accusations of communism, although his writings after 1936 are deeply critical of communism.
In 1951, to protest the Cold War, he and 48 others filed Thoreau's essay On the Duty of Civil Disobedience instead of their 1040 Forms.
In 1956, he and David Dellinger founded Liberation as a forum for the pacifist and antiwar left.
In 1957, Muste headed a delegation of pacifist and democratic observers to the 16th National Convention of the Communist Party. He was also on the national committee of the War Resisters League (WRL) and received its Peace Award in 1958. Always a creative activist, he led public opposition with Dorothy Day to civil defense activities in New York City during the 1950s and 1960s.
At the end of his life, Muste took a leadership role in the movement against the Vietnam War. According to legend, he stood outside the White House every night during the Vietnam War, holding a candle whether or not it was raining. In fact, he worked many days and nights during the last two years of his life to build a coalition of antiwar groups, including the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, which organized massive protests against the war.
In 1966, Muste traveled with members of the Committee for Non-Violent Action to Saigon and Hanoi. He was arrested and deported from South Vietnam but received a warm welcome in North Vietnam from its leader Ho Chi Minh.
Death and legacy
Muste died on February 11, 1967, at the age of 82. Norman Thomas remembered him as someone who made a "remarkable effort to show that pacifism was by no means passivism and that there could be such a thing as a non-violent social revolution."
The A.J. Muste Memorial Institute was located at 339 Lafayette Street in New York City, the so-called "Peace Pentagon," until sold in 2016 because it required prohibitively expensive structural repairs. The Institute provides office space for various activist groups, which now reside at its new location at 168 Canal Street in Chinatown. Tenant organizations include the War Resisters League and the Socialist Party USA.
During a 1969 debate with William F. Buckley Jr., Noam Chomsky cited Muste as "someone who did take a very strong, and I think very honourable position" on opposing World War II. Chomsky discusses Muste's legacy in American Power and the New Mandarins.
Works
The following selection of Muste's writings may be found in The Essays of A. J. Muste, edited by Nat Hentoff, The Bobbs-Merrill Company (1967).
"The Problem of Discontent" (first published in Hope College Anchor, 1903)
"Pacifism and Class War" (The World Tomorrow, September 1928)
"Trade Unions and the Revolution" (The New International, August 1935)
"Return to Pacifism" (The Christian Century, December 2, 1936)
"Sit-Downs and Lie-Downs" (Fellowship, March 1937)
"The True International" (The Christian Century, May 24, 1939)
"The World Task of Pacifism" (published as a Pendle Hill pamphlet, 1941)
"Where Are We Going?" (published as a Fellowship of Reconciliation pamphlet, 1941)
"War Is the Enemy" (published as a Pendle Hill pamphlet, 1942)
"What the Bible Teaches About Freedom" (published as a Fellowship of Reconciliation pamphlet, 1943)
"Germany—Summer 1947" (Fellowship, October 1947)
"Theology of Despair" (Fellowship, September 1948)
"Pacifism and Perfectionism" (Fellowship, March and April 1948)
"Communism and Civil Liberties" (Fellowship, October 1948)
"Korea: Spark to Set a World Afire?" (published as a Fellowship of Reconciliation pamphlet, 1950)
"Of Holy Disobedience" (published as a Pendle Hill pamphlet 1950)
"Mephistopheles and the Scientists" (Fellowship, July 1954)
"Getting Rid of War" (Liberation, March 1959)
"Sketches for an Autobiography: Historical Essays, 1891–1960" (serialized in Liberation, 1957–1960)
"Africa Against the Bomb" (Liberation, January 1960)
"Saints for This Age" (published as a Pendle Hill pamphlet, 1962)
"Rifle Squads or the Beloved Community" (Liberation, May 1964)
"The Fall of Man" (Liberation, June–July 1964)
"The Civil Rights Movement and the American Establishment" (Liberation, February 1965)
"Statement Made on 12/21/65 to the Federal Grand Jury"
"Crisis in the World and the Peace Movement" (Liberation, June–July 1965)
"Who Has the Spiritual Atom Bomb?" (Liberation, November 1965)
"The Movement to Stop the Vietnam War" (Liberation, January 1966)
See also
List of peace activists
Personalism
References
Sources
Ira Chernus (2004). American Nonviolence: The History of an Idea, Danvers, Mass., Orbis Books.
Noam Chomsky, "On the Backgrounds of the Pacific War," Liberation, September–October 1967, reprinted as "The Revolutionary Pacifism of A.J. Muste" in American Power and the New Mandarins.
Howlett, Charles F. "A.J. Muste: The 20th Century's Most Famous US Pacifist," Friends Journal, April 2006.
External links
A.J. Muste Biography at A.J. Muste Memorial Institute, www.ajmuste.org/
A.J. Muste Internet Archive, Marxists Internet Archive, www.marxists.org/
A.J. Muste, "My Experience in the Labor and Radical Struggles of the Thirties." (mp3 audio) American Archive Pilot Project, Illinois Public Media, WILL. Speech of February 9, 1966. —Original resides in the archives of the University of Illinois.
1885 births
1967 deaths
People from Zierikzee
Activists for African-American civil rights
American anti–Vietnam War activists
American Christian pacifists
Calvinist pacifists
American Christian socialists
American conscientious objectors
American Quakers
American tax resisters
Christian communists
Hope College alumni
Dutch emigrants to the United States
Members of the American Workers Party
Members of the Workers Party of the United States
Nonviolence advocates
Christian Peace Conference members
Reformed Church in America ministers
Converts to Quakerism
War Resisters League activists
Quaker socialists
Activists from Michigan
People from Grand Rapids, Michigan
Brookwood Labor College faculty | [
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|
255028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20Udall | Nicholas Udall | Nicholas Udall (or Uvedale Udal, Woodall, or other variations) (1504 – 23 December 1556) was an English playwright, cleric, schoolmaster, the author of Ralph Roister Doister, generally regarded as the first comedy written in the English language.
Biography
Udall was born in Hampshire and educated at Winchester College and Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He was tutored under the guidance of Thomas Cromwell, who mentions him in a letter to John Creke of 17 August 1523 as 'Maister Woodall' and he appears again in Cromwell's accounts for 1535 as 'Nicholas Woodall Master of Eton'.
After graduation from Oxford, he taught at a London grammar school in 1533. He taught Latin at Eton College, of which he was headmaster from about 1534 until 1541, when he was forced to leave after being convicted of offences against his pupils under the Buggery Act 1533. The felony of buggery, like all other felonies, carried a sentence of capital punishment by hanging, but Udall wrote an impassioned plea to his old friends from Cromwell's household Thomas Wriothesley and Sir Ralph Sadler, then joint king's Secretaries, and his sentence was commuted to just under a year, which he served in the Marshalsea prison. The pupils in question were not prosecuted. A former pupil, the poet Thomas Tusser, later claimed that Udall had flogged him without cause.
An adherent of the Reformed Church of England, Udall flourished under Edward VI and survived into the reign of the Roman Catholic Mary I. In 1547, he became Vicar of Braintree, in 1551 of Calborne, Isle of Wight, and in 1554 returned to teaching as headmaster of Westminster School.
Udall died in 1556 and was buried in the churchyard of St Margaret's, Westminster. No monumental inscription can now be traced.
Works
Udall translated part of the Apophthegms by Erasmus, and translated in part and oversaw the English version of the Paraphrases of Erasmus, published in 1548 as The first tome or volume of the Paraphrase of Erasmus vpon the newe testamente. Other works he translated were Pietro Martire's Discourse on the Eucharist and Thomas Gemini's Anatomia. His most famous work, the play Ralph Roister Doister, was probably presented to Queen Mary as an entertainment around 1553, but not published until 1566.
With John Leland, he wrote a number of songs to celebrate the coronation of Anne Boleyn on 31 May 1533, using his Latinized name "Udallus".
Likewise, he is the author of a Latin textbook, Flowers for Latin Speaking (1533), which utilizes material from his comedy as well as works by the Roman poet Terence.
Udall wrote a propaganda tract in response to the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549, entitled "An answer to the articles of the comoners of Deuonshere and Cornewall declaring to the same howe they haue ben sedused by Euell persons". This tract has sometimes been wrongly attributed to Philip Nichols.
It has been argued that Udall is the author of the interlude Respublica, which was acted before Queen Mary in 1553.
Literary character based on him
In Ford Madox Ford's trilogy of historical novels, The Fifth Queen, the character Magister Nicholas Udal is a decidedly heterosexual profligate, who serves as Latin tutor to Mary I of England and Henry VIII's "fifth queen," Katharine Howard. He defends himself of charges that he was "thrown out of his mastership at Eton for his foul living" by claiming that he, a Protestant, "was undone by Papist lies."
Notes
External links
1504 births
1556 deaths
People from Hampshire
English Renaissance dramatists
People educated at Winchester College
People convicted of sodomy
16th-century LGBT people
LGBT writers from England
16th-century male writers
16th-century English educators
16th-century English dramatists and playwrights
Head Masters of Eton College
Inmates of the Marshalsea
Canons of Windsor
Child sexual abuse in England
English male dramatists and playwrights | [
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|
255029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meizhou%20Island | Meizhou Island | Meizhou Island (; Pu-Xian Min: Mî-ciu-doh), Meichow; Meichou, is a small island close to the coast of China. Meizhou Town () is an administrative unit of Xiuyu District, Putian, Fujian, China. It is known for being the birthplace of the goddess Mazu. Meizhou has 38,000 inhabitants, most of whom are involved in the fishing industry. The local language spoken is Pu-Xian Min.
History
An open provincial tourism economic region () since June 1988, in April 1992 Meizhou Island introduced a landing visa policy for visitors from Taiwan. In October of the same year it became a national tourism-vacation region (). The island was formally opened to visitors from overseas in October 1999.
Annually, some 100,000 Taiwanese pilgrims come to Meizhou to see the place where Matsu once lived, some of whom visit every year.
Administration
Meizhou Island is administered by Meizhou Town, an area that is divided into 11 villages:
Gaozhu ()
Xiashan () "Downhill"
Lianche () "Lotus Pond"
Beidai (北埭 dài) "North Dam"
Dongcai () "The East Cais"
Xiting () "The Western Pavilion"
Ganglou () "The Tower by the Port"
Zhaixia () "Lower Village"
Dayang () "Great Ocean"
along with three others.
Geography
Located in the northern part of the mouth of Meizhou Bay, Meizhou Island covers an area of and measures north-south, and east-west. The beach runs for around .
Tourist attractions
The Heavenly Empress Palace-Meizhou Ancestral Temple () began as a small shrine soon after Matsu's death in the 10th century. It has now been renovated and greatly enlarged to accommodate pilgrims.
See also
List of islands of China
References
External links
Six photos of the Matsu ceremony in Meizhou
湄洲岛管委会
Islands of Fujian
Islands of the South China Sea
Taiwan Strait
Tourist attractions in Fujian
Putian | [
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|
255030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Roister%20Doister | Ralph Roister Doister | Ralph Roister Doister is a sixteenth-century play by Nicholas Udall, which was once regarded as the first comedy to be written in the English language.
The date of its composition is disputed, but the balance of opinion suggests that it was written in about 1552, when Udall was a schoolmaster in London, and some theorise the play was intended for public performance by his pupils—who were all male, as were most actors in that period. The work was not published until 1567, 11 years after its author's death.
Sources
Roister Doister seems to have been inspired by the works of Plautus and Terence. The title character is a variation on the "Braggart Soldier" archetype, but with the innovation of a parasitic tempter which stems from the morality play tradition. By combining the structures, conventions, and styles of the ancient Greek and Roman comedies with English theatrical traditions and social types (especially the relatively new and burgeoning English middle classes), Udall was able to establish a new form of English comedy, leading directly through to Shakespeare and beyond. The play blends the stock plot-elements and stock characters of the ancient Greek and Roman theatre with those of chivalric literature and the English mediaeval theatre.
Plot
The play is written in five acts. The plot of the play centres on a rich widow, Christian Custance, who is betrothed to Gawyn Goodluck, a merchant. Ralph Roister Doister is encouraged throughout by a con-man trickster figure (Matthew Merrygreeke) to woo Christian Custance, but his pompous attempts do not succeed. Ralph then tries with his friends and servants (at Merrygreek's behest) to break in and take Christian Custance by force, but they are defeated by her maids and run away. The merchant Gawyn arrives shortly after and the play concludes happily with reconciliation, a prayer and a song.
Characters
Ralph Roister Doister
Mathew Merygreeke
Gawyn Goodluck, affianced to Dame Custance
Tristram Trustie, his friend
Dobinet Doughtie, servant to Roister Doister
Tom Trupenie, servant to Dame Custance
Sym Suresby, servant to Goodluck
Scrivener
Harpax, servant to Roister Doister
Dame Christian Custance, a widow
Margerie Mumblecrust, her nurse
Tibet Talkapace, her maid
Annot Alyface, her maid
Performance history
A generally accepted theory is that Udall first wrote the play for public performance by boys at the London school where he was master, though no recorded historical afterlife for the play in performance exists. Though amateur and student groups have presented readings and edited stagings sporadically throughout the 20th century (specifically a 1910 production by the Philolexian Society of Columbia University and a 1953 presentation by Oxford University students at the Edinburgh festival), and three heavily edited adaptations of the play appeared (in the 1930s, 1960s, and 1980s), it did not have a full professional revival until 2015, when Brice Stratford directed an uncut production under original performance conditions for the Owle Schreame theatre company, also playing the title character.
References
Sources
Chislett, William, Jr. 1914. "The Sources of Ralph Roister Doister." Modern Language Notes 29:6 (June): 166-167.
Hartley, Anthony. 1954. The Spectator Performing Arts section, 3 September 1954: 10. Web.
Hinton, James. 1913. "The Source of Ralph Roister Doister." Modern Philology 11:2 (Oct.): 273-278.
Norland, Howard B. 1995. Drama in Early Tudor Britain, 1485-1558. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
O'Brien, Angela. 2004. Ralph Roister Doister: The First Regular English Comedy.
Partridge, Matthew. 2015. "Review: Ralph Roister Doister." Remotegoat, 25 February 2015. Web. Review: Ralph Roister Doister ****
Plumstead, A. W. 1963. "Satirical Parody in Roister Doister: A Reinterpretation." Studies in Philology 60:2 (April): 141-154.
Wickham, Glynne, ed. 1976. English Moral Interludes. London: Dent. .
Wickham, Glynne. 1981. Early English Stages: 1300—1660. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. .
External links
Ralph Roister Doister online (Project Gutenberg)
Ralph Roister Doister in A Selection of Old English Plays, edited by W. Carew Hazlitt (Project Gutenberg)
English Renaissance plays
1553 plays | [
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|
255034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrangeaceae | Hydrangeaceae | Hydrangeaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Cornales, with a wide distribution in Asia and North America, and locally in southeastern Europe.
Genera
The genera are characterised by leaves in opposite pairs (rarely whorled or alternate), and regular, bisexual flowers with 4 (rarely 5–12) petals. The fruit is a capsule or berry containing several seeds, the seeds with a fleshy endosperm.
The following genera are accepted:
Carpenteria Torr.
Deutzia Thunb.
Fendlera Engelm. & A.Gray
Fendlerella A.Heller
Hydrangea Gronov. ex L.
Jamesia Torr. & A.Gray
Kirengeshoma Yatabe
Philadelphus L.
References
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255039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwian%20language | Luwian language | Luwian (), sometimes known as Luvian or Luish, is an ancient language, or group of languages, within the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. The ethnonym Luwian comes from Luwiya (also spelled Luwia or Luvia) – the name of the region in which the Luwians lived. Luwiya is attested, for example, in the Hittite laws.
The two varieties of Proto-Luwian or Luwian (in the narrow sense of these names) are known after the scripts in which they were written: Cuneiform Luwian (CLuwian) and Hieroglyphic Luwian (HLuwian). There is no consensus as to whether these were a single language or two closely related languages.
Classification
Several other Anatolian languages – particularly Carian, Lycian, Lydian and Milyan (also known as Lycian B or Lycian II) – are now usually identified as related to Luwian – and as mutually connected more closely than other constituents of the Anatolian branch. This suggests that these languages formed a sub-branch within Anatolian. Some linguists follow Craig Melchert in referring to this broader group as Luwic, whereas others refer to the "Luwian group" (and, in that sense, "Luwian" may mean several distinct languages). Likewise, Proto-Luwian may mean the common ancestor of the whole group, or just the ancestor of Luwian (normally, under tree-naming conventions, were the branch to be called Luwic, its ancestor should be known as Proto-Luwic or Common Luwic; in practice, such names are seldom used). Luwic or Luwian (in the broad sense of the term), is one of three major sub-branches of Anatolian, alongside Hittite and Palaic.
As Luwian has numerous archaisms, it is regarded as important to the study of Indo-European languages (IE) in general, the other Anatolian languages, and the Bronze Age Aegean. These archaisms are often regarded as supporting the view that the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) had three distinct sets of velar consonants: plain velars, palatovelars, and labiovelars. For Melchert, PIE → Luwian z (probably ); → k; and → ku (probably ). Luwian has also been enlisted for its verb kalut(t)i(ya)-, which means "make the rounds of" and is probably derived from *kalutta/i- "circle". It has been argued that this derives from a proto-Anatolian word for "wheel", which in turn would have derived from the common word for "wheel" found in all other Indo-European families. The wheel was invented in the 5th millennium BC and, if kaluti does derive from it, then the Anatolian branch left PIE after its invention (so validating the Kurgan hypothesis as applicable to Anatolian). However, kaluti need not imply a wheel and so need not have been derived from a PIE word with that meaning. The IE words for a wheel may well have arisen in those other IE languages after the Anatolian split.
Geographic and chronological distribution
Luwian was among the languages spoken during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC by groups in central and western Anatolia and northern Syria. The earliest Luwian texts in cuneiform transmission are attested in connection with the Kingdom of Kizzuwatna in southeastern Anatolia, as well as a number of locations in central Anatolia. Beginning in the 14th century BC, Luwian-speakers came to constitute the majority in the Hittite capital Hattusa. It appears that by the time of the collapse of the Hittite Empire ca. 1180 BC, the Hittite king and royal family were fully bilingual in Luwian. Long after the extinction of the Hittite language, Luwian continued to be spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria, such as Milid and Carchemish, as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished in the 8th century BC.
A number of scholars in the past attempted to argue for the Luwian homeland in western Anatolia. According to James Mellaart, the earliest Indo-Europeans in northwest Anatolia were the horse-riders who came to this region from the north and founded Demircihöyük (Eskisehir Province) in Phrygia c. 3000 BC. They were allegedly ancestors of the Luwians who inhabited Troy II, and spread widely in the Anatolian peninsula. He cited the distribution of a new type of wheel-made pottery, Red Slip Wares, as some of the best evidence for his theory. According to Mellaart, the proto-Luwian migrations to Anatolia came in several distinct waves over many centuries. The recent detailed review of Mellaart's claims suggests that his ethnolinguistic conclusions cannot be substantiated on archaeological grounds.
Other arguments were advanced for the extensive Luwian presence in western Anatolia in the late second millennium BC. In the Old Hittite version of the Hittite Code, some, if not all, of the Luwian-speaking areas were called Luwiya. Widmer (2007) has argued that the Mycenaean term ru-wa-ni-jo, attested in Linear B, refers to the same area. but the stem *Luwan- was recently shown to be non-existent. In a corrupt late copy of the Hittite Code the geographical term Luwiya is replaced with Arzawa a western Anatolian kingdom corresponding roughly with Mira and the Seha River Land. Therefore, several scholars shared the view that Luwian was spoken—to varying degrees—across a large portion of western Anatolia, including Troy (Wilusa), the Seha River Land (Sēḫa ~ Sēḫariya, i.e., the Greek Hermos river and Kaikos valley), and the Mira-Kuwaliya kingdom with its core being the Maeander valley. In a number of recent publications, however, the geographic identity between Luwiya and Arzawa was rejected or doubted. In the post-Hittite era, the region of Arzawa came to be known as Lydia (Assyrian Luddu, Greek Λυδία), where the Lydian language was in use. The name Lydia has been derived from the name Luwiya (Lydian *lūda- < *luw(i)da- < luwiya-, with regular Lydian sound change y > d). The Lydian language, however, cannot be regarded as the direct descendant of Luwian and probably does not even belong to the Luwic group (see Anatolian languages). Therefore, none of the arguments in favour of the Luwian linguistic dominance in Western Asia Minor can be regarded as compelling, although the issue continues to be debated.
Script and dialects
Luwian was split into many dialects, which were written in two different writing systems. One of these was the Cuneiform Luwian which used the form of Old Babylonian cuneiform that had been adapted for the Hittite language. The other was Hieroglyphic Luwian, which was written in a unique native hieroglyphic script. The differences between the dialects are minor, but they affect vocabulary, style, and grammar. The different orthographies of the two writing systems may also hide some differences.
Cuneiform Luwian
Cuneiform Luwian is the corpus of Luwian texts attested in the tablet archives of Hattusa; it is essentially the same cuneiform writing system used in Hittite. In Laroche's Catalog of Hittite Texts, the corpus of Hittite cuneiform texts with Luwian insertions runs from CTH 757–773, mostly comprising rituals. Cuneiform Luwian texts are written in several dialects, of which the most easily identifiable are Kizzuwatna Luwian, Ištanuwa Luwian, and Empire Luwian. The last dialect represents the vernacular of Hattusan scribes of the 14th–13th centuries BC and is mainly attested through Glossenkeil words in Hittite texts.
Compared to cuneiform Hittite, logograms (signs with a set symbolic value) are rare. Instead, most writing is done with the syllabic characters, where a single symbol stands for a vowel, or a consonant-vowel pair (either VC or CV). A striking feature is the consistent use of 'full-writing' to indicate long vowels, even at the beginning of words. In this system a long vowel is indicated by writing it twice. For example, īdi "he goes" is written i-i-ti rather than i-ti, and ānda "in" is written a-an-ta rather than an-ta.
Hieroglyphic Luwian
Hieroglyphic Luwian is the corpus of Luwian texts written in a native script, known as Anatolian hieroglyphs. Once thought to be a variety of the Hittite language, "Hieroglyphic Hittite" was formerly used to refer to the language of the same inscriptions, but this term is now obsolete. The dialect of Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions appears to be either Empire Luwian or its descendant, Iron Age Luwian.
The first report of a monumental inscription dates to 1850, when an inhabitant of Nevşehir reported the relief at Fraktin. In 1870, antiquarian travellers in Aleppo found another inscription built into the south wall of the Al-Qaiqan Mosque. In 1884, Polish scholar discovered an inscription near Köylütolu, in western Turkey. The largest known inscription was excavated in 1970 in Yalburt, northwest of Konya. Luwian hieroglyphic texts contain a limited number of lexical borrowings from Hittite, Akkadian, and Northwest Semitic; the lexical borrowings from Greek are limited to proper nouns, although common nouns borrowed in the opposite direction do exist.
Phonology
The reconstruction of the Luwian phoneme inventory is based mainly on the written texts and comparisons with the known development of other Indo-European languages. Two series of stops can be identified, transliterated as geminate in the cuneiform script. These fortis and lenis stops may have been distinguished by either voicing or gemination. The contrast was lost initially and finally, suggesting that any voicing only appeared intervocalically.
The following table provides a minimal consonant inventory, as can be reconstructed from the script. The existence of other consonants, which were not differentiated in writing, is possible.
There are only three vowels, a, i, and u, which could be short or long. Vowel length is not stable but changes with the stress and word position. For example, annan occurs alone as an adverb as ānnan ('underneath') but as a preposition, it becomes annān pātanza ('under the feet').
The characters that are transliterated as -h- and -hh- have often been interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives and . However, they may have instead been uvular and or velar fricatives and . In loans to Ugaritic, these sounds are transcribed with <ḫ> and <ġ>, while in Egyptian they are transcribed with ḫ and g. As both of these languages had pharyngeal consonants, the Luwian sounds are unlikely to have been pharyngeal.
In transcriptions of Luwian cuneiform, š is traditionally distinguished from s, since they were originally distinct signs for two different sounds, but in Luwian, both signs probably represented the same s sound.
A noteworthy phonological development in Luwian is rhotacism; in some cases, d, l, and n becomes r. For example, *īdi ('he gets') becomes īri and wala- '(die') becomes wara-. Additionally, a d in word final position can be dropped, and an s may be added between two dental consonants and so *ad-tuwari becomes aztuwari ('you all eat') (ds and z are phonetically identical).
Morphology
Nouns
There were two grammatical genders: animate and inanimate/neuter. There are two grammatical numbers: singular and plural. Some animate nouns could also take a collective plural in addition to the regular numerical plural.
Luwian had six cases:
nominative
genitive
dative/locative
accusative
ablative/instrumental
vocative.
The vocative case occurs rarely in surviving texts and only in the singular.
In the animate gender, an -i- is inserted between the stem and the case ending. In hieroglyphic Luwian, the particle -sa/-za is added to the nominative/accusative inanimate case ending. In the genitive case, cuneiform and hieroglyphic Luwian differ sharply from each other. In cuneiform Luwian the possessive suffix -assa is used for the genitive singular and -assanz- is used for the genitive plural. In hieroglyphic Luwian, as in Hittite, the classical Indo-European suffixes -as for the genitive singular and -an for the plural are used. The special form of possessive adjectives with a plural possessor is restricted to Kizzuwatna Luwian and probably represents a calque from Hurrian.
Because of the prevalence of -assa place names and words scattered around all sides of the Aegean Sea, the possessive suffix was sometimes considered evidence of a shared non-Indo-European language or an Aegean Sprachbund preceding the arrivals of Luwians and Greeks. It is, however, possible to account for the Luwian possessive construction as a result of case attraction in the Indo-European noun phrase.
Adjective
Adjectives agree with nouns in number and gender. Forms for the nominative and the accusative differ only in the animate gender and even then, only in the singular. For the sake of clarity, the table includes only the endings beginning with -a, but endings can also begin with an -i. The forms are largely derived from the forms of the nominal declension, with an -as- before the case ending that would be expected for nouns.
Pronouns
In addition to personal pronouns typical of Anatolian languages, Luwian also has demonstrative pronouns, the which are formed from apa- and za-/zi-. The case endings are similar those of Hittite, but not all cases are attested for personal pronouns. In the third person, the demonstrative pronoun apa- occurs instead of the personal pronoun.
Possessive pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in apa- are declined as adjectives. All known forms of the personal pronouns are given, but it is not clear how their meanings differed or how they changed for different cases.
In addition to the forms given in the table, Luwian also had a demonstrative pronoun formed from the stem za-/zi-, but not all cases are known, and also a relative pronoun, which was declined regularly: kwis (nominative singular animate), kwin (accusative singular animate), kwinzi (nominative/accusative plural animate), kwati (ablative/instrumental singular), kwanza (dative/locative plural), kwaya (nominative/accusative plural inanimate). Some indefinite pronouns whose meanings are not entirely clear are also transmitted.
Verbs
Like for many other Indo-European languages, two numbers (singular and plural) and three persons are distinguished. There are two moods: indicative and imperative but no subjunctive. Only the active voice has been attested, but the existence of a mediopassive is assumed. There are two tenses: the present, which is used to express future events as well, and the preterite.
The conjugation is very similar to the Hittite ḫḫi conjugation.
A single participle can be formed with the suffix -a(i)mma. It has a passive sense for transitive verbs and a stative sense for intransitive verbs. The infinitive ends in -una.
Syntax
The usual word order is subject-object-verb, but words can be moved to the front of the sentence for stress or to start a clause. Relative clauses are normally before the antecedent, but they sometimes follow the antecedent. Dependent words and adjectives are normally before their head word. Enclitic particles are often attached to the first word or conjunction.
Various conjunctions with temporal or conditional meaning are used to link clauses. There is no coordinating conjunction, but main clauses can be coordinated with the enclitic -ha, which is attached to the first word of the following clause. In narratives, clauses are linked by using the prosecutive conjunctions: a- before the first word of the following clause means 'and then', and pā, can be an independent conjunction at the start of a clause and the enclitic -pa indicates contrast or a change of theme.
The following example sentence demonstrates several common features of Luwian: a final verb, the particle chain headed by the conjunction a-, the quotative clitic -wa, and the preverb sarra adding directionality to the main verb awiha.
Vocabulary and texts
The known Luwian vocabulary consists mostly of words inherited from Proto-Indo-European. Loan words for various technical and religious concepts derive mainly from Hurrian, and were often subsequently passed on through Luwian to Hittite.
The surviving corpus of Luwian texts consists principally of cuneiform ritual texts from the 16th and 15th centuries BC and monumental inscriptions in hieroglyphs. There are also some letters and economic documents. The majority of the hieroglyphic inscriptions derive from the 12th to 7th centuries BC, after the fall of the Hittite empire.
Another source of Luwian are the hieroglyphic seals which date from the 16th to the 7th centuries BC. Seals from the time of the Hittite empire are often digraphic, written in both cuneiform and hieroglyphics. However, the seals nearly always are limited to logograms. The absence of the syllabic symbols from the seals makes it impossible to determine the pronunciation of names and titles that appear on them, or even to make a certain attribution of the text to a specific language.
History of research
After the decipherment of Hittite, cuneiform Luwian was recognised as a separate, but related language by Emil Forrer in 1919. Further progress in the understanding of the language came after the Second World War, with the publication and analysis of a larger number of texts. Important work in this period was produced by Bernhard Rosenkranz, Heinrich Otten and Emmanuel Laroche. An important advance came in 1985 with the reorganisation of the whole text-corpus by Frank Starke.
The decipherment and classification of Hieroglyphic Luwian was much more difficult. In the 1920s, there were a number of failed attempts. In the 1930s some individual logograms and syllabic signs were correctly identified. At this point the classification of the language was not yet clear and, since it was believed to be a form of Hittite, it was referred to as Hieroglyphic Hittite. After a break in research due to the Second World War, there was breakthrough in 1947 with the discovery and publication of a Phoenician-Hieroglyphic Luwian bilingual text by Helmuth Theodor Bossert. The reading of several syllabic signs was still faulty, however, and as a result it was not realised that the cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same language.
In the 1970s, as a result of a fundamental revision of the readings of a large number of hieroglyphs by John David Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies, and Günter Neumann, it became clear that both cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same Luwian language. This revision resulted from a discovery outside the area of Luwian settlement, namely the annotations on Urartian pots, written in the Urartian language using the hieroglyphic Luwian script. The sign , which had hitherto been read as ī was shown to be being used to indicate the sound za, which triggered a chain reaction resulting in an entirely new system of readings. Since that time, research has concentrated on better understanding the relationship between the two different forms of Luwian, in order to gain a clearer understanding of Luwian as a whole.
Trojan hypothesis
Luwian has been deduced as one of the likely candidates for the language spoken by the Trojans.
After the 1995 finding of a Luwian biconvex seal at Troy VII, there has been a heated discussion over the language that was spoken in Homeric Troy. Frank Starke of the University of Tübingen demonstrated that the name of Priam, king of Troy at the time of the Trojan War, is connected to the Luwian compound Priimuua, which means "exceptionally courageous". "The certainty is growing that Wilusa/Troy belonged to the greater Luwian-speaking community," but it is not entirely clear whether Luwian was primarily the official language or it was in daily colloquial use.
See also
Pre-Greek substrate
Notes
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Rosenkranz, Bernhard. Beiträge zur Erforschung des Luvischen. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1952.
Sasseville, David. Anatolian Verbal Stem Formation. Leiden / New-York: Brill, 2021.
Singer, I. 2005. 'On Luwians and Hittites.' Bibliotheca Orientalis 62:430–51. (Review article of Melchert 2003).
Starke, Frank. 'Troia im Kontext des historisch-politischen und sprachlichen Umfeldes Kleinasiens im 2. Jahrtausend. Studia Troica 7:446–87.
Starke, Frank. Die keilschrift-luwischen Texte in Umschrift (StBoT 30, 1985)
Starke, Frank. Untersuchungen zur Stammbildung des keilschrift-luwischen Nomens (StBoT 30, 1990)
Watkins, C. 1995. How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. New York and Oxford.
Watkins, C.1994. 'The Language of the Trojans.' In Selected Writings, ed. L. Oliver et al., vol. 2. 700–717. Innsbruck. = Troy and the Trojan War. A Symposium held at Bryn Mawr College, October 1984, ed. M. Mellink, 45–62. Bryn Mawr.
Widmer, P. 2006. 'Mykenisch ru-wa-ni-jo, "Luwier".' Kadmos 45:82–84.
Woudhuizen, Fred. The Language of the Sea Peoples. Amsterdam: Najade Pres, 1992.
Yakubovich, Ilya. Sociolinguistics of the Luvian Language. Leiden: Brill, 2010
Yakubovich, Ilya. "The Origin of Luwian Possessive Adjectives". In Proceedings of the 19th Annual UCLA Indo-European Conference, Los Angeles, November 3–4, 2007, ed. K. Jones-Bley et al., Washington: Institute for the Study of Man, 2008.
Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion between Anatolia and the Aegean. Brill, 2013. (Hardback) (e-Book)
External links
Luwian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)
Arzawa, to the west, throws light on Hittites
Alekseev Manuscript
Hieroglyphic Luwian Phonetic Signs
Catalog of Hittite Texts: texts in other languages
Genitive Case and Possessive Adjective in Anatolian
Melchert's homepage on the UCLA website | [
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255040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellowship%20of%20Reconciliation | Fellowship of Reconciliation | The Fellowship of Reconciliation (FoR or FOR) is the name used by a number of religious nonviolent organizations, particularly in English-speaking countries. They are linked by affiliation to the International Fellowship of Reconciliation (IFOR).
In the United Kingdom, the acronym "FoR" is normally typeset with a lower-case "o"; elsewhere, it is usually typeset in all capital letters, as "FOR", such as in "IFOR".
The FoR in the United Kingdom
The first body to use the name "Fellowship of Reconciliation" was formed as a result of a pact made in August 1914 at the outbreak of the First World War by two Christians, Henry Hodgkin (an English Quaker) and Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze (a German Lutheran), who were participating in a Christian pacifist conference in Konstanz in southern Germany. On the platform of the railway station at Cologne, they pledged to each other that, "We are one in Christ and can never be at war."
There were a number of people involved in the creation of the organisation, among them Lilian Stevenson, Pierre Cérésole, and its first secretary, Richard Roberts.
Stevenson later wrote up the first history of the organisation.
To take that pledge forward, Hodgkin organised in 1915 a conference in Cambridge at which over a hundred Christians of all denominations agreed to found the FoR. They set out the principles that had led them to do so in a statement which became known as "The Basis". It states:
That love as revealed and interpreted in the life and death of Jesus Christ, involves more than we have yet seen, that is the only power by which evil can be overcome and the only sufficient basis of human society.
That, in order to establish a world-order based on Love, it is incumbent upon those who believe in this principle to accept it fully, both for themselves and in relation to others and to take the risks involved in doing so in a world which does not yet accept it.
That therefore, as Christians, we are forbidden to wage war, and that our loyalty to our country, to humanity, to the Church Universal, and to Jesus Christ our Lord and Master, calls us instead to a life-service for the enthronement of Love in personal, commercial and national life.
That the Power, Wisdom and Love of God stretch far beyond the limits of our present experience, and that He is ever waiting to break forth into human life in new and larger ways.
That since God manifests Himself in the world through men and women, we offer ourselves to His redemptive purpose to be used by Him in whatever way He may reveal to us.
Because the membership of the FoR included many members of the Society of Friends (Quakers), who reject any form of written creed, it has always been stressed that the Basis is a statement of general agreement rather than a fixed form of words. Nonetheless the Basis has been an important point of reference for many Christian pacifists.
The FoR had a prominent role in acting as a support network for Christian pacifists during the war and supporting them in the difficult choice to become conscientious objectors - and in taking its consequences, which in many cases included imprisonment. In the interwar years it grew to be an influential body in United Kingdom Christianity, with federated associations in all the main denominations (the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship, the Methodist Peace Fellowship, the Baptist Peace Fellowship, etc.) as well as a strong membership among the Society of Friends (Quakers). At one time the Methodist Peace Fellowship claimed a quarter of all Methodist ministers among its members.
During the 1930s, the FoR's members included George Lansbury.
The FoR was active in the anti-war movement of the 1930s, and provided considerable practical support for active pacifism during and after the Spanish Civil War. It could be argued that it lost influence when the Second World War came, was won, and was widely perceived as morally justified, especially as the horrors of Nazism became known in the post-war period. Equally, it could be argued that the questionable morality of the Cold War threat of mutually assured nuclear destruction again vindicated the FoR philosophy. The FoR retained considerable strength in post-second world war British Christianity, and many of its members were active in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in the 1950s and 1960s. Prominent members included Donald Soper, a high-profile President of the Methodist Conference of the period and later a member of the House of Lords. With the continuing decline of Christianity in Britain, the FoR has lost influence, although active Christians in the UK are now probably further to the left politically, on average, than they were in the 1930s or 1950s.
A history of British FoR from 1914 to 1989, entitled Valiant For Peace, was published in 1991.
FoR remains active: Norman Kember, the British peace activist kidnapped in Iraq in December 2005 was a member of the Baptist Peace Fellowship and a Trustee of the FoR in England. There are Roman Catholic members of FoR, and although most Catholic pacifists affiliate instead to the specifically Catholic peace organisation, Pax Christi, FoR and Pax Christi work closely together. Although many members have universalist sympathies and are happy to co-operate with pacifists of other faiths or none, the FoR has remained a distinctively Christian organisation. However, with a number of Hindu, Buddhist and other supporters, members, and staff, there is a degree of flux here as well.
Currently, there are separate FoR organisations for England and Scotland, and for Wales. The Welsh branch is called Cymdeithas y Cymod.
The FOR in the United States
United States Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR USA) was founded in 1915 by sixty-eight pacifists, including A. J. Muste, Jane Addams and Bishop Paul Jones. Norman Thomas, at first skeptical of its program, joined in 1916 and would become the group's president. It was formed in opposition to the entry of the United States into World War I. The American Civil Liberties Union developed out of FOR's conscientious objectors program and the Emergency Committee for Civil Liberties.
The FOR USA claims to be the "largest, oldest interfaith peace and justice organization in the United States." Its programs and projects involve domestic as well as international issues, and generally emphasize nonviolent alternatives to conflict and the rights of conscience. Unlike the U.K. movements, it is an interfaith body, though its historic roots are in Christianity.
The FoR in Canada
Among the first chapters in Canada were those established in Toronto by Richard Roberts in the late 1920s and in Montreal by J. Lavell Smith in the mid-1930s.
Fellowship Europe
The Fellowship also has a European branch. In the post-World War Two period, the secretary of the European
FOR was Pastor André Trocmé, known for saving Jews at Collège Cévenol during the
Nazi occupation of France.
Religious Peace Fellowships
Since 1935, FOR has helped form, launch, and strengthen peace fellowships of many faith
traditions to form a network of faith-based nonviolent action. Membership of these peace fellowships has changed and grown over the past decades; what follows are fellowships that are currently affiliated with FOR:
Adventist Peace Fellowship
Baptist Peace Fellowship
Buddhist Peace Fellowship
Catholic Peace Fellowship
Church of God Peace Fellowship
Disciples Peace Fellowship
Episcopal Peace Fellowship
Jewish Peace Fellowship
Lutheran Peace Fellowship
Muslim Peace Fellowship
Presbyterian Peace Fellowship
Unitarian Universalist Peace Fellowship
See also
Buddhist Peace Fellowship
List of anti-war organizations
List of peace activists
War Resisters' International (a more secular organisation).
Footnotes
Further reading
Raymond Arsenault, Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006)
Nicholson Baker, Human Smoke: The Beginnings of World War II, the End of Civilization (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008)
Vera Brittain, The Rebel Passion: A Short Biography of Some Pioneer Peacemakers (Nyack, New York: Fellowship Publishers, 1964)
Derek Charles Catsam, Freedom’s Main Line: The Journey of Reconciliation and the Freedom Rides (Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press, 2009)
Paul R. Dekar, Creating the Beloved Community: A Journey with the Fellowship of Reconciliation (Telford, PA: Cascadia Publishing House, 2005)
Frazier, Nishani (2017). Harambee City: Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the Rise of Black Power Populism. University of Arkansas Press. .
Joseph "Kip" Kosek, Acts of Conscience: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010)
Murray Polner and Stefan Merken, eds. Peace, Justice and Jews: Reclaiming our Tradition (New York: Bunim & Bannigan, 2007)
Louisa Thomas, Conscience: Two Soldiers, Two Pacifists, One Family – A Test of Will and Faith in World War I (New York: Penguin Press, 2011)
Walter Wink, ed. Peace is the Way: Writings on Nonviolence from the Fellowship of Reconciliation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2000)
External links
Archives of the Fellowship of Reconciliation (England) and Fellowship of Reconciliation (London Union)
Selected material from the Fellowship of Reconciliation included in the Peace and Internationalism Digitised Collection on LSE Digital Library
Ahimsa Farm collected records from the Swarthmore College Peace Collection
Political advocacy groups in England
Peace organizations
Christian pacifism
Nonviolence organisations based in the United Kingdom | [
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|
255041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutenberg%20Museum | Gutenberg Museum | The Gutenberg Museum is one of the oldest museums of printing in the world, located opposite the cathedral in the old part of Mainz, Germany. It is named after Johannes Gutenberg, the inventor of printing from movable metal type in Western Europe. The collections include printing equipment and examples of printed materials from many cultures.
History
A group of people founded the museum in 1900, 500 years after Johannes Gutenberg’s birth, to honor the inventor and present his technical and artistic achievements to the public at large. They also aimed to exhibit the writing and printing of as many different cultures as possible.
Publishers, manufacturers of printing machines and printing houses donated books, apparatus and machines, which formed the basis of the collection. In its first few years the museum was part of the city library, meaning that the most beautiful and characteristic volumes from the library’s extensive collection could be requisitioned for the museum. Visitors were thus presented with a survey of almost 500 years of the printed book. In time the museum expanded to include sections on printing techniques, book art, job printing and ex-libris, graphics and posters, paper, the history of writing of all cultures of the world and modern artists’ books.
The Gutenberg Museum was originally laid out in two rooms at the Kurfürstliches Schloß (Electoral Palace Mainz), which also accommodated the city library. The museum moved into the new library building on the Rheinallee in 1912. The same year, 1925, saw the installation of a reconstruction of Gutenberg's workshop which soon became one of the museum's main attractions. Type founding, typesetting and printing could now be demonstrated visually. The replica of Gutenberg's printing press, rebuilt according to the 15th- and 16th-century woodcuts, proved an object of great interest to visitors and was henceforth shown at a large number of exhibitions all over the world.
In 1927 the museum was able to move into the building Zum Römischen Kaiser (1664) in Mainz. This is now where the museum's administration, the restoration workshop, library, Gutenberg Society and the domicile of the Mainzer Stadtschreiber are housed. The Late Renaissance building was heavily bombed in 1945; the museum's contents had been stored in a safe place and thus remained intact. In 1962, the restoration of the Römischer Kaiser was complete. A new, modern exhibition building was also opened in the place where once the guest house König von England stood.
Acquisitions
The museum made several important acquisitions in the following years, among them a second Gutenberg Bible, the Shuckburgh Bible in two volumes (1978), and two block books printed using wooden formes and today extremely rare. Another major change was the introduction of the museum's educational unit in 1989. In 2000, the old museum building was restored and extended.
Exhibitions
The Bookplate Collection
The Gutenberg Museum's collection of bookplates, or ex-libri, is the most comprehensive public collection in the Federal Republic of Germany and one of the most important worldwide. The collection began in the mid-twentieth century with donation of a few dozen bookplates and grew greatly in 1963 when Willy Tropp, one of the most important bookplate collectors of the time, donated approximately 50,000 bookplates. The collection contains bookplates that belonged to such famous and infamous figures as Charles Lindbergh, Albert Einstein, Charles Dickens, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Adolf Hitler. Today the collection numbers at around 100,000 bookplates.
Printed Graphics
The Gutenberg-Museum has an extensive collection of printed graphics which include depictions of printers and technical illustrations and artists’ prints representing various techniques. Exhibited at various points throughout the museum's permanent displays, the collection also consists of thousands of stored prints that can be viewed through appointment upon request to the museum.
Small Presses
The Mainzer Minipressen-Archiv is an archive of literary works by small printing shops rarely admitted to mainstream libraries. Included in the collections are books, magazines, videos, posters, flyers and leaflets from small presses throughout Europe.
See also
Gutenberg-Jahrbuch
References
Hans Adolf Halbey, Elke Schutt-Kehm, Rolf Stümpel: Buchkultur aus Mainz. Schrift Druck Buch im Gutenberg Museum. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Magonza 1993.
Anton M. Keim: Mehr als zwei „Denkmäler“. Neunzig Jahre Weltmusum der Druckkunst und internationale Gutenberg-Gesellschaft Mainz. Verlag der Gutenberg-Gesellschaft, Mainz 1991, (Kleiner Druck der Gutenberg-Gesellschaft 109), (Deutsche Fassung auch in: Imprimatur. NF 14, 1991, , S. 83–108).
External links
Gutenberg Museum website
Gutenberg Library website
Museums in Mainz
Museums in Rhineland-Palatinate
Buildings and structures in Mainz
Johannes Gutenberg
Libraries in Germany
Literary museums in Germany
History museums in Germany
History of printing
Printing museums in Germany | [
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255046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%20on%20Washington%20for%20Jobs%20and%20Freedom | March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom | The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, also known as simply the March on Washington or The Great March on Washington, was held in Washington, D.C., on Wednesday, August 28, 1963. The purpose of the march was to advocate for the civil and economic rights of African Americans. At the march, final speaker Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial, delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech in which he called for an end to racism.
The march was organized by A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, who built an alliance of civil rights, labor, and religious organizations that came together under the banner of "jobs and freedom." Estimates of the number of participants varied from 200,000 to 300,000, but the most widely cited estimate is 250,000 people. Observers estimated that 75–80% of the marchers were black. The march was one of the largest political rallies for human rights in United States history. Walter Reuther, president of the United Auto Workers, was the most integral and highest-ranking white organizer of the march.
The march is credited with helping to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It preceded the Selma Voting Rights Movement, when national media coverage contributed to passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that same year.
Background
African Americans were legally freed from slavery under the Thirteenth Amendment and granted citizenship in the Fourteenth Amendment, and African American men were elevated to the status of citizens and granted full voting rights by the Fifteenth Amendment in the years soon after the end of the American Civil War, but conservative Democrats regained power after the end of the Reconstruction era (in 1877) and imposed many restrictions on people of color in the South. At the turn of the century, Southern states passed constitutions and laws that disenfranchised most black people and many poor whites, excluding them from the political system. The whites imposed social, economic, and political repression against black people into the 1960s, under a system of legal discrimination known as Jim Crow laws, which were pervasive in the American South. Black people suffered discrimination from private businesses as well, and most were prevented from voting, sometimes through violent means. Twenty-one states prohibited interracial marriage.
During the 20th century, civil rights organizers began to develop ideas for a march on Washington, DC, to seek justice. Earlier efforts to organize such a demonstration included the March on Washington Movement of the 1940s. A. Philip Randolph—the president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, president of the Negro American Labor Council, and vice president of the AFL-CIO—was a key instigator in 1941. With Bayard Rustin, Randolph called for 100,000 black workers to march on Washington, in protest of discriminatory hiring during World War II by U.S. military contractors and demanding an Executive Order to correct that. Faced with a mass march scheduled for July 1, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25. The order established the Committee on Fair Employment Practice and banned discriminatory hiring in the defense industry, leading to improvements for many defense workers. Randolph called off the March.
Randolph and Rustin continued to organize around the idea of a mass march on Washington. They envisioned several large marches during the 1940s, but all were called off (despite criticism from Rustin). Their Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom, held at the Lincoln Memorial on May 17, 1957, featured key leaders including Adam Clayton Powell, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Roy Wilkins. Mahalia Jackson performed.
The 1963 march was part of the rapidly expanding Civil Rights Movement, which involved demonstrations and nonviolent direct action across the United States. 1963 marked the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln. Leaders represented major civil rights organizations. Members of The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference put aside their differences and came together for the march. Many whites and black people also came together in the urgency for change in the nation.
That year violent confrontations broke out in the South: in Cambridge, Maryland; Pine Bluff, Arkansas; Goldsboro, North Carolina; Somerville, Tennessee; Saint Augustine, Florida; and across Mississippi. In most cases, white people attacked nonviolent demonstrators seeking civil rights. Many people wanted to march on Washington, but disagreed over how the march should be conducted. Some called for a complete shutdown of the city through civil disobedience. Others argued that the civil rights movement should remain nationwide in scope, rather than focus its energies on the nation's capital and federal government. There was a widespread perception that the Kennedy administration had not lived up to its promises in the 1960 election, and King described Kennedy's race policy as "tokenism".
On May 24, 1963, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy invited African-American novelist James Baldwin, along with a large group of cultural leaders, to a meeting in New York to discuss race relations. However, the meeting became antagonistic, as black delegates felt that Kennedy did not have an adequate understanding of the race problem in the nation. The public failure of the meeting, which came to be known as the Baldwin–Kennedy meeting, underscored the divide between the needs of Black America and the understanding of Washington politicians. But the meeting also provoked the Kennedy administration to take action on the civil rights for African Americans. On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy gave a notable civil rights address on national television and radio, announcing that he would begin to push for civil rights legislation. After his assassination, his proposal was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. That night (early morning of June 12, 1963), Mississippi activist Medgar Evers was murdered in his own driveway, further escalating national tension around the issue of racial inequality.
Planning and organization
A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin began planning the march in December 1961. They envisioned two days of protest, including sit-ins and lobbying followed by a mass rally at the Lincoln Memorial. They wanted to focus on joblessness and to call for a public works program that would employ black people. In early 1963 they called publicly for "a massive March on Washington for jobs". They received help from Stanley Aronowitz of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers; he gathered support from radical organizers who could be trusted not to report their plans to the Kennedy administration. The unionists offered tentative support for a march that would be focused on jobs.
On May 15, 1963, without securing the cooperation of the NAACP or the Urban League, Randolph announced an "October Emancipation March on Washington for Jobs". He reached out to union leaders, winning the support of the UAW's Walter Reuther, but not of AFL–CIO president George Meany. Randolph and Rustin intended to focus the March on economic inequality, stating in their original plan that "integration in the fields of education, housing, transportation and public accommodations will be of limited extent and duration so long as fundamental economic inequality along racial lines persists." As they negotiated with other leaders, they expanded their stated objectives to "Jobs and Freedom", to acknowledge the agenda of groups that focused more on civil rights.
In June 1963, leaders from several different organizations formed the Council for United Civil Rights Leadership, an umbrella group to coordinate funds and messaging. This coalition of leaders, who became known as the "Big Six", included: Randolph, chosen as titular head of the march; James Farmer, president of the Congress of Racial Equality; John Lewis, chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee; Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference; Roy Wilkins, president of the NAACP; and Whitney Young, president of the National Urban League. King in particular had become well known for his role in the Birmingham campaign and for his Letter from Birmingham Jail. Wilkins and Young initially objected to Rustin as a leader for the march, worried that he would attract the wrong attention because he was a homosexual, a former Communist, and a draft resister. They eventually accepted Rustin as deputy organizer, on the condition that Randolph act as lead organizer and manage any political fallout.
About two months before the march, the Big Six broadened their organizing coalition by bringing on board four white men who supported their efforts: Walter Reuther, president of the United Automobile Workers; Eugene Carson Blake, former president of the National Council of Churches; Mathew Ahmann, executive director of the National Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice; and Joachim Prinz, president of the American Jewish Congress. Together, the Big Six plus four became known as the "Big Ten." John Lewis later recalled, "Somehow, some way, we worked well together. The six of us, plus the four. We became like brothers."
On June 22, the organizers met with President Kennedy, who warned against creating "an atmosphere of intimidation" by bringing a large crowd to Washington. The civil rights activists insisted on holding the march. Wilkins pushed for the organizers to rule out civil disobedience and described this proposal as the "perfect compromise". King and Young agreed. Leaders from the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), who wanted to conduct direct actions against the Department of Justice, endorsed the protest before they were informed that civil disobedience would not be allowed. Finalized plans for the March were announced in a press conference on July 2. President Kennedy spoke favorably of the March on July 17, saying that organizers planned a peaceful assembly and had cooperated with the Washington, D.C., police.
Mobilization and logistics were administered by Rustin, a civil rights veteran and organizer of the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, the first of the Freedom Rides to test the Supreme Court ruling that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel. Rustin was a long-time associate of both Randolph and Dr. King. With Randolph concentrating on building the march's political coalition, Rustin built and led the team of two hundred activists and organizers who publicized the march and recruited the marchers, coordinated the buses and trains, provided the marshals, and set up and administered all of the logistic details of a mass march in the nation's capital. During the days leading up to the march, these 200 volunteers used the ballroom of Washington DC radio station WUST as their operations headquarters.
The march was not universally supported among civil rights activists. Some, including Rustin (who assembled 4,000 volunteer marshals from New York), were concerned that it might turn violent, which could undermine pending legislation and damage the international image of the movement. The march was condemned by Malcolm X, spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, who termed it the "farce on Washington".
March organizers disagreed about the purpose of the march. The NAACP and Urban League saw it as a gesture of support for the civil rights bill that had been introduced by the Kennedy Administration. Randolph, King, and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) believed it could raise both civil rights and economic issues to national attention beyond the Kennedy bill. CORE and SNCC believed the march could challenge and condemn the Kennedy administration's inaction and lack of support for civil rights for African Americans.
Despite their disagreements, the group came together on a set of goals:
Passage of meaningful civil rights legislation;
Immediate elimination of school segregation (the Supreme Court had ruled that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional in 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education;
A program of public works, including job training, for the unemployed;
A Federal law prohibiting discrimination in public or private hiring;
A $2-an-hour minimum wage nationwide ();
Withholding Federal funds from programs that tolerate discrimination;
Enforcement of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution by reducing congressional representation from States that disenfranchise citizens;
A Fair Labor Standards Act broadened to include employment areas then excluded;
Authority for the Attorney General to institute injunctive suits when constitutional rights of citizens are violated.
Although in years past, Randolph had supported "Negro only" marches, partly to reduce the impression that the civil rights movement was dominated by white communists, organizers in 1963 agreed that white and black people marching side by side would create a more powerful image.
The Kennedy Administration cooperated with the organizers in planning the March, and one member of the Justice Department was assigned as a full-time liaison. Chicago and New York City (as well as some corporations) agreed to designate August 28 as "Freedom Day" and give workers the day off.
To avoid being perceived as radical, organizers rejected support from Communist groups. However, some politicians claimed that the March was Communist-inspired, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) produced numerous reports suggesting the same. In the days before August 28, the FBI called celebrity backers to inform them of the organizers' communist connections and advising them to withdraw their support. When William C. Sullivan produced a lengthy report on August 23 suggesting that Communists had failed to appreciably infiltrate the civil rights movement, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover rejected its contents. Strom Thurmond launched a prominent public attack on the March as Communist, and singled out Rustin in particular as a Communist and a gay man.
Organizers worked out of a building at West 130th St. and Lenox in Harlem. They promoted the march by selling buttons, featuring two hands shaking, the words "March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom", a union bug, and the date August 28, 1963. By August 2, they had distributed 42,000 of the buttons. Their goal was a crowd of at least 100,000 people.
As the march was being planned, activists across the country received bomb threats at their homes and in their offices. The Los Angeles Times received a message saying its headquarters would be bombed unless it printed a message calling the president a "Nigger Lover". Five airplanes were grounded on the morning of August 28 due to bomb threats. A man in Kansas City telephoned the FBI to say he would put a hole between King's eyes; the FBI did not respond. Roy Wilkins was threatened with assassination if he did not leave the country.
Convergence
Thousands traveled by road, rail, and air to Washington, D.C., on Wednesday, August 28. Marchers from Boston traveled overnight and arrived in Washington at 7am after an eight-hour trip, but others took much longer bus rides from cities such as Milwaukee, Little Rock, and St. Louis. Organizers persuaded New York's MTA to run extra subway trains after midnight on August 28, and the New York City bus terminal was busy throughout the night with peak crowds. A total of 450 buses left New York City from Harlem. Maryland police reported that "by 8:00 a.m., 100 buses an hour were streaming through the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel." The United Automobile Workers financed bus transportation for 5,000 of its rank-and-file members, providing the largest single contingent from any organization.
One reporter, Fred Powledge, accompanied African Americans who boarded six buses in Birmingham, Alabama, for the 750-mile trip to Washington. The New York Times carried his report:
The 260 demonstrators, of all ages, carried picnic baskets, water jugs, Bibles and a major weapon - their willingness to march, sing and pray in protest against discrimination. They gathered early this morning [August 27] in Birmingham's Kelly Ingram Park, where state troopers once [four months previous in May] used fire hoses and dogs to put down their demonstrations. It was peaceful in the Birmingham park as the marchers waited for the buses. The police, now part of a moderate city power structure, directed traffic around the square and did not interfere with the gathering ... An old man commented on the 20-hour ride, which was bound to be less than comfortable: "You forget we Negroes have been riding buses all our lives. We don't have the money to fly in airplanes."
John Marshall Kilimanjaro, a demonstrator traveling from Greensboro, North Carolina, said:
Contrary to the mythology, the early moments of the March—getting there—was no picnic. People were afraid. We didn't know what we would meet. There was no precedent. Sitting across from me was a black preacher with a white collar. He was an AME preacher. We talked. Every now and then, people on the bus sang 'Oh Freedom' and 'We Shall Overcome,' but for the most part there wasn't a whole bunch of singing. We were secretly praying that nothing violent happened.
Other bus rides featured racial tension, as black activists criticized liberal white participants as fair-weather friends.
Hazel Mangle Rivers, who had paid $8 for her ticket—"one-tenth of her husband's weekly salary"—was quoted in the August 29 New York Times. Rivers said that she was impressed by Washington's civility:
The people are lots better up here than they are down South. They treat you much nicer. Why, when I was out there at the march a white man stepped on my foot, and he said, "Excuse me," and I said "Certainly!" That's the first time that has ever happened to me. I believe that was the first time a white person has ever really been nice to me.
Some participants who arrived early held an all-night vigil outside the Department of Justice, claiming it had unfairly targeted civil rights activists and that it had been too lenient on white supremacists who attacked them.
Security preparations
The Washington, D.C., police forces were mobilized to full capacity for the march, including reserve officers and deputized firefighters. A total of 5,900 police officers were on duty. The government mustered 2,000 men from the National Guard, and brought in 3,000 outside soldiers to join the 1,000 already stationed in the area. These additional soldiers were flown in on helicopters from bases in Virginia and North Carolina. The Pentagon readied 19,000 troops in the suburbs. All of the forces involved were prepared to implement a coordinated conflict strategy named "Operation Steep Hill".
For the first time since Prohibition, liquor sales were banned in Washington D.C. Hospitals stockpiled blood plasma and cancelled elective surgeries. Major League Baseball cancelled two games between the Minnesota Twins and the last place Washington Senators although the venue, D.C. Stadium, was nearly four miles from the Lincoln Memorial rally site.
Rustin and Walter Fauntroy negotiated some security issues with the government, gaining approval for private marshals with the understanding that these would not be able to act against outside agitators. The FBI and Justice Department refused to provide preventive guards for buses traveling through the South to reach D.C. William Johnson recruited more than 1,000 police officers to serve on this private force. Julius Hobson, an FBI informant who served on the March's security force, told the team to be on the lookout for FBI infiltrators who might act as agents provocateurs. Jerry Bruno, President Kennedy's advance man, was positioned to cut the power to the public address system in the event of any incendiary rally speech.
Venue and sound system
The organizers originally planned to hold the march outside the Capitol Building. However, Reuther persuaded them to move the march to the Lincoln Memorial. He believed the Lincoln Memorial would be less threatening to Congress and the occasion would be appropriate underneath the gaze of President Abraham Lincoln's statue. The committee, notably Rustin, agreed to move the site on the condition that Reuther pay for a $19,000 (equivalent to $172,500 in 2021) sound system so that everyone on the National Mall could hear the speakers and musicians.
Rustin pushed hard for the expensive sound system, maintaining that "We cannot maintain order where people cannot hear." The system was obtained and set up at the Lincoln Memorial, but was sabotaged on the day before the March. Its operators were unable to repair it. Fauntroy contacted Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and his civil rights liaison Burke Marshall, demanding that the government fix the system. Fauntroy reportedly told them: "We have a couple hundred thousand people coming. Do you want a fight here tomorrow after all we've done?" The system was successfully rebuilt overnight by the U.S. Army Signal Corps.
March
The march commanded national attention by preempting regularly scheduled television programs. As the first ceremony of such magnitude ever initiated and dominated by African Americans, the march also was the first to have its nature wholly misperceived in advance. Dominant expectations ran from paternal apprehension to dread. On Meet the Press, reporters grilled Roy Wilkins and Martin Luther King Jr. about widespread foreboding that "it would be impossible to bring more than 100,000 militant Negroes into Washington without incidents and possibly rioting." Life magazine declared that the capital was suffering "its worst case of invasion jitters since the First Battle of Bull Run." The jails shifted inmates to other prisons to make room for those arrested in mass arrest. With nearly 1,700 extra correspondents supplementing the Washington press corps, the march drew a media assembly larger than the Kennedy inauguration two years earlier. Students from the University of California, Berkeley came together as black power organizations and emphasized the importance of the African-American freedom struggle. The march included black political parties; and William Worthy was one of many who led college students during the freedom struggle era.
On August 28, more than 2,000 buses, 21 chartered trains, 10 chartered airliners, and uncounted cars converged on Washington. All regularly scheduled planes, trains, and buses were also filled to capacity.
Although Randolph and Rustin had originally planned to fill the streets of Washington, D.C., the final route of the March covered only half of the National Mall. The march began at the Washington Monument and was scheduled to progress to the Lincoln Memorial. Demonstrators were met at the monument by the speakers and musicians. Women leaders were asked to march down Independence Avenue, while the male leaders marched on Pennsylvania Avenue with the media.
The start of the March was delayed because its leaders were meeting with members of Congress. To the leaders' surprise, the assembled group began to march from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial without them. The leaders met the March at Constitution Avenue, where they linked arms at the head of a crowd in order to be photographed 'leading the march'.
Marchers were not supposed to create their own signs, though this rule was not completely enforced by marshals. Most of the demonstrators did carry pre-made signs, available in piles at the Washington Monument. The UAW provided thousands of signs that, among other things, read: "There Is No Halfway House on the Road to Freedom," "Equal Rights and Jobs NOW," "UAW Supports Freedom March," "in Freedom we are Born, in Freedom we must Live," and "Before we'll be a Slave, we'll be Buried in our Grave."
About 50 members of the American Nazi Party staged a counter-protest and were quickly dispersed by police. The rest of Washington was quiet during the March. Most non-participating workers stayed home. Jailers allowed inmates to watch the March on TV.
Speakers
Representatives from each of the sponsoring organizations addressed the crowd from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial. Speakers (dubbed "The Big Ten") included The Big Six; three religious leaders (Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish); and labor leader Walter Reuther. None of the official speeches was by a woman. Dancer and actress Josephine Baker gave a speech during the preliminary offerings, but women were limited in the official program to a "tribute" led by Bayard Rustin, at which Daisy Bates also spoke briefly (see "excluded speakers" below.)
Floyd McKissick read James Farmer's speech because Farmer had been arrested during a protest in Louisiana; Farmer wrote that the protests would not stop "until the dogs stop biting us in the South and the rats stop biting us in the North."
The order of the speakers was as follows:
1. A. Philip Randolph – March Director
2. Walter Reuther – UAW, AFL-CIO
3. Roy Wilkins – NAACP
4. John Lewis – Chair, SNCC
5. Daisy Bates – Little Rock, Arkansas
6. Dr. Eugene Carson Blake – United Presbyterian Church and the National Council of Churches
7. Floyd McKissick –CORE
8. Whitney Young – National Urban League
9. Several smaller speeches were made, including by Rabbi Joachim Prinz – American Jewish Congress, Mathew Ahmann – National Catholic Conference, and Josephine Baker – dancer and actress
10. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. – SCLC. His "I Have a Dream" speech has become celebrated for its vision and eloquence.
Closing remarks were made by A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, March Organizers, leading with The Pledge and a list of demands.
Official program
Noted singer Marian Anderson was scheduled to lead the National Anthem but was unable to arrive on time; Camilla Williams performed in her place. Following an invocation by Washington's Roman Catholic Archbishop Patrick O'Boyle, the opening remarks were given by march director A. Philip Randolph, followed by Eugene Carson Blake.
A tribute to "Negro Women Fighters for Freedom" was led by Bayard Rustin, at which Daisy Bates spoke briefly in place of Myrlie Evers, who had missed her flight. The tribute introduced Daisy Bates, Diane Nash, Prince E. Lee, Rosa Parks, and Gloria Richardson.
Following that, speakers were SNCC chairman John Lewis, labor leader Walter Reuther, and CORE chairman Floyd McKissick (substituting for arrested CORE director James Farmer). The Eva Jessye Choir sang, and Rabbi Uri Miller (president of the Synagogue Council of America) offered a prayer. He was followed by National Urban League director Whitney Young, NCCIJ director Mathew Ahmann, and NAACP leader Roy Wilkins. After a performance by singer Mahalia Jackson, American Jewish Congress president Joachim Prinz spoke, followed by SCLC president Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Rustin read the March's official demands for the crowd's approval, and Randolph led the crowd in a pledge to continue working for the March's goals. The program was closed with a benediction by Morehouse College president Benjamin Mays.
Although one of the officially stated purposes of the march was to support the civil rights bill introduced by the Kennedy Administration, several of the speakers criticized the proposed law as insufficient. Two government agents stood by in a position to cut power to the microphone if necessary.
Roy Wilkins
Roy Wilkins announced that sociologist and activist W. E. B. Du Bois had died in Ghana the previous night, where he had been living in exile; the crowd observed a moment of silence in his memory. Wilkins had initially refused to announce the news because he despised Du Bois for becoming a Communist—but insisted on making the announcement when he realized that Randolph would make it if he didn't. Wilkins said: "Regardless of the fact that in his later years Dr. Du Bois chose another path, it is incontrovertible that at the dawn of the twentieth century his was the voice that was calling you to gather here today in this cause. If you want to read something that applies to 1963 go back and get a volume of The Souls of Black Folk by Du Bois, published in 1903."
John Lewis
John Lewis of SNCC was the youngest speaker at the event. He planned to criticize the Kennedy Administration for the inadequacies of the Civil Rights Act of 1963. Other leaders insisted that the speech be changed to be less antagonistic to the government. James Forman and other SNCC activists contributed to the revision. It still complained that the Administration had not done enough to protect southern black people and civil rights workers from physical violence by whites in the Deep South. Deleted from his original speech at the insistence of more conservative and pro-Kennedy leaders were phrases such as:
Lewis' speech was distributed to fellow organizers the evening before the march; Reuther, O'Boyle, and others thought it was too divisive and militant. O'Boyle objected most strenuously to a part of the speech that called for immediate action and disavowed "patience." The government and moderate organizers could not countenance Lewis's explicit opposition to Kennedy's civil rights bill. That night, O'Boyle and other members of the Catholic delegation began preparing a statement announcing their withdrawal from the March. Reuther convinced them to wait and called Rustin; Rustin informed Lewis at 2 A.M. on the day of the march that his speech was unacceptable to key coalition members. (Rustin also reportedly contacted Tom Kahn, mistakenly believing that Kahn had edited the speech and inserted the line about Sherman's March to the Sea. Rustin asked, "How could you do this? Do you know what Sherman did?) But Lewis did not want to change the speech. Other members of SNCC, including Stokely Carmichael, were also adamant that the speech not be censored. The dispute continued until minutes before the speeches were scheduled to begin. Under threat of public denouncement by the religious leaders, and under pressure from the rest of his coalition, Lewis agreed to omit the 'inflammatory' passages. Many activists from SNCC, CORE, and SCLC were angry at what they considered censorship of Lewis's speech. In the end, Lewis added a qualified endorsement of Kennedy's civil rights legislation, saying: "It is true that we support the administration's Civil Rights Bill. We support it with great reservation, however." Even after toning down his speech, Lewis called for activists to "get in and stay in the streets of every city, every village and hamlet of this nation until true freedom comes".
Martin Luther King Jr.
The speech given by SCLC president King, who spoke last, became known as the "I Have a Dream" speech, which was carried live by TV stations and subsequently considered the most impressive moment of the march. In it, King called for an end to racism in the United States. It invoked the Declaration of Independence, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the United States Constitution. At the end of the speech, Mahalia Jackson shouted from the crowd, "Tell them about the dream, Martin!", and King departed from his prepared text for a partly improvised peroration on the theme of "I have a dream". Over time it has been hailed as a masterpiece of rhetoric, added to the National Recording Registry and memorialized by the National Park Service with an inscription on the spot where King stood to deliver the speech.
Randolph and Rustin
A. Philip Randolph spoke first, promising: "we shall return again and again to Washington in ever growing numbers until total freedom is ours." Randolph also closed the event along with Bayard Rustin. Rustin followed King's speech by slowly reading the list of demands. The two concluded by urging attendees to take various actions in support of the struggle.
Walter Reuther
Walter Reuther urged Americans to pressure their politicians to act to address racial injustices. He said,
American democracy is on trial in the eyes of the world ... We cannot successfully preach democracy in the world unless we first practice democracy at home. American democracy will lack the moral credentials and be both unequal to and unworthy of leading the forces of freedom against the forces of tyranny unless we take bold, affirmative, adequate steps to bridge the moral gap between American democracy's noble promises and its ugly practices in the field of civil rights.
According to Irving Bluestone, who was standing near the platform while Reuther delivered his remarks, he overheard two black women talking. One asked, "Who is that white man?" The other replied, "Don't you know him? That's the white Martin Luther King."
Excluded speakers
Author James Baldwin was prevented from speaking at the March on the grounds that his comments would be too inflammatory. Baldwin later commented on the irony of the "terrifying and profound" requests that he prevent the March from happening:
In my view, by that time, there was, on the one hand, nothing to prevent—the March had already been co-opted—and, on the other, no way of stopping the people from descending on Washington. What struck me most horribly was that virtually no one in power (including some blacks or Negroes who were somewhere next door to power) was able, even remotely, to accept the depth, the dimension, of the passion and the faith of the people.
Despite the protests of organizer Anna Arnold Hedgeman, no women gave a speech at the March. Male organizers attributed this omission to the "difficulty of finding a single woman to speak without causing serious problems vis-à-vis other women and women's groups". Hedgeman read a statement at an August 16 meeting, charging:
In light of the role of Negro women in the struggle for freedom and especially in light of the extra burden they have carried because of the castration of our Negro men in this culture, it is incredible that no woman should appear as a speaker at the historic March on Washington Meeting at the Lincoln Memorial. . .
The assembled group agreed that Myrlie Evers, the new widow of Medgar Evers, could speak during the "Tribute to Women". However, Evers was unavailable, having missed her flight, and Daisy Bates spoke briefly (less than 200 words) in place of her. Earlier, Josephine Baker had addressed the crowd before the official program began. Although Gloria Richardson was on the program and had been asked to give a two-minute speech, when she arrived at the stage her chair with her name on it had been removed, and the event marshal took her microphone away after she said "hello". Richardson, along with Rosa Parks and Lena Horne, was escorted away from the podium before Martin Luther King Jr. spoke.
Early plans for the March would have included an "Unemployed Worker" as one of the speakers. This position was eliminated, furthering criticism of the March's middle-class bias.
Singers
Gospel legend Mahalia Jackson sang "How I Got Over", and Marian Anderson sang "He's Got the Whole World in His Hands". This was not Marian Anderson's first appearance at the Lincoln Memorial. In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution refused permission for Anderson to sing to an integrated audience in Constitution Hall. With the aid of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and her husband Franklin D. Roosevelt, Anderson performed a critically acclaimed open-air concert on Easter Sunday, 1939, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial.
Joan Baez led the crowds in several verses of "We Shall Overcome" and "Oh Freedom". Musician Bob Dylan performed "When the Ship Comes In", for which he was joined by Baez. Dylan also performed "Only a Pawn in Their Game", a provocative and not completely popular choice because it asserted that Byron De La Beckwith, as a poor white man, was not personally or primarily to blame for the murder of Medgar Evers.
Peter, Paul and Mary sang "If I Had a Hammer" and Dylan's "Blowin' in the Wind". Odetta sang "I'm On My Way".
Some participants, including Dick Gregory criticized the choice of mostly white performers and the lack of group participation in the singing. Dylan himself said he felt uncomfortable as a white man serving as a public image for the Civil Rights Movement. After the March on Washington, he performed at few other immediately politicized events.
Celebrities
The event featured many prominent celebrities in addition to singers on the program. Josephine Baker, Harry Belafonte, Sidney Poitier, James Baldwin, Jackie Robinson, Sammy Davis, Jr., Dick Gregory, Eartha Kitt, Ossie Davis, Ruby Dee, Diahann Carroll, and Lena Horne were among the black celebrities attending. There were also quite a few white and Latino celebrities who attended or helped fund the March in support of the cause: James Garner, Robert Ryan, Charlton Heston, Paul Newman, Joanne Woodward, Rita Moreno, Marlon Brando, Bobby Darin and Burt Lancaster, among others, even Judy Garland (who attended all of the preliminary meetings the day before but did not attend the March due to commitments to her CBS variety show).
Meeting with President Kennedy
After the March, the speakers travelled to the White House for a brief discussion of proposed civil rights legislation with President Kennedy. As the leaders approached The White House, the media reported that Reuther said to King, "Everything was perfect, just perfect." Kennedy had watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. According to biographer Thomas C. Reeves, Kennedy "felt that he would be booed at the March, and also didn't want to meet with organizers before the March because he didn't want a list of demands. He arranged a 5 P.M. meeting at the White House with the 10 leaders on the 28th."
During the meeting, Reuther described to Kennedy how he was framing the civil rights issue to business leaders in Detroit, saying, "Look, you can't escape the problem. And there are two ways of resolving it; either by reason or riots." Reuther continued, "Now the civil war that this is gonna trigger is not gonna be fought at Gettysburg. It's gonna to be fought in your backyard, in your plant, where your kids are growing up." The March was considered a "triumph of managed protest" and Kennedy felt it was a victory for him as well—bolstering the chances for his civil rights bill.
Media coverage
Media attention gave the march national exposure, carrying the organizers' speeches and offering their own commentary. In his section The March on Washington and Television News, William Thomas notes: "Over five hundred cameramen, technicians, and correspondents from the major networks were set to cover the event. More cameras would be set up than had filmed the last Presidential inauguration. One camera was positioned high in the Washington Monument, to give dramatic vistas of the marchers". The major networks broadcast some of the March live, though they interspersed footage of interviews with politicians. Subsequent broadcasts focused heavily on the "I have a dream" portion of King's speech.
The Voice of America translated the speeches and rebroadcast them in 36 languages. The United States Information Agency organized a press conference for the benefit of foreign journalists, and also created a documentary film of the event for distribution to embassies abroad. Commented Michael Thelwell of SNCC: "So it happened that Negro students from the South, some of whom still had unhealed bruises from the electric cattle prods which Southern police used to break up demonstrations, were recorded for the screens of the world portraying 'American Democracy at Work.'"
Responses and memories
Organizers
Although the mass media generally declared the March successful because of its high turnout, organizers were not confident that it would create change. Randolph and Rustin abandoned their belief in the effectiveness of marching on Washington. King maintained faith that action in Washington could work, but determined that future marchers would need to call greater attention to economic injustice. In 1967–1968, he organized a Poor People's Campaign to occupy the National Mall with a shantytown.
Critics
Black nationalist Malcolm X, in his Message to the Grass Roots speech, criticized the march, describing it as "a picnic" and "a circus". He said the civil rights leaders had diluted the original purpose of the march, which had been to show the strength and anger of black people, by allowing white people and organizations to help plan and participate in the march. One SNCC staffer commented during the march, "He's denouncing us as clowns, but he's right there with the clown show." But the membership of SNCC, increasingly frustrated with the tactics of the NAACP and other moderate groups, gradually embraced Malcolm X's position.
Segregationists including William Jennings Bryan Dorn criticized the government for cooperating with the civil rights activists. Senator Olin D. Johnston rejected an invitation to attend, writing: "You are committing the worst possible mistake in promoting this March. You should know that criminal, fanatical, and communistic elements, as well as crackpots, will move in to take every advantage of this mob. You certainly will have no influence on any member of Congress, including myself."
Participants
Many participants said they felt the March was a historic and life-changing experience. Nan Grogan Orrock, a student at Mary Washington College, said: "You couldn't help but get swept up in the feeling of the March. It was an incredible experience of this mass of humanity with one mind moving down the street. It was like being part of a glacier. You could feel the sense of collective will and effort in the air." SNCC organizer Bob Zellner reported that the event "provided dramatic proof that the sometimes quiet and always dangerous work we did in the Deep South had had a profound national impact. The spectacle of a quarter of a million supporters and activists gave me an assurance that the work I was in the process of dedicating my life to was worth doing."
Richard Brown, then a white graduate student at Harvard University, recalls that the March fostered direct actions for economic progress: "Henry Armstrong and I compared notes. I realized the Congress of Racial Equality might help black employment in Boston by urging businesses to hire contractors like Armstrong. He agreed to help start a list of reliable contractors that CORE could promote. It was a modest effort — but it moved in the right direction."
Other participants, more sympathetic to Malcolm X and the black nationalists, expressed ambivalence. One marcher from New York explained:
It's like St Patrick's Day. I came out of respect for what my people are doing, not because I believe it will do any good. I thought it would do some good in the beginning. But when the march started to get all the official approval from Mastah Kennedy, Mastah Wagner, Mastah Spellman, and they started setting limits on how we had to march peacefully, I knew that the march was going to be a mockery, that they were giving us something again.
Marcher Beverly Alston thought that the day had its greatest impact within the movement: "Culturally, there has been tremendous progress over the past forty years. Black awareness and self-determination has soared. Politically, I just don't think we've made enough progress." Fifteen-year-old Ericka Jenkins from Washington said:
I saw people laughing and listening and standing very close to one another, almost in an embrace. Children of every size, pregnant women, elderly people who seemed tired but happy to be there, clothing that made me know that they struggled to make it day to day, made me know they worked in farms or offices or even nearby for the government. I didn't see teenagers alone; I saw groups of teenagers with teachers.
White people [were] standing in wonder. Their eyes were open, they were listening. Openness and nothing on guard—I saw that in everybody. I was so happy to see that in the white people that they could listen and take in and respect and believe in the words of a black person. I had never seen anything like that.
Some people discussed racism becoming less explicit after the March. Reverend Abraham Woods of Birmingham commented: "Everything has changed. And when you look at it, nothing has changed. Racism is under the surface, and an incident that could scratch it, can bring it out."
Effects and legacy
The symbolism of the March has been contested since before it even took place. In the years following the March, movement radicals increasingly subscribed to Malcolm X's narrative of the March as a co-optation by the white establishment. However, some black nationalist intellectuals did not see that the liberal reforms of the Johnson administration would assure "full integration" based upon the existing power structures and persisting racist culture of daily life in America. Former Communist Party member Harold Cruse posited that full integration was "not possible within the present framework of the American system". Black Panther Party member and lawyer Kathleen Cleaver held radical views that only revolution could transform American society to bring about the redistribution of wealth and power that was needed to end the historical facts of exclusion and inequality.
Liberals and conservatives tended to embrace the March, but focused mostly on King's "I Have a Dream" speech and the legislative successes of 1964 and 1965. The mass media identified King's speech as a highlight of the event and focused on this oration to the exclusion of other aspects. For several decades, King took center stage in narratives about the March. More recently, historians and commentators have acknowledged the role played by Bayard Rustin in organizing the event.
The March was an early example of social movements conducting mass rallies in Washington, D.C., and was followed by several other marches in the capital, many of which used similar names.
For the 50th Anniversary, of the March, the United States Postal Service released a forever stamp that commemorated it.
Political effects
Soon after the speakers ended their meetings with Congress to go join the March, both houses passed legislation to create a dispute arbitration board for striking railroad workers.
The March is credited with propelling the U.S. government into action on civil rights, creating political momentum for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
The cooperation of a Democratic administration with the issue of civil rights marked a pivotal moment in voter alignment within the U.S. The Democratic Party gave up the Solid South—its undivided support since Reconstruction among the segregated Southern states—and went on to capture a high proportion of votes from black people from the Republicans.
Anniversary marches
The 1963 March also spurred anniversary marches that occur every five years, with the 20th and 25th being some of the most well known. The 20th Anniversary theme was "We Still have a Dream ... Jobs*Peace*Freedom."
At the 50th anniversary march in 2013, President Barack Obama conferred a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom on Bayard Rustin and 15 others.
2020 Virtual March on Washington
On July 20, 2020, the NAACP, one of the original organizers of the 1963 march, announced that it would commemorate it by organizing another rally on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, in which King's oldest son, Martin Luther King III, would join civil rights leaders and the families of black men and women who died as a result of police brutality. An online tie-in event was also planned, called the 2020 Virtual March on Washington. It was held August 27 and 28, the latter being the anniversary of the iconic "I Have a Dream" speech, and the day after President Trump was scheduled to accept his party's nomination for President at the Republican National Convention. Addressing the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the organizers explained that the virtual component of the rally was organized to enable participation by people unable to travel to Washington D.C. or safely participate in the in-person event. The NAACP's Virtual March featured performances from Macy Gray, Burna Boy, and speeches from Stacey Abrams, Nancy Pelosi, Cory Booker, and Mahershala Ali, among many others. It was a two-night event broadcast on ABC News Live, Bounce TV, TV One and on online platforms.
2021 Voting Rights and D.C. Statehood March
On August 28, 2021, a march calling for voting rights and statehood for Washington D.C. was held in Washington D.C on the 58th anniversary of the March on Washington. Though the numbers in the march permit revealed that 100,000 people were expected to attend, it was estimated that only 50,000 people attended. However, the smaller crowd size did match the National Action Network's earlier estimate. Among the speakers were Martin Luther King III, his wife and Drum Major Institute president Arndrea Waters King, daughter Yolanda, National Action Network leader Rev. Al Sharpton and Washington D.C. Mayor Muriel Bowser. Other speakers at the event included Democratic U.S. Representatives Joyce Beatty, of Ohio, Terri Sewell, of Alabama, Sheila Jackson Lee and Al Green, both of Texas, and Mondaire Jones, of New York; NAACP president Derrick Johnson; and Philonise Floyd, activist and brother of George Floyd.
Analysis
In 2013, the Economic Policy Institute launched a series of reports around the theme of "The Unfinished March". These reports analyze the goals of the original march and assess how much progress has been made. They echo the message of Randolph and Rustin that civil rights cannot transform people's quality of life unless accompanied by economic justice. They contend that many of the March's primary goals—including housing, integrated education, and widespread employment at living wages—have not been accomplished. They further argued that although legal advances were made, black people still live in concentrated areas of poverty ("ghettoes"), where they receive inferior education and suffer from widespread unemployment.
Dedrick Muhammad of the NAACP writes that racial inequality of income and homeownership have increased since 1963 and worsened during the recent Great Recession.
Gallery
See also
List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.
Prathia Hall
References
Notes
Bibliography
Bass, Patrick Henry. Like a Mighty Stream: The March on Washington, August 28, 1963. Philadelphia: Running Press, 2002.
Barber, Lucy G. Marching on Washington: The Forging of an American Political Tradition University of California Press, 2002.
Leonard Freed, This Is the Day: The March on Washington, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2013; .
Euchner, Charles. Nobody Turn Me Around: A People's History of the March on Washington. Boston: Beacon Press, 2010.
Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. William Morrow and Company, 1986.
Jones, William P. The March on Washington: Jobs, Freedom, and the Forgotten History of Civil Rights. Norton, 2013.
Further reading
Jones, William P. The March on Washington: Jobs, Freedom, and the Forgotten History of Civil Rights (W.W. Norton; 2013) 296 pages;
Saunders, Doris E. The Day They Marched (Johnson Publishing Company; 1963)
External links
March on Washington – King Encyclopedia, Stanford University
March on Washington August 28, 1963 ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive
March on Washington, WDAS History
The 1963 March on Washington - slideshow by Life magazine
Original Program for the March on Washington
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech at the March
Annotated text of John Lewis's original speech with changes
March on Washington 50th Anniversary Oral History Project, District of Columbia Public Library
Color photos from 1963 March on Washington, Collection by CNN
Video
John Lewis's speech
The March, 1963, from the National Archives YouTube Channel
1963 in Washington, D.C.
1963 protests
Articles containing video clips
August 1963 events in the United States
Civil rights movement
Civil rights protests in the United States
History of African-American civil rights
Martin Luther King Jr.
Protest marches in Washington, D.C. | [
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|
255047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nondestructive%20testing | Nondestructive testing | Nondestructive testing (NDT) is any of a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and technology industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage.
The terms nondestructive examination (NDE), nondestructive inspection (NDI), and nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology.
Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. The six most frequently used NDT methods are eddy-current, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, ultrasonic, and visual testing. NDT is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, petroleum engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical engineering, medicine, and art. Innovations in the field of nondestructive testing have had a profound impact on medical imaging, including on echocardiography, medical ultrasonography, and digital radiography.
NDT methods rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound and other signal conversions to examine a wide variety of articles (metallic and non-metallic, food-product, artifacts and antiquities, infrastructure) for integrity, composition, or condition with no alteration of the article undergoing examination. Visual inspection (VT), the most commonly applied NDT method, is quite often enhanced by the use of magnification, borescopes, cameras, or other optical arrangements for direct or remote viewing. The internal structure of a sample can be examined for a volumetric inspection with penetrating radiation (RT), such as X-rays, neutrons or gamma radiation. Sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing (UT), another volumetric NDT method – the mechanical signal (sound) being reflected by conditions in the test article and evaluated for amplitude and distance from the search unit (transducer). Another commonly used NDT method used on ferrous materials involves the application of fine iron particles (either suspended in liquid or dry powder – fluorescent or colored) that are applied to a part while it is magnetized, either continually or residually. The particles will be attracted to leakage fields of magnetism on or in the test object, and form indications (particle collection) on the object's surface, which are evaluated visually. Contrast and probability of detection for a visual examination by the unaided eye is often enhanced by using liquids to penetrate the test article surface, allowing for visualization of flaws or other surface conditions. This method (liquid penetrant testing) (PT) involves using dyes, fluorescent or colored (typically red), suspended in fluids and is used for non-magnetic materials, usually metals.
Analyzing and documenting a nondestructive failure mode can also be accomplished using a high-speed camera recording continuously (movie-loop) until the failure is detected. Detecting the failure can be accomplished using a sound detector or stress gauge which produces a signal to trigger the high-speed camera. These high-speed cameras have advanced recording modes to capture some non-destructive failures. After the failure the high-speed camera will stop recording. The captured images can be played back in slow motion showing precisely what happened before, during and after the nondestructive event, image by image.
Applications
NDT is used in a variety of settings that covers a wide range of industrial activity, with new NDT methods and applications, being continuously developed. Nondestructive testing methods are routinely applied in industries where a failure of a component would cause significant hazard or economic loss, such as in transportation, pressure vessels, building structures, piping, and hoisting equipment.
Weld verification
In manufacturing, welds are commonly used to join two or more metal parts. Because these connections may encounter loads and fatigue during product lifetime, there is a chance that they may fail if not created to proper specification. For example, the base metal must reach a certain temperature during the welding process, must cool at a specific rate, and must be welded with compatible materials or the joint may not be strong enough to hold the parts together, or cracks may form in the weld causing it to fail. The typical welding defects (lack of fusion of the weld to the base metal, cracks or porosity inside the weld, and variations in weld density) could cause a structure to break or a pipeline to rupture.
Welds may be tested using NDT techniques such as industrial radiography or industrial CT scanning using X-rays or gamma rays, ultrasonic testing, liquid penetrant testing, magnetic particle inspection or via eddy current. In a proper weld, these tests would indicate a lack of cracks in the radiograph, show clear passage of sound through the weld and back, or indicate a clear surface without penetrant captured in cracks.
Welding techniques may also be actively monitored with acoustic emission techniques before production to design the best set of parameters to use to properly join two materials. In the case of high stress or safety critical welds, weld monitoring will be employed to confirm the specified welding parameters (arc current, arc voltage, travel speed, heat input etc.) are being adhered to those stated in the welding procedure. This verifies the weld as correct to procedure prior to nondestructive evaluation and metallurgy tests. The American Welding Society (AWS) has a Certified Welding Inspector Certification for professional welders performing NDT inspections.
Structural mechanics
Structure can be complex systems that undergo different loads during their lifetime, e.g. Lithium-ion batteries. Some complex structures, such as the turbo machinery in a liquid-fuel rocket, can also cost millions of dollars. Engineers will commonly model these structures as coupled second-order systems, approximating dynamic structure components with springs, masses, and dampers. The resulting sets of differential equations are then used to derive a transfer function that models the behavior of the system.
In NDT, the structure undergoes a dynamic input, such as the tap of a hammer or a controlled impulse. Key properties, such as displacement or acceleration at different points of the structure, are measured as the corresponding output. This output is recorded and compared to the corresponding output given by the transfer function and the known input. Differences may indicate an inappropriate model (which may alert engineers to unpredicted instabilities or performance outside of tolerances), failed components, or an inadequate control system.
Reference standards, which are structures that intentionally flawed in order to be compared with components intended for use in the field, are often used in NDT. Reference standards can be with many NDT techniques, such as UT, RT and VT.
Relation to medical procedures
Several NDT methods are related to clinical procedures, such as radiography, ultrasonic testing, and visual testing.
Technological improvements or upgrades in these NDT methods have migrated over from medical equipment advances, including digital radiography (DR), phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT), and endoscopy (borescope or assisted visual inspection).
Notable events in academic and industrial NDT
1854 Hartford, Connecticut – A boiler at the Fales and Gray Car works explodes, killing 21 people and seriously injuring 50. Within a decade, the State of Connecticut passes a law requiring annual inspection (in this case visual) of boilers.
1880–1920 – The "Oil and Whiting" method of crack detection is used in the railroad industry to find cracks in heavy steel parts. (A part is soaked in thinned oil, then painted with a white coating that dries to a powder. Oil seeping out from cracks turns the white powder brown, allowing the cracks to be detected.) This was the precursor to modern liquid penetrant tests.
1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers what are now known as X-rays. In his first paper he discusses the possibility of flaw detection.
1920 – Dr. H. H. Lester begins development of industrial radiography for metals.
1924 – Lester uses radiography to examine castings to be installed in a Boston Edison Company steam pressure power plant.
1926 – The first electromagnetic eddy current instrument is available to measure material thicknesses.
1927-1928 – Magnetic induction system to detect flaws in railroad track developed by Dr. Elmer Sperry and H.C. Drake.
1929 – Magnetic particle methods and equipment pioneered (A.V. DeForest and F.B. Doane.)
1930s – Robert F. Mehl demonstrates radiographic imaging using gamma radiation from Radium, which can examine thicker components than the low-energy X-ray machines available at the time.
1935–1940 – Liquid penetrant tests developed (Betz, Doane, and DeForest)
1935–1940s – Eddy current instruments developed (H.C. Knerr, C. Farrow, Theo Zuschlag, and Fr. F. Foerster).
1940–1944 – Ultrasonic test method developed in USA by Dr. Floyd Firestone, who applies for a U.S. invention patent for same on May 27, 1940 and is issued the U.S. patent as grant no. 2,280,226 on April 21, 1942. Extracts from the first two paragraphs of this seminal patent for a nondestructive testing method succinctly describe the basics of ultrasonic testing. "My invention pertains to a device for detecting the presence of inhomogeneities of density or elasticity in materials. For instance if a casting has a hole or a crack within it, my device allows the presence of the flaw to be detected and its position located, even though the flaw lies entirely within the casting and no portion of it extends out to the surface." Additionally, "The general principle of my device consists of sending high frequency vibrations into the part to be inspected, and the determination of the time intervals of arrival of the direct and reflected vibrations at one or more stations on the surface of the part." Medical echocardiography is an offshoot of this technology.
1946 – First neutron radiographs produced by Peters.
1950 – The Schmidt Hammer (also known as "Swiss Hammer") is invented. The instrument uses the world's first patented non-destructive testing method for concrete.
1950 – J. Kaiser introduces acoustic emission as an NDT method.
(Basic source for above: Hellier, 2001) Note the number of advancements made during the WWII era, a time when industrial quality control was growing in importance.
1955 – ICNDT founded. World organizing body for Nondestructive Testing.
1955 – First NDT World Conference takes place in Brussels, organized by ICNDT. NDT World Conference takes place every four years.
1963 – Frederick G. Weighart's and James F. McNulty (U.S. radio engineer)'s co-invention of Digital radiography is an offshoot of the pairs development of nondestructive test equipment at Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El Segundo, California. See James F. McNulty also at article Ultrasonic testing.
1996 – Rolf Diederichs founded the first Open Access NDT Journal in the Internet. Today the Open Access NDT Database NDT.net
1998 – The European Federation for Non-Destructive Testing (EFNDT) was founded in May 1998 in Copenhagen at the 7th European Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (ECNDT). 27 national European NDT societies joined the powerful organization.
2008 – NDT in Aerospace Conference was established DGZfP and Fraunhofer IIS hosted the first international congress in Bavaria, Germany.
2008 – Academia NDT International has been officially founded and has its base office in Brescia (Italy) www.academia-ndt.org
2012 – ISO 9712:2012 ISO Qualification and Certification of NDT Personnel
2020 – Indian Society for Non-destructive Testing (ISNT) Accreditation Certification from NABCB for Qualification and Certification of NDT Personnel as per ISO 9712:2012
ISO 9712:2012 — Non-destructive testing — qualification and certification of NDT personnel
This International Standard specifies requirements for principles for the qualification and certification of personnel who perform industrial non-destructive testing (NDT).
The system specified in this International Standard can also apply to other NDT methods or to new techniques within an established NDT method, provided a comprehensive scheme of certification exists and the method or technique is covered by International, regional or national standards or the new NDT method or technique has been demonstrated to be effective to the satisfaction of the certification body.
The certification covers proficiency in one or more of the following methods: a) acoustic emission testing; b) eddy current testing; c) infrared thermographic testing; d) leak testing (hydraulic pressure tests excluded); e) magnetic testing; f) penetrant testing; g) radiographic testing; h) strain gauge testing; i) ultrasonic testing; j) visual testing (direct unaided visual tests and visual tests carried out during the application of another NDT method are excluded).
Methods and techniques
NDT is divided into various methods of nondestructive testing, each based on a particular scientific principle. These methods may be further subdivided into various techniques. The various methods and techniques, due to their particular natures, may lend themselves especially well to certain applications and be of little or no value at all in other applications. Therefore, choosing the right method and technique is an important part of the performance of NDT.
Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT)
Acoustic microscopy
Blue etch anodize (BEA)
Dye penetrant inspection or liquid penetrant testing (PT or LPI)
Electromagnetic testing (ET) or electromagnetic inspection (commonly known as "EMI")
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM)
Alternating current potential drop measurement (ACPD)
Barkhausen testing
Direct current potential drop measurement (DCPD)
Eddy-current testing (ECT)
Magnetic flux leakage testing (MFL) for pipelines, tank floors, and wire rope
Magnetic-particle inspection (MT or MPI)
Magnetovision
Remote field testing (RFT)
Ellipsometry
Endoscope inspection
Guided wave testing (GWT)
Hardness testing
Impulse excitation technique (IET)
Microwave imaging
Terahertz nondestructive evaluation (THz)
Infrared and thermal testing (IR)
Thermographic inspection
Scanning thermal microscopy
Laser testing
Electronic speckle pattern interferometry
Holographic interferometry
Self-mixing laser interferometry
Low coherence interferometry
Optical coherence tomography (OCT)
Profilometry
Shearography
Leak testing (LT) or Leak detection
Hydrostatic test
Absolute pressure leak testing (pressure change)
Bubble testing
Halogen diode leak testing
Hydrogen leak testing
Mass spectrometer leak testing
Tracer-gas leak testing method for helium, hydrogen and refrigerant gases
Machine vision based automatic inspection
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and NMR spectroscopy
Metallographic replicas
Spectroscopy
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
Mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIR)
(Far-infrared =) Terahertz spectroscopy
Raman Spectroscopy
Optical microscopy
Positive material identification (PMI)
Radiographic testing (RT) (see also Industrial radiography and Radiography)
Computed radiography
Digital radiography (real-time)
Neutron imaging
SCAR (small controlled area radiography)
X-ray computed tomography (CT)
Resonant inspection
Resonant acoustic method (RAM)
Scanning electron microscopy
Surface temper etch (Nital Etch)
Ultrasonic testing (UT)
Acoustic resonance technology (ART)
Angle beam testing
Electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) (non-contact)
Laser ultrasonics (LUT)
Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes
Phased array ultrasonics (PAUT)
Thickness measurement
Time of flight diffraction ultrasonics (TOFD)
Time-of-flight ultrasonic determination of 3D elastic constants (TOF)
Vibration analysis
Visual inspection (VT)
Pipeline video inspection
Weight and load testing of structures
Corroscan/C-scan
3D computed tomography
Industrial CT scanning
Heat Exchanger Life Assessment System
RTJ Flange Special Ultrasonic Testing
Personnel training, qualification and certification
Successful and consistent application of nondestructive testing techniques depends heavily on personnel training, experience and integrity. Personnel involved in application of industrial NDT methods and interpretation of results should be certified, and in some industrial sectors certification is enforced by law or by the applied codes and standards.
NDT professionals and managers who seek to further their growth, knowledge and experience to remain competitive in the rapidly advancing technology field of nondestructive testing should consider joining NDTMA, a member organization of NDT Managers and Executives who work to provide a forum for the open exchange of managerial, technical and regulatory information critical to the successful management of NDT personnel and activities. Their annual conference at the Golden Nugget in Las Vegas is a popular for its informative and relevant programming and exhibition space
Certification schemes
There are two approaches in personnel certification:
Employer Based Certification: Under this concept the employer compiles their own Written Practice. The written practice defines the responsibilities of each level of certification, as implemented by the company, and describes the training, experience and examination requirements for each level of certification. In industrial sectors the written practices are usually based on recommended practice SNT-TC-1A of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing. ANSI standard CP-189 outlines requirements for any written practice that conforms to the standard. For aviation, space, and defense (ASD) applications NAS 410 sets further requirements for NDT personnel, and is published by AIA – Aerospace Industries Association, which is made up of US aerospace airframe and powerplant manufacturers. This is the basis document for EN 4179 and other (USA) NIST-recognized aerospace standards for the Qualification and Certification (employer-based) of Nondestructive Testing personnel. NAS 410 also sets the requirements also for "National NDT Boards", which allow and proscribe personal certification schemes. NAS 410 allows ASNT Certification as a portion of the qualifications needed for ASD certification.
Personal Central Certification: The concept of central certification is that an NDT operator can obtain certification from a central certification authority, that is recognized by most employers, third parties and/or government authorities. Industrial standards for central certification schemes include ISO 9712, and ANSI/ASNT CP-106 (used for the ASNT ACCP scheme). Certification under these standards involves training, work experience under supervision and passing a written and practical examination set up by the independent certification authority. EN 473 was another central certification scheme, very similar to ISO 9712, which was withdrawn when CEN replaced it with EN ISO 9712 in 2012.
In the United States employer based schemes are the norm, however central certification schemes exist as well. The most notable is ASNT Level III (established in 1976–1977), which is organized by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing for Level 3 NDT personnel. NAVSEA 250-1500 is another US central certification scheme, specifically developed for use in the naval nuclear program.
Central certification is more widely used in the European Union, where certifications are issued by accredited bodies (independent organizations conforming to ISO 17024 and accredited by a national accreditation authority like UKAS). The Pressure Equipment Directive (97/23/EC) actually enforces central personnel certification for the initial testing of steam boilers and some categories of pressure vessels and piping. European Standards harmonized with this directive specify personnel certification to EN 473. Certifications issued by a national NDT society which is a member of the European Federation of NDT (EFNDT) are mutually acceptable by the other member societies under a multilateral recognition agreement.
Canada also implements an ISO 9712 central certification scheme, which is administered by Natural Resources Canada, a government department.
The aerospace sector worldwide sticks to employer based schemes. In America it is based mostly on the Aerospace Industries Association's (AIA) AIA-NAS-410 and in the European Union on the equivalent and very similar standard EN 4179. However EN 4179:2009 includes an option for central qualification and certification by a National aerospace NDT board or NANDTB (paragraph 4.5.2).
Levels of certification
Most NDT personnel certification schemes listed above specify three "levels" of qualification and/or certification, usually designated as Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 (although some codes specify Roman numerals, like Level II). The roles and responsibilities of personnel in each level are generally as follows (there are slight differences or variations between different codes and standards):
Level 1 are technicians qualified to perform only specific calibrations and tests under close supervision and direction by higher level personnel. They can only report test results. Normally they work following specific work instructions for testing procedures and rejection criteria.
Level 2 are engineers or experienced technicians who are able to set up and calibrate testing equipment, conduct the inspection according to codes and standards (instead of following work instructions) and compile work instructions for Level 1 technicians. They are also authorized to report, interpret, evaluate and document testing results. They can also supervise and train Level 1 technicians. In addition to testing methods, they must be familiar with applicable codes and standards and have some knowledge of the manufacture and service of tested products.
Level 3 are usually specialized engineers or very experienced technicians. They can establish NDT techniques and procedures and interpret codes and standards. They also direct NDT laboratories and have central role in personnel certification. They are expected to have wider knowledge covering materials, fabrication and product technology.
Terminology
The standard US terminology for Nondestructive testing is defined in standard ASTM E-1316. Some definitions may be different in European standard EN 1330.
Indication The response or evidence from an examination, such as a blip on the screen of an instrument. Indications are classified as true or false. False indications are those caused by factors not related to the principles of the testing method or by improper implementation of the method, like film damage in radiography, electrical interference in ultrasonic testing etc. True indications are further classified as relevant and non relevant. Relevant indications are those caused by flaws. Non relevant indications are those caused by known features of the tested object, like gaps, threads, case hardening etc.
Interpretation Determining if an indication is of a type to be investigated. For example, in electromagnetic testing, indications from metal loss are considered flaws because they should usually be investigated, but indications due to variations in the material properties may be harmless and nonrelevant.
Flaw A type of discontinuity that must be investigated to see if it is rejectable. For example, porosity in a weld or metal loss.
Evaluation Determining if a flaw is rejectable. For example, is porosity in a weld larger than acceptable by code?
Defect A flaw that is rejectable – i.e. does not meet acceptance criteria. Defects are generally removed or repaired.
Reliability and statistics
Probability of detection (POD) tests are a standard way to evaluate a nondestructive testing technique in a given set of circumstances, for example "What is the POD of lack of fusion flaws in pipe welds using manual ultrasonic testing?" The POD will usually increase with flaw size. A common error in POD tests is to assume that the percentage of flaws detected is the POD, whereas the percentage of flaws detected is merely the first step in the analysis. Since the number of flaws tested is necessarily a limited number (non-infinite), statistical methods must be used to determine the POD for all possible defects, beyond the limited number tested. Another common error in POD tests is to define the statistical sampling units (test items) as flaws, whereas a true sampling unit is an item that may or may not contain a flaw. Guidelines for correct application of statistical methods to POD tests can be found in ASTM E2862 Standard Practice for Probability of Detection Analysis for Hit/Miss Data and MIL-HDBK-1823A Nondestructive Evaluation System Reliability Assessment, from the U.S. Department of Defense Handbook.
See also
References
Bibliography
ASTM International, ASTM Volume 03.03 Nondestructive Testing
ASTM E1316-13a: "Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations" (2013)
ASNT, Nondestructive Testing Handbook
Bray, D.E. and R.K. Stanley, 1997, Nondestructive Evaluation: A Tool for Design, Manufacturing and Service; CRC Press, 1996.
Shull, P.J., Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques, and Applications, Marcel Dekker Inc., 2002.
EN 1330: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Nine parts. Parts 5 and 6 replaced by equivalent ISO standards.
EN 1330-1: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. List of general terms (1998)
EN 1330-2: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms common to the non-destructive testing methods (1998)
EN 1330-3: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in industrial radiographic testing (1997)
EN 1330-4: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in ultrasonic testing (2010)
EN 1330-7: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in magnetic particle testing (2005)
EN 1330-8: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in leak tightness testing (1998)
EN 1330-9: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in acoustic emission testing (2009)
EN 1330-10: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in visual testing (2003)
EN 1330-11: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in X-ray diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous materials (2007)
ISO 12706: Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing. Vocabulary (2009)
ISO 12718: Non-destructive testing. Eddy current testing. Vocabulary (2008)
External links
Maintenance
Quality control
Product testing
Product certification
Materials science
Materials testing
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|
255048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards | 1993 Governor General's Awards | Each winner of the 1993 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit received $10,000 and a medal from the Governor General of Canada. The winners were selected by a panel of judges administered by the Canada Council for the Arts.
English Language
Fiction
Winner:
Carol Shields, The Stone Diaries
Other Finalists:
Caroline Adderson, Bad Imaginings
Thomas King, Green Grass, Running Water
David Adams Richards, For Those Who Hunt the Wounded Down
Carol Windley, Visible Light
Poetry
Winner:
Don Coles, Forests of the Medieval World
Other Finalists:
Claire Harris, Drawing Down a Daughter
Monty Reid, Crawlspace: New and Selected Poems
Douglas Burnet Smith, Voices from a Farther Room
Patricia Young, More Watery Still
Drama
Winner:
Guillermo Verdecchia, Fronteras Americanas
Other Finalists:
Daniel MacIvor, House Humans
Raymond Storey, The Saints and Apostles
David Young, Glenn
Non-Fiction
Winner:
Karen Connelly, Touch the Dragon
Other Finalists:
Marq de Villiers, The Heartbreak Grape: A Journey in Search of the Perfect Pinot Noir
Marian Fowler, In a Gilded Cage
Jane Jacobs, Systems of Survival
Noël Mostert, Frontiers
Children's Literature – Text
Winner:
Tim Wynne-Jones, Some of the Kinder Planets
Other Finalists:
Mitzi Dale, Bryna Means Courage
James Archibald Houston, Drifting Snow: An Arctic Search
Carol Matas, Daniel's Story
Shirley Sterling, My Name Is Seepeetza
Children's Literature – Illustration
Winner:
Mireille Levert, Sleep Tight, Mrs. Ming
Other Finalists:
Scott Cameron, Beethoven Lives Upstairs
Marc Mongeau, There Were Monkeys in My Kitchen!
Russ Willms, Brewster Rooster
Leo Yerxa, Last Leaf First Snowflake to Fall
Translation (from French to English)
Winner:
D. G. Jones, Categorics One, Two and Three
Other Finalists:
Jane Brierley, The Maerlande Chronicles
Sheila Fischman, Following the Summer
Linda Gaboriau, The Eye Is an Eagle
Käthe Roth, The Last Cod Fish
French Language
Fiction
Winner:
Nancy Huston, Cantique des plaines
Other Finalists:
Esther Croft, Au commencement était le froid
Robert Lalonde, Sept lacs plus au nord
Rober Racine, Le Mal de Vienne
Pierre Yergeau, Tu attends la neige, Léonard?
Poetry
Winner:
Denise Desautels, Le Saut de l'ange
Other Finalists:
Denise Boucher, Grandeur nature
Roger Des Roches, La Réalité
Madeleine Gagnon, La Terre est remplie de langage
Serge Patrice Thibodeau, Le Cycle de Prague
Drama
Winner:
Daniel Danis, Celle-là
Other Finalists:
Jasmine Dubé, Petit Monstre
Gilbert Dupuis, Kushapatshikan
Non-Fiction
Winner:
François Paré, Les Littératures de l'exiguïté
Other Finalists:
Léon Dion, Québec 1945–2000 : Les intellectuels et le temps de Duplessis
Maurice Lemire, Formation de l'imaginaire littéraire au Québec 1764–1867
Jean Terrasse, De Mentor à Orphée
Andrée Yanacopoulo, Hans Selye ou la Cathédrale du stress
Children's Literature – Text
Winner:
Michèle Marineau, La Route de Chlifa
Other Finalists:
Yves Beauchemin, Antoine et Alfred
Dominique Demers, Les grands sapins ne meurent pas
Raymond Plante, Les Dents de la poule
Children's Literature – Illustration
Winner:
Stéphane Jorisch, Le Monde selon Jean de ...
Other Finalists:
Francis Back, Des crayons qui trichent
Michel Bisson, Thomas et la nuit
Sheldon Cohen, Le Plus Long Circuit
François Vaillancourt, Le Premier Voyage de Monsieur Patapoum
Translation (from English to French)
Winner:
Marie José Thériault, L'Oeuvre du Gallois
Other Finalists:
Hervé Juste, Histoire de la sécurité sociale au Canada
Charlotte Melançon, Grandeur et misère de la modernité
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards | [
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|
255049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Know%20What%20You%20Did%20Last%20Summer | I Know What You Did Last Summer | I Know What You Did Last Summer is a 1997 American slasher film directed by Jim Gillespie, written by Kevin Williamson, and starring Jennifer Love Hewitt, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Ryan Phillippe and Freddie Prinze Jr. It is loosely based on the 1973 novel of the same name by Lois Duncan and is the first installment in the I Know What You Did Last Summer franchise. The film centers on four young friends who are stalked by a hook-wielding killer one year after covering up a car accident in which they killed a man. The film also draws inspiration from the urban legend known as the Hook, and the 1980s slasher films Prom Night (1980) and The House on Sorority Row (1982).
After having written Scream (released the year prior), Williamson was approached to adapt Duncan's source novel by producer Erik Feig. Where Williamson's screenplay for Scream contained prominent elements of satire and self-referentiality, his adaptation of I Know What You Did Last Summer reworked the novel's central plot to resemble a straightforward 1980s-era slasher film.
I Know What You Did Last Summer was released theatrically on October 17, 1997. It received mixed reviews from critics, but was commercially successful, grossing $125 million worldwide on a budget of $17 million, and remaining number 1 at the U.S. box office for three consecutive weeks. It was also nominated for and won multiple awards.
The film was followed by two sequels, I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998) and I'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer (2006). I Know What You Did Last Summer has also been parodied and referenced in popular culture, and credited alongside Scream with revitalizing the slasher genre in the 1990s.
Plot
On July 4, 1996 in Southport, North Carolina, Julie James and her friends Ray Bronson, Helen Shivers, and Barry Cox drive to the beach. While driving along a coastal byway, they accidentally hit a pedestrian. Julie's friend Max Neurick passes by them on the road. Julie reassures Max of their well-being, and he leaves. The group decides to dump the body in the water and never discuss what happened.
A year later in 1997, Julie returns home from college for the summer. The friends have gone their separate ways. Julie receives a letter with no return address, stating, "I know what you did last summer!" Julie tracks down Helen, and they take the note to Barry, who suspects Max. They confront Max on the docks, and Barry threatens him with a hook. Julie meets Ray, who now works as a fisherman. Later, Max is killed by a figure in a rain slicker wielding a hook. Barry discovers a note in his gym locker saying, "I know". He is then ambushed by the same assailant stealing and driving his car.
Julie researches newspaper articles, which lead her to believe that the man they ran over was a local named David Egan. Helen and Julie meet with David's sister Missy at her home. Missy explains that their family was devastated by David's death and that a friend of his named Billy Blue visited her to pay his respects. That night, the killer sneaks into Helen's house, cuts off her hair while she sleeps and writes "Soon" in lipstick on her mirror.
The following morning, Julie finds Max's corpse wearing Barry's stolen jacket and covered in crabs in the trunk of her car. When she calls the others, the body and the crabs are missing. Julie, Helen and Barry confront Ray about the recent events. The latter claims to also have received a threatening letter. Julie goes back to visit Missy, while Barry and Helen participate in the 4th of July parade. Missy reveals David allegedly committed suicide out of guilt for the death of his girlfriend, Susie Willis, in a car accident and shows David's suicide note to Julie. As the writing matches that of the note she received, Julie realizes it was not a suicide note, but a death threat.
At the Croaker Beauty Pageant, Helen witnesses Barry being murdered on the balcony. She rushes upstairs with a police officer, but finds no sign of the killer or Barry. A police officer escorts Helen home, but the killer lures him into an alley and murders him. Helen runs to her family's store, where her sister Elsa is closing for the night. The killer enters the store and murders Elsa. Helen is chased upstairs and escapes through a window, falling to an alleyway. She runs toward the street, but the killer stops her and slashes her to death, her screams unheard by the ongoing parade.
Julie finds an article mentioning Susie's father, Ben Willis, and realizes Ben was the man that they ran over, moments after he killed David to avenge his daughter. She goes to the docks to tell Ray, but he does not believe her. Julie notices Ray's boat is called Billy Blue and flees. A fisherman appears and knocks Ray unconscious, inviting Julie to hide on his boat. On the boat, she finds photos and articles about her and her friends, and pictures of Susie. The boat leaves the docks, and the fisherman is revealed to be Ben Willis. He chases Julie below deck, where she uncovers the bodies of Helen and Barry in the boat's icebox. Ray regains consciousness and steals a motorboat to rescue Julie. He ultimately uses the rigging to sever Ben's hand and send him overboard. When Julie and Ray are questioned by the police, they deny knowing why Ben attempted to kill them, but are relieved not to have actually killed anyone, and reconcile.
A year later in 1998, Julie is in college in Boston. As she enters the shower, she notices the words "I still know" written in the steam on the shower door. Moments later, a dark figure crashes through it as Julie screams.
Cast
Jennifer Love Hewitt as Julie James
Sarah Michelle Gellar as Helen Shivers
Ryan Phillippe as Barry Cox
Freddie Prinze Jr. as Ray Bronson
Bridgette Wilson as Elsa Shivers
Anne Heche as Melissa "Missy" Egan
Muse Watson as Ben Willis / The Fisherman
Johnny Galecki as Max Neurick
Stuart Greer as Officer
Production
Development and writing
I Know What You Did Last Summer was a screenplay penned by Kevin Williamson several years beforehand, which was then rushed into production by Columbia Pictures upon the success of the Williamson-written Scream (1996). It was based on the 1973 novel of the same name by Lois Duncan, a youth-oriented suspense novel about four young people who are involved in a hit-and-run accident involving a young boy. Producer Erik Feig pitched the idea of a screen adaptation to Mandalay Entertainment, and subsequently appointed Williamson to retool the core elements of Duncan's novel, rendering a screenplay more akin to a 1980s slasher film. Inspired by his father, who had been a commercial fisherman, Williamson changed the setting of the novel to a small fishing village, and made the villain a hook-wielding fisherman.
The killer's arming of himself with a hook is a reference to the urban legend "The Hook", which the four main characters recount at the beginning of the film around a campfire. According to Williamson, he wrote the scene as a way of indicating what was to come: "Basically what I was doing was I was setting the framework to say, 'All right, audience: That's that legend. Now here's a new one.'" Unlike Williamson's screenplay for the film's contemporary, Scream (1996), which incorporated satire of the slasher film, I Know What You Did Last Summer was written more as a straightforward slasher film. Gillespie commented in 2008: "The joy of this film for me as a filmmaker was in taking [the] elements that we've seen before, and saying to the audience: 'Here's something you've seen before'—knowing that they're saying 'We've seen this before'—and still getting them to jump." Gillespie also claimed that he felt Williamson's screenplay did not resemble a "slasher horror movie" and that he saw it rather as simply "a really good story" with a morality tale embedded within it.
Pre-production
According to producer Stokely Chaffin, the producers sought out actors who were "beautiful, but likable". Director Gillespie recalled that, though he had been unfamiliar with the screenplay's source material, that "roughly 60 to 65%" of the young women auditioning had read the novel as children. Jennifer Love Hewitt, who at the time was mainly known for her role on the television series Party of Five, was cast in the lead of Julie James based on her "ability to project vulnerability", which the producers, director Gillespie and writer Williamson unanimously agreed upon. Initially, Hewitt was considered for the role of Helen. Melissa Joan Hart was offered a role but she turned it down she felt that the film was rip-off of Scream. For the role of Barry, the crew had envisioned an actor with a " quarterback" appearance, as the character had been written as an intimidating figure. Ryan Phillippe was ultimately cast in the part based on his audition, despite the fact that he was not as physically tall as the script had called for. Director Gillespie chose Freddie Prinze Jr. for the role of Ray, because he felt Prinze himself had an "everyman" quality much like the character.
Sarah Michelle Gellar was the last of the lead performers to be cast in the role of Helen. Like Hewitt, Gellar was also known to American audiences at the time for her roles in television, primarily as the titular Buffy Summers on Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Gillespie commented on casting Gellar: "I wanted an actress that had a warmth to her, but could still come off as being a bitch." For the supporting role of Missy, Gillespie sought an actress with significant screen presence, as the character, despite appearing in only two scenes, is central to several major plot points. Anne Heche was cast in the role, which she recalled as being two days' worth of work that required her to "be scary".
Filming
Scottish director Jim Gillespie was hired to direct the film after being suggested by writer Williamson. Star Hewitt would later state in 2008 that Gillespie was to date her "favorite director [she's] ever worked with." Principal photography began on March 31, 1997 and took place over a period of ten weeks throughout the late spring-early summer of 1997. Approximately seven weeks of the ten-week shoot took place at night, which Gillespie says was difficult for the cast and crew, and also created commotion in primary small-town locations in which they shot. Gillespie devised a color scheme with cinematographer Denis Crossan which was marked by heavy blues throughout and a notable lack of bright colors.
For the beginning of the film, coastal areas of Sonoma County, California stood in for North Carolina, where the film is set. The opening shots of the sun setting on a rugged coast were filmed at Kolmer Gulch, just north of the town of Jenner, on Highway 1. The car crash scene was also filmed on Highway 1 in the same area. The scene in which the four friends are seated around a campfire on the beach next to a wrecked boat was inspired by a painting Gillespie had seen in a reference book; to achieve the image, the art department purchased an old boat in Bodega Bay, cut it in half and placed it at the beach location.
The remaining scenes were filmed primarily around the town of Southport, North Carolina. Specific sites included the Amuzu Theater, where the beauty pageant is held, the Old Yacht Basin and Southport Fish Company. Julie's house is on Short Street just north of Southport Marina. The daytime sequences shot on the marina show multiple vessels traversing the water; though real vessels, the boat traffic was orchestrated by a marine traffic coordinator to make the waterway appear lively. The Shivers Department Store setting in the film was discovered on location in Southport by director Gillespie, who was so impressed by the location that he reworked elements of the script in order to incorporate it into the film; it eventually became the primary setting for Helen's extended chase sequence with the killer. The exterior sequences of Julie's Boston college campus were in fact shot at Duke University, while the hospital sequence was filmed at Southport's Dosher Memorial Hospital in an unused wing of the hospital.
The final sequence on the boat was shot on an actual water-bound vessel on the Cape Fear River, which proved difficult for the actors and crew. According to Gillespie, the filmmakers nearly lost the boat while attempting to dock it due to the volatile waters, after which they were forced to leave and shoot other footage until the following day.
Post-production
Gillespie chose to film virtually no onscreen blood as he did not want the film to be overly gratuitous in terms of violence. The scene in which Elsa has her throat slashed while standing against a glass door had originally been shot from behind without any blood appearing on the glass. However, producer Feig worried that the scene appeared "medically impossible" after which Gillespie re-shot it (post-principal photography) with a visual effect of blood spattering across the glass. Upon test screenings of the film, Gillespie and the producers decided that a death sequence needed to occur earlier in the film to establish a sense of legitimate danger for the main characters. The scene in which Max is murdered in the crab factory was subsequently filmed and implemented into the final cut to achieve this (in the original script, his character was not killed).
The original ending of the film featured a sequence in which Julie receives an email reading: "I Still Know". This ending was scrapped for the more dramatic ending featured in the final cut of the film, in which Julie finds the same message scrawled on a shower stall just before the killer comes crashing through the glass. This footage was also shot after principal photography, on a soundstage next-door to where Hewitt was filming Party of Five.
Music
The film produced two soundtracks. One of them featured the score composed by John Debney, while the other contained various rock songs found in the film.
Additional songs featured in the film (but not on a soundtrack):
"Forgotten Too" by Ugly Beauty
"Wake Up Call" by The Mighty Mighty Bosstones
"Where Did You Sleep Last Night" by Lead Belly
"You're a Grand Old Flag" by George M. Cohan
"Beautiful Girl" by Bing Crosby
"Free" by Ultra Naté
Release
Marketing
In anticipation of the film's release, distributor Columbia Pictures began a summer marketing campaign that presented the film as being "From the creator of Scream." Miramax Films subsequently filed a lawsuit against Columbia, arguing the claim was inaccurate as the director of Scream was Wes Craven, not Williamson. The week following the film's theatrical release, a federal judge awarded Miramax an injunction requiring that Columbia remove the claim from their advertising campaign. Williamson had requested its removal prior after seeing it on a theater poster.
Miramax won a subsequent lawsuit against Columbia during a March 1998 hearing. In a press release, executive Bob Weinstein noted plans to "vigorously pursue" damage claims against Columbia Pictures for their use of the claim.
Home media
The film was released on DVD by Columbia TriStar Home Video in the US on June 16, 1998. Special features included a theatrical trailer and the filmmaker's commentary.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the film on Blu-ray for the first time on July 22, 2008, with additional special features including the director's short film, Joyride. On 30 September 2014, Mill Creek Entertainment re-released the film on Blu-ray as a budget disc, featuring the film alone with no bonus materials.
Reception
Box office
I Know What You Did Last Summer opened theatrically in North America on October 17, 1997. The film had been made on a $17 million budget, yet already in its opening weekend it grossed $15,818,645 in 2,524 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking number one; it remained in the number one position for an additional two weekends. By the end of its theatrical run in December 1997, it had grossed $72,586,134 in the U.S. and Canada and $53 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $126 million.
According to data compiled by Box Office Mojo, I Know What You Did Last Summer is the seventh highest-grossing slasher film as of 2021.
In retrospect, Jim Gillespie said: “It was meant to be kind of a stand-alone revisit of those classic '80s horror films. It worked! The movie was number one three weeks in a row. It just clicked with the audience. The title clicked and everything just seemed to work. Third week was Halloween weekend and it was number one in its third week. I couldn't believe it stuck there for three weeks.“
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 44% based on 72 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/19. The site's critics consensus reads: "A by-the-numbers slasher that arrived a decade too late, the mostly tedious I Know What You Did Last Summer will likely only hook diehard fans of the genre." Metacritic reported an aggregate score of 52 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B-" on an A+ to F scale.
The film inevitably drew both positive and negative comparisons to Scream, also written by Williamson. Mick LaSalle considered the movie inferior to its predecessor. Richard Harrington, on the other hand, cited IKWYDLS as superior to Scream; he described the newer picture as "... a smart and sharply-drawn genre-film with a moral center, and with a solid cast of young actors to hold it." Derek Elley of Variety was also enthusiastic, calling the film a "polished genre piece with superior fright elements that should perform at better-than-average theatrical levels." Roger Ebert gave the movie one of four stars and wrote that "The best shot in this film is the first one. Not a good sign." Entertainment Weekly praised Jennifer Love Hewitt's performance, noting that she "knows how to scream with soul".
Lawrence Van Gelder of The New York Times wrote of the picture: "This isn't real life. It's the grand guignol of I Know What You Did Last Summer, laying its claim to succeed Scream as a high-grossing and blood-drenched date-night crowd-pleaser. And why shouldn't it?" James Kendrick of the Q Network wrote that "Williamson's characters are all generic types; but they're still believable as people, and they react realistically according to the situations." Kendrick added that the film was "head and shoulders above earlier 'dead teenager' movies".
TV Guides Maitland McDonagh awarded the movie two out of five stars, noting: "Screenwriter Kevin Williamson takes a step backward and writes the kind of movie Scream mocks. You can see him now, soaking up videos of Friday the 13th and Halloween—not to mention the lesser likes of He Knows You're Alone, Terror Train and My Bloody Valentine—and saying, 'I can do that!' And boy, does he ever."
Critic James Berardinelli credited both IKWYDLS and Scream with igniting a new boom of slasher films, adding: "There is one minor aspect of the plot that elevates I Know What You Did Last Summer above the level of a typical '80s slasher flick -- it has an interesting subtext. I'm referring to the way the lives and friendships of these four individuals crumble in the wake of their accident. Guilt, confusion and doubt build in them until they can no longer stand to be with each other or look at themselves in the mirror. Sadly, this potentially-fascinating element of the movie is dismissed quickly to facilitate a higher body count. And, as I said before, a few extra deaths can only make a slasher movie better, right?"
Movie historian Leonard Maltin gave the film 2 out of a possible 4 stars; he described it as "...Too routine to succeed overall...Despite being based on a young-adult novel, this is absolutely not for kids. Still, it's a classic compared to the sequel."
Motion picture scholar Adam Rockoff notes in his book Going to Pieces: The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film, 1978–1986 that, at the time of its release, many critics branded I Know What You Did Last Summer as an imitation of Scream. However, he contends that it is a "much different film", despite both screenplays being penned by the same writer:
Lois Duncan, the author of the original novel, heavily criticized the film adaptation; she stated in a 2002 interview she was "appalled" that her story was turned into a slasher film.
Accolades
Other media
Sequels
The film was followed by I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998) and I'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer (2006). In the first sequel, Jennifer Love Hewitt, Freddie Prinze Jr. and Muse Watson reprise their roles. The second sequel has very little relation to the first two, other than the premise, the villain and the producers. It featured new characters and a different setting.
Television
A television series adaptation of the novel was announced in July 2019, with Neal H. Moritz and James Wan producing and Shay Hatten writing the pilot. Amazon ordered a straight-to-series order in October 2020.
In popular culture
I Know What You Did Last Summer has been referenced in various films and television series, and its central plot was parodied at length in the spoof film Scary Movie (2000).
It was also spoofed in The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror X" as "I Know What You Diddily-Iddily-Did", with Ned Flanders as the killer.
Remake
This film was unofficially remade in India as Kucch To Hai (2003), starring Tusshar Kapoor.In an interview to Hindustan Times Kapoor denied that makers his film copied this film
Notes
References
Works cited
Gillespie, Jim; Mirkovich, Steve (1998). I Know What You Did Last Summer: Audio commentary (DVD). Columbia TriStar Home Video.
External links
I Know What You Did Last Summer (franchise)
1997 horror films
1997 films
1990s serial killer films
1990s slasher films
1990s teen horror films
American slasher films
American films
American teen horror films
English-language films
American films about revenge
Films about stalking
Films based on American novels
Films based on thriller novels
Films based on urban legends
Films produced by Neal H. Moritz
Films set in 1996
Films set in 1997
Films set in 1998
Films set in Boston
Films set in North Carolina
Films shot in California
Films shot in North Carolina
Independence Day (United States) films
Columbia Pictures films
Mandalay Pictures films
Original Film films
Films scored by John Debney
Films directed by Jim Gillespie (director)
Films with screenplays by Kevin Williamson
Holiday horror films
1997 directorial debut films
Films about road accidents and incidents
Beauty pageant films | [
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|
255051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destructive%20testing | Destructive testing | In destructive testing (or destructive physical analysis, DPA) tests are carried out to the specimen's failure, in order to understand a specimen's performance or material behavior under different loads. These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to interpret than nondestructive testing. Destructive testing is most suitable, and economic, for objects which will be mass-produced, as the cost of destroying a small number of specimens is negligible. It is usually not economical to do destructive testing where only one or very few items are to be produced (for example, in the case of a building). Analyzing and documenting the destructive failure mode is often accomplished using a high-speed camera recording continuously (movie-loop) until the failure is detected. Detecting the failure can be accomplished using a sound detector or stress gauge which produces a signal to trigger the high-speed camera. These high-speed cameras have advanced recording modes to capture almost any type of destructive failure. After the failure the high-speed camera will stop recording. The captured images can be played back in slow motion showing precisely what happens before, during and after the destructive event, image by image.
Methods and techniques
Testing of large structures
Building structures or large nonbuilding structures (such as dams and bridges) are rarely subjected to destructive testing due to the prohibitive cost of constructing a building, or a scale model of a building, just to destroy it.
Earthquake engineering requires a good understanding of how structures will perform at earthquakes. Destructive tests are more frequently carried out for structures which are to be constructed in earthquake zones. Such tests are sometimes referred to as crash tests, and they are carried out to verify the designed seismic performance of a new building, or the actual performance of an existing building. The tests are, mostly, carried out on a platform called a shake-table which is designed to shake in the same manner as an earthquake. Results of those tests often include the corresponding shake-table videos.
Testing of structures in earthquakes is increasingly done by modelling the structure using specialist finite element software.
Software testing
Destructive software testing is a type of software testing which attempts to cause a piece of software to fail in an uncontrolled manner, in order to test its robustness and to help establish range limits, within which the software will operate in a stable and reliable manner.
Automotive testing
Automobiles are subject to crash testing by both automobile manufactures and a variety of agencies.
Aircraft testing
There has also been extensive destructive testing of passenger and military aircraft, conducted by aircraft manufacturers and organizations like NASA. The 2012 Boeing 727 crash experiment was conducted and filmed by the Discovery channel. It is now standard procedure to test to destruction the first few production models of new airplanes by loading various components until they fail. The 1951 movie, No Highway in the Sky starring James Stewart and Marlene Dietrich told the story of an eccentric engineer who pioneered research into destructive testing of complete components against a great deal of skepticism.
See also
Crash test
Hardness tests
Median lethal dose
Metallographic test
Nondestructive testing
Reproducibility
Show and Display
Stress tests
Testability
Notes
Mechanical tests
Earthquake engineering
Product testing
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|
255053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%20test | Stress test | Stress test may refer to:
Cardiac stress test, testing of the heart (a.k.a. "treadmill test")
Stress testing of software, hardware, or nuclear plants
Stress test (hardware)
Stress testing (software)
Stress test (financial)
Stress Test (book), a book by former United States Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner
"Stress Test", a 1990 episode of The Raccoons
Stress analysis, methods for computing mechanical stress
Contraction stress test, relating to labor and delivery
Trier social stress test, a procedure used to induce stress in human research participants
Voice stress analysis, sometimes called a voice stress test
See also
Highly accelerated life test, generally for electronic equipment
Fatigue (material)
Stress (mechanics)
Stress measures, ways to quantify mechanical stress
List of bank stress tests, lists major bank stress testing programs with links to details by year | [
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|
255054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF%20Strike%20Command | RAF Strike Command | The Royal Air Force's Strike Command was the military formation which controlled the majority of the United Kingdom's bomber and fighter aircraft from 1968 until 2007 when it merged with Personnel and Training Command to form the single Air Command. It latterly consisted of two formations – No. 1 Group RAF and No. 2 Group RAF. The last Commander-in-Chief was Air Chief Marshal Sir Joe French.
History
Strike Command was formed on 30 April 1968 by the merger of Bomber Command and Fighter Command, which became No. 1 Group and No. 11 Group respectively. Signals Command was absorbed on 1 January 1969, Coastal Command was absorbed on 28 November 1969, becoming No. 18 Group RAF. The former component Coastal Command groups became the Northern Maritime Air Region and Southern Maritime Air Region. Air Support Command (formerly Transport Command) was absorbed on 1 September 1972, becoming No. 46 Group RAF.
NATO Role
In 1975, the Command doubled as NATO, Commander-in-Chief United Kingdom Air Forces (UKAIR). UKAIR fell under NATO's Allied Command Europe in Mons in Belgium. In case of war with the Warsaw Pact the command would have commanded all Royal Air Force units in the United Kingdom as well as the US Air Force's Third Air Force based at RAF Mildenhall with its subordinate wings and squadrons. Reinforcements coming from the continental United States, as well as units transitioning to other European fronts, would have also come under UKAIR.
Post Cold War
RAF Germany was absorbed as No. 2 (Bomber) Group on 1 April 1993. As of 1 April 2000, the structure was altered to leave No. 1 Group with tactical fast jet forces, No. 2 Group with air transport, air refueling, and reconnaissance, the RAF Regiment, and No. 32 (The Royal) Squadron RAF. No. 3 Group was to include Nimrod long-range Maritime Patrol aircraft, Search and rescue helicopters, and the Joint Force 2000, later to become Joint Force Harrier. Flag Officer Naval Aviation moved over to command No. 3 Group, the first incumbent becoming Rear Admiral Iain Henderson. "At the core of the structure [were] to be the central air staffs, responsible to Deputy Chief of Staff Operations for air power, ongoing opeations, joint training, and force development." The Air Warfare Centre at Waddington and the Military Air Traffic Organisation at Uxbridge also joined Strike Command.
The RAF's Process and Organisation Review concluded that Strike Command and Personnel and Training Command should be co-located at a single command headquarters: it was subsequently decided that both commands should be located at High Wycombe and in 2007 Strike Command and Personnel and Training Command were merged into a single command – Air Command.
Structure
Headquarters Strike Command (often abbreviated to HQSTC) was located at RAF High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire. The Command was divided into a number of Groups, which at first reflected the function of the old Fighter, Bomber and Coastal Command. Subsequent reorganisations changed things greatly and before the final reorganization, the two Groups which made up Strike Command were:
No. 1 Group RAF – the "Air Combat Group"
No. 2 Group RAF – the "Air Combat Support Group"
Component groups of Strike Command included:
No. 1 Group RAF 1 April 1968 – 1 April 2007
No. 2 Group RAF 1 April 1993 – 1 April 1996, 7 January 2000 – 1 April 2007
No. 3 Group RAF 1 April 2000 – 1 April 2006
No. 11 Group RAF 1 April 1968 – 1 April 1996
No. 18 Group RAF 28 November 1969 – 1 April 1996
No. 11/18 Group RAF 1 April 1996 – 7 January 2000
No. 38 Group RAF 1 July 1972 – 17 November 1983
No. 46 Group RAF 1 September 1972 – 1 January 1976
No. 90 Group RAF 1 January 1969 – 1 September 1972
Royal Observer Corps 1 April 1968 – 31 December 1995
Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief
Air Officers Commanding-in-Chief included:
Air Chief Marshal Sir Wallace Kyle 1968–1968
Air Chief Marshal Sir Denis Spotswood 1968–1971
Air Chief Marshal Sir Andrew Humphrey 1971–1974
Air Chief Marshal Sir Denis Smallwood 1974–1976
Air Chief Marshal Sir Nigel Maynard 1976–1977
Air Chief Marshal Sir David Evans 1977–1980
Air Chief Marshal Sir Keith Williamson 1980–1982
Air Chief Marshal Sir David Craig 1982–1985
Air Chief Marshal Sir Peter Harding 1985–1988
Air Chief Marshal Sir Patrick Hine 1988–1991
Air Chief Marshal Sir Michael Graydon 1991–1992
Air Chief Marshal Sir John Thomson 1992–1994
Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Johns 1994
Air Chief Marshal Sir William Wratten 1994–1997
Air Chief Marshal Sir John Allison 1997–1999
Air Chief Marshal Sir Peter Squire 1999–2000
Air Chief Marshal Sir Anthony Bagnall 2000–2001
Air Chief Marshal Sir John Day 2001–2003
Air Chief Marshal Sir Brian Burridge 2003–2006
Air Chief Marshal Sir Joe French 2006–2007
Deputy Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief
Air Marshal Sir Nigel Maynard 1972–1973
Air Marshal Sir Peter Horsley 1973–1975
Air Marshal Sir Michael Beetham 1975–1976
Air Marshal Sir John Stacey 1976–1977
Air Marshal Sir Alan Davies 1977
Air Marshal Sir Alfred Ball 1977–1978
Air Marshal Sir Robert Freer 1978–1979
Air Marshal Sir Thomas Kennedy 1979–1981
Air Marshal Sir Peter Bairsto 1981–1984
Air Marshal Sir Joseph Gilbert 1984–1986
Air Marshal Sir Brendan Jackson 1986–1988
Air Marshal Sir Kenneth Hayr 1988–1989
Air Marshal Sir John Kemball 1989–1993
Air Marshal Sir Richard Johns 1993–1994
Air Marshal Sir John Allison 1994–1996
Air Marshal Graeme Robertson 1996–1998
Air Marshal Sir Timothy Jenner 1998–2000
Air Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup 2000–2002
Air Marshal Sir Brian Burridge 2002–2003
Air Marshal Sir Glenn Torpy 2003–2004
Air Marshal Sir Clive Loader 2004–2007
See also
List of Royal Air Force commands
References
Ashworth, Chris. RAF Coastal Command: 1936–1969. Patrick Stephens Ltd. 1992.
External links
Royal Air Force Web Site – Strike Command
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Strike Command
Military units and formations established in 1968
Military units and formations disestablished in 2007
1968 establishments in the United Kingdom
2007 disestablishments in the United Kingdom | [
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|
255059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor%20%28intrinsic%20definition%29 | Tensor (intrinsic definition) | In mathematics, the modern component-free approach to the theory of a tensor views a tensor as an abstract object, expressing some definite type of multilinear concept. Their properties can be derived from their definitions, as linear maps or more generally; and the rules for manipulations of tensors arise as an extension of linear algebra to multilinear algebra.
In differential geometry an intrinsic geometric statement may be described by a tensor field on a manifold, and then doesn't need to make reference to coordinates at all. The same is true in general relativity, of tensor fields describing a physical property. The component-free approach is also used extensively in abstract algebra and homological algebra, where tensors arise naturally.
Note: This article assumes an understanding of the tensor product of vector spaces without chosen bases. An overview of the subject can be found in the main tensor article.
Definition via tensor products of vector spaces
Given a finite set of vector spaces over a common field F, one may form their tensor product , an element of which is termed a tensor.
A tensor on the vector space V is then defined to be an element of (i.e., a vector in) a vector space of the form:
where V∗ is the dual space of V.
If there are m copies of V and n copies of V∗ in our product, the tensor is said to be of and contravariant of order m and covariant order n and total order . The tensors of order zero are just the scalars (elements of the field F), those of contravariant order 1 are the vectors in V, and those of covariant order 1 are the one-forms in V∗ (for this reason the last two spaces are often called the contravariant and covariant vectors). The space of all tensors of type is denoted
Example 1. The space of type tensors, is isomorphic in a natural way to the space of linear transformations from V to V.
Example 2. A bilinear form on a real vector space V, corresponds in a natural way to a type tensor in An example of such a bilinear form may be defined, termed the associated metric tensor, and is usually denoted g.
Tensor rank
A simple tensor (also called a tensor of rank one, elementary tensor or decomposable tensor ) is a tensor that can be written as a product of tensors of the form
where a, b, ..., d are nonzero and in V or V∗ – that is, if the tensor is nonzero and completely factorizable. Every tensor can be expressed as a sum of simple tensors. The rank of a tensor T is the minimum number of simple tensors that sum to T .
The zero tensor has rank zero. A nonzero order 0 or 1 tensor always has rank 1. The rank of a non-zero order 2 or higher tensor is less than or equal to the product of the dimensions of all but the highest-dimensioned vectors in (a sum of products of) which the tensor can be expressed, which is d when each product is of n vectors from a finite-dimensional vector space of dimension d.
The term rank of a tensor extends the notion of the rank of a matrix in linear algebra, although the term is also often used to mean the order (or degree) of a tensor. The rank of a matrix is the minimum number of column vectors needed to span the range of the matrix. A matrix thus has rank one if it can be written as an outer product of two nonzero vectors:
The rank of a matrix A is the smallest number of such outer products that can be summed to produce it:
In indices, a tensor of rank 1 is a tensor of the form
The rank of a tensor of order 2 agrees with the rank when the tensor is regarded as a matrix , and can be determined from Gaussian elimination for instance. The rank of an order 3 or higher tensor is however often very hard to determine, and low rank decompositions of tensors are sometimes of great practical interest . Computational tasks such as the efficient multiplication of matrices and the efficient evaluation of polynomials can be recast as the problem of simultaneously evaluating a set of bilinear forms
for given inputs xi and yj. If a low-rank decomposition of the tensor T is known, then an efficient evaluation strategy is known .
Universal property
The space can be characterized by a universal property in terms of multilinear mappings. Amongst the advantages of this approach are that it gives a way to show that many linear mappings are "natural" or "geometric" (in other words are independent of any choice of basis). Explicit computational information can then be written down using bases, and this order of priorities can be more convenient than proving a formula gives rise to a natural mapping. Another aspect is that tensor products are not used only for free modules, and the "universal" approach carries over more easily to more general situations.
A scalar-valued function on a Cartesian product (or direct sum) of vector spaces
is multilinear if it is linear in each argument. The space of all multilinear mappings from to W is denoted LN(V1, ..., VN; W). When N = 1, a multilinear mapping is just an ordinary linear mapping, and the space of all linear mappings from V to W is denoted .
The universal characterization of the tensor product implies that, for each multilinear function
(where can represent the field of scalars, a vector space, or a tensor space) there exists a unique linear function
such that
for all and
Using the universal property, it follows that the space of (m,n)-tensors admits a natural isomorphism
Each V in the definition of the tensor corresponds to a V* inside the argument of the linear maps, and vice versa. (Note that in the former case, there are m copies of V and n copies of V*, and in the latter case vice versa). In particular, one has
Tensor fields
Differential geometry, physics and engineering must often deal with tensor fields on smooth manifolds. The term tensor is sometimes used as a shorthand for tensor field. A tensor field expresses the concept of a tensor that varies from point to point on the manifold.
References
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|
255062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMAT%20%28disambiguation%29 | GMAT (disambiguation) | GMAT can stand for
Tan Tan Airport - ICAO code for Moroccan airport
Graduate Management Admission Test
General Mission Analysis Tool, an open source astrodynamics computer program developed by NASA
Greenwich Mean Astronomical Time - see Greenwich Mean Time | [
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|
255063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guide | Guide | A guide is a person who leads travelers, sportsmen, or tourists through unknown or unfamiliar locations. The term can also be applied to a person who leads others to more abstract goals such as knowledge or wisdom.
Travel and recreation
Explorers in the past venturing into territory unknown by their own people invariably hired guides. Military explorers Lewis and Clark were hired by the United States Congress to explore the Pacific Northwest. They in turn hired the better qualified Native American Sacagawea to help them. Wilfred Thesiger hired guides in the deserts that he ventured into, such as Kuri on his journey to the Tibesti Mountains in 1938.
Tour guide
Tour guides lead visitors through tourist attractions and give information about the attractions' natural and cultural significance. Often, they also act as interpreters for travelers who do not speak the local language. Automated systems like audio tours are sometimes substituted for human tour guides. Tour operators often hire guides to lead tourist groups.
Mountain guide
Mountain guides are those employed in mountaineering; these are not merely to show the way but stand in the position of professional climbers with an expert knowledge of rock and snowcraft, which they impart to the amateur, at the same time assuring the safety of the climbing party. This professional class of guides arose in the middle of the 19th century when Alpine climbing became recognized as a sport.
In Switzerland, the central committee of the Swiss Alpine Club issues a guides’ tariff which fixes the charges for guides and porters; there are three sections, for the Valais and Vaudois Alps, for the Bernese Oberland, and for central and eastern Switzerland.
In Chamonix (France) a statue has been raised to Jacques Balmat, who was the first to climb Mont Blanc in 1786. Other notable European guides are Christian Almer, Jakob and Melchior Anderegg, Klemens Bachleda, Auguste Balmat, Alexander Burgener, Armand Charlet, Michel Croz, François Devouassoud, Angelo Dibona, Andreas Heckmair, the Innerkofler family, Conrad Kain, Christian Klucker, and Matthias Zurbriggen.
Wilderness guide
A wilderness guide leads paid parties through back country areas that may variously include land, water bodies, and high country — but not so high and technical as to require the skills of a mountain guide. Wilderness guides in the United States are historically and romantically particularly associated with the Adirondack Mountains of New York State, where they first established the application of their skills as a broadly accepted and financially compensated trade.
Wilderness guides are expected to have a command of survival skills (such as making shelters, fire-making, navigation, and first aid) and an understanding of the ecology and history of the location where they guide. Other common skills among guides include traditional handicrafts and cooking methods, fishing, hunting, bird watching, and nature conservation.
Wilderness tours usually take place on foot, though aids such as skis and snowshoes, and conveyances such as canoes, kayaks, sledges, pack animals, and snowmobiles are utilized as appropriate.
Hunting guide
Hunting guides are employed by those seeking to hunt wildlife, especially big game animals in the wild. European hunting guides working in Africa are sometimes called white hunters, although the term is most commonly used in the context of the early 20th century.
Safari guide
Guides are employed on safari, today usually just to observe and photograph wildlife, historically for big-game hunting. Safari guides are either self-employed or work for or through a guide service. There are no set qualifications or universal licensing procedures; customs and requirements vary by location. In lieu, many guides choose to belong to a professional association. These are typically linked to specific countries and are governed by their laws and policies. Associations such as The Field Guides Association of Southern Africa (FGASA) and Uganda Safari Guides Association (USAGA) play an important role in training and educating safari guides to improve their knowledge and group safety. Many famed safari guides are found on the list of famous big-game hunters.
Fishing guide
Fishing guides have a long history. Their work spans from aiding fly fishing in small brooks or lakes to deep saltwater big game fishing. Some areas where fishing guides are popular include the Norwegian coast, Swedish archipelago, the Florida coast, and various parts of Canada. The vernacular terms "fishing charter" or "charter boat" imply the services of a guide, whether the vessel's captain, a qualified hand, or experienced sportsman.
Military guides and Guides regiments
Historically in areas where detailed maps were unavailable, guides with local knowledge were employed for scouting and advance leadership during military operations. In 18th century Europe, the stricter organization of military resources led in various countries to the special training of guide officers who had the primary duty of finding, and if necessary establishing, routes for military units.
The genesis of the "Guides" regiments may be found in a short-lived Corps of Guides formed by Napoleon in Italy in 1796, which appears to have been a personal escort or bodyguard composed of men who knew the country. Following the unification of Italy in 1870-71, the new national army included a regiment designated as Guides - the 19th Cavalleggieri (Light Horse).
In the Belgian Army the two Guides regiments, created respectively in 1833 and 1874, constituted part of the light cavalry and came to correspond to the Guard cavalry of other nations. Until the outbreak of World War I, they wore a distinctive uniform comprising a plumed busby, green dolman braided in yellow, and crimson breeches. Mechanised in October 1937, both regiments formed armored battalions in the post World War II Belgian Army. Following a series of amalgamations the Belgian Guides ceased to exist in 2011.
In the Swiss army prior to 1914, the squadrons of Guides acted as divisional cavalry. In this role these light cavalry units were called upon, on occasion, to lead columns and provide scouts.
The Corps of Guides of the British Indian Army consisted of a unique combination of infantry companies and cavalry squadrons. After World War I the infantry element was incorporated in the 12th Frontier Force Regiment and the Guides Cavalry formed a separate regiment - the 10th Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides Cavalry (Frontier Force). This unit still exists as the 2nd (Guides) Battalion of the Frontier Force Regiment of the modern Army of Pakistan.
In drill, a "guide" is an officer or non-commissioned officer who regulates the direction and pace of movements.
Metaphysics
Trip sitter
A psychedelic guide is someone who guides a drug user's experiences as opposed to a sitter who merely remains present, ready to discourage bad trips and handle emergencies but not otherwise getting involved. Guides are more common amongst spiritual users of entheogens. Psychedelic guides were strongly encouraged by Timothy Leary and the other authors of The Psychedelic Experience: A Guide Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Trip sitters are also mentioned in the Responsible Drug User's Oath.
Guided meditation
In Islam
In Islam ar-Rashid, one of the 99 Names of God, means the Guide. From this is derived the common Arabic name Rashid.
See also
Sherpa
References
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|
255064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipendula%20ulmaria | Filipendula ulmaria | Filipendula ulmaria, commonly known as meadowsweet or mead wort, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the family Rosaceae that grows in damp meadows. It is native throughout most of Europe and Western Asia (Near east and Middle east). It has been introduced and naturalised in North America.
Meadowsweet has also been referred to as queen of the meadow, pride of the meadow, meadow-wort, meadow queen, lady of the meadow, dollof, meadsweet, and bridewort.
Description
The stems are tall, erect and furrowed, reddish to sometimes purple. The leaves are dark-green on the upper side and whitish and downy underneath, much divided, interruptedly pinnate, having a few large serrate leaflets and small intermediate ones. Terminal leaflets are large, 4–8 cm long, and three- to five-lobed.
Meadowsweet has delicate, graceful, creamy-white flowers clustered close together in irregularly-branched cymes, having a very strong, sweet smell. They flower from early summer to early autumn and are visited by various types of insects, in particular Musca flies.
The flowers are small and numerous, they show 5 sepals and 5 petals with 7 to 20 stamens.
Diseases
Many insects and fungi cause disease in meadowsweet.
Meadowsweet leaves are commonly galled by the bright orange-rust fungus Triphragmium ulmariae, which creates swellings and distortions on the stalk and/or midrib.
The fungus Ramularia ulmariae causes purple blotches on the leaves.
The fungus Podosphaera filipendulae causes mildew on the leaves and flower heads, coating them with a white powder.
The midge Dasineura ulmariae causes pinkish-white galls on the leaves that can distort the leaf surface.
Etymology
Meadowsweet is known by many other names. In Chaucer's The Knight's Tale it is known as meadwort and was one of the ingredients in a drink called "save". It was also known as bridewort, because it was strewn in churches for festivals and weddings, and often made into bridal garlands. In Europe, it took its name "queen of the meadow" for the way it can dominate a low-lying, damp meadow.
The name ulmaria means "elmlike", possibly in reference to its individual leaves which resemble those of the elm (Ulmus). The generic name, Filipendula, comes from filum, meaning "thread" and pendulus, meaning "hanging". This is said to describe the root tubers that hang characteristically on the genus, on fibrous roots.
Synonyms
Filipendula denudata (J.Presl & C.Presl) Fritsch
Distribution
Meadowsweet is common throughout the British Isles in damp areas and is dominant in fens and wet woods.
Juncus subnodulosus-Cirsium palustre fen-meadow and Purple moor grass and rush pastures BAP habitat plant associations of Western Europe consistently include this plant.
Uses
The whole herb possesses a pleasant taste and flavour, the green parts having a similar aromatic character to the flowers, leading to the use of the plant as a strewing herb, strewn on floors to give the rooms a pleasant aroma, and its use to flavour wine, beer, and many kinds of vinegar. The flowers can be added to stewed fruit and jams, giving them a subtle almond flavour. Some foragers also use the flowers for flavour in desserts such as panna cotta. It has many medicinal properties. The whole plant is a traditional remedy for an acidic stomach, and the fresh root is often used in homeopathic preparations. Dried, the flowers are used in potpourri. It is also a frequently used spice in Scandinavian varieties of mead.
Chemical constituents include salicin, flavone glycosides, essential oils, and tannins. In 1897, scientists in the firm Bayer used salicylic acid derived from meadowsweet to synthesise acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), which was named after the old botanical name for meadowsweet, Spiraea ulmaria.
A natural black dye can be obtained from the roots by using a copper mordant.
A tea made from Filipendula ulmaria flowers or leaves has been used in traditional Austrian herbal medicine for the treatment of rheumatism, gout, infections, and fever.
Culture
White-flowered meadowsweet has been found with the cremated remains of three people and at least one animal in a Bronze Age cairn at Fan Foel, Carmarthenshire. Similar finds have also been found inside a beaker from Ashgrove, Fife, and a vessel from North Mains, Strathallan. These could indicate honey-based mead or flavoured ale, or might suggest the plant placed on the grave as a scented flower.
In Welsh mythology, Gwydion and Math created a woman out of oak blossom, broom, and meadowsweet and named her Blodeuwedd ("flower face").
In the 16th century, when it was customary to strew floors with rushes and herbs (both to give warmth underfoot and to overcome smells and infections), it was a favorite of Elizabeth I of England. She desired it above all other herbs in her chambers.
References
External links
Purple Sage Medicinal Herbs, entry for Meadowsweet
ulmaria
Herbs
Flora of Western Asia
Flora of Estonia
Flora of the United Kingdom
Medicinal plants of Asia
Medicinal plants of Europe
Plant dyes
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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|
255068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mix | Mix | Mix, mixes or mixing may refer to:
Persons & places
Mix (surname)
Tom Mix (1880-1940), American film star
nickname of Mix Diskerud (born Mikkel, 1990), Norwegian-American soccer player
Mix camp, an informal settlement in Namibia
Mix, Louisiana, an unincorporated community
Mix Run, Pennsylvania, village
Audio
Audio mixing (recorded music), the process of combining and balancing multiple sound sources
DJ mix, a sequence of musical tracks mixed to appear as one continuous track
Mix (magazine), a periodical for the professional recording and sound production technology industry
Music
Mixes (Kylie Minogue album), the 1998 remix album by Australian singer-songwriter Kylie Minogue
Mix (Stellar album), the 1999 debut studio album by New Zealand pop rock band Stellar
Mixes (Transvision Vamp album), 1992
Mixes, an album by C418
Mixtape, a compilation of songs or tracks
Remix, a variation of a song
Mix, short way to refer to Mixolydian scale.
Radio and television
Mix FM (disambiguation)
Mix (radio station), a radio station in New Zealand
MIX (XM), a commercial-free channel on XM Satellite Radio playing the Hot Adult Contemporary format
Mix (Malaysian radio station), a radio station in Malaysia
MixRadio, an online music streaming service
Mix TV, a Brazilian television music channel aimed at young people
Sky Sports Mix, a TV channel
Sony Mix, an Indian television music channel
Computing
Mix (build tool), a build tool for working with the Elixir programming language
MIX (email), a high performance email storage system for use with IMAP
MIX, the computer and the instruction set architecture used in the textbook The Art of Computer Programming by Donald Knuth
MIX (Microsoft), a discontinued annual Microsoft conference
Chaum mixes, an anonymous email system proposed in 1981
Malta Internet Exchange, an Internet backbone for the country of Malta
Milan Internet eXchange, in Milan, Italy
MIX (Z39.87): NISO Metadata for Images in XML
Science
Mixing (mathematics), a concept in ergodic theory
Mixing (physics), a descriptive condition of a dynamical system
Mixing (process engineering), a unit operation for manipulating physical systems
Crossbreeding, also called mixing, a genetic concept
Other
MIX, the Roman numeral for the number or year 1009
Microfinance Information Exchange (MIX), a non-profit business information provider in the microfinance sector
MIX NYC, a nonprofit organization dedicated to queer experimental film
Mix (manga), a 2012 baseball shonen manga series by Mitsuru Adachi
The Mix (charity), in the U.K.
Mixed Doubles, also known as Mix, 2017 Japanese film
"Mixy" or "myxy", slang for the rabbit disease myxomatosis
See also
The Mix (disambiguation)
Mixe (disambiguation)
Mixed (disambiguation)
Mixer (disambiguation)
Mixture (disambiguation)
Mixx (disambiguation) | [
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255069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somoza%20family | Somoza family | The Somoza family () was an autocratic family dictatorship in Nicaragua that lasted forty-three years, from 1936 to 1979. They were closely allied with the United States.
History
Anastasio Somoza García assumed the presidency after luring rebel leader Augusto César Sandino to peace talks, and murdering him soon afterwards. Somoza amended the Nicaraguan Constitution, concentrating all power in his hands, and appointed his relatives and cronies to top government positions. After Anastasio Somoza was assassinated in 1956, his two sons, Luis and Anastasio Somoza Debayle, ruled the country until 1979.
Although the Somozas only held the presidency for 30 of those 43 years, they were the power behind puppet presidents in the intervening years. They continued to control the National Guard. The differences in the Somozas' ruling style, from father to son, reflected their adaptation to the U.S.-Latin American policy. Their regime was overthrown in 1979 by the Sandinista National Liberation Front during the Nicaraguan Revolution. The family fled to the United States on July 17, 1979, ending a civil war that devastated Nicaragua's economy and claimed more than 130,000 casualties.
For their more than four decades in power, the Somoza family accumulated wealth through corporate bribes, industrial monopolies, land grabbing, and foreign aid siphoning. By the 1970s, the family owned 23 percent of the land in Nicaragua. The foreign aid-funded project to rebuild the city of Managua, which was devastated by the earthquake on December 23, 1972, was never implemented as businesses were forced to relocate to land owned by the family. The Somoza's wealth reached $533 million, which amounted to half of Nicaragua's debt and 33 percent of the country's 1979 GDP.
Three of the Somoza family members served as President of Nicaragua. They were:
Anastasio Somoza García "Tacho" (1896–1956; President 1937–1947, 1950–1956), the father.
Luis Somoza Debayle (1922–1967, President 1956–1963), his legitimate eldest son.
Anastasio Somoza Debayle "Tachito" (1925–1980, President 1967–1972, 1974–1979), his second legitimate son.
Other members of the Somoza family include:
, half-brother of Anastasio Somoza Debayle
Hope Portocarrero, wife of Anastasio Somoza Debayle
Lillian Somoza de Sevilla Sacasa, daughter of Anastasio Somoza García
Isabel Urcuyo (1924–2014), wife of Luis Somoza Debayle
Anastasio Somoza Portocarrero, son of Anastasio Somoza Debayle and his wife
, niece of Anastasio Somoza Debayle, Nicaraguan-Mexican radio hostess and entrepreneur
See also
References
External links
Page about the Somozas
The Deaths of Somoza
Former polities of the Cold War
History of Nicaragua
Military dictatorships
Nicaraguan anti-communists
Nicaraguan families
Nicaraguan people of Galician descent
Nicaraguan Revolution
Political families of Nicaragua | [
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|
255071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lance%20Ito | Lance Ito | Lance Allan Ito (born August 2, 1950) is a retired American judge best known for presiding over the criminal trial for the O. J. Simpson murder case, held in the Los Angeles County Superior Court in 1995.
Early life and career
Ito was born in Los Angeles to Jim Ito and Toshi Ito. Both his parents were kept in internment camps for Japanese Americans with their families during the Second World War. Ito was enrolled in Sunday School at the Mount Hollywood Congregational Church. Ito attended John Marshall High School, where he was student body president and received the Scholar Athlete award in 1968. He earned his bachelor's degree with honors from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1972, and his J.D. degree from the then University of California, Berkeley, Boalt School of Law in 1975. He then joined the Los Angeles district attorney's office in 1977, working in the hardcore gang unit and the organized crime and terror unit, among others.
In 1981, he married Margaret Ann York, the first woman to attain the rank of Deputy Chief in the Los Angeles Police Department and that department's highest ranking woman officer when she retired in 2002. The two met while at an Eagle Rock murder scene.
Republican Governor George Deukmejian appointed Ito to the Municipal Court in 1987, and then elevated him to Superior Court in 1989. In 1991, he determined that Soon Ja Du was not a flight risk in the case of the killing of Latasha Harlins, and denied the deputy district attorney's request to revoke Du's bail.
In 1992 he judged the indictment against Lyle and Erik Menendez. The criminal trial was judged by Stanley Weisberg.
Charles H. Keating, Jr. trial
In 1992, he presided over the trial of financier Charles H. Keating Jr. Keating's ensuing ten-year sentence was later overturned on appeal because Ito had neglected to instruct the jury to determine whether Keating intended to defraud investors. It was the prosecution's position that Keating was liable as a matter of strict liability.
O. J. Simpson murder trial
Ito presided over the 1995 murder trial of O. J. Simpson, at which Simpson was acquitted. His decision to allow television coverage of the trial was controversial, and Ito faced criticism for seeming to enjoy the press and for allowing too many sidebars and recesses.
During the trial, the prosecution requested that Ito recuse himself when it came to light that his wife, Margaret York, had been detective Mark Fuhrman's superior officer in the past. Fuhrman had been called to testify by the prosecution regarding his discovery of evidence in the case. During cross-examination, Fuhrman claimed that he had not used racial epithets to refer to African-Americans during the last ten years. Simpson's defense team unearthed tapes in which Fuhrman had used racial epithets as recently as 1988, and they wished to introduce them as evidence to prove that Fuhrman had perjured himself, in order to discredit his testimony. However, in the tapes, Fuhrman disparages York's appearance and suggests that she used her gender to advance in the police force. The prosecution requested that Ito step down because they felt that derogatory remarks toward his wife might bias Ito against Fuhrman, though prosecutors later withdrew the request out of fear that it would result in a mistrial.
Post-Simpson trial career
Ito declined to give interviews regarding the O. J. Simpson murder trial because ethical guidelines for California trial-court judges forbid commenting on pending matters or matters likely to come before the courts. He has noted his disbelief that public interest in the trial extended through the "turgid" DNA section of the trial. He has used his status to work on issues of judicial reform, such as increasing the number of interpreters and enforcing rules for foreign-national defendants in the court. Los Angeles County announced on April 17, 2012, that Ito's courtroom, along with 55 others, would be closed due to budget cuts. Ito retired in 2015.
Popular culture
Ito was portrayed on Saturday Night Live, first by Mike Myers, and then, following Myers' departure from the show, by Mark McKinney. The Tonight Show with Jay Leno had a recurring skit called "The Dancing Itos" featuring five bearded Asian-American dancers. Actor Kenneth Choi portrayed Ito in the 2016 series The People vs. O. J. Simpson. His likeness also appeared as a judge in Pinky and the Brain, Season 1, Episode 2 "Of Mouse and Man" which aired in September 1995. Ken Jeong dressed as Judge Ito for a 1995 Halloween party on the ABC series Dr. Ken.
See also
List of Asian American jurists
References
External links
1950 births
American jurists of Japanese descent
California Democrats
California state court judges
Lawyers from Los Angeles
Living people
O. J. Simpson murder case
Superior court judges in the United States
UC Berkeley School of Law alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni | [
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255075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony%20No.%208%20%28Beethoven%29 | Symphony No. 8 (Beethoven) | The Symphony No. 8 in F major, Op. 93 is a symphony in four movements composed by Ludwig van Beethoven in 1812. Beethoven fondly referred to it as "my little Symphony in F", distinguishing it from his Sixth Symphony, a longer work also in F.
The Eighth Symphony is generally light-hearted, though not lightweight, and in many places cheerfully loud, with many accented notes. Various passages in the symphony are heard by some listeners to be musical jokes. As with various other Beethoven works such as the Opus 27 piano sonatas and the later Ninth Symphony, the symphony deviates from Classical tradition in making the last movement the weightiest of the four.
Composition, premiere and reception
The work was begun in the summer of 1812, immediately after the completion of the Seventh Symphony. At the time Beethoven was 41 years old. As Antony Hopkins has noted, the cheerful mood of the work betrays nothing of the grossly unpleasant events that were taking place in Beethoven's life at the time, which involved his interference in his brother Johann's love life. The work took Beethoven only four months to complete, and is, unlike many of his works, without dedication.
The premiere took place on 27 February 1814, at a concert in the Redoutensaal, Vienna, at which the Seventh Symphony (which had been premiered two months earlier) was also played. Beethoven was growing increasingly deaf at the time, but nevertheless led the premiere. Reportedly, "the orchestra largely ignored his ungainly gestures and followed the principal violinist instead."
When asked by his pupil Carl Czerny why the Eighth was less popular than the Seventh, Beethoven is said to have replied, "because the Eighth is so much better." A critic wrote that "the applause it received was not accompanied by that enthusiasm which distinguishes a work which gives universal delight; in short—as the Italians say—it did not create a furor." Beethoven was angered at this reception. George Bernard Shaw, in his capacity as a music critic, agreed with Beethoven's assessment of the work, writing that "In all subtler respects the Eighth is better [than the Seventh]." More recently, Jan Swafford has described the Eighth as "a beautiful, brief, ironic look backward to Haydn and Mozart." Martin Geck has commented on the authenticity of the Eighth, noting that it contains "all the relevant hallmarks, including motivic and thematic writing notable for its advanced planning, defiant counterpoint, furious cross-rhythms, sudden shifts from piano to forte, and idyllic and even hymnlike episodes." But other critics have been divided in their judgement.
Form
Allegro vivace e con brio (F major)
Allegretto scherzando (B major)
Tempo di menuetto (F major)
Allegro vivace (F major)
The symphony is scored for 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets in B, 2 bassoons, 2 horns in F (in B basso for the second movement), 2 trumpets in F, timpani, and strings.
It is approximately 26 minutes in duration.
First movement
This movement is in the home key of F major and is in fast time. As with most of Beethoven's first movements of this period, it is written in sonata form, including a fairly substantial coda. As Antony Hopkins has noted, the movement is slightly unusual among Beethoven's works in that it reaches its dramatic climax not during the development section, but at the onset of the recapitulation. To this end, the concluding bars of the development form a huge crescendo, and the return of the opening bars is marked (fortississimo, i.e. extremely loud), which rarely appears in Beethoven's works, but has precedents in the 6th and 7th Symphonies. This extravagance is balanced, however, by the quiet closing measures of the movement.
The opening theme is in three sections of four bars each, with the pattern forte–piano–forte. At the onset of the recapitulation, the theme is made more emphatic by omitting the middle four bars.
Second movement
There is a widespread belief that this movement is an affectionate parody of the metronome, which had only recently been invented (or more accurately, merely improved) by Beethoven's friend, Johann Maelzel. Specifically the belief was that the movement was based on a canon called "Ta ta ta... Lieber Maelzel," WoO 162, said to have been improvised at a dinner party in Maelzel's honor in 1812. However, there is no evidence corroborating this story and it is likely that WoO 162 was not written by Beethoven but was constructed after-the-fact by Anton Schindler. A more likely inspiration was the similar rhythmic parody of Joseph Haydn's "Clock" Symphony.
The metronome-like parody starts at the very beginning of the movement with even staccato chords in 16th-notes (semiquavers) played by the wind instruments, and a basic 16th-note rhythm continues fairly steadily through the piece. The tempo is unusually fast for a symphonic "slow movement." Richard Wagner has argued that the third movement was intended as the slow movement of this symphony and that the second should be played as a scherzo.
The key is B major, the subdominant of F, and the organization is what Charles Rosen has called "slow movement sonata form"; that is, at the end of the exposition there is no development section, but only a simple modulation back to B for the recapitulation; this also may be described as sonatina form.
The second subject includes a motif of very rapid sixty-fourth notes, suggesting perhaps a rapidly unwinding spring in a not-quite-perfected metronome. This motif is played by the whole orchestra at the end of the coda.
Third movement
A nostalgic invocation of the old minuet, obsolete by the time when this symphony was composed. (A similar nostalgic minuet appears in the Piano Sonata Opus 31 no. 3, composed in 1802). The style of Beethoven's minuet is not particularly close to its 18th-century models, as it retains a rather coarse, thumping rhythm. Thus, for example, after the initial upbeat Beethoven places the dynamic indication sforzando ( ) on each of the next five beats. This makes the minuet stylistically close to the other movements of the symphony, which likewise rely often on good-humored, thumping accents.
Like most minuets, this one is written in ternary form, with a contrasting trio section containing prized solos for horns and clarinet. The clarinet solo is of significant importance in that it was the first major example of a solo clarinet playing a written G6. Igor Stravinsky praised the "incomparable instrumental thought" shown in Beethoven's orchestration of the trio section.
Fourth movement
This is the most substantial movement, in sonata rondo form that proceeds at a very fast tempo. (The metronome marking supplied by Beethoven himself is whole note = 84.) This is the first symphonic movement in which the timpani are tuned in octaves, foreshadowing the similar octave-F tuning in the scherzo of the Ninth Symphony. Antony Hopkins quotes the entire opening theme of the finale "in order to emphasize the outrageous impropriety of the last roaring C-sharp":
"All that precedes it is so delicate in texture, so nimble and light-footed." Donald Tovey cites the abrupt intrusion of the C-sharp as an example of Beethoven's "long-distance harmonic effects". This "rogue" note is eventually revealed as having an architectural function in the structure of the movement as a whole. The opening material reappears three times: at the start of the development section, the start of the recapitulation, and about halfway through the coda. As in the first movement, the move to the second subject first adopts the "wrong" key, then moves to the normal key (exposition: dominant, recapitulation: tonic) after a few measures.
The coda, one of the most substantial and elaborate in all of Beethoven's works, contains two particularly striking events. The loud and startling C from the opening finally gets an "explanation": "and now it appears that Beethoven has held that note in reserve, wherewith to batter at the door of some immensely distant key. Out bursts the theme then, in F sharp minor."
A few measures later, there is a stunning modulation in which this key is "hammered down" by a semitone, arriving instantaneously at the home key of F major.
The symphony ends in good humor on a very long passage of loud tonic harmony. Tchaikovsky called this movement "One of the greatest symphonic masterpieces of Beethoven."
Notes
References
External links
Score, William and Gayle Cook Music Library, Indiana University
Analysis, all-about-beethoven.com
08
1812 compositions
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|
255077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony%20No.%208 | Symphony No. 8 | Symphony No. 8 may refer to:
Symphony No. 8 (Arnold)
Symphony No. 8 (Beethoven)
Symphony No. 8 (Bruckner)
Symphony No. 8 (Davies), "Antarctic" Symphony
Symphony No. 8 (Diamond), by David Diamond, 1958–1960
Symphony No. 8 (Dvořák)
Symphony No. 8, Op. 105 (1965), a symphony by Jacobo Ficher
Symphony No. 8 (Glass)
Symphony No. 8 (Glazunov)
Symphony No. 8 (Haydn), "Le Soir"
Symphony No. 8 (Michael Haydn)
Symphony No. 8 (Henze)
Symphony No. 8 (Hovhaness), a symphony with a name
Symphony No. 8 (Kabeláč), "Antiphonies"
Symphony No. 8 (Mahler), "Symphony of a Thousand"
Symphony No. 8, Op. 186 (1936–37), a symphony by Erkki Melartin
Symphony No. 8, a symphony by Peter Mennin
Symphony No. 8 (Milhaud)
Symphony No. 8 (Mozart)
Symphony No. 8 (Myaskovsky)
Symphony No. 8 (Penderecki), "Lieder der Vergänglichkeit"
Symphony No. 8 (Pettersson), a symphony by Allan Pettersson
Symphony No. 8 (Piston)
Symphony No. 8 (Rautavaara), "The Journey"
Symphony No. 8 (Rubbra), a symphony with a name
Symphony No. 8 (Sallinen)
Symphony No. 8 (Schnittke), a symphony by Alfred Schnittke
Symphony No. 8 (Schubert), "Unfinished"
Symphony No. 8, a symphony by William Schuman
Symphony No. 8 (Sessions)
Symphony No. 8 (Shostakovich)
Symphony No. 8 (Sibelius)
Symphony No. 8 (Simpson)
Symphony No. 8 (Vaughan Williams)
Symphony No. 8 (Villa-Lobos)
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|
255078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Letter%20to%20Hobbyists | Open Letter to Hobbyists | The Open Letter to Hobbyists is a 1976 open letter written by Bill Gates, the co-founder of Microsoft, to early personal computer hobbyists, in which Gates expresses dismay at the rampant software piracy taking place in the hobbyist community, particularly with regard to his company's software.
In the letter, Gates expressed frustration with most computer hobbyists who were using his company's Altair BASIC software without having paid for it. He asserted that such widespread unauthorized copying in effect discouraged developers from investing time and money in creating high-quality software. He cited the unfairness of gaining the benefits of software authors' time, effort, and capital without paying them as a rationale for refusing to publish the machine code for his company's flagship product, thereby making it available to lower-income hobbyists who could have borrowed such program listings from their local library and entered the program into their hobby computer by data entry.
Altair BASIC
In December 1974, Gates, a student at Harvard University, alongside Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen, who worked at Honeywell in Boston, both saw the Altair 8800 computer in the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics for the first time. They had both written BASIC language programs since their days at Lakeside School in Seattle, and knew the Altair computer was powerful enough to support a BASIC interpreter. Both Gates and Allen wanted to be the first to offer BASIC for the Altair computer, and expected the software development tools they had previously created for their Intel 8008 microprocessor-based Traf-O-Data computer to give them a head start.
By early March of the following year, Allen, Gates and Monte Davidoff, a fellow Harvard student, had created a BASIC interpreter that worked under simulation on a PDP-10 mainframe computer at Harvard. Allen and Gates had been in contact with Ed Roberts of MITS, and in March 1975, Allen visited Albuquerque, New Mexico, to test the software on an actual machine. To both Allen and Roberts' surprise, the software worked. MITS agreed to license the software from Allen and Gates. Allen left his job at Honeywell, and became the Vice President and Director of Software at MITS with a salary of $30,000 a year; Gates remained a student at Harvard, and worked under MITS as a contractor instead, with the October 1975 company newsletter giving his title at the company as "Software Specialist".
On July 22, 1975, MITS signed the contract with Allen and Gates, who would receive $3000 at the signing and a royalty for each copy of BASIC sold; $30 for the 4K version, $35 for the 8K version and $60 for the expanded version. The contract had a cap of $180,000, with MITS retaining an exclusive worldwide license to the program for 10 years. MITS would supply the computer time necessary for development on a PDP-10 owned by the Albuquerque school district.
The April 1975 issue of MITS's Computer Notes had the banner headline "Altair Basic – Up and Running". The Altair 8800 computer was a break-even sale for MITS, who would need to sell additional memory boards, I/O boards, and other add-on options to make a profit. When purchased with two 4K memory boards and an I/O board, the 8K BASIC cost just $75, the initial standalone price for BASIC being $500. To promote the computer, MITS purchased a camper van and outfitted it with the complete product line, dubbed the "MITS-Mobile"; the company used this van to tour the United States, giving seminars featuring the Altair Computer and Altair BASIC.
1975 Homebrew Computer Club and subsequent copying of Altair BASIC
The Homebrew Computer Club was an early computer hobbyist club in Palo Alto, California. At the first meeting in March 1975, Steve Dompier gave an account of his visit to the MITS factory in Albuquerque, where he had attempted to pick up his order for one of everything. He left with a computer kit with 256 bytes of memory. At the April 16, 1975 club meeting, Dompier keyed in a small program that played the song "The Fool on the Hill" on a nearby AM radio, through the use of radio frequency interference or static controlled by the timing loops in the program. Gates, who could not figure out how the computer could broadcast to the radio, described this in the July 1975 edition of Computer Notes as "the best demo program I've seen for the Altair".
The June 1975 Homebrew Computer Club Newsletter carried this item written by Fred Moore, Editor:
The MITS MOBILE came to Rickey's Hyatt House in Palo Alto June 5th & 6th. The room was packed (150+) with amateurs and experimenters eager to find out about this new electronic toy.
At the same June seminar, a paper tape containing a pre-release version of Altair BASIC disappeared. The tape was given to Dompier, who passed it on to Dan Sokol, who had access to a high speed tape punch. At the next Homebrew Computer Club meeting, 50 copies of Altair BASIC on paper tape appeared in a cardboard box.
MITS offered a complete Altair system with two MITS 4K Dynamic RAM boards, a serial interface board and Altair BASIC for $995. However, the $264 MITS RAM boards were unreliable, due to several component and design problems. An enterprising Homebrew Computer Club member, Robert Marsh, designed a 4K static memory that was plug-in compatible with the Altair 8800, and sold it for $255. His company, Processor Technology, became one of the most successful Altair compatible board suppliers. As a result of Dompier's copying of Altair BASIC and Marsh's third-party 4k static memory plug-in, many Altair 8800 computer owners came to skip purchasing the bundled package from MITS directly, instead purchasing their memory boards from a third-party supplier and using a "borrowed" copy of Altair BASIC.
Ed Roberts acknowledged the 4K Dynamic RAM board problems in the October 1975 Computer Notes. The price was reduced from $264 to $195, and existing purchasers got a $50 rebate; the full price for 8K Altair BASIC was reduced to $200, though Roberts declined a customer's request that MITS give BASIC to customers for free, noting that MITS had made a "$180,000 royalty commitment to Micro Soft". Roberts also wrote that "Anyone who is using a stolen copy of MITS BASIC should identify himself for what he is, a thief", and described third-party hardware suppliers as "parasite companies". The newly released Processor Technology static RAM board drew more current than the MITS dynamic RAM board, with the addition of two or three boards taxing the Altair 8800's power supply. As a consequence, Howard Fullmer began selling a power supply upgrade for the Altair, naming his company "Parasitic Engineering" as a nod to Roberts' comments. Fullmer would later help define the industry standard for Altair compatible boards, the S-100 bus standard. The next year, 1976, would see many Altair bus computer clones such as the IMSAI 8080 and the Processor Technology Sol-20.
Open letter
At the end of 1975, MITS was shipping a thousand computers a month, but copies of BASIC were selling in the low hundreds. Additional software projects required more resources; the MITS 8-inch floppy disk system was about to be released, as was the MITS 680B computer based on the Motorola 6800. A high school friend of Allen and Gates, Ric Weiland, was hired to convert the 8080 BASIC to the 6800 microprocessor. David Bunnell, Computer Notes Editor, was sympathetic to Gates' position. He wrote in the September 1975 issue that "customers have been ripping off MITS software".
Now I ask you--does a musician have the right to collect the royalty on the sale of his records or does a writer have the right to collect the royalty on the sale of his books? Are people who copy software any different than those who copy records and books?
Gates, keen to attempt to explain the cost of developing software to the hobbyist community, restated much of what Bunnell had written in September and what Roberts had written in October; however, the tone of his letter was different, instead emphasising Gates' view that hobbyists were stealing from him personally, and not from a corporation.
Why is this? As the majority of hobbyists must be aware, most of you steal your software. Hardware must be paid for, but software is something to share. Who cares if the people who worked on it get paid?
One of the principal targets of the letter was the Homebrew Computer Club, with a copy sent to the club directly. The letter also appeared in Computer Notes. To ensure the letter would be noticed, Bunnell sent the letter via special delivery mail to every major computer publication in the country.
In the letter, Gates also mentioned the development of the APL programming language for the 8080 and 6800 microprocessors, a programming language in vogue with some other computer scientists in the 1970s. The language, which used a character set based on the Greek alphabet, required special terminals to implement that most hobbyist terminals did not have; as well as not displaying symbols from the Greek alphabet, most hobbyist terminals did not even display lowercase letters. Though Gates was enamored with APL, Allen did not believe it could be sold as a product; interest in the project soon faded, and the software itself was never completed.
Reaction
Following the difficulties with receiving piecemeal royalties, Microsoft switched to a fixed-priced contract with MITS, who would pay $31,200 for a non-exclusive license of 6800 BASIC. The future sales of BASIC for the Commodore PET, the Apple II, the Radio Shack TRS-80 and others were all fixed-price contracts.
In early 1976 ads for its Apple I computer, Apple Inc made the claims that "our philosophy is to provide software for our machines free or at minimal cost", emphasising that Apple BASIC was free.
Microsoft's software development was done on a DEC PDP-10 mainframe computer system, with Allen having developed a program that could completely simulate a new microprocessor system. This allowed Microsoft to write and debug software before the new computer hardware was complete. The company was charged by the hour and by the amount of resources (such as storage and printing) used, the "$40,000 of computer time" mentioned in the letter. As a result of these software developments, the 6800 BASIC was complete before the Altair 680 was finished, with the 680 hardware arriving months late.
Hal Singer of the Micro-8 Newsletter published an open letter to Roberts, pointing out that MITS promised a computer for $395, but that the price for a working system was $1000. He suggested a class action lawsuit or a Federal Trade Commission investigation into false advertising was in order. Hal also noted that rumors were circulating that Gates had developed BASIC on a Harvard University computer funded by the US government, and that customers should not pay for software already paid for by the taxpayer. Gates, Allen and Davidoff had used a PDP-10 at Harvard's Aiken Computer Center, the computer system of which had been funded by the Department of Defence through its Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency; Harvard officials were not pleased that Gates and Allen (who was not a student) had used the PDP-10 to develop a commercial product, but determined that the computer itself, which technically belonged to the military, was not covered by any Harvard policy; the PDP-10 was controlled by Professor Thomas Cheatham, who felt that students could use the machine for personal use. Harvard placed restrictions on the computer's use, and Gates and Allen had to use a commercial time share computer in Boston to finalize the software.
In 2008, Homebrew member Lee Felsenstein recalled similar doubts about Gates' $40,000 number: "Well, we all knew [that] the evaluation of computer time was the ultimate in funny money. You never pay that much for the computer time and I think that research will show that they were using someone else's computer time; someone else was paying for that. It could have been Honeywell where Paul Allen was working. So we all knew this to be a spurious argument."
According to Felsenstein, Gates' letter "delineated a rift [between] the actual industry where there's trying to make money and there's those hobbyist where we're trying to make things happen";
The industry needs the hobbyists and this was illustrated by what happened eventually. When National Semiconductor, which made their own microprocessor chips in '77 or '78, decided they needed a BASIC ... they asked, 'What's the most popular BASIC?' And the answer was Microsoft BASIC because everybody had copied it and everybody was using it. So we made Microsoft the standard BASIC. National Semiconductor went to Microsoft and bought a license, they were in business that way. This was the marketing function and the hobbyists did the marketing with a complete antipathy of the company in question. There were other BASICs and, you know, some of them might even have been better. ... [Gates' later success] was in a certain measure because of what we did, that he said we shouldn't do, we were thieves to do it, and all.
Jim Warren, Homebrew Computer Club Member and editor of Dr. Dobb's Journal, wrote in the July 1976 ACM Programming Language newsletter about the successful Tiny BASIC project. The goal was to create BASIC language interpreters for microprocessor based computers. The project had started in late 1975, but the "Open Letter" motivated many hobbyists to participate. Computer clubs and individuals from all parts of the United States and the world soon created Tiny BASIC interpreters for the Intel 8080, the Motorola 6800 and MOS Technology 6502 processors. The assembly language source code was published or the software was sold for five or ten dollars.
Magazines that published the letter
Several responses to the letter were published, including one from Bill Gates.
Editor Art Childs writes about the letter he received from the "author of Altair Basic" and the resulting controversy on propriety software.
Jim Warren, the editor of Dr. Dobb's Journal, describes how the Tiny BASIC project is an alternative to hobbyist "ripping off" software.
An article on software copyright law that discusses the "Open Letter to Hobbyists".
See also
Don't Copy That Floppy
Notes
References
Bibliography
Chapter 6 "Mechanics: Kits & Microcomputers"
External links
The letter in HTML format
Reproduction of the letter as it appeared in Computer Notes Volume 1 Issue 9 – February, 1976
Reproduction of the letter as it appeared in the Homebrew Computer Club Newsletter Volume 2, Issue 1, January 31, 1976 (letter dated February 3)
Works about intellectual property law
Copyright law literature
Works by Bill Gates
History of Microsoft
1976 documents
Open letters
1976 in the United States | [
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|
255083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephine%20Baker | Josephine Baker | Josephine Baker (born Freda Josephine McDonald, naturalised French Joséphine Baker; 3 June 1906 – 12 April 1975) was an American-born French entertainer, French Resistance agent, and civil rights activist. Her career was centered primarily in Europe, mostly in her adopted France. She was the first Black woman to star in a major motion picture, the 1927 silent film Siren of the Tropics, directed by and .
During her early career, Baker was among the most celebrated performers to headline the revues of the in Paris. Her performance in the revue in 1927 caused a sensation in the city. Her costume, consisting of only a short skirt of artificial bananas and a beaded necklace, became an iconic image and a symbol both of the Jazz Age and the Roaring Twenties.
Baker was celebrated by artists and intellectuals of the era, who variously dubbed her the "Black Venus", the "Black Pearl", the "Bronze Venus", and the "Creole Goddess". Born in St. Louis, Missouri, she renounced her U.S. citizenship and became a French national after her marriage to French industrialist Jean Lion in 1937. She raised her children in France.
She aided the French Resistance during World War II. After the war, she was awarded the Resistance Medal by the French Committee of National Liberation, the by the French military, and was named a Chevalier of the by General Charles de Gaulle. Baker sang: "I have two loves, my country and Paris."
Baker refused to perform for segregated audiences in the United States and is noted for her contributions to the civil rights movement. In 1968, she was offered unofficial leadership in the movement in the United States by Coretta Scott King, following Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination. After thinking it over, Baker declined the offer out of concern for the welfare of her children.
On 30 November 2021, she entered the Panthéon in Paris, the first black woman to receive one of the highest honors in France. As her resting place remains in Monaco a cenotaph was installed in vault 13 of the crypt in the Panthéon.
Early life
Freda Josephine McDonald was born on June 3, 1906, in St. Louis, Missouri. Her mother Carrie, was adopted in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1886 by Richard and Elvira McDonald, both of whom were former slaves of African and Native American descent. Baker's estate and some other sources identify vaudeville drummer Eddie Carson as her natural father, whilst other sources dispute this. Baker's foster son Jean-Claude Baker wrote a biography, published in 1993, titled Josephine: The Hungry Heart, in which he discusses at length the circumstances surrounding Baker's birth based on his research, concluding that Baker's father was white, and that Baker knew that Carson was not her father. Academic Bennetta Jules-Rosette, author of Josephine Baker in art and life : the icon and the image (2007) wrote about the difficulty of establishing the truth of Baker's early life, given "the factual and counterfactual reworkings of her numerous biographers" and Baker's own "numerous and often contradictory reworkings of the story, which frequently lacked coherence.".
Josephine McDonald spent her early life on 212 Targee Street (known by some St. Louis residents as Johnson Street) in the Mill Creek Valley neighborhood of St. Louis, a racially mixed low-income neighborhood near Union Station, consisting mainly of rooming houses, brothels, and apartments without indoor plumbing. She was poorly dressed, hungry as a child, and developed street smarts playing in the railroad yards of Union Station.
Her mother married Arthur Martin, "a kind but perpetually unemployed man", with whom she had a son and two more daughters. She took in laundry to wash to make ends meet, and at eight years old, Josephine began working as a live-in domestic for white families in St. Louis. One woman abused her, burning Josephine's hands when the young girl put too much soap in the laundry.
In 1917, when she was 11, a terrified Josephine McDonald witnessed racial violence in East St. Louis, Illinois. In a speech years later, she recalled what she had seen:"I can still see myself standing on the west bank of the Mississippi looking over into East St. Louis and watching the glow of the burning of Negro homes lighting the sky. We children stood huddled together in bewilderment . . . frightened to death with the screams of the Negro families running across this bridge with nothing but what they had on their backs as their worldly belongings... So with this vision I ran and ran and ran..."
By age 12, she had dropped out of school. At 13, she worked as a waitress at the Old Chauffeur's Club at 3133 Pine Street. She also lived as a street child in the slums of St. Louis, sleeping in cardboard shelters, scavenging for food in garbage cans, making a living with street-corner dancing. It was at the Old Chauffeur's Club where Josephine met Willie Wells, and subsequently married him at age 13; however, the marriage lasted less than a year. Following her divorce from Wells, she found work with a street performance group called the Jones Family Band.
In her teen years she struggled to have a healthy relationship with her mother, who did not want her to become an entertainer and scolded her for not tending to her second husband, William Howard Baker, whom she married in 1921 at the age of 15. She left him when her vaudeville troupe was booked into a New York City venue, and divorced in 1925; it was during this time she began to see significant career success, and she continued to use his last name professionally for the rest of her life. Though Baker traveled, she would return with gifts and money for her mother and younger half-sister, but the career opportunities pushed her to make a trip to France.
Career
Early career
Baker's consistent badgering of a show manager in her hometown led to her being recruited for the St. Louis Chorus vaudeville show. At the age of 13, she headed to New York City during the Harlem Renaissance, and performed at the Plantation Club, Florence Mills' old stomping ground. After several auditions, she secured a role in the chorus line of a touring production of the groundbreaking and hugely successful Broadway revue Shuffle Along, (1921) that helped bring to the publics attention Florence Mills, Paul Robeson, and Adelaide Hall.
In Shuffle Along, Josephine was a dancer positioned at the end of a chorus line. Fearing she might be out-shadowed by the other dancers, Josephine used her position to introduce a hint of comedy into her routine, thereby making her stand out from the other dancers. Josephine first entered Shuffle Along in one of the U.S. touring companies (not on Broadway) as she was still underage at the time. Once she became of age, she was transferred to the Broadway production where she remained for several months up until the show ended in 1923. The next revue Josephine went into was The Chocolate Dandies, which opened on September 1, 1924. Again, Josephine was cast in the chorus line. The show only ran for 96 performances and closed in November, 1924.
Pre War Paris and rise to fame
Baker sailed to Paris in 1925, and opened on 2 October in La Revue Nègre at Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. Baker was aged 19 at the time. In a 1974 interview with The Guardian, Baker explained that she obtained her first big break in the bustling city. "No, I didn't get my first break on Broadway. I was only in the chorus in 'Shuffle Along' and 'Chocolate Dandies'. I became famous first in France in the twenties. I just couldn't stand America and I was one of the first colored Americans to move to Paris. Oh yes, Bricktop was there as well. Me and her were the only two, and we had a marvelous time. Of course, everyone who was anyone knew Bricky. And they got to know Miss Baker as well."
In Paris, she became an instant success for her erotic dancing, and for appearing practically nude onstage. After a successful tour of Europe, she broke her contract and returned to France in 1926 to star at the Folies Bergère, setting the standard for her future acts.
Baker performed the "Danse Sauvage" wearing a costume consisting of a skirt made of a string of artificial bananas. Her success coincided (1925) with the Exposition des Arts Décoratifs, which gave birth to the term "Art Deco", and also with a renewal of interest in non-Western forms of art, including African. Baker represented one aspect of this fashion. In later shows in Paris, she was often accompanied on stage by her pet cheetah "Chiquita," who was adorned with a diamond collar. The cheetah frequently escaped into the orchestra pit, where it terrorized the musicians, adding another element of excitement to the show.
After a while, Baker was the most successful American entertainer working in France. Ernest Hemingway called her "the most sensational woman anyone ever saw." The author spent hours talking with her in Paris bars. Picasso drew paintings depicting her alluring beauty. Jean Cocteau became friendly with her and helped vault her to international stardom. Baker endorsed a "Bakerfix" hair gel, bananas, shoes, and cosmetics amongst other products.
In 1929, Baker became the first African-American star to visit Yugoslavia, while on tour in Central Europe via the Orient Express. In Belgrade, she performed at Luxor Balkanska, the most luxurious venue in the city at the time. She included Pirot kilim into her routine, as a nod to the local culture, and she donated some of the show's proceeds to poor children of Serbia. In Zagreb, she was received by adoring fans at the train station. However, some of her shows were cancelled, due to opposition from the local clergy and morality police.
During her travels in Yugoslavia, Baker was accompanied by "Count" Giuseppe Pepito Abatino. At the start of her career in France, Baker had met Abatino, a Sicilian former stonemason who passed himself off as a count, and who persuaded her to let him manage her. Abatino was not only Baker's management, but her lover as well. The two could not marry because Baker was still married to her second husband, Willie Baker.
During this period, she released her most successful song, "J'ai deux amours" (1931). The song espresses the sentiment that "I have two loves, my country and Paris." In a 2007 book, Tim Bergfelder, Sue Harris and Sarah Street claimed that "by the 1930's, Baker's assimilation into French popular culture had been completed by her association with the song". Baker starred in four films which found success only in Europe: the silent film Siren of the Tropics (1927), Zouzou (1934) and Princesse Tam Tam (1935). She starred in Fausse Alerte in 1940. Bergfelder, Harris and Street wrote that the silent film Siren of the Tropics "rehearses the 'primitive-to-Parisienne' narrative that would become the staple of Baker's cinema career, and exploited in particular her comic stage persona based on loose-limbed athleticism and artful clumsiness." The sound films Zouzou (1934) and Princesse Tam Tam were both Star vehicles for Baker.
Under the management of Abatino, Baker's stage and public persona, as well as her singing voice, were transformed. In 1934, she took the lead in a revival of Jacques Offenbach's opera La créole, which premiered in December of that year for a six-month run at the Théâtre Marigny on the Champs-Élysées of Paris. In preparation for her performances, she went through months of training with a vocal coach. In the words of Shirley Bassey, who has cited Baker as her primary influence, "... she went from a 'petite danseuse sauvage' with a decent voice to 'la grande diva magnifique' ... I swear in all my life I have never seen, and probably never shall see again, such a spectacular singer and performer."
Despite her popularity in France, Baker never attained the equivalent reputation in America. Her star turn in a 1936 revival of Ziegfeld Follies on Broadway was not commercially successful, and later in the run she was replaced by Gypsy Rose Lee. Time magazine referred to her as a "Negro wench ... whose dancing and singing might be topped anywhere outside of Paris", while other critics said her voice was "too thin" and "dwarf-like" to fill the Winter Garden Theatre. She returned to Europe heartbroken. This contributed to Baker's becoming a legal citizen of France and giving up her American citizenship.
Baker returned to Paris in 1937, married the French industrialist Jean Lion, and became a French citizen. They were married in the French town of Crèvecœur-le-Grand, in a wedding presided over by the mayor, Jammy Schmidt.
Between 1933 and 1937 Baker was a guest at the start of the Tour de France on four occasions.
World War II
In September 1939, when France declared war on Germany in response to the invasion of Poland, Baker was recruited by the Deuxième Bureau, the French military intelligence agency, as an "honorable correspondent". Baker worked with Jacques Abtey, the head of French counterintelligence in Paris.
She socialised with the Germans at embassies, ministries, night clubs, charming them while secretly gathering information. Her café-society fame enabled her to rub shoulders with those in the know, from high-ranking Japanese officials to Italian and Vichy bureaucrats, reporting to Abtey what she heard. She attended parties and gathered information at the Italian embassy without raising suspicion.
When the Germans invaded France, Baker left Paris and went to the Château des Milandes, her home in the Dordogne département in the south of France. She housed people who were eager to help the Free French effort led by Charles de Gaulle and supplied them with visas. As an entertainer, Baker had an excuse for moving around Europe, visiting neutral nations such as Portugal, as well as some in South America. She carried information for transmission to England, about airfields, harbors, and German troop concentrations in the West of France. Notes were written in invisible ink on Baker's sheet music. As written in Jazz Age Cleopatra, "She specialized in gatherings at embassies and ministries, charming people as she had always done, but at the same time trying to remember interesting items to transmit."
Later in 1941, she and her entourage went to the French colonies in North Africa. The stated reason was Baker's health (since she was recovering from another case of pneumonia) but the real reason was to continue helping the Resistance. From a base in Morocco, she made tours of Spain. She pinned notes with the information she gathered inside her underwear (counting on her celebrity to avoid a strip search). She met the Pasha of Marrakech, whose support helped her through a miscarriage (the last of several). After the miscarriage, she developed an infection so severe it required a hysterectomy. The infection spread and she developed peritonitis and then sepsis. After her recovery (which she continued to fall in and out of), she started touring to entertain British, French, and American soldiers in North Africa. The Free French had no organized entertainment network for their troops, so Baker and her entourage managed for the most part on their own. They allowed no civilians and charged no admission.
After the war, Baker was awarded the Resistance Medal by the French Committee of National Liberation, the by the French military, and was named a Chevalier of the by General Charles de Gaulle.
Baker's last marriage, to French composer and conductor Jo Bouillon, ended around the time Baker opted to adopt her 11th child.
Post War
In 1949, a reinvented Baker returned in triumph to the Folies Bergère. Bolstered by recognition of her wartime heroism, Baker the performer assumed a new gravitas, unafraid to take on serious music or subject matter. The engagement was a rousing success and reestablished Baker as one of Paris' pre-eminent entertainers. In 1951 Baker was invited back to the United States for a nightclub engagement in Miami. After winning a public battle over desegregating the club's audience, Baker followed up her sold-out run at the club with a national tour. Rave reviews and enthusiastic audiences accompanied her everywhere, climaxed by a parade in front of 100,000 people in Harlem in honor of her new title: NAACP's "Woman of the Year".
In 1952 Baker was hired to crown the Queen of the Cavalcade of Jazz for the famed eighth Cavalcade of Jazz concert held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles which was produced by Leon Hefflin, Sr. on 1 June. Also featured to perform that day were Roy Brown and His Mighty Men, Anna Mae Winburn and Her Sweethearts, Toni Harper, Louis Jordan, Jimmy Witherspoon and Jerry Wallace.
An incident at the Stork Club in October 1951 interrupted and overturned her plans. Baker criticized the club's unwritten policy of discouraging Black patrons, then scolded columnist Walter Winchell, an old ally, for not rising to her defense. Winchell responded swiftly with a series of harsh public rebukes, including accusations of Communist sympathies (a serious charge at the time). The ensuing publicity resulted in the termination of Baker's work visa, forcing her to cancel all her engagements and return to France. It was almost a decade before U.S. officials allowed her back into the country.
In January 1966, Fidel Castro invited Baker to perform at the Teatro Musical de La Habana in Havana, Cuba, at the seventh-anniversary celebrations of his revolution. Her spectacular show in April broke attendance records. In 1968, Baker visited Yugoslavia and made appearances in Belgrade and in Skopje. In her later career, Baker faced financial troubles. She commented, "Nobody wants me, they've forgotten me"; but family members encouraged her to continue performing. In 1973 she performed at Carnegie Hall to a standing ovation.
The following year, she appeared in a Royal Variety Performance at the London Palladium, and then at the Monegasque Red Cross Gala, celebrating her 50 years in French show business. Advancing years and exhaustion began to take their toll; she sometimes had trouble remembering lyrics, and her speeches between songs tended to ramble. She still continued to captivate audiences of all ages.
Civil rights activism
Although based in France, Baker supported the Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s. When she arrived in New York with her husband Jo, they were refused reservations at 36 hotels because of racial discrimination. She was so upset by this treatment that she wrote articles about the segregation in the United States. She also began traveling into the South. She gave a talk at Fisk University, a historically black college in Nashville, Tennessee, on "France, North Africa and the Equality of the Races in France."
She refused to perform for segregated audiences in the United States, although she was offered $10,000 by a Miami club(The club eventually met her demands.). Her insistence on mixed audiences helped to integrate live entertainment shows in Las Vegas, Nevada. After this incident, she began receiving threatening phone calls from people claiming to be from the Ku Klux Klan but said publicly that she was not afraid of them.
In 1951, Baker made charges of racism against Sherman Billingsley's Stork Club in Manhattan, where she had been refused service. Actress Grace Kelly, who was at the club at the time, rushed over to Baker, took her by the arm and stormed out with her entire party, vowing never to return (although she returned on 3 January 1956 with Prince Rainier of Monaco). The two women became close friends after the incident.
When Baker was near bankruptcy, Kelly—by then the princess consort—offered her a villa and financial assistance. (During his work on the Stork Club book, author and New York Times reporter Ralph Blumenthal was contacted by Jean-Claude Baker, one of Baker's sons. He indicated that he had read his mother's FBI file and, using comparison of the file to the tapes, said he thought the Stork Club incident was overblown.)
Baker also worked with the NAACP. Her reputation as a crusader grew to such an extent that the NAACP had Sunday, 20 May 1951 declared "Josephine Baker Day." She was presented with life membership with the NAACP by Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Ralph Bunche. The honor she was paid spurred her to further her crusading efforts with the "Save Willie McGee" rally. McGee was a black man in Mississippi convicted of raping a white woman in 1945 on the basis of dubious evidence, and sentenced to death. Baker attended rallies for McGee and wrote letters to Fielding Wright, the governor of Mississippi, asking him to spare McGee's life. Despite her efforts, McGee was executed in 1951. As the decorated war hero who was bolstered by the racial equality she experienced in Europe, Baker became increasingly regarded as controversial; some black people even began to shun her, fearing that her outspokenness and racy reputation from her earlier years would hurt the cause.
In 1963, she spoke at the March on Washington at the side of Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. Baker was the only official female speaker. While wearing her Free French uniform emblazoned with her medal of the Légion d'honneur, she introduced the "Negro Women for Civil Rights." Rosa Parks and Daisy Bates were among those she acknowledged, and both gave brief speeches. Not everyone involved wanted Baker present at the March; some thought her time overseas had made her a woman of France, one who was disconnected from the Civil Rights issues going on in America. In her speech, one of the things Baker said:
I have walked into the palaces of kings and queens and into the houses of presidents. And much more. But I could not walk into a hotel in America and get a cup of coffee, and that made me mad. And when I get mad, you know that I open my big mouth. And then look out, 'cause when Josephine opens her mouth, they hear it all over the world ...
After King's assassination, his widow Coretta Scott King approached Baker in the Netherlands to ask if she would take her husband's place as leader of the Civil Rights Movement. After many days of thinking it over, Baker declined, saying her children were "too young to lose their mother."
Personal life
Relationships
Baker's first marriage was to American Pullman porter Willie Wells when she was only 13 years old. The marriage was reportedly very unhappy and the couple divorced a short time later. Another short-lived marriage followed her marriage to Willie Baker in 1921; she retained Baker's last name because her career began to take off during that time, and it was the name by which she became best known. While she had four marriages to men, Jean-Claude Baker writes that Josephine was bisexual and he also writes that she had several relationships with women.
During her time in the Harlem Renaissance arts community, one of Baker's relationships was with the Blues singer Clara Smith. In 1925, she began an extramarital relationship with the Belgian novelist Georges Simenon. In 1937, Baker married Frenchman Jean Lion. She and Lion separated in 1940. She married French composer and conductor Jo Bouillon in 1947, and their union also ended in divorce but it lasted 14 years. Later, She was involved with the artist Robert Brady for a time, but they never married. Speculation exists that Baker was also involved in sexual liaisons, if not relationships, with Ada "Bricktop" Smith, French novelist Colette, and possibly Frida Kahlo.
Children
During her participation in the Civil Rights Movement, Baker began to adopt children, forming a family which she often referred to as "The Rainbow Tribe". Baker wanted to prove that "children of different ethnicities and religions could still be brothers." She often took the children with her cross-country, and when they were at Château des Milandes, she arranged tours so visitors could walk the grounds and see how natural and happy the children were in "The Rainbow Tribe". Her estate featured hotels, a farm, rides, and the children singing and dancing for the audience. She charged an admission fee to visitors who entered and partook in the activities, which included watching the children play. She created dramatic backstories for them, picking them with clear intent in mind: at one point, she wanted and planned to adopt a Jewish baby, but she settled for a French one. She also raised them in different religions in order to further her model for the world, taking two children from Algeria and raising one child as a Muslim and raising the other child as a Catholic. One member of the Tribe, Jean-Claude Baker, said: "She wanted a doll."
Baker raised two daughters, French-born Marianne and Moroccan-born Stellina, and 10 sons, Korean-born Jeannot (or Janot), Japanese-born Akio, Colombian-born Luis, Finnish-born Jari (now Jarry), French-born Jean-Claude, Noël and Moïse, Algerian-born Brahim, Ivorian-born Koffi, and Venezuelan-born Mara. For some time, Baker lived with her children and an enormous staff in the château in Dordogne, France, with her fourth husband, Jo Bouillon. Bouillon claimed that Baker bore one child, it was stillborn in 1941, an incident that precipitated an emergency hysterectomy.
Baker forced Jarry to leave the château and live with his adoptive father, Jo Bouillon, in Argentina, at the age of 15, after discovering that he was gay. Moïse died of cancer in 1999, and Noël was diagnosed with schizophrenia and is in a psychiatric hospital as of 2009. Jean-Claude Baker committed suicide in 2015.
Later years and death
In her later years Baker converted to Catholicism. In 1968, Baker lost her Château owing to unpaid debts; afterwards Princess Grace offered her an apartment in Roquebrune, near Monaco.
Baker was back on stage at the Olympia in Paris in 1968, in Belgrade and at Carnegie Hall in 1973 and at the Royal Variety Performance at the London Palladium and at the Gala du Cirque in Paris in 1974. On 8 April 1975 Baker starred in a retrospective revue at the Bobino in Paris, Joséphine à Bobino 1975, celebrating her 50 years in show business. The revue, financed by Prince Rainier, Princess Grace and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, opened to rave reviews. Demand for seating was such that fold-out chairs had to be added to accommodate spectators. The opening-night audience included Sophia Loren, Mick Jagger, Shirley Bassey, Diana Ross and Liza Minnelli.
Four days later Baker was found lying peacefully in her bed surrounded by newspapers with glowing reviews of her performance. She was in a coma after suffering a cerebral hemorrhage. She was taken to Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, where she died, aged 68, on 12 April 1975.
Baker received a full Catholic funeral at L'Église de la Madeleine, attracting more than 20,000 mourners. The only American-born woman to receive full French military honors at her funeral, Baker's funeral was the occasion of a huge procession. After a family service at Saint-Charles Church in Monte Carlo, Baker was interred at Monaco's Cimetière de Monaco.
Legacy
Place Joséphine Baker () in the Montparnasse Quarter of Paris was named in her honor. She has also been inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame, and on 29 March 1995, into the Hall of Famous Missourians. St. Louis's Channing Avenue was renamed Josephine Baker Boulevard and a wax sculpture of Baker is on permanent display at The Griot Museum of Black History.
In 2015 she was inducted into the Legacy Walk in Chicago, Illinois. The Piscine Joséphine Baker is a swimming pool along the banks of the Seine in Paris named after her.
Writing in the on-line BBC magazine in late 2014, Darren Royston, historical dance teacher at RADA credited Baker with being the Beyoncé of her day, and bringing the Charleston to Britain. Two of Baker's sons, Jean-Claude and Jarry (Jari), grew up to go into business together, running the restaurant Chez Josephine on Theatre Row, 42nd Street, New York City. It celebrates Baker's life and works.
Château des Milandes, a castle near Sarlat in the Dordogne, was Baker's home where she raised her twelve children. It is open to the public and displays her stage outfits including her banana skirt (of which there are apparently several). It also displays many family photographs and documents as well as her Legion of Honour medal. Most rooms are open for the public to walk through including bedrooms with the cots where her children slept, a huge kitchen, and a dining room where she often entertained large groups. The bathrooms were designed in art deco style but most rooms retained the French chateau style.
Baker continued to influence celebrities more than a century after her birth. In a 2003 interview with USA Today, Angelina Jolie cited Baker as "a model for the multiracial, multinational family she was beginning to create through adoption." Beyoncé performed Baker's banana dance at the Fashion Rocks concert at Radio City Music Hall in September 2006.
Writing on the 110th anniversary of her birth, Vogue described how her 1926 "danse sauvage" in her famous banana skirt "brilliantly manipulated the white male imagination" and "radically redefined notions of race and gender through style and performance in a way that continues to echo throughout fashion and music today, from Prada to Beyoncé."
On 3 June 2017, the 111th anniversary of her birth, Google released an animated Google Doodle, which consists of a slideshow chronicling her life and achievements.
On Thursday 22 November 2018 a documentary entitled Josephine Baker: The Story of an Awakening, directed by Ilana Navaro, premiered at the Beirut Art Film Festival. It contains rarely seen archival footage, including some never before discovered, with music and narration.
In August 2019 Baker was one of those inducted in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields."
Panthéon in Paris
In May 2021 an online petition was set up by writer Laurent Kupferman asking that Joséphine Baker be honoured by being reburied at the Panthéon in Paris or being granted Panthéon honours, which would make her only the sixth woman at the mausoleum alongside Simone Veil, Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz, Marie Curie, Germaine Tillion and Sophie Berthelot. In August 2021 the French President, Emmanuel Macron, announced that Baker's remains would be reburied at the Panthéon in November 2021, following the petition and continued requests from Baker's family since 2013. Her son Claude Bouillon-Baker, however, told AFP that her body would remain in Monaco and only a plaque would be installed at the Panthéon. It was later announced that a symbolic casket containing soil from various locations that Baker had lived, including St. Louis, Paris, the South of France and Monaco, would be carried by the French Air and Space Force in a parade in Paris before a ceremony at the Panthéon where the casket will be interred. The ceremony took place on Tuesday, 30 November 2021, and Baker thus became the first black woman to be honored in the secular temple to the “great men” of the French Republic.
Works portraying or inspired by Baker
Film and television
Diana Ross portrayed Baker in her Tony Award-winning Broadway and television show An Evening with Diana Ross. When the show was made into an NBC television special entitled The Big Event: An Evening with Diana Ross, Ross again portrayed Baker.
In 1991, Baker's life story, The Josephine Baker Story, was broadcast on HBO. Lynn Whitfield portrayed Baker, and won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Special – becoming the first Black actress to win the award in this category.
A German submariner mimics Baker's Danse banane in the 1981 film Das Boot.
In the 1997 animated musical film Anastasia, Baker appears with her cheetah during the musical number "Paris Holds the Key (to Your Heart)".
In 2002, Baker was portrayed by Karine Plantadit in the biopic Frida.
A character who is based on Baker (topless, wearing the famous "banana skirt") appears in the opening sequence of the 2003 animated film The Triplets of Belleville (Les Triplettes de Belleville).
Her influence upon and assistance to the careers of the husband and wife dancers Carmen De Lavallade and Geoffrey Holder are discussed and illustrated in rare footage in the 2005 Linda Atkinson/Nick Doob documentary, Carmen and Geoffrey.
In 2011, Sonia Rolland portrayed Baker in the film Midnight in Paris.
In February 2017, Tiffany Daniels portrayed Baker in the Timeless television episode "The Lost Generation".
Baker is portrayed by actress Carra Patterson in the seventh episode, entitled "I Am.", of HBO’s television series Lovecraft Country.
Stage
In 1986, Helen Gelzer portrayed Baker on the London stage for a limited run in the musical Josephine – "a musical version of the life and times of Josephine Baker" with book, lyrics and music by Michael Wild. The show was produced by Baker's longtime friend Jack Hockett in conjunction with Premier Box-Office, and the musical director was Paul Maguire. Gelzer also recorded a studio cast album titled Josephine.
In 2006, Jérôme Savary produced a musical, A La Recherche de Josephine – New Orleans for Ever (Looking for Josephine), starring Nicolle Rochelle. The story revolved around the history of jazz and Baker's career.
In 2006, Deborah Cox starred in the musical Josephine at Florida's Asolo Theatre, directed and choreographed by Joey McKneely, with a book by Ellen Weston and Mark Hampton, music by Steve Dorff and lyrics by John Bettis.
In July 2012, Cheryl Howard opened in The Sensational Josephine Baker, written and performed by Howard and directed by Ian Streicher at the Beckett Theatre of Theatre Row on 42nd Street in New York City, just a few doors away from Chez Josephine.
In July 2013, Cush Jumbo's debut play Josephine and I premiered at the Bush Theatre, London. It was re-produced in New York City at The Public Theater's Joe's Pub from 27 February to 5 April 2015.
In June 2016, Josephine, a burlesque cabaret dream play starring Tymisha Harris as Josephine Baker premiered at the 2016 San Diego Fringe Festival. The show has since played across North America and had a limited off-Broadway run in January–February 2018 at SoHo Playhouse in New York City.
In late February 2017, a new play about Baker's later years, The Last Night of Josephine Baker by playwright Vincent Victoria, opened in Houston, Texas, starring Erica Young as "Past Josephine" and Jasmin Roland as "Present Josephine".
Actress DeQuina Moore portrayed Baker in a biographic musical titled "Josephine Tonight" at The Ensemble Theatre in Houston, Texas, from 27 June– 28 July 2019.
In September 2021, Theatre Royal, Bath in conjunction with Oxford Playhouse and Wales Millennium Centre produced a UK touring production of Josephine co-written by Leona Allen and Jesse Briton who also directed the show. It toured the UK and featured Ebony Feare in the lead role as Josephine Baker.
Literature
Baker appears in her role as a member of the French Resistance in Johannes Mario Simmel's 1960 novel, Es muss nicht immer Kaviar sein (C'est pas toujours du caviar). The 2004 erotic novel Scandalous by British author Angela Campion uses Baker as its heroine and is inspired by Baker's sexual exploits and later adventures in the French Resistance. In the novel, Baker, working with a fictional Black Canadian lover named Drummer Thompson, foils a plot by French fascists in 1936 Paris. Baker was heavily featured in the 2012 book Josephine's Incredible Shoe & The Blackpearls by Peggi Eve Anderson-Randolph. In his novel Noire, la neige, Marseille, Editions Parenthèses, , Pascal Rannou evokes the relationship between Valaida Snow and Josephine Baker, who is one of the main characters of this story.
Music
The Italian-Belgian francophone singer composer Salvatore Adamo pays tribute to Baker with the song "Noël Sur Les Milandes" (album Petit Bonheur – EMI 1970).
The British band 'Sailor' paid tribute on their 1974 self-titled debut album 'Sailor' with the Georg Kajanus song 'Josephine Baker' who "...stunned the world at the Folies Bergere..."
British singer-songwriter, Al Stewart wrote a song about Josephine Baker. It appears on the album "Last days of the century" from 1988.
Beyoncé Knowles has portrayed Baker on various occasions. During the 2006 Fashion Rocks show, Knowles performed "Dejá Vu" in a revised version of the Danse banane costume. In Knowles's video for "Naughty Girl", she is seen dancing in a huge champagne glass à la Baker. In I Am ... Yours: An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas, Beyonce lists Baker as an influence of a section of her live show.
In 2010, Keri Hilson portrayed Baker in her single "Pretty Girl Rock".
Artworks
In 1927, Alexander Calder created Josephine Baker (III), a wire sculpture of Baker, which is now displayed at the Museum of Modern Art. Henri Matisse created a mural-sized cut paper artwork titled La Négresse (1952–1953), possibly inspired by Baker. Hassan Musa depicted Baker in a 1994 series of paintings called Who needs Bananas?
Film credits
Documentaries
Joséphine Baker. Black Diva in a White Mans World. Film by Annette von Wangenheim, about Baker's life and work from a perspective that analyses images of Black people in popular culture, WDR/3sat, 2006
References
Bibliography
The Josephine Baker collection, 1926–2001 at Stanford University Libraries
Atwood, Kathryn J., & Sarah Olson (2011). Women Heroes of World War II: 26 Stories of Espionage, Sabotage, Resistance, and Rescue. Chicago, Illinois: Chicago Review Press.
Baker, J.C., & Chris Chase (1993). Josephine: The Hungry Heart. New York: Random House.
Baker, Jean-Claude, & Chris Chase (1995). Josephine: The Josephine Baker Story. Adams Media Corp.
Baker, Josephine, & Jo Bouillon (1995). Josephine. Marlowe & Co.
Bonini, Emmanuel (2000). La veritable Josephine Baker. Paris: Pigmalean Gerard Watelet.
Guterl, Matthew (2014), Josephine Baker and the Rainbow Tribe Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
Hammond O'Connor, Patrick (1988). Josephine Baker. Jonathan Cape.
Jules-Rosette, Bennetta (2006). Josephine Baker: Image and Icon. Reedy Press.
Kraut, Anthea, "Between Primitivism and Diaspora: The Dance Performances of Josephine Baker, Zora Neale Hurston, and Katherine Dunham", Theatre Journal 55 (2003): 433–50.
Mackrell, Judith (2013). Flappers: Six Women of a Dangerous Generation.
Mahon, Elizabeth Kerri (2011). Scandalous Women: The Lives and Loves of History's Most Notorious Women. Perigee Trade.
Miller, Mark (2007). High Hat, Trumpet and Rhythm: The Life and Music of Valaida Snow. Toronto, The Mercury Press, , pp. 8, 38, 44–45, 52, 57, 61, 94, 107, 120, 121. The book contains documentation about the friendship between Valaida Snow and Josephine Baker.
Rose, Phyllis (1991). Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in Her Time. Vintage.
Schroeder, Alan (1989). Ragtime Tumpie. Little, Brown; an award-winning children's picture book about Baker's childhood in St. Louis and her dream of becoming a dancer.
Schroeder, Alan (1990). Josephine Baker. Chelsea House. , a young-adult biography.
Theile, Merlind. "Adopting the World: Josephine Baker's Rainbow Tribe" Spiegel Online International, 2 October 2009.
Williams, Iain Cameron (2002). Underneath a Harlem Moon: The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall . Bloomsbury Publishers, . The book contains documentation of the rivalry between Adelaide Hall and Josephine Baker.
Wood, Ean (2002). The Josephine Baker Story. Sanctuary Publishing;
External links
(self)
The electric body: Nancy Cunard sees Josephine Baker (2003) – review essay of dance style and contemporary critics
Collection: Josephine Baker papers at Houghton Library, Harvard University
Norwood, Arlisha. "Josephine Baker". National Women's History Museum. 2017.
Josephine Baker papers, 1931-1968 at the Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library
Finding aid to the Josephine Baker collection at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
20th-century African-American women singers
American emigrants to France
American female erotic dancers
American burlesque performers
Cabaret singers
1906 births
1975 deaths
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Female recipients of the Croix de Guerre (France)
Actresses from St. Louis
Anti-racism activists
Bisexual actresses
Bisexual musicians
Burials in Monaco
Columbia Records artists
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Deaths by intracerebral hemorrhage
Female resistance members of World War II
French buskers
French female erotic dancers
French film actresses
French-language singers of the United States
French people of African-American descent
French Resistance members
French Roman Catholics
French spies
French vedettes
Black French musicians
Harlem Renaissance
LGBT dancers
LGBT singers from France
LGBT people from Missouri
LGBT singers from the United States
LGBT Roman Catholics
LGBT African Americans
Mercury Records artists
Music hall performers
Naturalized citizens of France
People from St. Louis
Former United States citizens
RCA Victor artists
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Recipients of the Resistance Medal
Traditional pop music singers
Vaudeville performers
French women in World War II
Articles containing video clips
20th-century French actresses
20th-century French women singers
French Freemasons
Female wartime spies
African-American Catholics
20th-century LGBT people
Roman Catholic activists
LGBT actors from the United States
American bisexual actors | [
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255084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawshark | Sawshark | A sawshark or saw shark is a member of a shark order (Pristiophoriformes ) bearing a unique long, saw-like rostrum (snout or bill) edged with sharp teeth, which they use to slash and disable their prey. There are eight species within the Pristiophoriformes, including the longnose or common sawshark (Pristiophorus cirratus), shortnose sawshark (Pristiophorus nudipinnis), Japanese sawshark (Pristiophorus japonicas), Bahamas sawshark (Pristiophorus schroederi), sixgill sawshark (Pliotrema warreni), African dwarf sawshark (Pristiophorus nancyae), Lana's sawshark (Pristiophorus lanae) and the tropical sawshark (Pristiophorus delicatus).
Sawsharks are found in many areas around the world, most commonly in waters from the Indian Ocean to the southern Pacific Ocean. They are normally found at depths around 40–100 m, but can be found much lower in tropical regions. The Bahamas sawshark was discovered in deeper waters (640 m to 915 m) of the northwestern Caribbean.
Description and life cycle
Sawsharks have a pair of long barbels about halfway along the snout. They have two dorsal fins, but lack anal fins. Genus Pliotrema has six gill slits, and Pristiophorus the more usual five. The teeth of the saw typically alternate between large and small. Saw sharks reach a length of up to 5 feet and a weight now of 18.7 pounds with females tending to be slightly larger than males.
The body of a longnose saw shark is covered in tiny placoid scales: modified teeth covered in hard enamel. The body is a yellow-brown color which is sometimes covered in dark spots or blotches. This coloration allows the saw shark to easily blend with the sandy ocean floor.
These sharks typically feed on small fish, squid, and crustaceans, depending on species. The function of the sawshark barbels are not well understood, and neither is how they use their rostrum. It is possible they use it in a similar fashion as sawfishes, and hit prey with side-to-side swipes of the saw, crippling them. The saw could also be utilized against other predators in defense. The saw is covered with specialized sensory organs (ampullae of Lorenzini) which detect an electric field which is given off by buried prey.
Saw sharks life history is still poorly understood. Mating season occurs seasonally in coastal areas. Saw sharks are ovoviviparous meaning eggs hatch inside the mother. They have litters of 3–22 pups every 2 years. After 12 months of pregnancy, the pups are born at 30 cm long. While in the mother, pups' rostral teeth are angled backwards to avoid harming the mother. The age of sawsharks is still poorly understood, but they are thought to live to 10 years or more.
Human interaction
Among the different species of sawshark, all are listed on the IUCN Red List of 2017 as either data deficient or of least concern Saw sharks do not see much human interaction because of their deep habitats.
Species
There are currently ten known species of sawsharks across two genera in this family:
Pliotrema annae (Anna's sixgill sawshark)
Pliotrema kajae (Kaja's sixgill sawshark)
Pliotrema warreni (Warren's sixgill sawshark)
Pristiophorus cirratus (longnose sawshark or common sawshark)
Pristiophorus delicatus (tropical sawshark)
Pristiophorus japonicus (Japanese sawshark)
Pristiophorus lanae (Lana's sawshark)
Pristiophorus nancyae (African dwarf sawshark)
Pristiophorus nudipinnis (shortnose or southern sawshark)
Pristiophorus schroederi (Bahamas sawshark)
Sixgill sawshark
The sixgill sawshark (Pliotrema warreni) is known for its six pairs of gills located on its sides close to the head. They are pale brown in color, with a white underbelly. Along with their color, their size sets them apart from the other types of sawfish: The females are around 136 cm where the males are around 112 cm. Sixgill sawsharks feed on shrimp, squid and bony fish. They are located around the southern portion of South Africa, and Madagascar. Where found, they are considered a prize catch. They dwell in the rage of 37–500 m, preferring to stay in the warmer water. They have between 5 and 7 pups from 7–17 eggs. They have these young in the range of 37–50 m deep to make sure the pups are warm.
Longnose or common sawshark
The longnose sawshark aka the common sawshark (Pristiophorus cirratus) is one of 9 species within the family Pristiophoridae. It has unique physical characteristics which include a long, thin, and flattened snout. Midway down the snout, nasal barbels protrude on both sides of the snout. Near the barbels, the longnose sawshark possesses a pair of ampullae of Lorenzini. It is unique among the sawshark family by having a longer snout than any of its counter species. The longnose sawshark is not very large with lengths ranging from around 14 inches at birth to 38 inches in males and 44 inches in females. They can also grow to a weight of 18.7 pounds. They are known to swim in the waters off the southern coast of Australia's continental shelf. They can also be found in the eastern portion of the Indian Ocean. The longnose sawshark prefers to swim in both the open sea and coastal regions from the surface to a depth of 600m. The longnose Sawshark is known to mainly prey on small crustaceans. It uses its barbels to detect prey on the ocean floor which it then hits with its snout to immobilize it. Like all other sawsharks, the common sawshark has a long snout with rows of small teeth and barbels on either side. It has five gill slits on either side of its head and between 19 and 25 teeth on each side. Sawsharks appear to be one of the types of elasmobranch that are difficult or impossible to age using most commonly-used approaches that rely on vertebral banding.
Shortnose or southern sawshark
The shortnose sawshark aka the southern sawshark (Pristiophorus nudipinnis) is found in south-eastern Australian waters. Much of its distribution overlaps with that of the Common sawshark, however, it seems to occur less frequently. This species is similar in size as the common sawshark, but has a broader rostrum (saw) and a more even brown coloration. It also grows to be heavier than the common sawshark. Since the color pattern of the common sawshark may be more or less defined, the easiest way to separate this species from the common sawshark is the location of the barbels, which are closer to the mouth than the co-occurring common sawshark. Unlike the common sawshark, the southern sawshark likely feeds mainly on fishes.
Tropical sawshark
The tropical sawshark (Pristiophorus delicatus) a pale brown with a yellow hue, and an underbelly that is a pale yellow to white. This deep water dwelling fish is located off the Northeastern shore of Australia, in depths up to 176–405 m. It averages in size at about 95 cm. Other than its location and appearance little is known of the creature; it is hard to catch due to its ability to travel into the depths of the ocean.
Japanese sawshark
The Japanese sawshark (Pristiophorus japonicus) is a species of sawshark that lives off the coast of Japan, Korea, and Northern China. It swims at a depth of 500 m. It has around 15–26 large rostral teeth in front of the barbels, which are equal distance from the gills to the snout, and about 9–17 teeth behind the barbels. Like all sawsharks, the Japanese sawshark is ovoviviparous, and feeds on crustaceans and bottom dwelling organisms.
Lana's sawshark
Lana's sawshark (Pristiophorus lanae) is a species of sawshark that inhabits the Philippine coast. It was discovered in 1966 by Dave Ebert, who distinguished it as a new species of sawshark based on its number of rostral teeth. Lana's sawshark was named after Lana Ebert on the occasion of her graduation from the University of Francisco. It has a dark uniform brown color on the dorsal side and a pale white on the ventral side. It is slender bodied, has five gills on each side, and can grow to be around 70 cm.
African dwarf sawshark
The African dwarf sawshark (Pristiophorus nancyae) is a small five-gill sawshark that lives off the coast of Mozambique. It was first discovered in 2011 when a specimen was caught off the coast of Mozambique at a depth of 1,600 ft. The African dwarf sawshark has since then been spotted off the coasts of Kenya and Yemen. It can be distinguished from other sawsharks by its location, and by having its barbels closer to its mouth than the end of its rostrum. It has a brownish grey color and becomes white along the ventral side. Little else is known about the African Dwarf Sawshark as it is a newly discovered species.
Shortnose sawshark
The shortnose sawshark (Pristiophorus nudipinnis) is similar to the longnose sawshark; however, it has a slightly compressed body and shorter more narrow rostrum. It has 13 teeth in front of its barbels and 6 behind. The shortnose sawshark tends to be uniformly slate grey with no markings on its dorsal side and pale white or cream on its ventral side. Females reach around 124 cm (49 in) long, and males reach around 110 cm (43 in) long. These sharks can live to be up to 9 years old. Like other sawsharks, the Short Nose lives a benthic lifestyle and feeds on benthic invertebrates. It uses its barbels to detect life on the ocean floor which it then paralyzes with its rostrum. The species is ovoviviparous and tends to give birth to a litter of 7–14 pups biannually. It inhabits ocean floors off the coast of Australia.
Bahamas sawshark
The Bahamas sawsharks (Pristiophorus schroeder) have very little information on them. Studies are being done daily to learn more about the deep sea dweller. They are located near Cuba, Florida, and the Bahamas (hence their name) where they dwell in the depths of 400–1000 m. As far as their appearance they can be identified by their snouts with teeth which appear as a saw, as well as their length, they are averaged at 80 cm in length.
Comparison with sawfish
Saw sharks and sawfish are cartilaginous fish possessing large saws. These are the only two fish that have a long blade-like snout. Although they are similar in appearances, saw sharks are distinct from sawfish. Sawfish are not sharks, but a type of ray. The gill slits of the sawfishes are positioned on the underside like a ray, but the gill slits of the saw shark are positioned on the side like a shark. Sawfish can have a much larger size, lack barbels, and have evenly sized teeth rather than alternating teeth of the saw shark. Clear difference is that a sawfish has no barbels and a saw shark has a prominent pair halfway along the saw. The saw shark uses these like other bottom fish, as a kind of antennae, feeling the way along the ocean bottom until it finds some prey of interest. Both the saw shark and the sawfish utilize the electroreceptors on the saw, ampullae of Lorenzini, to detect the electric field given off by buried prey.
See also
List of sharks
References
External links
Reefquest page
Checklist of Living Sharks
NOVA Online photo of longnose sawshark
Extant Late Jurassic first appearances
Taxa named by Pieter Bleeker
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|
255090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Paperclip | Operation Paperclip | Operation Paperclip was a secret United States intelligence program in which more than 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians were taken from former Nazi Germany to the U.S. for government employment after the end of World War II in Europe, between 1945 and 1959. Conducted by the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA), it was largely carried out by special agents of the U.S. Army's Counterintelligence Corps (CIC). Many of these personnel were former members, and some were former leaders, of the Nazi Party.
The primary purpose for Operation Paperclip was U.S. military advantage in the Soviet–American Cold War, and the Space Race. In a comparable operation, the Soviet Union relocated more than 2,200 German specialists—a total of more than 6,000 people including family members—with Operation Osoaviakhim during one night on October 22, 1946.
In February 1945, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) set up T-Force, or Special Sections Subdivision, which grew to over 2,000 personnel by June. T-Force examined 5,000 German targets with a high priority on synthetic rubber and oil catalysts, new designs in armored equipment, V-2 (rocket) weapons, jet and rocket propelled aircraft, naval equipment, field radios, secret writing chemicals, aero medicine research, gliders, and "scientific and industrial personalities”.
When large numbers of German scientists began to be discovered in late April, Special Sections Subdivision set up the Enemy Personnel Exploitation Section to manage and interrogate them. Enemy Personnel Exploitation Section established a detention center, DUSTBIN, first in Paris and later in Kransberg Castle outside Frankfurt. The US Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) established the first secret recruitment program, called Operation Overcast, on July 20, 1945, initially "to assist in shortening the Japanese war and to aid our postwar military research". The term "Overcast" was the name first given by the German scientists' family members for the housing camp where they were held in Bavaria. In late summer 1945, the JCS established the JIOA, a subcommittee of the Joint Intelligence Community, to directly oversee Operation Overcast and later Operation Paperclip. The JIOA representatives included the army's director of intelligence, the chief of naval intelligence, the assistant chief of Air Staff-2 (air force intelligence), and a representative from the State Department. In November 1945, Operation Overcast was renamed Operation Paperclip by Ordnance Corps officers, who would attach a paperclip to the folders of those rocket experts whom they wished to employ in America.
In a secret directive circulated on September 3, 1946, President Truman officially approved Operation Paperclip and expanded it to include 1,000 German scientists under "temporary, limited military custody".
Osenberg List
In the later part of World War II, Germany was at a logistical disadvantage, having failed to conquer the USSR with Operation Barbarossa (June–December 1941), and its drive for the Caucasus (June 1942–February 1943). The failed conquest had depleted German resources, and its military-industrial complex was unprepared to defend the Greater Germanic Reich against the Red Army's westward counterattack. By early 1943, the German government began recalling from combat a number of scientists, engineers, and technicians; they returned to work in research and development to bolster German defense for a protracted war with the USSR. The recall from frontline combat included 4,000 rocketeers returned to Peenemünde, in northeast coastal Germany.
The Nazi government's recall of their now-useful intellectuals for scientific work first required identifying and locating the scientists, engineers, and technicians, then ascertaining their political and ideological reliability. Werner Osenberg, the engineer-scientist heading the Wehrforschungsgemeinschaft (Defense Research Association), recorded the names of the politically cleared men to the Osenberg List, thus reinstating them to scientific work.
In March 1945, at Bonn University, a Polish laboratory technician found pieces of the Osenberg List stuffed in a toilet; the list subsequently reached MI6, who transmitted it to U.S. Intelligence. Then U.S. Army Major Robert B. Staver, Chief of the Jet Propulsion Section of the Research and Intelligence Branch of the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps, used the Osenberg List to compile his list of German scientists to be captured and interrogated; Wernher von Braun, Germany's premier rocket scientist, headed Major Staver's list.
Identification
In Operation Overcast, Major Staver's original intent was only to interview the scientists, but what he learned changed the operation's purpose. On May 22, 1945, he transmitted to the U.S. Pentagon headquarters Colonel Joel Holmes' telegram urging the evacuation of German scientists and their families, as most "important for [the] Pacific war" effort. Most of the Osenberg List engineers worked at the Baltic coast German Army Research Center Peenemünde, developing the V-2 rocket. After capturing them, the Allies initially housed them and their families in Landshut, Bavaria, in southern Germany.
Beginning on July 19, 1945, the U.S. JCS managed the captured ARC rocketeers under Operation Overcast. However, when the "Camp Overcast" name of the scientists' quarters became locally known, the program was renamed Operation Paperclip in November 1945. Despite these attempts at secrecy, later that year the press interviewed several of the scientists.
Capture and detention
Early on, the United States created the Combined Intelligence Objectives Subcommittee (CIOS). This provided the information on targets for the T-Forces that went in and targeted scientific, military, and industrial installations (and their employees) for their know-how. Initial priorities were advanced technology, such as infrared, that could be used in the war against Japan; finding out what technology had been passed on to Japan; and finally to halt the research.
A project to halt the research was codenamed "Project Safehaven", and it was not initially targeted against the Soviet Union; rather the concern was that German scientists might emigrate and continue their research in countries such as Spain, Argentina or Egypt, all of which had sympathized with Nazi Germany. In order to avoid the complications involved with the emigration of German scientists, the CIOS was responsible for scouting and kidnapping high-profile individuals for the deprivation of technological advancements in nations outside of the US.
Much U.S. effort was focused on Saxony and Thuringia, which by July 1, 1945, would become part of the Soviet Occupation zone. Many German research facilities and personnel had been evacuated to these states, particularly from the Berlin area. Fearing that the Soviet takeover would limit U.S. ability to exploit German scientific and technical expertise, and not wanting the Soviet Union to benefit from said expertise, the United States instigated an "evacuation operation" of scientific personnel from Saxony and Thuringia, issuing orders such as:
By 1947 this evacuation operation had netted an estimated 1,800 technicians and scientists, along with 3,700 family members. Those with special skills or knowledge were taken to detention and interrogation centers, such as at Adlerhorst, Germany or one code-named DUSTBIN (located first in Paris and then moved to Kransberg Castle outside Frankfurt) to be held and interrogated, in some cases for months.
A few of the scientists were gathered as a part of Operation Overcast, but most were transported to villages in the countryside where there were neither research facilities nor work; they were provided stipends and forced to report twice weekly to police headquarters to prevent them from leaving. The Joint Chiefs of Staff directive on research and teaching stated that technicians and scientists should be released "only after all interested agencies were satisfied that all desired intelligence information had been obtained from them".
On November 5, 1947, the Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS), which had jurisdiction over the western part of occupied Germany, held a conference to consider the status of the evacuees, the monetary claims that the evacuees had filed against the United States, and the "possible violation by the US of laws of war or Rules of Land Warfare". The OMGUS director of Intelligence R. L. Walsh initiated a program to resettle the evacuees in the Third World, which the Germans referred to as General Walsh's "Urwald-Programm" (jungle program); however, this program never matured. In 1948, the evacuees received settlements of 69.5 million Reichsmarks from the U.S., a settlement that soon became severely devalued during the currency reform that introduced the Deutsche Mark as the official currency of western Germany.
John Gimbel concludes that the United States held some of Germany's best minds for three years, therefore depriving the German recovery of their expertise.
Arrivals
In May 1945, the U.S. Navy "received in custody" Herbert A. Wagner, the inventor of the Hs 293 missile; for two years, he first worked at the Special Devices Center, at Castle Gould and at Hempstead House, Long Island, New York; in 1947, he moved to the Naval Air Station Point Mugu.
In August 1945, Colonel Holger Toftoy, head of the Rocket Branch of the Research and Development Division of the U.S. Army's Ordnance Corps, offered initial one-year contracts to the rocket scientists; 127 of them accepted. In September 1945, the first group of seven rocket scientists (aerospace engineers) arrived at Fort Strong, located on Long Island in Boston harbor: Wernher von Braun, Erich W. Neubert, Theodor A. Poppel, William August Schulze, Eberhard Rees, Wilhelm Jungert, and Walter Schwidetzky.
Beginning in late 1945, three rocket-scientist groups arrived in the United States for duty at Fort Bliss, Texas, and at White Sands Proving Grounds, New Mexico, as "War Department Special Employees".
In 1946, the United States Bureau of Mines employed seven German synthetic fuel scientists at a Fischer–Tropsch chemical plant in Louisiana, Missouri.
On June 1, 1949, the Chief of Ordnance of the United States Army designated Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, as the Ordnance Rocket Center, its facility for rocket research and development. On April 1, 1950, the Fort Bliss missile development operation—including von Braun and his team of over 130 Paperclip members—was transferred to Redstone Arsenal.
In early 1950, legal U.S. residency for some of the Project Paperclip specialists was effected through the U.S. consulate in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, Mexico; thus, German scientists legally entered the United States from Latin America.
Between 1945 and 1952, the United States Air Force sponsored the largest number of Paperclip scientists, importing 260 men, of whom 36 returned to Germany and one (Walter Schreiber) reemigrated to Argentina.
Eighty-six aeronautical engineers were transferred to Wright Field, Ohio, where the United States had Luftwaffe aircraft and equipment captured under Operation Lusty (Luftwaffe Secret Technology).
The United States Army Signal Corps employed 24 specialists—including the physicists Georg Goubau, Gunter Guttwein, Georg Hass, Horst Kedesdy, and Kurt Lehovec; the physical chemists Rudolf Brill, Ernst Baars, and Eberhard Both; the geophysicist Helmut Weickmann; the optician Gerhard Schwesinger; and the engineers Eduard Gerber, Richard Guenther, and Hans Ziegler.
In 1959, 94 Operation Paperclip men went to the United States, including Friedwardt Winterberg and Friedrich Wigand.
Overall, through its operations to 1990, Operation Paperclip imported 1,600 men as part of the intellectual reparations owed to the US and the UK, valued at $10 billion in patents and industrial processes.
Major awards (in the United States)
The NASA Distinguished Service Medal is the highest award which may be bestowed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). After more than two decades of service and leadership in NASA, four Operation Paperclip members were awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1969: Kurt Debus, Eberhard Rees, Arthur Rudolph, and Wernher von Braun. Ernst Geissler was awarded the medal in 1973.
The Department of Defense Distinguished Civilian Service Award is the highest civilian award given by the United States Department of Defense. After two decades of service, Operation Paperclip member Siegfried Knemeyer was awarded the Department of Defense Distinguished Civilian Service Award in 1966.
The Goddard Astronautics Award is the highest honor bestowed for notable achievements in the field of astronautics by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). For their service, three Operation Paperclip members were awarded the Goddard Astronautics Award: Wernher von Braun (1961), Hans von Ohain (1967), and Krafft Arnold Ehricke (1984).
The U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama, owns and operates the U.S. Space Camp. Several Operation Paperclip members are members of the Space Camp Hall of Fame (which began in 2007): Wernher von Braun (2007), Georg von Tiesenhausen (2007), and Oscar Holderer (2008).
The New Mexico Museum of Space History includes the International Space Hall of Fame. Two Operation Paperclip members are members of the International Space Hall of Fame: Wernher von Braun (1976) and Ernst Steinhoff (1979). Hubertus Strughold was inducted in 1978 but removed as a member in 2006. Other closely related members include Willy Ley (1976), a German-American science writer, and Hermann Oberth (1976), a German scientist who advised von Braun's rocket team in the U.S. from 1955 to 1958.
Two lunar craters are named after Paperclip scientists: Debus after Kurt Debus, the first director of NASA's Kennedy Space Center, and von Braun.
Scientific accomplishments
Wernher von Braun was chief architect of the Saturn V launch vehicle, which enabled human missions to the moon.
Adolf Busemann was responsible for the swept wing, which improved aircraft performance at high speeds.
Controversy and investigations
Before his official approval of the program, President Truman, for sixteen months, was indecisive on the program. Years later in 1963, Truman recalled that he was not in the least reluctant to approve Paperclip; that because of relations with the Soviet Union "this had to be done and was done".
Several of the Paperclip scientists were later investigated because of their links with the Nazi Party during the war. Only one Paperclip scientist, Georg Rickhey, was formally tried for any crime, and no Paperclip scientist was found guilty of any crime, in America or Germany. Rickhey was returned to Germany in 1947 to stand at the Dora Trial, where he was acquitted.
In 1951, weeks after his U.S. arrival, Walter Schreiber was linked by the Boston Globe to human experiments conducted by Kurt Blome at Ravensbrück, and he emigrated to Argentina with the aid of the U.S. military.
In 1984, Arthur Rudolph, under perceived threat of prosecution relating to his connection—as operations director for V-2 missile production—to the use of forced labor from Mittelbau-Dora at the Mittelwerk, renounced his U.S. citizenship and moved to West Germany, which granted him citizenship.
For 50 years, from 1963 to 2013, the Strughold Award—named after Hubertus Strughold, The Father of Space Medicine, for his central role in developing innovations like the space suit and space life support systems—was the most prestigious award from the Space Medicine Association, a member organization of the Aerospace Medical Association. On October 1, 2013, in the aftermath of a Wall Street Journal article published on December 1, 2012, which highlighted his connection to human experiments during WW2, the Space Medicine Association's Executive Committee announced that the Space Medicine Association Strughold Award had been retired.
Key recruits
Advisors brought into the United States
Hermann Oberth
Aeronautics and rocketry
Hans Amtmann
Herbert Axster
Erich Ball
Oscar Bauschinger
Hermann Beduerftig
Rudi Beichel
Anton Beier
Herbert Bergeler
Magnus von Braun
Wernher von Braun
Ernst Czerlinsky
Walter Burose
Adolf Busemann
GN Constan
Werner Dahm
Konrad Dannenberg
Kurt H. Debus
Gerd De Beek
Walter Dornberger - head of rocket programme
Gerhard Drawe
Friedrich Duerr
Ernst R. G. Eckert
Otto Eisenhardt
Krafft Arnold Ehricke
Alfred Finzel
Edward Fischel
Karl Fleischer
Anton Flettner
Anselm Franz
Herbert Fuhrmann
Ernst Geissler
Werner Gengelbach
Dieter Grau
Hans Gruene
Herbert Guendel
Fritz Haber
Heinz Haber
Karl Hager
Guenther Haukohl
Karl Heimburg
Emil Hellebrand
Gerhard B. Heller
Bruno Helm
Rudolf Hermann
Bruno Heusinger
Hans Heuter
Guenther Hintze
Sighard F. Hoerner
Kurt Hohenemser
Oscar Holderer
Helmut Horn
Dieter Huzel
Walter Jacobi
Erich Kaschig
Ernst Klauss
Theodore Knacke
Siegfried Knemeyer
Heinz-Hermann Koelle
Gustav Kroll
Willi Kuberg
Werner Kuers
Hermann Kurzweg
Hermann Lange
Hans Lindenberg
Hans Lindenmayer
Alexander Martin Lippisch - aeronautical engineer
Robert Lusser
Hans Maus
Helmut Merk
Joseph Michel
Hans Milde
Heinz Millinger
Rudolf Minning
William Mrazek
Hans Multhopp
Erich Neubert
Hans von Ohain (designer of German jet engines)
Robert Paetz
Hans Palaoro
Kurt Patt
Hans Paul
Fritz Pauli
Arnold Peter
Helmuth Pfaff
Theodor Poppel
Werner Rosinski
Heinrich Rothe
Ludwig Roth
Arthur Rudolph
Edgar Schaeffer
Martin Schilling
Helmut Schlitt
Albert Schuler
August Schulze
Walter Schwidetzky
Ernst Steinhoff
Wolfgang Steurer
Heinrich Struck
Ernst Stuhlinger
Bernhard Tessmann
Adolf Thiel
Georg von Tiesenhausen
Werner Tiller
JG Tschinkel
Arthur Urbanski
Fritz Vandersee
Richard Vogt
Woldemar Voigt (designer of Messerschmitt P.1101)
Werner Voss
Theodor Vowe
Herbert A. Wagner
Hermann Rudolf Wagner
Hermann Weidner
Georg Rickhey - director of the slave labour Mittelwerk factory
Walter Fritz Wiesemann
Philipp Wolfgang Zettler-Seidel.
(see List of German rocket scientists in the US).
Architecture
Heinz Hilten and Hannes Luehrsen.
Electronics - including guidance systems, radar and satellites
Josef Boehm
Hans Fichtner
Hans Friedrich
Eduard Gerber
Georg Goubau
Walter Haeussermann
Otto Heinrich Hirschler
Otto Hoberg
Rudolf Hoelker
Hans Hollmann
Helmut Hölzer
Horst Kedesdy
Kurt Lehovec
Kurt Lindner
JW Muehlner
Fritz Mueller
Johannes Plendl
Fritz Karl Preikschat
Eberhard Rees
Gerhard Reisig
Harry Ruppe
Heinz Schlicke
Werner Sieber
Othmar Stuetzer
Albin Wittmann
Hugo Woerdemann
Albert Zeiler
Hans K. Ziegler
Material Science (high temperature)
Klaus Scheufelen and Rudolf Schlidt.
Medicine – including biological weapons, chemical weapons, and space medicine
, , Konrad Johannes Karl Büttner, Richard Lindenberg, , Walter Schreiber, Hubertus Strughold, Hans Georg Clamann, and Erich Traub.
Physics
Gunter Guttein, Gerhard Schwesinger, Gottfried Wehner, Helmut Weickmann, and Friedwardt Winterberg.
Chemistry and Chemical engineering
Helmut Pichler, Leonard Alberts, Ernst Donath, Josef Guymer , Hans Schappert, Max Josenhaus, Kurt Bretschneider , Erich Frese
Similar operations
APPLEPIE: Project to capture and interrogate key Wehrmacht, RSHA AMT VI, and General Staff officers knowledgeable of the industry and economy of the USSR.
DUSTBIN (counterpart of ASHCAN): An Anglo-American military intelligence operation established first in Paris, then in Kransberg Castle, at Frankfurt.
ECLIPSE (1944): An unimplemented Air Disarmament Wing plan for post-war operations in Europe for destroying V-1 and V-2 missiles.
Safehaven: US project within ECLIPSE meant to prevent the escape of Nazi scientists from Allied-occupied Germany.
Field Information Agency; Technical (FIAT): US Army agency for securing the "major, and perhaps only, material reward of victory, namely, the advancement of science and the improvement of production and standards of living in the United Nations, by proper exploitation of German methods in these fields"; FIAT ended in 1947, when Operation Paperclip began functioning.
On April 26, 1946, the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued JCS Directive 1067/14 to General Eisenhower instructing that he "preserve from destruction and take under your control records, plans, books, documents, papers, files and scientific, industrial and other information and data belonging to ... German organizations engaged in military research"; and that, excepting war-criminals, German scientists be detained for intelligence purposes as required.
National Interest/Project 63: Job placement assistance for Nazi engineers at Lockheed, Martin Marietta, North American Aviation, and other aeroplane companies, whilst American aerospace engineers were being laid off work.
Operation Alsos, Operation Big, Operation Epsilon, Russian Alsos: Soviet, American and British efforts to capture German nuclear secrets, equipment, and personnel.
Operation Backfire: A British effort at recovering rocket and aerospace technology, followed by assembling and testing rockets at Cuxhaven.
Fedden Mission: British mission to gain technical intelligence concerning advanced German aircraft and their propulsion systems.
Operation Lusty: US efforts to capture German aeronautical equipment, technology, and personnel.
Operation Osoaviakhim (sometimes transliterated as "Operation Ossavakim"), a Soviet counterpart of Operation Paperclip, involving German technicians, managers, skilled workers and their respective families who were relocated to the USSR in October 1946.
Operation Surgeon: British operation for denying German aeronautical expertise to the USSR, and for exploiting German scientists in furthering British research.
Special Mission V-2: April–May 1945 US operation, by Maj. William Bromley, that recovered parts and equipment for 100 V-2 missiles from a Mittelwerk underground factory in Kohnstein within the Soviet zone. Major James P. Hamill co-ordinated the transport of the equipment on 341 railroad cars with the 144th Motor Vehicle Assembly Company, from Nordhausen to Erfurt, just before the Soviets arrived. (See also Operation Blossom, Broomstick Scientists, Hermes project, Operations Sandy and Pushover)
Target Intelligence Committee: US project to exploit German cryptographers.
See also
Brain drain
Operation Osoaviakhim
Carmel Offie
Fort Bliss
List of Axis personnel indicted for war crimes
Moonglow – a 2016 novel by Michael Chabon, which features a subplot centering on Operation Paperclip
Operation Bloodstone
Operation Lusty – targeting advanced aircraft of the defeated Luftwaffe
Ratlines (World War II)
Unit 731 – Japanese human experimenters recruited for their biological weapons technology.
Upper Atmosphere Research Panel
Project MKNAOMI
Notes
References
Yves Beon, Planet Dora. Westview Press, 1997. .
Giuseppe Ciampaglia: "Come ebbe effettivo inizio a Roma l'Operazione Paperclip". Roma 2005. In: Strenna dei Romanisti 2005. Edit. Roma Amor
Henry Stevens, Hitler's Suppressed and Still-Secret Weapons, Science and Technology. Adventures Unlimited Press, 2007.
John Gimbel, "Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany" Stanford University Press, 1990
Linda Hunt, Arthur Rudolph of Dora and NASA, Moment 4, 1987 (Yorkshire Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament)
Linda Hunt, Secret Agenda:The United States Government, Nazi Scientists, and Project Paperclip, 1945 to 1990. St Martin's Press – Thomas Dunne Books, 1991.
Linda Hunt, U.S. Coverup of Nazi Scientists The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. April 1985.
Matthias Judt; Burghard Ciesla, Technology Transfer Out of Germany After 1945 Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996.
Michael C. Carroll, Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Germ Laboratory. Harper Paperbacks, 2005.
John Gimbel "U.S. Policy and German Scientists: The Early Cold War"], Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 101, No. 3 (1986), pp. 433–51
Clarence G., Lasby Project Paperclip: German Scientists and the Cold War Scribner (February 1975)
Christopher Simpson, Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988)
Wolfgang W. E. Samuel American Raiders: The Race to Capture the Luftwaffe's Secrets (University Press of Mississippi, 2004)
Koerner, Steven T. "Technology Transfer from Germany to Canada after 1945: A Study in Failure?". Comparative Technology Transfer and Society, Volume 2, Number 1, April 2004, pp. 99–124
John Farquharson "Governed or Exploited? The British Acquisition of German Technology, 1945–48" Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 32, No. 1 (January 1997), pp. 23–42
1995 Human Radiation Experiments Memorandum: Post-World War II Reccruitment of German Scientists – Project Paperclip
Employment of German scientists and technicians: denial policy UK National archives releases March 2006.
Dr. Wernher von Braun First Center Director, July 1, 1960 – Jan. 27, 1970. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center History Office. Retrieved December 31, 2017.
Further reading
Brian E. Crim. 2018. Our Germans: project paperclip and the national security state. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Eric Lichtblau (2014). [http://www.hmhco.com/shop/books/The-Nazis-Next-Door/9780544577886 The Nazis Next Door: How America Became a Safe Haven for Hitler's Men. Mariner Books.
Simpson, Christopher (1988). Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. .
External links
In Cold War, U.S. Spy Agencies Used 1,000 Nazis. Eric Lichtblau for The New York Times. October 26, 2014.
The Nazis Next Door: Eric Lichtblau on how the CIA & FBI Secretly Sheltered Nazi War Criminals – video report by Democracy Now!, October 31, 2014
Operation Paperclip
Brain drain
Aftermath of World War II in the United States
Allied occupation of Germany
Cold War history of the United States
German-American history
Office of Strategic Services
Research and development in Nazi Germany
Science and technology during World War II
Science in Nazi Germany
United States intelligence operations
World War II operations and battles of Europe
Wernher von Braun
American secret government programs | [
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|
255092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bea%20%28Dennis%20the%20Menace%29 | Bea (Dennis the Menace) | Beatrice "Bea" Menace is a fictional character from the British comic magazine The Beano. She was born in issue 2931 (introduced by David Parkins) and is the baby sister of Dennis the Menace. She appears frequently in her brother's comic strip, but would receive comic strips of her own to star in, including a crossover comic strip with Ivy the Terrible.
Physical appearance
Bea's appearance is extremely similar to her elder brother's in that she sports jet-black messy hair and a behind the nose grin. She is a toddler who wears a striped yellow and black onesie with a yellow hair band to match. After the 2009 re-launch of Dennis and Gnasher, eyelashes were added to her appearance and she became far more baby-like in not only looks but also personality.
David Parkins had always intended that the character would be called "Bea" (short for Beatrice), but the comic staff decided to put the name up for a reader vote. The readers seemed to agree with Parkins, as "Bea" won the vote by a nearly two-thirds majority. Dennis' Mum regularly shouts, "Bea! No!" whenever she misbehaves.
Publication history
Introduction to The Beano
As part of The Beano 65th anniversary, issue 2925 teased a "big surprise". Five issues later, Dennis' parents announced his mother was pregnant, making Dennis faint in shock, but ended on a cliffhanger as his mother went into labour and rushed to the nearby hospital. The front cover of the following issue showed Dennis' delighted father rushing out of the maternity ward to tell his son (and Gnasher) "It's a girl!" The story inside showed Dennis and Gnasher's worry that a little sister would mean constant crying, baby toys all over the house, and that she could grow up to be an ultra-feminine little girl obsessed with makeup and perfume, who over-occupies the bathroom. The final panels reveal he has nothing to worry about as Walter takes a family photo that shows Bea kicking her father in the mouth and spraying her mother with a milk bottle. She would later win the vote for naughtiest baby in Beanotown at a week old.
Solo stories
In issue 2935, Bea starred in Beaginnings drawn by Nigel Parkinson. It was about her misbehaviour at home, saying her first word ("mud") and playing with her older brother's pets. The title changed to Dennis's Little Sister Bea – the Mini-Menace from issue 3099, but was also known as Bea. She shares notable similarities with fellow Beano character, Ivy the Terrible, who, from August 2008, joined Bea in her strip, renamed Bea and Ivy. Nigel Parkinson continued as artist, as Ivy had been reprinted before the team up.
Bea's own strip returned for a few issues in 2009, however, this was dropped later that year, mainly due to her older brother's relaunch. In 2010 Bea joined up with Gnipper and Harley, Gran's pet pig, in a new strip titled The Bea Team, the title being a parody of The A-Team film which was released around the time the strip was in The Beano. In 2014, Bea returned to her strip drawn by Nigel Parkinson.
Subsequent appearances
Issue 2942 (5 December 1998) was a special issue dedicated to her, where she appeared in every strip in the comic.
Bea makes appearances in the CBBC series Dennis the Menace and Gnasher.
References
External links
on the official Beano website
DC Thomson Comics characters
Beano strips
Comics characters introduced in 1998
Child characters in comics
Gag-a-day comics
2014 comics debuts
Comics spin-offs
Fictional British people
Female characters in comics
Dennis the Menace and Gnasher | [
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]
|
255093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20ethics%20articles | Index of ethics articles | This Index of ethics articles puts articles relevant to well-known ethical (right and wrong, good and bad) debates and decisions in one place - including practical problems long known in philosophy, and the more abstract subjects in law, politics, and some professions and sciences. It lists also those core concepts essential to understanding ethics as applied in various religions, some movements derived from religions, and religions discussed as if they were a theory of ethics making no special claim to divine status.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
See also
Outline of ethics
Philosophy
Morality
Ethics lists
Ethics articles | [
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|
255099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FoxTrot | FoxTrot | FoxTrot is an American comic strip written and illustrated by Bill Amend. The strip launched on April 10, 1988, and it ran seven days a week until December 30, 2006. Since then, FoxTrot has strictly appeared on Sundays.
The strip revolves around the daily lives of the Fox family, composed of parents Andrea (Andy) and Roger, and their children, Peter, Paige, and Jason. It covers a wide range of subject matter, including spoofs of pop culture fads, nerd culture, and popular consumer products.
Publication history
Amend states that after he submitted strips for three years, in 1987 Universal Press Syndicate (UPS) offered him a contract.
FoxTrot was first syndicated by UPS on April 10, 1988.
On December 5, 2006, Universal Press Syndicate issued a press release stating that Amend's strip, FoxTrot, would turn into a Sunday-only strip. Amend stated that he wants to continue doing the strip, but at a less hurried pace. This news was followed by a week-long arc of the characters discussing a "cartoonist" semi-retiring to Sundays only, and what methods he would use to phase out the daily strips. The last daily strip was printed on December 30, 2006. At the end of its run as a daily comic, FoxTrot was carried by more than 1,200 newspapers worldwide. Since moving to one comic every week, Amend has said that it's harder to remain topical because Sunday's deadline is 30 days ahead of publication, compared with just 10-day deadlines the rest of the week. Amend and fellow cartoonist Stephan Pastis joked that Amend switched to a Sundays-only schedule "so he could spend 18 hours a day playing World of Warcraft."
Characters and story
FoxTrot centers on the daily lives of the Foxes, a suburban family, composed of father Roger, wife Andrea (Andy), and their children: Peter, Paige, and Jason, who live together in the same house. The Fox family lives in a suburban setting. Amend has said he has never specified where the Foxes live, and has shown them taking vacations to the desert, and various amusement parks and campgrounds. A couple of story arcs, however, have had the family visiting specified geographic locations such as Hawaii and the District of Columbia.
In addition to family humor, the strip has many stories built around fandom and popular culture. "Guests" in the strip have included The Lord of the Rings director Peter Jackson and former Apple CEO Steve Jobs.
Amend majored in physics at Amherst College, and his knowledge on the subject is sometimes reflected in FoxTrots frequent inclusion of complex mathematical or physics formulae, usually written by Jason, whom Amend described as "largely an exaggerated representation of [his] own geeky nature." Jason is also used to express Amend's knowledge of computer languages.
Additional characters include Jason's pet iguana Quincy; Jason's friend Marcus and his classmate Eileen Jacobson; Paige's friend Nicole and her classmate Morton Goldthwait; Peter's blind girlfriend, Denise, and his friend Steve; and other friends and classmates of the children and Roger's co-workers. Like many comic strips, FoxTrot employs a floating timeline "for specific reasons and to create specific dynamics between [Peter, Paige, and Jason]."
Books
The strips have been printed in forty-three different books, all by Andrews McMeel Publishing. Of the 43 books, 29 are collections and 14 are anthologies. The anthologies are composed of the two or three previous collections, and include Sunday strips in color.
Merchandising
During the late 1990s, the character of Jason Fox was licensed to Wolfram Research as a product spokesman for its Mathematica software package.
Self-censorship
A daily strip that ran on October 30, 1990 was the first of a series of Jason tampering with the family's answering machine. Originally having Jason saying "Hello, you've reached the Satan hotline" and going on to describe animal mutilations, Amend withdrew it from circulation and subsequent books as he received numerous complaints, then later admitted he felt it too depraved for a family-friendly comic. Subsequent reruns changed the tampered machine saying "First, a song, a hundred bottles of beer on the wall".
References
External links
FoxTrot syndication at Universal Uclick
FoxTrot at GoComics
comics
classics
1988 comics debuts
2006 comics endings
American comic strips
Comics about married people
Slice of life comics
Gag-a-day comics
Comics set in the United States
Comics set in the 1980s
Comics set in the 1990s
Comics set in the 2000s | [
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|
255100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stavka | Stavka | The Stavka () was the high command of the armed forces in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. In Imperial Russia Stavka refers to the administrative staff, and to the General Headquarters in the late 19th-century Imperial Russian armed forces and subsequently in the Soviet Union. In Western literature it is sometimes written in uppercase (STAVKA), although whether it is an acronym is a subject of debate. Stavka may refer to its members, as well as to the headquarters location (its original meaning from the old Russian word ставка, 'tent').
Stavka of the Supreme Commander during World War I
The commander-in-chief of the Russian army at the beginning of World War I was Grand Duke Nicholas Nicholaievitch, a grandson of Tsar Nicholas I. Appointed at the last minute in August 1914, he played no part in formulating the military plans in use at the beginning of the war. Nikolai Yanushkevich was his chief of staff. In the summer of 1915 the Tsar himself took personal command, with Mikhail Alekseyev as his chief of staff. In the years 1915–1917 Stavka was based in Mogilev and the Tsar, Nicholas II, spent long periods there as Commander-in-Chief.
The Stavka was divided into several departments:
Department of General-Quartermaster (Operations department)
Department of General on Duty (Organisation of troops, supplies, promotions, staff matters)
Department of military transportations
Naval department
Diplomatic chancery (liaison with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs)
The Stavka was first established in Baranovichi. In August 1915, after the German advance, the Stavka re-located to Mogilev.
Chiefs of staff
19 July 1914 – 18 August 1915: Lieutenant-General (from 22 October 1914, General of Infantry) Nikolai Yanushkevich
18 September 1915 – 1 Abril 1917: General of Infantry (from 1916 adjutant General) Mikhail Alekseyev
10 November 1916 – 17 February 1917: General of Cavalry Vasily Gurko
11 March 1917 – 5 April 1917: General of Infantry Vladislav Klembovsky
5 April 1917 – 31 May 1917: Lieutenant-General Anton Denikin
2 June 1917 – 30 August 1917: Lieutenant-General Alexander Lukomsky
30 August 1917 – 9 September 1917: General of Infantry Mikhail Alekseyev
10 October 1917 – 3 November 1917: Lieutenant-General Nikolay Dukhonin
3 November 1917 – 7 November 1917: Major General Mikhail Dieterichs
7 November 1917 – February 1918: Major General Mikhail Bonch-Bruevich
Stavka of the Red Army during World War II
The Stavka of the Soviet Armed Forces during World War II, or the headquarters of the "Main Command of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (Stavka Glavnogo Komandovaniya) (), was established on 23 June 1941 by a top-secret decree signed by Joseph Stalin in his capacities both as the head of government and as the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. According to this decree, Stavka was composed of the defence minister Marshal Semyon Timoshenko (as its president), the head of General Staff Georgy Zhukov, Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Marshal Kliment Voroshilov, Marshal Semyon Budyonny and the People's Commissar (Narkom) of the Navy Admiral Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov.
The same decree organized at Stavka "the institution of permanent counsellors of Stavka": Marshal Kulik, Marshal Shaposhnikov, Kirill Meretskov, head of the Air force Zhigarev, Nikolay Vatutin, head of Air Defence Voronov, Mikoyan, Kaganovich, Lavrenty Beria, Voznesensky, Zhdanov, Malenkov, Mekhlis.
Very soon afterwards, the deputy defence minister of the army, Meretskov, was arrested following false charges made by Beria and Merkulov. Meretskov was subsequently released from jail on the same day, at the end of the first week of September 1941, which was called for by Stalin.
Stavka's Main Command was reorganized into the Stavka of the Supreme Command (Stavka Verkhovnogo Komandovaniya) on 10 July 1941. This action occurred after Stalin was named Supreme Commander, and replaced Timoshenko as head of Stavka. On 8 August 1941 it was again reorganized into Stavka of the Supreme Main Command (Stavka Verkhovnogo Glavnokomandovaniya).
On the same day Strategic Directions commands were instituted.
A 17 February 1945 decree set out the membership of Stavka as Stalin (President), Zhukov, Aleksandr Vasilevsky, Aleksei Antonov, Nikolai Bulganin and Kuznetsov.
See also
General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
References
Military of Russia
Military of the Soviet Union
Staff (military) | [
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|
255102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambic | Lambic | Lambic () is a type of beer brewed in the Pajottenland region of Belgium southwest of Brussels and in Brussels itself since the 13th century. Types of lambic beers include gueuze, kriek lambic and framboise. Lambic differs from most other beers in that it is fermented through exposure to wild yeasts and bacteria native to the Zenne valley, as opposed to exposure to carefully cultivated strains of brewer's yeast. This process gives the beer its distinctive flavour: dry, vinous, and cidery, often with a tart aftertaste.
Etymology
The name "lambic" is first mentioned in 1794 as "allambique". The initial 'a' was dropped early on, so that in an 1811 advert it was called "lambicq", though it was sometimes referred to as 'alambic' as late as 1829. The name therefore likely stems from the alembic, a still used for producing jenever. Probably the beer was considered to have characteristics akin to spirits (like its yellow colour, its clarity and above-average alcohol content). Because of the original form "allambique", other explanations, such as that it was derived from Lembeek, a municipality near Halle, Belgium, seem less likely.
Brewing
Lambic is generally brewed from a grist containing approximately 60–70% barley malt and 30–40% unmalted wheat. The wort is cooled overnight in a shallow, flat metal pan (generally copper or stainless steel) called a coolship where it is left exposed to the open air so more than 120 different types of microorganisms may inoculate the wort. This cooling process requires night-time temperatures between -8C (18F) and 8C (46F). While this cooling method of open air exposure is a critical feature of the style, the key yeasts and bacteria that perform the fermentation reside within the breweries' timber fermenting vessels. Over eighty microorganisms have been identified in lambic beer, the most significant being Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces pastorianus and Brettanomyces bruxellensis. The process is generally only possible between October and May as in the summer months there are too many unfavourable organisms in the air that could spoil the beer. In Brussels dialect, lambic produced after this traditional brewing season is referred to as bezomerd, meaning that it has had "too much summer". Climate change is further shortening this limited brewing window: in the early 1900s, lambic brewers enjoyed roughly 165 days a year in the ideal temperature range, whereas by 2018 that number has shrunk to 140.
Since at least the 11th century, and probably earlier, hops have been used in beer for their natural preservative qualities as well as for the pleasant bitterness, flavour, and aroma they impart. Since the method of inoculation and long fermentation time of lambic beers increases the risk of spoilage, lambic brewers use large amounts of hops for their antibacterial properties. Lambic in the early 19th century was a highly hopped beer, using 8–9 g/l of the locally grown Aalst or Poperinge varieties. Modern lambic brewers, however, try to avoid making the beer extremely hop forward and utilise aged, dry hops which have lost much of their bitterness, aroma and flavour. Consequently, lambics often have a strong, cheese-like, "old hop" aroma, in contrast to the resiny, herbal, earthy hop bitterness found in other styles. The favourite hop used for lambic in the nineteenth century was a variety called Coigneau which was cultivated in the Aalst-Asse area in Belgium.
After the fermentation process starts, the lambic is siphoned into barrels, mostly old port wine or sherry barrels (of chestnut or oak) from Portugal or Spain. Some brewers prefer used wine barrels. The lambic is left to ferment and mature for one or several years. It forms a velo de flor of yeast that gives some protection from oxidation, in a similar way to vin jaune and sherry; the barrels are not topped up.
Types of lambic and derived beers
Lambic is usually a blend of at least two different beers; many producers are blenders who buy beer from other brewers and blend them together to create the desired result. A gueuze may have occupied space in several different cellars over six years or more. While those outside Belgium are likely to find bottled gueuze and fruited versions, a wider variety of styles is available to local drinkers. Beers are often blended again or sweetened with sugar or flavoured syrups before drinking as some can be extremely tart. Most, if not all, of the varieties listed below have Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG) status. This status does not specify that a product has a link to specific geographical area.
Unblended lambic
Unblended lambic is a cloudy, uncarbonated, bracingly sour beverage that is rarely available on tap. Draught releases are generally regarded as either jonge (young) or oude (old), depending on age and discretion of the brewer. Bottled offerings from Cantillon and De Cam can be found outside Belgium.
Gueuze
A mixture of young (one-year-old) and old (two- and three-year-old) lambics that have been bottled. Because the young lambics are not yet fully fermented, it undergoes secondary fermentation in the bottle and produces carbon dioxide. A gueuze will be given a year to carbonate in the bottle, but can be kept for 10–20 years.
Mars
Mars traditionally referred to a weaker beer made from the second runnings of a lambic brewing. It is no longer commercially produced. In the 1990s, Boon Brewery made a modern Mars beer called Lembeek's 2% (the 2% referring to the alcohol content), but it is now only produced for use of Tilquin as a component of their keg beers.
Faro
Historically, a low-alcohol, sweetened beer made from a blend of lambic and a much lighter, freshly brewed beer to which brown sugar (or sometimes caramel or molasses) was added. The fresh beer was referred to as meertsbier, and was not necessarily a lambic. Sometimes herbs were added as well. The use of meertsbier (or water) and of substandard lambic in the blend made this a cheap, light, sweet drink for everyday consumption. The 19th century French poet Charles Baudelaire commented on faro's disagreeable aftertaste, "It's beer that you drink twice", believing that the Faro in Brussels was brewed from the waters of a river (the Senne or Zenne) that was also used as a sewer.
The sugar was originally added shortly before serving, and therefore did not add carbonation or alcohol to the beverage, as the sugar did not have the time to ferment. Modern faro beer is still characterized by the use of brown sugar and lambic, but is not always a light beer. The use of meertsbier has disappeared, and modern faro is not viewed as cheap or light. Today, faro is bottled, sweetened, and pasteurized to prevent refermentation in the bottle. Examples are produced by Cantillon, Boon, Oud Beersel, Lindemans or Mort Subite.
Kriek
Lambic refermented in the presence of sour cherries (usually the morello variety, or a bitter variety known as the Schaarbeek cherry) and with secondary fermentation in the bottle results in kriek. Traditional versions of kriek are dry and sour, just as traditional gueuze.
Fruit
Lambic may be made with the addition of raspberry (framboise), peach (pêche), blackcurrant (cassis), grape (druif), or strawberry (aardbei), as either whole fruit or syrup. Other, rarer fruit lambic flavorings include apple (pomme), banana (banane), pineapple (ananas), apricot (abricot), plum (prune), cloudberry (plaquebière), lemon (citron), and blueberry (myrtille). Fruit lambics are usually bottled with secondary fermentation. Although fruit lambics are among the most famous Belgian fruit beers, the use of names such as kriek, framboise or frambozen, cassis, etc. does not necessarily imply that the beer is made from lambic. The fruit beers produced by the Liefmans Brewery, for example, use an oud bruin, rather than a lambic as a base.
Many of the non-traditional fruit beers derived from lambic that were commercialized in the last decades are considered to be low quality products by many beer enthusiasts. These products are typically artificially sweetened, artificially carbonated, sterilized, and based on syrups instead of whole fruit.
Belgian producers
Lambic beers are only produced near Brussels due to that region's natural microflora. The number of producers, which numbered more than 300 in 1900, has shrunk drastically throughout the 20th century. Lambic production is generally sanctioned and promoted by HORAL.
Breweries
This is a list of Wikipedia articles on Belgian breweries that produce lambic.
Belle-Vue, owned by AB InBev (sweetened, except Sélection lambic), Sint-Pieters-Leeuw
Boon (traditional), Lembeek
Cantillon (traditional), Brussels
Mort Subite, owned by Heineken, (sweetened, except Gueuze Fond), Kobbegem
Girardin (traditional), Sint-Ulriks-Kapelle
Lindemans Brewery (sweetened – except Cuvée René), Vlezenbeek
Timmermans (sweetened, except "Traditional" line), Itterbeek
Van Honsebrouck produce St. Louis beers (sweetened, except Gueuze Fond Tradition) located outside of the Zenne valley, in Ingelmunster
3 Fonteinen (traditional), Beersel
Brussels Beer Project (traditional), Brussels
Blenders
Tilquin (traditional), Rebecq
De Cam (traditional), Gooik
Hanssens Artisanaal (traditional), Dworp
Oud Beersel, brewed by Boon, (traditional), Beersel
See also
HORAL (High Council for Artisanal Lambic Beers)
Sour beer
Barrel-aged beer
References
Further reading
H. Verachtert, Lambic and gueuze brewing: mixed cultures in action, Foundation Biotechnical and Industrial Fermentation research, Vol. 7 Finland pp. 243–263.
Jean-Xavier Guinard, Classic Beerstyle Series nr. 3, Lambic, Brewers Publications, a division of the Association of Brewers (1990).
Dirk Van Oevelen, Microbiology and biochemistry of the natural wort fermentation in the production of Lambic and gueuze, PhD Thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium (1979)
Tim Webb, Chris Pollard, and Joris Pattyn. LambicLand/LambikLand.
Jeff Sparrow, Wildbrews: Beer Beyond the Influence of Brewer's yeast, Brewers Publications, a division of the Association of Brewers (2005).
External links
EU Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG) status of lambic
Belgian lambic beer listing
Official website of HORAL
Beer styles
Types of beer
Beer in Belgium
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|
255104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy%20Spungen | Nancy Spungen | Nancy Laura Spungen (; February 27, 1958 – October 12, 1978) was an American amateur music journalist , most famously known for being the former manager and girlfriend of English musician Sid Vicious. Nancy has been named a significant figure of the 1970s punk rock scene.
Raised Jewish in Philadelphia, Spungen was an emotionally disturbed child who was diagnosed with schizophrenia at age 15. After being expelled from college, she flew to London in December 1976 at the height of the punk rock movement and became involved with Vicious. Their relationship was punctuated by bouts of domestic violence and drug abuse. The press soon labelled Spungen "Nauseating Nancy" for her outrageous and frequently antisocial behavior. After the Sex Pistols disbanded, the couple moved to New York City and checked into the Hotel Chelsea, where they spent much of their time using drugs, especially heroin.
In October 1978, Spungen was found dead in the bathroom of the couple's room, with a single stab wound to the abdomen. Vicious was charged with her murder, but died of a heroin overdose while on bail in February 1979 before the case went to trial. Various authors and filmmakers have speculated about Vicious' role in Spungen's death and the possibility that Spungen was killed by a drug dealer who frequently visited their room.
Early life
Nancy Laura Spungen was born on February 27, 1958, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at the University of Pennsylvania Hospital, to Franklin "Frank" (1934–2010) and Deborah Spungen (born 1937). She was born with severe cyanosis and nearly died of oxygen deprivation after being choked by her umbilical cord during delivery. Spungen appeared to have suffered no brain damage and was released from the hospital eight days after birth. The Spungens were a middle-class Jewish family that resided in Lower Moreland Township, a suburb of Philadelphia. Spungen's father was a traveling salesman and her mother later owned an organic food store called The Earth Shop in nearby Jenkintown.
Young Nancy was a difficult baby, throwing crying fits and temper tantrums late into childhood. At three months old, she was prescribed a liquid barbiturate by a pediatrician, but her violent behavior persisted. In an interview, Spungen's mother stated, "I know it's normal for babies to scream, but Nancy did nothing but scream." Though she excelled academically, she had few friends during her elementary school years.
Spungen was a temperamental child who exhibited violent behavior toward her younger sister Susan but was very caring toward her younger brother David. She allegedly threatened to kill a babysitter with scissors and attempted to batter her psychiatrist, who accused her of "acting out" for attention. At age 11, Spungen was expelled from public school when she went absent from class for more than two weeks. Weary of her erratic behavior, Spungen's parents enrolled her at Devereux Glenholme School in Connecticut and at Devereux Manor High School in Pennsylvania. In January 1972, Spungen ran away from Devereux Manor and attempted suicide by slitting her wrists with scissors. When she was 15, her psychiatrist diagnosed her with schizophrenia.
Education
Spungen graduated from Lakeside High School in April 1974, two weeks after her application to attend the University of Colorado Boulder was accepted. She began attending the university at 16, but five months into her freshman year she was arrested for purchasing marijuana from an undercover police officer. When she was later arrested for storing stolen property in her dorm room, the University of Colorado decided to expel her. Spungen's father traveled to Boulder and accepted a plea bargain for her, which resulted in her being banished from the state of Colorado.
Relationship with Sid Vicious
Spungen left home at 17 and moved to New York City, where she supported herself for a time with sex work, amateur music journalism, and odd jobs at clothing stores. In her free time, she became a groupie and followed rock bands such as Aerosmith, Bad Company, The New York Dolls, and the Ramones. In 1977, Spungen flew to London with The Heartbreakers and met Sex Pistols, who later included bassist Sid Vicious; Spungen and Vicious soon moved in together.
During their tumultuous nineteen-month relationship, Spungen and Vicious (who was already abusing multiple drugs before meeting Spungen) became addicted to heroin. The tabloids dubbed Spungen "Nauseating Nancy" for her frequent public outbursts. After Sex Pistols broke up in January 1978, Spungen and Vicious eventually moved to Hotel Chelsea in New York City. They stayed in room 100, registered as "Mr. and Mrs. John Simon Ritchie", Vicious' real name.
Death
Over the next two months, Vicious and Spungen spiraled into deeper drug abuse. On October 12, 1978, Spungen's body was found under the sink in the bathroom of their room at the Hotel Chelsea. She had suffered a single fatal stab wound to the abdomen. It was long rumored that Vicious owned the knife that inflicted the injury, a "007" hunting knife that he had obtained after seeing Dee Dee Ramone give one to the Dead Boys' Stiv Bators, but the police report notes that the knife is a Jaguar Wilderness K-11 with a blade.
Vicious was immediately arrested and charged with second-degree murder. He pleaded not guilty and was released on bail, though he shared conflicting stories of the night Spungen died. Four months after her death, Vicious died of a heroin overdose before the trial could take place and the New York City Police Department closed the case.
Spungen was buried in the King David Memorial Park in Bensalem Township, Pennsylvania.
Aftermath
There are several theories that implicate someone other than Vicious in Spungen's murder, such as one of the two drug dealers who had visited the apartment that night, and that suggest that a robbery was involved, as certain items (including a substantial bankroll) were claimed to be missing from the room. In his book Pretty Vacant: A History of Punk, Phil Strongman accuses actor and stand-up comic Rockets Redglare of killing Spungen; Redglare had delivered drugs to the couple's room at the Hotel Chelsea on the night of Spungen's death.
Throughout his life, Redglare, who died in 2001, steadfastly denied any involvement in Spungen's murder to the press, but often "confessed" to the murder within his circle of friends, to mixed reaction. Friends such as Zoe Hansen took Redglare at his word, but others, including Howie Pyro, have cast doubt on his claims, insisting that he enjoyed telling exaggerated stories for attention. Redglare also told the press that he believed that a drug dealer whom he had seen in the lobby of the Hotel Chelsea on the morning of Spungen's murder committed the crime.
In other media
"Horror Business", a 1979 song by the American punk rock band Misfits was inspired by Spungen's murder with song's lyrics, which include lines such as, "You don't go in the bathroom with me" and, "I'll put a knife right in you". Prior to Vicious's death, the Misfits were rumored to back Vicious on his proposed debut solo album. Additionally, Misfits bassist Jerry Only attended a dinner gathering at the apartment of Vicious' girlfriend Michelle Robinson the night that Vicious died.
Spungen's mother Deborah wrote the memoir And I Don't Want to Live This Life (1983). Its title is taken from a poem Vicious wrote.
The British biopic Sid and Nancy (1986), directed by Alex Cox, portrays the life of Vicious (played by Gary Oldman) and his relationship with Spungen (played by Chloe Webb). Critics praised Webb's performance as Spungen. In the film, Cox also put forth the theory that Spungen and Vicious had a suicide pact, but they got into an argument when Vicious reneged. The argument escalated when Spungen assaulted Vicious, who was trying to leave the apartment, and as portrayed in the film she was stabbed accidentally when she charged him while his knife was out.
Veronica Schanoes' story "Rats" appeared in the 2007 Interstitial Arts Foundation anthology Interfictions. The story is a punk rock fairytale inspired by Spungen's life. About her work, the author said: "I wrote 'Rats' because I was angry with the way the recent coffee-table histories of punk seem to have no problem demonizing a dead, mentally ill, teenage girl."
Alan G. Parker directed the 2010 documentary film Who Killed Nancy?, which includes interviews with Vicious and Spungen's associates, including John Holmstrom, Don Letts, Glen Matlock, and Howie Pyro.
References
Sources
External links
1958 births
1978 deaths
1978 murders in the United States
20th-century American people
20th-century American women
American female erotic dancers
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American people with disabilities
American prostitutes
Burials in Pennsylvania
Deaths by stabbing in New York (state)
Drug dealers
Female murder victims
Groupies
Jewish dancers
Jews in punk rock
Murdered American Jews
Sex workers murdered in the United States
People from Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
People from Philadelphia
People murdered in New York City
People with schizophrenia
Sex Pistols
University of Colorado Boulder alumni
Women in punk | [
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|
255109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth%20%28automobile%29 | Plymouth (automobile) | Plymouth was a brand of automobiles produced by Chrysler Corporation and its successor DaimlerChrysler. The brand was launched in 1928 to compete in what was then described as the "low-priced" market segment that was dominated by Chevrolet and Ford. It became the high-volume seller for the automaker until the late 1990s. Plymouth cars were marketed primarily in the United States. The brand was withdrawn from the marketplace in 2001. The Plymouth models that were produced up to then were either discontinued or rebranded as Chrysler or Dodge.
History
Origins
The Plymouth automobile was introduced at Madison Square Garden on July 7, 1928. It was Chrysler Corporation's first entry in the low-priced field previously dominated by Chevrolet and Ford. Plymouths were initially priced higher than the competition, but offered standard features such as internal expanding hydraulic brakes that Ford and Chevrolet did not provide. Plymouths were originally sold exclusively through Chrysler dealerships, offering a low-cost alternative to the upscale Chrysler-brand cars, listing the 4-door 5-passenger Touring sedan at US$695 ($ in dollars ). The logo featured a rear view of the ship Mayflower which landed at Plymouth Rock in Plymouth, Massachusetts. However, the inspiration for the Plymouth brand name came from Plymouth binder twine, produced by the Plymouth Cordage Company, also of Plymouth. The name was chosen by Joe Frazer due to the popularity of the twine among farmers.
The origins of Plymouth can be traced back to the Maxwell automobile. When Walter P. Chrysler took over control of the troubled Maxwell-Chalmers car company in the early 1920s, he inherited the Maxwell as part of the package. After he used the company's facilities to help create and launch the six-cylinder Chrysler automobile in 1924, he decided to create a lower-priced companion car, using lessons learned when he was running Buick under William Durant at GM. So for 1926, the Maxwell was reworked and rebadged as the low-end four-cylinder Chrysler "52" model. In 1928, the "52" was once again redesigned to create the Chrysler-Plymouth Model Q, although print advertisements called it "Plymouth" and didn't mention engine size or model designation. The "Chrysler" portion of the nameplate was dropped with the introduction of the Plymouth Model U in 1929.
Great Depression, 1930s–1940s
While the original purpose of the Plymouth was to serve the lower end of a booming automobile market, during the Great Depression of the 1930s the division helped significantly in ensuring the survival of the Chrysler Corporation when many other car companies failed. Beginning in 1930, Plymouths were sold by all three Chrysler divisions (Chrysler, DeSoto, and Dodge). Plymouth sales were a bright spot during this dismal automotive period, and by 1931 Plymouth rose to number three in sales among all cars. In 1931 with the Model PA, the company introduced floating power and boasted, "The smoothness of an eight – the economy of a four."
In 1933, Chrysler decided to catch up with Ford, Chevrolet and Pontiac in engine cylinder count. The version of Chrysler's flathead-six engine was equipped with a downdraft carburetor and installed in the new 1933 Plymouth PC, introduced on November 17, 1932. However, Chrysler had reduced the PC's wheelbase from , and the car sold poorly. By April 1933, the Dodge division's Model DP chassis, with a wheelbase, was put under the PC body with DP front fenders, hood, and radiator shell. The model designation was advanced to 'PD'. The PC was redesigned to look similar to the PD and became the 'Standard Six' (PCXX). It had been the 'Plymouth Six' at the introduction and was sold through to the end of 1933, but in much lower numbers. In 1937, Plymouth (along with the other Chrysler makes) added safety features such as flat dash boards with recessed controls and the back of the front seat padded for the rear seat occupants
The PC was shipped overseas to Sweden, Denmark, and the UK, as well as Australia. In the UK, it was sold as a 'Chrysler Kew', the town of Kew being the location of the Chrysler factory in a district in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. The flathead six which started with the 1933 Model PC stayed in the Plymouth until the 1959 models.
In 1939, Plymouth produced 417,528 vehicles, of which 5,967 were two-door convertible coupes with rumble seats. The 1939 convertible coupe was prominently featured at Chrysler's exhibit at the 1939 New York World's Fair, advertised as the first mass-production convertible with a power folding top. It featured a , version of the flathead six engine.
For much of its life, Plymouth was one of the top-selling American automobile brands; it, together with Chevrolet and Ford, was commonly referred to as the "low-priced three" marques in the American market. Plymouth almost surpassed Ford in 1940 and 1941 as the second-most popular make of automobiles in the U.S.
1950s
In 1957, Virgil Exner's new Forward Look design theme, advertised by Plymouth with the tagline "Suddenly, it's 1960", produced cars with advanced styling compared to Chevrolet or Ford. The 1957 total production soared to 726,009, about 200,000 more than 1956, and the largest output yet for Plymouth. However, the 1957–1958 Forward Look models suffered from poor materials, spotty build quality, and inadequate corrosion protection; they were rust-prone and greatly damaged Chrysler's reputation.
In 1954, Chrysler started its decade-long unsuccessful attempt to develop and market a viable car powered by a turbine engine when it installed an experimental turbine developed specifically for road vehicles in a Plymouth. The car was a Belvedere two-door hardtop.
In 1956, Plymouth introduced the Fury, a "halo" model in the Belvedere series that featured a high performance 240-hp 303 cubic inch V8, and gold-anodized trim on a body available in Eggshell White only and limited to the two-door hardtop. The Fury continued to be a special, high-end car until 1959, when it replaced the Belvedere as the de luxe series, available in hardtops, convertible and sedans. 1957 and '58 Furys were painted in Buckskin Beige, replacing Eggshell White as the only available exterior color. Optional equipment included air conditioning, automatic transmission, power steering and brakes. In 1959, a special Sport Fury was available as the "special" sporty Plymouth.
1960s
Although Plymouth sales suffered as a result of the quality control problems and excesses of the Exner-styled models in the early 1960s, people bought enough of the cars to keep the division profitable. Starting in 1961, the Valiant compact became a Plymouth, further boosting sales. Under the impression that Chevrolet was about to "downsize" its 1962 models, Chrysler introduced a significantly smaller standard Plymouth for 1962. As is known, Chevrolet's big cars were not downsized, catching Plymouth in a sales slump in a market where "bigger was better". The 1963 Fury, Belvedere, and Savoy were slightly larger, featuring a totally new body style, highlighted by prominent outboard front parking lights. For 1964, Plymouth got another major restyle, featuring a new "slantback" roofline for hardtop coupes that would prove popular.
For 1965, the Plymouth Fury models were built on the new C-body platform. The Savoy line was discontinued and the Belvedere was classified as an intermediate, retaining the B-body platform used starting 1962. The low-end series was Fury I, the mid-level model was Fury II, and the higher-end models were Fury IIIs. The Sport Fury, which featured bucket seats and a console shifter, was a mix of luxury and sport. Ford and Chevrolet had introduced luxury editions of their big cars for 1965 and Plymouth responded with the 1966 Sport Fury with a 383 CID and the VIP was introduced as a more luxurious version of the Fury. Furys, Belvederes, and Valiants continued to sell well during the late-1960s and early-1970s. While Fury I and Fury II were only available in the U.S. as sedans, Fury II was available as a two-door hardtop in addition to the pillared sedans in Canada.
The performance car market segment expanded during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The 1964 Barracuda fastback is considered the first of Plymouth's sporty cars. Based on the Valiant, it was available with the Slant Six, or small block V8. For 1967, Plymouth introduced the Belvedere GTX, a bucket-seat high-style hardtop coupe and convertible that could be ordered with either the "Super Commando" or Hemi V8 engines. Looking for an advantage at the drag races, 1968 had a stripped-down Belvedere coupe, the Road Runner, which featured a bench seat and minimal interior and exterior trim, but was available with Chrysler's big-block engines and a floor-mounted four-speed manual transmission. The Barracuda, originally a "compact sporty car", became available with the 426 Hemi and 440 big-block engines in 1968. The GTX, Barracuda, Road Runner, Sport Fury GT, and Valiant Duster 340, were marketed by Plymouth as the 'Rapid Transit System', which was similar to Dodge's 'Scat Pack' concept. During this time, the brand also competed in professional automobile racing. Examples include Richard Petty's career with Plymouth in NASCAR; Dan Gurney, who raced a 'Cuda as part of the All American Racers in numerous Trans Am events; and Sox and Martin, one of the most well-known drag-racing teams of the period, only raced Plymouths after 1964.
1970s
By the 1970s, emissions and safety regulations, along with soaring gasoline prices and an economic downturn, meant demand dropped for all muscle-type models. As with other American vehicles of the time, there was a progressive decrease in the Barracuda's performance. To meet increasingly stringent safety and exhaust emission regulations, big-block engine options were discontinued. The remaining engines were detuned year by year to reduce exhaust emissions, which also reduced their power output. There was also an increase in weight as bumpers became larger and, starting in 1970, E-body doors were equipped with heavy steel side-impact protection beams. Higher fuel prices and performance-car insurance surcharges deterred many buyers as the interest in high-performance cars waned. Sales of pony cars were on the decline. Sales had dropped dramatically after 1970, and while 1973 showed a sales uptick, Barracuda production ended 1 April 1974, ten years to the day after it had begun.
The redesign for the 1970 Barracuda removed all its previous commonality with the Valiant. The original fastback design was deleted from the line and the Barracuda now consisted of coupe and convertible models. The all-new model, styled by John E. Herlitz, was built on a shorter, wider version of Chrysler's existing B platform, called the E-body. Sharing this platform was the newly launched Dodge Challenger; however no exterior sheet metal interchanged between the two cars, and the Challenger, at , had a wheelbase that was longer than the Barracuda.
The E-body Barracuda was now "able to shake the stigma of 'economy car'." Three versions were offered for 1970 and 1971: the base Barracuda (BH), the luxury oriented Gran Coupe (BP), and the sport model 'Cuda (BS). Beginning mid-year 1970, and ending with the 1971 model, there also was the Barracuda Coupe (A93), a low-end model that included the Slant Six as a base engine, lower-grade interior, and (like other Coupe series Chrysler Corp. offered that year) had fixed quarter glass instead of roll-down rear passenger windows. The high-performance models were marketed as 'Cuda deriving from the 1969 option. The E-body's engine bay was larger than that of the previous A-body, facilitating the release of Chrysler's Hemi for the regular retail market.
For 1970 and 1971, the Barracuda and Barracuda Gran Coupe had two six-cylinder engines available — a new version of the slant-6, and the 225 — as well as three different V8s: a , as well as a with two-barrel carburetor and single exhaust and with four-barrel carburetor and dual exhaust producing SAE gross. The Cuda had the 383ci SAE gross (same as Dodge's 383 Magnum) as the standard engine. Optional were the with four-barrel carburetor "Super Commando" or the six-barrel "Super Commando Six Pak" as well as the Hemi. The 440- and Hemi-equipped cars received upgraded suspension components and structural reinforcements to help transfer the power to the road.
In 1970 the power plant options offered to the customer were:
275 hp (200 kW) SAE gross in the 340-4V.
SAE gross in the high performance 383-4V,
SAE gross in the 440-4V,
SAE gross in the 440-6V, and
SAE gross in the 426-8V.
Other Barracuda options included decal sets, hood modifications, and unusual "high impact" colors.
The compact Valiant sold well and built a reputation for attractive styling, durability, economy, and value. Although the Valiant hardtop was discontinued for 1967, it was reintroduced as a virtual clone of the Dodge Dart Swinger for 1971 under the model name "Valiant Scamp". The Scamp was produced along with the Valiant, Dodge Dart, and Swinger until 1976, when it was replaced with the Volaré. Featuring transverse-mounted torsion bars and a slightly larger body, the Volaré (and its Dodge twin, the Aspen) was an instant sales success. Available as coupe, sedan, or station wagon, the Volaré offered a smoother ride and better handling than the Dart/Valiant, but suffered quality control problems and by 1980, was selling poorly.
Realizing that front-wheel drive, four-cylinder engines, and rack-and-pinion steering would become the standards for the 1980s, Chrysler introduced a new compact car for 1978, the Plymouth Horizon/Dodge Omni twins, based on a Simca platform. Horizon sold well, but suffered from a scathing report by Consumer Reports, which found its handling dangerous in certain situations. Plymouth continued to sell the Horizon until 1987, when a variety of front-wheel drive compact cars made up the line. Big Plymouths, including the Fury and Gran Fury, were sold until the early 1980s, but mostly as fleet vehicles. While attempting to compete with Ford and Chevrolet for big-car sales, Plymouth was hurt by Chrysler's financial woes in the late 1970s, when both its competitors downsized their full-size models.
1980s
Most Plymouth models, especially those offered from the 1970s onward, such as the Valiant, Volaré, and the Acclaim, were badge-engineered versions of Dodge or Mitsubishi models.
The Plymouth Reliant and Dodge Aries were introduced for model year 1981 as the first "K-cars" manufactured and marketed by the Chrysler Corporation. The Reliant was available as a 2-door coupe, 4-door sedan, or as a 4-door station wagon, in three different trim lines: base, Custom and SE ("Special Edition"). Station wagons came only in Custom or SE trim. Unlike many small cars, the K-cars retained the traditional 6-passenger 2-bench seat with a column shifter seating arrangement favored by many Americans. The Reliant was powered by a then-new 2.2 L I4 SOHC engine, with a Mitsubishi "Silent Shaft" 2.6 L as an option (curiously this engine also featured hemispherical combustion chambers, and all 1981 models equipped with it featured "HEMI" badges on the front fenders). Initial sales were brisk, with both Reliant and Aries each selling over 150,000 units in 1981. As rebadged variants, the Reliant and Aries were manufactured in Newark, Delaware, Detroit, Michigan, and Toluca, Mexico — in a single generation. After their introduction, the Reliant and Aries were marketed as the "Reliant K" and "Aries K".
The Reliant replaced the Plymouth Volaré/Road Runner. The Aries replaced the Dodge Aspen. The Reliant and Aries were classified by the EPA as mid-size and were the smallest cars to have 6-passenger seating with a 3-seat per row setup, similar to larger rear-wheel drive cars such as the Dodge Dart and other front-wheel drive cars such as the Chevrolet Celebrity. Chrysler marketed the car as being able to seat "six Americans." The Aries was sold as the Dart in Mexico. The Reliant and Aries were selected together as Motor Trend magazine's Car of the Year for 1981 and sold almost a million Aries and 1.1 million Reliant units over the nine-year run.
In 1982, Plymouth downsized the Gran Fury again, this time sharing the mid-size M platform with the Chrysler Fifth Avenue (called Chrysler New Yorker/New Yorker Fifth Avenue for 1982 and 1983) and the Dodge Diplomat. In addition to the R-body Gran Fury, the M-body Gran Fury replaced the M-body Chrysler LeBaron, which had moved to the compact K platform that year. Now considered a mid-sized car, this generation Gran Fury was close to the exterior size of what was once the compact Valiant and Volaré but offered more interior room. The M-body was in fact heavily based on the Volaré's F platform. Like its predecessor, the 1982 Gran Fury was introduced later than its Chrysler and Dodge siblings; the Chrysler LeBaron and Dodge Diplomat had used the M-body since 1977. 1982-1989 Plymouth Gran Furys shared the Dodge Diplomat's front and rear fascias. They were virtually identical with the exception of badging. Once again, the third generation Gran Fury was available in base and higher-end "Salon" trim. As in previous years, the higher-volume Gran Fury base model catered more towards fleet customers while Gran Fury Salons were geared more towards private customers and offered options such as full vinyl roofs, velour upholstery, turbine-spoke wheels, power windows, and power locks. Although available to private retail customers, the M-body Gran Fury was far more popular with police departments and other fleet customers, primarily since the car was reasonably priced and had a conventional drivetrain with proven components that could withstand a good deal of abuse. This generation of the Gran Fury sold in respectable numbers. However, despite having the same base prices as the Gran Fury (just under $12,000 USD for their final year), the Diplomat always outsold it, usually by several thousand units each year. The Chrysler Fifth Avenue's total sales were always more than that of the Gran Fury and Diplomat by far, even though it generally cost about $6,000 more. This was the last car to carry the Gran Fury nameplate, but it remained largely unchanged for its 7-year run. Declining sales, a lack of promotion, and technical obsolescence—the platform dated back to the 1976 Plymouth Volare and Dodge Aspen—eventually contributed to the model's demise in early 1989. That year, a driver-side airbag became standard; this would be the last RWD Plymouth until the introduction of the Prowler. While Dodge offered the 1990 Monaco, and later the 1993 Intrepid, Chrysler never replaced the Gran Fury with any other large car in the remainder of Plymouth's lineup on through to its demise in the 2001 model year.
In 1984, Chrysler marketed the rebadged Plymouth variant of its new minivan as the Voyager, using the Chrysler's S platform, derived from the K-platform (Plymouth Reliant and Dodge Aries). The Voyager shared components with the K-cars including portions of the interior, e.g., the Reliant's instrument cluster and dashboard controls, along with the K-platform front-wheel drive layout and low floor, giving the Voyager a car-like ease of entry. The Voyager was on Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list for 1985.
For 1987, the Voyager received minor cosmetic updates as well as the May 1987 introduction of the Grand Voyager, which was built on a longer wheelbase adding more cargo room. It was available only with SE or LE trim. First-generation Voyager minivans were offered in three trim levels: an unnamed base model, mid-grade SE, and high-end LE, the latter bearing simulated woodgrain paneling. A sportier LX model was added in 1989, sharing much of its components with the Caravan ES. Safety features included 3-point seat belts for the front two passengers and lap belts for rear passengers. Standard on all Voyagers were legally mandated side-impact reinforcements for all seating front and rear outboard positions, but airbags or ABS were not available. Notably, the Voyager, along with the Dodge Caravan, are considered to be the first mass-produced vehicles to have dedicated built-in cup holders. Original commercials for the 1984 Voyager featured magician Doug Henning as a spokesperson to promote the Voyager "Magic Wagon's" versatility, cargo space, low step-in height, passenger volume, and maneuverability. Later commercials in 1989 featured rock singer Tina Turner. Canadian commercials in 1990 featured pop singer Celine Dion.
For 1987, which was the Sundance's first year, it was available in a single base model. For 1988, a higher-end RS model was available. The RS model, which stood for Rally Sport, came with standard features that included two-tone paint, fog lights, and a leather-wrapped steering wheel. It was also available with a turbocharged 2.2 L I4 engine, and other amenities like an Infinity sound system, tinted window glass, and dual power mirrors. For 1991, the base model split into two distinct models: entry-level America and mid-level Highline, in addition to the high-end RS. The stripped-down America had previously been offered for the Plymouth Horizon's final year in 1990.
The AA-body cars were badge-engineered triplets, as were most Chrysler products of this time. The Acclaim differed from its siblings primarily in wheel choices, bodyside molding, and fascias where it sported its unique taillights and the corporate Plymouth eggcrate-grille. Like the K-body and E-body vehicles they replaced, the Acclaim and Dodge Spirit were both marketed as mainstream variants, while the Chrysler LeBaron was marketed as the luxury variant. Despite this, there was substantial overlap in trims and equipment among each car. For example, a fully loaded Acclaim was almost similar to a base LeBaron in features and price.
In addition to its entry-level base model, the Acclaim was initially available in mid-range LE and high-end LX trim. LE and LX models came equipped with features such including premium cloth seating, power windows/door locks, premium sound systems, bodyside cladding, additional exterior brightwork, and on the latter 15-inch lace-spoke aluminum wheels. In spite of this, the base model accounted for nearly 85 percent of Acclaim sales. Unlike the Spirit, the Acclaim did not receive any sport-oriented models. The Acclaim has also been characterized as the replacement for the smaller Reliant, though the Sundance launched in 1987 is closer than the Acclaim in most dimensions to the Reliant.
Final years: 1990s–2001
By the 1990s, Plymouth had lost much of its identity, as its models continued to overlap in features and prices with its sister brands, Dodge and Eagle. Chrysler attempted to remedy this by repositioning Plymouth to its traditional target market as the automaker's entry-level brand. This included giving Plymouth its own new sailboat logo and advertisements that focused solely on value. However, this only further narrowed Plymouth's product offerings and buyer appeal, and sales continued to fall.
Chrysler considered giving Plymouth a variant of the highly successful new-for-1993 full-size LH platform, which would have been called the Accolade, but decided against it. By the late 1990s, only four vehicles were sold under the Plymouth name: the Voyager/Grand Voyager minivans, the Breeze mid-size sedan, the Neon compact car, and the Prowler sports car, which was to be the last model unique to Plymouth, though the Chrysler PT Cruiser was conceived as a concept unique to Plymouth before production commenced as a Chrysler model.
After discontinuing the Eagle brand in 1998, Chrysler was planning to expand the Plymouth line with a number of unique models before the corporation's merger with Daimler-Benz AG. The first model was the Plymouth Prowler, a hot rod-styled sports car. The PT Cruiser was to have been the second. Both models had similar front-end styling, suggesting Chrysler intended a retro styling theme for the Plymouth brand. At the time of Daimler's takeover of Chrysler, Plymouth had no models besides the Prowler not also offered in a similar version by Dodge.
From a peak production of 973,000 for the 1973 model year, Plymouth rarely exceeded 200,000 cars per year after 1990. Even the Voyager sales were usually less than 50% that of Dodge Caravan. In Canada, the Plymouth name was defunct at the end of the 1999 model year. Consequently, DaimlerChrysler decided to drop the make after a limited run of 2001 models. This was announced on November 3, 1999.
The last new model sold under the Plymouth marque was the second-generation Neon for 2000. The PT Cruiser was ultimately launched as a Chrysler, and the Prowler and Voyager were absorbed into that make, as well. Following the 2001 model year, the Neon was sold only as a Dodge in the US, though it remained available as a Chrysler in Canadian and other markets. The Plymouth Breeze was dropped after 2000, before Chrysler introduced their redesigned 2001 Dodge Stratus and Chrysler Sebring sedan.
Timeline
1955: Plymouth first offered a V8 engine. Plymouth and the other Chrysler divisions received "The New 100-Million Dollar Look".
1956: The automatic three-speed TorqueFlite transmission was introduced on some premium models. The Plymouth Fury was introduced.
1957: As with all other Chrysler divisions, the Forward Look design made its debut on the 1957 Plymouths. Torsion-Aire front suspension was introduced on all models.
1960: Dodge introduced the smaller, lower-priced Dart model that competed directly with Plymouth's offerings. The new compact Valiant was introduced as a marque unto itself. All Plymouths now featured unit-body construction. A new base six-cylinder engine was introduced with a 30-degree slant and overhead valves.
1961: Valiant was repositioned as a Plymouth model for the US market; Dodge got the badge-engineered Lancer version. Rambler and then Pontiac assumed third place in industry sales for the remainder of the 1960s.
1962: Sales dropped dramatically with the introduction of a line of unpopularly styled, downsized full-sized models.
1963: Valiant received a new, trim body resulting in a significant increase in sales. Full-sized models were restyled to look larger.
1964: The new Barracuda fastback coupe was introduced in April. Full-sized models were restyled with a new "slantback" hardtop coupe roofline.
1965: Plymouth rejoined the full-sized car market with the new Fury, based on the Chrysler C-body. The intermediate B-body model line became the Belvedere and Satellite for 1965. Push-button automatic transmission controls were replaced with a conventional column- or floor-mounted lever.
1967: The GTX was introduced.
1968: The Road Runner entered the Plymouth line-up.
1970: Duster coupe was introduced in the Valiant line for 1970 as well as the new E-body Barracuda.
1971: The British Hillman Avenger was imported as the Plymouth Cricket; it was discontinued in mid-1973. The new Valiant Scamp two-door hardtop was a badge-engineered Dodge Dart Swinger.
1973: Plymouth production hit an all-time peak of 973,000. The Plymouth Cricket in Canada was now based on the Dodge Colt.
1974: The full-sized Plymouth Voyager van, based on the similar Dodge B-series van, and Trail Duster SUV, based on the Dodge Ramcharger, were introduced. The Dodge Dart and Plymouth Valiant were, for the first time, different only in name and minor trim details (grille and tail lamps) as the two cars now shared the same 111-inch wheelbase (both divisions' fastbacks remain 108 in). The Barracuda was discontinued 10 years to the day it began production on April 1.
1975: The car that was to become the 1975 Plymouth Sebring was instead released as the new Chrysler Cordoba.
1976: The Volaré was launched, and the Valiant was discontinued at year-end.
1977: The large Gran Fury was discontinued.
1978: The mid-sized Fury was discontinued at the end of the model year. The subcompact Horizon was introduced. Chrysler Canada introduced the Plymouth Caravelle based on the Dodge Diplomat.
1979–1980: Chrysler made several thousand more Dodges than Plymouths for the first time (404,266 to 372,449 in 1979 and 308,638 to 290,974 in 1980). More Plymouths would be made than Dodges for 1981 and 1982, but from then on, there would always be more Dodges were made than Plymouths.
1980: The Newport-based Gran Fury (R-body) was introduced. This was the last year for the Volaré and Road Runner.
1981: The Plymouth Reliant K was introduced. The full-sized Gran Fury sedan and Trail Duster SUV were discontinued.
1982: The mid-sized Plymouth Gran Fury, a Dodge Diplomat with a Plymouth grille, was introduced in the United States.
1983: The subcompact Plymouth Scamp pickup, based on the Dodge Rampage, was introduced and sold for one year only. The Caravelle four-door sedan based on the E-body and a two-door coupe based on the K-body were introduced in Canada. The sporty subcompact Horizon TC3 was renamed Turismo. The full-sized Voyager van was discontinued.
1984: The Voyager minivan and Mitsubishi-based Colt Vista multi-purpose vehicle (MPV) were introduced.
1985: The E-body Plymouth Caravelle was introduced in the United States.
1987: The compact P-body Plymouth Sundance entered the line-up with three- and five-door hatchbacks. The Turismo was discontinued, the five-door Horizon was rebranded "Horizon America" with the most popular options made standard equipment with the less-popular ones dropped, along with a substantial price cut.
1987.5: The Grand Voyager, an extended wheelbase version of the preexisting Voyager, is introduced.
1989: The mid-sized Gran Fury (Caravelle in Canada), as well as the Reliant, were discontinued after this model year. The Reliant and E-body Caravelle are replaced by the Acclaim.
1990: The Mitsubishi-based Plymouth Laser sport-compact was introduced. The L-body Horizon was discontinued.
1991: The second generation of the Voyager/Grand Voyager is introduced.
1992: The higher-priced Acclaim models were repositioned as entry trim Chrysler LeBarons. Total sales of Acclaim and LeBaron dropped. Total 1993 Plymouth model-year production dropped to 159,775, along with 237,875 Voyager models. Dodge built 300,666 Caravans alone, and 263,539 non-Caravan models.
1994: The little-advertised Laser and the popular Sundance and Colt compacts all end production. They are replaced by a single car, the Neon, a car that Chrysler decided to offer as a Plymouth after dealers protested the loss of the Sundance and Colt with no replacement.
1995: Plymouth's lineup was at its all-time low, just three cars: the Acclaim, the Neon, and the Voyager/Grand Voyager. The number went up to four in 1997, with the introduction of the Prowler, but never got any higher.
1996: Chrysler announced the new Plymouth Breeze six months after sister Dodge Stratus and Chrysler Cirrus models. Chrysler originally had no plans to replace the Acclaim model. In an attempt to move Plymouth downmarket, Chrysler made the redesigned Voyager only available in base and mid-level SE models. All of the higher-end trim levels available on the previous generation were now only be found on the Dodge Caravan. The high-end trim levels could still be found in certain markets outside the US.
1997: Production for the 1997 model year was 178,807 cars plus 187,347 Voyager models. Dodge built 448,394 cars and 355,400 Caravans.
1999: Total 1999 production for Plymouth cars was to 195,714 with Dodge at 394,052. Voyager production numbered 197,020, compared to 354,641 Caravans. The redesigned 2000 Neon became the brand's last new model.
2000: The mid-sized Breeze ended production. This was also the last year for the Voyager minivan as a Plymouth. All 2000 Voyagers built in December 1999 and beyond were badged as Chrysler Voyagers. In Canada, the redesigned Neon was sold under the Chrysler name and both the Plymouth and Dodge names were dropped on all car models, save for the Prowler and Viper. The Voyager name was dropped in Canada as all Chrysler dealers sold Dodge trucks, including the Caravan. Total 2000 model year production for Plymouth was 108,546 compared to 459,988 Dodge cars. Voyager production totaled 123,869 versus 330,370 Caravan models.
2001: In Plymouth's final model year, only the Neon remained. The Prowler and the Voyager became Chryslers. The Voyager gained a high-end LX trim, as well as a base eC trim, and it retained the SE trim. The Breeze was dropped as Chrysler issued the Chrysler Sebring sedan to replace the Chrysler Cirrus. The PT Cruiser was launched as a Chrysler, though it was originally planned to be a Plymouth. The final Plymouth, a Neon, was assembled on June 28, 2001 at Belvidere Assembly Plant, with a total of 38,657 built for the model year.
Plymouth car models
Plymouth Model 30U (1930)
Plymouth Acclaim (1989–1995)
Plymouth Arrow (1976–1980, rebadged Mitsubishi Lancer Celeste)
Plymouth Arrow Truck (1979–1982, rebadged Mitsubishi Forte)
Plymouth Barracuda (1964–1974)
Plymouth Belvedere (1954–1970)
Plymouth Breeze (1996–2000)
Plymouth Business (1935–1938)
Plymouth Caravelle (1985–1988)
Plymouth Cambridge (1951–1953)
Plymouth Champ (1979–1982, rebadged Mitsubishi Mirage)
Plymouth Colt (1983–1994, rebadged Mitsubishi Mirage)
Plymouth Colt Vista (1984–1994, rebadged Mitsubishi Chariot)
Plymouth Commercial Car (1937–1941)
Plymouth Concord (1951–1952)
Plymouth Conquest (1984–1986, rebadged Mitsubishi Starion)
Plymouth Cranbrook (1951–1953)
Plymouth Cricket (1971–1975, rebadged Hillman Avenger)
Plymouth Deluxe (1933–1942, 1946–1950)
Plymouth Special Deluxe (1941–1942, 1946–1950)
Plymouth Duster (1970–1976)
Plymouth Fury (1956–1978)
Plymouth Sport Fury (1959, 1962–1971)
Plymouth VIP (1966–1969)
Plymouth Gran Fury (1975–1977, 1980–1989)
Plymouth Grand Voyager (1987–2000)
Plymouth GTX (1967–1971)
Plymouth Horizon (1978–1990)
Plymouth Laser (1990–1994, rebadged Mitsubishi Eclipse)
Plymouth Model PA (1931)
Plymouth Model Q (1928)
Plymouth Model U (1929)
Plymouth Neon (1994–2001)
Plymouth Plaza (1954–1958)
Plymouth Prowler (1997 and 1999–2001)
Plymouth Reliant (1981–1989)
Plymouth Roadking (1938–1941)
Plymouth Road Runner (1968–1975)
Plymouth Sapporo (1978–1983, rebadged Mitsubishi Galant Lambda)
Plymouth Satellite (1966–1974)
Plymouth Savoy (1951–1964)
Plymouth Scamp (1983)
Plymouth Six (1934)
Plymouth Special Six (1934)
Plymouth Standard (1933, 1935)
Plymouth Sundance (1987–1994)
Plymouth Suburban (1949–1961)
Plymouth Superbird (1970)
Plymouth TC3 (1979–1982)
Plymouth Trail Duster (1974–1981)
Plymouth Turismo (1983–1987)
Plymouth Valiant (1960–1976)
Plymouth Scamp (1971-1976)
Plymouth Volaré (1976–1980)
Plymouth Road Runner (1976–1980)
Plymouth Voyager (1974–2000)
Plymouth trucks
Plymouth built various trucks and vans over the years, mainly rebadged Dodge or Chrysler vehicles. Early pickups, delivery trucks, and other commercial trucks were available, and later an SUV, full-sized vans, and minivans. Plymouth had supplied components to the Fargo vehicles, another member of the Chrysler family, but entered the commercial market in 1937 with the PT50.
Truck models
Plymouth PT50 - 1937 - Express pickup, panel delivery van, cab and chassis, station wagon
Plymouth PT57 - 1938 - Express pickup, panel delivery van, cab and chassis
Plymouth PT81 - 1939 - Express pickup, cab and chassis
Plymouth PT105 - 1940 - Express pickup
Plymouth PT125 - 1941 - Express pickup
Plymouth Trail Duster - 1974-1981 - SUV, same as Dodge Ramcharger
Plymouth Voyager (van) - 1974-1983 - full-sized van, same as Dodge Sportsman
Plymouth Scamp - 1983 - front-wheel-drive pickup, same as Dodge Rampage
Plymouth Voyager (minivan) - 1984-2000 - minivan, same as Dodge Caravan and Chrysler Town & Country; also sold as Chrysler Voyager from 1999 to 2003
Plymouth Arrow Truck - 1979-1982 - compact pickup built by Mitsubishi
Plymouth concept cars
References
External links
Official website (Archive, 13 Oct 1999)
Plymouth cars on AllPar.com
IMCDB: Plymouth vehicles in movies and TV shows
Shah of Iran's Plymouth XNR sells for $935,000
1928 establishments in Michigan
2001 disestablishments in Michigan
American brands
Auburn Hills, Michigan
Cars introduced in 1928
Cars of the United States
Chrysler
Companies based in Oakland County, Michigan
Defunct brands
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Plymouth Model Q
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 2001
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1928
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Michigan | [
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|
255114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2%20%2B%202%20%3D%205 | 2 + 2 = 5 | The mathematically incorrect phrase "two plus two equals five" (2 + 2 = 5) is best known in English for its use in the 1949 dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell, as a possible statement of Ingsoc (English Socialism) philosophy, like the dogma "War is Peace", which the Party expects the citizens of Oceania to believe is true. In writing his secret diary in the year 1984, the protagonist Winston Smith ponders if the Inner Party might declare that "two plus two equals five" is a fact. Smith further ponders whether or not belief in such a consensus reality makes the lie true.
About the falsity of "two plus two equals five", in Room 101, the interrogator O'Brien tells the thought criminal Smith that control over physical reality is unimportant to the Party, provided the citizens of Oceania subordinate their real-world perceptions to the political will of the Party; and that, by way of doublethink: "Sometimes, Winston. [Sometimes it is four fingers.] Sometimes they are five. Sometimes they are three. Sometimes they are all of them at once".
As a theme and as a subject in the arts, the anti-intellectual slogan 2 + 2 = 5 pre-dates Orwell and has produced literature, such as Deux et deux font cinq (Two and Two Make Five), written in 1895 by Alphonse Allais, which is a collection of absurdist short stories; and the 1920 imagist art manifesto 2 × 2 = 5 by the poet Vadim Shershenevich, in the 20th century.
Self-evident truth and self-evident falsehood
In the 17th century, in the Meditations on First Philosophy, in which the Existence of God and the Immortality of the Soul are Demonstrated (1641), René Descartes said that the standard of truth is self-evidence of clear and distinct ideas. Despite the logician Descartes' understanding of "self-evident truth", the philosopher Descartes considered that the self-evident truth of "two plus two equals four" might not exist beyond the human mind; that there might not exist correspondence between abstract ideas and concrete reality.
In establishing the mundane reality of the self-evident truth of 2 + 2 = 4, in De Neutralibus et Mediis Libellus (1652) Johann Wigand said: "That twice two are four; a man may not lawfully make a doubt of it, because that manner of knowledge is grauen [graven] into mannes [man's] nature."
In the comedy-of-manners play Dom Juan, or The Feast with the Statue (1665), by Molière, the libertine protagonist, Dom Juan, is asked in what values he believes, and answers that he believes "two plus two equals four".
In the 18th century, the self-evident falsehood of 2 + 2 = 5 was attested in the Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1728), by Ephraim Chambers: "Thus, a Proposition would be absurd, that should affirm, that two and two make five; or that should deny 'em to make four." In 1779, Samuel Johnson likewise said that "You may have a reason why two and two should make five, but they will still make but four."
In the 19th century, in a personal letter to his future wife, Anabella Milbanke, Lord Byron said: "I know that two and two make four—& should be glad to prove it, too, if I could—though I must say if, by any sort of process, I could convert 2 & 2 into five, it would give me much greater pleasure."
In Gilbert and Sullivan's Princess Ida (1884), the Princess comments that "The narrow-minded pedant still believes/That two and two make four! Why, we can prove,/We women—household drudges as we are –/That two and two make five—or three—or seven;/Or five-and-twenty, if the case demands!"
Politics, literature, propaganda
France
In the late 18th century, in the pamphlet What is the Third Estate? (1789), about the legalistic denial of political rights to the common-folk majority of France, Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, said: "Consequently, if it be claimed that, under the French constitution, 200,000 individuals, out of 26 million citizens, constitute two-thirds of the common will, only one comment is possible: It is a claim that two and two make five."
Using the illogic of "two and two make five", Sieyès mocked the demagoguery of the Estates-General for assigning disproportionate voting power to the political minorities of France—the Clergy (First estate) and the French nobility (Second estate)—in relation to the Third estate, the numeric and political majority of the citizens of France.
In the 19th century, in the novel Séraphîta (1834), about the nature of androgyny, Honoré de Balzac said:
In the pamphlet "Napoléon le Petit" (1852), about the limitations of the Second French Empire (1852–1870), such as majority political support for the monarchist coup d'Ḗtat, which installed Napoleon III (r. 1852–1870), and the French peoples' discarding from national politics the Liberal values that informed the anti-monarchist Revolution, Victor Hugo said: "Now, get seven million, five hundred thousand votes to declare that two-and-two-make-five, that the straight line is the longest road, that the whole is less than its part; get it declared by eight millions, by ten millions, by a hundred millions of votes, you will not have advanced a step."
Russia
In the late 19th century, the Russian press used the phrase 2 + 2 = 5 to describe the moral confusion of social decline at the turn of a century, because political violence characterised much of the ideological conflict among proponents of humanist democracy and defenders of tsarist autocracy in Russia. In The Reaction in Germany (1842), Mikhail Bakunin said that the political compromises of the French Positivists, at the start of the July Revolution (1830), confirmed their middle-of-the-road mediocrity: "The Left says, 2 times 2 are 4; the Right, 2 times 2 are 6; and the Juste-milieu says, 2 times 2 are 5".
In Notes from Underground (1864), by Feodor Dostoevsky, the anonymous protagonist accepts the falsehood of "two plus two equals five", and considers the implications (ontological and epistemological) of rejecting the truth of "two times two makes four", and proposed that the intellectualism of free will—Man's inherent capability to choose or to reject logic and illogic—is the cognitive ability that makes humanity human: "I admit that twice two makes four is an excellent thing, but, if we are to give everything its due, twice two makes five is sometimes a very charming thing, too."
In the literary vignette "Prayer" (1881), Ivan Turgenev said that: "Whatever a man prays for, he prays for a miracle. Every prayer reduces itself to this: 'Great God, grant that twice two be not four'." In God and the State (1882), Bakunin dismissed deism: "Imagine a philosophical vinegar sauce of the most opposed systems, a mixture of Fathers of the Church, scholastic philosophers, Descartes and Pascal, Kant and Scottish psychologists, all this a superstructure on the divine and innate ideas of Plato, and covered up with a layer of Hegelian immanence, accompanied, of course, by an ignorance, as contemptuous as it is complete, of natural science, and proving just as two times two make five; the existence of a personal god." Moreover, the slogan "two plus two equals five", is the title of the collection of absurdist short stories Deux et deux font cinq (Two and Two Make Five, 1895), by Alphonse Allais; and the title of the imagist art manifesto 2 x 2 = 5 (1920), by the poet Vadim Shershenevich.
In 1931, the artist supported Stalin's shortened production schedule for the economy of the Soviet Union with a propaganda poster that announced the "Arithmetic of an Alternative Plan: 2 + 2 plus the Enthusiasm of the Workers = 5" after Stalin's announcement, in 1930, that the first five-year plan (1928–1933) instead would be completed in 1932, in four years' time.
George Orwell
Orwell used the idea of 2 + 2 = 5 in an essay of January 1939 in The Adelphi; "Review of Power: A New Social Analysis by Bertrand Russell":
In propaganda work for the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) during the Second World War (1939–1945), George Orwell applied the illogic of 2 + 2 = 5 to counter the reality-denying psychology of Nazi propaganda, which he addressed in the essay "Looking Back on the Spanish War" (1943), indicating that:
In addressing Nazi anti-intellectualism, Orwell's reference might have been Hermann Göring's hyperbolic praise of Adolf Hitler: "If the Führer wants it, two and two makes five!" In the political novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), concerning the Party's philosophy of government for Oceania, Orwell said:
Contemporary usage
Politics and religion
In The Cult of the Amateur: How Today's Internet is Killing Our Culture (2007), the media critic Andrew Keen uses the slogan "two plus two equals five" to criticise the Wikipedia policy allowing any user to edit the encyclopaedia — that the enthusiasm of the amateur for user generated content, peer production, and Web 2.0 technology leads to an encyclopaedia of common knowledge, and not an encyclopaedia of expert knowledge; that the "Wisdom of the crowd" will distort what society considers to be the truth.
In 2017, the Italian Catholic priest Antonio Spadaro tweeted: "Theology is not #Mathematics. 2 + 2 in #Theology can make 5. Because it has to do with #God and real #life of #people...." In defence of the priest, Traditionalist Catholics stated that Spadaro's remark was referring to alleged contradictions among interpretations of the apostolic exhortation Amoris laetitia (2016)—for divorced-remarried Catholics returning to the Church—and the doctrines of Marriage in the Catholic Church. That a person can freely act in contradiction to Catholic doctrine if he or she felt that God allowed that action—despite the moral and theological contradictions inherent to the action. That Spadaro's "two plus two equal five" comments refer to the Church philosophy that human reason is insufficient for the full comprehension of God. That Spadaro was much like the cynical Rex Mottram character in the novel Brideshead Revisited (1945), by Evelyn Waugh, wherein Mottram, during his catechesis (becoming Catholic to marry a Catholic) is indifferent to ascertaining any aspect of Catholicism; Mottram attributes moral and theological contradictions to personal sinfulness.
Former mathematician Kareem Carr has said "when somebody says '2+2=5', I will always ask them for more details rather than dismissing them as an idiot because maybe they are talking about [male and female] chickens and turns out that is how chickens work!".
See also
One Plus One Equals Three
1=2
References
Further reading
External links
"Two Plus Two Equals Red", Time Magazine, Monday, 30 Jun 1947
Fictional elements introduced in 1949
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Mind control
Communication of falsehoods
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|
255128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%20Governor%20General%27s%20Awards | 1992 Governor General's Awards | Each winner of the 1992 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit received $10,000 and a medal from the Governor General of Canada. The winners were selected by a panel of judges administered by the Canada Council for the Arts.
English
French Language
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards
Governor General's Awards | [
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|
255129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Jones%20%28racing%20driver%29 | Alan Jones (racing driver) | Alan Stanley Jones, (born 2 November 1946) is an Australian former Formula One driver. He was the first driver to win a Formula One World Championship with the Williams team, becoming the 1980 World Drivers' Champion and the second Australian to do so following triple World Champion Sir Jack Brabham. He competed in a total of 117 Grands Prix, winning 12 and achieving 24 podium finishes. In 1978 Jones won the Can-Am championship driving a Lola.
Jones is also the last Australian driver to win the Australian Grand Prix, winning the 1980 event at Calder Park Raceway, having lapped the field consisting mostly of Formula 5000 cars while he was driving his Formula One Championship winning Williams FW07B.
Early life and career
Jones attended Xavier College and is the son of Stan Jones, an Australian racing driver and winner of the 1959 Australian Grand Prix, and wanted to follow in his footsteps. Jones initially worked in his father's Holden dealership while racing a Mini and a Cooper. The younger Jones left for Europe in 1967, to make a name for himself, but found that he could not afford even a Formula Ford drive. He therefore returned home but was back in the UK in 1970 and set about building his career in company with compatriot Brian McGuire.
The two men bought and sold second-hand cars and Jones was eventually able to afford a Formula Three, Lotus 41 which he intended to adapt to Formula Two specification and take back to Australia to sell, in order to finance a season of Formula Three. However, the machine was written off in a testing accident at Brands Hatch in which Jones suffered a broken leg.
In late 1970, Jones signed with a firm for whom McGuire was working, designed to promote drivers' interests and was selected to compete in a series of races in Brazil. However, in his first two races the engine failed and in the third the gearbox broke, which meant the opportunity ended.
For 1971, Jones campaigned a Brabham BT 28 converted to BT35 specification, in Formula Three and had a moderately successful season which led to a series of tests for March at Silverstone. However, despite the success of the test, Jones was not offered a drive by March and for 1972, drove a GRD in Formula Three. Jones did enough that season to be kept on by GRD for the next year with a new sponsor and only lost the 1973 championship due to a misfiring engine in the last round at Brands Hatch. In 1974, Jones began the season in Formula Atlantic but felt it was a very amateurish effort, but a chance meeting with Harry Stiller led to a drive in the latter's March 74. At the end of the season, Jones made his F5000 debut for Stiller in the final round of the European Championship at Brands Hatch in a Chevron B24/28 owned by John MacDonald. It was planned to enter Formula 5000 for 1975. However, Stiller's initial plans fell through but after some delay, during which Jones was effectively unemployed, Stiller arranged to purchase a Formula One Hesketh 308 and signed Jones to drive the car.
Formula One
1975–1977: Hesketh, Hill, Surtees and Shadow
His first race was the 1975 Spanish Grand Prix at the fast Montjuïc circuit in the purchased Hesketh although the weekend turned out to be one of the most tragic in Formula One history
when Rolf Stommelen's crash caused the death of five spectators. After four races in Formula One the team ceased racing after Stiller moved abroad. However, Jones was named as a replacement for the injured Stommelen in Graham Hill's team. His best finish with Hill, in four races for the team, was fifth at the Nürburgring.
He earned his first full-time Formula One drive in 1976, in John Surtees' team. Jones' car was known for its infamous Durex sponsorship which led the BBC refusing to cover Formula One races during the season. He managed several good finishes in the TS19, a fourth in Japan in the final race of the season being the best of them. Jones refused to drive for Surtees in 1977, preferring to sit out a season than continue with the team.
Jones was racing in America when he was signed by the Shadow team as a replacement for Tom Pryce, who had been killed in a freak racing accident in South Africa. He made the most of the opportunity and won at the Österreichring for his maiden victory, finishing seventh in the championship, with 22 points.
1978–1981: Williams
By late 1977, he had caught the attention of Frank Williams as well as Enzo Ferrari. Ferrari had a meeting with him at Maranello, but in the end, Gilles Villeneuve got the drive. Williams, who was looking to rebuild his Formula One racing team. Williams Grand Prix had struggled for success in its first years and after Williams had restarted his team in 1977, Jones was entrusted to give them their first taste of it. As well as Williams, he also signed with Haas-Hall for 1978, and competed in a Lola 333CS in the Can-Am series, winning the title. Jones took nine poles in ten races but missed the Laguna Seca race due to a Formula One scheduling conflict. Stand-in Brian Redman finished twelfth in that race after the kill wire was crimped under a valve cover, resulting in intermittent ignition. Of the nine races in which he competed, Jones won five (Atlanta, Mosport, Road America, Mid-Ohio, and Riverside.) He finished second to Elliot Forbes-Robinson at Charlotte after hitting a chicane and losing a spark plug wire, retired through accident at St Jovite and lost a radiator at Watkins Glen. He finished third at Trois-Rivières after losing a shift fork and being stuck with only second and fifth gears on the tight road circuit. At that race, water-injected brakes were first used in Can-Am, developed by the Haas team and copied with varying degrees of success by others. Jones ran one Can-Am race in 1979 (Mid-Ohio), where he and Keke Rosberg finished 1–2, with Jones winning his last Can-Am start. For Williams, his best result that season was a second-place finish at Watkins Glen. Jones helped put the team on the Formula One map in 1979 using the Williams FW07, after winning four races in the span of five events near the end of the season. Jones finished third in the championship that year, and it was the springboard to an excellent 1980 campaign. Jones's best years in Formula One had just begun, in the middle of the ground-effect era.
Jones won seven races in 1980, although the Spanish Grand Prix was later removed from the championship and the Australian Grand Prix was a non-championship race, so only five counted towards the Championship. Throughout the season he had a car which consistently made the podium, and he achieved ten during the year. At the end of the season he had beaten Nelson Piquet by 13 points in the standings, becoming Australia's first World Champion since Sir Jack Brabham. He had a good chance to repeat his success in 1981, but a very combative relationship with Carlos Reutemann led to an intense rivalry that possibly cost both drivers a chance at the championship. He finished four points behind Piquet for the championship and three behind Reutemann.
After winning the championship in 1980, Jones and Williams competed in the then non-championship Australian Grand Prix at Calder Park in November. Driving his FW07B against a field consisting mostly of Formula 5000's (and Bruno Giacomelli's Alfa Romeo 179), Jones, who had previously finished 4th in the race in 1977 (he was penalised 60 seconds for a jumped start, and officially finished just 20 seconds behind winner Warwick Brown showing that if not for the penalty he would have won by 40 seconds), joined his father Stan as a winner of the Australian Grand Prix.
From 1979 to 1981, Jones was awarded the No.1 driver of the season by the editor of the AUTOCOURSE annual. During his championship year in 1980, the AUTOCOURSE editor awarded Jones the No.1 slot not just because he was World Champion but because in the editor's opinion "Jones extracted every ounce of potential from the Williams FW07 -and more importantly, he did it consistently. All season Jones never gave anything less than his best." In 1981 despite missing the championship, the AUTOCOURSE editor still gave the No.1 driver award to Jones because "in 1981 Alan Jones was outstanding, his racing instincts sharper than ever, his driving aggressive and confident."
Later Formula One career: 1982–1986
Jones announced his retirement after the 1981 season, which he managed to cap with a win in Las Vegas, but came out of retirement for a one-time drive with Arrows in at the United States Grand Prix West at Long Beach where he qualified 12th but retired after 58 laps through driver fatigue. A week later he again drove for Arrows in the non-championship Race of Champions at Brands Hatch where he qualified and finished third behind reigning World Champion Keke Rosberg (Williams) and rookie American driver Danny Sullivan (Tyrrell). This was to be his last drive for the team, a bid to raise enough money to drive in the French Grand Prix the week after the Race of Champions failed which saw Arrows use its regular drivers Marc Surer and Chico Serra (whom Jones had replaced at Long Beach) instead.
During a 2012 Grand Prix Legends interview, Jones revealed that he had been contacted by Ferrari to drive for the team from mid-1982 after the death of Gilles Villeneuve and the injury forced retirement of Didier Pironi. As he was enjoying life back in Australia at the time, Jones did not give them an answer straight away and basically gave them the run around, a move he regrets as it was possible that, as the 1980 World Champion, Ferrari would have wanted to keep him for 1983 when he was looking to make a comeback, which would have seen him drive the car which won the Constructors' Championship in 1983. After taking too long to give them an answer, the Scuderia instead offered the drive to World Champion Mario Andretti who drove the last two races of the 1982 season at Monza and Caesars Palace.
Jones did not compete in Formula One during , though he did drive some World Sportscar Championship races in 1983 and 1984. He made a full-time comeback to F1 late in when Team Haas was created and Jones became the first driver for the team. The American owned and sponsored team was based in England and made its debut at the 1985 Italian Grand Prix at Monza. Jones qualified the new Lola THL1 9.851 seconds slower than pole man Ayrton Senna in his Lotus-Renault and retired after only 6 laps with a blown engine. Jones was joined at Haas in by former Ferrari and Renault works driver Patrick Tambay. The comeback was unsuccessful more due to the Ford V6 engine's lack of power compared to its rivals from Honda, TAG-Porsche, BMW, Ferrari and Renault, than any lack of effort from the team and its drivers.
At the end of the 1986 season after the Haas team lost its sponsorship and ran out of money, Jones retired from Formula One for good having won 12 races, 6 pole positions and one World Championship.
Post Formula One career
Sports and Touring Car racing
Jones' post Formula One career was initially spasmodic in nature. Briefly in demand for his services as a Touring Car co-driver, he raced occasionally in his home country's biggest endurance race, the Bathurst 1000 but success was elusive. In 1982 he attempted his first full season of racing, driving a Porsche 935 to dominate the 1982 Australian GT Championship. This championship included races against local touring car ace Peter Brock driving Bob Jane's 6.0 litre Chevrolet Monza. The duels between Australia's two biggest motorsport names at the time have often been regarded as some of the best racing seen domestically in Australia. Soon after he made his first failed comeback to Formula One. During 1982 he formed his own touring Car team, combining the resources of V8 Ford Falcon driver Bob Morris and rotary Mazda RX-7 racer Barry Jones into a single two-car team but results were mixed and the exercise dissipated by the end of the season, though Jones and Jones did win the CRC 300 at Amaroo Park in a Mazda RX-7 (Alan Jones was to drive with Bob Morris in the Falcon in the Oran Park 250 endurance race, but elected after the race started to let Morris drive the 100 lap race solo. Morris went on to win the race). 1984 brought a top six finish at the 24 Hours of Le Mans with Kremer Racing, and a top four finish at the Bathurst 1000, again teaming with Warren Cullen in a Holden VK Commodore. Cullen and Jones, who drove the final stint in the race and required pain killing injections after having the steering wheel wrench out of his hands during practice which damaged ligaments in his elbow, were unlucky not to finish 2nd, but a brake problem with the car saw him forced to use more fuel than normal and a late race stop for fuel allowed the Holden Dealer Team VK Commodore of David Parsons and John Harvey to sneak into 2nd and the Mazda RX-7 of Allan Moffat and Gregg Hansford to claim 3rd.
Jones was quickly snapped up as teammate to Colin Bond in Bond's newly formed factory supported Network Alfa touring car team for the 1985 Australian Touring Car Championship driving an underpowered Alfa Romeo GTV6 in Australia's first full year using the international Group A touring car rules. After some giant killing performances in the early rounds of the championship, Jones abandoned his first serious ATCC campaign to make his second Formula One comeback with the Haas Lola team.
Jones joined Kremer Racing for the 1984 24 Hours of Le Mans where he would share a Porsche 956B with 1983 Le Mans winner (and fellow Aussie) Vern Schuppan along with former F1 driver Jean-Pierre Jarier. After dicing for the lead with the pole sitting Lancia LC2 of Bob Wollek and Alessandro Nannini for the first third of the race, damage caused when Schuppan was the innocent victim of a spinning Roger Dorchy, and finally a broken conrod, saw Jones finish his first 24 Hours of Le Mans start in 6th place. Jones had previously driven for the Kremer brothers when he and Schuppan drove a 956 to 5th place in the 1983 1000 km of Silversone. Later in 1984, Jones drove with Schuppan for the factory backed Rothmans Porsche team at the 1000 km of Sandown Park, the final round of the 1984 World Sportscar Championship and the first ever FIA World Championship race to be held in Australia. After Schuppan qualified the Porsche 956B 3rd behind teammates Stefan Bellof and Jochen Mass, Jones started the race and got the jump on the West German pair and had the honour of leading the first lap of the first FIA World Championship race ever held in Australia. Jones and Schuppan eventually finished 9th, 12 laps down on Bellof and Derek Bell after numerous punctures.
On 20 September 1987 at SUGO Jones won a round of All Japan Touring Car Championship driving Toyota Team Tom's, Group A, Toyota Supra MA70 Turbo. Unfortunately the factory backed Supra could not compete, even with the Private Ford Sierras, thus for the remaining two JGTC races he scored only one additional podium on 6 December at Suzuka where he finished 3rd. After returning home again in 1987 his career did not pick up again until a competitive 3rd placing at the 1988 Bathurst 1000 with Colin Bond's team in a Ford Sierra RS500, saw him signed up as full-time number two driver to Tony Longhurst in Longhurst's Frank Gardner run team to drive a Sierra in 1990. The Benson & Hedges sponsored Sierra's were brutally fast but disappointingly fragile and results were again elusive. The team switched to BMW M3 Evolution's in 1991 saw the return of reliability at the cost of speed. Jones took the occasional podium result while Longhurst took two wins against the all-powerful Nissan Skyline R32 GT-R's. A switch to Glenn Seton Racing mid-season in 1992 brought improved results and race wins and he finished runner up to his team leader Glenn Seton as their V8 Ford Falcons dominated the 1993 Australian Touring Car Championship. Jones' reputation as a hard charger was shown in the 1993 ATCC when he was involved in a number of incidents, most notably pushing the Holden Commodore of Mark Skaife off the track at Symmons Plains Raceway before also doing the same to the Holden Racing Team's Commodore driven by Australia's 1987 500cc Grand Prix motorcycle World Champion Wayne Gardner less than half a lap later. Rule changes to make the Commodore's more competitive saw the team's dominance fade over the next few years. The 1995 Bathurst 1000 looked to be a high point with a memorable 1–2 finish for their two cars fading into just a second for the car Jones shared with veteran Allan Grice, the pair finishing behind the Holden Commodore of ex-F1 driver Larry Perkins and Russell Ingall (Seton, leading by 5 seconds with just 9 laps remaining, retired with a dead engine).
By this point the team was sundering apart and Jones took the major sponsor (Philip Morris International) to form a new team with engineering brothers Ross and Jim Stone as partners, known commercially as Pack Leader Racing (the Pack Leader name came about as the use of the Peter Jackson cigarette brand was banned following the Australian Government's blanket ban on all cigarette advertising from 1 January 1996). Initially fast, the partnership was fading by 1997 and the Stones bought Jones out, re-badging the team as Stone Brothers Racing. Jones returned to race with Tony Longhurst's Longhurst Racing team again in 1998 by this time his form was fading. From 1999 onwards he no longer raced full-time, driving just the endurance races as a hired gun. His final race was with Dick Johnson Racing, driving into a 7th-placed finish at the 2002 Bathurst 1000.
CART
In August 1985, one month before his return to Formula One at the Italian Grand Prix, Jones' association with Team Haas owner Carl Haas saw him used as a substitute for injured Newman/Haas Racing driver (and World F1 Champion) Mario Andretti in a Champ Car World Series race at Road America in Wisconsin. In his only IndyCar start and showing he had lost none of the speed, skill and determination that took him to the World Championship, Jones drove Andretti's Lola T900-Cosworth to third place behind Jacques Villeneuve Sr. (winner) and Mario's son Michael Andretti (2nd).
A1 Grand Prix
Jones then become involved in the Australian franchise of the A1 Grand Prix as Team Director in 2005 until the series demise in 2010.
Grand Prix Masters
He attempted to race in the Grand Prix Masters World Series at Kyalami in November 2005 but had to pull out before qualifying due to neck pains.
Media
After retiring from F1 for good after 1986, Jones became a commentator with Channel Nine as part of their Formula One coverage in Australia in , a role which lasted until 2002 with change of network rights for Formula 1. This association with Nine saw him hosting F1 telecasts from Nine's Sydney studios working mostly with Darrell Eastlake, but sometimes with former Grand Prix motorcycle World Champion Barry Sheene on 500cc Grand Prix telecasts. Jones also worked as a pit reporter during the Australian Grand Prix where his relationships with those in F1 made it easier for him to obtain relevant information, and also as a pit reporter for Nine's broadcasts of the Australian Motorcycle Grand Prix.
In March 2013, Jones signed with Network Ten as a commentator for their Formula One coverage where he joins regular hosts Matthew White and former MotoGP rider Daryl Beattie.
Author
His autobiography AJ: How Alan Jones Climbed to the top of Formula One has been co-authored with motorsport writer Andrew Clarke was released in August 2017 by Penguin Random House.
Personal life
Jones separated from his wife Beverley in the late 1980s. In 1996 he began a relationship with Amanda Butler Davis and in 2001 their twins, Zara and Jack, were born.
Jones also has a daughter, Camilla, born in 1990.
Jones' adopted son Christian now races in various forms of motorsport.
His eldest daughter, Emma, has two daughters (born 2001 and 2004).
Honours
Jones was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in 1980 for "service to motor racing" and was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1989.
Jones and his father Stan, along with Graham and Damon Hill, and Keke and Nico Rosberg, are the only father/son combinations to ever win the Australian Grand Prix.
Racing record
Career summary
Complete World Sportscar Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Footnotes
Complete European F5000 Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)
Non-championship Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)
Complete Shellsport International Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)
American open-wheel racing
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)
USAC Championship Car
CART PPG Indy Car World Series
Complete European Formula Two Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete BMW M1 Procar Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results
V8 Supercar Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Asia-Pacific Touring Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)
Complete Bathurst 1000 results
* Super Touring race
Complete Grand Prix Masters results
(key)
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Richard's F1 interview with Alan Jones
Motor Sport Magazine: Lunch with... Alan Jones, by Simon Taylor (April 2008)
Driver Data Base Stats
Racing Reference Profile
1946 births
Living people
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
A1 Grand Prix team owners
Arrows Formula One drivers
Australian Formula One drivers
Australian Members of the Order of the British Empire
Australian people of English descent
Australian Touring Car Championship drivers
BRDC Gold Star winners
British Formula Three Championship drivers
Formula One World Drivers' Champions
Formula One race winners
Grand Prix Masters drivers
Haas Lola Formula One drivers
Hesketh Formula One drivers
Hill Formula One drivers
International Race of Champions drivers
People educated at Xavier College
Racing drivers from Victoria (Australia)
Shadow Formula One drivers
Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Melbourne
Surtees Formula One drivers
Supercars Championship drivers
Williams Formula One drivers
World Sportscar Championship drivers | [
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255133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitrack%20recording | Multitrack recording | Multitrack recording (MTR), also known as multitracking or tracking, is a method of sound recording developed in 1955 that allows for the separate recording of multiple sound sources or of sound sources recorded at different times to create a cohesive whole. Multitracking became possible in the mid-1950s when the idea of simultaneously recording different audio channels to separate discrete "tracks" on the same reel-to-reel tape was developed. A "track" was simply a different channel recorded to its own discrete area on the tape whereby their relative sequence of recorded events would be preserved, and playback would be simultaneous or synchronized.
Prior to the development of multitracking, the sound recording process required all of the singers, band instrumentalists, and/or orchestra accompanists to perform at the same time in the same space. Multitrack recording was a significant technical improvement as it allowed studio engineers to record all of the instruments and vocals for a piece of music separately. Multitracking allowed the engineer to adjust the levels and tone of each individual track, and if necessary, redo certain tracks or overdub parts of the track to correct errors or get a better "take". As well, different electronic effects such as reverb could be applied to specific tracks, such as the lead vocals, while not being applied to other tracks where this effect would not be desirable (e.g., on the electric bass). Multitrack recording was much more than a technical innovation; it also enabled record producers and artists to create new sounds that would be impossible to create outside of the studio, such as a lead singer adding many harmony vocals with their own voice to their own lead vocal part, an electric guitar player playing many harmony parts along with their own guitar solo, or even recording the drums and replaying the track backwards for an unusual effect.
In the 1980s and 1990s, computers provided means by which both sound recording and reproduction could be digitized, revolutionizing audio recording and distribution. In the 2000s, multitracking hardware and software for computers was of sufficient quality to be widely used for high-end audio recordings by both professional sound engineers and by bands recording without studios using widely available programs, which can be used on a high-end laptop computer. Though magnetic tape has not been replaced as a recording medium, the advantages of non-linear editing (NLE) and recording have resulted in digital systems largely superseding tape. Even in the 2010s, with digital multitracking being the dominant technology, the original word "track" is still used by audio engineers.
Process
Multi-tracking can be achieved with analogue recording, tape-based equipment (from simple, late-1970s cassette-based four-track Portastudios, to eight-track cassette machines, to 2" reel-to-reel 24-track machines), digital equipment that relies on tape storage of recorded digital data (such as ADAT eight-track machines) and hard disk-based systems often employing a computer and audio recording software. Multi-track recording devices vary in their specifications, such as the number of simultaneous tracks available for recording at any one time; in the case of tape-based systems this is limited by, among other factors, the physical size of the tape employed.
With the introduction of SMPTE timecode in the early 1970s, engineers began to use computers to perfectly synchronize separate audio and video playback, or multiple audio tape machines. In this system, one track of each machine carried the timecode signal, while the remaining tracks were available for sound recording. Some large studios were able to link multiple 24-track machines together. An extreme example of this occurred in 1982, when the rock group Toto recorded parts of Toto IV on three synchronized 24-track machines. This setup theoretically provided for up to 69 audio tracks, which is far more than necessary for most recording projects.
For computer-based systems, the trend in the 2000s is towards unlimited numbers of record/playback tracks, although issues such as RAM memory and CPU available do limit this from machine to machine. Moreover, on computer-based systems, the number of simultaneously available recording tracks is limited by the number of sound card discrete analog or digital inputs.
When recording, audio engineers can select which track (or tracks) on the device will be used for each instrument, voice, or other input and can even blend one track with two instruments to vary the music and sound options available. At any given point on the tape, any of the tracks on the recording device can be recording or playing back using sel-sync or Selective Synchronous recording. This allows an artist to be able to record onto track 2 and, simultaneously, listen to track 1, 3 and 7, allowing them to sing or to play an accompaniment to the performance already recorded on these tracks. They might then record an alternate version on track 4 while listening to the other tracks. All the tracks can then be played back in perfect synchrony, as if they had originally been played and recorded together. This can be repeated until all of the available tracks have been used, or in some cases, reused. During mixdown, a separate set of playback heads with higher fidelity are used.
Before all tracks are filled, any number of existing tracks can be "bounced" into one or two tracks, and the original tracks erased, making more room for more tracks to be reused for fresh recording. In 1963, the Beatles were using twin track for Please Please Me. The Beatles' producer George Martin used this technique extensively to achieve multiple-track results, while still being limited to using only multiple four-track machines, until an eight-track machine became available during the recording of the Beatles' self-titled ninth album. The Beach Boys' Pet Sounds also made innovative use of multitracking with eight-track machines of the day (circa 1965). Motown also began recording with eight-track machines in 1965, before moving to 16-track machines in mid-1969.
Multitrack recording also allows any recording artist to record multiple "takes" of any given section of their performance, allowing them to refine their performance to virtual perfection by making additional "takes" of songs or instrumental tracks. A recording engineer can record only the section being worked on, without erasing any other section of that track. This process of turning the recording mechanism on and off is called "punching in" and "punching out". (See "Punch in / out".)
When recording is completed, the many tracks are "mixed down" through a mixing console to a two-track stereo recorder in a format which can then be duplicated and distributed. (Movie and DVD soundtracks can be mixed down to four or more tracks, as needed, the most common being five tracks, with an additional Low Frequency Effects track, hence the "5.1" surround sound most commonly available on DVDs.)
Most of the records, CDs and cassettes commercially available in a music store are recordings that were originally recorded on multiple tracks, and then mixed down to stereo. In some rare cases, as when an older song is technically "updated", these stereo (or mono) mixes can in turn be recorded (as if it were a "submix") onto two (or one) tracks of a multitrack recorder, allowing additional sound (tracks) to be layered on the remaining tracks.
Flexibility
During multitracking, multiple musical instruments (and vocals) can be recorded, either one at a time or simultaneously, onto individual tracks, so that the sounds thus recorded can be accessed, processed and manipulated individually to produce the desired results. In the 2010s, many rock and pop bands record each part of the song one after the other. First, the bass and drums are often recorded, followed by the chordal rhythm section instruments. Then the lead vocals and guitar solos are added. As a last step, the harmony vocals are added. On the other hand, orchestras are always recorded with all 70 to 100 instrumentalists playing their parts simultaneously. If each group of instrument has its own microphone, and each instrument with a solo melody has its own microphone, the different microphones can record on multiple tracks simultaneously. After recording the orchestra, the record producer and conductor can adjust the balance and tone of the different instrument sections and solo instruments, because each section and solo instrument was recorded to its own track.
With the rock or pop band example, after recording some parts of a song, an artist might listen to only the guitar part, by 'muting' all the tracks except the one on which the guitar was recorded. If one then wanted to listen to the lead vocals in isolation, one would do so by muting all the tracks apart from the lead vocals track. If one wanted to listen to the entire song, one could do so by un-muting all the tracks. If one did not like the guitar part, or found a mistake in it, and wanted to replace it, one could do so by re-recording only the guitar part (i.e., re-recording only the track on which the guitar was recorded), rather than re-recording the entire song.
If all the voices and instruments in a recording are individually recorded on distinct tracks, then the artist is able to retain complete control over the final sculpting of the song, during the mix-down (re-recording to two stereo tracks for mass distribution) phase. For example, if an artist wanted to apply one effects unit to a synthesizer part, a different effect to a guitar part, a 'chorused reverb' effect to the lead vocals, and different effects to all the drums and percussion instruments, they could not do so if they had all been originally recorded together onto the same track. However, if they had been recorded onto separate tracks, then the artist could blend and alter all of the instrument and vocal sounds with complete freedom.
Multitracking a song also leaves open the possibilities of remixes by the same or future artists, such as DJs. If the song was not available in a multitrack format recording, the job of the remixing artist was very difficult, or impossible, because, once the tracks had been re-recorded together onto a single track ('mixed down'), they were previously considered inseparable. More recent software allows sound source separation, whereby individual instruments, voices and effects can be 'upmixed' — isolated from a single-track source — in high quality. This has permitted the production of stereophonic or surround sound mixes of recordings that were originally mastered and released in mono.
History
The process was conceived and developed by Ross Snyder at Ampex in 1955 resulting in the first Sel-Sync machine, an 8-track machine which used one-inch tape. This 8-track recorder was sold to the American guitarist, songwriter, luthier, and inventor Les Paul for $10,000. It became known as the "Octopus". Les Paul, Mary Ford and Patti Page used the technology in the late 1950s to enhance vocals and instruments. From these beginnings, it evolved in subsequent decades into a mainstream recording technique.
With computers
Since the early 1990s, many performers have recorded music using only a Mac or PC equipped with multitrack recording software as a tracking machine. The computer must have a sound card or other type of audio interface with one or more Analog-to-digital converters. Microphones are needed to record the sounds of vocalists or acoustic instruments. Depending on the capabilities of the system, some instruments, such as a synthesizer or electric guitar, can also be sent to an interface directly using Line level or MIDI inputs. Direct inputs eliminate the need for microphones and can provide another range of sound control options.
There are tremendous differences in computer audio interfaces. Such units vary widely in price, sound quality, and flexibility. The most basic interfaces use audio circuitry that is built into the computer motherboard. The most sophisticated audio interfaces are external units of professional studio quality which can cost thousands of dollars. Professional interfaces usually use one or more IEEE 1394 (commonly known as FireWire) connections. Other types of interfaces may use internal PCI cards, or external USB connections. Popular manufacturers of high-quality interfaces include Apogee Electronics, Avid Audio (formerly Digidesign), Echo Digital Audio, Focusrite, MOTU, RME Audio, M-Audio and PreSonus.
Microphones are often designed for highly specific applications and have a major effect on recording quality. A single studio-quality microphone can cost $5,000 or more, while consumer-quality recording microphones can be bought for less than $50 each. Microphones also need some type of microphone preamplifier to prepare the signal for use by other equipment. These preamplifiers can also have a major effect on the sound and come in different price ranges, physical configurations, and capability levels. Microphone preamplifiers may be external units or a built in feature of other audio equipment.
Software
Software for multitrack recording can record multiple tracks at once. It generally uses graphic notation for an interface and offers a number of views of the music. Most multitrackers also provide audio playback capability. Some multitrack software also provides MIDI playback functions not just for audio; during playback the MIDI data is sent to a softsynth or virtual instrument (e.g., VSTi) which converts the data to audio sound. Multitrack software may also provide other features that qualify it being called a digital audio workstation (DAW). These features may include various displays including showing the score of the music, as well as editing capability. There is often overlap between many of the categories of musical software. In this case scorewriters and full featured multitrackers such as DAWs have similar features for playback, but may have less similarity for editing and recording.
Multitrack recording software varies widely in price and capability. Popular multitrack recording software programs include: Reason, Ableton Live, FL Studio, Adobe Audition, Pro Tools, Digital Performer, Cakewalk Sonar, Samplitude, Nuendo, Cubase and Logic. Lower-cost alternatives include Mixcraft, REAPER and n-Track Studio. Open-source and free software programs are also available for multitrack recording. These range from very basic programs such as Jokosher to Ardour and Audacity, which are capable of performing many functions of the most sophisticated programs.
Instruments and voices are usually recorded as individual files on a computer hard drive. These function as tracks which can be added, removed or processed in many ways. Effects such as reverb, chorus, and delays can be applied by electronic devices or by computer software. Such effects are used to shape the sound as desired by the producer. When the producer is satisfied with the recorded sound finished tracks can be mixed into a new stereo pair of tracks within the multitrack recording software. Finally, the final stereo recording can be written to a CD, which can be copied and distributed.
Order of recording
In modern popular songs, drums, percussion instruments and electric bass are often among the first instruments to be recorded.
These are the core instruments of the rhythm section. Musicians recording later tracks use the precise attack of the drum sounds as a rhythmic guide. In some styles, the drums may be recorded for a few bars and then looped. Click (metronome) tracks are also often used as the first sound to be recorded, especially when the drummer is not available for the initial recording, and/or the final mix will be synchronized with motion picture and/or video images. One reason that a band may start with just the drums is because this allows the band to pick the song's key later on. The producer and the musicians can experiment with the song's key and arrangement against the basic rhythm track. Also, though the drums might eventually be mixed down to a couple of tracks, each individual drum and percussion instrument might be initially recorded to its own individual track. The drums and percussion combined can occupy a large number of tracks utilized in a recording. This is done so that each percussion instrument can be processed individually for maximum effect. Equalization (or EQ) is often used on individual drums, to bring out each one's characteristic sound. The last tracks recorded are often the vocals (though a temporary vocal track may be recorded early on either as a reference or to guide subsequent musicians; this is sometimes called a "guide vocal", "ghost vocal" or "scratch vocal"). One reason for this is that singers will often temper their vocal expression in accordance with the accompaniment. Producers and songwriters can also use the guide/scratch vocal when they have not quite ironed out all the lyrics or for flexibility based on who sings the lead vocal (as The Alan Parsons Project's Eric Woolfson often did).
Concert music
For classical and jazz recordings, particularly instrumentals where multitracking is chosen as the recording method (as opposed to direct to stereo, for example), a different arrangement is used; all tracks are recorded simultaneously. Sound barriers are often placed between different groups within the orchestra, e.g. pianists, violinists, percussionists, etc. When barriers are used, these groups listen to each other via headphones.
See also
Click track
Comparison of digital audio editors
Digital audio workstation
Dynamic range compression
Fostex
List of musical works released in a stem format
MIDI mockup
Module file
Overdubbing
Portastudio
Surround sound
Quadraphonic sound
Remix
Reverb
Sound effects#Techniques
TASCAM
Revox
References
External links
n-Track Studio - Multitrack recording software
"All You Need is Ears" by George Martin, p. 148-157
The History of Magnetic Recording
Recording Technology History
Der Bingle Technology
"Both Sides Now" webpage on Ampex Records
AES Historical Committee: Ampex History Project
Sound recording
Tape recording
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|
255135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bea | Bea | Bea or BEA, as a name, abbreviation, or acronym, may refer to:
Companies and organisations
Bank of East Asia
BEA Systems, an American software company
Belgian Entertainment Association, a music, video and video game industry organization
British European Airways
Broadcast Education Association, an international organization of media communication scholars
Spanish Bank of Algae, a national research and development service
Government agencies
British Electricity Authority
Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile, the French agency responsible for investigating aviation accidents
Bureau d'Enquête et d'Analyse pour la sécurité de l'aviation civile (Senegal), the Senegalese agency responsible for investigating aviation accidents
Bureau of Economic Analysis, an agency of the United States Department of Commerce
New Hampshire Department of Business and Economic Affairs, an agency of the U.S. state of New Hampshire
People
Bea (given name)
Bea (surname)
Arts, entertainment, and media
Bea, character from the Supercell game Brawl Stars
Beabadoobee, a Filipino-British singer-songwriter
Other uses
Bea, Aragon, a municipality in the province of Teruel, Aragon, Spain
Bail Enforcement Agent, a bounty hunter
Bea or Aka-Bea language, an Asian extinct language
Bile esculin agar, a growth medium
BookExpo America, a major book fair in the United States
See also
Beas (disambiguation)
Beatrix (disambiguation)
Beatrice (disambiguation)
Bee (disambiguation) | [
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255137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suure-Jaani | Suure-Jaani | Suure-Jaani is a town in the northern part of the county of Viljandimaa in Põhja-Sakala rural municipality, 25 kilometres north of the town of Viljandi. Until 2017, Suure-Jaani was the administrative centre of Suure-Jaani rural municipality.
History
The oldest archaeological findings from the area date back to the 6th millennium B.C. At the end of the 12th century A.D., the Lehola hill fort of ancient Estonians was built at a location (now known as Lõhavere) approximately two kilometres north-east of the present town border. The hill fort was the centre of the northernmost district (Estonian: kihelkond) in the historical Estonian county of Sakala and also one of the centres of Estonians' fight against the conquest of German Sword Brethren in the 13th century, including in the Battle of Lehola. Not much except the hill remains of it but the place (known in Estonian also as Lembitu linnamägi) is still visited as a tourist attraction. 2/3 of the hill-fort have been excavated archaeologically.
The locality of Suure-Jaani was initially called Wallola (or "Valle"), first recorded in 1423(?). The town began to develop around the (now Lutheran) Church of Great Saint John the Evangelist (Groß Sankt Johannis in German), built before the year 1300. There is a Lutheran cemetery near the church. The church was severely damaged during the Livonian War (1558–1582) and the Great Northern War (1700–1721), particularly the latter (the church was burnt down in 1703 and the restoration was completed only in 1767). The present name, "Suure-Jaani" (literally meaning "Great John's"), which came into widespread use for the locality only in the 1880s, when it developed into a village in its own right, is an Estonian derivative from the German name of the church. Until then, the name "Suure-Jaani" was used only for the church as well as its immediate surroundings (the church estate), while other areas of the present town were separate villages: Valula (or Wallola; the southern part of the present town of Suure-Jaani), Nuutre (the eastern part) and Päraküla (or Perraküla; the north-western part; one part of the traditional Päraküla still being a separate village nowadays).
During centuries, Suure-Jaani was one of the centres of Suure-Jaani parish (which was in 1629–1721 administratively a part of Swedish Livonia, in 1721–1918 a part of the Governorate of Livonia and as from 1918 a part of the Republic of Estonia) and, since the end of the 19th century, also the cultural and commercial centre of the parish region.
In 1906–1908, Sts. Peter and Paul Orthodox Church was built at the village of Valula (now Suure-Jaani). The Orthodox congregation had already been established in the nearby village of Olustvere in 1847. In 1911, an Orthodox cemetery was established at Valula (now Suure-Jaani), replacing the former Orthodox cemetery, which was located in the village of Reegoldi near Olustvere. As from 1989 Sts. Peter and Paul Church was not used for services for a couple of decades but is being restored since 2018 and is being used, since the late 2010s, for Orthodox religious services again.
In 1924, Suure-Jaani was granted the rights of a town (Estonian: alev) and in 1938, it was granted city rights.
In 1950–1959, Suure-Jaani was the capital of Suure-Jaani District (of the Estonian SSR). The 1950s also marked the all-time peak number (approximately 1700) in the population of the town. During the administrative reform in 1960, Suure-Jaani District was dissolved and became part of the larger Viljandi District (now the county of Viljandimaa).
In 2005, a new Suure-Jaani rural municipality was formed by the town of Suure-Jaani (which had been a separate urban municipality until then), the former separate Suure-Jaani rural municipality and Olustvere and Vastemõisa rural municipalities. Therefore, the town is not a separate municipality any more but retains its city rights.
On 21 October 2017, Suure-Jaani rural municipality united with the city of Võhma and the Kõo and Kõpu rural municipalities to form the new Põhja-Sakala rural municipality.
Geography
Suure-Jaani is situated in Sakala Upland, offering picturesque views with its park, two artificial lakes and church in the centre of the town.
Transport
Due to its small size, Suure-Jaani has no urban transport. The town has a bus stop for intercity lines. The nearest railway station is at Olustvere (5 km). The nearest towns are Võhma (12 km), Viljandi (25 km), Põltsamaa (28 km) and Vändra (32 km). The distance of Suure-Jaani from Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, is 143 km.
Culture
During the Estonian national awakening period in the 19th century, Suure-Jaani parish was one of the regional centres of educational, cultural and social life (largely as a result of the efforts of schoolmaster and musician Joosep Kapp and also e.g. as the parish of origin of the first Estonian professional painter Johann Köler, who both actively contributed to the development and promotion of Estonian culture).
Presently, Suure-Jaani hosts the Suure-Jaani Music Days, an annual summer festival of classical music started in 1998, dedicated to the Kapp family of composers. Suure-Jaani is also the place of establishment of the International Artur Kapp Society, a non-profit foundation for promoting the works and life of composer Artur Kapp and other composers related to Suure-Jaani, such as Mart Saar.
Places of interest
Church of Great Saint John the Evangelist
Home museum of the Kapp family of composers and musicians
Monument of the Estonian War of Independence (depicting Lembitu of Lehola)
Lehola hill fort (Lembitu linnamägi) of ancient Estonians at Lõhavere (nearby, in Põhja-Sakala rural municipality)
Home museum of composer Mart Saar at Hüpassaare (in Põhja-Sakala rural municipality)
Home museum of painter Johann Köler at Lubjassaare farm (Ivaski village in Põhja-Sakala rural municipality)
Soomaa National Park (20–30 km south-west of Suure-Jaani)
Notable people
Ado Johanson (1874–1932), agronomist and agricultural figure
Aleksander Kapp (1874–1940), church figure and politician
Artur Kapp (1878–1952), composer
Joosep Kapp (1833–1894), developer of Estonian education and culture
Villem Kapp (1913–1964), composer
Tõnis Kint (1896–1991), politician, Estonian Prime Minister and President in exile in 1970–1990
Albert Kivikas (1898–1978), writer
Johann Köler (1826–1899), painter
Paul Kondas (1900–1985), painter
Helmen Kütt (born 1961), politician
Felix Moor (1903–1955), the first Estonian radio reporter
Mart Saar (1882–1963), composer
Herman Simm (born 1947), convicted traitor
Helen Tobias-Duesberg (1919–2010), composer
Roman Toi (1916–2018), conductor and composer
Priit Toobal (born 1983), politician
See also
Suure-Jaani United
References
External links
Cities and towns in Estonia
Former municipalities of Estonia
Põhja-Sakala Parish
Kreis Fellin | [
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|
255146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCSC | UCSC | UCSC may refer to:
University of California, Santa Cruz, a public, collegiate research university and one of 10 campuses in the University of California system
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, an Italian private research university founded in 1921
University of Colombo School of Computing, a higher educational institute affiliated to the University of Colombo in Sri Lanka
University City Science Center
Catholic University of the Holy Conception (Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción), a university in Chile and part of the Chilean Traditional Universities | [
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|
255148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanichthys | Tanichthys | Tanichthys is a genus of freshwater fish in the carp family (Cyprinidae) of order Cypriniformes. They are native to rivers and streams in China and Vietnam. Until recently, the type species, T. albonubes, was the only one known. In 2001, however, Freyhof and Herder described a new and very similar species, T. micagemmae, from the Ben Hai River in Vietnam and V. H. Nguyen & S. V. Ngô described a third species from Vietnam.
The name Tanichthys comes from the name of the Chinese Boy Scout leader, Tan, who discovered the first specimen.
Species
Tanichthys albonubes S. Y. Lin, 1932 (White cloud mountain minnow)
Tanichthys kuehnei Bohlen, Dvorák, Ha & Šlechtová, 2019 (Lemon white cloud)
Tanichthys micagemmae Freyhof & Herder, 2001 (Vietnamese cardinal minnow)
Tanichthys thacbaensis V. H. Nguyễn & S. V. Ngô, 2001
Tanichthys albiventris F. Li, T. Y. Liao, J. Bohlen, Z. X. Shen, L. J. Zhao & S. Li, 2022
Tanichthys flavianalis F. Li, T. Y. Liao, J. Bohlen, Z. X. Shen, L. J. Zhao & S. Li, 2022
References
External links
Tincinae
Cyprinidae genera
Cyprinid fish of Asia
Paleontology in Shandong | [
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|
255150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Tragically%20Hip | The Tragically Hip | The Tragically Hip, often referred to simply as the Hip, were a Canadian rock band formed in Kingston, Ontario in 1984, consisting of vocalist Gord Downie, guitarist Paul Langlois, guitarist Rob Baker (known as Bobby Baker until 1994), bassist Gord Sinclair, and drummer Johnny Fay. They released 13 studio albums, one live album, one EP, and over 50 singles over a 33-year career. Nine of their albums have reached No. 1 on the Canadian charts. They have received numerous Canadian music awards, including 17 Juno Awards. Between 1996 and 2016, the Tragically Hip were the best-selling Canadian band in Canada and the fourth best-selling Canadian artist overall in Canada.
Following Downie's diagnosis with terminal brain cancer in 2015, the band undertook a tour of Canada in support of their thirteenth album Man Machine Poem. The tour's final concert, which would ultimately be the band's last show, was held at the Rogers K-Rock Centre in Kingston on August 20, 2016, and broadcast globally by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as a cross-platform television, radio and internet streaming special.
After Downie died on October 17, 2017, the band announced in July 2018 that they would no longer perform under the name. The surviving members have, however, continued to pursue other musical projects, and have begun releasing compilation albums of previously unreleased songs from the band's archives.
History
Early history (1984–1991)
The Tragically Hip formed in 1984 in Kingston, Ontario. Gord Sinclair and Rob Baker were students at Kingston Collegiate and had performed together at the KCVI Variety Show as the Rodents. Baker and Sinclair joined with Downie and Fay in 1984 and began playing gigs around Kingston with some memorable stints at Clark Hall Pub and Alfie's, student bars on Queen's University campus. Guitarist Paul Langlois joined in 1986; saxophonist Davis Manning left that same year. They took their name from a skit in the Michael Nesmith movie Elephant Parts.
First album
By the mid-1980s, they performed in small music venues across Ontario until being seen by then-MCA Vice President Bruce Dickinson at the Horseshoe Tavern in Toronto. They were then signed to a long-term record deal with MCA, and recorded the EP The Tragically Hip. The album produced two singles, "Small Town Bring-Down" and "Highway Girl". They followed up with 1989's Up to Here. This album produced four singles, "Blow at High Dough", "New Orleans Is Sinking", "Boots or Hearts", and "38 Years Old". All four of these songs found extensive rotation on modern rock radio play lists in Canada.
Second Album: Road Apples
Road Apples followed in 1991, producing three singles ("Little Bones", "Twist My Arm", and "Three Pistols") and reaching No. 1 on Canadian record charts. During the Road Apples tour, Downie became recognized for ranting and telling fictional stories during songs such as "Highway Girl" and "New Orleans Is Sinking". Road Apples was planned to be a double album but was rejected by Universal. The 2008 Universal Studios fire resulted in the destruction of the masters for the second album. The 6 unreleased songs were rediscovered in another collection in 2020.
The sound on these first two full-length albums is sometimes characterized as "blues-tinged", although there is definite acoustic punctuation throughout both discs. Although the band failed to achieve significant international success with these first two albums, their sales and dominance of modern rock radio in Canada gave them license to subsequently explore their sound.
1992–1997
The Hip released another album, Fully Completely in 1992, which produced the singles "Locked in the Trunk of a Car", "Courage", and "At the Hundredth Meridian" and three others. The sound on this album displayed less of a blues influence than previous albums. The Hip created and headlined the first Another Roadside Attraction tour at this time, both to act as a vehicle for their touring, and to promote other Canadian acts (as well as non-Canadians Ziggy Marley and Pere Ubu).
Many songs from Day For Night were first performed prior to their release during the 1993 Another Roadside Attraction Tour. "Nautical Disaster" was played frequently in the middle of "New Orleans Is Sinking", an early version of "Thugs" was tested, and Downie sang lyrics from many other Day For Night songs, such as "Grace, Too", "Scared", and "Emergency", during this tour.
Day for Night was then released in 1994, producing six singles, including "Nautical Disaster" and "Grace, Too". Trouble at the Henhouse followed in 1996, producing five singles starting with "Ahead by a Century", which reached number one on the RPM Canadian singles chart on 24 June and became their most successful single in their home country. "Butts Wigglin", the fifth single from Henhouse, also appeared on the soundtrack to the Kids in the Hall movie Brain Candy. The live album Live Between Us was recorded on the subsequent tour at Cobo Arena in Detroit, Michigan.
The band developed a unique sound and ethos, leaving behind its earlier blues influence. Downie's vocal style changed while the band experimented with song structures and chord progressions. Songs explored the themes of Canadian geography and history, water and land, all motifs that became heavily associated with the Hip. While Fully Completely began an exploration of deeper themes, many critics consider Day for Night to be the Hip's artistry most fully realized. The sound here is typically called "enigmatic" and "dark", while critic MacKenzie Wilson praises "the poignancy of Downie's minimalism."
On the follow-up tour for this album, the band made its only appearance on Saturday Night Live, thanks in large part to the finagling of fellow Canadian and Kingston-area resident Dan Aykroyd, who appeared on the show just to introduce them. Aykroyd, who is a fan of the band, had personally lobbied SNL showrunner Lorne Michaels to book them as a musical guest. The band's performance on the show was one of their highest profile media appearances in the United States.
In July 1996, the Hip headlined Edenfest. The three-day concert took place at Mosport Park, in Bowmanville, Ontario, Canada, just a few months after the LP Trouble at the Henhouse was released. The concert sold over 70,000 tickets total and was attended by an estimated 20,000 additional people who gained access to the concert site after the outside security broke down.
1998–2003
In 1998, the band released their sixth full-length album, Phantom Power, which produced five singles. It won the 1999 Juno Awards for Best Rock Album and Best Album Design. A single from the album, "Bobcaygeon", won the Juno Award for Single of the Year in 2000. The album has been certified platinum three times over in Canada.
In February 1999, the Hip played the very first concert at the brand new Air Canada Centre in Toronto, Ontario. In July 1999, the band was part of the lineup for the Woodstock '99 festival in Rome, New York. On the second day of three, they were the first band to take the stage. They were followed by Kid Rock.
2000 saw the release of Music @ Work. It won the 2001 Juno Award for Best Rock Album. The album featured back-up vocals from Julie Doiron on a number of tracks, and reached No. 1 on the Canadian Billboard Charts.
In 2002, In Violet Light, recorded by Hugh Padgham and Terry Manning at Compass Point Studios in the Bahamas was released, along with three singles from the album. It became certified platinum in Canada. Later that year, the Hip made a cameo appearance in the Paul Gross film Men with Brooms, playing a curling team from their hometown of Kingston. Three of their songs appear in the film, and they backed Sarah Harmer on a fourth, the soundtrack's lead single, "Silver Roads".
On October 10, 2002, the Tragically Hip performed two songs, "It's a Good Life If You Don't Weaken" and "Poets", as part of a command performance for Queen Elizabeth II. In 2003, the band recorded a cover of "Black Day in July", a song about the 1967 12th Street Riot in Detroit, on Beautiful: A Tribute to Gordon Lightfoot.
2004–2008
In Between Evolution was released in 2004 in the No. 1 position in Canada. It has since sold over 100,000 copies.
At the 92nd Grey Cup held November 21, 2004, the band provided the halftime entertainment in front of a packed house at Frank Clair Stadium in Ottawa.
In 2004, in episode 15 ("Rock On"), season 2 of Canadian comedy TV series Corner Gas, the Tragically Hip gave a cameo appearance as an unnamed local band rehearsing in Brent's garage. They play a rough version of the song It Can't Be Nashville Every Night from their In Between Evolution album until interrupted and asked to leave by Brent, Wanda, and Hank. As they disappointedly go, Wanda demands that Gord Sinclair and Rob Baker leave behind their amplifiers.
In October 2005, several radio stations temporarily stopped playing "New Orleans Is Sinking", out of sensitivity to the victims of Hurricane Katrina, which had devastated the city in early September of that year. However, it received considerable pirate radio and relief site play and gained some notoriety and praise in New Orleans due to its attitudinal proximity to the city's culture.
On November 1, 2005, the Hip released a double CD, double DVD box set, Hipeponymous, including all of their singles and music videos to date, a backstage documentary called "Macroscopic", an animated Hip-scored short film entitled "The Right Whale", two brand new songs ("No Threat" and "The New Maybe"), a full-length concert from November 2004 That Night in Toronto, and a 2-CD greatest hits collection Yer Favourites (selected on-line by 150,000 fans). On November 8, 2005, Yer Favourites and That Night in Toronto were released individually.
In 2006, another studio album, entitled World Container, was released, being notably produced by Bob Rock. It produced four singles, and reached the No. 1 spot on the Canadian rock music charts. The band toured concert dates in major Canadian cities, and then as an opening act for the Who on several US dates. A tour of Eastern Canada, Europe, and select cities in the United States occurred late in the year.
On February 23, 2008, the Hip returned to their hometown of Kingston, Ontario, where they were the first live act to perform at the new K-Rock Centre.
2009–2015
In 2009, the band again worked with producer Bob Rock, and We Are the Same was released in North America on April 7, 2009. It produced three singles. To promote We Are the Same, the band invited The Hour's George Stroumboulopoulos for a live interview at The Bathouse Recording Studio in Bath, Ontario (where most of the album was recorded), and they played seven new songs as well as unique versions of five other songs. The interview and performance were broadcast live in more than eighty theatres across Canada.
On January 22, 2010, the band performed "Fiddler's Green" at the "Canada for Haiti" telethon to aid earthquake victims in that country. This was broadcast nationally on all three of Canada's main networks (CBC, Global, and CTV).
Single "At Transformation" was released in May 2012 ahead of the band's twelfth studio album, Now for Plan A. A second single, "Streets Ahead" came out in August that year, and the album followed in October.
The Tragically Hip re-entered their studio in July 2014 to begin work on a new album. The following October, Fully Completely was re-released as a remastered deluxe edition, including two bonus tracks, a vinyl edition and a recording of a live show. To celebrate and promote the re-release, the band toured Canada and the United States from January to October 2015.
2016–2017: Downie's diagnosis, summer tour, and death
In December 2015, Downie was diagnosed with terminal brain cancer. The band announced his diagnosis on May 24, 2016. The band also announced that, despite his condition, they would tour that summer.
The Hip's thirteenth album, Man Machine Poem, was released on June 17, 2016. The album featured songs such as "In a World Possessed by the Human Mind", "In Sarnia", and "Machine".
The final concert of the Man Machine Poem tour was held at the Rogers K-Rock Centre in the band's hometown of Kingston on August 20, 2016. The concert was aired by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as a live cross-platform broadcast on CBC Television, CBC Radio One, CBC Radio 2, CBC Music, and YouTube. The concert featured 30 songs and three encore sets, with the band finishing with a performance of "Ahead by a Century". The CBC's broadcast and live streaming of the concert, uninterrupted by advertisements, was watched by 11.7 million people (roughly one-third of the Canadian population).
On October 13, 2016, Downie gave an interview, his first since his cancer diagnosis, to the CBC's Peter Mansbridge, in which he reported experiencing memory loss. Downie also told Mansbridge that he was working with the Tragically Hip on new studio material, and that the band have up to four albums worth of unreleased material in the vaults.
Downie released his fifth solo album, Secret Path on October 18, 2016. The album is a concept album about Chanie Wenjack, a First Nations boy who escaped from a Canadian Indian residential school in 1966 and died while attempting to make the 600 km walk back to his home.
On December 22, 2016, Downie was selected as The Canadian Press' Canadian Newsmaker of the Year and was the first entertainer ever selected for the title.
On June 15, 2017, all five members of the Tragically Hip were announced as recipients of the Order of Canada by Governor General of Canada David Johnston. Downie received his honour on June 19; the other four members of the band were invested on November 17.
The band and the tour are the subjects of Jennifer Baichwal and Nicholas de Pencier's documentary film Long Time Running, which premiered at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival. It was slated to have its television premiere in November 2017 on CTV, but following Downie's death the network moved the broadcast up to October 20.
Gord Downie died on October 17, 2017. His death was widely mourned throughout Canada. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, who is a fan of the Tragically Hip, released a tribute statement on his official website the morning after Downie's death. Later in the day, he held a press conference at Parliament Hill at which he eulogized Downie as "Our buddy Gord, who loved this country with everything he had—and not just loved it in a nebulous, 'Oh, I love Canada' way. He loved every hidden corner, every story, every aspect of this country that he celebrated his whole life."
Following Downie's death, many of the band's albums climbed the Billboard Canadian Albums chart, which is compiled by Neilsen Music. In the week ending October 19, 2017 (the day following the announcement of Downie's death), Yer Favourites rose to No. 2 in the chart, with another 10 albums moving to the Top 200. Streaming also increased 700 percent, and many of the Tragically Hip's top hits remained on the Spotify Canadian Viral 50 as of October 23, 2017.
2018–present: Activity following Downie's death
Before his death, Downie indicated in interviews that the band had unreleased material that may still be issued as one or more new albums; when accepting Downie's posthumous awards at the Juno Awards of 2018, his brothers Patrick and Mike also stated that more unreleased music is likely to be issued in the future.
A National Celebration, a concert film of the Tragically Hip's final concert, was released on DVD and Blu-ray on December 8, 2017.
In July 2018, guitarist Rob Baker told Entertainment Tonight Canada that the Tragically Hip were no longer active as a touring or recording entity following Downie's death. He stated "When I say The Tragically Hip doesn't exist as a performing unit anymore because a key member is gone, I think [fans] understand that. We wouldn't be The Hip without Gord [...] The Hip has played their last note." Baker also revealed that Downie had encouraged the group to audition replacement vocalists, but the other members did not seriously consider the idea. With the legalization of marijuana in Canada, the remaining band members became investment partners in Newstrike, a cannabis company which has named several of its products after Tragically Hip songs.
In a July 2018 interview with the Toronto Sun, Baker confirmed that at least three albums' worth of unreleased material was recorded with Downie before his death, but stated that the band had yet to decide how it would be released.
On October 11, 2018, six days before the first anniversary of Downie's death, Fay and Baker joined Choir! Choir! Choir! at Yonge-Dundas Square for a live performance of the Tragically Hip's "Grace, Too".
On October 17, 2018, one year after Downie's death, a previously unreleased studio recording of the song "Wait So Long" was played on CIKR-FM, a radio station in the band's hometown of Kingston.
The Tragically Hip was among hundreds of artists whose material was reported to have been destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire but it later emerged that the band's master tapes had been transferred back to Canada in 2001, and had escaped the fire.
On September 14, 2019, Langlois, Sinclair and Baker performed a set at Rockin' the Big House, a benefit concert on the grounds of the former Kingston Penitentiary, with guest vocalists Hugh Dillon and Tom Cochrane.
In January 2020, Sinclair announced that his own debut album as a solo artist, Taxi Dancers, would be released on February 28.
In June 2020, the band and manager Jake Gold announced that they were undertaking an "archaeological dig" to select music and memorabilia from the band's archives for future release.
In early 2021, Rob Baker released a new album with his side band project, Stripper's Union.
The band released Saskadelphia, an EP comprising five previously unreleased and recently found Road Apples outtakes and a live track (as the original version has yet to be found). Road Apples was planned to be a double album, but was rejected by the label. Many songs were presumed to be destroyed in the Universal fire in 2008, but the masters were found and transferred to new recordings in 2019. Saskadelphia was released on May 21, 2021.
At the Juno Awards of 2021, the surviving members of the Tragically Hip performed their 2002 single "It's a Good Life If You Don't Weaken" with Feist on lead vocals, which marked the band's first televised performance since Downie's death. In a promotional interview on CBC Radio's Q before the ceremony, the band stated that they agreed to perform specifically because Feist had been proposed as the vocalist, with Langlois stating that "OK, so that's not going to be some guy trying to sing like Gord or some guy trying not to sing like Gord. It was a 'no' until Feist came up." The band also received the Juno Humanitarian Award at the ceremony for their history of philanthropic work in Canada.
Legacy and influence
The Tragically Hip's music is extremely popular in their native Canada, and Downie's songwriting has been praised for frequently touching upon uniquely Canadian subjects not otherwise covered by mainstream rock groups. In The National Post, Dave Kaufman wrote "Although Downie sings of Canada, his songs are by no means patriotic, or no more than in the way that we're all influenced by where we're from. The band have never been so obvious as to drape themselves in a Canadian flag, but instead, they evoke that shared experience of what it's meant for many of us to grow up in Canada." The band was a member of the Canadian charity Artists Against Racism and worked with them on radio PSAs.
According to Nielsen BDS, the Tragically Hip were the fourth best-selling Canadian musical artist in Canada between 1996 and 2016. In that same period of time, "Ahead by a Century" was listed as the 67th most played song on Canadian radio across all formats, while 18 of their songs appeared in a list of the Top 150 most played songs on Canadian rock radio.
Despite their high popularity in Canada, the group was never able to cross over into the American rock music scene apart from a small, devoted fan-base centered in border cities like Buffalo, New York and Detroit, Michigan. The band notched four entries on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks singles chart in the US; their highest-charting song on the chart being "Courage (for Hugh MacLennan)", which reached No. 16 in 1993. Downie once complained that the band's lack of crossover to the American rock music market had been overexamined, stating "[Interviewers] always ask us about our success or lack of success in the States, which I find absurd. While that is a story of the band, there are so many other stories."
Numerous tribute and cover bands to the Tragically Hip have actively performed across Canada both before and after the band's dissolution. The band's music also provides the score for a full length contemporary ballet, Jean Grand-Maitre's All of Us.
The band were named as an influence by several Canadian musicians and bands across multiple genres, including Dallas Green, k-os, and Kevin Drew.
Members
Gord Downie – lead vocals, guitar (1984–2017; deceased)
Rob Baker – guitar (1984–2017)
Paul Langlois – guitar, backup vocals (1986–2017)
Gord Sinclair – bass, backup vocals (1984–2017)
Johnny Fay – drums, percussion (1984–2017)
Davis Manning – saxophone (1984–1986)
Awards and honours
SOCAN Awards
1997: National Achievement Award
Canada's Walk of Fame:
2002: Inducted in Toronto, Ontario
Canadian Music Hall of Fame:
2005: Inducted at the Juno Awards in Winnipeg, Manitoba
Royal Conservatory of Music:
2006: Presented with an honorary fellowship May 24 at the Windsor Arms Hotel in Toronto, Ontario
Governor General's Performing Arts Awards:
2008: Presented the National Arts Centre Award in Ottawa, Ontario
Juno Awards
1990: Most Promising Group of the Year
1991: Canadian Entertainer of the Year
1993: Canadian Entertainer of the Year
1995: Entertainer of the Year
1995: Group of the Year
1997: Group of the Year
1997: Album of the Year (Trouble at the Henhouse),
1997: North Star Rock Album of the Year (Trouble at the Henhouse)
1999: Best Rock Album (Phantom Power)
1999: Best Album Design (Phantom Power)
2000: Best Single ("Bobcaygeon")
2001: Best Rock Album (Music at Work)
2006: CD/DVD Artwork Design of the Year (Hipeponymous)
2006: Music DVD of the Year (Hipeponymous)
2017: Rock Album of the Year (Man Machine Poem)
2017: Group of the Year
2021: Juno Humanitarian Award
Order of Canada
2017: Appointed to the Order of Canada
Homages:
In 2012, the city of Kingston Ontario renamed a prominent portion of Barrack Street, in front of the K-Rock Centre, to "The Tragically Hip Way".
In 2013, the Tragically Hip were one of four bands—alongside Rush, the Guess Who, and Beau Dommage—honoured by Canada Post in a series of postage stamps.
On January 1, 2017, CBC Radio 2's The Strombo Show aired a special episode titled The Hip 30, which consisted of Canadian musicians performing live covers of the band's songs and sharing their thoughts on the band's impact on Canadian culture. Participating artists included Blue Rodeo, Sarah Harmer, Barenaked Ladies, Donovan Woods, Stars, Arkells and Rheostatics. The episode was already planned as a tribute to the band's 30th anniversary before Downie's cancer diagnosis was announced; several times during the show, host George Stroumboulopoulos reaffirmed that "this is not a eulogy; this is a celebration."
On January 28, 2017, the Kingston Frontenacs of the Ontario Hockey League played against the Mississauga Steelheads in a special theme night game, in which the Frontenacs wore specially designed Tragically Hip sweaters. The band participated in the pregame show, in which the band members were presented with their own sweaters.
On February 2, 2017, the City of Kingston unveiled a commemorative stone in Springer Market Square with Rob Baker and Paul Langlois, recognizing the last concert of the Man Machine Poem tour. Lyrics "Everybody was in it from miles around..." from Blow at High Dough were selected in an online poll with over 11,000 votes cast.
On May 2, 2018, Alberta Ballet premiered All of Us, a full-length contemporary ballet featuring the music of the Tragically Hip. Discussions about the project began in early 2016 and had the support of all five band members. The ballet has since been performed in Calgary and Edmonton where Rob Baker attended in both cities on behalf of the band. In 2019 will tour to multiple Canadian cities.
Discography
The Tragically Hip (EP) (MCA, 1987)
Up to Here (MCA, 1989)
Road Apples (MCA, 1991)
Fully Completely (MCA, 1992)
Day for Night (MCA, 1994)
Trouble at the Henhouse (MCA, 1996)
Phantom Power (Universal, 1998)
Music @ Work (Universal, 2000)
In Violet Light (Universal, 2002)
In Between Evolution (Universal, 2004)
World Container (Universal, 2006)
We Are the Same (Universal, 2009)
Now for Plan A (Universal, 2012)
Man Machine Poem (Universal, 2016)
Saskadelphia (EP) (Universal, 2021)
See also
Canadian rock
Music of Canada
List of Saturday Night Live hosts and musical guests
List of diamond-certified albums in Canada
List of Canadian musicians
List of bands from Canada
References
External links
CanConRox entry
Watch the National Film Board of Canada short documentary Family Band, produced for the Governor General's Performing Arts Awards for Lifetime Artistic Achievement (Requires Adobe Flash)
Musical groups established in 1983
Musical groups disestablished in 2017
Musical groups from Kingston, Ontario
Canadian alternative rock groups
Fellows of the Royal Conservatory of Music
Canadian Music Hall of Fame inductees
Zoë Records artists
1983 establishments in Ontario
Governor General's Performing Arts Award winners
Members of the Order of Canada
Juno Award for Single of the Year winners
Juno Award for Album of the Year winners
Juno Award for Breakthrough Group of the Year winners
Juno Award for Rock Album of the Year winners
Juno Award for Group of the Year winners | [
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|
255151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Command%20Authority%20%28United%20States%29 | National Command Authority (United States) | National Command Authority (NCA) is a term that was used by the Department of Defense of the United States of America to refer to the ultimate source of lawful military orders.
The NCA was first alluded to in a 1960 Department of Defense document. It included at least the president of the United States as commander-in-chief and sometimes the vice president, secretary of defense, or the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and/or their alternates and successors. The term has no statutory or constitutional basis and was replaced in 2002 in favor of explicitly referring to the president and/or the secretary of defense.
The term also refers to communications with the commanding officers of the Unified Combatant Commands to put U.S. forces into action.
Authorization of a nuclear or strategic attack
Only the president can direct the use of nuclear weapons by U.S. Armed Forces, through plans like OPLAN 8010-12. The president has unilateral authority as commander-in-chief to order that nuclear weapons be used for any reason at any time.
See also
Designated survivor
United States Strategic Command
Goldwater–Nichols Act
Notes and references
Presidency of the United States
Command and control in the United States Department of Defense
Continuity of government in the United States
Command and control systems of the United States military | [
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|
255154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lembitu | Lembitu | Lembitu (Estonian also: Lembit, died 21 September 1217) was an ancient Estonian senior (elder) from Sakala County and military leader in the struggle against conquest of the Estonian lands by the German Livonian Brothers of the Sword at the beginning of the 13th century. He is the only Estonian pre-Crusade ruler, about whom some biographical information is known (he is mentioned only in the Livonian Chronicle of Henry).
Lembitu, also referred to in Latin as Lambite, Lembito or Lembitus, was first mentioned in chronicles in 1211. Troops led by Lembitu destroyed a troop of missionaries in the historical Estonian county of Sakala (Sackalia) and made a raid as far as Pskov, then a town of the Novgorod Republic. In 1215, Lembitu's Lehola (Leal) stronghold (situated near the present town of Suure-Jaani) was taken by Germans and Lembitu was taken prisoner. He was released in 1217.
Lembitu attempted to unite the Estonians in order to withstand the German conquest. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but was killed in the following Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217.
Title and degree of power
The only written biographical information about Lembit comes from the Livonian Chronicle of Henry, where he is described as "senior" ("elder") and " "princeps ac senior perfidus Lembitus" ("perfidious prince and elder Lembitu"). In another place the chronicle speaks of " Lambito et Meme, seniores de Sackale " (Lembuto and Meme, elders of Sakala), i.e., Lembitu was not the only elder of the county, thus precluding some interpretations of Lembitu's title as "king of Sakala" or "the elder of Sakala". Modern archaeological evidence suggests that Sakala was kingdom. Also, is evidence of a power level king.
Searching the skull of Lembitu in Poland
There are rumors that Lembitu's skull might reside in a Polish museum. During the 1970s, a group of Polish students visiting Estonia spoke of a museum home to the skull of an "Estonian king" with the description "Rex Estorum". In 2017, Estonia and Poland began to search for this skull, but this has been a time-consuming process, as the country is home to over 5,000 museums.
See also
Caupo of Turaida
Livonian Crusade
Rulers of Estonia
Sakala/Sackalia
Vetseke
External links
Lembitu
Monument of Lembitu in Suure-Jaani
References
1217 deaths
People of medieval Estonia
Military personnel killed in action
Pagans of the Livonian Crusade
Year of birth unknown
Pagan martyrs | [
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|
255156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic%20Arms%20Reduction%20Treaty | Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty | Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) may refer to:
START I, signed on July 31, 1991
START II, signed January 3, 1993
START III, never signed
New START, signed on April 8, 2010 | [
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|
255157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoker | Smoker | Smoker is a noun derived from smoke and may have the following specialized meanings:
Someone who smokes tobacco or cannabis, cigarette substitutes, or various other drugs
Smoking (cooking), smoker, an apparatus for smoking (cooking technique)
Bee smoker, a tool used in beekeeping
Räuchermann, a German figurine used for burning incense
A stag film
People
Smoker (surname)
Fictional characters
Smoker (One Piece), a character from the manga and anime One Piece
A smoker, or copper-burner, one of the types of allomancer in Brandon Sanderson's fantasy Mistborn series
Smoker, a special infected in the 2008 game Left 4 Dead
The antagonists in the 1995 film Waterworld
Other uses
Smokers (Footlights), performances by Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club, typically late-night shows presenting a collection of sketches and comedy songs
Smoking concert
The Smokers (film), a 2000 film directed and written by Kat Slater
The Smokers (painting), a 1630s painting by Adriaen Brouwer
Black smoker, a type of hydrothermal vent
White smoker, a type of hydrothermal vent
Smoker parrot, colloquial name for the regent parrot
"The Smoker," a short story by David Schickler
Smoker or smoking car, a car on a passenger train, in which smoking is permitted, just as a sleeper or sleeping car is where passengers can sleep
In baseball, another term for fastball.
See also
Chain smoker
Smoking (disambiguation) | [
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255158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain%20elevator | Grain elevator | A grain elevator is an agrarian facility complex designed to stockpile or store grain. In the grain trade, the term "grain elevator" also describes a tower containing a bucket elevator or a pneumatic conveyor, which scoops up grain from a lower level and deposits it in a silo or other storage facility.
In most cases, grain elevator also describes the entire elevator complex, including receiving and testing offices, weighbridges, and storage facilities. It may also mean organizations that operate or control several individual elevators, in different locations. In Australia, the term describes only the lifting mechanism.
Before the advent of the grain elevator, grain was usually handled in bags rather than in bulk (large quantities of loose grain). Dart's Elevator was a major innovation. It was invented by Joseph Dart, a merchant, and Robert Dunbar, an engineer, in 1842 and 1843, in Buffalo, New York. Using the steam-powered flour mills of Oliver Evans as their model, they invented the marine leg, which scooped loose grain out of the hulls of ships and elevated it to the top of a marine tower.
Early grain elevators and bins were often built of framed or cribbed wood, and were prone to fire. Grain-elevator bins, tanks, and silos are now usually made of steel or reinforced concrete. Bucket elevators are used to lift grain to a distributor or consignor, from which it falls through spouts and/or conveyors and into one or more bins, silos, or tanks in a facility. When desired, silos, bins, and tanks are emptied by gravity flow, sweep augers, and conveyors. As grain is emptied from bins, tanks, and silos, it is conveyed, blended, and weighted into trucks, railroad cars, or barges for shipment.
Usage and definitions
In Australian English, the term "grain elevator" is reserved for elevator towers, while a receival and storage building or complex is distinguished by the formal term "receival point" or as a "wheat bin" or "silo". Large-scale grain receival, storage, and logistics operations are known in Australia as bulk handling.
In Canada, the term "grain elevator" is used to refer to a place where farmers sell grain into the global grain distribution system, and/or a place where the grain is moved into rail cars or ocean-going ships for transport. Specifically, several types of grain elevators are defined under Canadian law, in the Canadian Grain Act, section 2.
Primary elevators (called "country elevators" before 1971) receive grain directly from producers for storage, forwarding, or both.
Process elevators (called "mill elevators" before 1971) receive and store grain for direct manufacture or processing into other products.
Terminal elevators receive grain on or after official inspection and weighing and clean, store, and treat grain before moving it forward.
Transfer elevators (including "Eastern elevators" from the pre-1971 classification) transfer grain that has been officially inspected and weighed at another elevator. In the Eastern Division, transfer elevators also receive, clean, and store eastern or foreign grain.
History
Both necessity and the prospect of making money gave birth to the steam-powered grain elevator in Buffalo, New York, in 1843. Due to the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, Buffalo enjoyed a unique position in American geography. It stood at the intersection of two great all-water routes; one extended from New York Harbor, up the Hudson River to Albany, and beyond it, the Port of Buffalo; the other comprised the Great Lakes, which could theoretically take boaters in any direction they wished to go (north to Canada, west to Michigan or Wisconsin, south to Toledo and Cleveland, or east to the Atlantic Ocean). All through the 1830s, Buffalo benefited tremendously from its position. In particular, it was the recipient of most of the increasing quantities of grain (mostly wheat) that was being grown on farms in Ohio and Indiana, and shipped on Lake Erie for trans-shipment to the Erie Canal. If Buffalo had not been there, or when things got backed up there, that grain would have been loaded onto boats at Cincinnati and shipped down the Mississippi River to New Orleans.
By 1842, Buffalo's port facilities clearly had become antiquated. They still relied upon techniques that had been in use since the European Middle Ages; work teams of stevedores use block and tackles and their own backs to unload or load each sack of grain that had been stored ashore or in the boat's hull. Several days, sometimes even a week, were needed to serve a single grain-laden boat. Grain shipments were going down the Mississippi River, not over the Great Lakes/Erie Canal system.
A merchant named Joseph Dart Jr., is generally credited as being the one who adapted Oliver Evans' grain elevator (originally a manufacturing device) for use in a commercial framework (the trans-shipment of grain in bulk from lakers to canal boats), but the actual design and construction of the world's first steam-powered "grain storage and transfer warehouse" was executed by an engineer named Robert Dunbar. Thanks to the historic Dart's Elevator (operational on 1 June 1843), which worked almost seven times faster than its nonmechanized predecessors, Buffalo was able to keep pace with—and thus further stimulate—the rapid growth of American agricultural production in the 1840s and 1850s, but especially after the Civil War, with the coming of the railroads.
The world's second and third grain elevators were built in Toledo, Ohio, and Brooklyn, New York, in 1847. These fledgling American cities were connected through an emerging international grain trade of unprecedented proportions. Grain shipments from farms in Ohio were loaded onto ships by elevators at Toledo; these ships were unloaded by elevators at Buffalo that shipped their grain to canal boats (and, later, rail cars), which were unloaded by elevators in Brooklyn, where the grain was either distributed to East Coast flour mills or loaded for further shipment to England, the Netherlands, or Germany. This eastern flow of grain, though, was matched by an equally important flow of people and capital in the opposite direction, that is, from east to west. Because of the money to be made in grain production, and of course, because of the existence of an all-water route to get there, increasing numbers of immigrants in Brooklyn came to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to become farmers. More farmers meant more prairies turned into farmlands, which in turn meant increased grain production, which of course meant that more grain elevators would have to be built in places such as Toledo, Buffalo, and Brooklyn (and Cleveland, Chicago, and Duluth). Through this loop of productivity set in motion by the invention of the grain elevator, the United States became a major international producer of wheat, corn, and oats.
In the early 20th century, concern arose about monopolistic practices in the grain elevator industry, leading to testimony before the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1906. This led to several grain elevators being burned down in Nebraska, allegedly in protest.
Today, grain elevators are a common sight in the grain-growing areas of the world, such as the North American prairies. Larger terminal elevators are found at distribution centers, such as Chicago and Thunder Bay, Ontario, where grain is sent for processing, or loaded aboard trains or ships to go further afield.
Buffalo, New York, the world's largest grain port from the 1850s until the first half of the 20th century, once had the United States' largest capacity for the storage of grain in over 30 concrete grain elevators located along the inner and outer harbors. While several are still in productive use, many of those that remain are presently idle. In a nascent trend, some of the city's inactive capacity has recently come back online, with an ethanol plant started in 2007 using one of the previously mothballed elevators to store corn. In the early 20th century, Buffalo's grain elevators inspired modernist architects such as Le Corbusier, who exclaimed, "The first fruits of the new age!" when he first saw them. Buffalo's grain elevators have been documented for the Historic American Engineering Record and added to the National Register of Historic Places. Currently, Enid, Oklahoma, holds the title of most grain storage capacity in the United States.
In farming communities, each town had one or more small grain elevators that served the local growers. The classic grain elevator was constructed with wooden cribbing and had nine or more larger square or rectangular bins arranged in 3 × 3 or 3 × 4 or 4 × 4 or more patterns. Wooden-cribbed elevators usually had a driveway with truck scale and office on one side, a rail line on the other side, and additional grain-storage annex bins on either side.
In more recent times with improved transportation, centralized and much larger elevators serve many farms. Some of them are quite large. Two elevators in Kansas (one in Hutchinson and one in Wichita) are half a mile long. The loss of the grain elevators from small towns is often considered a great change in their identity, and efforts to preserve them as heritage structures are made. At the same time, many larger grain farms have their own grain-handling facilities for storage and loading onto trucks.
Elevator operators buy grain from farmers, either for cash or at a contracted price, and then sell futures contracts for the same quantity of grain, usually each day. They profit through the narrowing "basis", that is, the difference between the local cash price, and the futures price, that occurs at certain times of the year.
Before economical truck transportation was available, grain elevator operators sometimes used their purchasing power to control prices. This was especially easy, since farmers often had only one elevator within a reasonable distance of their farms. This led some governments to take over the administration of grain elevators. An example of this is the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool. For the same reason, many elevators were purchased by cooperatives.
A recent problem with grain elevators is the need to provide separate storage for ordinary and genetically modified grain to reduce the risk of accidental mixing of the two.
In the past, grain elevators sometimes experienced silo explosions. Fine powder from the millions of grains passing through the facility would accumulate and mix with the oxygen in the air. A spark could spread from one floating particle to the other, creating a chain reaction that would destroy the entire structure. (This dispersed-fuel explosion is the mechanism behind fuel-air bombs.) To prevent this, elevators have very rigorous rules against smoking or any other open flame. Many elevators also have various devices installed to maximize ventilation, safeguards against overheating in belt conveyors, legs, bearing, and explosion-proof electrical devices such as electric motors, switches, and lighting.
Grain elevators in small Canadian communities often had the name of the community painted on two sides of the elevator in large block letters, with the name of the elevator operator emblazoned on the other two sides. This made identification of the community easier for rail operators (and incidentally, for lost drivers and pilots). The old community name often remained on an elevator long after the town had either disappeared or been amalgamated into another community; the grain elevator at Ellerslie, Alberta, remained marked with its old community name until it was demolished, which took place more than 20 years after the village had been annexed by Edmonton.
One of the major historical trends in the grain trade has been the closure of many smaller elevators, and the consolidation the grain trade to fewer places and among fewer companies. For example, in 1961, 1642 "country elevators" (the smallest type) were in Alberta, holding of grain. By 2010. only 79 "primary elevators" (as they are now known) remained, holding .
In 2017, the United States had of storage capacity, a growth of 25% in the previous decade.
Elevator Alley
The city of Buffalo is not only the birthplace of the modern grain elevator, but also has the world's largest number of extant examples. A number of the city's historic elevators are clustered along "Elevator Alley", a narrow stretch of the Buffalo River immediately adjacent to the harbor. The alley runs under Ohio Street and along Childs Street in the city's First Ward neighborhood.
Elevator row
In Canada, the term "elevator row" refers to a row of four or more wood-crib prairie grain elevators.
In the early pioneer days of Western Canada's prairie towns, when a good farming spot was settled, many people wanted to make money by building their own grain elevators. This brought in droves of private grain companies. Towns boasted dozens of elevator companies, which all stood in a row along the railway tracks. If a town were lucky enough to have two railways, it was to be known as the next Montreal. Many elevator rows had two or more elevators of the same company. Small towns bragged of their large elevator rows in promotional pamphlets to attract settlers. With so much competition in the 1920s, consolidation began almost immediately, and many small companies were merged or absorbed into larger companies.
In the mid-1990s, with the cost of grain so low, many private elevator companies once again had to merge, this time causing thousands of "prairie sentinels" to be torn down. Because so many grain elevators have been torn down, Canada has only two surviving elevator rows; one located in Inglis, Manitoba, and the other in Warner, Alberta. The Inglis Grain Elevators National Historic Site has been protected as a National Historic Sites of Canada. The Warner elevator row is, as of 2019, not designated a historic site, and is still in use as commercial grain elevators.
Elevator companies
Australia
ABB Grain was founded as a mutual company, the Australian Barley Board, in 1939, by barley growers in South Australia and Victoria; after demutualization, it was acquired by Viterra (see below) in 2009; Australian Bulk Alliance, a joint venture between ABB and Sumitomo, operates facilities in some areas.
CBH Group, a co-operative company, was established by grain growers in Western Australia, in 1933.
GrainCorp was established by the government of New South Wales in 1917, as Government Grain Elevator, and was privatized in 1992.
Canada
All companies operating elevators in Canada are licensed by the Canadian Grain Commission.
Agricore United was taken over by Saskatchewan Wheat Pool in 2007.
Alberta Farmers' Co-operative Elevator Company merged into United Grain Growers in 1917.
Alberta Pacific Grain Company was taken over by Federal Grain Co. in 1967.
Alberta Wheat Pool merged with Manitoba Pool Elevators in 1997.
Cargill was established in 1865 by W.W. Cargill.
Federal Grain was sold to the three provincial wheat pools in 1972.
Grain Growers' Grain Company merged into United Grain Growers in 1917.
Lake of the Woods Milling Company
Manitoba Pool Elevators merged with Alberta Wheat Pool in 1997.
Parrish & Heimbecker was established in 1909 by the two families of William Parrish and Norman G. Heimbecker.
Paterson Grain was established in 1908 as the N. M. Paterson Co.
Richardson International was established in 1857 by James Richardson; it is also known as Richardson Pioneer.
Saskatchewan Co-operative Elevator Company was taken over by the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool in 1926.
Saskatchewan Wheat Pool took over Agricore United in 2007 to form Viterra.
United Grain Growers was taken over by Agricore United in 2001.
Viterra was established after the take-over of Agricore United by the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool.
Sweden
In Sweden, the vast majority of grain elevators belong to the Lantmännen co-operative movement, owned by grain-growing farmers.
United States
ADM Milling
Cargill
General Mills
Monarch Engineering Co. (builder)
Montana Elevator Co.
Perdue Agribusiness
Scoular
Smithfield Grain
Southern States Cooperative
Tyson
United Grain Growers
Notable grain elevators
During the Battle of Stalingrad, one particularly well-defended Soviet strongpoint was known simply as "the Grain Elevator" and was strategically important to both sides.
This is a list of grain elevators that are either in the process of becoming heritage sites or museums, or have been preserved for future generations.
Canada
Alberta
Acadia Valley – Prairie Elevator Museum, former Alberta Wheat Pool converted into a tea house and museum
Alberta Central Railroad Museum – former Alberta Wheat Pool, second-oldest standing grain elevator in Alberta, moved from Hobbema
Andrew – former Alberta Wheat Pool, restored into a museum
Castor – former Alberta Pacific, restored into a museum
Big Valley – Alberta Wheat Pool used as a museum complete with a train station and roundhouse
Edmonton – Ritchie Mill, former flour mill converted into restaurants, law offices, and condominiums
Ellis Bird Farm, built in 1937, oldest standing seed elevator in Alberta
Esther – former Alberta Wheat Pool, restored into a museum
Haselwood Mill – Alberta's oldest seed-cleaning mill, second on the site, privately owned, not protected, operated from the 1930s to 1960s near Bittern Lake, Alberta
Heritage Acres Farm Museum – restored United Grain Growers elevator moved from Brocket
Heritage Park Historical Village, former Security Elevator Co. Ltd. moved from Shonts
Kinuso – United Grain Growers with original UGG logo
Leduc – former Alberta Wheat Pool saved from demolition now a museum
Lougheed – former Pioneer Elevator,now part of the Iron Creek Museum
Mayerthorpe – 1966 Federal Grain Co., now an interpretive center
Meeting Creek – a refurbished Alberta Wheat Pool, Pacific Grain elevator and CN train station
Nanton – Canadian Grain Elevator Discovery Centre, three elevators saved from demolition and preserved to educate visitors about the town's, and Alberta's, agricultural history
Radway – Krause Milling Co. restored into a museum
Raley – oldest standing grain elevator on its original site in Alberta, built in 1909, maintaining many of its original features
Rowley – United Grain Growers and Alberta Wheat Pool elevators saved from demolition by locals and now fully restored
Scandia – Scandia Eastern Irrigation District Museum, 1920s Alberta Wheat Pool and stockyard now a museum
South Peace Centennial Museum, United Grain Growers moved from Albright
Spruce Grove – Spruce Grove Grain Elevator Museum, former Alberta Wheat Pool, now a museum
St. Albert – St. Albert Grain Elevator Park, a 1906 Alberta Grain Co. and 1929 Alberta Wheat Pool Elevators now restored as a historic park
Stettler – a 1920 Parrish and Heimbecker grain elevator, feed mill, and coal shed, last to stand in Alberta, now protected and restored as a museum
Ukrainian Cultural Heritage Village – former Home Grain Co. moved from Bellis
British Columbia
Creston – former Alberta Wheat Pool (1936) and United Grain Growers (1937) elevators that still stand tall on the edge of the downtown core in the middle of the Creston Valley
Dawson Creek – restored and refurbished as a community art gallery
Manitoba
Inglis – Inglis elevator row, last surviving elevator row in Manitoba with a total of four elevators. Now designated and protected as a National Historic Site of Canada
Niverville – Western Canada's first grain elevator, erected by William Hespeler in 1879
Plum Coulee – grain elevator refurbished as a restaurant and meeting rooms
Ontario
Scugog – Canada's oldest grain elevator and the second oldest in all of the Americas
Stiver Mills – one of a few surviving grain elevators in Ontario, built 1916 and used until 1968 and now a farmers' market
Quebec
Silo No. 5, Montreal – This grain elevator was completed in four stages from 1906 to 1959 and was abandoned in 1994. With the demolition of Silo No. 1 and Silo No. 2, Silo No. 5 is now, along with the Old Port’s conveyor pier tower, the last vestige of Old Montreal’s 20th-century harbour panorama.
Saskatchewan
Edam – former Saskatchewan Wheat Pool now a museum
Gravelbourg – Former Saskatchewan Wheat Pool saved from demolition and now a museum
Indian Head – experimental farm grain elevator refurbished as a Café, coffee house
Sukanen Ship Pioneer Village and Museum – former Victoria – McCabe moved from Mawer
Val Marie – former Federal and 1967 Centennial Saskatchewan Wheat Pool now museums
North Battleford Western Development Museum, former Saskatchewan Wheat Pool moved from Keatley
Weyburn Inland Terminal – first large farmer owned inland terminal in Canada, constructed in 1975 located near Weyburn
Wood Mountain – former Saskatchewan Wheat Pool No. 706, demolished April 22, 2014
South Africa
Port of Cape Town – once the tallest building in Cape Town, now restored to become the Zeitz Museum of Contemporary Art Africa
Switzerland
Swissmill Tower in upper Limmat Valley in the Canton of Zürich – high, rebuilt by April 2016.
United Kingdom
The Manchester Ship Canal grain elevator was completed in 1898. It had a capacity of 40,000 tons and its automatic conveying and spouting system could distribute grain into 226 bins.
United States
Baltimore, Maryland
Baltimore and Ohio Locust Point Grain Terminal Elevator, one of the largest grain terminal elevators to be constructed in the early 20th century, with a capacity of in Baltimore, Maryland
Buffalo, New York
American Grain Complex, built between 1905 and 1931
Cargill Pool Elevator, previously named the Saskatchewan Cooperative Elevator was built in 1925 offered a total holding capacity of in 135 bins
Cargill Superior elevator, marked as Cargill "S", built between 1914 and 1925
Concrete-Central Elevator, Buffalo, New York – The largest transfer elevator in the world at the time of its completion in 1917
Connecting Terminal, Clearly visible from across canalside and the Commercial Slip the structure is now used for boat storage
General Mills Plant, or "The Frontier Elevator" General Mills Buffalo factory is a large scale grain mill and cereal production facility, most notably producing Gold Medal brand flour, Wheaties, Cheerios, and other General Mills brand cereals
Great Northern Elevator, built in 1897 by the Great Northern Railroad
Lake & Rail Grain Elevator, part of the "elevator alley" – The Lake and Rail produces over 2,700,00 pounds of flour a day
Marine A grain elevator, also part of the "elevator alley" and across from the Lake & Rail Grain Elevator
The Standard Elevator – named after the Standard Milling Company and built in 1926
Wheeler Elevator – also known as the Agway/GLF East Work House, built in 1908
Wollenberg Grain and Seed Elevator – wooden "country style" elevator formerly located in Buffalo, New York; destroyed by fire in October 2006
Wassaic, New York
Maxon Mills – built in 1954 and remained in active use as a feed elevator until the 1980s. The mill was placed on the New York State Register of Historic Places and restored in the early 2000s. It is currently used as a contemporary art exhibition space by The Wassaic Project
Illinois
Armour's Warehouse – constructed in 1861–62 on the north bank of the Illinois-Michigan Canal in Seneca, Illinois
Iowa
Bouton, Iowa's grain elevator – owned by Susan (formerly Flanery) & Michael Chris Brelsford, photo shoot location for the 40th Anniversary Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue (2004)
Minnesota
Northwestern Consolidated Milling Company Elevator A, also known as the Ceresota Building and "The Million Bushel Elevator", was a receiving and public grain elevator built by the Northwestern Consolidated Milling Company in 1908 in Minneapolis, Minnesota
Peavey–Haglin Experimental Concrete Grain Elevator, St. Louis Park, Minnesota, built in 1899–1900
Saint Paul Municipal Grain Terminal, in St. Paul, Minnesota, on the NRHP
North Dakota
North Dakota Mill and Elevator, largest flour mill in the United States, located in Grand Forks, North Dakota
Oklahoma
Bricktown, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma is home to OKC Rocks, a former grain elevator that has been turned into an indoor rock-climbing facility located in Oklahoma City.
Ingersoll Tile Elevator, elevator constructed of hollow red clay tiles, located in Ingersoll, Oklahoma
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Reading Company Grain Elevator, export elevator in Philadelphia converted into offices
South Dakota
Zip Feed Tower, tallest occupiable structure in South Dakota from its construction in 1956–1957 until its demolition in December 2005
Virginia
Groh's Grain Elevator, elevator located near the York River in Clay Bank, Virginia. The concrete elevator with 14 silos was built in 1950 at a cost of $150,000 (equal to over $1.6 million in 2021) by Louis Groh and Son, Inc. The waterfront property containing the long abandoned elevator is owned by a local physician who has installed a wind turbine atop the towering structure to generate electricity.
Sewell's Point grain elevator, export elevator built by the city of Norfolk in 1922 to help the port of Norfolk better compete with other East Coast ports by providing a publicly owned facility to store and load grain at reasonable rates. It was sold to the Norfolk and Western railroad in 1929, and leased from N&W by Continental grain in 1952. The elevator originally held but was later expanded to . The elevator was taken over by Cargill in the late 1980s and abandoned around the turn of the 21st century. The elevator was demolished by Norfolk Southern in 2008.
Southern States silos, a grain elevator in Richmond, Virginia originally built in the 1940s by Cargill, and currently leased by Perdue Farms is the tallest structure south of the James River in the city of Richmond. The elevator was the site of the 3rd RVA Street Art Festival.
Wisconsin
Chase Grain Elevator, tile grain elevator built in 1922. Sun Prairie, Wisconsin Placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2010. It is the last remaining tile elevator in Wisconsin.
Wyoming
Sheridan Flouring Mills, Inc., an industrial complex in Sheridan, Wyoming
Elevator explosions
Given a large enough suspension of combustible flour or grain dust in the air, a significant explosion can occur. A historical example of the destructive power of grain explosions is the 1878 explosion of the Washburn "A" Mill in Minneapolis, Minnesota, which killed 18, leveled two nearby mills, damaged many others, and caused a destructive fire that gutted much of the nearby milling district. (The Washburn "A" mill was later rebuilt and continued to be used until 1965.) Another example occurred in 1998, when the DeBruce grain elevator in Wichita, Kansas, exploded and killed seven people. A recent example is an explosion on October 29, 2011 at the Bartlett Grain Company in Atchison, Kansas. The death toll was six people. Two more men received severe burns, but the remaining four were not hurt.
Almost any finely divided organic substance becomes an explosive material when dispersed as an air suspension; hence, a very fine flour is dangerously explosive in air suspension. This poses a significant risk when milling grain to produce flour, so mills go to great lengths to remove sources of sparks. These measures include carefully sifting the grain before it is milled or ground to remove stones, which could strike sparks from the millstones, and the use of magnets to remove metallic debris able to strike sparks.
The earliest recorded flour explosion took place in an Italian mill in 1785, but many have occurred since. These two references give numbers of recorded flour and dust explosions in the United States in 1994: and 1997 In the ten-year period up to and including 1997, there were 129 explosions.
Media
Canadian Prairie grain elevators were the subjects of the National Film Board of Canada documentaries Grain Elevator and Death of a Skyline.
During the sixth season of the History Channel series Ax Men, one of the featured crews takes on the job of dismantling the Globe Elevator in Wisconsin. This structure was the largest grain-storage facility in the world when it was built in the 1880s.
See also
Silo
Grain entrapment
Granary
Dust explosion
List of grain elevators
References
External links
Grain elevators in West Texas
Complete Photographic Record of the Remaining Canadian Prairie Grain Elevators
Vanishing Landmarks: Photographs of standing and demolished Grain Elevators with information and maps.
Grain Elevators: Buffalo's Lost Industry
Buffalo Grain Elevators: A bibliography by The Buffalo History Museum
Bruce Selyem, Grain Elevator Photographer
Pixelgrain: Mapping Transition in the Canadian Prairies
"Inside a Modern Grain Elevator" Popular Science Monthly, February 1930, p. 45. Drawing of how 1930s grain elevator worked at sea ports.
Our Grandfathers' Grain Elevators blog with specifications of reinforced-concrete elevators
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255165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Morgarten | Battle of Morgarten | The Battle of Morgarten occurred on 15 November 1315, when the men of Schwyz, with support of their allies of Uri and Unterwalden, ambushed a Habsburg army under the command of Duke Leopold I on the shores of Lake Ägeri, in the territory of Schwyz.
The Habsburg army was routed, with numerous slain or drowned.
The Swiss victory consolidated the League of the Three Forest Cantons, which formed the core of the Swiss Confederacy.
Background
Toward the end of the 13th century the House of Habsburg coveted the area around the Gotthard Pass, as it offered the shortest passage to Italy. However, the Confederates of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, which had formalized the Swiss Confederacy in 1291, held imperial freedom letters from former Habsburg emperors granting them local autonomy within the empire. In 1314 tensions between the Habsburgs and Confederates heightened when Duke Louis IV of Bavaria (who would become Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor) and Frederick the Handsome, a Habsburg prince, each claimed the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor.
The Confederates supported Louis IV because they feared the Habsburgs would annex their lands (which they had tried to do in the late 13th century). War broke out after the Confederates of Schwyz raided the Habsburg-protected Einsiedeln Abbey.
The conflict with Einsiedeln erupted after settlers moved from Schwyz into unused parts of the territories claimed by Einsiedeln. The settlers cleared the primal forest and established farms or pastures. This led the abbot of Einsiedeln to complain with the bishop at Constance, who moved to excommunicate Schwyz.
In revenge for this, men of Schwyz under the leadership of Werner Stauffacher raided Einsiedeln abbey on the night of 6 January 1314. They plundered the monastery, desecrated the abbey church, and took several monks as hostages. The abbot managed to escape to Pfäffikon, from where he alerted the bishop. The bishop now extended excommunication to Uri and Unterwalden as well as Schwyz.
Battle
Frederick's brother, Habsburg duke Leopold of Austria, led a large army to crush the rebellious Confederates.
Johannes von Winterthur's chronicle of the battle puts the Habsburg forces at 20,000, although that number is likely an exaggeration. A 19th century account by Rudolf Hanhart states that there were 9,000 men in the Habsburg army, while historian Hans Delbrück stated in 1907 that the Habsburg army consisted of only 2,000–3,000 men and that these were mainly well-trained and -equipped knights. Delbrück's estimate is accepted by Kelly DeVries.
The Confederates of Schwyz were supported by the Confederates of Uri and Unterwalden.
The size of the Confederate force is unknown, with estimates ranging from 1,500 to around 3,000-4,000.
Regardless of numerical considerations, the main contrast between the two forces was that a well-equipped and trained medieval army was meeting an improvised militia of farmers and herdsmen.
According to the 15th-century Swiss chronicles, Leopold upon reaching Ägeri debated with his nobles how to best invade Schwyz, with several possible routes under consideration. After the decision was taken to take the direct approach, marching to Sattel from the north, Leopold is said to have asked his fool, one Cuoni von Stocken, for his opinion. The fool expressed misgivings, quipping that "you have all deliberated on how to reach that land, but none of you deliberated how you will get out again".
In order to hide his intentions to attack from the north, Leopold sent a number of smaller detachments in order to create diversions. One such attack was sent to Arth, attacking from the northwest, one from Entlebuch attacking Unterwalden from the north, one from Lucerne attacking Schwyz from the west across Lake Lucerne, and one under the command of count Otto von Strassberg was sent across Brünig Pass to Obwalden. When news of the Habsburg defeat at Morgarten reached von Strassberg, he decided to turn back. He was reportedly injured on the retreat and died from his wounds soon after.
According to Konrad Justinger's chronicle, written c. 1430, the people of Schwyz were warned by their neighbours, the lords of Hünenberg.
The warning is said to have been delivered by the means of arrows fletched with parchment, with the message written on the fletching, "beware near Morgarten" (hütend üch am morgarten), thus indicating the route chosen by Leopold for entering Schwyz.
Upon receiving this warning, the men of Schwyz, with the support of 600 men of Uri and Unterwalden, hurried to Sattel to intercept the enemy. Between Lake Ägerisee and Sattel, where a small path led between a steep slope and a swamp, they prepared an ambush.
The marching army would have been stretched out in a column of some 2 km along the path when the vanguard encountered a roadblock near Schafstetten.
The Confederates attacked the column, frightening the horses by throwing rocks from above and engaging the mounted knights with halberds.
About 1,500 men were said to have been killed in the attack; according to Johannes von Winterthur (writing ca. 1340), this number does not include those drowned in the lake. According to Karl von Elgger, the Confederates, unfamiliar with the customs of battles between knights, brutally butchered retreating troops and everyone unable to flee. He records that some infantry preferred to drown themselves in the lake rather than face the brutality of the Swiss.
The earliest mentions of the battle, in chronicles of the 14th century, identify it as having taken place in the land of Schwyz, or Schwyz and Uri (Peter of Zittau has Sweicz et Uherach).
The name of Morgarten is recorded by Konrad Justinger in the context of the written warning attached to arrows. The toponym Morgarten originally refers to an alpine pasture near (now Chli Morgarten). The name translates to "pig corral", "enclosure for swine".
The entire passage between Lake Ägeri and Sattel is now known as Morgarten, but this is in reference to the battle.
Use of halberds
There is some evidence to suggest that the attack at Morgarten involved the first recorded use of halberds against knights, the weapon that would become iconic of the Old Swiss Confederacy.
Matthias of Neuenburg writing in Latin around 1350 uses the term jesa to describe a type of polearm used by the Confederates; this has been interpreted as referencing an early form of the halberd.
Konrad Justinger, writing in German in c. 1430, cites the use of halberds explicitly: "the Swiss held in their hands certain most terrible murder weapons, known in the vernacular as helnbarten, by means of which even the best armed opponents were cut apart as with a razor blade, and hacked to pieces: this was no 'battle', but, for the reasons mentioned, so to speak a mere butchering of the men of duke Leopold by those mountain dwellers, as with a herd led to slaughter".
In the assessment of John Guilmartin, writing for Encyclopædia Britannica (2015, s.v. "Military technology", section "The infantry revolution, c. 1200–1500"):
Aftermath
Within a month of the battle, in December 1315, the Confederates renewed the oath of alliance made in 1291, initiating a period of growth within the Confederacy. In March 1316 Emperor Louis IV confirmed the rights and privileges of the Forest Cantons. However, Leopold prepared another attack against the Confederacy. In response, Schwyz attacked some of the Habsburg lands and Unterwalden marched into the Bernese Oberland. Neither side was able to prevail against the other, and in 1318 the isolated Forest Cantons negotiated a ten-month truce with the Habsburgs, which was extended several times. By 1323 the Forest Cantons had made alliances with Bern, and Schwyz had signed an alliance with Glarus for protection from the Habsburgs. Within 40 years cities including Lucerne, Zug and Zürich had also joined the Confederacy. The Confederate victory gave them virtual autonomy and, for a time, a peace with the Habsburgs that lasted until the Battle of Sempach in 1386.
Commemoration
As the first military success of the Confederacy, Morgarten became an important staple of
Swiss patriotism in the early modern period.
Records of formal commemorations of the battle go back to the 14th century;
Johannes von Winterthur in the 1340s records the decision of Schwyz to hold a yearly commemoration. The existence of a chapel at the site of the battle is recorded in 1501.
Writing in 1530, Joachim Vadian suggests that the first such chapel may have been built immediately after the battle, with the proceeds from the spoils. The modern chapel dates to 1604.
In 1891, in the context of the 600-years anniversary of the Confederacy, plans were made to erect a new memorial at the site of battle.
There was some dispute as to the appropriate location (not least because the "battle" was an attack on a marching column stretched out for some 2 kilometres), with both the cantons of Schwyz and of Zug claiming the site of the battle.
A monument was eventually inaugurated in 1908 at the southern shore of Lake Ägeri, in the village of Hauptsee, in the canton of Zug. On this occasion, the village was renamed to "Morgarten" (part of Oberägeri municipality). The authorities of Schwyz refused to acknowledge a site of the battle outside of their territory and did not send any official representation to the monument's inauguration ceremony.
Since 1912, a yearly target shooting event has been held on the day of the battle in the vicinity of the monument, the Morgartenschiessen. The competition is over the distance of 300m. In addition, a pistol competition over a distance of 50m was introduced in 1957, taking place in the territory of Schwyz, near the battle chapel.
A large celebration for the 600-year anniversary of the battle was organised in 1915, held in two locations at the chapel and the monument.
In the context of the 650-year anniversary in 1965, efforts were made to preserve the site of the battle. Money was raised for the canton of Schwyz to buy up private land in the area.
Felicia Hemans's poem Song of The Battle of Morgarten was published in The Edinburgh Magazine in 1822.
See also
Battles of the Old Swiss Confederacy
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Magill, Frank N. Great Events from History: Ancient and The medieval Series, Volume 3:951–1500 (1972), pp. 1603–1607, historiography
Winkler, Albert (2008). "The Battle of Morgarten in 1315: An Essential Incident in the Founding of the Swiss State," Swiss American Historical Society Review, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 3–25.
External links
1310s in the Holy Roman Empire
1315 in Europe
14th century in Austria
Conflicts in 1315
Battles involving Switzerland
Battles involving Austria
Battles of the Middle Ages
14th century in the Old Swiss Confederacy | [
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255172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah%20McLain%20Rusk | Jeremiah McLain Rusk | Jeremiah McLain Rusk (June 17, 1830November 21, 1893) was an American Republican politician. He was the 2nd United States Secretary of Agriculture (1889–1893) and the 15th Governor of Wisconsin (1882–1889), and served three terms in the United States House of Representatives (1871–1877), representing northwest Wisconsin. He also served as a Union Army officer during the American Civil War, served one term in the Wisconsin State Assembly (1862), and was the last Bank Comptroller of Wisconsin (1866–1870) before the office was abolished.
Biography
Rusk was born in Malta, Ohio, the younger brother of Allen Rusk. He was a member of the Republican Party. He began as a planter, then turned to innkeeping and finally to banking before the American Civil War.
Rusk started his service with the Union Army during Civil War as major of the 25th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment on August 14, 1862. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on September 16, 1863. He took command of the regiment on July 22, 1864 when Colonel Milton Montgomery was wounded and captured at Decatur, Georgia during the Battle of Atlanta. He continued in command after Montgomery was exchanged because Montgomery was given command of the brigade to which the 25th Wisconsin Infantry was assigned. Rusk was wounded at Salkehatchie River, Georgia on January 20, 1865. Rusk was mustered out of the volunteers on June 7, 1865. He received an appointment as brevet colonel to rank from March 13, 1865. On February 24, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Rusk for appointment to the grade of brevet brigadier general of volunteers to rank from March 13, 1865, and the United States Senate confirmed the appointment on April 10, 1866.
After the Civil War, he became a congressman in the United States House of Representatives. He was elected to the Forty-second United States Congress as the representative of Wisconsin's 6th congressional district serving from March 4, 1871 to March 3, 1873. For the Forty-third Congress he redistricted and was elected as representative of Wisconsin's newly created 7th District. He was reelected to the Forty-fourth Congress as well serving from March 4, 1873 to March 3, 1877. While in congress, he was chairman of Committee on Invalid Pensions (Forty-third congress). After his terms in congress he ran as a Republican for Governor of Wisconsin, an election he won. His most noted act during his governorship was when he sent the National Guard into Milwaukee to keep the peace during the May Day Labor Strikes of 1886. The strikers had shut down every business in the city except the North Chicago Rolling Mills in Bay View. The guardsmen's orders were that, if the strikers were to enter the Mills, they should shoot to kill. But when the captain received the order it had a different meaning: he ordered his men to pick out a man and shoot to kill when the order was given. This led to the Bay View Tragedy, in which a number of workers were killed; Governor Rusk took most of the blame.
In 1889, after the end of his third term as governor, he accepted the new cabinet position of Secretary of Agriculture in the Benjamin Harrison administration. He lived, died and was buried in Viroqua, Wisconsin.
The house he bought and lived in while Governor of Wisconsin, now known as the Old Executive Mansion, was used by the state as the official residence of the Governor for several decades and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. His son, Lycurgus J. Rusk, was a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly.
See also
List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)
References
External links
Retrieved on 2008-02-12
|-
|-
|-
|-
1830 births
1893 deaths
People from Malta, Ohio
Union Army officers
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Wisconsin
Governors of Wisconsin
United States Secretaries of Agriculture
People of Wisconsin in the American Civil War
Farmers from Wisconsin
Members of the Wisconsin State Assembly
American planters
Wisconsin Republicans
People from Viroqua, Wisconsin
Benjamin Harrison administration cabinet members
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Republican Party state governors of the United States
19th-century American politicians
Burials in Wisconsin | [
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|
255179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20D.%20Hoard | William D. Hoard | William Dempster Hoard (October 10, 1836November 22, 1918) was an American politician, a newspaper editor, and the 16th governor of the U.S. state of Wisconsin from 1889 to 1891.
Early life and career
Born in Stockbridge, New York, he moved to Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin. As a boy, he was greatly influenced by the Reverend Thomas D. Cornelius, a Native American preacher of the Oneida Nation and one of the first Native Americans to become an ordained Methodist Minister. He had many close associations with the Oneidas in New York and mastered much of the Oneida language.
During the American Civil War, Hoard served in the 4th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment as a musician until he was discharged for medical reasons. He went back to New York to recover and served to the end of the war in the 1st New York Artillery Regiment. Returning to Wisconsin, he got involved with the hops industry, but the glut and decline in the industry left him without money. He was a member of the Republican Party, but was an outsider and an amateur in politics. He was a leading promoter of the dairy industry, through his weekly magazine Hoard's Dairyman.
Governor of Wisconsin
In 1889, Hoard asked the legislature to pass the Bennett Law, the state's first compulsory school attendance law. It required all public and private schools to teach major subjects in English. The German Lutherans and German Catholics, who each had a large parochial school system that used German-speaking teachers, strenuously objected. Hoard made the extremely controversial law the centerpiece of his reelection campaign, rejecting the advice of professional politicians that it would doom the GOP. The law, and Hoard, were repudiated by the state's large German community. Hoard was defeated in an intense campaign by Democrat George Wilbur Peck, the Yankee mayor of Milwaukee.
The Republican establishment was outraged at Hoard. In turn the moralistic rank and file bridled at the boss rule. Hoard joined forces with Robert M. La Follette and created the Progressive faction of the state GOP. It propelled La Follette to the governorship and the U.S. Senate, but Hoard, still an influential publisher, broke with La Follette in 1912.
Death and legacy
Hoard died in Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin, on November 22, 1918 (age 82 years, 43 days). He is interred at Evergreen Cemetery, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin.
In honor of Hoard's service to the dairy industry, a statue of Hoard by Gutzon Borglum was erected in 1922 at the head of Henry Mall of what is now the University of Wisconsin–Madison, which was the original quadrangle of the university's College of Agriculture and Life Sciences. Gutzon Borglum later went on to create Mount Rushmore.
Hoard's birthday is celebrated in Wisconsin as an official holiday named William D. Hoard Day.
Family life
Son of William Bradford and Sarah Katherine White Hoard, he married Agnes Elizabeth Bragg and they had three sons, Halbert Louis, Arthur Ralph, and Frank Ward.
See also
Hoard Historical Museum
References
Further reading
Osman, Loren H. W. D. Hoard: A Man For His Time. Fort Atkinson, Wis.: W. D. Hoard, 1985.
Risjord, Norman K. "From the Plow to the Cow: William D. Hoard and America's Dairyland". Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 88, no. 3 (Spring 2005):40-49.
Wyman, Roger E. "Wisconsin Ethnic Groups and the Election of 1890". Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 51, no. 4 (Summer 1968): 269–293.
External links
Governors of Wisconsin
People from Stockbridge, New York
People from Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin
People of New York (state) in the American Civil War
People of Wisconsin in the American Civil War
Union Army soldiers
American magazine editors
American agriculturalists
1836 births
1918 deaths
Wisconsin Republicans
Republican Party state governors of the United States
19th-century American politicians
Burials in Wisconsin
Dairy farmers | [
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|
255180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hankyu%20Kyoto%20Main%20Line | Hankyu Kyoto Main Line | The is a railway line in Japan operated by the private railway operator Hankyu Railway. It connects Osaka-umeda Station in Osaka and Kyoto-kawaramachi Station in Kyoto.
Definition
The Kyoto Main Line is often called the for short, and in a broader sense its two branch lines, the Senri Line and the Arashiyama Line, are included to the Kyoto Line by historical, geographical and structural reasons. The other two sections of Hankyu, the Kobe Line and the Takarazuka Line are called the as a whole.
Officially, the Kyoto Main Line is from Jūsō to Kyoto-kawaramachi, however, all trains run beyond Jūsō to Osaka-umeda terminal, using the eastern tracks of the section exclusively. Hankyu treats the Kyoto Main Line in the same way as the passengers do, i.e. as the line between Osaka-umeda and Kyoto-kawaramachi (except for special circumstances such as governmental procedures).
History
The Kyoto Main Line was constructed in the following phases:
April 1, 1921: Jūsō – Awaji (by Kita-Osaka Electric Railway)
January 16, 1928: Awaji – Takatsuki-machi (present-day Takatsuki-shi) (by Shin-Keihan Railway)
November 1, 1928: Takatsuki-machi – Kyoto-Saiin (present-day Saiin) (by Shin-Keihan Railway)
March 31, 1931: Saiin – Keihan-Kyoto (present-day Ōmiya) (by Keihan Electric Railway)
February 18, 1959: The additional double tracks of the Takarazuka Main Line between Umeda (present-day Osaka-umeda) and Jūso now used exclusively by the Kyoto Main Line
June 17, 1963: Ōmiya – Kawaramachi (now Kyoto-kawaramachi)
Prior to the merger of Hankyu Railway (then Hanshin Kyūkō Railway) and Keihan Electric Railway in 1943, the line and its branches were owned by the latter and called the Shin-Keihan (New Keihan) Line. In the breakup of the merger in 1949, the line was not ceded to Keihan and became a competitor of the Keihan Main Line.
Proposed connecting line
A loop line from Juso to Awaji via Shin-Osaka station, to provide a direct connection to the Shinkansen has been proposed, but is not currently scheduled for construction.
Service types
Regular operations
In the timetable revised on December 21, 2013, regular trains are classified as follows:
Through service: All-stations "Local" trains operate between Osaka-umeda and Kita-Senri (on the Senri Line, connected at Awaji) and between Takatsuki-shi and Tengachaya (on the Osaka Metro Sakaisuji Line, via the Senri Line).
Operated on weekday rush hours, Saturdays and holidays
Through service: Sakaisuji Semi-Express trains operate between Kyoto-kawaramachi or Takatsuki-shi and Tengachaya.
Rush hours only.
Officially referred to as Rapid Service in English.
Rush hours only.
Operated on off-peak hours.
Weekdays rush hours only.
&
Weekends only, collectively known as the
Extra services
Osaka-umeda - Arashiyama: ""
Kyoto-kawaramachi - Arashiyama: ""
- Through services to Arashiyama Line, Osaka Metro Sakaisuji Line, Takarazuka Main Line and the Kobe Main Line.
Kosoku Kobe - Arashiyama: ""
Takarazuka - Arashiyama (via the Imazu Line): ""
Tengachaya - Arashiyama: "" (seasonal service)
On the Kyoto Main Line, these extra limited express stop at the same stations as the regular Rapid Limited Express.
Stations
Legends:
● : Trains stop.
| : Trains pass.
Local trains stop at all stations.
No trains stop at which is served by Local trains on the Kobe Main Line and the Takarazuka Main Line, because of the absence of any platforms on this line. Thus, in operation, Nakatsu Station is not listed on the Kyoto Line.
The starting point of the distances (km) shown is Jūsō Station, which is officially the starting point of the Kyoto Main Line.
All trains stop at ; ; and
Rolling stock
1300 series EMU (from 30 March 2014)
3300 series EMU
5300 series EMU
6300 series EMU (Kyō-Train)
7000 series EMU (Kyō-Train Garaku)
7300 series EMU
8300 series EMU
9300 series EMU
Osaka Municipal Subway 66 series (Awaji - Takatsuki-shi)
Former
1300 series EMU (1957)
2000 series EMU (Temporary)
2300 series EMU
2800 series EMU
5100 series EMU (Temporary)
Osaka Municipal Subway 60 series EMU (Awaji - Takatsuki-shi)
References
This article incorporates material from the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia
Kyoto
Rail transport in Kyoto Prefecture
Rail transport in Osaka Prefecture
Railway lines opened in 1921
Standard gauge railways in Japan | [
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|
255182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortus%20Botanicus%20%28Amsterdam%29 | Hortus Botanicus (Amsterdam) | Hortus Botanicus is a botanical garden in the Plantage district of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. It is one of the world's oldest botanical gardens.
History
The Amsterdam city council founded the Hortus Botanicus (initially named the Hortus Medicus) in 1638 to serve as an herb garden for doctors and apothecaries, as botanical extracts were the primary treatments for illnesses during this time period. Physicians and pharmacists each received their training and took their exams there.
The garden's initial collection was amassed during the 17th century through plants and seeds brought back by traders from the Dutch East India Company for use as medicines and potential commercial possibilities. A single coffee plant in Hortus's collection served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in Central and South America.
Likewise, two small potted oil palms brought back from Mauritius produced seeds which were propagated throughout all of Southeast Asia, becoming a major source of revenue in the Dutch East Indies and present-day Indonesia.
In 1646, Johannes Snippendaal was appointed director of the garden. During his tenure, he determined the collection comprised 796 plant species, most of which were medicinal plants. Many of these plants are still grown at the Hortus Botanicus in its Snippendaal garden, referred to as 'the 17th century pharmacopoeia of Amsterdam’.
The hexagonal pavilion dates from the late 1600s. The entrance gate was built in the early 1700s. The Orangery dates from 1875, and the Palm House and Hugo de Vries Laboratory - both created in Amsterdam School expressionist architecture - date from 1912 and 1915.
Hugo de Vries became the director of the Hortus Botanicus between 1885 and 1918, bringing international attention to the garden. The garden's governing board directed the construction of the Palm House and laboratory in order to keep the professor there.
in 1987 the garden almost went bankrupt when the University of Amsterdam stopped paying its expenses, but a community of individual supporters prevented its closure. Now the Hortus Botanicus is supported by the Amsterdam City Council as well.
Attractions
Hortus Botanicus is now a popular attraction for both Dutch and international visitors. The collection is famous for some of its trees and plants, some of which are endangered. Well-known plants and trees can be found there, like the Persian ironwood tree.
Recent additions to Hortus include a large hothouse, which incorporates three different tropical climates. There are also two halls at the garden which are used for conferences and ceremonies and a cafe.
Gallery
References
External links
1638 establishments in the Dutch Republic
Botanical gardens in the Netherlands
Buildings and structures in Amsterdam
Parks in Amsterdam | [
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|
255183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny%20Lopez%20%28boxer%29 | Danny Lopez (boxer) | Danny Lopez (born July 6, 1952) is a former WBC featherweight champion of the world, from November 1976 to February 1980. His nickname was Little Red.
Known for his tremendous punching power, in 2003 The Ring magazinerated Lopez at number 26 on their list of "100 Greatest Punchers". In 2010, Lopez was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
Background
Lopez is of Ute Indian, Mexican, and Irish heritage. He had been moved from one foster home to another, and coming off a Ute Indian Reservation in Utah, he finally found a home in Southern California. He is also the brother of welterweight contender Ernie Lopez. He is married to Bonnie Lopez and has three sons, Bronson, Jeremy, and Dylan.
Pro career
Lopez began boxing professionally on May 27, 1971, knocking out Steve Flajole in one round at Los Angeles. He won his first 21 fights in a row by knockout, in one of the longest knockout win streaks ever. During that streak, all but one of his fights were in Los Angeles, a fact which could be credited for his popularity in the area. The only one of those 21 fights to be held outside Los Angeles took place in Honolulu, where he beat Ushiwakamaru Harada by knockout in three.
On January 17, 1974, Genzo Kurosaw became the first person to go the distance with Lopez, Lopez winning by a ten-round decision. His next fight, a month later, in Mexicali, Mexico, was his first fight abroad. He beat Memo Rodriguez by a knockout in nine rounds.
People in Los Angeles were eager to see Lopez and another up-and-coming Los Angeleno, Bobby Chacon, square off inside a ring. The fight took place on May 24, and Lopez was knocked out in the ninth round in a thrilling fight. In his next fight of note, he lost once again by a knockout in round nine, this time to Shig Furuyama.
After losing to Octavio Gómez to begin 1975, Lopez went on a roll, beginning with a knockout of Chucho Castillo in two rounds. Two more wins, and he was faced with Rubén Olivares, whom he beat by a knockout in seven rounds, after recovering from a first round knockdown himself.
In 1976, he beat Sean O'Grady by knockout in four, Gómez by knockout in three and Art Hafey by knockout in seven. Finally ranked number one by the WBC, he travelled to Ghana to challenge world Featherweight champion David Kotei in front of an estimated crowd of more than 100,000 Kotei partisans. Lopez became world champion by outpointing Kotei over 15 rounds on November 6. Due to all communication systems having been cut down in Ghana, Lopez could not get his message through to his family; they only learned he was World Champion when they picked him up at the airport one week later.
Lopez won three fights in 1977, retaining the title once, against José Torres by a knockout in round seven.
He and Kotei had a rematch on February 15 of 1978, as part of the undercard where Leon Spinks dethroned Muhammad Ali of the world Heavyweight title. Lopez knocked Kotei out in round six of their rematch, and then he retained the title against Jose DePaula by knockout in round six, and Juan Malvares (on the undercard where Ali regained the title from Spinks) by knockout in two. On October 21, he had a fight with Fel Clemente, against whom he retained the world title with a four-round disqualification in Italy.
By the end of 1978, there was much talk of a "super-fight" against world Jr. Featherweight champion Wilfredo Gómez, but the bout never materialized.
His fight on March 10 of 1979 against Spain's Roberto Castanon in Salt Lake City, not only marked the first time he defended his world title in his home-state, but the first time he fought in his home-state as a professional period. He retained the crown with a two-round knockout. On June 17, 1979, at San Antonio, Lopez and Mike Ayala fought what boxing book The Ring: Boxing in the 20th Century called one of the best fights of that year. Lopez retained the title with a 15th-round knockout, but the fight was marred by the finding afterwards that Ayala had been fighting under the influence of drugs. Nevertheless, this did not affect the fight's result, but left many to speculate about how the fight would have ended had Ayala not been drugged during it. Ayala himself admitted to have been, in his own words, "loaded" on the day of the fight.
Lopez went on to defend the title once more that year, knocking out Jose Caba in three rounds.
Lopez's reign as world champion came to an end on February 2, 1980, at the Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Phoenix. He met Salvador Sánchez that day, and he lost by knockout in round 13 in a one-sided affair. A rematch was fought on June 21, in Las Vegas, and that time around, Lopez was knocked out in the 14th round. He announced his retirement after that fight.
In 1985, he talked about a comeback, but decided to delay until 1992, when he was 40 years old. He lost that bout via TKO.
His record was 42 wins and 6 losses, with 39 wins by knockout.
In June 2010, Lopez and 12 other boxing personalities were inducted in the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
Life After Boxing
After his final bout, Lopez was the object of various dedications and was active on the autograph signing circuit. He returned to live in Utah full-time, then moved to Los Angeles, where he worked as a construction worker. Today he lives in Chino Hills, California.
Partial professional boxing record
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="8"|42 Wins (39 Knockouts), 6 Defeats (5 Knockouts), 0 Draws
|- style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3e3;"
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Res.
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Record
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Opponent
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Type
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Rd., Time
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Date
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Location
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Notes
|- align=center
|Loss
|42–6
|align=left| Jorge Rodriguez
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Loss
|42–5
|align=left| Salvador Sánchez
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Loss
|42–4
|align=left| Salvador Sánchez
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|42–3
|align=left| Jose Caba
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|41–3
|align=left| Mike Ayala
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|40–3
|align=left| Roberto Castañón
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|39–3
|align=left| Fel Clemente
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|38–3
|align=left| Juan Malvarez
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|37–3
|align=left| Jose De Paula
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|36–3
|align=left| David Kotey
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|35–3
|align=left| José Torres
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|34–3
|align=left| Jorge Altamirano
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|33–3
|align=left| Jose Olivares
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|32–3
|align=left| David Kotey
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|31–3
|align=left| Art Hafey
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|30–3
|align=left| Octavio Gomez
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|29–3
|align=left| Sean O'Grady
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|28–3
|align=left| Rubén Olivares
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|27–3
|align=left| Antonio Nava
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|26–3
|align=left| Raul Cruz
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|25–3
|align=left| Chucho Castillo
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Loss
|24–3
|align=left| Octavio Gomez
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Loss
|24–2
|align=left| Shig Fukuyama
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|24–1
|align=left| Masanao Toyoshima
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Loss
|23–1
|align=left| Bobby Chacon
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|23–0
|align=left| Memo Rodriguez
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|22–0
|align=left| Genzo Kurosawa
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|21–0
|align=left| Goyo Vargas
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|- align=center
|Win
|20–0
|align=left| Ushiwakamaru Harada
|
|
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
Honors
Inducted into the California Boxing Hall of Fame – 2005
Inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame – 2010
|-
|-
See also
Lineal championship
List of WBC world champions
References
External links
1952 births
Living people
20th-century Native Americans
21st-century Native Americans
American boxers of Mexican descent
American male boxers
American people of Irish descent
American people of Native American descent
Boxers from Utah
Featherweight boxers
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
Native American boxers
People from Uintah County, Utah
Ute people
World boxing champions
Native American people from Utah | [
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|
255184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto-kawaramachi%20Station | Kyoto-kawaramachi Station | is the terminal station of the Hankyu Kyoto Main Line of Hankyu in Kyoto City, Japan. The Kawaramachi and Shijo streets cross over the underground station. Gion-Shijo Station on the Keihan Main Line is located beyond the Kamo River.
On October 1, 2019, this station was renamed from .
Layout
The station has an island platform serving three tracks underground.
Adjacent stations
History
This station opened as Kawaramachi Station on June 17, 1963; it was renamed to Kyoto-kawaramachi Station on October 1, 2019.
Before the opening of Kawaramachi Station and Karasuma Station, the Hankyu Kyoto Main Line terminated at Ōmiya Station.
Passenger statistics
In fiscal 2015 (April 2015 to March 2016), approximately 27,320,000 passengers used this station annually. For historical data, see the table below.
Surrounding area
The area around the station (Shijō Kawaramachi) is one of the commercial centers of Kyoto. The real estate around the station is the most valuable in Kyoto.
The station is attached underground to department stores such as Takashimaya, which has a food market on its basement floor. The station also connects underground to Karasuma Station.
References
External links
Hankyu website: Guide and features of Kyoto-kawaramachi Station.
Hankyu Kyoto Main Line
Railway stations in Kyoto
Railway stations in Japan opened in 1963 | [
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|
255185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%ABs%C5%8D%20Station | Jūsō Station | is a railway station in Jūsō, Yodogawa-ku, Osaka, Japan, operated by the private railway operator Hankyu Railway. The six-track trunk line from Umeda Station diverges into the three double tracks of the Hankyu Kobe Line, the Hankyu Kyoto Line and the Hankyu Takarazuka Line at this station. The area surrounding the station is an extensive shopping and entertainment district.
Station layout
This station has two island platforms and two side platforms serving six tracks on the ground level, enabling to change trains from the Kobe Line for Umeda to the Takarazuka Line for Takarazuka and Minoo on one island platform between Tracks 2 and 3, and from the Takarazuka Line for Umeda to the Kyoto Line for Kyoto (Kawaramachi, Arashiyama) and Kita-Senri on another island platform between Tracks 4 and 5. The platforms are connected by two transfer concourses, one elevated and one underground. The east gate connects directly to platform 6 while the west gate connects directly to platform 1. Several shops and restaurants serving transferring passengers are located inside the station.
There is a returning track in the south of the station between the Kobe Line and the Takarazuka Line. The track is used for the trains for the Kobe Line and the Takarazuka Line running to and from Shojaku Workshop for maintenance, and for seasonal trains running between Kobe or Takarazuka and Arashiyama via the Kobe Line and the Kyoto Line.
Adjacent stations
History
The station opened on March 10, 1910, as a stop on the Minoo-Arima Railway (today's Takarazuka Line). The Kobe Line was added in 1920. In 1921, the North Osaka Electric Railway began service between Juso and Senriyama; this line was acquired by the Keihan Electric Railway and was extended from Awaji Station to both Kyoto and central Osaka. Keihan and Hankyu merged in 1943, bringing all of Juso's lines under common ownership. While Keihan was again spun off as a separate company in 1949, Hankyu retained the Juso-Kyoto and Senriyama lines. Juso served as the terminal of the Kyoto Main Line until 1959, when the line was extended to Umeda.
References
External links
Juso Station from Hankyu Railway website
Railway stations in Osaka Prefecture
Hankyū Kōbe Main Line
Hankyu Railway Takarazuka Line
Hankyu Kyoto Main Line
Railway stations in Japan opened in 1910
Buildings and structures in Osaka | [
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]
|
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