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254132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Best%20Friend | New Best Friend | New Best Friend is a 2002 American psychological thriller film based on a story by author James Edwards. The film was originally owned by MGM, which eventually let this film go. Since then, TriStar Pictures acquired the rights to distribute this film in the United States and some other territories, primarily for home video market; still, TriStar Pictures gave this film a limited theatrical release in the United States on April 12, 2002.
Plot summary
A North Carolina sheriff (Taye Diggs) investigates the near-fatal drug overdose of a working class college girl (Mia Kirshner) and discovers many sordid details of her life before and during her descent into drugs and debauchery.
Cast credits
Mia Kirshner: Alicia Campbell
Meredith Monroe: Hadley Ashton
Dominique Swain: Sidney Barrett
Rachel True: Julianne Livingstone
Eric Michael Cole: Warren
Scott Bairstow: Trevor
Taye Diggs: Sheriff Artie Bonner
Oliver Hudson: Josh
Joanna Canton: Sarah
Dean James: Max
Glynnis O'Connor: Connie Campbell
Ralph Price: Eddie
Notes
External links
2002 films
2000s mystery drama films
2002 psychological thriller films
2000s teen drama films
2002 thriller drama films
American films
American mystery thriller films
American psychological thriller films
American teen drama films
American thriller drama films
English-language films
Films about drugs
Films scored by John Murphy (composer)
Films set in North Carolina
Films set in universities and colleges
Films shot in North Carolina
Films shot in South Carolina
Teen mystery films
TriStar Pictures films
2002 drama films | [
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254133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20Ridley | Nicholas Ridley | Nicholas Ridley may refer to:
Nicholas Ridley (martyr) (died 1555), English clergyman
Nicholas Ridley-Colborne, 1st Baron Colborne (1779–1854), British politician
Henry Nicholas Ridley (1855–1956), English botanist
Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale (1929–1993), British politician | [
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254134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/8 | OS/8 | OS/8 was the primary operating system used on the Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-8 minicomputer.
Pre-OS/8 there were earlier PDP-8 operating systems:
R-L Monitor, also referred to as MS/8.
P?S/8, requiring only 4K of memory.
PDP-8 4K Disk Monitor System
PS/8 ("Programming System/8"), requiring 8K. This is what became OS/8 in 1971.
Other/related DEC operating systems were: OS/78, OS/278, OS/12. The latter is a virtually identical version of OS/8, and was used with Digital's PDP-12 computer.
Digital released OS/8 images for non-commercial purposes which can be emulated through SIMH.
Overview
OS/8 provided a simple operating environment that was commensurate in complexity and scale with the PDP-8 computers on which it ran. I/O was supported via a series of supplied drivers which used polled (not interrupt-driven) techniques. The device drivers had to be cleverly written as they could occupy only one or two memory pages of 128 12-bit words, and had to be able to run in any page in field 0. This often required considerable cleverness, such as the use of the OPR instruction (7XXX) for small negative constants.
The memory-resident "footprint" of OS/8 was only 256 words; 128 words at the top of Field 0 and 128 words at the top of Field 1. The rest of the operating system (the USR, "User Service Routines") was swapped in and out of memory transparently (with regard to the user's program) as needed.
The Concise Command Language
Early versions of OS/8 had a very rudimentary command-line interpreter with very few basic commands: GET, SAVE, RUN, ASSIGN, DEASSIGN, and ODT. With version 3 they added a more sophisticated overlay called CCL (Concise Command Language) that implemented many more commands. OS/8's CCL was directly patterned after the CCL found on Digital's PDP-10 systems running TOPS-10. In fact, much of the OS/8 software system was deliberately designed to mimic, as closely as possible, the TOPS-10 operating environment. (The CCL command language was later used on PDP-11 computers running RT-11, RSX-11, and RSTS/E, providing a similar user operating environment across all three architectures: PDP-8s, PDP-10s, and PDP-11s.)
The basic OS and CCL implemented many rather sophisticated commands, many of which still do not exist in modern command languages, not even in MS-DOS, Windows, or Unix-like operating systems.
For example, the COMPILE command would automatically find the right compiler for a given source file and start the compile/assemble/link cycle.
The ASSIGN and DEASSIGN commands allowed one to use logical device names in a program instead of physical names (as required in MS-DOS). For example, your program could write to device FLOP:AAA.TXT, and if you first did an "ASSIGN FLOP: RXA2:" then the file would be created on physical device RXA2 (the second floppy disk drive). VAX/VMS and the Commodore Amiga's operating system AmigaOS (and other OSes built around Tripos) made considerable use of this very flexible feature.
The SET command was capable of setting many system options, albeit by the crude method of patching locations in the system binary code. One of them, a command under OS-78, was SET SYS OS8, and it re-enabled the MONITOR commands that were not part of OS-78.
The BUILD command could reconfigure the OS on the fly, even adding device drivers, often without having to reboot the OS.
The OS can boot from a hard disk and present the command prompt in under half a second.
The OS/8 Filesystem
OS/8 supported a simple, flat file system on a variety of mass storage devices including:
TU56 DECtapes
DF32 32KW fixed-head disks
RF08 256KW fixed-head disks
RK01/02/03/04/05 cartridge disk drives
RL01/02 cartridge disk drives
RX01/02 floppy diskette drives
Filenames on the PDP-8 took the form of FFFFFF.XX where "F" represents an uppercase, alphanumeric character of the filename and "X" represents an upper-case, alphanumeric character of the extension (filetype).
.PA : Assembly language
.SV : saved core-images (executable programs)
.FT : Fortran source files
.DA : Data files
The contents of any given file was stored contiguously in a single "extent". PIP included an option to compress ("squeeze") the filesystem, so that all unallocated space was moved to a single extent at the end of the disk. This could be invoked by the SQuish CCL command, much as MUNG could be used to run a TECO macro.
OS/8 volumes had a very limited maximum storage size (4096 blocks of 256 12-bit words) and the RK05 (2.4MB) moving-head disk exceeded this size: "1.6 million words of storage." Because of this, RK05 cartridges were divided into two partitions. For example, the first RK05 on a system would be known as both RKA0: (SY:) and RKB0:. This division was commonly thought to mean "the upper surface" and "the lower surface" but this was incorrect; it in fact was "the outer cylinders" and "the inner cylinders".
ASCII files
ASCII files were stored as 3 8-bit characters per pair of 12-bit words: Characters 1 & 2 on the right of words 1 & 2, with bits 0-3 & 4-7 of the 3rd character stored in the leftmost bits of the pair of words.
WORD 1: c0 c1 c2 c3 | a0 a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7
WORD 2: c4 c5 c6 c7 | b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7ASCII files end with a CTRL/Z (ASCII 232).
OS/8 date format
OS/8 allocated the PDP-8's 12 bit words for storing dates per:
4 bits for the month
5 bits for the date therein
3 bits for the year.
Y3B! This was recognized when COS-310 was developed.
OS/8 CUSPs (Utility Programs)
The CUSPs (Commonly-Used System Programs, that is utilities) supplied with OS/8 included:
BUILD (the program to install a configured OS/8 system onto mass storage)
DIR (the directory-listing program)
EDIT (A line-oriented editor)
MACREL (A relocating assembler that, unlike PAL, implemented macros. Written by Stanley Rabinowitz of DEC's Small Systems Group. Stan had an ASCII-artwork picture of a fish in his office that said "MACREL IS A FISH")
FLAP (An absolute assembler derived from RALF)
FORTRAN-II.
FOTP (File-Oriented Transfer Program, an alternative to PIP)
PAL (The assembler)
PIP (the Peripheral Interchange Program, used to copy files)
PIP10 (a version of PIP used to copy files to from PDP-10 DECtapes)
RALF (Another relocating assembler for the FPP)
TECO (Text Editor and COrrector, a much-more-sophisticated editor). The MUNG command ran TECO macros.
CCL, the command line interpreter, was supplied in source form and could be extended by the user.
Programming languages
BASIC
A single-user BASIC and two multi-user versions of BASIC were available as options.
The single-user BASIC used several overlays to provide the full functionality of the language; when OS/8 was booted from a DECtape, a very noticeable delay occurred each time BASIC was required to switch overlays as they needed to be read from tape.
The multi-user versions of BASIC (EDU20 and EDU25) differed only in whether or not they supported block-replaceable devices (DECtape or disk). Due to cost constraints, many PDP-8s had punched paper tape readers as their only mass-storage I/O device. EDU20 loaded from paper tape and could do output to a paper tape writer if the machine had one, whereas EDU25 understood the structure of a filesystem, could load from DECtape or disk, and could create files on DECtape or disk. Both could run multiple BASIC programs simultaneously using a primitive task-scheduler that round-robined among the attached terminals. Memory was always very tight because the PDP-8 used core memory, which was extremely expensive compared to RAM technology which came along a few years later. In a mere 8K of 12-bit words EDU20 could support up to 4 terminals at once, although more memory was recommended. EDU25 required an additional 4K memory bank (for a minimum of 12K) because the code contained a disk device driver and a filesystem handler. While running, EDU20 and EDU25 were self-contained programs that didn't use any OS/8 system calls. Immediately upon being invoked from the OS/8 command interpreter they would overwrite OS/8's entire resident portion - all 256 words of it. Upon startup, EDU25 would save the contents of memory to DECtape or disk and restore it when it exited. But EDU20 could not do this as it was targeted at hardware configurations without any block-replaceable device.
FORTRAN
In addition to a freely available FORTRAN II compiler, there was also a rather complete FORTRAN IV compiler available at extra cost. This compiler generated code for the optional FPP-8 floating-point processor, which was essentially a separate CPU, only sharing memory with the PDP-8 CPU. If you had the FPP-8 option installed, the FORTRAN runtime code would detect it and use the FPP-8 to run the main program code, and the PDP-8 CPU would run as an I/O processor. If you did not have the FPP-8, the runtime code would instead call an FPP-8 interpreter running on the PDP-8 CPU, so the program would still run, but at considerably reduced speed.
This FORTRAN IV compiler in version 1 had the interesting bug that DO loops counted incorrectly: DO loops would count 1,2,3,5,6,7,… (skipping 4). A quick patch was released to fix this.
See also
Multics
Unix
TSS-8
References
External links
SIMH Software Kits including an OS/8 image.
OS/8 Manuals at Bitsavers.
Links to DEC's Hobbyist License & documentation
DEC operating systems
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254135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Spohr | Louis Spohr | Louis Spohr (, 5 April 178422 October 1859), baptized Ludewig Spohr, later often in the modern German form of the name Ludwig, was a German composer, violinist and conductor. Highly regarded during his lifetime, Spohr composed ten symphonies, ten operas, eighteen violin concerti, four clarinet concerti, four oratorios, and various works for small ensemble, chamber music, and art songs. Spohr invented the violin chinrest and the orchestral rehearsal mark. His output spans the transition between Classical and Romantic music, but fell into obscurity following his death, when his music was rarely heard. The late 20th century saw a revival of interest in his oeuvre, especially in Europe.
Life
Spohr was born in Braunschweig in the duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel to Karl Heinrich Spohr and Juliane Ernestine Luise Henke, but in 1786 the family moved to Seesen. Spohr's first musical encouragement came from his parents: his mother was a gifted singer and pianist, and his father played the flute. A violinist named Dufour gave him his earliest violin teaching. The pupil's first attempts at composition date from the early 1790s. Dufour, recognizing the boy's musical talent, persuaded his parents to send him to Brunswick for further instruction.
The failure of his first concert tour, a badly planned venture to Hamburg in 1799, caused him to ask Duke Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand of Brunswick for financial help. A successful concert at the court impressed the duke so much that he engaged the 15-year-old Spohr as a chamber musician. In 1802, through the good offices of the duke, he became the pupil of Franz Eck and accompanied him on a concert tour which took him as far as Saint Petersburg. Eck, who completely retrained Spohr in violin technique, was a product of the Mannheim school, and Spohr became its most prominent heir. Spohr's first notable compositions, including his Violin Concerto No. 1, date from this time. After his return home, the duke granted him leave to make a concert tour of North Germany. A concert in Leipzig in December 1804 brought the influential music critic Friedrich Rochlitz "to his knees," not only because of Spohr's playing but also because of his compositions. This concert brought the young man overnight fame in the whole German-speaking world.
In 1805, Spohr obtained a position as concertmaster at the court of Gotha, where he stayed until 1812. There he met the 18-year-old harpist and pianist Dorette Scheidler, daughter of one of the court singers. They were married on 2 February 1806, and lived happily until Dorette's death 28 years later. They performed successfully together as a violin and harp duo (Spohr having composed the Sonata in C minor for violin and harp for her), touring in Italy (1816–1817), England (1820) and Paris (1821), but Dorette later abandoned her harpist's career and concentrated on raising their children.
In 1808, Spohr practiced with Beethoven at the latter's home, working on the Piano Trio, Op. 70 No. 1, The Ghost. Spohr wrote that the piano was out of tune and that Beethoven's playing was harsh or careless. In 1812, Spohr conducted a concert in the of the French-occupied Principality of Erfurt to celebrate Napoleon's 43rd birthday. Spohr later worked as conductor at the Theater an der Wien, Vienna (1813–1815), where he continued to be on friendly terms with Beethoven; subsequently he was opera director at Frankfurt (1817–1819) where he was able to stage his own operas — the first of which, Faust, had been rejected in Vienna. Spohr's longest period of employment, from 1822 until his death in Kassel, was as the director of music at the recently succeeded William II, Elector of Hesse's court of Kassel, a position offered him on the suggestion of Carl Maria von Weber. In Kassel on 3 January 1836, he married his second wife, the 29-year-old Marianne Pfeiffer. She survived him by many years, living until 1892.
In 1851 the elector refused to sign the permit for Spohr's two months' leave of absence, to which he was entitled under his contract, and when the musician departed without the permit, a portion of his salary was deducted. In 1857 he was pensioned off, much against his own wish, and in the winter of the same year he broke his arm, an accident which put an end to his violin playing. Nevertheless he conducted his opera Jessonda at the fiftieth anniversary of the Prague Conservatorium in the following year. In 1859 he died at Kassel.
Like Haydn, Mozart, and his own slightly older contemporary Hummel, Spohr was an active Freemason. He was also active as a violin instructor and had about 200 pupils throughout his career – many of them becoming famous musicians. His notable pupils included violinists Henry Blagrove and Henry Holmes.
Works
As a composer, Spohr produced more than 150 works with opus numbers, in addition to a number of nearly 140 works without such numbers. He wrote music in all genres. His nine symphonies (a tenth was completed, but withdrawn: Cf.) show a progress from the classical style of his predecessors to program music: his sixth symphony represents successive styles from "Bach–Handel" to the moderns; his seventh symphony represents the 'sacred and secular in human life' with a double orchestra; and his ninth symphony represents Die Jahreszeiten (The Seasons). (The autograph score of the tenth symphony, which bears the complete work, is held by the Staatsbibliothek Berlin. Furthermore the same institution holds a complete set of copied parts. Cf. also ). Between 1803 and 1844 Spohr wrote more violin concertos than any other composer of the time, eighteen in all, including works left unpublished at his death. Some of them are formally unconventional, such as the one-movement Concerto No. 8, which is in the style of an operatic aria, and which is still periodically revived (Jascha Heifetz championed it), most recently in a 2006 recording by Hilary Hahn. There are two double-violin concertos as well. Better known today, however, are the four clarinet concertos, all written for the virtuoso Johann Simon Hermstedt, which have established a secure place in clarinettists' repertoire.
Among Spohr's chamber music is a series of no fewer than 36 string quartets, as well as four double quartets for two string quartets. He also wrote an assortment of other quartets, duos, trios, quintets and sextets, an octet and a nonet, works for solo violin and for solo harp, and works for violin and harp to be played by him and his wife together.
Though obscure today, Spohr's operas Faust (1816), Zemire und Azor (1819) and Jessonda (1823) remained in the popular repertoire through the 19th century and well into the 20th, when Jessonda was banned by the Nazis because it depicted a European hero in love with an Indian princess. Spohr also wrote 105 songs and duets, many of them collected as Deutsche Lieder (German Songs), as well as a mass and other choral works. Most of his operas were little known outside of Germany, but his oratorios, particularly Die letzten Dinge (1825–1826) were greatly admired during the 19th century in England and America. This oratorio was translated by Edward Taylor (1784–1863) and performed as The Last Judgment in 1830 for the first time. During the Victorian era Gilbert and Sullivan mentioned him in act 2 of The Mikado in a song by the title character.
Spohr, with his eighteen violin concertos, won a conspicuous place in the musical literature of the nineteenth century. He endeavored (without any good result) to make the concerto a substantial and superior composition free from the artificial bravura of the time. He achieved a new romantic mode of expression. The weaker sides of Spohr’s violin compositions are observed in his somewhat monotonous rhythmic structures; in his rejection of certain piquant bowing styles, and artificial harmonics; and in the deficiency of contrapuntal textures.
Spohr was a noted violinist, and invented the violin chinrest, about 1820. He was also a significant conductor, being one of the first to use a baton and also inventing rehearsal letters, which are placed periodically throughout a piece of sheet music so that a conductor may save time by asking the orchestra or singers to start playing "from letter C", for example.
In addition to musical works, Spohr is remembered particularly for his Violinschule (The Violin School), a treatise on violin playing which codified many of the latest advances in violin technique, such as the use of spiccato. It became a standard work of instruction. In addition, he wrote an entertaining and informative autobiography, published posthumously in 1860. A museum is devoted to his memory in Kassel.
According to Rey M. Longyear, Spohr's best works were hailed by many of his contemporaries as quintessentially Romantic and inherited by Mendelssohn.
Selected recordings
Opera
Faust (WoO 51) Hillevi Martinpelto, Franz Hawlata and Bo Skovhus. Klaus Arp conducting the SWR Radio Orchestra, Kaiserslautern. Label: Capriccio, 1995.
Faust (WoO 51a – recitative version of 1852) A live recording of Bielefeld Opera from June 17/18, 1993. Geoffrey Moull conducting the Bielefelder Philharmonie, Chorus of the Bielefeld opera house. Label: CPO Records, 1994.
Zemire und Azor (WoO 52) "The Beauty and the Beast" – A production with singers of the Manhattan School of Music, New York, Christopher Larkin conducting. English spoken dialogues. Label: Albany Records, 2005.
Zemire und Azor (WoO 52) Anton Kolar conducting the Max Bruch Philharmonie, a production of the Theater Nordhausen. Label: Ds – Pool Music und Media, 2003.
Jessonda (WoO 53) Gerd Albrecht conducting the Hamburg State Philharmonic Orchestra, with Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Júlia Várady, Renate Behle, Kurt Moll a.o. The Chorus of the Hamburgische Staatsoper. Label: Orfeo, 1994.
Der Berggeist (WoO 54) Wykonawca: Camerata Silesia, Polska Orkiestra Radiowa, Susanne Bernhard, Agnieszka Piass, Dan Karlstrom, Szabolcs Brickner. Conductor: Łukasz Borowicz. Warsaw, April 8, 2009.
Der Alchymist (WoO 57) Bernd Weikl, Moran Abouloff, Jörg Dürmüller, Jan Zinkler, Susanna Pütters, Staatsorchester Braunschweig, Christian Fröhlich. Label: Oehms, 2009. The libretto is based on Washington Irving's sketch "The Student of Salamanca" from Bracebridge Hall, 1822.
Note: WoO = work without opus number (see also: Folker Göthel "Thematisch-Bibliographisches Verzeichnis der Werke von Louis Spohr". Tutzing, 1981).
Notes
References
Brown, Clive. Louis Spohr: A Critical Biography. Cambridge University Press. 1984. .
Spohr, Ludwig, Violinschule, Tobias Haslinger, Vienna, 1832.
External links
The Spohr Society of Great Britain
The Spohr Society of the United States
Werke von Louis Spohr im Verlag Dohr Köln
The Spohr – Museum in Kassel, Germany
The German Louis Spohr website (links)
"Spohr" titles; Spohr as author from archive.org
"Spohr" titles; Spohr as author from books.google.com
"Spohr" titles from Gallica
"Spohr" titles 1 Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark
"Spohr" titles from the Munich Digitisation Centre (MDZ)
"Spohr" titles from the University of Rochester
1784 births
1859 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century classical violinists
19th-century German composers
19th-century German male musicians
Composers for harp
Composers for violin
Concertmasters
German classical violinists
German Freemasons
German male classical composers
German male violinists
German opera composers
German Romantic composers
Male classical violinists
Male opera composers
Musicians from Braunschweig
People from the Duchy of Brunswick
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
String quartet composers
Oratorio composers | [
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254136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac%20K.%20Funk | Isaac K. Funk | Isaac Kaufmann Funk (September 10, 1839April 4, 1912) was an American Lutheran minister, editor, lexicographer, publisher, and spelling reformer. He was the co-founder of Funk & Wagnalls Company, the father of author Wilfred J. Funk (who founded his own publishing company, Wilfred Funk, Inc., and wrote the Word Power feature in Reader's Digest from 1945 to 1962), and the grandfather of author Peter Funk, who continued his father's authorship of Word Power until 2003. Funk & Wagnalls Company published The Literary Digest, The Standard Dictionary of the English Language, and Funk & Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedia.
Early life
Funk was born in 1839 in the village of Clifton, Ohio. In 1842, he moved to Springfield, Ohio, where his father John managed the Pennsylvania House.
Years later, he attended Wittenberg College (now Wittenberg University) and Wittenberg Theological Seminary, both in Springfield.
Career
Upon his graduation in 1860, he was ordained as a Lutheran pastor, and served pastorates in New York, Indiana, and his home state of Ohio; his last pastorate was at Saint Matthews English Lutheran Church in Brooklyn, New York, where he stayed seven years. In 1872, Funk resigned from the ministry and made an extensive tour through Europe, northern Africa, and Asia Minor.
Funk was a prohibitionist. He founded the Voice in 1880, an organ of the Prohibition Party, and he was the Prohibition candidate for mayor of New York. His Staten Island home, "grand in scale and extremely decorative", was built in 1893 in what was then Prohibition Park, and the home still stands.
In 1875 he founded the publishing firm of I.K. Funk & Company, with the help of a Wittenberg classmate, Adam Willis Wagnalls, a lawyer and accountant. That year he founded and published the Metropolitan Pulpit (later its name was changed to Homiletic Review). Missionary Review also numbered among the many religious publications he founded after 1876. In 1877 the name of his company was changed to Funk & Wagnalls Company, to reflect Wagnalls' partnership. In 1890 Funk published The Literary Digest, a departure from the religious works earlier in his career.
Perhaps Funk's most important achievement was his Standard Dictionary of the English Language, the first volume of which was published in 1893. He worked with a team of more than 740 people. His aim was to provide essential information thoroughly and simply at the same time. In order to achieve this he placed current meanings first, archaic meanings second, and etymologies last. The dictionary was said to have cost Funk & Wagnalls over $960,000.
From 1901 until 1906, Funk & Wagnalls compiled the Jewish Encyclopædia. After Funk died in 1912, the publishing house eventually became a subsidiary of Thomas Y. Crowell Co.
Psychic research
In his later years, Funk spent time on psychic research. Funk was a believer in spiritualism and in his book, The Widow's Mite and Other Psychic Phenomena, published in 1904, he defended a number of mediums and spirit photography.
Magician Joseph Rinn has noted that Funk was easily duped by fraudulent mediums, such as the Bangs Sisters. Funk had bought several of their 'spirit' pictures, unaware they were produced fraudulently. He also defended Anna Eva Fay and May S. Pepper, two mediums that were also exposed.
Personal life
Funk married Eliza Thompson of Carey, Ohio in 1864. After her death in 1868, Funk married her sister, Helen Gertrude Thompson (1842–1911). Funk had two sons and a daughter:
James A. Funk (1876–1898), who predeceased his father in 1898 at age 21.
Wilfred John Funk (1883–1965)
Lida M. Funk, a Vassar College graduate who married Robert Scott in 1895.
Funk died in Montclair, New Jersey on April 4, 1912. After some bequests to his alma mater and his brother, the residue of the estate was left to his two surviving children.
Selected works
The Complete Preacher, Sermons Preached By Some of the Most Prominent Clergymen (The Religious Newspaper Agency, New York . 1878)
Great Advance: Address by Dr. I.K. Funk, as Chairman of the New York Prohibition State Convention. Saratoga, September 12, 1895 (The Voice. 1895)
Next Step in Evolution the Present Step (1902)
The Widow's Mite and Other Psychic Phenomena (Funk & Wagnalls Co. 1904)
The Psychic Riddle (Funk & Wagnalls Co. 1907)
Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Knowledge (Funk and Wagnalls Co. 1912)
References
External links
1839 births
1912 deaths
People from Clifton, Ohio
American Lutheran clergy
American lexicographers
American publishers (people)
American spiritualists
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
Parapsychologists
Wittenberg University alumni
New York (state) Prohibitionists
19th-century American businesspeople | [
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254138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial%20heap | Binomial heap | In computer science, a binomial heap is a data structure that acts as a priority queue but also allows pairs of heaps to be merged.
It is important as an implementation of the mergeable heap abstract data type (also called meldable heap), which is a priority queue supporting merge operation. It is implemented as a heap similar to a binary heap but using a special tree structure that is different from the complete binary trees used by binary heaps. Binomial heaps were invented in 1978 by Jean Vuillemin.
Binomial heap
A binomial heap is implemented as a set of binomial trees (compare with a binary heap, which has a shape of a single binary tree), which are defined recursively as follows:
A binomial tree of order 0 is a single node
A binomial tree of order has a root node whose children are roots of binomial trees of orders , , ..., 2, 1, 0 (in this order).
A binomial tree of order has nodes, and height .
The name comes from the shape: a binomial tree of order has nodes at depth , a binomial coefficient.
Because of its structure, a binomial tree of order can be constructed from two trees of order by attaching one of them as the leftmost child of the root of the other tree. This feature is central to the merge operation of a binomial heap, which is its major advantage over other conventional heaps.
Structure of a binomial heap
A binomial heap is implemented as a set of binomial trees that satisfy the binomial heap properties:
Each binomial tree in a heap obeys the minimum-heap property: the key of a node is greater than or equal to the key of its parent.
There can be at most one binomial tree for each order, including zero order.
The first property ensures that the root of each binomial tree contains the smallest key in the tree. It follows that the smallest key in the entire heap is one of the roots.
The second property implies that a binomial heap with nodes consists of at most binomial trees, where is the binary logarithm. The number and orders of these trees are uniquely determined by the number of nodes : there is one binomial tree for each nonzero bit in the binary representation of the number . For example, the decimal number 13 is 1101 in binary, , and thus a binomial heap with 13 nodes will consist of three binomial trees of orders 3, 2, and 0 (see figure below).
Example of a binomial heap containing 13 nodes with distinct keys.The heap consists of three binomial trees with orders 0, 2, and 3.
The number of different ways that items with distinct keys can be arranged into a binomial heap equals the largest odd divisor of . For these numbers are
1, 1, 3, 3, 15, 45, 315, 315, 2835, 14175, ...
If the items are inserted into a binomial heap in a uniformly random order, each of these arrangements is equally likely.
Implementation
Because no operation requires random access to the root nodes of the binomial trees, the roots of the binomial trees can be stored in a linked list, ordered by increasing order of the tree. Because the number of children for each node is variable, it does not work well for each node to have separate links to each of its children, as would be common in a binary tree; instead, it is possible to implement this tree using links from each node to its highest-order child in the tree, and to its sibling of the next smaller order than it. These sibling pointers can be interpreted as the next pointers in a linked list of the children of each node, but with the opposite order from the linked list of roots: from largest to smallest order, rather than vice versa. This representation allows two trees of the same order to be linked together, making a tree of the next larger order, in constant time.
Merge
The operation of merging two heaps is used as a subroutine in most other operations.
A basic subroutine within this procedure merges pairs of binomial trees of the same order. This may be done by comparing the keys at the roots of the two trees (the smallest keys in both trees). The root node with the larger key is made into a child of the root node with the smaller key, increasing its order by one:
function mergeTree(p, q)
if p.root.key <= q.root.key
return p.addSubTree(q)
else
return q.addSubTree(p)
To merge two heaps more generally, the lists of roots of both heaps are traversed simultaneously in a manner similar to that of the merge algorithm,
in a sequence from smaller orders of trees to larger orders. When only one of the two heaps being merged contains a tree of order , this tree is moved to the output heap. When both of the two heaps contain a tree of order , the two trees are merged to one tree of order so that the minimum-heap property is satisfied. It may later become necessary to merge this tree with some other tree of order in one of the two input heaps. In the course of the algorithm, it will examine at most three trees of any order, two from the two heaps we merge and one composed of two smaller trees.
function merge(p, q)
while not (p.end() and q.end())
tree = mergeTree(p.currentTree(), q.currentTree())
if not heap.currentTree().empty()
tree = mergeTree(tree, heap.currentTree())
heap.addTree(tree)
heap.next(); p.next(); q.next()
Because each binomial tree in a binomial heap corresponds to a bit in the binary representation of its size, there is an analogy between the merging of two heaps and the binary addition of the sizes of the two heaps, from right-to-left. Whenever a carry occurs during addition, this corresponds to a merging of two binomial trees during the merge.
Each binomial tree's traversal during merge only involves roots, hence making the time taken at most order and therefore the running time is .
Insert
Inserting a new element to a heap can be done by simply creating a new heap containing only this element and then merging it with the original heap. Because of the merge, a single insertion takes time . However, this can be sped up using a merge procedure that shortcuts the merge after it reaches a point where only one of the merged heaps has trees of larger order. With this speedup, across a series of consecutive insertions, the total time for the insertions is . Another way of stating this is that (after logarithmic overhead for the first insertion in a sequence) each successive insert has an amortized time of (i.e. constant) per insertion.
A variant of the binomial heap, the skew binomial heap, achieves constant worst case insertion time by using forests whose tree sizes are based on the skew binary number system rather than on the binary number system.
Find minimum
To find the minimum element of the heap, find the minimum among the roots of the binomial trees. This can be done in time, as there are just tree roots to examine.
By using a pointer to the binomial tree that contains the minimum element, the time for this operation can be reduced to . The pointer must be updated when performing any operation other than finding the minimum. This can be done in time per update, without raising the overall asymptotic running time of any operation.
Delete minimum
To delete the minimum element from the heap, first find this element, remove it from the root of its binomial tree, and obtain a list of its child subtrees (which are each themselves binomial trees, of distinct orders). Transform this list of subtrees into a separate binomial heap by reordering them from smallest to largest order. Then merge this heap with the original heap. Since each root has at most children, creating this new heap takes time . Merging heaps takes time , so the entire delete minimum operation takes time .
function deleteMin(heap)
min = heap.trees().first()
for each current in heap.trees()
if current.root < min.root then min = current
for each tree in min.subTrees()
tmp.addTree(tree)
heap.removeTree(min)
merge(heap, tmp)
Decrease key
After decreasing the key of an element, it may become smaller than the key of its parent, violating the minimum-heap property. If this is the case, exchange the element with its parent, and possibly also with its grandparent, and so on, until the minimum-heap property is no longer violated. Each binomial tree has height at most , so this takes time. However, this operation requires that the representation of the tree include pointers from each node to its parent in the tree, somewhat complicating the implementation of other operations.
Delete
To delete an element from the heap, decrease its key to negative infinity (or equivalently, to some value lower than any element in the heap) and then delete the minimum in the heap.
Applications
Discrete event simulation
Priority queues
See also
Weak heap, a combination of the binary heap and binomial heap data structures
References
External links
Two C implementations of binomial heap (a generic one and one optimized for integer keys)
Haskell implementation of binomial heap
Common Lisp implementation of binomial heap
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254141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compatible%20Time-Sharing%20System | Compatible Time-Sharing System | The Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) was the first general purpose time-sharing operating system. Compatible Time Sharing referred to time sharing which was compatible with batch processing; it could offer both time sharing and batch processing concurrently.
CTSS was developed at the MIT Computation Center ("Comp Center"). CTSS was first demonstrated on MIT's IBM 709 (the "blue machine") in November 1961. Routine service to MIT Comp Center users began in the summer of 1963 and was operated there until 1968.
A second deployment of CTSS on a separate IBM 7094 that was received in October 1963 (the "red machine") was used early on in Project MAC until 1969 when the red machine was moved to the Information Processing Center and operated until July 20, 1973. CTSS ran on only those two machines however there were remote CTSS users outside of MIT including ones at the University of Edinburgh and the University of Oxford.
History
John Backus said in the 1954 summer session at MIT that "By time sharing, a big computer could be used as several small ones; there would need to be a reading station for each user". Computers at that time, like IBM 704, were not powerful enough to implement such system, but at the end of 1958, MIT's Computation Center nevertheless added a typewriter input to its 704 with the intent that a programmer or operator could "obtain additional answers from the machine on a time-sharing basis with other programs using the machine simultaneously".
In June 1959, Christopher Strachey published a paper "Time Sharing in Large Fast Computers" at the UNESCO Information Processing Conference in Paris, where he envisaged a programmer debugging a program at a console (like a teletype) connected to the computer, while another program was running in the computer at the same time. Debugging programs was an important problem at that time, because with batch processing, it then often took a day from submitting a changed code, to getting the results. John McCarthy wrote a memo about that at MIT, after which a preliminary study committee and a working committee were established at MIT, to develop time sharing. The committees envisaged many users using the computer at the same time, decided the details of implementing such system at MIT, and started the development of the system.
Experimental Time Sharing System
By July, 1961 a few time sharing commands had become operational on the Computation Center's IBM 709, and in November 1961, Fernando J. Corbató demonstrated at MIT what was called the Experimental Time-Sharing System. On May 3, 1962, F. J. Corbató, M. M. Daggett and R. C. Daley published a paper about that system at the Spring Joint Computer Conference. Robert C. Daley, Peter R. Bos and at least 6 other programmers implemented the operating system, partly based on the Fortran Monitor System.
The system used an IBM 7090, modified by Herbert M. Teager, with added 3 Flexowriters for user consoles, and maybe a timer. Each of the 3 users had two tape units, one for the user's file directory, and one for dumping the core (program in memory). There was also one tape unit for the system commands, there were no disk drives. The memory was 27 k words (36-bit words) for users, and 5 k words for the supervisor (operating system). The input from the consoles was written to the buffers in the supervisor, by interrupts, and when a return character was received, the control was given to the supervisor, which dumped the running code to the tape and decided what to run next. The console commands implemented at the time were login, logout, input, edit, fap, mad, madtrn, load, use, start, skippm, listf, printf, xdump and xundump.
This became the initial version of the Compatible Time-Sharing System. This was apparently the first ever public demonstration of time-sharing; there are other claims, but they refer to special-purpose systems, or with no known papers published. The "compatibility" of CTSS was with background jobs run on the same computer, which generally used more of the compute resources than the time-sharing functions.
Features
The original ELIZA ran on CTSS.
CTSS was the first computer system to implement password login.
CTSS had one of the first computerized text formatting utilities, called RUNOFF (the successor of DITTO).
CTSS had one of the first inter-user messaging implementations, possibly inventing email.
CTSS had one of the first instant messaging systems similar to write.
MIT Computation Center staff member Louis Pouzin created for CTSS a command called RUNCOM, which executed a list of commands contained in a file. (He later created a design for the Multics shell that was implemented by Glenda Schroeder which in turn inspired Unix shell scripts.) RUNCOM also allowed parameter substitution.
CTSS had an implementation of the text editor QED, the predecessor of ed, vi, and vim, with regular expressions added by Ken Thompson.
Implementation
Kernel
CTSS used a modified IBM 7090 mainframe computer that had two 32,768 (32K) 36-bit-word banks of core memory instead of the normal one. One bank was reserved for the time-sharing supervisory program, the other for user programs. CTSS had a protected-mode kernel, the supervisor's functions in the A-core (memory bank A) could be called only by software interrupts, like in the modern operating systems. Causing memory-protection interrupts were used for software interrupts. Processor allocation scheduling with a quantum time unit 200 ms, was controlled by a multilevel feedback queue. It also had some special memory-management hardware, a clock interrupt and the ability to trap certain instructions.
Supervisor subroutines
RDFLXA – Read an input line from console
WRFLX – Write an output line to console
DEAD – Put the user into dead status, with no program in memory
DORMNT – Put the user into dormant status, with program in memory
GETMEM – Get the size of the memory allocation
SETMEM – Set the size of the memory allocation
TSSFIL – Get access to the CTSS system files on the disk
USRFIL – Change back to user's own directory
GETBRK – Get the instruction location counter at quit
Programming languages
CTSS at first had only an assembler FAP and a compiler MAD. Also, Fortran II code could be translated into a MAD code. Later half of the system was written in MAD. Later there were other programming languages like LISP and a version of ALGOL.
File system
Each user had their own directory, and there were also shared directories for groups of people with the same "problem number". Each file had two names, the second indicating its type as did the extension in later system. At first, each file could have one of four modes: temporary, permanent, read-only class 1, and read-only class 2. Read-only class 1 allowed the user to change the mode of the file. Files could also be symbolically linked between directories. A directory listing by listf:
10 FILES 20 TRACKS USED
DATE NAME MODE NO. TRACKS
5/20/63 MAIN MAD P 15
5/17/63 DPFA SYMTB P 1
5/17/63 DPFA BSS P 1
5/17/63 DPFA FAP P 2
Peripherals
Input-output hardware was mostly standard IBM peripherals. These included six data channels connecting to:
Printers, punched card readers and punches
IBM 729 tape drives, an IBM 1301 disk storage, later upgraded to an IBM 1302, with 38 million word capacity
An IBM 7320 drum memory with 186K words that could load a 32K-word memory bank in one second (later upgraded to 0.25 seconds)
Two custom high-speed vector graphics displays
An IBM 7750 transmission control unit capable of supporting up to 112 teleprinter terminals, including IBM 1050 Selectrics and Model 35s. Some of the terminals were located remotely, and the system could be accessed using the public Telex and TWX networks.
Influences
CTSS was described in a paper presented at the 1962 Spring Joint Computer Conference, and greatly influenced the design of other early time-sharing systems.
Maurice Wilkes witnessed CTSS and the design of the Titan Supervisor was inspired by that.
Dennis Ritchie wrote in 1977 that UNIX could be seen as a "modern implementation" of CTSS. Multics, which was also developed by Project MAC, was started in the 1960s as a successor to CTSS – and in turn inspired the development of Unix in 1969. One of the technical terms inherited by these systems from CTSS is daemon.
Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), another early, revolutionary, and influential MIT time-sharing system, was produced by people who disagreed with the direction taken by CTSS, and later, Multics; the name was a parody of "CTSS", as later the name "Unix" was a parody of "Multics".
See also
Timeline of operating systems
Time-sharing system evolution
References
Further reading
External links
Oral history interview with John McCarthy, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Discusses computer developments at MIT including time sharing.
Oral history interview with Fernando J. Corbató, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Discusses many computer developments at MIT including CTSS.
Oral history interview with Robert M. Fano, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Discusses computer developments at MIT including CTSS.
The IBM 7094 and CTSS: personal memoir of Tom Van Vleck, a system programmer on CTSS
CTSS Source version MIT8C0 in Paul Pierce's collection.
Dave Pitts' IBM 7094 support – Includes a license-free simulator, cross assembler and linker that can be used to build and run CTSS.
CTSS sources and binaries, a more complete kit which runs on SIMH.
CIO: 40 years of Multics, 1969-2009: Interview with CTSS and Multics developer Fernando J. Corbato.
Jerome Saltzer's CTSS bookshelf via CSAIL.
1960s software
1970s software
Discontinued operating systems
Massachusetts Institute of Technology software
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254142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci%20heap | Fibonacci heap | In computer science, a Fibonacci heap is a data structure for priority queue operations, consisting of a collection of heap-ordered trees. It has a better amortized running time than many other priority queue data structures including the binary heap and binomial heap. Michael L. Fredman and Robert E. Tarjan developed Fibonacci heaps in 1984 and published them in a scientific journal in 1987. Fibonacci heaps are named after the Fibonacci numbers, which are used in their running time analysis.
For the Fibonacci heap, the find-minimum operation takes constant (O(1)) amortized time. The insert and decrease key operations also work in constant amortized time. Deleting an element (most often used in the special case of deleting the minimum element) works in O(log n) amortized time, where n is the size of the heap. This means that starting from an empty data structure, any sequence of a insert and decrease key operations and b delete operations would take O(a + b log n) worst case time, where n is the maximum heap size. In a binary or binomial heap, such a sequence of operations would take O((a + b) log n) time. A Fibonacci heap is thus better than a binary or binomial heap when b is smaller than a by a non-constant factor. It is also possible to merge two Fibonacci heaps in constant amortized time, improving on the logarithmic merge time of a binomial heap, and improving on binary heaps which cannot handle merges efficiently.
Using Fibonacci heaps for priority queues improves the asymptotic running time of important algorithms, such as Dijkstra's algorithm for computing the shortest path between two nodes in a graph, compared to the same algorithm using other slower priority queue data structures.
Structure
A Fibonacci heap is a collection of trees satisfying the minimum-heap property, that is, the key of a child is always greater than or equal to the key of the parent. This implies that the minimum key is always at the root of one of the trees. Compared with binomial heaps, the structure of a Fibonacci heap is more flexible. The trees do not have a prescribed shape and in the extreme case the heap can have every element in a separate tree. This flexibility allows some operations to be executed in a lazy manner, postponing the work for later operations. For example, merging heaps is done simply by concatenating the two lists of trees, and operation decrease key sometimes cuts a node from its parent and forms a new tree.
However, at some point order needs to be introduced to the heap to achieve the desired running time. In particular, degrees of nodes (here degree means the number of direct children) are kept quite low: every node has degree at most log n and the size of a subtree rooted in a node of degree k is at least Fk+2, where Fk is the kth Fibonacci number. This is achieved by the rule that we can cut at most one child of each non-root node. When a second child is cut, the node itself needs to be cut from its parent and becomes the root of a new tree (see Proof of degree bounds, below). The number of trees is decreased in the operation delete minimum, where trees are linked together.
As a result of a relaxed structure, some operations can take a long time while others are done very quickly. For the amortized running time analysis, we use the potential method, in that we pretend that very fast operations take a little bit longer than they actually do. This additional time is then later combined and subtracted from the actual running time of slow operations. The amount of time saved for later use is measured at any given moment by a potential function. The potential of a Fibonacci heap is given by
Potential = t + 2m
where t is the number of trees in the Fibonacci heap, and m is the number of marked nodes. A node is marked if at least one of its children was cut since this node was made a child of another node (all roots are unmarked).
The amortized time for an operation is given by the sum of the actual time and c times the difference in potential, where c is a constant (chosen to match the constant factors in the O notation for the actual time).
Thus, the root of each tree in a heap has one unit of time stored. This unit of time can be used later to link this tree with another tree at amortized time 0. Also, each marked node has two units of time stored. One can be used to cut the node from its parent. If this happens, the node becomes a root and the second unit of time will remain stored in it as in any other root.
Implementation of operations
To allow fast deletion and concatenation, the roots of all trees are linked using a circular doubly linked list. The children of each node are also linked using such a list. For each node, we maintain its number of children and whether the node is marked. Moreover, we maintain a pointer to the root containing the minimum key.
Operation find minimum is now trivial because we keep the pointer to the node containing it. It does not change the potential of the heap, therefore both actual and amortized cost are constant.
As mentioned above, merge is implemented simply by concatenating the lists of tree roots of the two heaps. This can be done in constant time and the potential does not change, leading again to constant amortized time.
Operation insert works by creating a new heap with one element and doing merge. This takes constant time, and the potential increases by one, because the number of trees increases. The amortized cost is thus still constant.
Operation extract minimum (same as delete minimum) operates in three phases. First we take the root containing the minimum element and remove it. Its children will become roots of new trees. If the number of children was d, it takes time O(d) to process all new roots and the potential increases by d−1. Therefore, the amortized running time of this phase is O(d) = O(log n).
However to complete the extract minimum operation, we need to update the pointer to the root with minimum key. Unfortunately there may be up to n roots we need to check. In the second phase we therefore decrease the number of roots by successively linking together roots of the same degree. When two roots u and v have the same degree, we make one of them a child of the other so that the one with the smaller key remains the root. Its degree will increase by one. This is repeated until every root has a different degree. To find trees of the same degree efficiently we use an array of length O(log n) in which we keep a pointer to one root of each degree. When a second root is found of the same degree, the two are linked and the array is updated. The actual running time is O(log n + m) where m is the number of roots at the beginning of the second phase. At the end we will have at most O(log n) roots (because each has a different degree). Therefore, the difference in the potential function from before this phase to after it is: O(log n) − m, and the amortized running time is then at most O(log n + m) + c(O(log n) − m). With a sufficiently large choice of c, this simplifies to O(log n).
In the third phase we check each of the remaining roots and find the minimum. This takes O(log n) time and the potential does not change. The overall amortized running time of extract minimum is therefore O(log n).
Operation decrease key will take the node, decrease the key and if the heap property becomes violated (the new key is smaller than the key of the parent), the node is cut from its parent. If the parent is not a root, it is marked. If it has been marked already, it is cut as well and its parent is marked. We continue upwards until we reach either the root or an unmarked node. Now we set the minimum pointer to the decreased value if it is the new minimum. In the process we create some number, say k, of new trees. Each of these new trees except possibly the first one was marked originally but as a root it will become unmarked. One node can become marked. Therefore, the number of marked nodes changes by −(k − 1) + 1 = − k + 2. Combining these 2 changes, the potential changes by 2(−k + 2) + k = −k + 4. The actual time to perform the cutting was O(k), therefore (again with a sufficiently large choice of c) the amortized running time is constant.
Finally, operation delete can be implemented simply by decreasing the key of the element to be deleted to minus infinity, thus turning it into the minimum of the whole heap. Then we call extract minimum to remove it. The amortized running time of this operation is O(log n).
Proof of degree bounds
The amortized performance of a Fibonacci heap depends on the degree (number of children) of any tree root being O(log n), where n is the size of the heap. Here we show that the size of the (sub)tree rooted at any node x of degree d in the heap must have size at least Fd+2, where Fk is the kth Fibonacci number. The degree bound follows from this and the fact (easily proved by induction) that for all integers , where . (We then have , and taking the log to base of both sides gives as required.)
Consider any node x somewhere in the heap (x need not be the root of one of the main trees). Define size(x) to be the size of the tree rooted at x (the number of descendants of x, including x itself). We prove by induction on the height of x (the length of a longest simple path from x to a descendant leaf), that size(x) ≥ Fd+2, where d is the degree of x.
Base case: If x has height 0, then d = 0, and size(x) = 1 = F2.
Inductive case: Suppose x has positive height and degree d > 0. Let y1, y2, ..., yd be the children of x, indexed in order of the times they were most recently made children of x (y1 being the earliest and yd the latest), and let c1, c2, ..., cd be their respective degrees. We claim that ci ≥ i-2 for each i with 2 ≤ i ≤ d: Just before yi was made a child of x, y1,...,yi−1 were already children of x, and so x had degree at least i−1 at that time. Since trees are combined only when the degrees of their roots are equal, it must have been that yi also had degree at least i-1 at the time it became a child of x. From that time to the present, yi can only have lost at most one child (as guaranteed by the marking process), and so its current degree ci is at least i−2. This proves the claim.
Since the heights of all the yi are strictly less than that of x, we can apply the inductive hypothesis to them to get size(yi) ≥ Fci+2 ≥ F(i−2)+2 = Fi. The nodes x and y1 each contribute at least 1 to size(x), and so we have
A routine induction proves that for any , which gives the desired lower bound on size(x).
Worst case
Although Fibonacci heaps look very efficient, they have the following two drawbacks:
They are complicated when it comes to implementing them.
They are not as efficient in practice when compared with the theoretically less efficient forms of heaps. In their simplest version they require storage and manipulation of four pointers per node, whereas only two or three pointers per node are needed in other structures, such as Binary heap, Binomial heap, Pairing heap, Brodal queue and Rank pairing heap.
Although the total running time of a sequence of operations starting with an empty structure is bounded by the bounds given above, some (very few) operations in the sequence can take very long to complete (in particular delete and delete minimum have linear running time in the worst case). For this reason Fibonacci heaps and other amortized data structures may not be appropriate for real-time systems. It is possible to create a data structure which has the same worst-case performance as the Fibonacci heap has amortized performance. One such structure, the Brodal queue, is, in the words of the creator, "quite complicated" and "[not] applicable in practice." Created in 2012, the strict Fibonacci heap is a simpler (compared to Brodal's) structure with the same worst-case bounds. Despite having simpler structure, experiments show that in practice the strict Fibonacci heap performs slower than more complicated Brodal queue and also slower than basic Fibonacci heap. The run-relaxed heaps of Driscoll et al. give good worst-case performance for all Fibonacci heap operations except merge.
Summary of running times
Practical considerations
Fibonacci heaps have a reputation for being slow in practice due to large memory consumption per node and high constant factors on all operations. Recent experimental results suggest that Fibonacci heaps are more efficient in practice than most of its later derivatives, including quake heaps, violation heaps, strict Fibonacci heaps, rank pairing heaps, but less efficient than either pairing heaps or array-based heaps.
References
External links
Java applet simulation of a Fibonacci heap
MATLAB implementation of Fibonacci heap
De-recursived and memory efficient C implementation of Fibonacci heap (free/libre software, CeCILL-B license)
Ruby implementation of the Fibonacci heap (with tests)
Pseudocode of the Fibonacci heap algorithm
Various Java Implementations for Fibonacci heap
Fibonacci numbers
Heaps (data structures)
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254143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Simon%20Hermstedt | Johann Simon Hermstedt | Johann Simon Hermstedt (29 December 1778 – 10 August 1846) was one of the most famous clarinettists of the 19th century. A German, he served as court clarinettist to Duke Günther I of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, and taught the Duke to play the clarinet. All four of Louis Spohr's clarinet concertos and several of his other clarinet works were written with Hermstedt's skills in mind and were dedicated to him. Hermstedt also composed a few works for wind instruments himself so threats why.
References
1778 births
1846 deaths
German clarinetists | [
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254144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akitaro%20Daichi | Akitaro Daichi | is an anime director, producer and photography director.
Career
Daichi is a native of Gunma Prefecture and a graduate of Tokyo Polytechnic University. He originally aspired to be a stage photographer, but entered the employ of Tokyo Animation Film, an anime photography company. His first work in the industry was as photography director for the Doraemon movie History of Nobita's Outer Space Trailblazing (ドラえもん のび太の宇宙開拓史). After five years, Daichi changed jobs and worked for a video production company making karaoke videos among other things, but he later returned to the anime industry and focused on direction. In 1994, he attracted attention for his storyboard work on Akazukin Chacha, and in 1995 he made his debut as a series director on Nurse Angel Ririka SOS.
Sexual harassment allegations
In 2018 and 2019, voice actress Hiroko Konishi alleged that she was propositioned by her manager to enter a mixed bath with Daichi in the nude and was blacklisted from the voice acting industry when she refused.
Works (as director)
Nurse Angel Ririka SOS (1995)
Elf Princess Rane (1995)
Kodomo no Omocha (Kodocha: Sana's Stage; 1996–1998)
Ojarumaru (1998)
Sexy Commando Gaiden: Sugoi yo!! Masaru-san (1998)
Jubei-chan: The Ninja Girl (1999)
Now and Then, Here and There (1999)
Carried by the Wind: Tsukikage Ran (2000)
Fruits Basket (2001)
Animation Runner Kuromi (2001)
Atashin'chi (2002)
Animation Runner Kuromi 2 (2004)
Makasete Iruka! (Grrl Power!) (2004)
Jubei-chan: The Ninja Girl 2 (2004)
Legendz (2004)
Gag Manga Biyori (2005)
We Were There (2006)
Poyopoyo Kansatsu Nikki (2012)
Kamisama Kiss (2012–2015)
DD Fist of the North Star (2013)
Tonkatsu DJ Agetarō (2016)
Nobunaga no Shinobi (2017)
Nobunaga no Shinobi: Anegawa Ishiyama-hen (2018)
Meiji Tokyo Renka (2019)
References
External links
Daichi's homepage (Japanese)
Daichi at AnimeNEXT 2005 convention
Anime directors
Living people
1956 births
People from Gunma Prefecture | [
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254149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20A-ko | Project A-ko | is a 1986 Japanese action-comedy science fiction anime film that had several sequels and a spin-off. This film focuses on a happy-go-lucky 16-year-old red-haired, sailor-suited teenage schoolgirl, A-ko Magami, who goes on her magical adventure from high school to outer space as she struggles to finish her homework, rescue her friend C-ko, and save the Earth from an evil alien invasion. This series references a number of other works of anime from the 1970s and 1980s, such as Macross, Fist of the North Star and Gundam.
Plot
An alien space craft crashes into Graviton City, wiping out the entire population and leaving a massive crater where the city is rebuilt. Students A-ko Magami, a perky, fun-loving red-haired, sailor-suited teenage girl, and her best friend C-ko Kotobuki, a bubbly, carefree optimist, enter a new year of school as transfer students at the all-girls Graviton High School. Although A-ko possesses superhuman speed and strength, she considers herself an average teenager. She mostly worries about getting to school on time, due to her habit of chronically oversleeping her alarm clock each morning. The pair catch the unwanted attention of B-ko Daitokuji, a rich, snobbish, spoiled, and brilliant fellow student.
B-ko develops an obsession in regards to C-ko, and is determined to win her over. B-ko's attempts to win C-ko over fail, however, and remembering that she was A-ko's rival back in kindergarten, B-ko creates a series of mecha piloted by her team of female followers to attack A-ko each morning. After losing each new and more powerful mecha, she eventually creates and dons the "Akagiyama 23," a powered suit that looks like a bikini. B-ko quickly escalates the fight across the school with no restraint.
Trench-coated spy "D" has been monitoring A-ko and C-ko each morning and reporting back to a large spacecraft as it approaches Earth. The aliens' conclusion is that they have located a lost princess whom they have been looking for. The aliens finally reach Earth and begin an all-out attack against the Graviton military, which is outmatched by the alien technology. A-ko and B-ko's own fight continues across the big city even as the military and aliens do battle. C-ko is abducted in the middle of this confrontation by "D," who is revealed to be a member of the Lepton Kingdom of Alpha Cygni, an all-female race of aliens. C-ko is their princess.
Witnessing the abduction, A-ko and B-ko set aside their differences. Infiltrating the spaceship, A-ko confronts D and the ship's alcoholic Captain Napolipolita, while B-ko rescues C-ko. B-ko then reneges on the truce and opens fire on A-ko, D, and the Captain, destroying the ship's navigation system. The vessel lands, precariously perched on top of the city's Military Command Tower (actually the remains of the previously crashed ship).
A-ko happily awakens the next morning, sore from the previous day's adventures, and walks with C-ko to school in their new uniforms. The girls pass by a disheveled D and the Captain begging for donations to repair their ship. The film ends with B-ko, ready for yet another fight, smiling as A-ko appears on the horizon.
Production and release
The film was directed by Katsuhiko Nishijima who would later go on to direct Agent Aika and Labyrinth of Flames. Production of the film included several artists who would later create other popular works, including Kia Asamiya and Atsuko Nakajima. Also noted is the western source of the soundtrack, credited to Joey Carbone and Richie Zito.
The title itself is a reference to the 1983 Jackie Chan movie Project A, although the film bears no resemblance to Project A; the working title ended up sticking.
In Japanese, "-ko" is a common suffix for girls' names, like Hanako, Rumiko, and Yuriko, or indeed Eiko, which sounds just like A-ko. The literal meaning is "child", so A-ko is a generic "Child A", a common way to reference peripheral characters in Japanese contemporary drama. In the making-of documentary for the film, it is stated that "A-ko", "B-ko", and "C-ko" were intended as generic "Jane Doe"-type names.
Project A-ko was initially planned to be part of the Cream Lemon series of pornographic OVAs, but during the production of the series, it was decided to make it into a more mainstream title. The only sequence animated during its Cream Lemon days left in the revised production is B-ko's private bath scene. In a nod to Project A-ko's origins as a Cream Lemon episode, the owner and several working girls from the brothel in the Cream Lemon episode "Pop Chaser" - where director Katsuhiko Nishijima was one of the animators - can be seen in one of the classrooms A-ko and B-ko crash through during a fight sequence in the film.
Nishijima states (possibly in jest) that he took on this project because he was missing some teeth at the time and needed the funding from this film to buy new ones.
Release
The film was released to theaters by Shochiku-Fuji on June 21, 1986, alongside a shorter film titled Going on a Journey: Ami Final Chapter. Pony Video distributed the film via VHS and LaserDisc later in the year.
Project A-Ko was Central Park Media's first video release in 1991 alongside Dominion Tank Police and MD Geist. They later released a dubbed version produced by Manga Entertainment to VHS in 1992. The English dub for the rest of the franchise was produced with Ocean Studios instead.
After releasing Project A-ko on DVD in its original widescreen video format, Central Park Media later released a "Collector's Series" version in 2002, which features remastered video and coloring, a large number of A-ko related extras, commentary and interviews by many of the Project A-ko staff, and a free Project A-ko soundtrack CD.
On May 17, 2011, Eastern Star released a newly remastered R1 Project A-ko DVD. It contains many of the extras of the original CPM release, minus the soundtrack CD. In September 2020, it was announced Discotek Media will release the film on Blu-ray. The footage for the film was to be sourced from the laserdisc release using the Domesday Duplicator to capture the footage at a higher quality than previous releases, with a technology called AstroRes being used to upscale the footage and restore it to a higher quality. In March 2021, Discotek announced that the film will instead be sourced from the original 35mm film negatives, which were previously thought lost. The 35mm film negatives had been stored in a film laboratory but a clerical error had resulted in confusion as to where it was.
Critical reception
The film has largely been praised reviewers who consider it a classic for fans of Japanese anime. The film's humor was praised, with Hyper magazine saying the film "had me in stitches with its fast hitting cheesy humour."
Reviewer Joe Bob Briggs praised the film, citing the more adult subject matter compared to Saturday morning cartoons and crazy action, giving it four out of four stars. He placed the film alongside others such as Gunbuster and Dominion: Tank Police which feature scantily clad women in science fiction adventures causing a lot of mayhem.
GameFan writer Shidoshi considers the film a "must see" film for any serious anime fan, saying it rises above being a mere parody and stands on its own as a work. He also says that it is the best film in the series, with the sequels being the sort of work that the film set out to mock.
However, some reviewers found the story confusing and hard to follow, with GameZone magazine saying "Confused? You better believe it. The plot's got more twists than a bag of noodles".
Sequels
Central Park Media has released the three theatrical sequels (often erroneously cited in U.S. anime references as OVAs) in a single-disc DVD collection, 'Project A-ko: Love and Robots':
Plot of the Daitokuji Financial Group (1987)
Cinderella Rhapsody (1988)
FINAL (1989)
After this original series, a spin-off entitled A-ko the Vs (1990) was created and released in the OVA format. In this two-part series (a "Grey side" and "Blue side"), A-ko and B-ko are partners hunting monsters in an extraterrestrial environment, with no relationship to the previous series. Central Park Media released it as Project A-ko: Uncivil Wars.
References
External links
Graviton High Project A-ko fansite
1986 anime films
1980s Japanese films
1980s parody films
1980s science fiction comedy films
Japanese animated science fiction films
Japanese science fiction comedy films
Central Park Media
CPM Press
Discotek Media
Japanese-language films
Animated films set in the future
Impact event films
1980s rediscovered films | [
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254150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20C.%20R.%20Licklider | J. C. R. Licklider | Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider (; March 11, 1915 – June 26, 1990), known simply as J. C. R. or "Lick", was an American psychologist and computer scientist who is considered among prominent figures in computer science development and general computing history.
He is particularly remembered for being one of the first to foresee modern-style interactive computing and its application to all manner of activities; and also as an Internet pioneer with an early vision of a worldwide computer network long before it was built. He did much to initiate this by funding research which led to much of it, including today's canonical graphical user interface, and the ARPANET, the direct predecessor to the Internet.
He has been called "computing's Johnny Appleseed", for planting the seeds of computing in the digital age; Robert Taylor, founder of Xerox PARC's Computer Science Laboratory and Digital Equipment Corporation's Systems Research Center, noted that "most of the significant advances in computer technology—including the work that my group did at Xerox PARC—were simply extrapolations of Lick's vision. They were not really new visions of their own. So he was really the father of it all".
Biography
Licklider was born on March 11, 1915, in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. He was the only child of Joseph Parron Licklider, a Baptist minister, and Margaret Robnett Licklider. Despite his father's religious background, he was not religious in later life.
He studied at Washington University in St. Louis, where he received a B.A. with a triple major in physics, mathematics, and psychology in 1937 and an M.A. in psychology in 1938. He received a Ph.D. in psychoacoustics from the University of Rochester in 1942. Thereafter, he worked at Harvard University as a research fellow and lecturer in the Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory from 1943 to 1950.
He became interested in information technology, and moved to MIT in 1950 as an associate professor, where he served on a committee that established MIT Lincoln Laboratory and a psychology program for engineering students. While at MIT, Licklider was involved in the SAGE project as head of the team concerned with human factors.
In 1957, he received the Franklin V. Taylor Award from the Society of Engineering Psychologists. In 1958, he was elected President of the Acoustical Society of America, and in 1990 he received the Commonwealth Award for Distinguished Service.
Licklider left MIT to become a vice president at Bolt Beranek and Newman in 1957. He learned about time-sharing from Christopher Strachey at a UNESCO-sponsored conference on Information Processing in Paris in 1959. At BBN, he developed the BBN Time-Sharing System and conducted the first public demonstration of time-sharing.
In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) at ARPA, the United States Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, an appointment he kept through July 1964. In April 1963, he sent a memo to his colleagues in outlining the early challenges presented in establishing a time-sharing network of computers with the software of that time. Ultimately, his vision led to ARPANet, the precursor of today's Internet.
After serving as manager of information sciences, systems and applications at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York from 1964 to 1967, Licklider rejoined MIT as a professor of electrical engineering in 1968. During this period, he concurrently served as director of Project MAC until 1971. Project MAC had produced the first computer time-sharing system, CTSS, and one of the first online setups with the development of Multics (work on which commenced in 1964). Multics provided inspiration for some elements of the Unix operating system developed at Bell Labs by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie in 1970.
Following a second stint as IPTO director (1974–1975), his MIT faculty line was transferred to the Institute's Laboratory for Computer Science, where he was based for the remainder of his career. He was a founding member of Infocom in 1979, known for their interactive fiction computer games. He retired and became professor emeritus in 1985. He died in 1990 in Arlington, Massachusetts; his cremated remains are interred in Mount Auburn Cemetery.
Work
Psychoacoustics
In the psychoacoustics field, Licklider is most remembered for his 1951 "Duplex Theory of Pitch Perception", presented in a paper that has been cited hundreds of times, was reprinted in a 1979 book, and formed the basis for modern models of pitch perception. He was also the first to report binaural unmasking of speech.
Semi-Automatic Ground Environment
While at MIT in the 1950s, Licklider worked on Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), a Cold War project to create a computer-aided air defense system. The SAGE system included computers that collected and presented data to a human operator, who then chose the appropriate response. Licklider worked as a human factors expert, which helped convince him of the great potential for human/computer interfaces.
Information technology
Licklider became interested in information technology early in his career. His ideas foretold of graphical computing, point-and-click interfaces, digital libraries, e-commerce, online banking, and software that would exist on a network and migrate wherever it was needed. Much like Vannevar Bush's, Licklider's contribution to the development of the Internet consists of ideas, not inventions. He foresaw the need for networked computers with easy user interfaces.
Licklider was instrumental in conceiving, funding and managing the research that led to modern personal computers and the Internet. In 1960 his seminal paper on "Man-Computer Symbiosis" foreshadowed interactive computing, and he went on to fund early efforts in time-sharing and application development, most notably the work of Douglas Engelbart, who founded the Augmentation Research Center at Stanford Research Institute and created the famous On-Line System where the computer mouse was invented.
He also did some seminal early work for the Council on Library Resources, imagining what libraries of the future might look like, which he had described as "thinking centers" in his 1960 paper.
Man–computer symbiosis
In "Man-Computer Symbiosis", Licklider in 1960 outlined the need for simpler interaction between computers and computer users. Licklider has been credited as an early pioneer of cybernetics and artificial intelligence (AI), but unlike many AI practitioners, Licklider never felt that men would be replaced by computer-based beings. As he wrote in that article: "Men will set the goals, formulate the hypotheses, determine the criteria, and perform the evaluations. Computing machines will do the routinizable work that must be done to prepare the way for insights and decisions in technical and scientific thinking". This approach, focusing on effective use of information technology in augmenting human intelligence, is sometimes called Intelligence amplification (IA). Peter Highnam, DARPA director in 2020, focused on human-machine partnership as a long-term goal and guiding light ever since Licklider's 1960 publication.
Project MAC
During his time as director of ARPA's Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) from 1962 to 1964, he funded Project MAC at MIT. A large mainframe computer was designed to be shared by up to 30 simultaneous users, each sitting at a separate "typewriter terminal". He also funded similar projects at Stanford University, UCLA, UC Berkeley (called Project Genie), and the AN/FSQ-32 at System Development Corporation.
Global computer network
Licklider played a similar role in conceiving of and funding early networking research. He formulated the earliest ideas of a global computer network in August 1962 at BBN, in a series of memos discussing the "Intergalactic Computer Network" concept. These ideas contained almost everything that the Internet is today, including cloud computing.
While at IPTO, he convinced Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and Lawrence G. Roberts that an all-encompassing computer network was a very important concept. He met with Donald Davies in 1965 and inspired his interest in data communications.
In 1967 Licklider submitted the paper "Televistas: Looking ahead through side windows" to the Carnegie Commission on Educational Television. This paper describes a radical departure from the "broadcast" model of television. Instead, Licklider advocates a two-way communications network. The Carnegie Commission led to the creation of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Although the Commission's report explains that "Dr. Licklider's paper was completed after the Commission had formulated its own conclusions," President Johnson said at the signing of the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, "So I think we must consider new ways to build a great network for knowledge—not just a broadcast system, but one that employs every means of sending and of storing information that the individual can use".
His 1968 paper The Computer as a Communication Device illustrates his vision of network applications and predicts the use of computer networks to support communities of common interest and collaboration without regard to location.
In that same 1968 paper, J. C. R. Licklider and Robert W. Taylor wrote, "Take any problem worthy of the name, and you find only a few people who can contribute effectively to its solution. Those people must be brought into close intellectual partnership so that their ideas can come into contact with one another. But bring these people together physically in one place to form a team, and you have trouble, for the most creative people are often not the best team players, and there are not enough top positions in a single organization to keep them all happy. Let them go their separate ways, and each creates his own empire, large or small, and devotes more time to the role of emperor than to the role of problem solver. The principals still get together at meetings. They still visit one another. But the time scale of their communication stretches out, and the correlations among mental models degenerate between meetings so that it may take a year to do a week's communicating. There has to be some way of facilitating communication among people wit bout [sic] [without] bringing them together in one place." (Evan Herbert edited the article and acted as intermediary during its writing between Licklider in Boston and Taylor in Washington.)
The Licklider Transmission Protocol is named after him.
Publications
Licklider wrote numerous articles and lectures, and one book:
1942. An Electrical Investigation of Frequency-Localization in the Auditory Cortex of the Cat. Ph.D. Thesis University of Rochester
1965. Libraries of the future. Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press (alternative online source)
Articles, a selection:
1960. "Man-Computer Symbiosis". In: Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, volume HFE-1, pp. 4–11, March 1960.
1963. "Memorandum for Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network". Advanced Research Projects Agency, April 23, 1963.
1965. "Man-Computer Partnership". In: International Science and Technology May 1965.
1967. "Televistas: Looking ahead through side windows". Report of the Carnegie Commission on Public Television, 1967, pp. 201–225.
1967. "Computers Are Helping Scientists Locate That Particular Pebble in the New Avalanche of Information"
1968. "The Computer as a Communication Device". In: Science and Technology. April 1968.
See also
List of pioneers in computer science
References
Further reading
M. Mitchell Waldrop (2001) The Dream Machine: J.C.R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal – An extensive and very thoroughly researched biography of J.C.R. Licklider.
Katie Hafner & Matthew Lyon (1998) Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet, Simon & Schuster. – Describes the creation of the ARPANET.
Augmenting Human Intellect paper, Douglas Engelbart, October 1962.
Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider, Libraries of the Future. Cambridge, MA, 1965.
Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing video documentary, 1972. Licklider explains online resource sharing, about 10 minutes into the documentary, and reappears throughout.
From World Brain to the World Wide Web, Lecture by Martin Campbell-Kelly at Gresham College, 9 November 2006.
Seeding Networks: the Federal Role, Larry Press, Communications of the ACM, pp. 11–18, Vol 39., No 10, October, 1996. A survey of US government-funded research and development preceding and including the National Science Foundation backbone and international connections programs.
Before the Altair – The History of Personal Computing, Larry Press, Communications of the ACM, September, 1993, Vol 36, No 9, pp 27–33. A survey of research and development leading to the personal computer including Licklider's contributions.
External links
J. C. R. Licklider And The Universal Network — Living Internet
Oral history interview with J. C. R. Licklider at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Licklider, the first director of the Advanced Research Projects Agency's (ARPA) Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO), discusses his work at Lincoln Laboratory and IPTO. Topics include: personnel recruitment; the interrelations between the various Massachusetts Institute of Technology laboratories; Licklider's relationship with Bolt, Beranek, and Newman; the work of ARPA director Jack Ruina; IPTO's influence of computer science research in the areas of interactive computing and timesharing; the ARPA contracting process; the work of Ivan Sutherland.
Oral history interview with Robert E. Kahn at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Kahn discusses the work of various DARPA and IPTO personnel including J. C. R. Licklider.
1915 births
1990 deaths
Scientists from St. Louis
University of Rochester alumni
Washington University in St. Louis alumni
Washington University in St. Louis mathematicians
Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
Artificial intelligence researchers
American psychologists
Cyberneticists
American computer scientists
Internet pioneers
People from Arlington, Massachusetts
Deaths from asthma
20th-century American scientists
MIT Lincoln Laboratory people
Speech processing researchers
Auditory scientists
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
20th-century psychologists | [
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] |
254151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise%20Oxford%20English%20Dictionary | Concise Oxford English Dictionary | The Concise Oxford English Dictionary (officially titled The Concise Oxford Dictionary until 2002, and widely abbreviated COD or COED) is probably the best-known of the 'smaller' Oxford dictionaries. The latest edition of the Concise Oxford English Dictionary contains over 240,000 entries and 1,728 pages (concise only compared to the OED at over 21,000 pages). Its 12th edition, published in 2011, is used by both the United Nations (UN) and NATO as the current authority for spellings in documents written in English for international use. It is available as an e-book for a variety of handheld device platforms. In addition to providing information for general use, it documents local variations such as United States and United Kingdom usage.
It was started as a derivative of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), although section S–Z had to be written before the Oxford English Dictionary reached that stage. However, starting from the 10th edition, it is based on the Oxford Dictionary of English (also known as the NODE) rather than the OED. The most recent edition is the 12th edition, published in 2011.
Until 2000, it was the dictionary used on the UK game show Countdown.
Publications
English dictionaries
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English
1st Edition (1911): The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, adapted by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler ... from the Oxford Dictionary. (They wrote the last section S–Z before the Oxford English Dictionary had reached that stage.)
2nd Edition (1929): The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English H. W. Fowler alone (his brother had died in 1918, although his name is still on the title page).
3rd Edition: (1934) was revised by H. W. Fowler and H. G. Le Mesurier.
4th (1951) and 5th (1964) Editions were revised by E. McIntosh, who introduced the space-saving swung dash that stands for the headword. The title page still read The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English; but the description read 'edited by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler; based on The Oxford Dictionary'.
6th (1976) and 7th (1982) Editions were still called The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, but the subtitle now read based on the Oxford English dictionary and its supplements first edited by H.W. Fowler and F.G. Fowler. It was (thoroughly) edited by J.B. Sykes, catching up with the developments in the parent dictionary. In the 7th Edition, symbols were introduced to mark uses considered controversial or offensive.
8th Edition (1990): The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, first edited by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler was edited by Robert E. Allen. Being computer-based, this edition changed the original structure to a large extent.
9th Edition (1995) was edited by Della Thompson.
1st Edition 100th Anniversary Edition (2011): The Concise Oxford Dictionary The 1911 First Edition includes the photocopied version of the 1st Edition dictionary, an introductory essay by renowned language expert David Crystal, a timeline of the chronology through 100 years of COED.
(hardcover)
1st impression (2011-07-07)
The Concise Oxford English Dictionary
10th Edition (1999, revised 2001) became The Concise Oxford English Dictionary. It was edited by Judy Pearsall. Rather than being a direct revision of the 9th edition, it was based on the larger New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), which Pearsall had edited. Its compilation had involved a re-analysis of much of the core vocabulary using the British National Corpus. The 10th edition was also issued as an electronic resource, as a computer optical disc.
This edition was to be the last Concise Oxford Dictionary to be used on Countdown, as contestant Helen Wrigglesworth declared ROADSIDE and it was declared illegal. After further inspection from Mark Nyman, the dictionary was found to not have any compound words in it, and was thus abandoned and the show reverted to the 9th edition. The show switched to New Oxford Dictionary of English in series 43.
Concise Oxford English Dictionary
11th Edition (2004, revised 2006, 2008 and 2009), the Concise Oxford English Dictionary was edited by Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson. It was based on the Oxford Dictionary of English (2nd edition (2003), which Soanes and Stevenson had edited). The 11th Edition is available on CD-ROM as an e-book for a variety of platforms.
12th Edition (2011), the Concise Oxford English Dictionary was edited by Angus Stevenson and Maurice Waite. This edition included 400 new entries, including sexting, cyberbullying, gastric band, jeggings, retweet, and woot. Includes 240,000 words, phrases, and definitions; with vocabulary covering technical and scientific vocabulary and international English. CD-ROM includes 50,000 spoken audio pronunciations, and supports Windows 2000 and above, Mac OS X 10.1 and above.
(book) or (luxury edition)
1st impression (2011-08-18)
(book and CD-ROM combination)
?th impression (2011-09-02)
Android version: published by MobiSystems, Inc. Supports Android 4.1. Supports 18 language (Catalan, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Latin, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish, Swedish, Tagalog, Turkish and English) since version 6.0.
5.1.020 (redesigned user interface and experience. Adds word definitions sharing, Word of the Day, camera search)
6.0.009 (2016-09-29)
iOS version: published by MobiSystems, Inc. Supports iOS 8.0. Includes English and Catalan languages.
8.2.5 (2016-09-20): Adds iOS 10 optimizations.
Concise Oxford American Dictionary
Contents are derived from New Oxford American Dictionary.
1st edition: Dictionary includes over 180,000 entries and definitions, over 300 illustrations.
/
?th impression (2006-05-18)
Android version. Published by MobiSystems.
4.3.136 (Android 2.2 version, full version?)
5.1.020
6.0.009 (2016-09-29) (Android 4.1 version, 30-day trial)
iOS. Published by MobiSystems.
8.2.5 (2016-09-21) (iOS 10 support, full version)
Windows version. Published by MobiSystems.
2.2 (2015-05-27) (7-day trial)
Concise Oxford American Thesaurus
?th edition: Includes over 12,000 main entries and over 350,000 synonyms.
?th impression (2006-04-20)
Android version. Published by MobiSystems.
5.2.003
6.0.009 (2016-09-29) (Android 4.1 version, 30-day trial)
iOS. Published by MobiSystems.
8.2.2 (2016-09-01) (iOS 8 (iOS 10 support), full version)
Windows version. Published by MobiSystems.
2.2 (2015-05-27) (7-day trial)
browser version. Published by MobiSystems.
2.1.0.4 (2015-04-09) (full version)
Concise Oxford American Dictionary and Thesaurus
It is a compilation of both Concise Oxford American Dictionary and Concise Oxford American Thesaurus.
?th edition: Dictionary includes over 180,000 entries and definitions; Thesaurus includes over 12,000 main entries and over 350,000 synonyms.
Android 2.2 version sold by Amazon Digital Services LLC. Published by MobiSystems.
ASIN B00ID7LNC6
? (2014-02-12) (initial version)
4.3.122 (2015-08-24) (Android 2.2 version, full version?)
iOS version. Published by MobiSystems.
8.2.2 (2016-09-01/2016-09-02) (iOS 8, Full Version)
Windows version. Published by MobiSystems.
2.2 (2015-03-24) (Windows 8.1–10, 7-day trial)
2.2.0.7 (2015?)
browser version. Published by MobiSystems.
2.1.0.4 (2015-04-06) (full version)
?th edition: Dictionary includes over 240,000 entries and definitions; Thesaurus includes over 300,000 synonyms and antonyms.
Android version. Published by MobiSystems.
5.1.030
6.0.009 (2016-09-29) (Android 4.1 version, 30-day trial)
Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary
Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary contains entries from contemporary Australian and international English. Edited by Dr Bruce Moore, it incorporates entries from Oxford English Dictionary, Concise Oxford Dictionary, and the Australian National Dictionary.
5th edition ()
?th impression (2009-??-??)
?th impression (2011-06-18)
Oxford South African Concise Dictionary
2nd Edition: Includes over 200,000 main entries with 2,000 South African words.
?th impression (2011-01-27)
English-Arabic dictionaries
Concise Oxford English-Arabic Dictionary of Current Usage
?th edition: Edited by N. S. Doniach. Dictionary includes around 40,000 entries.
/
?th impression (1983-02-03)
English-Chinese dictionaries
Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary
Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (牛津現代英漢雙解大詞典/牛津现代英汉双解大词典) is published by Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press in China. Online version became available in 2011.
Extended Edition (牛津现代英汉双解词典增补版) (): Includes 130,000 headwords, about 1000 usage examples.
?th impression (2005-01-01)
12th edition (牛津現代英漢雙解大詞典 第12版) (): Includes 240,000 headwords, phrases, and explanations.
1st impression (2013-05-01)
Warmth Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary
Warmth Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (牛津現代簡明英漢雙解辭典) is published by warmth Co/Warmth Publishing Group in Taiwan.
? edition (/): Edited by Lai Shixiong from Guangxi, China. Includes 120,000 headwords, phrases (3500 more vocabularies over previous version), and 140,000 explanations.
?th impression (2009-02-10)
?th impression (2009-02-26)
Oxford Concise English-Chinese Chinese-English Dictionary
It is a two-way dictionary. Chinese translations are in simplified Chinese, with traditional Chinese used in comments. Chinese pronunciation is in Mandarin.
3rd (精選英漢漢英詞典第三版):
/ (Oxford University Press (China) Ltd. version, paperback)
?th impression (2004-02-11)
4th Edition (牛津精選英漢•漢英詞典第4版): Includes 90,000 entries and 130,000 translations.
(Oxford University Press (China) Ltd. version, paperback)
(Oxford University Press (China) Ltd. version, compact softback)
Concise English-Chinese Chinese-English Dictionary
It is a version of Oxford Concise English-Chinese Chinese-English Dictionary published by The Commercial Press. Publication deal between Oxford University Press and The Commercial Press was approved in 1983.
1st edition:
1st impression (1986-06-??)
? Edition:
/ (精选英汉汉英词典)
?th impression (1994-07-28)
3rd Edition: 47 impressions.
//H.983 (精选英汉汉英词典第三版): 43 impressions.
?th impression (2004-10-01)
(精选英汉汉英词典(大字本)第三版) (large print)
?th impression (2005-05-01)
4th Edition: Includes 90,000 entries and 130,000 translations.
(精选英汉汉英词典第4版) (paperback)
?th impression (2010-09-01)
(精选英汉汉英词典(大字本)第4版) (large print, paperback)
?th impression (2011-11-01)
English-French dictionaries
Concise Oxford-Hachette French Dictionary
4th edition: Includes over 175,000 words and phrases, and 270,000 translations.
?th impression (2006-04-20)
Android version. Published by MobiSystems.
5.2.003
6.0.009 (2016-09-29) (Android 4.1 version, 30-day trial)
iOS. Published by MobiSystems.
8.2.2 (2016-09-01) (iOS 8 (iOS 10 support), full version)
Windows version. Published by MobiSystems.
2.2 (2015-03-24) (7-day trial)
browser version. Published by MobiSystems.
2.1.0.4 (2015-04-07) (full version)
English-German dictionaries
English-German dictionaries are two-way dictionaries published in association with Duden.
The Concise Oxford-Duden German Dictionary
1st edition (ASIN B01JXP5WGE): Includes over 140,000 words and phrases, and 240,000 translations.
1st? impression (1992-11-12)
Revised Edition (/): Includes over 140,000 words and phrases, and 240,000 translations.
1st? impression (1997-09-??/1997-11-20)
Pop-up Concise Oxford-Duden German Dictionary
It is an electronic version of Concise Oxford-Duden German Dictionary.
1st? edition (/): Includes over 150,000 words and phrases, 250,000 translations. Supports Windows 95. iFinger Pop-up supports Internet Explorer.
1st? impression (2001-07-15)
Concise Oxford Duden German Dictionary
2nd edition (ASIN B01HCASUH0)
1st? impression (1998-09-17)
2nd edition: Based on Oxford-Duden German Dictionary 2nd edition. Includes 140,000 words and phrases, and over 240,000 translations.
new cover edition (/)
?th impression (2000-09-07)
UK book+CD-ROM edition (/)
1st? impression (2001-09-06)
3rd edition: Based on Oxford-Duden German Dictionary 3rd edition. Includes 150,000 words and phrases, and over 250,000 translations.
Hardcover version (/)
1st? impression (2005-07-21)
Windows CD-ROM version (Concise Oxford Duden German Dictionary MSDict Electronic Version) (/): Published by Mobile Systems. Supports Windows XP.
1st? impression (2007-06-??)
Concise Oxford German Dictionary
3rd edition (/): Includes 150,000 words and phrases, and 250,000 translations.
1st? impression (2010-02-08)
English-Italian dictionaries
Concise Oxford Paravia Italian Dictionary
It is a two-way dictionary.
?th edition: Includes over 175,000 words and phrases, and 290,000 translations.
/ (hardcover, includes 12 months access to Oxford Language Dictionaries Online)
?thClarification}} impression (2000-09-07)
Android version. Published by MobiSystems.
6.0.009 (2016-09-29) (30-day trial)
iOS version. Published by MobiSystems.
8.2.2 (2016-09-12) (Full Version)
Windows version. Published by MobiSystems.
2.2 (2015-03-20) (7-day trial)
browser version. Published by MobiSystems.
2.1.0.4 (2015-04-06) (full version)
English-Spanish dictionaries
Concise Oxford Spanish Dictionary
It is a two-way dictionary.
4th edition: Includes over 175,000 words and phrases, and 240,000 translations. Also includes new words and phrases based on findings from Oxford's English and Spanish language Reading Programmes
?th impression (2009-06-04)
See also
Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English – a smaller one-volume Oxford dictionary
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary – a larger two-volume Oxford dictionary
Notes and references
Further reading
Małgorzata Anna Kamińska, A history of the Concise Oxford Dictionary, Frankfurt am Main, Peter Lang Publishing Group, 2014 ().
External links
Oxford University Press page: COED 12th edition, COED 12th edition Book & CD-ROM Set, TCOD 1st Edition 100th Anniversary Edition, Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary 5th Edition, Concise Oxford American Dictionary 1st edition, Concise Oxford American Thesaurus, Oxford South African Concise Dictionary, Concise Oxford Spanish Dictionary 4th edition, Concise Oxford English-Arabic Dictionary of Current Usage
Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press page: COECD 12th edition, Oxford·Fltrp English-Chinese Chinese-English Dictionary, Oxford·Fltrp English-Chinese Chinese-English Dictionary (compact edition)
warmth Co page: Warmth Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary
Android page: Concise Oxford English
iTunes page: Concise Oxford English Dictionary with Audio
Mobisystems pages: Concise Oxford English Dictionary and Thesaurus, Concise Oxford English Dictionary with Audio, Concise Oxford-Hachette French Dictionary, Concise Oxford-Paravia Italian Dictionary, Concise Oxford American Dictionary, Concise Oxford American Thesaurus, Concise Oxford American Dictionary and Thesaurus
Amazon USA information
Amazon UK information
2011 non-fiction books
Oxford dictionaries
English dictionaries
Works derived from the Oxford English Dictionary | [
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254152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windaria | Windaria | , also called Legend of Fabulous Battle Windaria and Once Upon a Time, is a Japanese animated film produced by Kaname Productions and Idol. The film was directed by Kunihiko Yuyama in his directorial debut, and written by Keisuke Fujikawa. It was released theatrically in Japan on July 19, 1986.
Plot
The mountainous kingdom of Paro and the coastal city-state of Itha had been at peace for over a century. They would have remained that way but for the ambitions of Paro's power-hungry king. Paro invaded Itha, despite the love between Jill, Paro's prince, and Ahanas, Itha's princess. Caught between duty and emotion, the star-crossed lovers were forced to fight a war to its bitter conclusion. Meanwhile, Isu was a simple farmer from the neutral village of Saki, but he saved Itha from being destroyed by a spy from Paro, and found himself hungering for wealth and glory that the Ithan monarchy couldn't provide. Agents from Paro made him an offer to fulfill his wishes, and he left his wife Marin behind in what would turn into a battlefield between the two kingdoms.
Voice cast
Production
Windaria is based on a novel of the same name, authored by Keisuke Fujikawa, the film's screenwriter. Fujikawa's resume includes the live-action Ultraman and the animated series Space Battleship Yamato, Grendizer, and Cat's Eye. The film was produced by animation companies Kaname Productions and Idol and directed by Kunihiko Yuyama, who previously worked on Magical Princess Minky Momo and GoShogun. Studio Gallop was responsible for its photography and Studio Cosmos contributed the backgrounds. Mutsumi Inomata acted as both character designer and animation director. The film's instrumental musical score was composed by Satoshi Kadokura. The vocal theme was written by Kazuhiko Katō and performed by J-pop singer Akino Arai. The ending theme was written and performed by Arai. Arai stated that she did not discuss the composition of the tracks with the director as she would have later in her career.
Soundtrack
Release and marketing
Windaria was released theatrically in Japan on July 19, 1986. In 1987, Harmony Gold licensed Windaria for release in the United States, trimming the film from its original 101-minute running time to 95 minutes. The English-language version was edited in order to better market the film to younger audiences. According to director Carl Macek, Harmony Gold was given no scripts or translations of the property and they thus had little insight into the plot details. The English version included a new script, an altered plot with a happy ending, scenes switched around, violent and adult-oriented scenes removed, the entire cast given Western names, and added narration provided by Russell Johnson (of Gilligan's Island fame).
Windaria was first distributed in Japan to home video by Victor Entertainment. The eventual laserdisc release contained a trailer, a pilot film (in which characters are colored differently than the final version), and a second audio track. Victor released Windaria on DVD in Japan on December 16, 2000. This release forgoes the laserdisc extras but includes a director interview on the insert. Atlus reissued the film on DVD on March 25, 2005. Streamline Pictures released the English version, titled Windaria, on North American VHS between 1992 and 1993. A laserdisc version was planned by Image Entertainment yet never distributed. ADV Films re-released the English version, as Once Upon a Time, on DVD on March 23, 2004. The uncut Japanese version has never been officially released in this region.
A generous amount of Windaria-related merchandise has been marketed in Japan since the film's 1986 debut. Fujikawa's Douwa Meita Senshi Windaria bunkobon was published by Kadokawa Shoten during March 1986. Shortly after the premiere of Windaria, several official guide books were released, one (Settei: Windaria) containing Idol's sketches, storyboards, and promotional materials. A special omake was published on August 25, 1986, as part of Kadokawa's "Mediamix Special" imprint. Inomata's 1988 art book Gatsu no Koe Hoshi no Yume contains some of her illustrations from the film. Arai's album Natsukashii Mirai, containing both the film's opening and ending themes, was released by Victor on October 21, 1986. Arai later re-recorded "Utsukushii Hoshi" for her 2005 album Sora no Uta due to her dissatisfaction with the first version of the song. The film's original soundtrack was released by Victor on both LP and CD on July 21, 1986, and CD was reprinted on March 24, 1994. It was reissued on June 23, 1999 alongside the soundtrack to Birth, another anime by Kaname. Finally, a 2008 Nintendo DS video game based on the film was developed by Compile Heart under the name and released in Japan.
Reception
Critical reception for the original Japanese version of Windaria has been favorable. Ralph Jenkins of Mania.com called the film "the quintessential anime tragedy". The reviewer elaborated: "The overriding theme of this grim allegory is that a promise—especially between lovers—is something so sacred that it thrives even beyond death, and taking it for granted can beget devastating consequences". Jenkins noted both Inomata's character designs and the film's musical score to be memorable.
See also
Castle in the Sky, another 1986 anime film with a large tree central to the story.
References
External links
Official Dungeon of Windaria website
1986 anime films
Action anime and manga
Drama anime and manga
Fantasy anime and manga
Films based on Japanese novels
Films directed by Kunihiko Yuyama
Japanese films
ADV Films | [
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254154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument%20from%20free%20will | Argument from free will | The argument from free will, also called the paradox of free will or theological fatalism, contends that omniscience and free will are incompatible and that any conception of God that incorporates both properties is therefore inconceivable. See the various controversies over claims of God's omniscience, in particular the critical notion of foreknowledge. These arguments are deeply concerned with the implications of predestination.
Omniscience and free will
Some arguments against the existence of God focus on the supposed incoherence of humankind possessing free will and God's omniscience. These arguments are deeply concerned with the implications of predestination.
Moses Maimonides formulated an argument regarding a person's free will, in traditional terms of good and evil actions, as follows:
A logical formulation of this argument might go as follows:
God knows choice "C" that a human would claim to "make freely".
It is now necessary that C.
If it is now necessary that C, then C cannot be otherwise (this is the definition of “necessary”). That is, there are no actual "possibilities" due to predestination.
If you cannot do otherwise when you act, you do not act freely (Principle of Alternate Possibilities)
Therefore, when you do an act, you will not do it freely.
Norman Swartz, however, contends that the above arguments commit the modal fallacy. In particular, he asserts that these arguments assume that if C is true, it becomes necessary for C to be true, which is incorrect as C is contingent (see modal logic). Otherwise, one can argue that the future is set already regardless of his actions.
Other means of reconciling God's omniscience with human free will have been proposed. Some have attempted to redefine or reconceptualize free will:
God can know in advance what I will do, because free will is to be understood only as freedom from coercion, and anything further is an illusion. This is the move made by compatibilistic philosophies.
The sovereignty (autonomy) of God, existing within a free agent, provides strong inner compulsions toward a course of action (calling), and the power of choice (election). The actions of a human are thus determined by a human acting on relatively strong or weak urges (both from God and the environment around them) and their own relative power to choose.
A proposition first offered by Boethius and later by Thomas Aquinas and C. S. Lewis, suggests that God's perception of time is different, and that this is relevant to our understanding of our own free will. In his book Mere Christianity, Lewis argues that God is actually outside time and therefore does not "foresee" events, but rather simply observes them all at once. He explains:
A common objection is to argue that Molinism, or the belief that God can know counterfactually the actions of his creations, is true. This has been used as an argument by Alvin Plantinga and William Lane Craig, amongst others.
Free will argument for the nonexistence of God
Dan Barker suggests that this can lead to a "Free will Argument for the Nonexistence of God" on the grounds that God's omniscience is incompatible with God having free will and that if God does not have free will God is not a personal being.
Theists generally agree that God is a personal being and that God is omniscient, but there is some disagreement about whether "omniscient" means:
"knows everything that God chooses to know and that is logically possible to know"; Or instead the slightly stronger:
"knows everything that is logically possible to know"
These two terms are known as inherent and total omniscience, respectively.
See also
Determinism
List of paradoxes
Molinism
Notes
References
Further reading
Thomas Aquinas. Summa Contra Gentiles
Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica I, Q. XIV, esp. Art. 13: "Whether the Knowledge of God is of Future Contingent Things?".
Boethius. The Consolation of Philosophy. Many editions.
Hasker, William. God, Time, and Foreknowledge". Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998.
Molina, Luis de. On Divine Foreknowledge, trans. Alfred J. Freddoso. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988.
Plantinga, Alvin. "On Ockham's Way Out". Faith and Philosophy 3 (3): 235–269.
Ockham, William. Predestination, God's Foreknowledge, and Future Contingents, trans. M.M. Adams and N. Kretzmann. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1983.
Zagzebski, Linda. "The Dilemma of Freedom an Foreknowledge". New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Luther, Martin: De servo arbitrio, in English: On the Bondage of the Will. In Latin and German 1525, in modern English: J.I. Packer and O. R. Johnston, trans. Old Tappan, New Jersey: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1957.
External links
Foreknowledge and Free Will article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Omniscience and Divine Foreknowledge article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''
The Paradox of Free will – An online discussion
Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica I, Q. XIV, Art. 13.
Free will, argument from
Free will
Philosophical arguments
Philosophical paradoxes | [
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254158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weasel%20war%20dance | Weasel war dance | The weasel war dance is a colloquial term for the behavior of excited ferrets and other members of the weasel subfamily. Naturalists speculate that weasels in the wild use the dance to confuse or disorient prey.
In domestic ferrets
In domestic ferrets the war dance usually follows play or the successful capture of a toy or a stolen object. The war dance is commonly held to mean that the ferret is thoroughly enjoying itself.
The behavior consists of a frenzied series of hops sideways and backwards, often accompanied by an arched back and a frizzed-out tail. Ferrets are notoriously clumsy in their surroundings during their dance and will often collide with or fall over objects and furniture.
The war dance usually includes a clucking vocalization, known among domestic ferret owners as "dooking". It normally indicates happiness. Although the war dance may make a ferret appear frightened or angry, they are often just excited and are generally harmless to humans.
In the wild
The stoat (also known as the ermine or the short-tailed weasel) reputedly mesmerises prey such as rabbits by a "dance" (sometimes called the weasel war dance), though this behaviour could be linked to Skrjabingylus infections.
References
External links
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Ferrets
Mammal behavior | [
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254159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional%20Municipality%20of%20Durham | Regional Municipality of Durham | The Regional Municipality of Durham (), informally referred to as Durham Region, is a regional municipality in Southern Ontario, Canada. Located east of Toronto and the Regional Municipality of York, Durham forms the east-end of the Greater Toronto Area and part of the Golden Horseshoe region. It has an area of approximately . The regional government is headquartered in Whitby.
The southern portion of the region, on Lake Ontario is primarily suburban in nature, forming the eastern end of the 905 area code belt of suburbs around Toronto. The northern area comprises rural areas and small towns. The city of Pickering, town of Ajax and the township of Uxbridge are part of the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area, while the communities of Oshawa, Whitby, and Clarington comprise the Oshawa Census Metropolitan Area.
Administrative divisions
Durham Region consists of the following municipalities (in order of population):
It also contains one First Nations reserve: Mississaugas of Scugog Island First Nation.
Local government
History
The Region of Durham was established in 1974 as one of several new regional governments in the Province of Ontario, primarily in fast-growing urban and suburban areas. It encompasses areas that had been part of Ontario County and the United Counties of Northumberland and Durham, and was the culmination of a series of studies into municipal governance in the "Oshawa-Centred Region" that had begun in the late 1960s.
The boundaries of the region were different from what had been anticipated and announced in late 1972. For example, it was widely expected that Pickering would be annexed to Metropolitan Toronto, which residents had supported in a ballot question. In addition, the region was proposed to extend further east to include Hope Township and the town of Port Hope, and did not include the northern townships of Scott, Brock and Thorah.
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, the Durham Region has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). On average July is the hottest month while January is the coldest month.
Demographics
The Regional Municipality of Durham is predominately white representing 70.1% of the population. There is also a large population of South Asians totaling 8.6% of the population and Black Canadians totaling 8.0% of the population. Smaller ethnic groups include Filipino with 2.3% of the population, Aboriginal with 2.0%, Chinese with 1.9%, Mixed visible minority with 1.3%, Latin American with 1.0% and West Asian (Middle Eastern) with 1.0%.
Services
The regional government, within its geographic area, has sole responsibility for the following:
Durham Regional Police Service provides local policing for all municipalities.
The Ontario Provincial Police patrol provincial highways
Durham Region Transit provides public transit service
Main roads, traffic lights and controls
Strategic land use planning
Subdivision and condominium approval
Water supply and distribution
Sewage collection and treatment
Collection of recyclable materials
Waste collection, except in Whitby and Oshawa
Waste disposal
Public health and social services
The region also provides services in:
Economic development
Tourism
Local municipalities have responsibility for:
Local planning
Local streets and sidewalks
Fire protection
Parks and recreation
Tax collection
Building inspection and permits
Public libraries
Licensing
Waste collection in Whitby and Oshawa
Economy
With a current population of 700,000, the population is expected to exceed one million by 2041. Of considerable potential impact to the future of the economy in Durham Region is the proposed federal airport in north Pickering. The federal government acquired 18,600 acres of land in Pickering under Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau in 1972 for the construction of a future airport. However, the project has remained in limbo since and much of the land has been leased for farming. In January 2018, a report released by Urban Strategies, Inc. indicated that the Pickering airport lands provide the best opportunity to meet the growing demand for air travel and goods movement in the Greater Toronto Area, demand that Toronto Pearson airport will eventually be unable to accommodate.
As of December 2016, Durham Region had over 250 energy, environment and engineering (EN3) related businesses that employed over 11,000 individuals, making Durham Region the top employer of EN3 professionals in the Greater Toronto and Hamiton Area (GTHA).
Durham Region's agricultural sector is one of the largest primary goods-producing sectors in the region. The agriculture sector is supported by local organizations such as Durham Farm Fresh who assist in the marketing, promotion, and advocacy for local food.
In 2018, the Canadian motion picture and video exhibition industries generated $1.9 billion in operating revenue, marking a 5.7% increase from 2016. The majority of this operating revenue was contributed by Ontario, at 42.7%. The film industry is active and growing in Durham Region, due to increasing demands for locations and talent across Ontario. In June 2015, a major film studio development was announced in Pickering.
The innovative technology sector is emerging in Durham Region, supported by a Regional Innovation Centre in Oshawa and a technology accelerator in Whitby. Whitby is the location of the headquarters of 360 Insights a significant employer in Durham Region.
83 percent of Durham residents over 18 have a certificate, diploma or degree. Youth unemployment is a major issue in the region: at 23% by the Durham Workforce Authority in 2013, it is 17% higher than the provincial average. Emerging employment sectors in Durham Region include sustainable energy, local food production, bio-sciences, next-generation automotive, logistics, advanced manufacturing, construction, and technology.
Major employers in Durham Region include General Motors of Canada, Ontario Power Generation, Lakeridge Health, Durham District School Board, Durham College, the Ontario Ministry of Finance, Minacs Worldwide, TDS Automotive, and University of Ontario Institute of Technology.
Manufacturing and energy industries
Durham Region is a major centre of the automotive industry in Canada. Oshawa is the Canadian headquarters of General Motors and home of what was once GM's largest plant in North America. In addition, the Canadian headquarters of Volkswagen is located in the region, BMW was located in the region until moving to Richmond Hill in 2010. The worldwide recession and spike in oil prices resulted in large-scale layoffs at GM beginning in 2008, along with the closure of the Oshawa Truck plant in 2009. This dramatically reduced employment levels at GM, and also resulted in significant employment losses and closures in the auto parts industry. On November 26, 2018, General Motors announced that no future product would be allotted to Oshawa beyond 2019 and that manufacturing operations would cease in December 2019. In October 2019, General Motors announced the construction of a 55-acre autonomous vehicle test track in Oshawa to be named the Canadian Technical Centre (CTC) McLaughlin Advanced Technology Track.
Durham Region is the Clean Energy Capital of Canada. Ontario Power Generation (OPG) is the largest employer in the region. OPG is Canada's largest owner of nuclear power plants with responsibility for operating the Pickering A, B, and Darlington nuclear generating stations, all of which are located in Durham Region. In June of 2019 OPG announced it would be building a new corporate campus in Durham Region, in the Municipality of Clarington, by 2024.Ontario Tech University offers the first accredited program of its kind in Canada with an undergraduate degree program in Nuclear Engineering. It is also a leader is Energy Systems and Nuclear Science programs. The Clean Energy Research Lab (CERL) is a facility focused on pioneering clean energy research.
Shopping
Major shopping centres located in Durham Region include:
First Pickering Place (Pickering)
Oshawa Power Centre (Oshawa)
Oshawa Centre (Oshawa)
Pickering Town Centre (Pickering)
Thickson Centre (Whitby)
Rio-Can Durham Centre (Ajax)
The Bowmanville Mall (Bowmanville)
Whitby Mall (Whitby)
Durham Live (Pickering- Under Construction)
Transportation
400-series freeways
traverses the region from west to east, entering in the Rouge Valley and exiting east of Newtonville.
, a privately owned toll freeway, enters the region south of Highway 7 and travels east to Durham Regional Road 1 (Brock Road) before transitioning to a provincially owned highway, Highway 407E. This route travels generally parallel to Highway 7 until the community of Brooklin in Whitby extending east to Highway 35 / 115 towards Lindsay and Peterborough.
, part of the Highway 407E project, connects south to Highway 401 parallel and east of Durham Regional Road 23 (Lakeridge Road).
, opened on December 9, 2019, runs between Durham Regional Road 34 (Courtice Road) and Road 57 (Waverley Road) from Highway 401, southwest of Bowmanville, north to near Hampton (north of Durham Regional Road 4 (Taunton Road)), connecting with the extension of Highway 407.
Other highways
(now Durham Highway 2)
(now Durham Highway 47)
Note: This is the only region of the Greater Toronto Area where the Trans-Canada Highway passes through. The TC's Central Ontario Route enters from the northeast at Manilla along Highway 7, makes an abrupt turn near Sunderland onto Highway 12 heading north towards Beaverton and the northern regional boundary.
Public transportation
Public transit in the Region is operated by Durham Region Transit, which was formed in January 2006 when the five preexisting municipal public transit systems in the region were merged under the Region's administration.
In addition, GO Transit provides the following services within the Region:
Lakeshore East GO Trains serve Pickering, Ajax, Whitby, and Oshawa GO Stations, providing connections to Toronto's Union Station
Morning Highway 401 peak hour service to Finch Bus Terminal from Oshawa GO Station via Whitby GO Station, Ajax GO Station and Scarborough Town Centre, with reverse service in the afternoon
From September to April, weekday express service to the University of Ontario Institute of Technology and Durham College from Scarborough Centre Bus Terminal and additional peak-hour services to and from York University via Brooklin, Brougham, Unionville, and Richmond Hill
Durham Highway 2/Kingston Road (the former provincial Highway 2) between Pickering and Oshawa is served by buses providing connections to the Toronto Transit Commission at Scarborough Town Centre, York Mills, and Yorkdale Shopping Centre
Clarington is served by buses connecting with Lakeshore East GO Trains at Oshawa GO Station
Port Perry in Scugog Township is served by buses from Whitby GO Station
Uxbridge is served by buses from the Stouffville Corridor
Air travel
Although small airports such as the Oshawa Executive Airport exist in Durham Region, the main airport serving the region is Toronto Pearson International Airport. There is a long-standing proposal for a major new airport in Pickering.
Maritime Infrastructure
Durham Region also has a small maritime industry centered on the Port of Oshawa. The port received around 50 lake freighters per year between 2007 and 2017 and acts as an export terminal for agricultural products from Durham and nearby regions.
Education
The Durham District School Board operates all English-language secular public schools within Durham Region, except for those schools within Clarington, which are part of the Kawartha Pine Ridge District School Board. This is a holdover from the pre-1974 structure in which the area now forming Clarington was part of Durham County, while the other municipalities were part of Ontario County.
The Durham Catholic District School Board operates the separate English-language public Catholic school system within Durham Region, again with the exception of schools in Clarington, which are part of the Peterborough Victoria Northumberland and Clarington Catholic District School Board.
Neither school board is an operating division of the regional government. Instead, as is true of all school boards in Ontario, they are separate entities with distinct but overlapped service areas. Elected public trustees responsible for their operation.
French-language school boards serving the municipality include the Conseil scolaire Viamonde and the Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir.
Durham Secondary Academy and Middle School offers private elementary and secondary education for students in the Region of Durham.
The region also is home to Ontario Tech University, Ontario's fastest growing university, Durham College, and Trent University Durham (Trent University's main campus is in Peterborough). The Ontario Tech and Durham College main campuses are located in north Oshawa. Durham College also has a satellite campus in Whitby, and Ontario Tech has one in Downtown Oshawa.
Ontario Tech University is a science, technology engineering and math (STEM)-focused, research driven institution. Ontario Tech is home to the [ACE Climatic Wind Tunnel, a research, development and testing facility available for rent to manufacturers of all descriptions, startup companies and researchers in Canada and around the globe. Ontario Tech University is rated number 1 in cross-sector research among Canadian undergraduate universities. Within 15 years of its founding, Ontario Tech quickly earned a reputation for computer science, ranking among the top 10 programs in Canada and 4th in Ontario.
Durham College has campuses in Oshawa and Whitby, and has nine academic schools across a wide range of disciplines.
Trent University Durham offers full and part-time undergraduate programs, as well as post-graduate certificates. Other key programs at Trent University Durham include Bachelors of Business Administration, Computing Systems, and Communications & Critical Thinking as well as a Master of Management, which is a 16 month professional master program. Trent University Durham announced in 2019 plans to expand their campus in Oshawa to include 200 on-campus residences, "creative learning spaces", and academic space.
Travel region
Durham Region lies within the Central Counties of Ontario, a tourism-related association.
The top tourist attractions in Durham Region include Lake Ontario, Lake Scugog and Lake Simcoe, in particular for fishing. Outdoor activities such as hiking and skiing are popular in the region, in particular in Uxbridge, Ontario, which calls itself the Trail Capital of Canada. Darlington Provincial Park, Jungle Cat World, Parkwood Estate, The Robert McLaughlin Gallery, Canadian Tire Motorsport Park and the Canadian Automotive Museum are other popular attractions.
Tourism is a significant economic sector in Durham Region. Durham Region currently hosts more than four million visitors each year, who spend over $300 million. A casino resort is under development in Durham Region which will include a casino resort, convention centre, film studios, indoor waterpark, cinemas, restaurants, office tower and an amphitheatre.
Notes
See also
List of municipalities in Ontario
Proposal for the Province of Toronto
List of townships in Ontario
References
External links
1974 establishments in Ontario
Populated places established in 1974
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254163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto%20Argonauts | Toronto Argonauts | The Toronto Argonauts (officially the Toronto Argonaut Football Club and colloquially known as the Argos) are a professional Canadian football team competing in the East Division of the Canadian Football League (CFL). Based in Toronto, Ontario, the team was founded in 1873, and is the oldest existing professional sports team in North America still using its original name, and they are the oldest-surviving team in both the modern-day CFL and East Division. The team's origins date back to a modified version of rugby football that emerged in North America in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The Argonauts played their home games at Rogers Centre (originally known as SkyDome) from 1989 until 2016 when the team moved to BMO Field, the fifth stadium site to host the team.
The Argonauts have won the Grey Cup a record 17 times and have appeared in the final 23 times. Most recently they defeated the Calgary Stampeders 27–24 in the 105th Grey Cup in 2017. The Argonauts hold the best winning percentage in the championship game (73.9%) and have the longest active winning streak in games in which they have appeared, at six. The Argonauts have faced every current western CFL team at least once in the Grey Cup, while their most celebrated divisional rivalry has been with the Hamilton Tiger-Cats.
The team was founded and owned by the Argonaut Rowing Club for its first 83 years, and has been owned by a series of business interests since 1956. The Argonauts were a fixture on the Toronto sports scene for decades, with attendance peaking in the 1970s. In May 2015 it was announced that a consortium of Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment's Larry Tanenbaum (via the Kilmer Group) and Bell Canada would acquire the team. The sale included a scheduled move to MLSE run BMO Field for the 2016 season, which has long been proposed given attendance under-utilization at Rogers Centre and announced plans to install natural grass at the domed stadium, rendering it unfit for football. (The move has since been done, albeit only the infield turf replaced with dirt, instead of grass) MLSE announced in December 2017 that it had agreed to purchase the team outright, with the deal finalized on January 19, 2018. The previous owners continue to indirectly own stakes in the Argos, as Bell Canada and the Kilmer Group respectively hold 37.5% and 25% stakes in MLSE.
Given the length of franchise history, dozens of players, coaches, and management have been honoured in some form over the years. The team recognizes a select group of players with retired numbers: early greats Joe Krol and Dick Shatto, stalwart offensive lineman Danny Nykoluk, and Michael "Pinball" Clemons who has been the most recent face of the team.
Name and colours
Since the team's foundation in 1873, "the Argonauts" name has been in continuous use, a record in North American professional sports. The Chicago Cubs (1870) and the Atlanta Braves (1871) franchises of Major League Baseball are older, but both teams have changed their name more than once, and the Braves have also changed cities. The Argonauts also claim to be the oldest professional football team in North America. The claim is debatable, as the Hamilton Tigers date to 1869; they merged with the Hamilton Wildcats in 1950 to form the Hamilton Tiger-Cats.
The name "Argonauts" is derived from Greek mythology: according to legend, Jason and the Argonauts were a group of heroes who set out to find the Golden Fleece aboard the ship Argo sometime before the Trojan War. Given its nautical theme, the name Argonaut was adopted by a group of amateur rowers in Toronto in 1872. The Argonaut Rowing Club, which still exists today, went on to found the football club with the same name a year later. Given their roots in a rowing squad, the team is often referred to as the "boatmen" and less often the "scullers".
In the 19th century, the most renowned rowing teams in the world were from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge in England. The Toronto rowers, many of whom had associations with the English schools, adopted uniforms incorporating the light blue of Cambridge and the dark blue of Oxford. In turn, the footballers adopted the colours and the phrase "double blue" became synonymous with the team. Blue has become the traditional colour of top-level teams in Toronto (e.g. the Toronto Maple Leafs and Toronto Blue Jays).
The team's other official colour is white. Its current helmet design features an Oxford blue background, with an Oxford blue and Cambridge blue round shield inscribed with a white, capital letter A. For most of the team's history, the logo featured some form of a boat, often incorporating a football.
Franchise history
1873–1906
The first recorded game of what would become known as Canadian football was played in Toronto on November 9, 1861, featuring University of Toronto students. At the time, the game was a modified version of English rugby, which gained popularity throughout the 1860s. Rugby itself was still an infant game having evolved out of association football (soccer) in the 1830s. Seeking a way to keep fit after summer, the Argonaut Rowing Club (ARC) formed their own rugby-football squad on October 4, 1873. The Argonauts Football Club played their first game against Hamilton on October 18 of that year (a victory), beginning a storied rivalry. H.T. Glazebrook served as their first captain and head coach. Establishment of the football team was formalized by the ARC on September 17, 1874, with a subscription fee of one dollar charged per player.
The football team played a handful of challenge matches—one team inviting another to play—as an amateur squad against university and city teams every year throughout the 1870s, with one dormant year in 1879, likely due to injuries. In 1883 the Toronto Football Club, other city teams from Ontario and university squads from Toronto, Queens University and Royal Military College formed the Ontario Rugby Football Union (ORFU); it was the first rugby football organization with a league and playoff structure in North America. The Toronto Football Club were league victors in the first year. Starting in 1884, a "Dominion Championship"—a precursor to the Grey Cup—was held, pitting the victors of the country's two organized leagues, the ORFU and Quebec Rugby Football Union (QRFU), against each other; it was organized nationally by the Canadian Rugby Union (CRU) from 1892 onwards. In the first true national championship, the Montreal Football Club defeated the Toronto Football Club on November 6, 1884, by a score of 30–0. Argonauts lost the Dominion Title in 1901 to Ottawa College. The Ottawa Football Club and the Hamilton Football Club were frequent opponents in this era.
Over the thirty years from 1880 onwards, rule changes were incrementally introduced into the game, including the adoption of the line of scrimmage, scoring that began to resemble the modern version, and the down and yardage structure. Popular personalities of the era included player-coach Joe Wright Sr., one of the best all around Canadian athletes at the turn of the century. One major outstanding issue within the CRU at the time was the role of professional versus amateur players; this dispute caused the Argonauts to withdraw from the league in 1903 and eventually led to the establishment of a new league, The Big Four or Interprovincial Rugby Football League. Alongside the professionalism dispute, there was serious disagreement over the adoption of the Burnside rules, with Ontario, Quebec, and the intercollegiate league often not in alignment. Among other critical innovations, the Burnside rules reduced the number of men per side to 12 and introduced the ten yards in three downs structure that is central to the modern game.
1907–1952
Seeking looser rules regarding the employment of professional players, Toronto and other cities split from the ORFU and formed the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union (IRFU) in 1907. These clubs were the vaunted "Big Four"—Toronto, Hamilton, Ottawa, and Montreal—that formed the precursor to Eastern Division of the Canadian Football League.
The IRFU continued under the larger auspices of the Canadian Rugby Union. Beginning in 1909, the CRU champion was awarded the Grey Cup, with the Big Four competing against university squads and eventually teams from Western Canada. The Argonauts first competed for the Cup in 1911, losing 14 to 7 to the University of Toronto in front of a then record 13,687 spectators at the newly opened Varsity Stadium. The team claimed their first championship in 1914, exacting revenge on U of T with a 14 to 2 victory. Their star runner and kicker in their first championship year was Jack O'Conner, who scored a league record 44 points.
After play was halted during World War I, the Argos again achieved success in the early 1920s on the back of one Canada's greatest ever sportsmen. Lionel Conacher, the "Big Train," led the team to two perfect 6–0 seasons in 1921 and 1922. In the first season he accounted for 85 of his team's 167 points, and 15 of the points in the Grey Cup game, a 23–0 drubbing of the Edmonton Eskimos. It was the first east-west Grey Cup championship in Canadian history.
The 1921 Grey Cup victory was their last until 1933, at which point the Argonauts became the dominant team of an increasingly nationwide sport. They put together a number of Grey Cup dynasties in the 1930s and 1940s, winning eight of twenty Grey Cups between 1933 and 1952. The Winnipeg Blue Bombers were most often on the receiving end of Argo Grey Cup victories in this era. From 1933 to 1941 Lew Hayman coached the team with a still unparalleled winning ratio of 45–15–2. Their first back-to-back Grey Cups came in 1937 and 1938. This was also the era of the famed Stukus brothers—Annis, Bill, and Frank—who proved a potent all-purpose trio in the Argonauts' championship years.
Joe "King" Krol and Royal Copeland, the so-called 'Gold Dust Twins', were the best-known players of the 1940s. In an era where players still played multiple positions, they were a threat in every capacity: running, passing, catching, kicking, and playing defence. Often connecting with each other for points, they led the Argos to a Grey Cup threepeat between 1945 and 1947. In 1948, the team broke a cultural barrier with the signing of Ken Whitlock as not only their first import player in quite some time but also their first ever black player. Whitlock played only 4 games as a halfback & punter before getting released from the team, but his signing also ushered a new era for player acquisitions. 1949 and 1950 marked a watershed in Argonauts history as the team began large scale importation of American players for the first time. In 1950, the Argos signed their second ever black player after Whitlock, Ulysses "Crazy Legs" Curtis. Curtis played five strong years with the team as their featured running back.
Frank Clair was brought in as coach in 1950 and left his mark on the revamped roster; he led the team to Grey Cup wins in 1950 and 1952. The first of these was a 13–0 victory over Winnipeg in the notorious Mud Bowl. A November snowstorm followed by mild conditions turned Varsity Stadium into a bog and the play was a shambles; one Winnipeg player is reported to have almost drowned in the muck.
At some time during this period, the phrase "Argo Bounce" came to refer to the Argonauts' propensity to receive a lucky bounce of the football. The phrase may date to the Grey Cups of the 1930s, all of which featured improbable bounces and fumbles favouring the Argos; the phrase was popularized in print by Annis Stukus in the 1940s. It is still in use today, with a number of fortunate on-field happenings attributed to the "bounce".
1953–1988
The three decades after the 1952 Grey Cup victory have been called the Argonauts' Dark Ages. A year after winning the Grey Cup, the Argos crashed to dead last in the Big Four. It was the start of a 31-year stretch without a Grey Cup, and for the first 19 of those years, they only got as far as the second round of the playoffs. Part of the reason was a salary cap introduced in 1953 that cost them many talented players. For the first time in decades, they were a fixture at or near the bottom of the East. The management style under new owner John Bassett has also been blamed: young talent was traded or allowed to leave and the team could not form a nucleus of championship players; coaches came and went rapidly. Two notable events occurred off-field at the end of the 1950s. In 1958 the Argonauts became a founding member of the Canadian Football League and a year later found a new home at Exhibition Stadium.
The Argonauts did have some standout players in the 1950s and 1960s. The stalwart of the era was Dick Shatto, an Ohioan who played twelve seasons from 1954 to 1965. Listed as a running back, Shatto was a dual threat to run and receive and continues to hold the team regular season records for touchdowns (91) and total yards gained (6,958). Living in Toronto year round, Shatto set down deep roots in the city and eventually served as the Argonauts general manager. Another American, Tobin Rote, set numerous passing marks in three years at quarterback from 1960 to 1962. Known for his good living off the field, Rote still holds the Argos single game passing record with 524 yards against Montreal on August 19, 1960. A pillar on the offensive line was Danny Nykoluk at tackle, whose career spanned an incredible 17 seasons from 1954 to 1971, including one stretch of 12 years where he didn't miss a single game. Despite the presence of these veterans, the era was marked by losing seasons and high attrition on the roster. By the 1960s, the annual (and often desperate) mid-season addition of American imports had become known as the "Argo airlift"; American imports often did not last a game before being cut.
Eventually, the team became competitive again under head coach Leo Cahill in the late 1960s. They scored a coup over the National Football League (NFL) with the signing of a young Joe Theismann (and other American stars) in 1971. The team also saw an attendance bounce, consistently selling out Exhibition Stadium. The Boatmen's best chance to end their Grey Cup drought came that year, when they faced the Calgary Stampeders in the 59th Grey Cup, the first to be played on artificial turf. In a defensive struggle at Vancouver's soggy Empire Stadium, a now infamous late fumble by Leon "X-Ray" McQuay and a possession-changing kick out of bounds by Harry Abofs sealed a 14–11 Stampeder victory.
Aside from 1971, the 1970s were tumultuous for the team, with numerous hirings and firings of head coaches and consistent losing records. There were stellar players over this era, including defensive all-stars such as Jim Stillwagon, Jim Corrigall, and Granville "Granny" Liggins, but the team could not return to winning form. High-profile moves such as hiring Canadian football icon Russ Jackson as head coach in 1975 or signing running back superstar Anthony Davis the next year turned into busts. Ironically, the Argos reached historic attendance highs in this losing decade—regular season average per game attendance reached 47,356 in 1976. The enlargement and reconfiguration of Exhibition Stadium over 1975 and 1976 in anticipation and preparation of the Blue Jays expansion baseball team (who began play in 1977) allowed for these massive crowds.
The Argos reached an all-time low in 1981 when they finished 2–14; this despite having such talented players as quarterback Condredge Holloway, running back Cedric Minter, and receiver Terry Greer. The team began the year 0–10 and there was talk of a "perfect" losing season. The team had been inept so long by this point (29 seasons without a Grey Cup win) that the notion of an "Argo Bounce" had become inverted; now "it was the unluckiest bounce in the world, the one that usually arose from the Argos' uncanny ability to lose critical games in the dying minutes by committing an improbable blunder."
However, with the 1982 season came the hiring of Bob O'Billovich as head coach and Mouse Davis as offensive co-ordinator. Davis implemented the run and shoot offense, and the Argos enjoyed a turnaround, going 9–6–1 that year; Condredge Holloway was the CFL's most outstanding player. The team ultimately fell short in their quest for a Grey Cup, losing 32–16 in a driving rainstorm to the mighty Edmonton Eskimos (in the last of their five consecutive Grey Cup titles) in the final in front of a disappointed crowd at Exhibition Stadium. The 1983 season finally brought the championship home. The Argos finished 12–4 and Terry Greer set a CFL record with 2,003 receiving yards. Joe Barnes and Condredge Holloway were a potent duo at quarterback. The Double Blue returned to the Grey Cup, this time facing the BC Lions at BC Place Stadium in Vancouver. Despite the hostile crowd, Toronto defeated BC 18–17 to win their first Grey Cup since 1952. The Argos were generally competitive for the remainder of the 1980s, thanks in large part to talented players such as Gill "The Thrill" Fenerty and Darrell K. Smith, but a return to the glory of 1983 proved elusive (outside of an appearance in the 1987 Grey Cup game, in which they lost in the last minute to the Edmonton Eskimos 38–36).
1989–2015
The 1989 season saw the Argonauts move into SkyDome, a multi-purpose downtown stadium with a retractable roof. It marked the beginning of an eventful few years. In 1990, one of the most beloved figures in Toronto sporting history emerged on the team: Michael "Pinball" Clemons set a CFL record for all purpose yards with 3,300 in his first full year, a record he broke in 1997 with 3,840.
In 1991 Hollywood prestige arrived in the form of a new ownership trio. Bruce McNall, owner of the NHL's Los Angeles Kings, bought the team. One of his players, hockey great Wayne Gretzky, became a minority owner, as did Canadian-born comedian John Candy. The group stunned the league with the signing of Raghib "Rocket" Ismail for an unheard of $18.2 million over four years. Ismail immediately impressed, particularly on kickoff returns, and was named player of the game in the 1991 Grey Cup, which the Argos won 36–21 over the Calgary Stampeders. Clemons and quarterback Matt Dunigan (who played the final with a broken collarbone) were the other critical pieces to the championship.
However, the Argos slumped to 6–12 only a year later, beginning a slide that only accelerated when Dunigan and Ismail left after the season. The 1992 season was the first of four consecutive losing seasons; while they made the playoffs in 1994, they were promptly eliminated by the Baltimore Stallions in the division semi-finals. Trouble also struck off the field: McNall was convicted of conspiracy and fraud at the end of 1993, while Candy died prematurely the next year, shortly after he sold his stake in the team. With Gretzky's salary dependent upon McNall, the team was effectively left without owners before Labatt Brewing Company, parent of league broadcast partner The Sports Network, bought it in the spring of 1994.
Attendance also began to slide in the mid-1990s, raising questions over the team's viability that persist to this day. The per game average was just above 16,000 in 1994 and 1995, much less than half the team's 1970s peak.
Championship material did eventually reemerge in 1996. The team hired Don Matthews, who was fresh off a Grey Cup victory with the Baltimore Stallions to be the team's new head coach and signed Doug Flutie, one of the greatest quarterbacks in CFL history, to a contract and surrounded him with key personnel. The team included linebacker Mike O'Shea, veteran wide receiver Paul Masotti, and running back Robert Drummond. Derrell "Mookie" Mitchell was added at receiver in 1997. The Boatmen took the Grey Cup in both 1996 and 1997. Flutie set team records for single season passing yards with more than 5,500 in each year and for touchdowns thrown with 47 in 1997 (one less than his CFL record of 48) before crossing the border to join the Buffalo Bills the next year. Masotti retired in 1999 as the team's all time pass reception yardage leader. Clemons ended his own successful career in 2000 before returning to coach until 2007.
The years after their back-to-back championships saw a return to mediocrity for the Argos. Ticket sales remained flat, and there were changes in ownership. Gimmicks to attract fans were greeted with criticism. The Argos seemingly bottomed out in July 2003 when the CFL stripped control over the team from owner Sherwood Schwarz. The team had amassed debts of over $20 million, including $17.4 owed to Schwarz himself.
New ownership under David Cynamon and Howard Sokolowski brought immediate dividends with another Grey Cup win in 2004. Veteran Damon Allen led the team to a 27–19 victory over the B.C. Lions, with Jon Avery a critical running threat. Allen continued with the team until 2007, and retired with professional football's all-time leading passing yardage (72,381).
The Argonauts saw winning seasons from 2005 to 2007 before bottoming out the next two years. They finished 2009 with just three wins. Critical players over this half-decade included receiver Arland Bruce III, defensive star Byron Parker, and all-star punter Noel Prefontaine. The team generated some controversy in 2006 when they lured running back Ricky Williams from the NFL. Williams had repeatedly violated NFL drug policies and was under suspension for the year; he played just one season with the Argos.
In 2010 the team again saw an ownership change, with construction magnate David Braley, who also owns the Lions, taking control. After breaking even in 2010 and going 6–12 in 2011, the Argonauts again acquired a championship nucleus in 2012. Ricky Ray was brilliant at quarterback while Chad Owens emerged as arguably the league's best special teams player. Owens broke Michael Clemons CFL record for all purpose yards and won the CFL Most Outstanding Player award that year. The 2012 Grey Cup was played in Toronto and the team took their first championship victory in the city since 1952, a 35–22 win over Calgary.
2016–present
After years of being run on a shoestring budget by owner David Braley and facing the prospect of being evicted out of its longtime home, Braley sold the club to a consortium, led by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment chairman Larry Tanenbaum and BCE Inc, a move that solidified the franchise's long-term future.
The Argos moved out of Rogers Centre and into BMO Field for the 2016 season. Despite the initial hype of playing at a fan-friendly outdoor facility, the club finished at the bottom of the standings with a 5–13 record. A front office purge followed, with the firing of general manager Jim Barker on January 24, 2017. Head coach Scott Milanovich, who was facing an uncertain future with the Argos in the wake of Barker's firing, quit four days later, accepting the quarterbacks coach position for the Jacksonville Jaguars under Doug Marrone.
Looking to start afresh both on and off the field, the Argos hired former Montreal Alouettes general manager Jim Popp and head coach Marc Trestman on February 28, 2017. Popp and Trestman won consecutive Grey Cup championships in 2009 and 2010. Popp, the architect of the Alouettes' resurgence in the Montreal sports scene, acquired some of his former players, such as S. J. Green and Bear Woods.
In August 2017, the team moved their practice facility to the former Don Bosco Catholic Secondary School, with a short-term lease of the facility from the Toronto Catholic District School Board.
Despite missing most of the free agency period and having mere months to assemble both a roster and coaching staff, the Double Blue finished the year with a 9–9 record, good enough for first place in a weak East Division and a first-round bye. After a thrilling last-minute comeback win in the Eastern Final over Saskatchewan, 25–21, the Argos capped off the season in true Cinderella fashion, with another thrilling comeback, winning their 17th championship in the 2017 Grey Cup. Their 27–24 win over Calgary marked their second Grey Cup victory against the Stampeders in five years.
In 2018, the team's new owners Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment moved the team's practice facility to the nearby MLSE managed Lamport Stadium with the football operations staff moving to BMO Field and the nearby MLSE managed Coca-Cola Coliseum.
Since 2015, the team has averaged the lowest home attendance in the CFL every year, their lowest average (in a non-pandemic affected year) being 12,431 in 2015.
Championship summary
The Toronto Argonauts currently lead the CFL in total wins and in winning percentage in the Grey Cup. Early success in the final can partly be attributed to the weakness of western teams: between 1921 and 1952 the Argonauts won in nine straight appearances, including six straight against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. The team's success is not merely an historical aberration, however: they have won seven of their ten appearances since the formation of the CFL, including their last six straight.
For the entire Grey Cup era some form of playoffs has led up to the Grey Cup game; the 23 Argonauts teams who have won a spot in the final would, in modern terms, be called "Eastern Division Champions". However, the route to the Grey Cup, participating teams, and playoff format have changed repeatedly over time. During the years that they competed in the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union (1907–1957) the Argonauts won the James Dixon Trophy (awarded to the IRFU playoff champion) 14 times, going on to win the Grey Cup on 10 of these occasions. The Argonauts, in the CFL era (since 1958), hold a 7–3 record in the Grey Cup title, despite not winning their first Grey Cup as a CFL team until 1983.
As for the regular season, the CFL records 14 Argonauts teams at the top of the eastern divisional table since its formation in 1958. Earlier data for the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union provides another 9 years from 1907 to 1957 in which the Argos were the best of the "Big Four", for a total of 23 divisional wins. The only pre-1958 year in which the Argos won the IRFU but failed to make a Grey Cup appearance was 1922, when they lost in the Eastern Canada final to Queen's University.
Going back to an even earlier era, the Argonauts won the Ontario Rugby Football Union championship three times between 1883 and 1906, including the league's first two seasons, 1883 and 1884. Their last victory as ORFU members came in 1901. Given their losses in the Dominion Championship in 1884 and 1901, the Argonauts did not earn the title "national champion" until their first Grey Cup win in 1914.
Stadiums
The Toronto Argonauts' first home was Rosedale Field at Mount Pleasant Road and MacLennan Avenue near the city centre. The team suggests its capacity was 10,000 total with 4,000 seated, though O'Leary and Parrish list smaller numbers, noting that a $32,000 renovation in 1883 allowed for a capacity of 2,000. The field has historic significance as the site of the first Grey Cup game in 1909; the CFL lists the game's attendance as 3,807. The field still exists as part of Rosedale Park, although there are no grandstands.
Sources again differ on when the team permanently moved to Varsity Stadium on the grounds of the University of Toronto. The team gives dates of 1874–1897 and 1908–1915 at Rosedale, while other sources suggest the team had moved to Varsity by 1911. Varsity became indelibly linked with the Argonauts and the early years of Canadian football; it was the home field of the great Argo dynasties of the 1930s and 1940s. For most of the Argos time at the stadium, its capacity was about 16,000, but this jumped above 20,000 with a renovation in 1950. Although it has not hosted a professional game since 1958, it still holds the record for hosting the most Grey Cups with 30.
Another home beckoned in 1959 with the renovation of the new Exhibition Stadium to accommodate Canadian football. Often remembered ruefully by Torontonians for its exposure to weather and poor sightlines, the stadium was nevertheless the site of the Argos' greatest attendance in the late 1960s and 1970s. Particularly brutal conditions at the 70th Grey Cup in 1982 paved the way for the construction of a domed stadium in Toronto.
Rogers Centre (Skydome before 2004) had provided the Argonauts a marquee venue from 1989 to 2015, but also been criticized for its football sightlines and atmosphere. Even crowds of about 30,000 looked sparse in a stadium that seats up to 50,000 people. The domed environment did, at least, remove the elements and was an advantage to passers and comfortable for fans. Two critical opportunities to find a new home were missed in 2004 and 2005: plans for a revamped Varsity Stadium to accommodate CFL-sized crowds were thwarted by community opposition in 2004, and the Argonauts withdrew from an alternate plan at York University the following year.
It was announced in 2013 that Rogers Centre's artificial turf would be replaced by natural grass within five years to better facilitate Toronto Blue Jays baseball. Replacing the playing surface would require permanently locking Rogers Centre into its baseball configuration, making it impossible to host CFL games. (However, since this time the stadium has retained its artificial turf surface [albeit with a full dirt infield], and it is unclear whether it will be replaced.) The stadium issue generated significant press and raised concerns over the team's long-term viability given that the Argonauts' losses have been estimated anywhere from $2 to $6 million annually. While various stadium rumours swirled over the course of David Braley's tenure (including building a new facility), it became increasingly clear that a move to a renovated BMO Field was the only viable option.
The BMO Field move became finalized on May 20, 2015, concurrent with the announcement of the team's sale to a consortium of MLSE shareholders Larry Tanenbaum and Bell Canada. The team moved following the completion of stadium renovations for the 2016 season. The $120 million renovation plan had originally been announced in March 2014, and raised the stadium's seating capacity from 21,566 seats to 30,000 for soccer, with 25,000 seats in CFL configuration (due to space and safety issues, the endzones are only 18 yards deep [as opposed to the standard 20 yards], with part of both end zones covered in artificial turf, the remainder of the field has natural grass), and is temporarily expandable with additional endzone seating to 40,000 for big events such as a Grey Cup. The agreement required MLSE to reach a "long-term use (i.e. 20 years)" lease with the Argos for usage of the stadium. The inclusion of the CFL configuration had partly been at the insistence of the City of Toronto government, which owns BMO Field, and had been planned in the original stadium agreement.
Following the demolition and reconstruction of the 5,000 seat Varsity Stadium at the University of Toronto, the Argos returned to the stadium, hosting preseason games from 2013 to 2015. The team also acquired a much-needed training facility in July 2014 when it was announced that MLSE had partnered with the Argonauts to expand KIA Training Ground, Toronto FC's new state-of-the-art academy and training facility.
Since 2018, after Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment became the new owners of the Argonauts, the team has used Lamport Stadium as their practice field, while their weight rooms are located at Coca-Cola Coliseum. Both locations are within walking distance of BMO Field
Ownership and management
Ownership history
For more than eight decades, the Toronto Argonauts Football Club was the sole property of its namesake rowing club. By the 1950s, the team's complex management structure made the arrangement increasingly awkward. Facing overdraft and with wealthy suitors knocking, the Argonaut rowers finally sold the team to a consortium led by John Bassett, Eric Cradock, and Charlie Burns in 1957. Each held about 20% share in the company, with the balance made up by small investors who had some affinity with the club; the initial agreement called for a long-term debenture of $400,000 to be set up that would sustain the rowing club in the absence of its football income. Bassett was the operating head of the franchise and is often given sole credit for the initial purchase of the Argos, but Cradock was also instrumental in spearheading the drive. He sold his share to Len Lumbers just two years into his tenure in part because of Bassett's controlling nature. Bassett arranged a complete buyout of the other shareholders for $2.31 million in 1971 through his holdings in Baton Broadcasting.
The Bassett years of the late-50s to early-70s were marked by mediocrity on the field but consistent success at the turnstiles. An issue that has become a perennial concern in the city also emerged at this time: the possibility of a National Football League team in Toronto. Various machinations were entertained by Bassett including moving the Argos to the NFL, bringing an American expansion team to the city (e.g. the Toronto Northmen of the WFL), or expanding the CFL itself in the opposite direction. Other team owners steadfastly opposed Bassett's moves and almost rescinded his franchise in 1974; angered, he sold the team for $3.3 million to hotel magnate William R. Hodgson in the same year.
Hodgsen sold to Carling O'Keefe in 1979, who had been minority owners since 1976. The brewing company's total investment in the team was $5.8 million. At the time it was rapidly ramping up its sports sponsorship (it also owned the Quebec Nordiques before they moved from the World Hockey Association to the NHL) and would become a huge benefactor to the CFL itself, inking television rights deals that reached $11 million annually by 1984. Reports at the time suggest the league became spoiled by the partnership and that when the money dried up in 1987, the transition was difficult. For the Argos, the Carling O'Keefe years were marked by their first modern-era Grey Cup in 1983.
The year's following the Carling O'Keefe era were marked by increasingly short ownership stints. Canadian businessman Harry Ornest bought the team off Carling O'Keefe for $5 million at the end of 1988 and then sold to the trio of Bruce McNall (60%), John Candy (20%), and Wayne Gretzky (20%) for the same amount in 1991. Of the three, Candy is best remembered for his emotional investment in the team and a team player award continues in his honour. Given McNall's indictment and Candy's early death, the era was tumultuous and the last in which the club regularly made front-page headlines. The now money-losing team was sold to the Labatt Brewing Company through its TSN unit in 1994 for $4.5 million. At the time, Labatt also owned the Toronto Blue Jays. In 1995, Labatt was acquired by Interbrew; The Interbrew years saw two championships but also the worst Argo attendance of the modern era. Interbrew soon lost interest in sports ownership and the team was sold again at the end of 1999 to New York businessman Sherwood Schwarz.
After the debacles of the Schwarz era and brief control of the team by the CFL (see above) the Argos were rescued by David Cynamon and Howard Sokolowski in 2004. There was optimism surrounding the duo's arrival and attendance figures improved in their six years heading the organization. It was also appreciated that the two were Torontonians after a quarter-century of foreign and/or corporate ownership. But by 2010 losses were great enough that the team was again put on the block and eventually sold to David Braley. There was some controversy surrounding Braley's takeover. He was simultaneously owner of the BC Lions, raising questions of competitive integrity. It was also revealed that Braley had bankrolled half of Cynamon and Sokolowski's initial $2 million buy-in of the Argos in 2004, and covered half their subsequent losses, in exchange for half of the 2007 Grey Cup profits.
By 2014 Maple Leaf Sports and Entertainment and its chairman and minority owner Larry Tanenbaum had emerged as serious suitors for the team. On May 20, 2015, it was announced that an agreement had been reached for Argonauts to be sold to Tanenbaum's Kilmer Sports and Bell Canada, who both own a stake in MLSE with Rogers Communications. Financial details were not disclosed. Despite its shared stake in MLSE, Rogers was not interested in having an ownership share in the Argonauts because it does not have any media relationships with the CFL (unlike Bell, whose TSN division holds the broadcast rights to the league). Argonauts Holdings Limited Partnership, a holding company which Bell and Kilmer each own 50% of, formally acquired the franchise on December 31, 2015.
On December 13, 2017, MLSE announced that it would acquire the Argos. This sale transferred ownership from Tanenbaum's Kilmer Sports and Bell Media to MLSE, which itself is owned by Tanenbaum, Bell Media and Rogers Communications. The sale was finalized on January 19, 2018 and with the sale, MLSE owns four of the five major professional sports franchises in the city of Toronto (only the Blue Jays are not owned by MLSE, although its owner, Rogers Communications, has 37.5% ownership stake of MLSE).
Senior executives
Below the ownership level, the two most senior positions within the Toronto Argonauts organization are its president and general manager. The GM role was titled as "managing director" from 1957 to 1966, when head coach Bob Shaw was also named "manager" of the team, "with full operating control", and managing director Lew Hayman was named club president. The role of club president had formerly been an honorary position; Hayman was the first president with a salary and executive role. The president role is now included in the title of CEO.
The longest serving executive in the organization is Lew Hayman, who had a five-decade career beginning in the 1930s as coach and administrator. A Jewish-American, Hayman served with both the Argos and Montreal Alouettes and has been called "the architect of Canadian football." He was the team's first president and managing director at the insistence of Eric Cradock in 1957, and would continue in the former role until 1981. Ralph Sazio took over from Hayman and is another hall of fame builder.
After relative stability at the senior executive level for three decades, there has been significant turnover in the positions since the 1990s. The team had eight general managers in eight years, for example, between 1996 and 2003. The current GM is Jim Popp who was appointed at the end of 207 February 2017. Chris Rudge, former head of the Canadian Olympic Committee, took over as president and CEO from the beginning of 2012 to the end of 2015, when Michael Copeland took over. The current president is Bill Manning who is also president of Toronto FC.
Head coaches
Fifty-seven men have served as Toronto Argonauts head coach. The most recent coach, Marc Trestman, was appointed in 2017. He has succeeded in reviving a stalled offence and led the team to a Grey Cup victory in 2017. However, he was fired after the team finished 2018 with a 4–14 record.
The longest total tenure at head coach belongs to Bob O'Billovich, who led the team for eleven years over three stints in the 1980s and early 90s. Other notable coaching careers include those of Joe Wright, Sr. at the end of the nineteenth century, Ted Morris and Frank Clair in the post-war years, Leo Cahill in the late 60s and early 70s, and Pinball Clemons after the turn of the millennium.
Since 1961, the Canadian Football League has awarded the Annis Stukus Trophy annually to the league's outstanding coach. (Alongside his playing career, Stukus achieved fame as a coach, promoter, and newspaper columnist.) Argonauts coaches have been honoured eight times: Cahill (1971), O'Billovich (1981 & 1987), Adam Rita (1991), Don Matthews (1997), Jim Barker (2010), Milanovich (2012) and Trestman (2017).
Current team
Current roster
Front office and coaching
Broadcasts
Argonauts games are currently carried on TSN's national and regional television channel as part of CFL on TSN broadcasts. Radio coverage is carried on CHUM (AM) or on CFRB 1010 when there is a scheduling conflict and another sport is being carried on TSN Radio.
Notable broadcasters for the Argonauts include John Badham who had three tenures on three separate radio stations and later inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in 1995.
Rivalries
With few teams, but a long history, it is inevitable that intense rivalries have developed in Canadian football. Far and away the greatest Toronto Argonauts rivalry has been with the Hamilton Tiger-Cats and its precursor teams. Fittingly, the Argonauts first game was against a club from Hamilton, while the raucous Eastern Final of 2013—featuring a Tiger-Cat win over the Argos in front of 35,000 at the Rogers Centre—proved the rivalry is alive and well. The two teams meet in Hamilton every year in the Labour Day Classic, a league wide tradition since the late 1940s in which the game's greatest rivalries are showcased.
To the east, the Argonauts have also faced off against teams from Montreal and Ottawa since their earliest days. In recent years, the Montreal Alouettes have consistently fielded strong teams and often run up against the Argos in the playoffs; the teams have faced off eleven times in the Eastern Final, with Montreal taking six.
In 2014, the Argonauts reignited their historic rivalry with an Ottawa football Team as the team came back as the Ottawa REDBLACKS (Other rivalries with Ottawa consisted of rivalries with the Ottawa Renegades and the Ottawa Rough Riders). In 10 games against the current Ottawa franchise (as of the end of the 2017 season) the Argos have a winning record of 7–3–0.
At the Grey Cup level, the Argonauts have faced an assortment of teams in recent decades rather than any one team regularly. The Edmonton Eskimos, for years a dominant team in the league, became a rival. The two teams' five Grey Cup match-ups include an epic 38–36 Toronto loss in 1987 and most recently, the Snow Bowl victory in 1996 led by the arm of Doug Flutie. In the pre-CFL days, the Argos had a Grey Cup rivalry with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers and a cross-town rivalry with the University of Toronto in the first years of the Grey Cup championship, including the Argonauts' first win in 1914.
Notable personnel
The highest distinction the Toronto Argonauts can accord a player is to retire their number; just four players have received the honour. Starting in 1996, the team began another category of distinction with its list of "All-Time Argos." Twenty-four players have been rewarded so far and a banner in their honour hangs at BMO Field.
Players and management personnel may be separately inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame. A total of 56 people who have been part of the team are in the Hall. The All-Time Argos list does not extend back to before the Second War era while the Hall of Fame does. Thus, for instance, Lionel Conacher is in the Hall but not listed as an All-Time Argo.
Finally, players may be honoured on an annual basis through the CFL awards. The most prestigious of these is the Most Outstanding Player Award, awarded since 1953. Six Argonauts have been recipients: Chad Owens (2012), Damon Allen (2005), Doug Flutie (1996 & 1997), Pinball Clemons (1990), Conredge Holloway, and Bill Symons (1968).
All-Time and Hall of Fame
Mascot
Jason is the mascot for the Toronto Argonauts, replacing the previous mascot, Bounce, in 2005, who in turn replaced Scully, in 2003.
See also
Toronto Argonauts all-time records and statistics
Argonotes, the Toronto Argonauts Band
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
In Article
Further reading
External links
Toronto Argonauts all-time roster (Toronto Argonauts alumni website)
Canadian Football League teams
Events in Toronto
Sports clubs established in 1873
Argonauts
Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment
Bell Canada
1873 establishments in Ontario | [
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254166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskatchewan%20Roughriders | Saskatchewan Roughriders | The Saskatchewan Roughriders are a professional Canadian football team based in Regina, Saskatchewan. The Roughriders compete in the Canadian Football League (CFL) as a member club of the league's West Division.
The Roughriders were founded in 1910 as the Regina Rugby Club. Although Saskatchewan was not the first team to play football in Western Canada, the club has maintained an unbroken organizational continuity since their founding. The Roughriders are the fourth-oldest professional gridiron football team in existence today (only the Arizona Cardinals, Hamilton Tiger-Cats and Toronto Argonauts are older), and one of the oldest professional sports teams still in existence in North America. Of these teams, the Roughriders are both the oldest still in existence that continuously has been based in Western Canada (as well as the oldest surviving team in the CFL's present-day West Division) and the oldest in North America to continuously have been based west of St. Louis, Missouri. They are also the continent's oldest community-owned professional sports franchise, older than every American professional sports team outside baseball other than the aforementioned Cardinals (who, unlike the Roughriders, no longer play in their original city, and have moved twice in their history) and older than every Canadian sports team outside football except the Montreal Canadiens, who were founded about nine months prior to the Roughriders. The team changed their name to the Regina Roughriders in 1924, and to the current moniker in 1946. The Roughriders played their home games at historic Taylor Field from 1936 to 2016; in 2017, the team moved to the newly constructed Mosaic Stadium at Evraz Place.
The team draws fans from across Saskatchewan and Canada who are affectionately known as the Rider Nation. The Roughriders play in the smallest market in the CFL, and the second-smallest major-league market in North America (only Green Bay, Wisconsin is smaller). They have finished first in what is now the West Division eight times and have won the Western championship a record 28 times. They have played for the Grey Cup 19 times, winning four.
The team has had 20 players inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame. The Riders' biggest rival is the Winnipeg Blue Bombers; games between the two are often sold out before the beginning of the season. The Roughriders Football Club and the city of Regina have hosted the Grey Cup three times, including a Roughrider win in the 101st Grey Cup.
Team facts
Formerly known as: Regina Rugby Club 1910–1923, Regina Roughriders 1924–1947
Past uniform colours: Old gold and purple (1910), blue and white (1911), red and black (1912–1947)
Fight Song: "Green Is The Colour", "On Roughriders" and "Rider Pride"
Main rivals: Winnipeg Blue Bombers (see Labour Day Classic and Banjo Bowl), Edmonton Elks, Calgary Stampeders.
Western Division 1st Place: 8—1951, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1976, 2009, 2019
Western Division Championships: 19—1923, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1934, 1951, 1966, 1967, 1969, 1972, 1976, 1989, 1997, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2013
Grey Cup Championships: 4—1966, 1989, 2007, 2013
2021 regular season record: 9 wins, 5 losses
Franchise history
Club origins, Regina Rugby Club (1910–1923)
The team was founded as the Regina Rugby Club on Tuesday, September 13, 1910, adopting the colours of old gold and purple. The team was also a founding member of the Saskatchewan Rugby Football Union as it was organized on September 22 of that year. Regina played their first game against the Moose Jaw Tigers on October 1, 1910, at the Moose Jaw Baseball Grounds where they were defeated 16–6. For the 1911 season, the team changed their colours to blue and white to match the Regina Amateur Athletic Association and won their first SRFU championship, but lost in the first season of the Western Canada Rugby Football Union playoffs.
The Regina Rugby Club changed their colours again in 1912 to red and black and began an era of western football dominance. For every season of play in the SRFU, Regina won the league championship, exerting their prowess over teams from Moose Jaw, Saskatoon, and any other clubs in Saskatchewan. Beginning in the 1912 season, Regina won seven straight WCRFU titles, excluding 1917 and 1918 when World War I interrupted league play. In 1921, the western champion was invited to compete for the Grey Cup national championship for the first time, but it was also the first time since 1911 that the Regina Rugby Club didn't win the West Championship. The Edmonton Eskimos traveled east to play in the 9th Grey Cup.
The team's rise to early prominence came even as it led a somewhat nomadic existence. It originally played at Dominion Park, but after the war was forced to move to the city exhibition grounds after the city sold Dominion Park. In 1921, it moved to Park Hughes on 10th Avenue in the North Central section of Regina, a rugby and soccer field built in 1910. It would be the first season at an address that would remain associated with the club for parts of the next nine decades.
In 1923, Regina returned to power as they won their eighth western championship over the Winnipeg Victorias and earned the right to compete in the national playoffs. The club was given a bye and advanced straight to the Grey Cup finals for the first time, but were severely outmatched, losing 54–0 to Queen's University at Varsity Stadium in Toronto. This was, and still is, the most lopsided defeat in Grey Cup history as the defending champion Queen's won their third straight national championship at the expense of the Regina Rugby Club.
Regina Roughriders (1924–1945)
Following their first Grey Cup loss, the club changed their name to the Regina Roughriders in 1924 while retaining the colours of red and black. Ottawa also had a team called the Ottawa Rough Riders, but the spelling was different and the two clubs played in different leagues then (incidentally, however, both clubs shared the same colours of red and black then). The origin of the name has multiple theories, the most credible of which describes how the North-West Mounted Police were called Roughriders because they broke the wild horse broncos that were used by the force and the moniker was adopted from them. Giving credence to this theory is that during this time, the team occasionally played at the RNWMP/RCMP barracks when the then-rudimentary facilities at Park Hughes were rendered unsuitable for play by inclement weather. For a long time, the playing surface at Park Hughes was little more than dirt, and heavy rain often turned the field to a muddy bog.
An alternative, discredited story states that the name was adopted from Theodore Roosevelt's cavalry contingent that was known as the Rough Riders, who fought in the Spanish–American War. It was believed that there were Canadian troops in the contingent who returned to Canada following the war. However, this story is more often associated with the Ottawa club. While it has been suggested that some of the troops may have eventually moved out west, the Roughriders did not adopt their name until 1924, by which time the Spanish–American War was (especially in Canada) barely a historical footnote compared to the then-much more recent (and much more climatic) First World War. Following World War I, any attempt to deliberately name a Canadian sports team in honour of a unit that participated in an earlier American war would have been extremely unpopular.
During the first two years after their name change, the Roughriders failed to reclaim their western championship title, losing both times to clubs from Winnipeg. The 1926 season marked the beginning of their next reign of dominance as the club matched their own WCRFU record with seven consecutive western championships from 1926 to 1932. With dominant players such as Canadian Football Hall of Famer Eddie James, the Roughriders were a perennial contender from the West, reaching the Grey Cup finals five consecutive years from 1928 to 1932, the second-longest streak in the championship's history (the team did not challenge for the Cup in 1926 or 1927).1927 – Balmy Beach 9, Hamilton Tigers 6 Unfortunately, Regina remained winless in the national championship, being outscored 102–15 in those five Grey Cup games. The Roughriders won their last WCRFU title in 1934, representing the west for the seventh time in the 22nd Grey Cup, but lost to the Sarnia Imperials in that club's first Grey Cup win.
In 1928, Park Hughes was combined with Park de Young, a neighbouring baseball field, to create a much larger football venue. However, from 1929 to 1935, the Roughriders played most of their games at the larger exhibition grounds.
Western Interprovincial Football Union (1936–1958)
In 1936, Regina joined the Winnipeg Blue Bombers and Calgary Bronks as the founding franchises of the Western Interprovincial Football Union, the highest level of Canadian football play in Western Canada. Also in 1936, the first permanent grandstand was built at Park Hughes and Park de Young. The Riders moved to the facility full-time that season. The stadium, renamed Taylor Field in 1946, would be the Riders' home for over eight decades. The Roughriders became the first WIFU champions after they defeated the Blue Bombers and Bronks in the West Semi-Finals and West Finals respectively. However, due to a rules dispute with the Canadian Rugby Union over use of their five import players from the United States, Regina was barred from competing for the 24th Grey Cup. Winnipeg had won the Grey Cup championship one year earlier with seven imports and the move to prevent Regina from competing was seen as a reaction to the previous year's western win. While the Roughriders had planned on traveling east without the five ineligible players, the CRU remained steadfast in their decision to disallow the team from competition.
The next decade in the WIFU was not as successful as the first as the team did not win another Western Final as the Regina Roughriders, nor ever finish in first place in that time span. After qualifying for the playoffs in three of their next five seasons, play from 1942 to 1944 was interrupted by World War II. While there was no regular season in 1945, the Roughriders did play the newly named Calgary Stampeders in the West Semi-Finals, but lost the series two games to none.
The Ken Preston Era (1958–1978)
With the folding of both clubs in Moose Jaw and Saskatoon, the Regina Roughriders became a provincially community-owned club (and has remained so since), and, consequently, changed their name to the Saskatchewan Roughriders in 1946. It is the first recorded instance of a major-league team in North America branding itself as a statewide or provincewide team. Prior to the 1948 season, the Roughriders were in need of new uniforms as their red and black ones had become old and worn out. While visiting a surplus store in Chicago, executive member Jack Fyfe found a set of green and white uniforms and purchased them for the Roughriders. Green and white have remained as the team's primary colours to this day (although the team has also worn silver and black as accent colours since then at times). The name change was made official on April 1, 1950.
After three years of first-round playoff exits, the Roughriders finally returned to prominence in 1951, winning their first WIFU regular season championship with an 8–6 record. Saskatchewan, led by quarterback Glenn Dobbs, defeated the Edmonton Eskimos in the West Final and advanced to the Grey Cup for the first time since 1934. In this game, they faced the Ottawa Rough Riders for the first time, marking the first Roughriders versus Rough Riders championship game in Canadian football history. Unfortunately, Saskatchewan still did not win their first championship, as they were defeated by Ottawa 21–14 in the 39th Grey Cup.
Saskatchewan contended on and off in the 1950s, with four consecutive winning seasons and second-place regular season finishes from 1953 to 1956. Teams from this era featured standouts such as Frank Tripucka, Reggie Whitehouse, Ken Carpenter, Mike Cassidy, player-coach Frank Filchock and Cookie Gilchrist who was the first Roughrider player to rush for 1,000 yards in 1958. Even with that talent, they couldn't return to the Grey Cup as clubs fielded by either the Edmonton Eskimos and Winnipeg Blue Bombers ended their season in each of these years. Their strongest season was in 1956 when the Roughriders achieved a 10–6 record and won their first playoff series since 1951, only to lose to the Eskimos in the Western Finals.
Following their 1956 campaign, tragedy struck the Roughriders franchise when four members of the team were killed in a plane crash on December 9, 1956, while returning from the Canadian Football Council (CFC) All Star Game in Vancouver. Gordon Sturtridge, Mel Becket, Ray Syrnyk, and Mario DeMarco were killed when Flight 810 crashed into Slesse Mountain near Chilliwack, British Columbia. The team retired the numbers of the four players shortly after the tragedy. The following season, the Roughriders finished with seven fewer wins and a last place finish in the WIFU.
1958 brought not only change, as the Saskatchewan Roughriders became charter members of the newly formed Canadian Football League in 1958, but also stability with Ken Preston becoming the General Manager—a position he held for the next 20 years, arguably the most successful tenure in Roughrider history as the team only missed the playoffs five times, went to five Grey Cup final games, winning one in 1966. In the Roughriders' first season in the newly formed Canadian Football League, the team finished with a respectable 7–7–2 record and a third-place finish. However, the following season proved to be the worst in franchise history, as the team finished with just one win and 15 losses under head coach Frank Tripucka, the third-worst winning percentage in CFL history. The following years featured similar results, with various head coaches, as the Roughriders missed the playoffs for three consecutive seasons, their worst such streak since joining the WIFU in 1936.
The Ronnie and George show (1963–1975)
Following a 1962 season that saw the Roughriders return to the playoffs, the team made roster moves that would define a generation of football in Saskatchewan. In the off-season, the Roughriders signed fullback George Reed from Washington State to replace Fred Burket, who had been traded to the Alouettes. Then, prior to their season opening game of the 1963 season, general manager Ken Preston acquired Ottawa Rough Riders quarterback and defensive back Ron Lancaster on July 30 on a straight cash basis following three years with the Eastern Riders. The duo contributed to a productive season for Saskatchewan as they finished with a 7–7–2 record and won a playoff series for the first time since 1956 before losing their first playoff match-up with the BC Lions. The Roughriders continued to make progress in the next two seasons, posting back-to-back winning records, but lost in the West Semi-Finals in both years.
Eagle Keys Era (1965–1970)
1966 Grey Cup champions
In 1965 after one year as the offensive coordinator, Eagle Keys became the head coach of the Roughriders and guided them to an 8–7–1 record and an appearance in the western semi final which they lost to the Winnipeg Blue Bombers 15–9. Fullback George Reed finished the season with over 1,700 yards rushing. Before the 1966 season began, the team added the final pieces to the roster by signing defensive tackle Ed McQuarters who was a recent cut by the St. Louis Cardinals, safety and backup quarterback Bruce Bennett, defensive end Don Gerhardt and running back Paul Dudley from the Stampeders. During the 1966 season the Roughriders finally captured the Western Conference regular season title with a 9–6–1 record. This was the first time they had accomplished that feat since 1951. Ron Lancaster won the Jeff Nicklin Memorial Trophy as the Western Conference's most outstanding player while George Reed, receiver Hugh Campbell and four other Riders were named league all-stars, the most from any team that year. Saskatchewan swept Winnipeg in the West Finals, winning two games to no losses, and qualified for the ninth Grey Cup final in franchise history. In the 54th Grey Cup, Saskatchewan once again faced the Ottawa Rough Riders in a rematch of the 1951 championship game. After the score was tied 14–14 at halftime, Saskatchewan scored 15 fourth-quarter points to win the franchise's first Grey Cup championship 29–14 on November 26, 1966. Saskatchewan was the last of the original nine CFL franchises to win the Grey Cup, doing so in Vancouver at Empire Stadium. George Reed was the MVP with 31 rushes for 133 yards and one rushing touchdown.
The Roughriders began the 1967 season as defending champions for the first time in franchise history. They finished in second place in the West with a franchise-best 12–4 record and advanced to Grey Cup final once again, but lost to the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 24–1. The 1968 season saw the Roughriders finish with the best record in the league at 12–3–1, although they placed 1st in the west division they lost the western final series to the Calgary Stampeders 2–0 by a combined score of 57–12. Besides the 1st-place finish another highlight of the season was coach Eagles Keys winning the Annis Stukus Trophy awarded to the coach of the year. The Roughriders finished in first place in 1969 and defeated the Stampeders to qualify for another Grey Cup. In the rubber match against the Ottawa Rough Riders, Saskatchewan fell 29–11 in their third Grey Cup game in four years. The Roughriders won a franchise-best 14 games in 1970, a record that stands to this day, but were upset in the West Finals by the Stampeders. Eagle Keys resigned during the following off-season, ending his career as the all-time leader in wins by a Saskatchewan Roughrider head coach with 68 wins and four first-place finishes.
John Payne era (1973–1976)
Dave Skrien was hired as the next head coach of the Roughriders and led them as they continued their winning ways, namely with an appearance in the 1972 Grey Cup, which yielded another Saskatchewan loss to Hamilton. For the 1973 season the Roughriders hired head coach John Payne. The Riders then had three consecutive second-place finishes and West Final losses to the Edmonton Eskimos, ending when George Reed retired after the 1975 season as the all-time leading rusher in all of professional football with 16,116 rushing yards. In 1976, the Roughriders recaptured first place in the Western Conference and defeated the Eskimos in the West Final, advancing to the Grey Cup to once again play the Ottawa Rough Riders. The Roughriders allowed a last-minute touchdown catch by Ottawa tight end Tony Gabriel to lose their fourth Grey Cup in ten years, ending one of the most bittersweet eras in Roughrider history. Saskatchewan had qualified for the playoffs for 15 consecutive seasons, tied for fourth-best in CFL history, and played in 11 consecutive Division Finals, which is a CFL record. While they also posted the best regular season record in all of professional football over that time period, the team only won one championship during that time.
Post-Ron Lancaster era (1979–1986)
After their loss in the 1976 Grey Cup game to the Ottawa Rough Riders, coach John Payne left the team to become head coach of the Detroit Lions and Saskatchewan fell into a drought that was unheard of in the CFL. They posted an 8–8 record in 1977, but finished in fourth place. It was the start of an 11-year playoff drought, the longest in CFL history. The Roughriders had several talented players during this era, including Joey Walters at receiver, Vince Goldsmith at defensive end, offensive lineman Roger Aldag from Gull Lake and Dave Ridgway, who became one of the greatest kickers in CFL history. However, in an era where the West was dominated by Edmonton, Winnipeg and (by the early 1980s) the B.C. Lions, the Roughriders often found themselves in a losing battle for the third and final playoff spot in the West.
Franchise quarterback Ron Lancaster retired after the 1978 season as the CFL's all time passing leader in passing yards, completions and touchdown passes. Furthermore, he is the only Roughrider to win the CFL's Most Outstanding Player Award twice while playing with Saskatchewan. Playing without Lancaster behind centre for the first time in 16 seasons proved difficult as the team posted back-to-back 2–14 seasons in 1979 and 1980. Ironically, the head coach of those squads was none other than Lancaster himself. The Riders' only winning record during this time came in 1981 when they finished with a 9–7 record under Joe Faragalli, but it was only good enough for fourth place in a competitive West Division – the "crossover rule" had not yet been implemented – therefore, as in 1977, the Riders were denied a playoff spot despite the third place Eastern team having a worse record (the Montreal Alouettes finished 3-13). During the following six seasons, the Roughriders never earned more than six wins in a season, leaving them soundly out of the playoff picture. In 1985, the Roughriders introduced a new logo as part of the 75th anniversary of the inception of the team, adding black and silver to the team's colour scheme.
Kent Austin era (1987–1993)
After a carousel of head coaches since John Payne's departure in 1977, the Roughriders hired John Gregory after the 1986 season. Gregory took over a team that had missed the playoffs for ten consecutive seasons. Before the 1987 season started, after almost a decade out of the playoffs and poor attendance saddling the team, the Roughriders felt it was necessary to conduct a telethon to keep the team afloat; the Montreal Alouettes had recently folded early in the season, and the Riders were determined not to let the same fate befall them. The province-wide "Save the Roughriders" telethon was a success in that the team sold enough tickets to keep the team in operation. Also in 1986, team executive Tom Shepherd founded the group "Friends of the Riders" to run an annual Touchdown Lottery to further bolster the club's finances. Originally conceived as a one-time fundraiser, it raised almost $22.6 million during its run and operated for 33 years. By the time the lottery was discontinued with Shepherd's retirement in 2019, the club's financial situation had long been stabilized.
In 1987, Gregory's first season as Saskatchewan's head coach, the Roughriders finished 5–12. Gregory then led the Riders to an 11–7 record in 1988 and a playoff berth. He won the Annis Stukus Trophy as the league's coach of the year. The 2nd-place finish in 1988 finally ended the franchise's 11-year playoff drought, the longest in CFL history. However, the Roughriders were relegated to second place because the Eskimos who had an identical record swept them in the regular season. On November 13, 1988 the Roughriders hosted a playoff game for the first time since 1976, but lost to the BC Lions in the Western Semi-Final by a score of 42–18. Nonetheless, it was a step in the right direction as the Roughriders learned how to win and gained valuable playoff experience that they would need for next season.
1989 Grey Cup champions
The Roughriders finished with a 9–9 record and a third-place finish in the 1989 season, but still qualified for the playoffs for a second consecutive season. They defeated the Calgary Stampeders 33–26 in the West Semi-Finals in part because of delay run play to Brian Walling who ran 50 yards for a touchdown to make it 30–26 with 1:38 left to play. Ironically Walling had just been picked up by the Roughriders just weeks previously from the Edmonton Eskimos practice roster. In the West Final, Saskatchewan faced the powerhouse Edmonton Eskimos, a team that set (and still holds) a CFL record with 16 regular season wins in one season since the institution of the 18-game CFL schedule in 1986. The Roughriders defeated the heavily favoured Eskimos 32–21 to advance to the Grey Cup where they faced the Hamilton Tiger-Cats for the third time in franchise history. With a talented roster that included Kent Austin at quarterback, receivers Ray Elgaard, Donald Narcisse, Jeff Fairholm and James "Duke" Ellingson, and an outstanding offensive line featuring Roger Aldag, Vic Stevenson, Dan Payne and Bob Poley, the Roughriders found themselves in a game that featured extensive offensive prowess. With the score tied 40–40, placekicker Dave Ridgway kicked a 35-yard game-winning field goal to win the 77th Grey Cup for the Roughriders, with a play that has become simply known as "The Kick." It was the second championship for the franchise, following a 23-year drought and is considered the greatest Grey Cup game ever played.
Saskatchewan qualified for the playoffs in four of the next five seasons, including two seasons with winning records, but lost in the West Semi-Final each time to either of the two Alberta teams, the Calgary Stampeders or Edmonton Eskimos.
Struggles and Challenges (1994–1999)
In 1995, Regina hosted the Grey Cup for the first time in league history, giving the Roughriders an opportunity to compete for the championship at home. Unfortunately, the Roughriders finished in sixth place in the newly named North Division, as part of the CFL's American expansion, and did not qualify for the playoffs.
With most CFL teams losing money after the ill-fated American expansion ended after the 1995 season, the Roughriders would conduct another "Save the Roughriders" telethon in 1997 to help the team's financial health (they remain the only team who required a telethon to survive), just as they did a decade earlier; the telethon, alongside a $3 million interest-free loan from the NFL to the CFL and the then-ongoing Touchdown Lottery kept the franchise afloat again. The Roughriders qualified again for the playoffs that same year for the first time since 1994, when they did so with a losing record, which was a first for the team since 1948. The team made the most of their opportunity as they defeated both of the Alberta-based teams, the Stampeders and Eskimos in the West Semi-Final and West Final, respectively, to advance to the 85th Grey Cup. Unfortunately, the upstart Roughriders fell to the Doug Flutie-led Toronto Argonauts 47–23 in the first ever Grey Cup match-up between the two oldest franchises in the league. The Roughriders closed out the 20th century with two more losing seasons, failing to qualify for the playoffs in both 1998 and 1999.
Roy Shivers and Danny Barrett Era (1999–2006)
Following the 1999 season, Roy Shivers, the former Director of Player Personnel for the Calgary Stampeders, assumed the duties of general manager of the Roughriders. Shivers then hired Danny Barrett as the team's head coach despite the latter's limited coaching experience. The Roughriders made football history by being the first professional team with both a black general manager and head coach.
In what was described as a rebuilding process, the Roughriders began the Shivers and Barrett era with two consecutive last place finishes in 2000 and 2001, missing the playoffs in both years. In 2002, progress was being made as Saskatchewan made the playoffs for the first time since their 1997 Grey Cup run with an 8–10 record and a fourth-place finish. The team played in the East Semi-Final due to the crossover rule instituted in 1997, playing in the eastern playoffs for the first time in their 90-year history, losing to their last playoff opponent, the Toronto Argonauts. The 2003 season saw the Roughriders earn their first winning record since 1994, finishing 11–7 and in third place, building optimism in a year where the franchise was hosting their second ever Grey Cup game. While the team played their longtime rival, the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, in the playoffs for the first time since 1975 and won, they lost the West Final to the eventual champion Edmonton Eskimos, missing a close chance to play in the Grey Cup at home.
After their strong 2003 campaign, the Roughriders were expected to build upon that success in 2004. While the team regressed slightly with a 9–9 record, they won the West Semi-Final over the Eskimos and advanced to the West Final for the second consecutive year to face the BC Lions. After Saskatchewan scored a late touchdown to take the lead, BC tied the game with a late field goal, sending the game to overtime. Saskatchewan placekicker Paul McCallum missed an 18-yard field goal while BC kicker Duncan O'Mahoney hit a 40-yarder to win the game for the Lions, adding to the frustration of the Roughrider fanbase.
Prior to the 2005 season, quarterback Henry Burris signed as a free agent with Calgary, leaving the Roughriders with a smaller chance at progress. The team finished in fourth place with a 9–9 record and crossed over to the Eastern playoffs again, only to be defeated by the Montreal Alouettes in the first ever post-season meeting with that team. Feeling a greater need for progress, the pressure was on the Roughriders to perform in 2006 season. After Saskatchewan started the season with a 4–5 record, general manager Roy Shivers was fired on August 21, 2006. The Roughriders then hired Eric Tillman to take over and he elected not to renew Danny Barrett's contract at the end of the season, following a third consecutive 9–9 season and a West Final loss to the Lions. While they did not win any championships, Shivers and Barrett restored a measure of respectability to the franchise and set the stage for things to come.
Ken Miller and Darian Durant era (2007–2011)
2007 Grey Cup champions
After contending on and off in the early part of the 21st century, the Roughriders hired 1989 Grey Cup hero Kent Austin as head coach and Ken Miller as offensive coordinator in the 2007 season. Despite a rookie head coach, the team jumped out to a 7–2 start, which was their best start since 1976. They finished the season with a 12–6 record and brought along with it the Roughriders' first home playoff game since 1988, which became a 26–24 victory over the Calgary Stampeders. This was also their first home playoff win since 1976. The team then followed up with a 26–17 win at BC Place over the BC Lions in the West Division final to give the Roughriders a berth in their first Grey Cup final since 1997.
On November 25, 2007, the Riders played the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in the 95th Grey Cup. The Riders' traditional rivals had moved to the East Division the previous year following the demise of the Ottawa Renegades, and the 2007 championship game marked the first time that the two Labour Day Classic opponents played each other in a Grey Cup game. Saskatchewan won 23–19 in a game where James Johnson recorded a Grey Cup record three interceptions en route to being named Most Valuable Player of the 2007 Grey Cup. Fellow Roughrider Andy Fantuz was named the Canadian MVP in the game after recording 70 yards receiving and the game-winning touchdown.
A month and a half after capturing the 2007 Grey Cup, Austin stepped down as head coach to become the offensive co-ordinator at his alma mater University of Mississippi. In accepting this position in the NCAA, Austin turned down a very lucrative contract that the Riders had offered. On February 6, 2008, Roughriders GM Eric Tillman announced that the new head coach would be Ken Miller. Miller was formerly the offensive coordinator under Austin. The team also traded former league MVP Kerry Joseph to the Toronto Argonauts, leaving the team without their Grey Cup-winning head coach and starting quarterback.
The 2008 season began with a 6–0 record with wins shared between three quarterbacks, including the season opening starter, Marcus Crandell. This was the team's best record since 1934, when they were still known as the Regina Roughriders. On August 24, 2008, the team's General Manager, Eric Tillman, announced the acquisition of Quarterback Michael Bishop, the Toronto Argonauts backup quarterback at the time of the trade, who went 11–1 as a starter for the Argonauts in 2007. This was the end of Marcus Crandell's run with the Roughriders, as he was released four days later. After the 6–0 start, the Riders went on to finish the 2008 CFL Regular season with the same record they finished with in 2007, at 12–6. The Roughriders finished in second place in the CFL West Division and earned the right to host the CFL West Division Semi-Final for the second consecutive year. The Roughriders suffered a devastating 33–12 loss to the BC Lions in the western semi-final game, leading to Bishop's release shortly after the loss.
In 2009, the Roughriders were led by quarterback Darian Durant, who had seen his first significant playing time in 2008 and was named the opening day starter. Durant started all 18 games for Saskatchewan and led the team to a 10–7–1 record and their first West Division regular season title since 1976. After defeating the Calgary Stampeders in the West Final, the team advanced to the 97th Grey Cup to face the Montreal Alouettes. After the Roughriders were leading 27–11 in the fourth quarter, Montreal stormed back to make the score 27–25 late in the fourth. Montreal kicker Damon Duval attempted a 43-yard field goal and missed, but Saskatchewan had been called for a too-many-men penalty, advancing the placement 10 yards. Duval did not miss a second time, scoring the three points to win the game 28–27 for the Alouettes and adding to the Roughriders' championship woes.
The Roughriders celebrated their 100-year anniversary as a football club during the 2010 season, wearing retro-themed red and black uniforms based on the ones worn by the Regina Roughriders. The Roughriders finished second in the West with a 10–8 record and defeated the BC Lions in double overtime in the West Division Semi-Final. After defeating the Stampeders in the West Final for the second year in a row, the Roughriders faced the Alouettes in the 98th Grey Cup once again. Despite leading 11–8 at the half, the Roughriders faced a ten-point deficit in the fourth quarter. The lead proved insurmountable, as Saskatchewan lost the game to Montreal for the second consecutive year by a score 21–18.
Following the Grey Cup loss, head coach Ken Miller resigned and became Vice President of Football operations. The club hired Greg Marshall as his replacement, but the 2011 season was one to forget, as the Roughriders finished last in the West with a 5–13 record and missed the playoffs. The Roughriders fired Marshall after a 1–7 start and had Miller step in as his replacement. The season was plagued by errors and mishaps, most of them self-inflicted as the team could not dig itself out of their early season hole. 2011 proved to be Ken Miller's last season with the Roughriders, as he retired shortly after the 2011 season.
Corey Chamblin era (2012–2015)
2013 Grey Cup champions
On December 16, 2011 Corey Chamblin, who formerly served as the defensive coordinator for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, was named the new head coach of the Roughriders. The Roughriders signed two of the top Canadian players available in free agency in non-import offensive linemen Brendon LaBatte and Dominic Picard. However, they were not so fortunate with all-star linebacker Jerrell Freeman, who led the league in tackles in 2011 and departed for the NFL. The Roughriders also lost outstanding Canadian slotback Andy Fantuz, who led the league in receiving yards in 2010, as he signed as a free agent with Hamilton. Nonetheless, the team qualified for the playoffs after missing out during the previous season. In 2012, Saskatchewan lost the Western Division Semi-Final game to the Calgary Stampeders in a close game, 36–30.
On January 24, 2013, the Riders traded Justin Harper and a 4th round 2014 pick to the BC Lions for six-time all-star Geroy Simon. Simon holds the record for most career receiving yards. Simon played for the Lions from 2001 to 2012. The 2013 season started off spectacularly for the Roughriders, mainly for Darian Durant and Kory Sheets. The Roughriders went 8–1 in the first nine games and set a record for the best start in franchise history (their previous best was 7–1 during the 1970 season). Running back Kory Sheets had the best start for a running back in CFL history and Darian Durant had thrown only one interception while throwing 21 touchdowns.
The 2013 season ended with an 11–7 record, for 2nd in the West Division, behind Calgary. The team hosted its first playoff game since 2010 on November 10, the West Semi Finals against the BC Lions. The Roughriders won the game, 29–25, the first playoff win of Corey Chamblin's CFL head coaching career and the first since 2010 for the Roughriders, when quarterback Darian Durant put the team on his shoulders and rushed for 41 yards. On Sunday, November 17, 2013, the Roughriders successfully defeated the Calgary Stampeders in the Western Finals, the score being 35–13. This allowed the Saskatchewan Roughriders to advance to the 101st Grey Cup. It was the first time in Saskatchewan Roughriders history that they were part of the Grey Cup in their own hometown. In defiance of the individual player introduction format the league had planned for the Grey Cup game, the Roughriders took to the field as a team as the Saskatchewan crowd chanted "bring 'em out," their usual home game entrance song. The Roughriders defeated the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, 45–23, with RB Kory Sheets winning the Grey Cup Most Valuable Player Award after rushing for a franchise and Grey Cup record 197 yards, to be the third consecutive team to win the championship at their home field. The following offseason was a difficult one for the Roughriders, as they lost top players Kory Sheets and Weston Dressler to the NFL and key leaders Mike McCullough, Renauld Williams and Geroy Simon to retirement. The expansion draft saw them give up Canadian players in Keith Shologan and Zach Evans.
In February 2014, the Roughriders traded backup quarterback Drew Willy to the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. The Roughriders gave head coach Corey Chamblin an extension through 2017 after Chamblin won Coach of The Year in the CFL. 2014 training camp found starters in Anthony Allen and Brett Swain as the Roughriders went out to attempt the first repeat championship season in franchise history. They began the 2014 season with a record of 9–3, similar to that of the 2013 season start. The Roughriders defensive line led by John Chick, Ricky Foley and Terrious George led the league in sacks throughout the season, and Brian Peters led a defence poised to make a run at another championship. On September 7, 2014, Darian Durant sustained an elbow injury during the Banjo Bowl that required surgery, ultimately ending his 2014 campaign. The Roughriders then gave backup Tino Sunseri a shot at starting quarterback. With Tino Sunseri leading the team, the Roughriders went 1–4 and Seth Doege got a shot as well. The Roughriders then brought 2007 Most Outstanding Player Kerry Joseph out of retirement to help the struggling team. Joseph, alongside new running back Jerome Messam and receiver Korey Williams won one game before losing to the Edmonton Eskimos in the Western Semi Final.
The 2015 offseason saw the Roughriders lose top defensive players in Brian Peters and Ricky Foley. Peters was signed by the Minnesota Vikings of the NFL and Foley was traded to Toronto for Canadian linebacker Shea Emry on January 24, 2015. Soon after, Weston Dressler was signed to a 4-year contract with the Roughriders and Tyron Brackenridge also signed a contract to stay in Saskatchewan. Free agency saw the Roughriders bring back Kevin Glenn as their backup quarterback. They also brought back veterans Alex Hall, Keenan MacDougall and Jamel Richardson. The 2015 CFL Draft saw them pick receiver Nic Demski from the University of Manitoba Bisons. To begin the year, the Roughriders found a linebacker, Jeff Knox Jr, in training camp and he became an immediate starter next to Shea Emry and Weldon Brown. The first game of the 2015 season was devastating, with the Roughriders losing quarterback Darian Durant once again to a season-ending injury, along with injuries to Shea Emry and Keenan MacDougall early in the season. This led to players such as Jake Doughty getting a starting gig with the team.
With the injury to Durant, Kevin Glenn became the starting quarterback, fulfilling the purpose for which he was signed by Saskatchewan. Days later, Chris Milo was released by the Roughriders, and they brought in veteran Paul McCallum as starting kicker. McCallum first game back with the Green and White was on July 5, 2015, a 42–40 overtime loss to the Toronto Argonauts. Weeks later, the Roughriders still didn't have a win in the 2015 season, raising concern on whether head coach Corey Chamblin would eventually be fired. The injury bug around Saskatchewan got worse as quarterback Kevin Glenn, receiver Chris Getzlaf, linebacker Weldon Brown, and receiver Taj Smith were lost to injury. This eventually led to rookie quarterback Brett Smith getting a shot as the starter. During the August 30, 2015 game against the Ottawa Redblacks, head coach Corey Chamblin made the decision to bench Smith in favour of Tino Sunseri following an interception, which disgusted many Roughrider fans. Following another disappointing loss to Ottawa and a record of 0–9 for the first half of the season, head coach Corey Chamblin and general manager Brendan Taman were fired on September 1, 2015. Special teams coordinator Bob Dyce was appointed interim head coach and assistant general manager Jeremy O'Day was appointed interim general manager.
Chris Jones era (2016–2018)
On December 7, 2015, a mere week after winning the 103rd Grey Cup with the Edmonton Eskimos as their head coach, it was announced that Chris Jones would be the new head coach, general manager and vice-president of football operations for the Saskatchewan Roughriders. Jones has won four Grey Cups rings with four teams: Montreal 2002, Calgary 2008, Toronto 2012, Edmonton 2015. On December 16, 2015 eight assistant coaches under Jones in Edmonton joined the Roughrider coaching staff. This is includes Stephen McAdoo as Offensive co-ordinator and assistant head coach, Craig Dickenson as Special teams co-ordinator, Jarious Jackson as Quarterbacks coach and passing game co-ordinator, Mike Scheper as Offensive line coach, Phillip Lolley as Linebackers coach, Jason Shivers as Defensive backs coach, Ed Philion as Defensive line coach and Craig Davoren as Running backs coach and special teams assistant.
Jones' first major moves as head coach and general manager of the Roughriders occurred on December 15, when Jones cut 19 players from the roster including Tyron Brackenridge, Anthony Allen and Terrell Maze. On January 14, 2016, Jones continued the rebuild by cutting fan favourites and long-time Roughriders John Chick and Weston Dressler. Chick went on to sign with the Hamilton Tiger Cats, while Dressler went on to sign with rival Winnipeg Blue Bombers. However, the Roughriders suddenly signed defensive end Shawn Lemon to replace Chick soon after. Later that month, the Roughriders re-signed longtime receiver Rob Bagg. Jones departed after the 2018 season, being succeeded by Craig Dickenson on January 25, 2019.
Craig Dickenson's Riders (2019–present)
The Green Riders clinched their first first-place West Division finish since 2009 with a 13–5 record, in Craig Dickenson's first year at the coaching helm. However, the team lost in a hard-fought heartbreaker in the West Final game over the arch-rival (and eventual Grey Cup champion) Blue Bombers, 20–13. After a year-long hiatus, the Riders returned to the playoffs in 2021, finishing in second place at 9–5 in the shortened season, defeating the Calgary Stampeders in the West Semi-Final, but losing to the Winnipeg Blue Bombers again (who would win their second straight Grey Cup championship) in the West Final for the second straight season.
Popularity
Fan support
In 2009, the team was described as having the largest fan base in the CFL. The team is third behind the Montreal Canadiens and Toronto Maple Leafs for merchandise sales of Canadian sports teams, and in 2009 the team played in 5 of the 6 most viewed games on television as well as breaking a ratings record for the West Final against the Calgary Stampeders and a Grey Cup ratings record of 43% of the national population against the Montreal Alouettes. According to a survey (July 2015), the Riders were considered the third strongest sports Brand in Canada. The Riders typically bring an upsurge in attendance at all or most of their various away venues, drawing crowds of their own fans. The province of Saskatchewan went through tough economic times during the 1980s and 1990s and as a result thousands of Rider fans left the province for work, particularly to Alberta. In Edmonton and especially Calgary, Rider fans make up to half the crowd, and many violent clashes have resulted in recent years between Roughrider and Stampeder fans. The Riders have led road attendance in the CFL every year during the 2000s decade, and local support has skyrocketed in recent years due to the on-field success of the club, including the first sold-out season in 2008. The Roughriders attendance record came in 1995 in a win over the Calgary Stampeders as 55,438 (more than 25% of Regina's population) fans watched on. This crowd was attainable that year because of the increased capacity of Taylor Field in preparation of hosting the Grey Cup. Rider fans are also known for dressing up in unique and often bizarre Rider-themed costumes, the most popular being the watermelon helmet. The Roughriders have a unique fan-base that are passionate and engaging. They are the only CFL football team with a fan-based analytic website, dedicated to fan-based opinion and perception. Beginning with the 2011 season, Insightrix Research Inc. has conducted a poll after each Roughrider game, surveying a random selection of fans from the SaskWatch Research online community. Each week, fans weigh in on the Riders’ game performance and predictions for the rest of the season. These predictions are compared against other Regions in Saskatchewan, titled "Battle of the Regions."
Section 28
Section 28 (formerly known as the University Section) was a notorious section in the East Side bleachers at Taylor Field. They were known for their strict allegiance to the Riders, standing through the entire game, and often being merciless to opposing fans who sit in the section and cheer for the road team. The University Section got its nickname from the section's main purpose in the 1980s and 1990s and was a discount section offered to university students in Saskatchewan. The section later ceased to serve as a university section but remained a section with a rowdy reputation until Taylor Field's closure in 2016.
Fight and theme songs
The official Rider songs are played regularly at the stadium, and include "Rider Pride", and "Paint the Whole World Green." Among several 'borrowed songs' is the team's touchdown song and victory march, "Green Is the Colour" (adapted from the original "Blue Is the Colour" written by D. Boone and R. McQueen for the Chelsea Football Club) and "On Roughriders" (adapted from "On Wisconsin", the fight song for the Wisconsin Badgers). In addition, during every fourth quarter intermission, the P.A. system plays the cult hit "The Last Saskatchewan Pirate" by The Arrogant Worms, and the Riders Cheer Team leads the crowd in a fourth quarter stretch. There are many other songs that have been created over the years to tribute the team as well. Many of these songs have proved so popular in Western Canada that they have become popular culture phenomena. The music selection at Mosaic Stadium mostly consists of mainstream popular music.
"Green Is the Colour" is played after every rider touchdown, followed by Gainer the Gopher being driven around the stadium's track and giving high fives to those in the first row.
Mascots
The current official Rider mascot is Gainer the Gopher, who made his first appearance in 1977. Gainer is an anagram of Regina, and the gopher, or more precisely Richardson's ground squirrel, is a common animal on the Canadian Prairies. In 2019, Gainer's overall design changed, and with it, his eyes became green, a move that was greeted with much derision among Rider fans; the team changed his eye colour back to black after this outcry.
Radio
Roughriders radio broadcasts are broadcast throughout the province via The Co-operators Roughrider Football Network, fronted by flagship station CKRM in Regina. Affiliates include CFWD-FM in Saskatoon, CJGX in Yorkton, CKBI in Prince Albert, CJNB in North Battleford and CJNS-FM in Meadow Lake. Additionally, CKRM's 10,000-watt signal brings Rider games to much of the province during the day. Derek Taylor is the play-by-play announcer, and Luc Mullinder is the colour commentator. Michael Ball is the sideline reporter for home games. Pre-game and post game shows are hosted by Michael Ball with a collection of guest analysts and commentators on each broadcast.
Notable broadcasters for the Roughriders include Dave Dryburgh from 1940 to 1947, and John Badham from 1959 to 1969, on CKCK-AM.
Public company
The Roughriders are one of only a few publicly owned professional sports companies in North America, complete with a board of directors. Prior to 2004, the club operated as a corporation without share capital (no person or entity "owned" the team or any portion of it); the Winnipeg Blue Bombers continue to use this organizational structure as of 2021.
Since 2004, the Roughriders' current public ownership model is similar to the NFL's Green Bay Packers, where a limited number of shares have been sold to the public. Ownership shares of the Roughriders are divided into two types: Class A shares (which have voting rights) and Class B shares (which have no voting rights). Both types of shares may be purchased but the majority of shares sold by the team are Class A shares; as of March 2019, the Roughriders had issued 11,639 Class A shares and 435 Class B shares, though the total number of individual owners is not publicly disclosed.
It is not possible to resell these shares, no dividend payment is possible and no person may hold more than 20 voting (Class A) shares, though they may hold an unlimited number of non-voting shares. The initial public offering of Rider Shares (Series I) commenced in 2004 at an offering price of $250 per share In 2006 the Ottawa Sun reported that the Roughriders had sold around 3,000 at $250 each. The Series 1 offering closed in 2008 after all 6,000 shares were sold. A second public offering, Series II, was launched in 2010 in honour of the team's 100th anniversary. As of 2016, the Roughriders had released and subsequently sold out 1,989 shares of Series III at $250 each. this Series "commemorates the 1989 Grey Cup championship victory" and "features the likenesses of Kent Austin, Bobby Jurasin and Don Narcisse with an illustration of the championship winning kick in the background." Series IV shares began sale in 2017, with the price remaining consistent at $250.
Current roster
Current coaches and directors
Management
Head coaches
Ken Preston (1946–1947)
Fred Grant (1947–1950)
Harry Smith (1951)
Glenn Dobbs (1952)
Frank Filchock (1953–1957)
George Terlep (1958–1959)
Frank Tripucka (1959)
Ken Carpenter (1960)
Steve Owen (1961–1962)
Bob Shaw (1963–1964)
Eagle Keys (1965–1970)
Dave Skrien (1971–1972)
John Payne (1973–1976)
Jim Eddy (1977–1978)
Walt Posadowski (1978)
Ron Lancaster (1979–1980)
Joe Faragalli (1981–1983)
Reuben Berry (1983–1984)
Jack Gotta (1985–1986)
John Gregory (1987–1991)
Don Matthews (1991–1993)
Ray Jauch (1994–1995)
Jim Daley (1996–1998)
Cal Murphy (1999)
Danny Barrett (2000–2006)
Kent Austin (2007)
Ken Miller (2008–2010, 2011)
Greg Marshall (2011)
Corey Chamblin (2012–2015)
Bob Dyce (2015)
Chris Jones (2016–2019)
Craig Dickenson (2019–present)
General managers
Clair Warner (1946–1949, 1951–1952)
Greg Grassick (1950)
Frank Filchock (1953)
Dean Griffing (1954–1957)
Ken Preston (1958–1977)
Henry Dorsch (1978–1980)
Jim Spavital (1981–1982)
John Herrera (1983–1984)
Bill Quinter (1985–1986)
Bill Baker (1987–1988)
Alan Ford (1989–1999)
Roy Shivers (2000–2005)
Eric Tillman (2006–2008)
Brendan Taman (2010–2015)
Jeremy O'Day (interim) (2015)
Chris Jones (2016–2019)
Jeremy O'Day (2019–present)
Players of note
Retired numbers
Becket, DeMarco, Syrnyk, and Sturtridge's numbers were retired posthumously after their deaths in the Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 810 plane crash on December 9, 1956.
Canadian Football Hall of Fame
As of 2016, 38 members of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame have played and/or worked for the Saskatchewan Roughriders.
Recent regular season and playoff results
Season-by-season records
The 1990sLegend:F = Points scored For, A' = Points scored Against* For the 1995 Season, all 8 Canadian teams were featured in the Northern Division.
The Danny Barrett era*'' From 2000 to 2002, the CFL awarded a single point to teams losing in overtime. The Riders had two such losses during the 2002 season.
The Ken Miller era
Corey Chamblin era
See also
Saskatchewan Roughriders all-time records and statistics
List of fan owned sports teams
Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Canadian football
List of Canadian Football League seasons
References
External links
Sports clubs established in 1910
Canadian football teams in Saskatchewan
Canadian Football League teams
1910 establishments in Saskatchewan
Publicly traded sports companies | [
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254169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary%20Stampeders | Calgary Stampeders | The Calgary Stampeders are a professional Canadian football team based in Calgary, Alberta. The Stampeders compete in the West Division of the Canadian Football League (CFL). The club plays its home games at McMahon Stadium and are the third-oldest active franchise in the CFL. The Stampeders were officially founded in 1945, although there were clubs operating in Calgary since the 1890s.
The Calgary Stampeders have won eight Grey Cups, most recently in 2018, from their appearances in 17 Grey Cup Championship games. They have won 20 Western Division Championships and one Northern Division Championship in the franchise's history. The team has a provincial rivalry with the Edmonton Elks, as well as fierce divisional rivalries with the Saskatchewan Roughriders and the BC Lions.
Team facts
Founded: 1945
Helmet design: Red background with a white, running horse. This design has been in place, with slight variations, since the 1967 season
Uniform colours: Red, white and black
Past uniform colours: Red and white with accents of grey
Nicknames: Stamps, Horsemen
Mascot: Ralph the Dog
Fight Song: "Ye Men of Calgary"
Stadium: McMahon Stadium
Main Rivals: Edmonton Elks (see Battle of Alberta), Saskatchewan Roughriders, BC Lions
Western Division 1st place: 20-1946, 1948, 1949, 1965, 1967, 1971, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2008, 2010, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018
Northern Division 1st place: 1-1995
Western Division Championships: 16—1948, 1949, 1968, 1970, 1971, 1991, 1992, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2008, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018
Northern Division Championships: 1—1995
Grey Cup Championships: 8—1948, 1971, 1992, 1998, 2001, 2008, 2014, 2018
2021 regular season record: 8 wins, 6 losses
Franchise history
1891–1940: Football in Calgary
Prior to the formation of the Stampeders in 1945, football in Calgary can be dated back as early as 1891, when Edmonton defeated Calgary 6-5 in the Alberta Total-point Challenge Series. A team from Edmonton (actually the outlying community of Fort Saskatchewan) had a picture taken of themselves after they defeated a Calgary team (in Calgary,) declaring themselves Champions of Alberta; the picture has two dates on it, being taken in either 1893 or 1895.
The Calgary Rugby Foot-ball Club played for the Alberta championship in 1907, became the Calgary Tigers and joined the Calgary Rugby Football Union in 1908 and the Alberta Rugby Football Union in 1911. The ensuing decades saw Calgary based teams come and go; including the Calgary Canucks, the 50th Battalion, the Tigers again, the Calgary Altomahs, and finally the Calgary Bronks of the Western Interprovincial Football Union. These teams were a dominant force in Alberta football, winning the AFRU championship 15 times over the next 25 years. World War II and 1940 brought a halt to football in Calgary, the final year for the Bronks.
None of these earlier Calgary based teams are part of the Stampeders official history or records.
1945–1959: The early years and an undefeated season
The WIFU returned to Calgary on September 29, 1945 with the formation of the Calgary Stampeders. In their very first game played on October 20 at Mewata Stadium they beat the Regina Roughriders 12–0 before 4,000 fans in attendance. It was a taste of success to come that decade under the direction of head coach Les Lear and talented stars such as Woody Strode, Paul Rowe, Keith Spaith, Dave Berry, Normie Kwong and Ezzert "Sugarfoot" Anderson.
The year 1948 was perhaps the greatest season in Stamps history, achieving a perfect regular season of 12–0 and capping the year a 2-0-1 record in the playoffs including a Grey Cup victory over the Ottawa Rough Riders at Toronto's Varsity Stadium, memorable for the team's scoring a touchdown on a "sleeper play". It was also during that same Grey Cup festival that Calgary fans brought pageantry to the game and made it into a national celebration, featuring pancake breakfasts on the steps of City Hall, starting the Grey Cup parade and even riding a horse in the lobby of the Royal York Hotel.
They returned to the Grey Cup the following year (1949), with a 13–1 record but lost to the Montreal Alouettes 28–15 in the title game. It was 19 years until Calgary once again reached the Grey Cup, losing 24–21 to Ottawa in the 1968 final and not until 1971 when they were crowned champions, defeating the Toronto Argonauts 14–11. The Stampeders, like all the teams playing in the WIFU and IRFU, joined the newly-formed Canadian Football League in 1958.
1960–1971: A New Stadium
The year 1960 brought the Stampeders a new home, McMahon Stadium. Their first game in their new stadium was on August 15, 1960, a 38–23 loss to the Winnipeg Blue Bombers.
From 1968 to 1971, the Stampeders made it to the Grey Cup game three out of those four years (missing in 1969), winning it in 1971.
1972–1989: Save Our Stamps
After having some great years at the end of the 1960s which culminated in their 1971 Grey Cup championship, 1972 started a long period of struggles for the Stampeders. In the 18 seasons from 1972 to 1989, the Stampeders made the playoffs only 7 times, and although they reached the Western Final in 1978 and 1979 under Jack Gotta (which were their only two playoff wins and appearances for the rest of the 1970s) losing both times to their provincial rivals in Edmonton, who were in the midst of an unprecedented five-year Grey Cup victory run at the time), the next decade was less than kind to the team. During the 1980s, the Stampeders were the only CFL team that did not win a playoff game (the team made five appearances during the decade, all but one of which came on the road and all resulting in losses in the West Semi-Final).
The Stampeders nearly folded after the 1985 season due to years of declining attendance, financial woes and a poor 3–13 record. However, a successful Save Our Stamps campaign in 1986 resulted in season ticket sales of 22,400, additional funds and stability that translated to improved on-field play which laid the groundwork for Grey Cup berths in 1991 and 1992 when they won the title over Winnipeg.
1990–2002: Wally Buono era
Wally Buono took over the head coaching duties in 1990 (after having served as an assistant coach for the previous three years). Late in the 1991 season, the team, after being community-owned since its inception, went private when Larry Ryckman purchased the team. The next 13 years were some of the most successful years in Stampeders history. Led by quarterbacks Doug Flutie, Jeff Garcia, and Dave Dickenson receivers Allen Pitts, Terry Vaughn, and Dave Sapunjis, and a rock-steady defence led by Western All Stars Alondra Johnson, Stu Laird, and Will Johnson the Stampeders racked up a 153–79–2 record during these years. They reached the Grey Cup six times, winning in 1992, 1998, and 2001, losing in 1991, 1995, and 1999. In 1996, Ryckman was found by the Alberta Securities Commission to have run a stock manipulation scheme, was fined $492,000 and was forced to give up the Stampeders, who were subsequently purchased by Sig Gutsche via a receivership court for $1.6 million on April 3. Gutsche helped rectify the team's debts and made the team profitable again. The team finished the 1990s having made the playoffs in every year that decade.
On October 8, 2001, Sig Gutsche sold the team to California businessman Michael Feterik. Unlike previous owners, Feterik was intimately involved in the club's football operations. Feterik's most notorious move was to give the starting quarterback position to his son Kevin Feterik, angering both fans and Buono. Buono left to join the BC Lions after the 2002 CFL season.
2003–2007: Coaching carousel
After Wally Buono departed from the Stampeders, the team went through three different head coaches in three years. Jim Barker succeeded Buono in 2003, but was let go after a 5–13 season, and he was replaced by Matt Dunigan, who fared no better in his lone season in 2004, going 4–14. The coaching carousel ended with Tom Higgins taking over in 2005, who brought the team back to respectability led by Henry Burris at quarterback and Joffrey Reynolds at running back, but lost in three straight years in the 2005, 2006, and 2007 Western semi-final games in that span. During this time, the team lost money, and in January 2005, Feterik sold the team to a group led by Ted Hellard, Doug Mitchell and former Stampeder John Forzani, and the Calgary Flames Limited Partnership, the organization that represents the NHL's Calgary Flames.
2008–2015: Hufnagel years
In 2008, one-time Stamps QB John Hufnagel took the coaching reins, and the Stampeders ended their playoff victory drought en route to winning the team's sixth Grey Cup 22–14 against the Montreal Alouettes. Burris was named the Grey Cup Most Valuable Player with DeAngelis being the top Canadian for their efforts. John Hufnagel had been interviewed by several NFL and college football teams, but is still the team's general manager to this day. Hufnagel was also the team's head coach until the end of the 2015 season, when he turned over the head coaching duties to former Stampeder and BC Lions star Dave Dickenson.
Between 2009 and 2014, the Stampeders reached the Western Final every year except 2011, when the team lost the semi-final game to the Eskimos in Edmonton, 33–19. The following year, the organization by now known as Calgary Sports and Entertainment became the majority owner of the team; the company previously only had a 5% stake in the team. They were able to reach the Grey Cup game that year only to come up short against the Argonauts, falling by a score of 35–22. Following another defeat in the Western Final in 2013, the Stampeders were once again able to reach the Grey Cup the following year. This time, they came out on top with the franchise's seventh championship, defeating the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 20–16.
2016–present: Dave Dickenson takes over
After the 2015 season, Hufnagel stepped down from his dual responsibility as head coach and general manager, becoming purely a general manager and handing the coaching reins to former Stamps QB Dave Dickenson. The Stamps continued their success in 2016, winning the West Division again with a 15–2–1 record, but falling to the third-year Ottawa Redblacks in the 104th Grey Cup in overtime.
In 2017, the Stampeders finished 13-4-1 (with the league's best record for the season) and made their second straight Grey Cup appearance, but lost to the Toronto Argonauts again, just as they did five years earlier.
In 2018, the Stampeders finished 13-5 and made a third straight Grey Cup appearance, winning the title over the Redblacks 27-16 in Edmonton. Bo Levi Mitchell won Most Outstanding Player at the 2018 CFL Awards as well as the Grey Cup Most Valuable Player. Lemar Durant was named the game's Most Valuable Canadian. The Calgary Stampeders quest for a fourth consecutive Grey Cup appearance came to an abrupt end in 2019, as the team lost a step, finishing second in the West with a 12-6 record, falling to the eventual Grey Cup champion Winnipeg Blue Bombers in the West Semi-Final 35-14. The CFL went on hiatus in 2020, but returned in 2021, and the Stampeders finished one game back of the Saskatchewan Roughriders in the shortened 2021 season with a 8–6 record. The team met an early playoff exit at the hands of the Riders in the West Semi-Final in an overtime heartbreaker, 33–30.
Grey Cup championships
Honoured players
Canadian Football Hall of Famers
Retired numbers
The Presidents' Ring
The Presidents' Ring was established in 1967 by Calgary Stampeders Football Club team president George McMahon and general manager Rogers Lehew. Formerly presented to the team's most valuable player, it is currently awarded to the player who best demonstrates leadership ability. , 29 players have won the award, including three-time winners Henry Burris, Danny Barrett and Stu Laird.
Wall of Fame
The Stampeders Wall of Fame recognizes the greatest players and most important off-field contributors in Stampeders history; it was Instituted in 1985.
Front office
Builders of note
Builders honoured as of 2012
2001: Tony Anselmo
2001: Tom Brook
2001: Roy Jennings
2001: George McMahon
2001: Frank McMahon
2004: Rogers Lehew
2004: Stan Schwartz
2006: Dr. Vince Murphy
2010: Jim Finks
2012: Sig Gutsche
2012: Norman Kwong
Head coaches
Dean Griffing (1945–1947)
Les Lear (1948–1952)
Bob Snyder (1953)
Larry Siemering (1954)
Jack Hennemier (1955–1956)
Otis Douglas (1956–1960) (Douglas resigned August 19, 1960 with the Stampeders 0–2–1)
Jim Finks (1960) (GM Finks acted as co-ordinator of the coaching staff for the August 22 loss to the BC Lions.)
Steve Owen (1960) (Owen was hired August 23, 1960 with the Stampeders 0–3–1)
Bobby Dobbs (1961–1964)
Jerry Williams (1965–1968, 1981)
Jim Duncan (1969–1973)
Jim Wood (1973–1975)
Bob Baker (1975–1976)
Joe Tiller (1976)
Jack Gotta (1977–1979, 1982–1983)
Ardell Wiegandt (1980–1981)
Steve Buratto (1984–1985)
Bud Riley (1985)
Bob Vespaziani (1986–1987)
Lary Kuharich (1987–1989)
Wally Buono (1990–2002)
Jim Barker (2003)
Matt Dunigan (2004)
Tom Higgins (2005–2007)
John Hufnagel (2008–2015)
Dave Dickenson (2016–Present)
General managers
Bob Robinett (1953–1955)
Bob Masterson (1956)
Jim Finks (1957–1964)
Pat Mahoney (1964)
Rogers Lehew (1965–1973)
Gary Hobson (1974–1976)
Jack Gotta (1977–1983)
Steve Buratto (1984)
Earl Lunsford (1985–1987)
Vern Siemens (1987) Interim
Norm Kwong (1988–1991)
Wally Buono (1992–2002)
Fred Fateri (2003)
Mark McLoughlin (2003)
Matt Dunigan (2004)
Jim Barker (2005–2007)
John Hufnagel (2008–present)
Current coaching staff
Current roster
See also
Calgary Stampeders all-time records and statistics
References
Jim Finks as 1960 interim coach: Toronto Globe and Mail, Saturday 20 August 1960, p. 21, "Calgary Coach Resigns".
External links
Calgary Stampeders Official Site
Sports clubs established in 1945
Stamp
Canadian Football League teams
1945 establishments in Alberta
Calgary Sports and Entertainment | [
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254173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnipeg%20Blue%20Bombers | Winnipeg Blue Bombers | The Winnipeg Blue Bombers are a professional Canadian football team based in Winnipeg, Manitoba and the current Grey Cup champions. The Blue Bombers compete in the Canadian Football League (CFL) as a member club of the league's West division. They play their home games at IG Field.
The Blue Bombers were founded in 1930 as the Winnipeg Rugby Football Club, later changed to the Winnipeg Football Club, which is the organization's legal name. The Blue Bombers are one of three community owned teams, without shareholders, in the CFL.
Since their establishment, the Blue Bombers have won the league's Grey Cup championship 12 times, most recently in 2021 CFL season when they defeated the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 33–25 in the 108th Grey Cup. The team holds the record for most Grey Cup appearances of any team (26) and were the first club in Western Canada to win a championship.
Team facts
Founded: 1930
Formerly known as: Winnipegs 1930–1935
Helmet design: Gold background, with a white "W" and blue trim
Uniform colours: Blue, gold with white accents
Past uniform colours: Green and white 1930 to 1932
Nicknames: Bombers, Blue and Gold, Big Blue
Mascots: Buzz and Boomer
Fight Song: "Bombers Victory March" Credited to T.H Guild & J. Guild
Stadium: Osborne Stadium (1935–1952), Canad Inns Stadium (1953–2012, known as Winnipeg Stadium prior to 2000), IG Field (2013–present, known as Investors Group Field from 2013–19)
Local radio: 680 CJOB
Main rivals: Saskatchewan Roughriders (see Labour Day Classic and Banjo Bowl), Hamilton Tiger-Cats (a team they have played on numerous occasions for the Grey Cup).
Western Division 1st place: 15—1935, 1936, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1947, 1950, 1952, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1972, 2021
East Division 1st Place: 7—1987, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2001, 2011
Western Division championships: 18—1935, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1941, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1950, 1953, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1965, 1984, 2019, 2021
Eastern Division championships: 7 — 1988, 1990, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2007, 2011
Grey Cup Championships: 12—1935, 1939, 1941, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1984, 1988, 1990, 2019, 2021
Division history: Western Football Conference (1961–1980), West Division (1981-1986), East Division (1987–1994), North Division (1995), West Division (1996), East Division (1997–2001), West Division (2002–2005), East Division (2006–2013), West Division (2014–present)
2021 regular season record: 11 wins, 3 losses, 0 ties
Team history
Beginnings
The first football team in Winnipeg was formed in 1879, named the Winnipeg Rugby Football Club. On June 10, 1930, the Winnipeg Tammany Tigers, who were in financial difficulty, disbanded and merged with some of the other teams in the city to create the new Winnipeg Rugby Football Club, known unofficially and simply as the Winnipegs or even the even shorter 'Pegs, adopting the colours green and white. The Winnipegs played their first game against St.John's Rugby Football Club on June 13, 1930, losing 7–3. In 1932, the Winnipegs and St. John's joined and adopted blue and gold as their colours. In 1933 they also absorbed the Garrison Rugby Club football team. The Winnipegs played in the Manitoba Rugby Football Union from 1930 to 1935.
First Grey Cup Victory
By 1935 Western teams had been to the Grey Cup game 10 times, but they had always gone home empty-handed. The East was much more powerful, outscoring their opponents 236–29 through those ten games. On December 7, 1935, the Winnipegs got their first trip, to the 23rd Grey Cup. The game was being held in Hamilton, with the home-town Tigers their opponents. It was a rainy day at Hamilton Amateur Athletic Association Grounds, with 6,405 fans in attendance.
Winnipeg was up 5–0 before many fans had even reached their seats. Hamilton player Jack Craig let the opening kickoff bounce to the turf, and a Winnipeg player promptly recovered the ball at the Hamilton 15-yard line. Winnipeg scored quickly on a Bob Fritz pass to Bud Marquardt to get the early lead. After scoring another touchdown on a Greg Kabat catch in the endzone, Winnipeg went into halftime up 12–4. Their lead was soon cut to three points in the second half after Hamilton scored a touchdown of their own, helped by a blocked kick that placed the ball on the Winnipeg 15-yard line.
Then, after a Hamilton rouge, Winnipeg's Fritz Hanson caught a punt, and after a few moves and a few missed tackles, was on his way to a 78-yard touchdown return, making the score 18–10. Hamilton forced a safety to bring themselves within six points, but failed to cross the goal-line, getting as far as the Winnipeg four-yard line. The final score was Winnipeg 18, Hamilton 12.
With that, Winnipeg had become the first team from Western Canada to win the Grey Cup.
Early day of glory
After the Grey Cup victory in 1935, The Winnipeg Tribune sports writer Vince Leah called the team the "Blue Bombers of Western football". Until then, the team had no official nickname, but they quickly began using "Winnipeg Blue Bombers". Journalist Jim Coleman wrote that the name came at a time when boxer Joe Louis had international success with nickname, the Brown Bomber.
In 1935, the Blue Bombers, Calgary Bronks, and Regina Roughriders formed the Western Interprovincial Football Union at the highest level of play in Western Canada. Between 1936 and 1949, the Bombers won the right to compete for the Grey Cup in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1941, 1942, 1943, and 1945. Of these appearances, Winnipeg won only twice: in 1939 over the Ottawa Rough Riders, and again in their 1941 rematch.
Jack Jacobs, known as Indian Jack, was a Creek quarterback from Oklahoma. He came to the Bombers in 1950 after a successful career in the United States. He led the Bombers to two Grey Cup appearances, losing both. His exciting style of play and extreme talent increased ticket sales and overall awareness and popularity of the club. The revenue the Bombers were getting from their newfound popularity was enough to convince them to move from the small, outdated Osborne Stadium to the new Winnipeg Stadium (later known as Canad Inns Stadium).). Jacobs was so well-liked that fans even referred to the new stadium as "The House that Jack Built". Jacobs retired in 1954 to become a talent scout for the team.
In 1951, Jack Jacobs became the first professional football quarterback to throw for over 3,000 yards in a season, with 3,248. That year, he was also the first professional football quarterback to throw for at least 30 touchdowns, with 33. The next year he bested that mark with 34.
Bud Grant era
Bud Grant joined the team in 1953 after a two-year stint with the Philadelphia Eagles, as one of numerous NFL players lured to Canada during the first part of the decade for then-better salaries. After a four-year career as a receiver (classified only as "offensive end" at the time), he accepted the position of head coach of the Bombers in 1957. Grant went on to coach the team for the next 10 years before becoming the head coach of the NFL's Minnesota Vikings.
In 1956, Blue Bombers fans named Labatt's Pilsener Lager, which had a blue label, Labatt Blue, in honour of their team. In 1958, the Blue Bombers joined the newly formed Canadian Football League, and have competed there since.
During Grant's tenure as head coach, the Bombers welcomed the likes of Ken Ploen, Leo Lewis, Ernie Pitts, and Ed Kotowich to the team. The Bombers competed in six Grey Cup games during Grant's tenure, winning four (1958, 1959, 1961, and 1962). In 1961, the Bombers won 21–14 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in the first Grey Cup game to go into overtime. The Bombers and Ticats met again in the 1962 Grey Cup, with the game being postponed with 9:29 left in the fourth quarter due to zero visibility in the famous "Fog Bowl". The game resumed the next morning, with the Bombers winning 28–27.
During the second half of the 1960s, the Bombers' domination gave way to lean years, with four seasons of double digits in the loss column. The team bounced back in the early 1970s with the likes of quarterback Don Jonas, running-back Mack Herron, and wide receivers Jim Thorpe and Bob LaRose. The team finished first in the Western Conference in 1972, the first time it had done so since 1962. However, the Bombers came up short in the Western final against the Saskatchewan Roughriders, squandering a 13-point third-quarter lead en route to a heartbreaking 27–24 loss, with Saskatchewan kicker Jack Abendschan scoring on a short field goal attempt on the last play of the game to send the 'Riders to the 1972 Grey Cup against Hamilton. The 1972 season was also the last time the team finished first in the West until the 2021 season. The team struggled for a few more seasons under coaches Jim Spavital and Bud Riley before Ray Jauch was brought in as head coach before the 1978 season. Under Jauch, the Bombers became one of the stronger teams in the West, but usually behind Jauch's former team, the powerhouse Edmonton Eskimos coached by Hugh Campbell.
In 1981, wide receiver Eugene Goodlow became the first CFL player to reach the century mark in receptions in a season. Goodlow caught 100 passes for 1,494 yards and 14 touchdowns. That season, the Bombers became one of the first teams to have three receivers with at least 1,000 yards in a season: Goodlow with 1,494, Joe Poplawski with 1,271, and Rick House with 1,102.
Cal Murphy era
In 1983, Cal Murphy was hired to be the new head coach of the Blue Bombers. Almost immediately, Murphy set the tone for his career with the Bombers by trading popular QB Dieter Brock at midseason (because of Brock's desire to play in the USFL) to Hamilton in exchange for QB Tom Clements. Trading Brock turned out to be a wise decision; Clements led the Bombers to a crushing victory in the 1984 Grey Cup, coincidentally over the Brock-led Tiger-Cats. This was Winnipeg's first Grey Cup in 22 years, and also their last win and appearance in the championship game as the Western representative until their victory in the 107th Grey Cup. Murphy was named coach of the year in both 1983 and 1984.
In 1987, Murphy stepped down as head coach to become general manager, and assistant coach Mike Riley (son of former Winnipeg coach Bud Riley) took over head-coaching duties. Then, just prior to the start of the 1987 season, the Montreal Alouettes folded. With the East Division suddenly down to three teams compared to five in the West, the league moved the Blue Bombers (who had been the easternmost team in the West) into the East Division, to balance the league.
Under Riley, the Blue Bombers quickly made an impact in the East, winning Grey Cups over their former division rivals B.C. and Edmonton in 1988 and 1990 respectively, and garnering Riley the coach of the year award in both championship seasons. After Riley left, Darryl Rogers and Urban Bowman each led the team for a season until 1993, when Cal Murphy took over head-coaching duties again. Murphy went on to lead the team to a total of five Grey Cup appearances, winning as a coach in 1984, and as GM in 1988 and 1990. He left the club after the 1996 season, having spent 14 years with the team. Later, he coached the Saskatchewan Roughriders in 1999.
Winnipeg played a total of eight consecutive seasons in the East before moving to the newly created North Division in 1995 during the CFL's expansion to the United States. When the CFL's American experiment ended a year later, and the Alouettes were re-established, the Blue Bombers returned to the re-constituted West Division. This arrangement also lasted only one season, as Winnipeg returned to the East again for the 1997 season after the Ottawa Rough Riders ceased operations.
Milt Stegall era
In November 1996, Cal Murphy left the Blue Bombers' organization after 14 years. This was partly due to a 68–7 playoff thumping by the Edmonton Eskimos, and partly because the team had not had a winning record the previous two years, winning only seven games in 1995, and nine in 1996.
Jeff Reinebold was hired to replace Murphy as the team coach, and despite a huge amount of hype, and championship promises going into the 1997 season, he proved to be one of the least successful head coaches in team history. The Bombers won four games in 1997, and just three in 1998.
The few notable highlights from that era include:
Milt Stegall became an all-star in 1997, his first full year with the team, and scored what seemed like at least one long touchdown in every game.
A 43–12 drubbing of the eventual Western Division champion Saskatchewan Roughriders in the 1997 Labour Day Classic
In a dramatic win over the Roughriders at home in 1998, forgotten backup QB Troy Kopp led the second-half over-20-point comeback. This was the "Guaranteed Win day" that the club had been promoting all week, as well as the first win of the season, in week 11.
The few memorable players on the team during that time included linebacker K.D. Williams, safety Tom Europe, running back/returner Eric Blount, and Milt Stegall.
Milt Stegall joined the Bombers in 1995 after a three-year career returning kicks and seeing spot duty at receiver with the Cincinnati Bengals. He played in the Bombers' final six games of the 1995 season, racking up 469 receiving yards. In 1997, Stegall set a new league record that still stands today for average gain per reception with 26.5 yards on 61 catches for 1616 yards, including 14 touchdowns. Following a brief return to the NFL, that saw him on the verge of making the New Orleans Saints if not for a serious knee injury at the end of training camp, Stegall remained the team's primary receiver.
In 1999, the Bombers acquired Khari Jones from the BC Lions. Together, Stegall and Jones brought the Bombers back to prominence, with Jones being the CFL's most outstanding player in 2001, and Stegall getting the honour in 2002. During the 2006 Grey Cup, Khari Jones and Milt Stegall were voted and honoured as the best QB/WR combo in CFL history. Charles Roberts joined them in 2001, a year which the Bombers went to the Grey Cup, which they eventually lost to the Calgary Stampeders. The following season, Winnipeg returned to the West Division following the establishment of the Ottawa Renegades. The team was a powerhouse during this period, being one of the best teams in the league from 2001 until 2003.
Midway through the 2004 season, Jones was traded to the Calgary Stampeders, with backup QB Kevin Glenn taking over the starting duties. Glenn led the team to two mediocre seasons after the trade. Prior to the 2006 season, the Renegades suspended operations and Winnipeg once again returned to the East Division.
With the offensive core of Stegall and Roberts still intact, Glenn led the Bombers back to respectability in 2006. The season included many highlights, but none as exciting at what is simply known as "The Play". On July 20, 2006, trailing the Edmonton Eskimos on the road 22–19, and facing third and long on their own 10-yard line with 4 seconds left in the game, Milt Stegall caught a 100-yard TD pass from Kevin Glenn as time expired to win the game 25–22. It is considered by many as the greatest play in CFL history. Aided by the "miracle" catch, the Bombers ended up making their first playoff appearance in two years. Despite losing in the first round, optimism going into the 2007 was higher than ever.
The 2007 CFL season was in some ways the year of Milt Stegall: he broke the career CFL touchdown record and fell just short of overtaking the career receiving yards record held by Allen Pitts. The 2007 season was rumoured to be Stegall's last, as he was 37 years old and had been contemplating retirement for the previous two seasons.
The 2007 Grey Cup game was played between the Winnipeg Blue Bombers and the Saskatchewan Roughriders, the first time the two teams met for the championship. Winnipeg was defeated by the Saskatchewan Roughriders 23–19 in the Rogers Centre in Toronto. During the East division final win over the Toronto Argonauts, quarterback Kevin Glenn broke his arm and Winnipeg was left with an inexperienced rookie to take his place for the championship game. Back-up quarterback Ryan Dinwiddie — in his first CFL start — did not fare well and threw one touchdown pass, fumbled once and threw three interceptions to Saskatchewan cornerback James Johnson. Johnson was later declared the game MVP.
One of the picks was shown in the instant replay to have hit the ground before it was caught. Despite his rookie mistakes, Dinwiddie showed promise going into the 2008 season. He was released prior to the 2009 season.
It was announced on January 31, 2008, that Milt Stegall would return for one more year for the 2008 season. He signed a one-year contract for $200,000 on the basis of the fact his wife wanted to have their next child in Winnipeg, and the fact that they were in line to be a contender for the Grey Cup. He took a $50,000 pay cut, and started the season 159 yards away from breaking Allen Pitts' all-time receiving yards record.
Other returning players who were free agents going into the 2008 season, including star DE Tom Canada, OL's Dan Goodspeed, and Matt Sheridan, signed for less money from the Bombers than other teams were prepared to pay them, in hopes of a Grey Cup run in '08. Tom Canada, in particular, reportedly turned down a much higher contract offer from the Montreal Alouettes, to come back to Winnipeg.
The Bombers made a surprise trade when they sent all-star running back Charles Roberts to B.C. for Joe Smith on September 2, 2008. Then on September 8, 2008, they traded all-star DE Tom Canada to Hamilton for Zeke Moreno. But on September 9, 2008, the trade was cancelled because Canada was injured and could not play for at least 10 weeks. So, since they could not trade Canada, they sent over Corey Mace and a first-round pick for Moreno.
Following the 2008 season in which the Bombers were defeated in the division semifinals, Doug Berry (the head coach) was fired. Mike Kelly was chosen to replace him. At the end of the Cal Murphy era, Mike Kelly was the offensive coordinator and was passed over for the top job in favour of Jeff Reinebold. With Milt Stegall's early-season knee surgery and drop in production, it was once again speculated that Milt Stegall would retire.
The departure of Brendan Taman on January 13, 2009, was another sign that this era was coming to an end and a new one was beginning. On February 18, 2009, Milt Stegall did retire from the CFL which formally ended the Milt Stegall era.
The Revolving Door era
The return of Mike Kelly opened a new Cal Murphy era, and the board hoped to bring back Murphy's success. However, Kelly was fired by the Winnipeg Blue Bombers Board of Directors on December 17, 2009, after one year of employment.
Paul LaPolice was introduced as the 28th head coach in Blue Bombers history on February 5, 2010. The new coach emphasized the idea of "team" and playing for the uniform. He also made it a point to talk about fixing problems rather than making excuses. The new paradigm was tested in the 2010 season in which the team finished 4–14 and missed the playoffs for the second straight year. Nine of those games were lost by four points or fewer, while 10 were lost by a touchdown or less.
The 2011 season featured an almost completely unchanged team (save for a few losses to the NFL and a few gains from the draft). The Blue Bombers reversed their standings from last place in the east in 2010 to finishing in first place in the East division with a 10–8 record. The team success hinged on a league-leading defence dubbed Swaggerville, which led them to their first division title in 10 years. The team advanced to the 99th Grey Cup after defeating Hamilton in the Eastern Final. However, they lost to the favoured BC Lions by a score of 34–23.
On August 9, 2013, the Winnipeg Blue Bombers announced that CEO Garth Buchko stepped down and General Manager Joe Mack was fired.
The CFL returned to Ottawa in 2014 with the establishment of the Redblacks. Initially, the league planned to keep Winnipeg in the East, at least for the short term, due in part to the ongoing competitive dominance of the West. Despite this, Blue Bombers management lobbied heavily to return to the West Division immediately (for historical reasons), and eventually the league relented. The Blue Bombers finished last place in their first season back in the West, with a 7–11 record.
O'Shea and the end of the drought
After being named the acting CEO in August 2013 Wade Miller was announced as the CEO and President of the Club on November 12, 2013. The shake-up of the top brass in 2013 also led to Kyle Walters having to take over the acting GM duties, which were made officially his on November 26, 2013 when he was named the General Manager.
Mike O'Shea was hired by the Winnipeg Blue Bombers on December 4, 2013, to become the team's 30th Head Coach in team history. O'Shea helped the team return to the playoffs when he made the switch to Matt Nichols as the starting quarterback. The team still failed to advance to a Grey Cup despite the rise in success. During the 2019 season, an injury to Matt Nichols and a suspension to Andrew Harris seemed to end their season. The Bombers traded for Zach Collaros right before the trade deadline, who joined his third team for the year. Collaros formed a quarterback pairing with Chris Streveler. The two quarterbacks' play, behind the dominant performance of the defence saw the team win their 11th championship at the 107th Grey Cup, breaking a 28-year drought. Hometown player Harris became the first player ever to win the Grey Cup MVP and Grey Cup Most Valuable Canadian.
After the CFL cancelled its 2020 season, the league returned in 2021, and the Bombers finished atop the West with an 11–3 record, claiming their first first-place West Division finish since 1972. The team outlasted their arch-rival Saskatchewan Roughriders in the West Final 21–17, setting up a rematch of the 2019 Grey Cup game against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats. The Bombers won the 2021 Grey Cup in overtime 33–25, the first back-to-back Grey Cup champions since the Montreal Alouettes won the 97th and 98th Grey Cup, and the first West Division team to win them since the Edmonton Eskimos' 1978–1982 run of five straight.
Current personnel
Football operation staff
Roster
Management
Head coaches
Jack Millidge (1930)
Pete Barnes (1931)
Carl Cronin (1932–1933)
Greg Kabat (1934)
Bob Fritz (1935–1937)
Reg Threlfall (1938–1944)
Bert Warwick (1945)
Jack West (1946–1948)
Frank Larson (1949–1950)
George Trafton (1951–1953)
Allie Sherman (1954–1956)
Bud Grant (1957–1966)
Joe Zaleski (1967–1969)
Jim Spavital (1970–1973)
Bud Riley (1974–1977)
Ray Jauch (1978–1982)
Cal Murphy (1983–1986, 1993–1996)
Mike Riley (1987–1990)
Darryl Rogers (1991)
Urban Bowman (1992)
Jeff Reinebold (1997–1998)
Dave Ritchie (1999–2004)
Jim Daley (2004–2005)
Doug Berry (2006–2008)
Mike Kelly (2009)
Paul LaPolice (2010–2012)
Tim Burke (2012–2013)
Mike O'Shea (2014–Present)
General managers
Joe Ryan (1931–1941)
Lou Adelman (1945)
Gord Bieber (1946–1947)
Bill Boivin (1955–1957)
Jim Ausley (1958–1964)
Bud Grant (1965–1966)
Joe Zaleski (1967)
Earl Lunsford (1968–1982)
Paul Robson (1983-1986)
Cal Murphy (1987–1996)
Jeff Reinebold (1997–1998)
Ken Bishop (1999)
Lyle Bauer (2000–2001)
Dave Ritchie (2002–2003)
Brendan Taman (2004–2008)
Mike Kelly (2009)
Joe Mack (2010–2013)
Kyle Walters (2013–present)
Stadium
During the Blue Bombers' early years, the team played at Osborne Stadium, a small stadium near the Manitoba Legislative Buildings. The fast, passing-dominated play of Bombers quarterback Jack Jacobs dramatically increased attendance at games and precipitated the need for a new, larger stadium. Winnipeg Stadium was built in the West End of the city near Polo Park, and the Blue Bombers began play there in 1953. The stadium experienced significant changes throughout its existence, including a renaming to Canad Inns Stadium in 2001.
Over the years, various plans were proposed to relocate the stadium. In 2008, a plan was proposed to build a new stadium at the University of Manitoba, with both private and public funding.
On April 2, 2009, David Asper (a media mogul located out of Winnipeg associated with Canwest and Creswin Properties) struck a deal with all levels of governments to build a new 33,422-seat (expandable to 45,000) stadium at the University of Manitoba in southwest Winnipeg. This would serve as the home for the Blue Bombers, as well as the U of M Bisons. The deal included refurbishing the existing Bison Stadium for practice and training, as well as upgrading, expanding, and building new sports and fitness facilities. This project, once completed, would be the premiere sports training facility in Canada. The project would have received ongoing funding from a retail development that Asper planned to build on the former CanadInns stadium site. As part of the deal, Creswin properties would take over ownership of the team in 2010. The new stadium and facilities would have been completed for the 2012 CFL season, with the retail development finished in 2013. On December 13, 2013, it was reported that Asper and Creswin Properties would no longer be included in the stadium project, which would continue with funding from the City of Winnipeg, Province of Manitoba, and Winnipeg Blue Bombers.
On May 2, 2012, the Blue Bombers announced that because of construction delays, the stadium would not be ready until September, thus forcing the team to play four or five home games at Canad Inns Stadium to start the season. In June 2012, it was announced that the stadium would not open until the 2013 season.
The Blue Bombers played their first home game at IG Field (then known as Investor's Group Field) on June 27, 2013, losing 38–33 to the Montreal Alouettes.
Players of note
Canadian Football Hall of Famers
Paul Bennett – inducted as a player in 2002
John Bonk – inducted as a player in 2008
Ralph "Dieter" Brock – inducted as a player in 1995
Less Browne – inducted as a player in 2002
Bob Cameron – inducted as a player in 2010
Tom "Citation" Casey – inducted as a player in 1964
Arthur Chipman – inducted as a builder in 1969
Tom Clements – inducted as a player in 1994
Carl Cronin – inducted as a player in 1967
Andrew Currie – inducted as a builder in 1974
Matt Dunigan – inducted as a player in 2006
Bill Frank – inducted as a player in 2001
Harry Peter "Bud" Grant – inducted as a builder in 1983
Tommy Grant – inducted as a player in 1995
G. Sydney Halter – inducted as a builder in 1966
Frank Hannibal – inducted as a builder in 1963
Fritz Hanson – inducted as a player in 1963
John Helton – inducted as a player in 1985
Dick Huffman – inducted as a player in 1987
W.P. "Billy" Hughes – inducted as a builder in 1974
Jack Jacobs – inducted as a player in 1963
Eddie James – inducted as a player in 1963
Gerry James – inducted as a player in 1981
Greg Kabat – inducted as a player in 1996
Les Lear – inducted as a player in 1974
Leo "Lincoln Locomotive" Lewis – inducted as a player in 1973
Earl Lunsford – inducted as a player in 1983
Chester "Ches" McCance – inducted as a player in 1976
Cal Murphy – inducted as a builder in 2004
James Murphy – inducted as a player in 2000
Ken Ploen – inducted as a player in 1975
Joe Poplawski – inducted as a player in 1998
Russ "The Wisconsin Wraith" Rebholz – inducted as a player in 1963
Frank Rigney – inducted as a player in 1984
Joseph B. Ryan – inducted as a builder in 1968
Karl Slocomb – inducted as a builder in 1989
Milt Stegall - inducted as a player in 2012
Art Stevenson – inducted as a player in 1969
Robert Porter "Buddy" Tinsley – inducted as a player in 1982
Chris Walby – inducted as a player in 2003
Bert Warwick – inducted as a builder in 1964
All-time 75th-Anniversary team
Greg Battle
Ralph "Dieter" Brock
Tom Clements
Herb Gray
Bob Cameron
Tom Casey
Fritz Hanson
Rick House
Jack Jacobs
Gerry James
Trevor Kennerd
Leo Lewis
James Murphy
Ken Ploen
Frank Rigney
Charles Roberts
Joe Poplawski
Willard Reaves
Milt Stegall
Chris Walby
Team members notable elsewhere
Ed Schultz, talk show host
Ben Hatskin, Winnipeg Jets owner; World Hockey Association chairman
Tom Europe, The Last 10 Pounds Bootcamp host
All-time 90th-Anniversary team
Presented June 19, 2020 on TSN-TV
Bud Grant
Ken Ploen
Chris Walby
John Bonk
Buddy Tinsley
Bill Frank
Stanley Bryant
Charles Roberts
Leo Lewis, Sr
Milt Stegall
Joe Poplawski
James Murphy
Rick House
Trevor Kennard
Wade Miller
Doug Brown
Tony Norman
Herb Gray
Bob Cameron
Willie Jefferson
Tyrone Jones
James West
Rod Hill
Greg Battle
Less Browne
Javon Johnson
Ernie Pitts
Paul Bennett
Fritz Hanson
Gerry James
Tom Casey
Kent Anderson
See also
Valour FC, the Canadian Premier League soccer team owned by Winnipeg Football Club
List of fan-owned sports teams
Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Canadian football
Comparison of Canadian and American football
List of Canadian Football League seasons
Jimmy Dunn, timekeeper for the Bombers from 1930 to 1972
References
Bibliography
Bob Irving (edited by). Blue & Gold: 75 Years of Blue Bomber Glory, 2005.
Official statistics of the WIFU, CFC and CFL, 1950 to 2007
CFL Facts, Figures and Records 1985 to 2007
Winnipeg Blue Bomber Media Guides 2006 and 2007
External links
Canadian Football League teams
Sports clubs established in 1930
1930 establishments in Manitoba | [
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] |
254190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulatory%20Patient%20Group | Ambulatory Patient Group | Ambulatory Patient Group (APG) is a classification system for outpatient services reimbursement developed for the American Medicare service by the Health Care Financing Administration. It classifies patients into nearly 300 pathology groups rather than the 14,000 of the International Classification of Diseases.
The APG system is similar to the diagnosis-related groups (DRG), which apply to inpatient care rendered by a hospital.
References
Medical manuals
Medicare and Medicaid (United States) | [
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254194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APG | APG | APG is an abbreviation with several different meanings:
Aberdeen Proving Ground, a United States Army installation in Aberdeen, Maryland, also
Phillips Army Airfield, the airfield of the above, from its IATA airport code
Aboriginal Provisional Government, Indigenous Australian independence movement
Alkyl polyglycoside, a class of surfactants
Ambulatory Patient Group
André-Pierre Gignac, a French footballer who plays for Liga MX club Tigres UANL and the France national team
Android Privacy Guard, an implementation of Pretty Good Privacy for the Android operating system
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, a collaboration of botanists, publishing classification systems of flowering plants
Annealed pyrolytic graphite, a thermally conductive form of synthetic graphite
Anterior Pituitary Gland, an endocrine gland
APG Airlines, a French airline based in Cannes.
APG, a Netherlands-based pension fund established under the Stichting Pensioenfonds ABP
Arc Pair Grammar
Artist Placement Group, an art group founded in 1966.
Asia/Pacific Group on Money Laundering, the FATF-style regional body for the Asia and Pacific region
Aspley Guise railway station, from its National Rail code
Association of Professional Genealogists
Associated petroleum gas
Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies
Austrian Power Grid, Austrian electric power transmission company
Automated Password Generator, a software generating password
Automatic platform gate, a safety facility preventing awaiting passenger falling from station platform to rail tracks
Assists per game, in basketball
ICAO airline designator of Philippines AirAsia | [
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254201 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defender%20of%20the%20Faith%20%28disambiguation%29 | Defender of the Faith (disambiguation) | Defender of the Faith (Latin: Fidei defensor, Fidei defensatrix; French: Défenseur de la Foi) is a phrase used as part of the full style of many English and later British monarchs and other monarchs and heads of state.
Defender of the Faith or Defenders of the Faith may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Defenders of the Faith, a 1984 album by Judas Priest
Defender of the Faith (play), by Stuart Carolan
"Defender of the Faith", a short story by Philip Roth from the 1959 collection Goodbye, Columbus
Defenders of the Faith (Dungeons & Dragons), an optional rulebook for the game
Other uses
Defenders of the Faith (Puerto Rico), a Christian denomination
Ansar Dine (Arabic, 'defenders of the faith'), a militant Islamist group in Mali
See also
Nasir al-Din (disambiguation), Arabic for defender of the faith | [
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254204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor%20system | Honor system | An honor system or honesty system is a philosophical way of running a variety of endeavors based on trust, honor, and honesty. Something that operates under the rule of the "honor system" is usually something that does not have strictly enforced rules governing its principles. In British English, it would more often be called a "trust system" and should not be confused with the British honours system.
The honor system is also a system granting freedom from customary surveillance (as to students or prisoners) with the understanding that those who are so freed will be bound by their honor to observe regulations (e.g. prison farms are operated under the honor system), and will therefore not abuse the trust placed in them.
A person engaged in an honor system has a strong negative concept of breaking or going against it. The negatives may include community shame, loss of status, loss of a personal sense of integrity and pride or in extreme situations, banishment from one's community.
Types of honor systems
There are various types of honor systems that may be employed. A total honor system makes no checks on its users to verify their honesty, thereby easily allowing the system to be cheated. Though the system may face occasional audits, there would be no way thereafter of learning the identity of the violator. Some are simply contingent upon the truthfulness presumed of users; others are present when the losses caused by those who may cheat the system are less costly than a higher security system.
Other honor systems employ random checks of selected users to ensure they are in compliance. A minority of users will undergo this check, while the remainder will be given a chance to get away with a violation. In these cases, the management of the system hopes that the fear of getting checked will coerce users into compliance.
Examples
Transport
In some places, public transport such as trains, trams and/or buses operate on an honor system called proof-of-payment. The local government authorities may find it impractical or overly expensive to install ticket-checking turnstiles at every station, and instead rely on casual human surveillance to check if all riders possess tickets. In such a system one could thus ride the train or bus without paying, and simply hope to be lucky enough to avoid a random ticket check during the trip. Such behavior is impossible for an honor system by itself to prevent. High penalties tend to be used to offset the financial cost of non-paying riders.
At many Western airports, arriving international passengers are instructed by signs either to walk through one door (usually green) if they have nothing to declare, or a different door (usually red) if they have something to declare. Forcible screening is rare, though customs officers generally have authority to check persons suspected of falsely using the green channel. Items that must be declared commonly include cash, food, alcohol, luxury items, publications, weapons, tobacco, etc. Most other items, including personal belongings such as regular clothing, need not be declared. However, X-ray scans can reveal what items must be declared.
Tourism
Some hotels, mostly in continental Europe, operate an honesty bar, allowing guests to serve and record their own drinks and saving the cost of a night bartender. Patrons could theoretically lie about their drink consumption, and the hotel would have only limited powers to verify their claims. The concept of hotel "mini-bars" is similar, although the stock is quantified more carefully, making it difficult to lie. As well, most hotel minibars are now equipped with sensors which connect directly with the billing authority, making the honor system unnecessary.
In the Southern Californian recreational sport fishing industry, the honor system is widely used, particularly on open party fishing boats. When the cook is occupied or in his bunk, passengers are permitted to get drinks and snacks on their own, providing they mark their own galley tab.
Many publicly funded museums and art galleries around the world ask for a certain "suggested donation" in exchange for admission. Patrons are almost never supervised during their donations, so there is no way of making sure the suggested minimum is being paid. Strictly speaking this is not an honor system, as no payment obligation actually exists (merely a suggested donation); a true honor system is one in which there is an obligation, but it is not enforced. However, these "suggested donation" schemes are often regarded as similar to an honor system, because they rely on the goodwill of patrons rather than the force of law.
National and State parks and some private parks often use an honor system to collect their admission fees. Rather than having a manned booth, they have a drop box known as an honesty box where money can be inserted, either directly, or in an envelope. Sometimes, the envelope contains a stub that is removed and placed on the guest's vehicle.
Many international land borders do not thoroughly check all persons passing the checkpoints for required documents or contraband. When the security threat at the crossing is perceived by the nation's government to be low, checks may be conducted only on random persons or vehicles.
Education
The first honor system in America was penned by Thomas Jefferson at the College of William and Mary, Jefferson's alma mater. In some colleges, the honor system is used to administer tests unsupervised. Students are generally asked to sign an honor code statement that says they will not cheat or use unauthorized resources when taking the test. As an example, at Vanderbilt University students taking examinations are required to sign and include the following pledge: "On my honor as a student I have neither given nor received aid on this examination". Any student caught in violation of the Honor Code is referred to the Honor Council which investigates and determines the appropriate action, which can range from failing the course to expulsion from the University. At the University of Virginia a student taking an examination is also required to sign a pledge not to give or receive aid and there is but one penalty for transgression of the honor code, and that is dismissal from the University. Texas A&M also has an Honor System which states, Aggies do not lie, cheat or steal or tolerate those who do. This is listed at the beginning of all tests. Any student that does not follow the code is remanded to the Honor council so they can determine the severity of the case and how the student should be punished or if expulsion is necessary. The students at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill also maintain a student-run honor system. Students maintain the integrity of the university by pledging not to cheat, steal or lie. Unlike the University of Virginia, the honor system at Chapel Hill allows for different sanctions, ranging from probation to expulsion. A single-sanction Honor Code exists at the Virginia Military Institute, where a "drum out" ceremony is still carried out upon a cadet's dismissal.
Washington and Lee University maintains an Honor System that was introduced by General Robert E. Lee, who stated "We have but one rule here, and it is that every student must be a gentleman." The Washington & Lee Honor System is entirely administered through the student body. It is one of the few universities in the United States to have a non-codified system. As a result, students decide what constitutes a breach of honor. These breaches are commonly named as lying, cheating, or stealing, but what constitutes an honor violation is open to the interpretation of the current student body. A single sanction of dismissal is enforced when a student is found guilty of an honor violation.
The California Institute of Technology implements an honor code that states "No member of the Caltech community shall take unfair advantage of any other member of the Caltech community." Applications of this code range from professors trusting the students not to cheat with unsupervised take-home exams, laptops and bikes left unsecured in the dormitory lounges and courtyards (though the lounges and courtyards are secured against people who are not members of the Caltech community), and the food service trusting the students not to conduct food-hoarding raids during open kitchen hours. The primary enforcement of the Caltech Honor Code is through student-run councils, but a few members of the Caltech faculty are involved.
Crime and justice
Some lower security inmates at prisons are granted furloughs and allowed to temporarily leave the boundaries of the penitentiary for various reasons with the expectation they will return voluntarily when due without absconding. The reasons for departure may be for employment, education, recreation, or attending family events (such as weddings or funerals).
Non-profit
Another example can be seen in fundraising drives. Many charities distribute boxes of confectionery to businesses, which are placed in waiting rooms or similar for people to purchase items from. The confectionery is free to be removed by anyone who wishes to take it, and there is no enforcing of payment other than through the expectation of honesty. Indeed, most such boxes of confectionery bear the comment Your honesty is appreciated near where money is deposited.
In many places of worship, those partaking in events with compulsory fees are expected to pay their dues, though most institutions such as these do not enforce payment. There is a general assumption of trust in most religious settings.
The Radical Faeries use a concept of "no one turned away for lack of funds" (abbreviated NOTAFLOF) when raising or charging money to host their events. This is a form of sliding scale used to ensure financial accessibility. The honor system is used to encourage those with adequate resources to pay a suggested amount, but the choice is left up to individual conscience so that those who cannot afford it can participate without being stigmatized or interrogated. This custom has been subsequently adopted by name in other LGBTQ organizations.
Retail
Some supermarket chains allow customers to scan their own groceries with handheld barcode readers while placing them in their own carts (see self-checkout). While the system gives customers the ability to place groceries in their bags without paying, and customers can be randomly audited, participating supermarkets have reported that this experimental system has not increased the amount of shoplifting.
Many hardware superstores, including Home Depot, allow customers to place small items, such as screws, into bags, then label the bags along with the exact price and quantity of the item they are purchasing. The system, which can be easily cheated, is contingent upon the honesty of customers, and is labeled in many stores as an "honor system."
In some countries, farmers leave bags of produce beside the road outside their houses with prices affixed. Passers-by pay by leaving cash in a container. In Ireland, New Zealand, Ikot Inyang Udo in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria, Australia and the United Kingdom this is called the honesty box system. In other countries, small unmanned stores are run, where customers are able to enter, obtain what they need, and pay the bill in a secure container.
Sports
In the sport of airsoft, players rely on an honor system to tell whether or not an opponent is hit, because unlike paintballs, airsoft pellets leave no visible markings on clothing.
Two combat sports practiced by the Society for Creative Anachronism, Armored Combat and Rapier Combat, use an honor system to judge valid strikes. The individual who is hit is responsible for acknowledging if the impact was valid.
Disc ultimate has historically relied on the honor system and encodes it as part of the “Spirit of the Game,” to the point where very few competitions use referees and players are allowed to call fouls on their opponents.
Sports that deliberately incorporate alternative sexualities, by necessity, rely on the honor system for enforcement. The National Gay Flag Football League limits heterosexual competition to 20% of a team's roster. Muggle quidditch requires a minimum number of players to be of a second gender, while allowing players to identify as any number of gender identities to qualify under the rule.
Mask-wearing
During the COVID-19 Pandemic, as many people have received their vaccines, and CDC guidance that fully-vaccinated people no longer her have to wear masks, many places are trusting that people who are not wearing masks are fully-vaccinated.
Advantages
In many places where an honor system is used, it has been found to be cost-effective. Many businesses and organizations using an honor system have determined that the cost of maintaining staff to enforce proper payment outweighs the losses caused by the percentage of the population who are willing to cheat the system. In addition, efficiency is high when an honor system is used. For example, buses/trains do not have to wait to sell or check passenger tickets when boarding and can instead leave immediately, and customs green channels allow for much faster exits than if every passenger is routinely checked.
For the remainder of the population, the honor system gives a more welcoming feeling to customers. Those who are treated with trust may be more likely to return to the location, and thereby increase the amount of business.
Criticism of the concept
Deciding whether or not to obey an honor system can be a dilemma, especially if one places one's personal financial self-interest above the interest of the institution they are patronizing. This can lead to a future negative impact towards their personal financial self-interest. Honor systems are often criticized for promoting laziness and bad behavior. Some have suggested it is paradoxical to ask people to obey a law if there is no apparent law.
See also
Hawala or hundi, an informal value transfer system based on an honor system
Kavka's toxin puzzle examines the paradoxical nature of "rewarding intent."
Reputation system
References
Bibliography
Bowman, James. Honor: A History. Encounter, 2007.
Wyatt-Brown, Bertram. Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South. OUP, 2007.
System
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254206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimney%20sweep | Chimney sweep | A chimney sweep is a person who clears ash and soot from chimneys. The chimney uses the pressure difference caused by a hot column of gas to create a draught and draw air over the hot coals or wood enabling continued combustion. Chimneys may be straight or contain many changes of direction. During normal operation, a layer of creosote builds up on the inside of the chimney, restricting the flow. The creosote can also catch fire, setting the chimney and the building alight. The chimney must be swept to remove the soot. This was done by the master sweep.
In Great Britain, the master sweeps took apprentices, typically workhouse or orphan boys, and trained them to climb chimneys. In the German States, master sweeps belonged to trade guilds and did not use climbing boys. In Italy, Belgium, and France climbing boys were used.
The occupation requires some dexterity, and carries health risks.
History
The Tudors in England had established the risk of chimneys and an ordnance was created in 1582 both controlling materials (brick and stone rather than plastered timber) and requiring chimneys to be swept four times per year to prevent the build-up of soot (which is highly flammable). Any chimney fire could be fined 3 shillings and 4 pence.
With the increased urban population that came with the age of industrialisation, the number of houses with chimneys grew apace and the occupation of chimney sweep became much sought-after.
Buildings were higher than before and the new chimneys' tops were grouped together. The routes of flues from individual grates could involve two or more right angles and horizontal angled and vertical sections. The flues were made narrow to create a better draught, 14in by 9in (36 × 23 cm) being a common standard. Buckingham Palace had one flue with 15 angles, with the flue narrowing to 9in by 9in (23 × 23 cm). Chimney sweeping was one of the more difficult, hazardous, and low-paying occupations of the era, and consequently has been derided in verse, ballad and pantomime.
The first mechanical sweeper was invented by George Smart in 1803 but was resisted in the UK and the US. Joseph Glass marketed an improved sweeping machine in 1828; he is credited with being the inventor of the modern chimney sweep's brush. In the northern US, whites gave up the trade and employed black sweep-boys from the South. After regulation finally took hold in 1875 in the UK and the turn of the century in the US, the occupation became romanticized in popular media.
Great Britain
Boys as young as four climbed hot flues that could be as narrow as 81 square inches (9 × 9 inches or 23 × 23 cm). Work was dangerous and they could get jammed in the flue, suffocate or burn to death. As soot is carcinogenic, and as the boys slept under the soot sacks and were rarely washed, they were prone to chimney sweeps' carcinoma. From 1775 onwards there was increasing concern for the welfare of the boys, and Acts of Parliament were passed to restrict, and in 1875 to stop this usage. Lord Shaftesbury, the philanthropist, led the later campaign.
Chimneys started to appear in Britain around 1200, when they replaced the open fire burning in the middle of the one room house. At first there would be one heated room in the building and chimneys would be large. Over the next four hundred years, rooms became specialized and smaller and many were heated. Sea coal started to replace wood, and it deposited a layer of flammable creosote in the inside surface of the flue, and caked it with soot. Whereas before, the chimney was a vent for the smoke, now the plume of hot gas was used to suck air into the fire, and this required narrower flues. Even so, boys rarely climbed chimneys before the Great Fire of London, when building regulations were put in place and the design of chimneys was altered. The new chimneys were often angular and narrow, and the usual dimension of the flue in domestic properties was by . The master sweep was unable to climb into such small spaces himself and employed climbing boys to go up the chimneys to dislodge the soot. The boys often 'buffed it', that is, climbed in the nude, propelling themselves by their knees and elbows which were scraped raw. They were often put up hot chimneys, and sometimes up chimneys that were alight in order to extinguish the fire. Chimneys with sharp angles posed a particular hazard. These boys were apprenticed to the sweep, and from 1778 until 1875 a series of laws attempted to regulate their working conditions, and many first hand accounts were documented and published in parliamentary reports. From about 1803, there was an alternative method of brushing chimneys, but sweeps and their clients resisted the change, preferring climbing boys to the new humane sweeping machines. Compulsory education was established in 1870 by the Education Act 1870 but it was a further five years before legislation was put in place to license chimney sweeps and finally prevent boys being sent up chimneys.
Climbing boys
The climbing boys, and sometimes girls, were technically called chimney sweeps' apprentices, and were apprenticed to a master sweep, who, being an adult, was too large to fit into a chimney or flue. He would be paid by the parish to teach orphans or paupers the craft. They were totally reliant on him: they or their guardians had signed papers of indenture, in front of a magistrate, which bound them to him until they were adults. It was the duty of the Poor Law guardians to apprentice as many children of the workhouse in their care as possible, so as to reduce costs to the parish. The master sweep had duties: to teach the craft and its mysteries, to provide the apprentice with a second suit of clothes, to have him cleaned once a week, allow him to attend church, and not send him up chimneys that were on fire. An apprentice agreed to obey his master. Once his seven-year-long apprenticeship was completed he would become a journeyman sweep, and would continue to work for a master sweep of his choice. Other apprentices were sold on to the sweep, or sold by their parents. Prices ranged from 7 shillings to 4 guineas.
It was generally agreed that six was a good age to train a boy. Though Lord Shaftesbury once encountered one of the age of four, they were considered to be too weak. A master sweep would have many apprentices, who would start the morning by roaming the streets calling out "Soot -Oh, Sweep" or another cry to let the house-owners know they were around; this would remind the owners of the dangers of un-swept chimneys. When engaged, the master sweep would fix a cloth over the fireplace, and the climbing boy would take off his boots and any excess clothes, then get behind it. The flue would be as tall as the house and twist several times, and its dimensions would be 14in by 9in. He would pull his cap down over his face and hold a large flat brush over his head, and wedge his body diagonally in the flue. Using his back, elbows and knees, he would shimmy up the flue in the manner of a caterpillar and use the brush to dislodge loose soot, which would fall over him and down to the bottom, and a scraper to chip away the solid bits, as a smooth chimney was a safe chimney. Having reached the top he would slide back down at speed back to the floor and the soot pile. It was now his job to bag up the soot and carry it back to the master sweep's cart or yard.
Soot was valuable and could be sold for 9d a bushel in 1840. An apprentice would do four or five chimneys a day. When they first started they scraped their knees and elbows, so the master would harden up their skin by standing them close to a hot fire and rubbing in strong brine using a brush. This was done each evening until the skin hardened. The boys got no wages but lived with the master, who fed them. They slept together on the floor or in the cellar under the sacks and the cloth used during the day to catch the soot. This was known as "sleeping black". The boy would be washed by the mistress in a tub in the yard; this might happen as often as once a week, but rarely. One sweep used to wash down his boys in the Serpentine. Another Nottingham sweep insisted they washed three times a year, for Christmas, Whitsun and the Goose Fair. Sometimes, a boy would need to be persuaded to climb faster or higher up the chimney, and the master sweep would light either a small fire of straw or a brimstone candle, to encourage him to try harder. Another method to stop him from "going off" (asphyxiating) was to send another boy up behind him to prick pins into his buttocks or the soles of his feet.
Chimneys varied in size. The common flue was designed to be one and a half bricks long by one brick wide, though they often narrowed to one brick square, that is by or less. Often the chimney would still be hot from the fire, and occasionally it would actually be on fire. Careless climbing boys could get stuck with their knees jammed against their chins. The harder they struggled the tighter they became wedged. They could remain in this position for many hours until they were pushed out from below or pulled out with a rope. If their struggling caused a fall of soot they would suffocate. Dead or alive the boy had to be removed and this would be done by removing bricks from the side of the chimney. If the chimney was particularly narrow the boys would be told to "buff it", that is to do it naked; otherwise they just wore trousers, and a shirt made from thick rough cotton cloth.
Health and safety concerns
The conditions to which these children were subjected caused concern and societies were set up to promote mechanical means for sweeping chimneys and it is through their pamphlets that we have a better idea of what the job could entail. Here a sweep describes the fate of one boy:
After passing through the chimney and descending to the second angle of the fireplace the Boy finds it completely filled with soot, which he has dislodged from the sides of the upright part. He endeavours to get through, and succeeds in doing so, after much struggling as far as his shoulders; but finding that the soot is compressed hard all around him, by his exertions, that he can recede no farther; he then endeavours to move forward, but his attempts in this respect are quite abortive; for the covering of the horizontal part of the Flue being stone, the sharp angle of which bears hard on his shoulders, and the back part of his head prevents him from moving in the least either one way or the other. His face, already covered with a climbing cap, and being pressed hard in the soot beneath him, stops his breath. In this dreadful condition he strives violently to extricate himself, but his strength fails him; he cries and groans, and in a few minutes he is suffocated. An alarm is then given, a brick-layer is sent for, an aperture is perforated in the Flue, and the boy is extracted, but found lifeless. In a short time an inquest is held, and a Coroner's Jury returns a verdict of "Accidental Death".
These however were not the only occupational hazards that chimney sweeps suffered. In the 1817 report to Parliament, witnesses reported that climbing boys suffered from general neglect, and exhibited stunted growth and deformity of the spine, legs, and arms, which were thought to be caused by being required to remain in abnormal positions for long periods of time before their bones had hardened. The knees and ankle joints were the most affected. Sores and inflammation of the eyelids that could lead to loss of sight, were slow in healing because the boy kept rubbing them. Bruises and burns were obvious hazards of having to work in an overheated environment. Cancer of the scrotum was found only in chimney sweeps so was referred to as Chimney Sweep Cancer in the teaching hospitals. Asthma and inflammation of the chest were attributed to the fact that the boys were out in all weathers.
Chimney sweeps' carcinoma, which the sweeps called soot wart, did not occur until the sweep was in his late teens or twenties. It has now been identified as a manifestation of scrotal squamous cell carcinoma. It was reported in 1775 by Sir Percival Pott in climbing boys or chimney sweepers. It is the first industrially related cancer to be found. Potts described it:
It is a disease which always makes it first attack on the inferior part of the scrotum where it produces a superficial, painful ragged ill-looking sore with hard rising edges ... in no great length of time it pervades the skin, dartos and the membranes of the scrotum, and seizes the testicle, which it inlarges [sic], hardens and renders truly and thoroughly distempered. Whence it makes its way up the spermatic process into the abdomen.
He also comments on the life of the boys:
The fate of these people seems peculiarly hard ... they are treated with great brutality ... they are thrust up narrow and sometimes hot chimnies, [sic] where they are bruised burned and almost suffocated; and when they get to puberty they become ... liable to a most noisome, painful and fatal disease.
The carcinogen was thought to be coal tar, possibly containing some arsenic.
There were many deaths caused by accidents, frequently caused by the boy becoming jammed in the flue of a heated chimney, where he could suffocate or be burned to death. Sometimes a second boy would be sent to help, and on occasions would suffer the same fate.
Regulation
In 1788, the Chimney Sweepers Act 1788 (long title: An Act for the Better Regulation of Chimney Sweepers and their Apprentices) was passed, to limit a sweeper to six apprentices, at least 8 years old, but lacked enforcement. It introduced the Apprenticeship Cap badge. The Act had been partially inspired by the interest in climbing boys shown by Jonas Hanway, and his two publications The State of Chimney Sweepers' Young Apprentices (1773) and later Sentimental History of Chimney Sweeps in London and Westminster (1785). He asserted that while Parliament was exercised with the abolition of slavery in the new world it was ignoring the slavery imposed on climbing boys. He looked to Edinburgh, Scotland, where sweeps were regulated by the police, climbing was not allowed and chimneys were swept by the Master Sweep himself pulling bundles of rags up and down the chimney. He did not see how climbing chimneys could be considered a valid apprenticeship, as the only skill obtained was that of climbing chimneys which did not lead to future employment. Hanway advocated that Christianity should be brought into the boys' lives and lobbied for Sunday Schools for the boys. The Lords removed the proposed clause that Master Sweeps should be licensed, and before civil registration, there was no way that anyone could check if a child was actually eight.
In the same year, David Porter, a humane master sweep, sent a petition to Parliament, and in 1792 published Considerations of the Present State of Chimney Sweepers with some Observations on the Act of Parliament intended for their Relief and Regulation. Though concerned for the boys' welfare he believed that boys were more efficient than any of the new mechanical cleaning machines. In 1796 a society was formed for Bettering the Conditions of the Poor, and they encouraged the reading of Hanway's and Porter's tracts. They had influential members and royal patronage from George III. A Friendly Society for the Protection and Education of Chimney-Sweepers' Boys had been established in 1800.
In 1803, it was thought by some that a mechanical brush could replace a climbing boy (the Human brush), and members of the 1796 society formed The London Society for Superseding the Necessity for Employing Climbing Boys; they ascertained that children had now cleaned flues as small as 7in by 7in, and promoted a competition for a mechanical brush. The prize was claimed by George Smart for what, in effect, was a brush head on a long segmented cane, made rigid by an adjustable cord that passed through the canes.
The Chimney Sweepers Act 1834 contained many of the needed regulations. It stated that an apprentice must express himself in front of a magistrate that he was "willing and desirous". Masters must not take on boys under the age of fourteen. The master could only have six apprentices and an apprentice could not be lent to another master. Boys under fourteen who were already apprenticed must wear brass cap badges on a leather cap. Apprentices were not allowed to climb flues to extinguish fires. Street cries were regulated. The act was resisted by the master sweeps, and the general public believed that property would be at risk if the flues were not cleaned by a climbing boy.
Also that year building regulations relating to the construction of chimneys were changed.
The Chimney Sweepers and Chimneys Regulation Act 1840 made it illegal for anyone under the age of 21 to sweep chimneys. It was widely ignored. Attempts were made in 1852 and 1853 to reopen the issue, another enquiry was convened and more evidence was taken. There was no bill. The Chimney Sweepers Regulation Act 1864, c. 37, tightened controls significantly, by authorizing fines and imprisonment for master sweeps who were ignoring the law, giving the police the power of arrest on suspicion and authorizing Board of Trade inspections of new and remodelled chimneys. Lord Shaftesbury was a main proponent of the Act.
In February 1875 a twelve-year-old boy, George Brewster, was sent up the Fulbourn Hospital chimneys by his master, William Wyer. He stuck and smothered. The entire wall had to be pulled down to get him out and although he was still alive, he died shortly afterwards. There was a coroner's inquest which returned a verdict of manslaughter. Wyer was sentenced to six months' imprisonment with hard labour. Lord Shaftesbury seized on the incident to press his campaign again. He wrote a series of letters to The Times and in September 1875 pushed another bill through Parliament which finally stopped the practice of sending boys up chimneys.
The Chimney Sweepers Act 1875 required chimney sweepers "to be authorized by the police to carry on their businesses in the district", thus providing the legal means to enforce all previous legislation.
United States
The history of sweeping in the United States varies little from that in the United Kingdom. Differences arise from the nature of housing and the political pressures. Early settler houses were built close together out of wood, so when one burnt it spread quickly to neighbouring properties. This caused the authorities to regulate the design of flues. From an early date, fire wardens and inspectors were appointed.
Sweeping of the wide flues of these low buildings was often done by the householder himself, using a ladder to pass a wide brush down the chimney. In a narrow flue, a bag of bricks and brushwood would be dropped down the chimney. But in longer flues climbing boys were used, complete with the tradition of coercion and persuasion using burning straw and pins in the feet and the buttocks. Sweeping was not a popular trade. During the eighteenth century the employment of African-American chimney sweeps spread from the south to the north. African-American sweeps faced discrimination and were accused of being inefficient and starting fires. It was claimed that there were fewer fires in London where chimneys were swept by white boys than in New York City. As in the UK, Smart's sweeping machine was available in the US shortly after 1803, but few were used. Unlike the UK, there were no societies formed to advocate for the climbing boys. In fact, the contemporary novel Tit for Tat went so far as to deny the Black slave chimney sweeps' hardships by claiming that they had it easier than the London chimney sweeps.
Sweeps' festivals
The London boys had one day's holiday a year, the first of May (Mayday). They celebrated by parading through the streets, dancing and twisting with Jack in the Green, merging several folk traditions. There is also a Sweeps' Festival in Santa Maria Maggiore, in Italy and in Rochester in Kent where the tradition was revived in 1980.
One of the most famous literary works about chimney sweeps is William Blake's poem, The Chimney Sweeper.
Good luck omen
In Great Britain it is considered lucky for a bride to see a chimney sweep on her wedding day. Many modern British sweeps hire themselves out to attend weddings in pursuance of this tradition.
In Germany, Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Romania and Estonia chimney sweeps still wear the traditional all-black uniform with a black or white hat. It is considered good luck to rub or grasp one of your buttons if you pass one in the street.
As a Lucky symbol, depictions of chimney sweeps are a popular New Year's Day gift in Germany; either as small ornaments attached to flower bouquets or candy, e.g. marzipan chimney sweeps. Their traditional uniform is an all black suit with golden jacket buttons and a black top hat.
Popular culture
Chimney sweeps were often depicted in Victorian literature and later works about the Victorian period as heartless scoundrels who abused their child workers.
One of the characters in the Mary Poppins books is The Sweep. Appearing on a few occasions, this chimney sweep is a workman frequently present on Cherry Tree Lane where the plot is set. He has worked for several of the families living there, including the main characters' Banks family. He believes it is good luck to shake hands with a sweep, so encourages all who meet him to shake hands with him. The Sweep is particularly friendly with the Banks children and, on one occasion takes them along for fireworks. In the film and the musical made on the basis of the book, the character of the sweep is merged with that of Bert, and becomes a much more prominent character. His superstition about shaking hands with a sweep is referenced in the song "Chim Chim Cher-ee". The composite character of Bert and the Sweep is portrayed by Dick Van Dyke in the 1964 film.
In 1890 Empress Elisabeth of Austria aroused much public attention when expressing her firm support for her favorite daughter, Archduchess Marie Valerie of Austria, marrying for love rather than dynastic considerations. The Empress declared that "Marie may marry even a chimney sweep, if she so desired". In practice, however, Archduchess Marie's chosen bridegroom was no chimney sweep, but just a minor and undistinguished member of the reigning Habsburg family.
Today
Today, chimney sweeps are still operating, as venting systems for coal, heating oil, natural gas, wood and pellet burning appliances need to be maintained. There is a greater understanding of the dangers of flue deposits and carbon monoxide and gases from combustion. The standard chimney brush is still used, along with more modern tools (such as vacuum cleaners, cameras and special chimney cleaning tools). Most sweeps are done from the bottom of the chimney, rather than the top, to prevent the dispersion of dust and debris and because it is safer for the chimney sweep to do the sweeping from this position. Inspection may be done from the bottom or top, or both if accessible. Chimney sweeps often encounter a range of unexpected objects in chimneys ranging from dead birds to tools, notes, love letters and other pieces of ephemera.
Most modern chimney sweeps are professionals, and are usually trained to diagnose and repair hazards along with maintenance such as removal of flammable creosote, firebox and damper repair, and smoke chamber repair. Some sweeps also offer more complicated repairs such as flue repair and relining, crown repair, and tuckpointing or rebuilding of masonry chimneys and cement crowns.
In the United States, the two trade organizations that help to regulate the industry are the Chimney Safety Institute of America and The National Chimney Sweep Guild. Certification for chimney sweeps are issued by two organizations: Certified Chimney Professionals and The Chimney Safety Institute of America, which was first to establish certification and requires sweeps to re-test every three years or demonstrate the commitment to education by earning CEUs through CSIA or the National Fireplace Institute to bypass the test. Certification for chimney sweeps who reline chimneys are issued by Certified Chimney Professionals and the Chimney Safety Institute of America. CEU credits may be obtained from these organizations and regional associations as well as private trainers.
In the United Kingdom Chimney Sweeping is unregulated however many sweeps have organised themselves into trade associations including the Association of Professional Independent Chimney Sweeps, the Guild of Master Chimney Sweeps, and The National Association of Chimney Sweeps. As well as offering support to members they provide training and representation to DEFRA and other interested parties.
See also
Chimney sweeps' carcinoma
Kaminfegerkinder (Spazzacamini)
References
Citations and notes
Bibliography
External links
BBC Schools Radio : Audio dramatisation of climbing boys testament.
Modern Trade associations
United States:
Certified Chimney Professionals
Chimney Safety Institute of America
Chimney Sweep Association
National Chimney Sweeps Guild
Midwest Chimney Safety Council
History of medicine
Child labour
Chimneys
Cleaning and maintenance occupations | [
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] |
254223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20General%20RDOS | Data General RDOS | The Data General RDOS (Real-time Disk Operating System) was a real-time operating system released in 1970. The software was only sold bundled with the company's popular Nova and Eclipse minicomputers.
Overview
RDOS was capable of multitasking, with the ability to run up to 32 what were called "tasks" (similar to the current term threads) simultaneously on each of two grounds (foreground and background) within a 64 KB memory space. Later versions of RDOS were compatible with Data General's 16-bit Eclipse minicomputer line.
A cut-down version of RDOS, without real-time background and foreground capability but still capable of running multiple threads and multi-user Data General Business Basic, was called Data General Diskette Operating System (DG-DOS or now—somewhat confusingly—simply DOS); another related operating system was RTOS, a Real-Time Operating System for diskless environments. RDOS on microNOVA-based "Micro Products" micro-minicomputers was sometimes called DG/RDOS.
RDOS was superseded in the early 1980s by Data General's AOS family of operating systems, including AOS/VS and MP/AOS (MP/OS on smaller systems).
Commands
The following list of commands are supported by the RDOS/DOS CLI.
ALGOL
APPEND
ASM
BASIC
BATCH
BOOT
BPUNCH
BUILD
CCONT
CDIR
CHAIN
CHATR
CHLAT
CLEAR
CLG
COPY
CPART
CRAND
CREATE
DEB
DELETE
DIR
DISK
DUMP
EDIT
ENDLOG
ENPAT
EQUIV
EXFG
FDUMP
FGND
FILCOM
FLOAD
FORT
FORTRAN
FPRINT
GDIR
GMEM
GSYS
GTOD
INIT
LDIR
LFE
LINK
LIST
LOAD
LOG
MAC
MCABOOT
MDIR
MEDIT
MESSAGE
MKABS
MKSAVE
MOVE
NSPEED
OEDIT
OVLDR
PATCH
POP
PRINT
PUNCH
RDOSSORT
RELEASE
RENAME
REPLACE
REV
RLDR
SAVE
SDAY
SEDIT
SMEM
SPDIS
SPEBL
SPEED
SPKILL
STOD
SYSGEN
TPRINT
TUOFF
TUON
TYPE
VFU
XFER
Antitrust lawsuit
In the late 1970s Data General was sued (under the Sherman and Clayton antitrust acts) by competitors for their practice of bundling RDOS with the Data General Nova or Eclipse minicomputer. When Data General introduced the Data General Nova, a company called Digidyne wanted to use its RDOS operating system on its own hardware clone. Data General refused to license their software and claimed their "bundling rights". In 1985, courts including the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled against Data General in a case called Digidyne v. Data General. The Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear Data General's appeal, although Justices White and Blackmun would have heard it. The precedent set by the lower courts eventually forced Data General to license the operating system because restricting the software to only Data General's hardware was an illegal tying arrangement.
In 1999, Data General was taken over by EMC Corporation.
References
External links
RDOS documentation at the Computer History Museum
RDOS 7.50 User Parameters definition
SimuLogics' ReNOVAte - Emulator to run NOVA/Eclipse Software on DOS / WindowsNT / UN*X / VMS
Data General
Disk operating systems
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254234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces%20of%20China | Provinces of China | The provincial level administrative divisions () are the highest-level administrative divisions of China. There are 34 such divisions claimed by the People's Republic of China, classified as 23 provinces (), five autonomous regions, four municipalities and two special administrative regions. The political status of Taiwan Province along with a small fraction of Fujian Province remain in dispute; those are under separate rule by the Republic of China, which is usually referred to as "Taiwan".
Every province on Mainland China (including the island province of Hainan) has a Chinese Communist Party (CCP) provincial committee (), headed by a secretary (). The Committee Secretary is effectively in charge of the province, rather than the governor of the provincial government. The same arrangement exists for the autonomous regions and municipalities.
Types of provincial level divisions
Province
The government of each standard province () is nominally led by a provincial committee, headed by a secretary. The committee secretary is first-in-charge of the province; second-in-command is the governor of the provincial government. In practice, day-to-day affairs are managed by a provincial party standing committee, which makes decisions for a province analogous to the Politburo for the central government.
The People's Republic of China (PRC) claims the island of Taiwan and its surrounding islets, including Penghu, as "Taiwan Province", though Taiwan has not been under control of a government that ruled from mainland China since 1949, when the Republic of China (ROC) lost the mainland to the CCP, which established the PRC. (Kinmen and the Matsu Islands are claimed by the PRC as part of its Fujian Province. Pratas Island and the Vereker Banks and Itu Aba (Taiping Island) are claimed by the PRC as part of Guangdong and Hainan provinces respectively.) The territory is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC, commonly called "Taiwan") though the provinces were streamlined in 1998 and the provincial governments were de facto dissolved in 2019.
Municipality
A municipality () or municipality directly under the administration of the central government is a higher level of city which is directly under the Chinese government, with status equal to that of the provinces. In practice, their political status is higher than that of common provinces.
Autonomous region
An autonomous region () is a minority subject which has a higher population of a particular minority ethnic group along with its own local government, but an autonomous region theoretically has more legislative rights than in actual practice. The governor of each autonomous region is usually appointed from the respective minority ethnic group.
Special administrative region (SAR)
A special administrative region (SAR) () is a highly autonomous and self-governing sub national subject of the People's Republic of China that is directly under the Central People's Government. Each SAR has a chief executive as head of the region and head of government. The region's government is not fully independent, as foreign policy and military defence are the responsibility of the central government, according to the basic laws.
List of provincial level divisions
History
Han provinces
The names of the provinces that the Eastern (Later) Han created were Bing, Ji, Jiao, Jing, Liang (at first Yong, later changed to Liang), Qing, Si (the Sili Xiaowei Department), Xu, Yan, Yang, Yi, You and
Yu. The capital, Luoyang, was in the Si province, as was the former capital, Chang An.
Sui provinces
By the time unity was finally reestablished by the Sui dynasty, the provinces had been divided and redivided so many times by different governments that they were almost the same size as commanderies, rendering the two-tier system superfluous. As such, the Sui merged the two together. In English, this merged level is translated as "prefectures". In Chinese, the name changed between zhou and jun several times before being finally settled on zhou. Based on the apocryphal Nine Province system, the Sui restored nine zhou.
Tang provinces
Emperor Taizong (r. 626–649) set up 10 "circuits" () in 627 as inspection areas for imperial commissioners monitoring the operation of prefectures, rather than a new primary level of administration. In 639, there were 10 circuits, 43 commanderies (), and 358 prefectures ( and later ). In 733, Emperor Xuanzong expanded the number of circuits to 15 by establishing separate circuits for the areas around Chang'an and Luoyang, and by splitting the large Shannan and Jiangnan circuits into 2 and 3 new circuits respectively. He also established a system of permanent inspecting commissioners, though without executive powers.
* Circuits established under Xuanzong, as opposed to Taizong's original ten circuits.
** Circuits established under Xuanzong by dividing Taizong's Jiangnan and Shannan circuits.
Other Tang-era circuits include the West Lingnan, Wu'an, and Qinhua circuits.
Song provinces
The Song government abolished the previous commissioners and renamed their circuits (, literally meaning "roads", but is still usually translated as "circuits"). They also added a number of "army" prefectures (). Similarly, Liao and Jurchen Jin dynasties also established circuits as the first-level administrative division.
Yuan provinces
China was reorganised into 11 provinces keeping most of the previous boundaries of provinces created by the previous dynasty unchanged, the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) had 2 addition regions: Central region ruled by the Zhongshu Sheng () and the Tibetan region ruled by the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs ().
Ming provinces
The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) kept the province system set up by the Yuan Dynasty, however, it divided the original 10 provinces into 16 provinces, later 2 capital metropolitan areas and 13 provinces () within China proper and 5 additional military ruled regions.
Qing provinces
By the latter half of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), there were 18 provinces, all of them in China proper ().
Jiangsu and Anhui were originally one province called Jiangnan, with its capital at Nanjing. There was no discrete time period when the two halves of Jiangnan were split, but rather, this was a gradual process.
New provinces
Xinjiang () 1884–1912
Fengtian () 1907–1912
Jilin () 1907–1912
Heilongjiang () 1907–1912
Each province had a xunfu (; translated as "governor"), a political overseer on behalf of the emperor, and a tidu (; translated as "captain general"), a military governor. In addition, there was a zongdu (), a general military inspector or governor general, for every two to three provinces.
Outer regions of China (those beyond China proper) were not divided into provinces. Military leaders or generals () oversaw Manchuria (consisting of Fengtian (now Liaoning), Jilin, Heilongjiang), Xinjiang, and Mongolia, while vice-dutong () and civilian leaders headed the leagues (), a subdivision of Mongolia. The ambans () supervised the administration of Tibet.
In 1884 Xinjiang became a province; in 1907 Fengtian, Jilin, and Heilongjiang were made provinces as well. Taiwan became a province in 1885, but China ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895. As a result, there were 22 provinces in China (Outer China and China proper) near the end of the Qing Dynasty.
ROC provinces (1912–1949)
The Republic of China, established in 1912, set up four more provinces in Inner Mongolia and two provinces in historic Tibet, bringing the total to 28. In 1931, Ma Zhongying established Hexi in the northern parts of Gansu but the ROC never acknowledged the province. However, China lost four provinces with the establishment of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria. After the defeat of Japan in World War II in 1945, China re-incorporated Manchuria as 10 provinces, and assumed control of Taiwan as a province. As a result, the Republic of China in 1946 had 35 provinces. Although the Republic of China now only controls one province (Taiwan), and some islands of a second province (Fujian), it continues to formally claim all 35 provinces (including those that no longer form part of the area of the People's Republic of China).
Other provincial level divisions
List of PRC/ROC provincial level divisions
Greater administrative areas
Provinces
Autonomous regions
Municipalities
Special administrative regions
Administrative territories
Regions
Territories
The People's Republic of China abolished many of the provinces in the 1950s and converted a number of them into autonomous regions. Hainan became a separate province in 1988, bringing the total number of provinces under PRC control to 22.
In contrast, the Republic of China also had a number of provinces under its control such as Taiwan and Fujian, which the ROC currently administers, though the ROC abolished the Xinjiang Provincial Office in 1992. In 1998, after streamlining of the two provinces, some of its powers from the Taiwan and Fujian Provincial Governments were gradually transferred to county governments. This fractured further between 2018 and 2019 when the ROC central government de facto abolished the provincial governments with most of the remaining powers given to the Executive Yuan.
Economies
The provinces in southeast coastal area of China such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian and (mainly) Guangdong tend to be more industrialized, with regions in the hinterland less developed.
See also
Federalism in China
List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP
List of Chinese administrative divisions by population
List of current Chinese provincial leaders
Regional discrimination in China
Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China
Tiao-kuai
Yangtze Delta
Zhou (country subdivision)
Notes
References
External links
Interactive Dbresearch.com: WebMap — with economic indicators for all Chinese Provinces.
Administrative divisions of China
Subdivisions of Taiwan
Provinces, China | [
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] |
254235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast%20%28disambiguation%29 | Broadcast (disambiguation) | Broadcasting is the transmission of audio and video signals.
Broadcast or Broadcasting may also refer to:
Music
Broadcast (band), an English electronic music band
The Broadcast (band), an American Americana/soul band
Broadcast (Cutting Crew album), 1986
Broadcast (Meese album), 2009
Broadcasting..., an album by Comeback Kid, 2007
"The Broadcast", a song by Wings from Back to the Egg, 1979
Broadcast Twelve Records, a British record label of the 1920s
Magazines
Broadcast (magazine), a weekly newspaper for the UK television and radio industry
Broadcasting (magazine), a weekly US television industry trade magazine
Computing
Broadcast address, an IP address allowing information to be sent to all machines on a given subnet
Broadcasting (networking), transmitting a packet that will be received by every device on the network
Broadcast (parallel pattern), communication pattern to distribute a message to all machines in a cluster
Broadcast domain, a logical area where any computer connected to the network can directly transmit to any other
Other uses
Broadcast sowing, a method of hand sowing of seeds
Radio program
Television show
Broadcast.com
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254237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof%20of%20Bertrand%27s%20postulate | Proof of Bertrand's postulate | In mathematics, Bertrand's postulate (actually a theorem) states that for each there is a prime such that . It was first proven by Chebyshev, and a short but advanced proof was given by Ramanujan.
The following elementary proof was published by Paul Erdős in 1932, as one of his earliest mathematical publications. The basic idea is to show that the central binomial coefficients need to have a prime factor within the interval in order to be large enough. This is achieved through analysis of the factorization of the central binomial coefficients.
The main steps of the proof are as follows. First, show that the contribution of every prime power factor in the prime decomposition of the central binomial coefficient is at most . Then show that every prime larger than appears at most once.
The next step is to prove that has no prime factors in the interval . As a consequence of these bounds, the contribution to the size of coming from all the prime factors that are at most grows asymptotically as for some . Since the asymptotic growth of the central binomial coefficient is at least , the conclusion is that, by contradiction and for large enough , the binomial coefficient must have another prime factor, which can only lie between and .
The argument given is valid for all . The remaining values of are by direct inspection, which completes the proof.
Lemmas in the proof
The proof uses the following four lemmas to establish facts about the primes present in the central binomial coefficients.
Lemma 1
For any integer , we have
Proof: Applying the binomial theorem,
since is the largest term in the sum in the right-hand side, and the sum has terms (including the initial outside the summation).
Lemma 2
For a fixed prime , define to be the p-adic order of , that is, the largest natural number such that divides .
For any prime , .
Proof: The exponent of in is given by Legendre's formula
so
But each term of the last summation must be either zero (if ) or one (if ), and all terms with are zero. Therefore,
and
Lemma 3
If is odd and , then
Proof: There are exactly two factors of in the numerator of the expression , coming from the two terms and in , and also two factors of in the denominator from one copy of the term in each of the two factors of . These factors all cancel, leaving no factors of in . (The bound on in the preconditions of the lemma ensures that is too large to be a term of the numerator, and the assumption that is odd is needed to ensure that contributes only one factor of to the numerator.)
Lemma 4
An upper bound is supplied for the primorial function,
where the product is taken over all prime numbers less than or equal to the real number .
For all real numbers , .
Proof:
Since and , it suffices to prove the result under the assumption that is an integer, Since is an integer and all the primes appear in its numerator but not in its denominator, we have
The proof proceeds by complete induction on
If , then
If , then
If is odd, , then by the above estimate and the induction assumption, since and it is
If is even and then by the above estimate and the induction assumption, since and it is
.
Only is used in the proof.
Proof of Bertrand's Postulate
Assume that there is a counterexample: an integer n ≥ 2 such that there is no prime p with n < p < 2n.
If 2 ≤ n < 468, then p can be chosen from among the prime numbers 3, 5, 7, 13, 23, 43, 83, 163, 317, 631 (each being the largest prime less than twice its predecessor) such that n < p < 2n. Therefore, n ≥ 468.
There are no prime factors p of such that:
2n < p, because every factor must divide (2n)!;
p = 2n, because 2n is not prime;
n < p < 2n, because we assumed there is no such prime number;
2n / 3 < p ≤ n: by Lemma 3.
Therefore, every prime factor p satisfies p ≤ 2n/3.
When the number has at most one factor of p. By Lemma 2, for any prime p we have pR(p,n) ≤ 2n, so the product of the pR(p,n) over the primes less than or equal to is at most . Then, starting with Lemma 1 and decomposing the right-hand side into its prime factorization, and finally using Lemma 4, these bounds give:
Taking logarithms yields to
By concavity of the right-hand side as a function of n, the last inequality is necessarily verified on an interval. Since it holds true for n=467 and it does not for n=468, we obtain
But these cases have already been settled, and we conclude that no counterexample to the postulate is possible.
Addendum to proof
It is possible to reduce the bound for n to .
Lemma 1 can be expressed as
for , and because for , we can say that the product is at most , which gives
which is true for and false for .
References
External links
Chebyshev's Theorem and Bertrand's Postulate (Leo Goldmakher): https://web.williams.edu/Mathematics/lg5/Chebyshev.pdf
Proof of Bertrand’s Postulate (UW Math Circle): https://sites.math.washington.edu/~mathcircle/circle/2013-14/advanced/mc-13a-w10.pdf
Proof in the Mizar system: http://mizar.org/version/current/html/nat_4.html#T56
Prime numbers
Factorial and binomial topics
Article proofs
Theorems about prime numbers | [
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254240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1845%20in%20music | 1845 in music |
Events
March 13 – Felix Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto is premièred in Leipzig with Ferdinand David as soloist.
April 21 – Albert Lortzing's opera Undine debuts in Magdeburg.
June 4 – William Fry's opera Leonora debuts in Philadelphia.
July – Pas de Quatre is premièred in London, bringing together four of the greatest ballerinas of the time: Lucile Grahn, Carlotta Grisi, Fanny Cerrito, and Marie Taglioni.
July 19 – The National Anthem of Uruguay is first performed with music composed by Francisco José Debali with the collaboration of Fernando Quijano.
October 19 – Richard Wagner's opera Tannhäuser debuts at the Dresden Hoftheater.
Composer Henry Hugo Pierson goes to live in Germany.
The Hutchinson Family Singers tour England with Frederick Douglass.
Theodore Thomas arrives in the United States. The conductor would eventually become the Father of American Symphonic culture.
Austrian pianist Leopold von Meyer (1816–1883) begins a tour of the United States.
The saxhorn family of valved brass instruments is patented by Adolphe Sax in France.
Classical music
Louis Moreau Gottschalk – Bamboula: A Fantasy for solo piano.
Hans Christian Lumbye – Champagne Galop, Op. 14
Robert Schumann – Piano Concerto in A minor
Opera
W. H. Fry – Leonora
Albert Lortzing – Undine
Temistocle Solera – La Hermana de Palayo
Giuseppe Verdi
Alzira
Giovanna d'Arco
Richard Wagner – Tannhäuser
Births
February 25 – Eugène Goossens, père, conductor (d. 1906)
March 5 – Alphonse Hasselmans, harpist and composer
March 7 – Edward Lloyd, concert tenor (d. 1927)
March 14 – August Bungert, opera composer (d. 1915)
May 12 – Gabriel Fauré, composer (d. 1924)
June 13 – Effie Germon, actress and singer (d. 1914)
July 1 – Ika Peyron, composer (d. 1922)
July 6 – Ángela Peralta, operatic soprano (d. 1883)
August 10 – Abay Qunanbayuli, poet, composer and philosopher (d. 1904)
August 25 – King Ludwig II of Bavaria, the great patron of Richard Wagner
November 6 – Beniamino Cesi, pianist (d. 1907)
November 8 – Madeline Schiller, pianist (d. 1911)
date unknown – Antonio Galassi, operatic baritone (d. 1904)
Deaths
May 11 – Carl Filtsch, pianist and composer (b. 1830)
July 15 – Joseph Augustine Wade, conductor and composer (b. 1796)
September 23 – Matija Ahacel, collector of folk songs (b. 1779)
October 7 – Isabella Colbran, soprano and first wife of Gioacchino Rossini (b. 1785)
October 16 – Martha Llwyd, hymn-writer (b. 1766)
November 2 – Chrétien Urhan, violinist and organist (b. 1790)
December 2 – Simon Mayr, composer (b. 1763)<ref>Heinrich Bauer: Simon Mayr 1763–1845, Meister der italienischen Oper aus der bayerischen Oberpfalz. (Munich : Bayer. Vereinsbank), 1983</ref>
December 25 – Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst Bach, composer (b. 1759)date unknown'' – Alexander Juhan, violinist, conductor and composer (b. 1765)
References
19th century in music
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] |
254243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20sociologists | List of sociologists | This is a list of sociologists. It is intended to cover those who have made substantive contributions to social theory and research, including any sociological subfield. Scientists in other fields and philosophers are not included, unless at least some of their work is defined as being specifically sociological in nature.
See an automated list of sociologists that can be filtered from Wikidata.
A
Peter Abell, British sociologist
Mark Abrams (1906–1994), British sociologist, political scientist and pollster
Janet Abu-Lughod (1928–2013), American sociologist
Jane Addams (1860–1935), American social worker, sociologist, public philosopher and reformer
Theodor Adorno (1903–1969), German philosopher and cultural sociologist
Richard Alba, American sociologist
Francesco Alberoni, Italian sociologist
Martin Albrow, British sociologist
Jeffrey C. Alexander, American sociologist
Edwin Amenta, American sociologist
Nancy Ammerman, American sociologist
Eric Anderson, American-British sociologist
Elijah Anderson, American sociologist
Stanislav Andreski, Polish-British sociologist
Aaron Antonovsky, Israeli sociologist
Arjun Appadurai, Indian sociologist
Andrew Arato, Hungarian-American sociologist
Margaret Archer, British sociologist
Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), German political theorist
Alcira Argumedo (1940–2021), Argentine sociologist
Aristoteles (384 bC-322 aC), Ancient Greek philosopher and sociologist
Raymond Aron (1905–1983), French philosopher and sociologist
Stanley Aronowitz, American sociologist
Giovanni Arrighi, Italian sociologist
Johan Asplund (1937–2018), Swedish sociologist
Vilhelm Aubert (1922–1988), Norwegian sociologist
Francisco Ayala, Spanish sociologist and novelist
B
Élisabeth Badinter (born 1944), French philosopher and historian
Patrick Baert, British sociologist
Sergio Bagú, Argentinian sociologist
Kenneth D. Bailey, American sociologist
Georges Balandier, French sociologist
Emily Greene Balch, American professor of sociology and Nobel Peace laureate
Robert Balch, American sociologist
E. Digby Baltzell, American sociologist
Eileen Barker (born 1938), British sociologist and professor
Barry Barnes, British sociologist
Liberty Barnes, American sociologist
Roland Barthes (1915–1980), French literary critic, literary and social theorist, philosopher, and semiotician
Robert Bartholomew (born 1958), American medical sociologist living in New Zealand
Roger Bastide, French sociologist
Gregory Bateson (1904–1980), English/American cybernetician
Jean Baubérot (born 1941), French historian and sociologist
Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007), French cultural theorist
Zygmunt Bauman (1925–2017), Polish/British sociologist
Frank Bean, American sociologist
Peter Bearman (born 1956), American sociologist
Ulrich Beck (1944–2015), German sociologist
Gary Becker, American economist
Howard P. Becker, American sociologist
Howard S. Becker (born 1928), American sociologist
Jens Beckert, German sociologist
Richard F. Behrendt (1908–1973), German sociologist
Daniel Bell (1919–2011), American sociologist
Robert N. Bellah, American sociologist
Walden Bello, Filipino sociologist
Reinhard Bendix, German-American sociologist
Walter Benjamin (1892–1940), German cultural writer and sociologist
Albert Benschop (1949–2018), Dutch sociologist
Joseph Berger, American sociologist
Peter L. Berger (born 1929), Austro-American sociologist
Pierre L. van den Berghe, Belgian sociologist
Henri Bergson (1859–1941), French philosopher
Jessie Bernard, American feminist sociologist
Eduard Bernstein, German politician and intellectual
Jean-Michel Berthelot, French sociologist
Andre Beteille, Indian sociologist
Krishna Bhattachan, Nepalese sociologist
Robert Bierstedt, American sociologist
Norman Birnbaum, American sociologist
Margunn Bjørnholt (born 1958), Norwegian sociologist and economist
Donald Black, American sociologist
Peter Blau (1918–2002), American sociologist
Kathleen M. Blee (born 1953), American sociologist
Gisela Bleibtreu-Ehrenberg (born 1929), German sociologist, ethnologist, and sexologist
Danielle Bleitrach (born 1938), French sociologist and journalist
David Bloor, British sociologist
Herbert Blumer (1900–1987), American sociologist
Olivier Bobineau (born 1972), French sociologist
Luc Boltanski, French sociologist
Scott Boorman (born 1949), American sociologist
Charles Booth, British social researcher
Ernst Borinski (1901–1983), German sociologist
Thomas Bottomore (1920–1992), British sociologist
Raymond Boudon, French sociologist
Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002), French sociologist
Victor Branford (1863–1930), British sociologist
Ronald Breiger, American sociologist
John David Brewer (born 1951), British sociologist
Carl Brinkmann (1885–1954), German sociologist
David G. Bromley, American sociologist
Rogers Brubaker, American sociologist
Hauke Brunkhorst, German sociologist
Walter F. Buckley, American sociologist
Michael Burawoy, American sociologist
Ernest Burgess (1886–1966), Canadian sociologist
Tom R. Burns, European-American sociologist
Ronald Burt, American sociologist
Judith Butler (born 1956), American gender theorist
Laila Bushra, Pakistani sociologist
C
Roger Caillois, French sociologist
Craig Calhoun, American sociologist
Michel Callon, French sociologist
Elias Canetti, Bulgaria-born novelist and outsider sociologist
Georges Canguilhem, French intellectual
Fernando Henrique Cardoso (born 1931), Brazilian sociologist, former President of Brazil
Kathleen Carley, American computational sociologist
Antonio Caso, Mexican sociologist
Robert Castel, French sociologist
Julieta Castellanos (born 1952), Honduran sociologist
Manuel Castells (born 1942), Spanish sociologist and urban planner
Cornelius Castoriadis (1922–1997), Greek philosopher and political theorist
Michel de Certeau, French cultural sociologist
Francis Stuart Chapin (1888–1974), American sociologist
Christopher Chase-Dunn, American sociologist
Louis Chauvel (born 1967), French sociologist
Nancy Chodorow (born 1944), American sociologist, psychoanalyst, and gender theorist
Nicholas A. Christakis, American sociologist
Chua Beng Huat, Singaporean sociologist
Aaron Cicourel, American sociologist
Dieter Claessens (1921–1997), German sociologist
Lars Clausen (born 1935), German sociologist
Marshall B. Clinard (1911–2010), American sociologist (criminology)
Clifford Clogg, American sociologist
Richard Cloward (1926–2001), American sociologist
Philip N. Cohen, American sociologist
Ronald L. Cohen, American social psychologist
Stanley Cohen, British sociologist (criminology)
James Samuel Coleman (1926–1995), American sociologist
Harry Collins, British sociologist
Patricia Hill Collins (born 1948), American sociologist
Randall Collins, American sociologist
Auguste Comte (1798–1857), French founder of sociology
Nicolas de Condorcet, French mathematician and early sociologist
Dalton Conley, American sociologist
R.W. Connell (born 1944), Australian sociologist
Paul Connerton, British sociologist
Charles Cooley (1864–1929), American sociologist
Anna Julia Cooper, American sociologist
Lewis A. Coser (1913–2003), American sociologist
Carl J. Couch (1925–1994), American sociologist
Douglas E. Cowan, Canadian sociologist
Maxine Leeds Craig, American sociologist
Colin Crouch, British sociologist
Michel Crozier, French sociologist
Agustin Cueva, Ecuadorian sociologist
Stefan Czarnowski (1879–1937), Polish sociologist
D
Robert Dahl (born 1915), American political scientist
Ralf Dahrendorf (1929–2009), German-British sociologist and politician
Dankwart Danckwerts (born 1933), German sociologist
Randy David, Filipino sociologist
Leonore Davidoff (1932–2014), American-British sociologist and historian
Kingsley Davis, American sociologist
Georges Davy, French sociologist
François de Singly, French sociologist
Régis Debray, French mediologist
Alexander Deichsel (born 1935), German sociologist
Christine Delphy (born 1941), French sociologist, feminist, and theorist
Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995), French philosopher
Donatella della Porta, Italian sociologist and political scientist
Christine Delphy, French sociologist
Bogdan Denitch, American sociologist
Régis Dericquebourg (born 1947), French sociologist of religions
Jacques Derrida, French philosopher
Heinz Dieterich, German-Mexican sociologist
Wilhelm Dilthey, German historian, psychologist and sociologist
Helen Dinerman (1920–1974), American public opinion researcher
Paul DiMaggio, American cultural sociologist
Georgi Dimitrov Dimitrov, Bulgarian sociologist
Stuart C. Dodd, American sociologist
G. William Domhoff, American sociologist
Mary Douglas, British anthropologist and sociologist of perception
Tommy Douglas, Canadian politician
W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963), American sociologist and civil rights leader
Denis Duclos, French sociologist
Otis Dudley Duncan, American sociologist
Mitchell Duneier, American sociologist
Eric Dunning, British sociologist
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), French sociologist
Troy Duster, American sociologist
Maurice Duverger, French sociologist
Jean Duvignaud, French sociologist
E
Gerald L. Eberlein (1930–2010), German sociologist
Alain Ehrenberg, French sociologist
Eugen Ehrlich, German sociologist
Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt (1923–2010), Israeli sociologist
Riane Eisler (born 1931), cultural historian, systems scientist, educator, and attorney
Norbert Elias (1897–1990), German sociologist
Jon Elster, Norwegian sociologist
Mustafa Emirbayer, American sociologist
Hugo O. Engelmann (1917–2002), American sociologist
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), German socialist philosopher
Paula England, American sociologist
Ronald Enroth (born 1938), American sociologist
Kai T. Erikson (born 1931), American sociologist
Fernando Escalante Gonzalbo, Mexican sociologist
Gosta Esping-Andersen, Danish sociologist
Amitai Etzioni (born 1929), American sociologist
Peter B. Evans, American sociologist
F
Orlando Fals Borda, Colombian sociologist
Frantz Fanon, Martinican intellectual and sociologist
Rick Fantasia, American sociologist
Thomas Fararo (born 1933), American mathematical sociologist
Paul Fauconnet (1874–1938), French sociologist
Joe Feagin, American sociologist
Fei Xiaotong (1910–2005), Chinese sociologist and anthropologist
Anuška Ferligoj, Slovenian mathematical sociologist
Florestan Fernandes (1920–1995), Brazilian sociologist
Myra Marx Ferree (born 1949), American sociologist
Enrico Ferri, Italian sociologist and criminologist
Gary Alan Fine (born 1950), American sociologist
Claude Fischer (born 1947), American author of the subcultural theory of urbanism
George Fitzhugh (1806–1881), American social theorist
Crystal Marie Fleming (born 1981), American sociologist and author
Peter Flora, Austrian sociologist
Heinz von Foerster (1911–2002), Austrian/American cybernetician
Pim Fortuyn (1948–2002), Dutch sociologist author and politician
Daniel A. Foss (born 1940), American sociologist
John Bellamy Foster, American sociologist and journalist
Michel Foucault (1926–1984), French philosopher
Alfred Jules Émile Fouillée, French philosopher and sociologist
Charles Fourier (1772–1837), French proto-sociologist
Renée Fox, American sociologist
Andre Gunder Frank (1929–2005), German economic historian and sociologist
Nancy Fraser, American social theorist
Hans Freyer (1887–1969), German sociologist and philosopher
Gilberto Freyre (1900–1987), Brazilian sociologist
Georges Friedmann, French sociologist
Steve Fuller, American sociologist
Celso Furtado, Brazilian economist
G
Luciano Gallino, Italian sociologist
Francis Galton (1822–1911), English statistician
Johan Galtung, Norwegian sociologist, mathematician, and founder of peace studies
Diego Gambetta, Italian sociologist
Herbert Gans (born 1927), American sociologist
Harold Garfinkel (born 1917), American sociologist
David W Garland, British sociologist
Marcel Gauchet, French sociologist
John Gaventa, American-British sociologist
Patrick Geddes, Scottish sociologist
Clifford Geertz, American anthropologist
Arnold Gehlen (1904–1976), German philosopher and sociologist
Theodor Geiger (1891–1952), German sociologist
Ernest Gellner (1925–1995), Czech-British philosopher and social anthropologist
Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1893–1983), Indian sociologist
Anthony Giddens (born 1938), English sociologist
Franklin Henry Giddings, American sociologist
Nigel Gilbert, British sociologist
Charlotte Perkins Gilman, American sociologist
Paul Gilroy, British sociologist
Salvador Giner, Spanish sociologist
Corrado Gini (1884–1965), Italian statistician
Morris Ginsberg, British sociologist
Herbert Gintis, American behavioral scientist
Henry Giroux, American sociologist of education
Todd Gitlin, American sociologist
Barney Glaser, American sociologist
David Glass (1911–1978), British sociologist
Barry Glassner (born 1952), American sociologist
Nathan Glazer, American sociologist
Max Gluckman (1911–1975), South African/English social anthropologist
Erving Goffman (1922–1982), Canadian interactionistic sociologist
Steven J. Gold (born 1955), American sociologist
Lucien Goldmann, Romanian/French sociologist
Jack Goldstone, American sociologist
John H. Goldthorpe (born 1935), British sociologist
Yasunosuke Gonda, Japanese sociologist
Jeff Goodwin, American sociologist
Alvin Gouldner, American sociologist
Ziya Gökalp (1876–1924), Turkish sociologist, writer, poet and political activist
Isacque Graeber (1905–1984), sociologist and Jewish historian
Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), Italian Marxist and social theorist
Mark Granovetter, American sociologist
Richard Grathoff (born 1934), German sociologist and phenomenologist
Andrew M. Greeley, American sociologist, priest, writer
Liah Greenfeld (born 1951), Russian/American sociologist
Leonid Grinin (born 1958), Russian sociologist
Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838–1909), Polish sociologist, one of the founders of European sociology
Dipankar Gupta (born 1944), Indian sociologist
Georges Gurvitch, Russian/French sociologist
Dimitrie Gusti (1880–1955), Romanian sociologist, the creator of the sociological monographic method
H
Jürgen Habermas (born 1929), German social theorist
Jeffrey K. Hadden (1937–2003), American sociologist
Maurice Halbwachs (1877–1945), French philosopher and sociologist
Drew Halfmann (born 1967), American sociologist
John A. Hall (born 1949), British/Canadian sociologist
Stuart Hall (1932–2014), British cultural theorist
Donna Haraway (born 1944), American gender and technology theorist
Eszter Hargittai, Hungarian sociologist
Marta Harnecker, Chilean sociologist
David Harvey, British social theorist
Chandrakala A. Hate (1903–1990), Indian sociologist, social worker, and author
Darnell Hawkins (born 1946), American sociologist, criminologist, and emeritus professor
Peter Hedström, Swedish sociologist
Samuel Heilman, American sociologist
Wilhelm Heitmeyer, German sociologist
Dirk Helbing, Swiss sociologist
Horst Helle, German sociologist
Ágnes Heller, Hungarian philosopher and sociologist
Celia Stopnicka Heller, American sociologist
Will Herberg (1901–1977), American sociologist
John Heritage, American sociologist
Robert Hertz, French sociologist
Danièle Hervieu-Léger, French sociologist
Michael D. Higgins, Irish sociologist and current Irish president
Paul Hirst, British sociologist
Thomas Hobbes, British philosopher
Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse, pioneer British sociologist
Arlie Russell Hochschild, American sociologist
Richard Hoggart (1918–2014), British sociologist
John Holloway, Irish sociologist
Robert J. Holton, British sociologist
George C. Homans (1910–1989), American behavioral sociologist
Axel Honneth (born 1949), German social theorist
Ida R. Hoos (1912–2007), American sociologist
Max Horkheimer (1895–1973), German social theorist
Irving Louis Horowitz, American sociologist
Eugenio María de Hostos, Puerto Rican sociologist
Philip N. Howard, Canadian American sociologist
Spomenka Hribar (born 1941), Slovenian sociologist, philosopher politician, and public intellectual
Everett Hughes, American sociologist
Stephen J. Hunt, British sociologist
I
Octavio Ianni (1926–2004), Brazilian sociologist
Ibn Khaldun (1332/ah732–1406/ah808), North African historian, forerunner of modern historiography, sociology, and economics
Kancha Ilaiah (born 1952), Indian political scientist and social activist
Eva Illouz, Moroccan sociologist
Jose Ingenieros, Argentinian sociologist
Harold Innis, Canadian sociologist who developed staples theory
John Keith Irwin (1929–2010), American sociologist known for his expertise on the American prison system
J
Eliezer Jaffe, Israeli-American sociologist
Jacquelyne Jackson (1932–2004), American sociologist and educator
Stevi Jackson (born 1951), British sociologist
Janet L. Jacobs (born 1948), American sociologist
Marie Jahoda (1907–2001), Austrian-British sociologist and social psychologist
Marie Jaisson, French sociologist
Ayesha Jalal, Pakistani-American historian, sociologist, and professor
Fredric Jameson, American philosopher and social theorist
Morris Janowitz, American sociologist
James M. Jasper (born 1957), American sociologist
Gail Jefferson (1938–2008), American sociologist and conversation analyst
Yasmin Jiwani, feminist academic and activist
Hans Joas, German social theorist
Carole Joffe, American sociologist
Benton Johnson (born 1928), American sociologist
Guy Benton Johnson (1901–1991), American sociologist
Miriam M. Johnson (1928–2007), American sociologist
Rodrigo Jokisch (born 1946), German-Mexican sociologist and social theorist
Frank Lancaster Jones (born 1937), Australian sociologist
Lewis Wade Jones (1910–1979), African/American sociologist and educator
Danny Jorgensen, American sociologist
Paul Jorion, Belgian American sociologist and cognitive scientist
K
Dirk Kaesler (born 1944), German sociologist
Boris Kagarlitsky, Russian sociologist
Irawati Karve, Indian anthropologist and sociologist
Alexandr Kapto, Russian and Ukrainian scientist, sociologist, and political scientist; a diplomat, journalist, politician, and statesman
Elihu Katz, American sociologist
Nitasha Kaul, Indian Kashmiri sociologist, writer, and poet
Karl Kautsky, Czech Marxist theorist
Vytautas Kavolis, Lithuanian-American sociologist and literary critic
Frances Kellor (1873–1952), American sociologist, social reformer, and investigator
Stephen A. Kent, Canadian sociologist
Lane Kenworthy, American sociologist
Abdelkebir Khatibi (1938–2009), Moroccan literary critic, novelist, philosopher, playwright, poet, and sociologist
Aquila Berlas Kiani (1921–2012), Indian sociologist and educator
Baruch Kimmerling, Israeli sociologist
Susan Myra Kingsbury (1870–1949), American sociologist
Julieta Kirkwood (1936–1985), Chilean sociologist, political scientist, and feminist activist
Evelyn M. Kitagawa (1920–2007), American sociologist, demographer, and educator
John Kitsuse, Japanese-American sociologist
Gabriele Klein (born 1957), sociologist, dance theorist, and educator
Bernardo Kliksberg, Argentinian sociologist
Eric Klinenberg, American sociologist
Karin Knorr Cetina (born 1944), Austrian sociologist
Antonina Kłoskowska (1919–2001), Polish sociologist
Karin Knorr Cetina (born 1944), Austrian sociologist
Katsuya Kodama (born 1959), Japanese sociologist and peace researcher
Mirra Komarovsky (1905–1999), Russian-American sociologist
René König (1906–1992), German sociologist
Andrey Korotayev (born 1961), Russian sociologist
Reinhart Koselleck (1923–2006), German historian and social theorist
Maksim Kovalevsky (1851–1916), Russian sociologist
Siegfried Kracauer, German sociologist
Julia Kristeva, Bulgarian-French feminist sociologist
Alfred L. Kroeber (1876–1960), American anthropologist
Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921), Russian anarchist thinker
Thomas S. Kuhn (1922–1996), American science theorist
Eugene M. Kulischer (1891–1956), Russian/American sociologist
Charles Kurzman, American sociologist
Martin Kusch, Austrian philosopher and sociologist
L
William Labov (born 1927), American sociolinguist and dialectologist
Jacques Lacan (1901–1981), French psychoanalyst
Richard Lachmann, American sociologist, specialist in comparative historical sociology
Ernesto Laclau, Argentinian sociologist
Joyce Ladner, American sociologist and activist
Imre Lakatos, Hungarian philosopher
Janja Lalich (born 1945), American sociologist
Michele Lamont, American sociologist
Diane Lamoureux (born 1954), Canadian sociologist, professor, and writer
David C. Lane (born 1956), American sociologist
Ralph Larkin, American sociologist
Scott Lash, American sociologist
Harold Lasswell, American political sociologist
Bruno Latour (born 1947), French sociologist of science
Peter Lavrovich Lavrov, Russian sociologist
John Law, British sociologist
Paul F. Lazarsfeld (1901–1976), Austrian/American sociologist
Gustave Le Bon (1841–1931), French social psychologist
Frederic Le Play, early French sociologist
Emil Lederer, German sociologist
Henri Lefebvre (1901–1991), French Marxist philosopher
Charles Lemert (born 1937), American sociologist
Vladimir Lenin, Russian revolutionary and intellectual
Gerhard Lenski, American evolutionary sociologist
Yuri Levada, Russian sociologist
John Levi Martin, American sociologist
Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009), French anthropologist
Jack Levin (born 1941), American sociologist/criminologist
Barry B. Levine (born 1941), American sociologist
Ruth Levitas, British sociologist
Daniel Levy, German-American sociologist
Lucien Lévy-Bruhl (1857–1939), French philosopher, sociologist, and ethnographer
Kurt Lewin, German social psychologist
Loet Leydesdorff, Dutch sociologist
Li Yinhe (born 1952), Chinese sociologist, sexologist, and activist
Nan Lin, American sociologist
Alfred R. Lindesmith (1905–1991), American sociologist of drug policy
Frederick B. Lindstrom (1915–1998), American sociologist of the arts
Gilles Lipovetsky, French philosopher
Seymour Martin Lipset (born 1922), American comparativist sociologist
Émile Littré, French philosopher and sociologist, disciple of Comte
Omar Lizardo, American sociologist
John Locke, English philosopher
David Lockwood, British sociologist
Joseph Lopreato, American sociologist
Leo Löwenthal, German sociologist
Michael Löwy, Brazilian-French sociologist
Nathalie Luca (born 1966), French sociologist
Thomas Luckmann (born 1927), German sociologist
Anthony Ludovici (born 1882), British conservative sociologist and philosopher
Niklas Luhmann (1927–1998), German sociologist (systems theory)
György Lukács, Hungarian philosopher
Steven Lukes, British social theorist
George Lundberg (1895–1966), American sociologist (scientific)
Rosa Luxemburg (1870–1919), German socialist theoretician
Robert Staughton Lynd (1892–1970), American sociologist
Jean-François Lyotard (1924–1998), French philosopher
M
Amin Maalouf, Lebanese author with a degree in sociology
Richard Machalek (born 1946), American sociologist and sociobiologist
Robert Morrison MacIver (1882–1970), Scottish/American sociologist
Donald A. MacKenzie, British sociologist
Annie Marion MacLean (1869–1934), Canadian-American applied sociologist
Michel Maffesoli, French sociologist
Henry Maine (1822–1888), British jurist and legal historian
Sinisa Malesevic (born 1969), Irish political and historical sociologist
Bronisław Malinowski (1884–1942), Polish social anthropologist
Thomas Malthus (1766–1834), English demographer
Roberto Mangabeira Unger, Brazilian social theorist
Michael Mann (born 1942), British/American sociologist
Karl Mannheim (1893–1947), Hungarian/German sociologist
Peter K. Manning (born 1940), American sociologist
José María Maravall, Spanish sociologist
Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979), German/American sociologist (Frankfurt School)
Władysław Markiewicz (born 1920), Polish sociologist
Dennis Marsden, British sociologist
Alfred Marshall, English economist
Thomas Humphrey Marshall, British sociologist
Everett Dean Martin, American sociologist
Jean Martin, Australian sociologist
John Levi Martin, American sociologist
Harriet Martineau (1802–1876), English writer described as 'first female sociologist'
Vladimir Martynenko (born 1957), Russian sociologist, economist, political scientist
Gary T. Marx, American sociologist
Karl Marx (1818–1883), German political philosopher, social theorist
Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Czech sociologist
Douglas Massey, American sociologist
Brian Massumi, Canadian social theorist
Humberto Maturana, Chilean biologist and sociologist of knowledge
Marcel Mauss (1872–1950), French sociologist
Carl R May (born 1961), British medical sociologist
Doug McAdam, American sociologist
Fayette Avery McKenzie (1872–1957), American sociologist
Robert McKenzie (1917–1981), Canadian Politics professor and psephologist
Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980), Canadian educator, philosopher, and scholar
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931), American philosopher and social psychologist
Margaret Mead (1901–1978), American cultural anthropologist
Stephen Mennell (born 1944), English sociologist
Fatema Mernissi (1940–2015), Moroccan feminist writer and sociologist
Robert K. Merton (1910–2003), American sociologist
Michael Messner (born 1952), American pro-feminist sociologist
John W. Meyer, American sociologist
Robert Michels (1876–1936), German political sociologist
Ralph Miliband, British sociologist
C. Wright Mills (1916–1962), American sociologist
Andrew Milner (born 1950), British-Australian sociologist of literature
Ann Mische, American sociologist
Munesuke Mita, Japanese sociologist
J. Clyde Mitchell (1918–1995), British social anthropologist
Shinji Miyadai (born 1959), Japanese sociologist
Tariq Modood, British sociologist
Abraham Moles (1920–1992), French sociologist, psychologist, and engineer
Andres Molina Enriquez, Mexican sociologist
Montesquieu, French philosopher
James D. Montgomery, American economist and mathematical sociologist
Barrington Moore, Jr., American political sociologist
Edgar Morin, French sociologist
Gaetano Mosca (1858–1941), Italian political and social scientist
Serge Moscovici, French psychologist and major influence in the study of social representations and social movements
Chantal Mouffe, Belgian post-Marxist theorist
Daniel Patrick Moynihan (1927–2003), American sociologist, diplomat and politician
Radhakamal Mukerjee, Indian sociologist
Peter A. Munch (1908–1984), Norwegian/American sociologist
Charles Murray (born 1943), American sociologist
Gunnar Myrdal (1898–1987), Swedish economist, sociologist, and politician
Saud Muhammad, Pakistani Sociologist, sociologist, and activist
N
Ashis Nandy, Indian sociologist
Vicenç Navarro, Spanish sociologist
Victor Nee, American sociologist
Antonio Negri, Italian political philosopher and critic of Luhmann
Oswald von Nell-Breuning (1890–1991), German Roman Catholic theologian, sociologist and social reformer
Otto Neurath (1882–1945), Austrian sociologist and political economist
Otto Newman (born Neumann 1922), Austrian-British sociologist
Norman H. Nie (born 1943), Inventor of SPSS
Robert Nisbet (1913–1996), American sociologist
Helga Nowotny (born 1937), Austrian sociologist
O
Claus Offe (born 1940), German sociologist
William F. Ogburn (1886–1959), American sociologist
Lloyd Ohlin, American sociologist
Michael Omi, American sociologist
Gail Omvedt (born 1941), American/Indian sociologist
T. K. Oommen, Indian sociologist
Franz Oppenheimer (1864–1943), German sociologist and political economist
Hossein Oreizi (1906–1991), Iranian sociologist
José Ortega y Gasset, Spanish philosopher
Stanislaw Ossowski (1897–1963), Polish sociologist
Moisey Ostrogorsky, Russian sociologist
P
Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), Italian economist and sociologist
Robert E. Park (1864–1944), American sociologist
Talcott Parsons (1902–1979), American sociologist
C.J. Pascoe, American sociologist
Jean-Claude Passeron, French sociologist
Orlando Patterson, American sociologist
Karl Pearson (1857–1936), English statistician
Willie Pearson Jr, American sociologist
Jacqueline Peschard (1965), Mexican sociologist
James Petras, American sociologist
Jean Piaget (1896–1980), Swiss developmental psychologist
Andrew Pickering, British sociologist
Trevor Pinch, British sociologist
Michael Plekon, American sociologist
Helmuth Plessner, German sociologist
Joel M. Podolny, American sociologist
Karl Polanyi, Hungarian economist
Friedrich Pollock, German social scientist
Karl Popper, Austrian philosopher
John Porter (1921–1979), Canadian sociologist
Alejandro Portes, Cuban-American sociologist
Adam Possamai, Belgian Born Sociologist
Nicos Poulantzas (1936–1979), Greek political sociologist
Émile Poulat, French historian and sociologist
Walter W. Powell, American sociologist
Ricardo Pozas Arciniega, Mexican sociologist and anthropologist
Harriet B. Presser (died 2012), American sociologist and demographer
Samuel H. Preston, American demographer and sociologist
Ilya Prigogine, Belgian chemist, main contribution to sociology is dissipative structures theory
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865), French utopian socialist thinker
Adam Przeworski, Polish political sociologist
Jade Puget (born 1973), American musician
Robert Putnam (born 1941), American political scientist
Bindeshwar Pathak (born 1943), Indian sociologist
Ankur Pare, Indian sociologist
Q
Sigrid Quack, German sociologist
Enrico Quarantelli, American sociologist
Adolphe Quetelet, French statistician and sociologist
Anibal Quijano, Peruvian sociologist
Richard Quinney (born 1934), American sociologist
R
Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown (1881–1955), British social anthropologist
Charles C. Ragin, American sociologist
Gustav Ratzenhofer, Austrian sociologist
Stephen Raudenbush, American sociologist and statistician
Aviad Raz (born 1968), Israeli sociologist and anthropologist
Sal Restivo, American sociologist
John Rex (1925–2011), British sociologist
James Mahmud Rice (born 1972), Australian sociologist
Sam Richards, American sociologist
Paul Ricoeur, French philosopher
David Riesman, American sociologist
George Ritzer (born 1940), American sociologist
Roland Robertson, British sociologist
William I. Robinson, American sociologist
Terje Rød-Larsen (born 1947), Norwegian diplomat and sociologist
Jesús M. de Miguel Rodríguez (born 1947), Spanish sociologist
Arnold Marshall Rose, American sociologist
Gillian Rose, British sociologist
Nikolas Rose, British sociologist
Paul Rosenfels (1909–1985), American psychologist and sociologist
Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy (1888–1973), German social philosopher
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Swiss philosopher
Rubén G. Rumbaut, Cuban-American sociologist
W. G. Runciman, British sociologist
Arne Runeberg (1912–1979), Finnish sociologist, anthropologist and linguist
S
Harvey Sacks (died 1975), American sociologist and ethnomethodologist
Renaud Sainsaulieu (1936–2002), French sociologist concerned with the sociology of organizations
Henri de Saint-Simon (1760–1825), French philosopher and social thinker
Robert J. Sampson, American sociologist
Pierre Sansot, French sociologist
Boaventura de Sousa Santos, Portuguese sociologist
Giovanni Sartori (1924–2017), Italian political scientist
Saskia Sassen (born 1949), American sociologist
Peter Saunders, Australian sociologist
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), Swiss linguist (structuralism)
Albert Schäffle, German sociologist
Thomas J. Scheff, American sociologist
Emanuel Schegloff, American sociologist
Max Scheler, German philosopher and founder of the sociology of knowledge
Helmut Schelsky (1912–1984), German sociologist
Juraj Schenk (born 1948), Slovak sociologist
Herbert Schiller, American sociologist
Kurt C. Schlichting, American sociologist
Wolfgang Schluchter, German sociologist
Paul Schnabel, Dutch sociologist
Allan Schnaiberg (1939–2009), American environmental sociologist
Juliet Schor, American sociologist
Joseph Alois Schumpeter (1883–1950), Austrian economist
Alfred Schütz (1899–1959), Austrian philosopher and sociologist (phenomenology)
Michael Schwartz (born 1942), American sociologist
John Scott (born 1949), British sociologist
Jean Séguy, French sociologist of religions (1925–2007)
Steven Seidman, American sociologist
Pınar Selek, Turkish sociologist
Philip Selznick, American sociologist
Amartya Sen, Indian economist influential in the sociology of development
Richard Sennett (born 1943), American sociologist and public figure
William H. Sewell, American sociologist
Steven Shapin, American sociologist
Jeremy J. Shapiro, American sociologist
Ali Shariati (1933–1977), Iranian sociologist and writer
Tamotsu Shibutani, Japanese-American sociologist
Edward Shils, American sociologist
Anson Shupe, American sociologist
Volkmar Sigusch, German sociologist and sexuologe
Charles E. Silberman, American criminologist
François Simiand, French sociologist
Georg Simmel (1858–1918), German sociologist and philosopher
Herbert A. Simon, American social scientist
Theda Skocpol (born 1947), American sociologist and political scientist
Albion Woodbury Small (1854–1926), American sociologist
Neil Smelser, American sociologist
Adam Smith (1723–1790), Scottish economist and philosopher
Christian Smith (born 1960), American sociologist of religion
Dorothy E. Smith (born 1926), British/American sociologist and gender theorist
Stephen C. Smith (born 1968), American sociologist and 21st century trend researcher
Tom Snijders, Dutch mathematical sociologist
David A. Snow (born 1942), American sociologist
Werner Sombart (1863–1941), German economist and sociologist
Georges Sorel, French philosopher
Bernardo Sorj (born 1948), Brazilian sociologist
Pitirim Sorokin (1889–1968), Russian sociologist
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), English philosopher
Oswald Spengler (1880–1936), German philosopher
Lynette Spillman, American sociologist
Hasso Spode, German sociologist and historian
M N Srinivas (1916–1999), Indian sociologist
Susan Star, American sociologist
David C. Stark, American sociologist
Paul Starr, American sociologist
Rodolfo Stavenhagen, Mexican anthropologist and sociologist
George Steinmetz, American sociologist
Samuel A. Stouffer, American sociologist
Anselm L. Strauss (1916–1996), American sociologist
Lucy Suchman, American sociologist
Mark Suchman, American sociologist
Thomas Sugrue, American historian and sociologist
William Graham Sumner (1840–1910), American sociologist
Eilert Sundt (1817–1875), Norwegian sociologist
Edwin Sutherland (1893–1950), American criminologist
Ian Svenonius, American cultural sociologist
Richard Swedberg, Swedish sociologist
Ann Swidler, American sociologist
Jan Szczepanski (1913–2004), Polish sociologist
Iván Szelényi, Hungarian-American sociologist
Piotr Sztompka (born 1944), Polish sociologist
T
Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893), French positivist historian and critic
Yasuma Takada, Japanese sociologist
Salim Tamari, Palestinian historical sociologist
Lisa Taraki, Palestinian sociologist
Alexander Tarasov, Russian sociologist
Gabriel Tarde (1843–1904), French sociologist and social psychologist
Sidney Tarrow, American sociologist
R. H. Tawney, English ethical socialist
Dorceta Taylor, American environmental sociologist
Ian Taylor (1944–2001), English sociologist and criminologist
Laurie Taylor (born 1936), English sociologist and broadcaster
Göran Therborn, Swedish-British sociologist
W. I. Thomas (1863–1947), American social psychologist
E. P. Thompson (1924–1993), British socialist historian
Thomas Patrick Thompson (Born 1947) American Sociologist
John Thompson, British sociologist of culture and media
Sarah Thornton (born 1965), Canadian sociologist, writer, and ethnographer
Charles Tilly (1929–2008), American sociologist
Nicholas Timasheff, Russian sociologist
Valery Tishkov (born 1941), Russian ethnologist and sociologist
Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859), French essayist and political analyst
Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936), German philosopher and founder of German sociology
Alain Touraine (born 1925), French sociologist
Peter Townsend, British sociologist of poverty
Judith Treas, American sociologist
Renato Treves, Italian sociologist
Ernst Troeltsch, German sociologist and philosopher
Raimo Tuomela, Finnish philosopher and social theorist
Sherry Turkle, American sociologist
Bryan S. Turner, British sociologist
Jonathan H. Turner, American social theorist
Victor Turner, British anthropologist
France Winddance Twine (born 1960), American sociologist and ethnographer
Edward Burnett Tylor, English anthropologist
U
John Urry, British sociologist
V
Mariana Valverde, Canadian sociologist
Francisco Varela (1946–2001), Chilean biologist and philosopher
Aninhalli Vasavi (born 1958), Indian sociologist
Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), American sociologist and economist
Ruut Veenhoven, Dutch sociologist
Calvin Veltman (born 1941), Canadian sociologist, demographer and sociolinguist
Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, American sociologist
Alfred Vierkandt, German sociologist
George Edgar Vincent, American sociologist
Paul Virilio, French philosopher and social theorist
Shiv Visvanathan, Indian sociologist and social scientist
W
Loïc Wacquant, French sociologist
Peter Wagner, German sociologist and social theorist
Sylvia Walby, British sociologist
Immanuel Wallerstein (born 1930), American sociologist and historian
Lester Frank Ward (1841–1913), founder of American sociology
Vron Ware, British educator and journalist
Duncan Watts, American mathematical sociologist and network theorist
Emile Waxweiler, Belgian sociologist
Beatrice Webb (1858–1943), British socialist and social theorist
Sidney Webb (1859–1947), British socialist and social theorist
Alfred Weber (1868–1958), German sociologist
Marianne Weber, German sociologist
Max Weber (1864–1920), German sociologist
Frank Webster (born 1950), British sociologist
Margaret Weir, sociologist and political scientist
Barry Wellman (born 1942), Canadian/American sociologist
Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862–1931), American sociologist, journalist, social worker
John Westergaard (born 1927), British sociologist
Edvard Westermarck (1862–1939), Finnish sociologist and philosopher
Nathan Whetten (1900–1984), American sociologist and academic administrator
Douglas R. White (1942–2021), American mathematical sociologist and anthropologist
Harrison White, American sociologist
William Foote Whyte, American sociologist
William H. Whyte (1917–1999), American sociologist, journalist and peoplewatcher
Saskia Wieringa (born in 1950), Dutch sociologist and professor
Leopold von Wiese, German sociologist
Michel Wieviorka (born 1946), French sociologist
Jean-Paul Willaime (born 1947), French sociologist of religions
Sidney M. Willhelm (1934–2018), American sociologist, author
Raymond Williams (1921–1988), British sociologist, novelist, and critic
Paul Willis (born 1945), British sociologist and social scientist
Helmut Willke, German sociologist
William Julius Wilson (born 1935), American sociologist
Howard Winant, American sociologist
Christopher Winship, American sociologist
Louis Wirth (1897–1952), German/American sociologist
Edmund Wnuk-Lipinski (born 1944), Polish sociologist
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), British social reformer
Steve Woolgar, British sociologist
Monroe Work (1866–1945), American sociologist
Erik Olin Wright, American sociologist
Robert Wuthnow, American sociologist
Y
Lewis Yablonsky, American sociologist
Kazuo Yamaguchi, Japanese sociologist, Department of Sociology, University of Chicago 1946–
Masahiro Yamada, Japanese sociologist
John Milton Yinger, American sociologist, president of the American Sociological Association 1976–1977
Michael Young, British sociologist and Labour politician
Z
Benjamin Zablocki (born 1941), American sociologist and social psychologist
Mayer Zald, American sociologist
Tatyana Zaslavskaya, Russian sociologist
René Zavaleta Mercado (1935–1984), Bolivian sociologist
Viviana Zelizer, American sociologist
Eviatar Zerubavel, American cognitive sociologist
Jean Ziegler (born 1934), Swiss sociologist
Florian Znaniecki (1882–1958), Polish/American sociologist
Irving Zola, American medical sociologist and disability rights activist
Tukufu Zuberi, American sociologist
Harriet Zuckerman, American sociologist, specializes in science
Sharon Zukin, American sociologist
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254246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruder%20%26%20Dorfmeister | Kruder & Dorfmeister | Kruder & Dorfmeister, named after members Peter Kruder and Richard Dorfmeister, is an Austrian duo, known for their trip hop/downtempo remixes of pop, hip hop and drum and bass songs.
Career
In 1993 they released their first EP G-Stoned featuring the hypnotic "High Noon" and a cover resembling Simon & Garfunkel's Bookends to critical acclaim especially from the UK. Gilles Peterson played the track at first on his BBC show Worldwide.
2010 saw the 16th anniversary of Kruder & Dorfmeister and their record label G-Stone Recordings which resulted in the release of the Sixteen F**kin Years of G-Stone Recordings compilation and the development of the K&D Sessions Live show. The show included visuals by longtime G-Stone VJ collaborator Fritz Fitzke and MC performances by Earl Zinger and MC Ras T-Weed. With performances at The Big Chill, Berlin Festival and other large festivals, the K&D Sessions Live show became successful and a world tour ensued.
Discography
1993 – G-Stoned (EP, G-Stone Recordings)
1996 – Conversions: A K&D Selection (Spray Records/Shadow Records)
1996 – DJ-Kicks: Kruder & Dorfmeister (Studio !K7)
1996 – Black Baby (EP, !K7)
1998 – The K&D Sessions (!K7)
2002 – G-Stone Book (Label compilation)
2008 – Shakatakadoodub (EP, G-Stone, online only)
2010 – Sixteen Fucking Years of G-Stone Recordings (Label compilation)
2013 – Akte Grüninger, sound by Richard Dorfmeister
2020 – Johnson
2020 – 1995
Aliases
Tosca (Dorfmeister with Rupert Huber)
Discography
Peace Orchestra (Kruder)
1999 – Peace Orchestra (G-Stone)
2002 – Reset (G-Stone/Studio !K7)
Richard Dorfmeister vs. Madrid de los Austrias (Heinz Tronigger & Michael "Pogo" Kreiner)
2004 – Valldemossa (Sunshine Enterprises)
2006 – "Boogie No More" (EP, Net's Work International)
2006 – Grand Slam (G-Stone)
2006 – "Valldemossa Remixed" (EP, Sunshine Enterprises)
Voom:Voom (Kruder with Christian Prommer and Roland Appel)
2000 – "Poppen / Influenza" (EP, Compost Records)
2001 – "Ginger & Fred / Influenza Forte" (EP, Compost)
2003 – "Baby 3" (EP, Compost)
2006 – PengPeng (Studio !K7)
References
External links
Kruder & Dorfmeister at Discogs
Tosca – No Hassle website
DJ-Kicks website
Austrian electronic musicians
Electronic music duos
Trip hop groups
Austrian DJs
Downtempo musicians
Electronic dance music DJs | [
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] |
254257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20legendary%20creatures | Lists of legendary creatures | The following is a list of lists of legendary creatures, beings and entities from the folklore record. Entries consist of legendary and unique creatures, not of particularly unique individuals of a commonly known species.
Alphabetical lists
List of legendary creatures (A)
List of legendary creatures (B)
List of legendary creatures (C)
List of legendary creatures (D)
List of legendary creatures (E)
List of legendary creatures (F)
List of legendary creatures (G)
List of legendary creatures (H)
List of legendary creatures (I)
List of legendary creatures (J)
List of legendary creatures (K)
List of legendary creatures (L)
List of legendary creatures (M)
List of legendary creatures (N)
List of legendary creatures (O)
List of legendary creatures (P)
List of legendary creatures (Q)
List of legendary creatures (R)
List of legendary creatures (S)
List of legendary creatures (T)
List of legendary creatures (U)
List of legendary creatures (V)
List of legendary creatures (W)
List of legendary creatures (X)
List of legendary creatures (Y)
List of legendary creatures (Z)
Specific area-related lists
List of legendary creatures from Argentina
List of Legendary Creatures from China
List of legendary creatures from France
List of legendary creatures from Germany
List of legendary creatures from Greece
List of legendary creatures from Hindu
List of legendary creatures from Japan
List of legendary creatures from Malaysia
List of legendary creatures from Manipur
List of legendary creatures from Myanmar
List of legendary creatures from Philippines
List of legendary creatures from Slavic
Creature type-based lists
See also
Bestiary
Lists of fictional species
List of urban legends
Lists of fictional life forms | [
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254258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bossanova%20%28Pixies%20album%29 | Bossanova (Pixies album) | Bossanova is the third studio album by American alternative rock band Pixies. It was released on August 13, 1990 by English independent record label 4AD in the United Kingdom and by Elektra Records in the United States. Because of 4AD's independent status, major label Elektra handled distribution in the U.S.
Bossanova reached number 70 on the Billboard 200. The album peaked at number three in the UK Albums Chart. Two singles were released from Bossanova: "Velouria" and "Dig for Fire". Both charted on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart in the U.S., at No. 4 and No. 11, respectively.
Background
After Pixies finished touring obligations for their second album, Doolittle (1989), in January 1990, band members Black Francis, Joey Santiago, and David Lovering moved from Boston to Los Angeles. Bassist Kim Deal stayed in the UK to record the Breeders' first album in January with producer Steve Albini, although she ultimately decided to travel out to Los Angeles with the rest of the group. Lovering stated that he, Santiago, and Francis moved to Los Angeles because that's where they intended to record their next album. The three band members lived in the Oakwood apartments, along with comic Garrett Morris and members of the band White Lion. Producer Gil Norton also moved into the apartment complex.
Recording and production
Pixies started recording material for Bossanova at Cherokee Studios in February 1990, where the sessions ran into problems. Norton said that nothing could be recorded after 6 p.m. because the recording desk would pick up pirate radio stations. Norton decided to work on overdubs in another studio for a few days until the problem was corrected, but when he returned to Cherokee, he found that any time something was plugged into a guitar amplifier it would generate "this incredible hum". Norton refused to tell 4AD owner Ivo Watts-Russell about the problem until he felt he could address it. One day while visiting a bar, Norton and Santiago met producer Rick Rubin and informed him of their situation. Rubin had his secretary find another studio for the group, and the band continued recording at Master Control.
Composition
One album song, "Blown Away", had been written in Spain in early June 1989 while on tour. The song was recorded with producer Gil Norton, who was specially flown in for the one-song session, at Hansa Tonstudio in Berlin, after their June 19 concert there.
In contrast to previous records, many songs were written in the studio and few demo recordings were created. Santiago said that the band only practiced for a two-week period, in contrast to previous albums, when the band would rehearse constantly in Boston. Black Francis noted, "So I was writing [lyrics] on napkins five minutes before I sang. Sometimes it's good, sometimes not. That's just the nature of that songwriting."
Release
The album was released in August 1990 on 4AD in the UK, and jointly by 4AD and Elektra in the USA. After 4AD re-acquired sole distribution rights for Pixies' back catalog, a re-issued (although not remastered) CD appeared solely on 4AD in the US in 2004. Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab released a version in 2008 that was remastered from the original analog master tapes.
Critical reception
The UK reviews of Bossanova were generally positive. In his September 1990 review of Bossanova, Qs Mat Snow said that "the Pixies are masters of the calculated incongruity," and commented that "they give other rockers an object lesson in the first principles of how it should be done." Terry Staunton of NME noted that the album's production "leans towards the harsh garage grunge of Surfer Rosa, although the songs retain the strong melodies of Doolittle," and said that "Bossanova is the composite Pixies LP."
In comparison to the band's previous albums, Rolling Stone reviewer Moira McCormick described Bossanova as "more of a straight-ahead rock album – by the Pixies' standards, meaning it's still safely off the mainstream."
UK magazine Select made Bossanova their album of the year for 1990. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Track listing
Charts
Certifications and sales
Personnel
Pixies
Black Francis – vocals, guitar
Kim Deal – bass guitar, vocals
David Lovering – drums, vocals
Joey Santiago – lead guitar
Additional musicians
Robert F. Brunner – theremin ("Velouria", "Is She Weird")
Technical
Gil Norton – producer
Alistair Clay – engineer
Steven Haigler – mixing
Jack Benson – assistant engineer
Gregg Barrett – assistant engineer
Moses Schneider – assistant engineer
Andrew Ballard – assistant engineer
Scott Blockland – assistant engineer
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Vaughan Oliver / V23 – design
Chris Bigg – design assistance
Pirate Design – artwork
Anne Garrigues – artwork
Simon Larbalestier – photography
Kevin Westenberg – photography
Notes
References
Frank, Josh; Ganz, Caryn. Fool the World: The Oral History of a Band Called Pixies. Virgin Books, 2005. .
1990 albums
4AD albums
Albums produced by Gil Norton
Elektra Records albums
Pixies (band) albums | [
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254259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20%28music%29 | Air (music) | An air (; also ayr, ayre in French) is a song-like vocal or instrumental composition. The term can also be applied to the interchangeable melodies of folk songs and ballads. It is a variant of the musical song form often referred to (in opera, cantata and oratorio) as aria.
English lute ayres
Lute airs were first produced in the royal court of England toward the end of the 16th century and enjoyed considerable popularity until the 1620s. Probably based on Italian monody and French air de cour, they were solo songs, occasionally with more (usually three) parts, accompanied on a lute. (p. 306). Their popularity began with the publication of John Dowland's (1563–1626) First Booke of Songs or Ayres (1597). His most famous airs include "Come again", "Flow, my tears", "I saw my Lady weepe", and "In darkness let me dwell". The genre was further developed by Thomas Campion (1567–1620) whose Books of Airs (1601) (co-written with Philip Rosseter) contains over 100 lute songs and was reprinted four times in the 1610s. Although this printing boom died out in the 1620s, ayres continued to be written and performed and were often incorporated into court masques. (p. 309).
Baroque and classical airs
By the 18th century, composers wrote airs for instrumental ensembles without a voice. These were song-like, lyrical pieces, often movements in a larger composition. Johann Sebastian Bach composed two of the best-known airs: the second movement of his Suite No. 3 in D major, BWV 1068, which August Wilhelmj arranged for violin and piano as Air on the G String; and the theme of his Goldberg Variations, BWV 988, the Air present also in Partitas BWV 825–830 harpsichord. The fifth movement of George Frideric Handel's Suite in F Major, HWV 348, part of Handel's Water Music collection, is another frequently performed air.
See also
Aria
Orchestral Suites (Bach)
Air on the G String
Notes
16th-century music genres
17th-century music genres
18th-century music genres
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254260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chahar%20Province | Chahar Province | Chahar (; ), also known as Chaha'er, Chakhar or Qahar, was a province of the Republic of China in existence from 1912 to 1936, mostly covering territory in what is part of Eastern Inner Mongolia. It was named after the Chahar Mongols.
Administration and history
Chahar Province is named after the Chahar, a tribal group of the Mongols who live in that area. The area was controlled (in part or fully) by various empires that ruled over China's north including the Han, Tang, Liao, and Jin dynasties. After the unification of the Mongol tribes under Genghis Khan, the area came under Yuan rule. After the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the area was a battleground between the Ming dynasty and Northern Yuan. Then the Chahar tribe became the personal appanage of the monarchs of the Northern Yuan dynasty since the reign of Batumongke Dayan Khan (r. 1479–1517). By the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), Chahar was a "Zhangyuan Special Region" (), although Yao Xiguang () proposed making Chahar a province as early as 1908.
Republic of China era
In 1913, the second year of the Republic of China, Chahar Special Administrative Region was created as a subdivision of Zhili Province, containing 6 Banners and 11 counties:
In 1928, it became a province. The last five counties on the above list (starting from Xinghe) were partitioned to Suiyuan province. And ten counties were included from Xuanhua Subprefecture (宣化府), Koubei Circuit (口北道), Hebei Province:
All banners belong to the Shilingol League (, 锡林郭勒盟).
From 1937 to 1945, it was occupied by Japan and made a part of Mengjiang, a Japanese-controlled region led by Mongol Prince Demchugdongrub of the Shilingol Alliance. The Chahar People's Anti-Japanese Army Alliance (察哈爾民眾抗日同盟軍) was established in Kalgan on May 26, 1933 by Feng Yuxiang (馮玉祥) and Ji Hongchang (吉鴻昌).
1948–1952
In 1952, six years after becoming communist, the province was abolished and divided into parts of Inner Mongolia, Beijing Municipality and Hebei.
Geography
Chahar Province was divided north-south by the Great Wall, with North Chahar being the larger in area and South Chahar, with the capital, Zhangjiakou, being far larger in population. It had an area of . In North Chahar most of the land was part of the northeastern extension of the Gobi Desert.
Bordered
North: Xing'an
North and West: Mongolia
West and South : Suiyuan
South: Shanxi and Hebei
East: Rehe and Liaobei
Notes
References
Provinces of the Republic of China (1912–1949)
Former provinces of China
History of Inner Mongolia
States and territories established in 1912
States and territories disestablished in 1936
1912 establishments in China | [
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254269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20%26%20Ted%27s%20Bogus%20Journey | Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey | Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey is a 1991 American science fiction comedy film, and the feature directorial debut of Pete Hewitt. It is the second film in the Bill & Ted franchise, and a sequel to Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure (1989). Keanu Reeves, Alex Winter and George Carlin reprise their roles. The film's original working title was Bill & Ted Go to Hell and the film's soundtrack featured the song "Go to Hell" by Megadeth, which Dave Mustaine wrote for the film. The film, which partially spoofs The Seventh Seal, received mixed reviews from critics, but has since gained a cult following like its predecessor.
A sequel, Bill & Ted Face the Music, was released in August 2020, with Reeves, Winter, and William Sadler reprising their roles after nearly thirty years.
Plot
The music of Wyld Stallyns has created a utopian future society. In 2691, former gym teacher turned terrorist Chuck De Nomolos attacks the Bill & Ted University and steals a time-traveling phone booth, intending to alter the history of what he considers to be a foolish and frivolous society by sending evil robot replicas of Bill and Ted back to the late 20th century to prevent the originals from winning the San Dimas Battle of the Bands. Rufus attempts to stop De Nomolos but seemingly becomes lost in the circuits of time.
Three years after their adventure through time, Wyld Stallyns is auditioning for an upcoming Battle of the Bands. Though Bill and Ted's current girlfriends and former 15th-century princesses Joanna and Elizabeth have become skilled musicians, the duo themselves are still inept. Despite this, the organizer, Ms. Wardroe, assures them a slot in the contest as the final act and informs them that victory will result in a record deal and $25,000 prize money. Following a party, the duo proposes to their fiancées right as the evil robots arrive from the future. After luring the real duo away to Vasquez Rocks and killing them by throwing them over the side of a cliff, the robots begin working to ruin the duo's eventual fame along with their relationships with their fiancées.
In the afterlife, Bill and Ted's souls are met by Death who says they may challenge him in a game for their souls, but warns that nobody has ever won. Bill and Ted escape after giving Death a "melvin". Attempts to contact the police by possessing Ted's father and a deputy fail, and their next attempt for help at a séance held by Missy ends with them being sent to Hell. Tormented by Satan and forced to face their own fears, the duo realize their only escape is to take Death's offer; he then appears and allows them to choose a game. To Death’s dismay, they select modern games like Battleship, Clue, Electric Football and Twister, beating him every time. Finally, he reluctantly concedes, placing himself at their command.
Realizing they need to locate the smartest person in the universe to help build robots to counter De Nomolos' evil robots, Death escorts the pair to Heaven. God directs the group to an alien duo named Station, who readily agrees to help them. On the eve of the Battle of the Bands, Bill and Ted are brought back to life; they race to the concert as Station constructs benevolent robot versions of themselves from supplies picked up at a hardware store. Elsewhere, the evil robots abduct the girls and tie them high above the stage at the Battle of the Bands, intending to drop them to their deaths at the finale.
Bill and Ted arrive just as the evil robots take the stage; the benevolent Good Robots easily defeat their evil counterparts and Joanna and Elizabeth are lowered by Station before their ropes break. De Nomolos appears in the time booth, preparing to kill Bill and Ted himself, and overrides the broadcasting equipment to send a live feed of their confrontation across the entire planet. Bill and Ted deduce that they can go back in time following the encounter to arrange events for De Nomolos to be captured in the present; though De Nomolos attempts to follow suit, the duo turn the tables by explaining that only the winners get to go back. After De Nomolos is "melvined" by Death and arrested by Ted's father Captain Logan, Ms. Wardroe reveals herself to be a disguised Rufus, who urges them to play.
Acknowledging their ineptness, the duo decide to use the time booth; they immediately return to the auditorium with their families, which now include "Little Ted & Little Bill", after sixteen months of intense guitar training and a two-week honeymoon. Joined by Death, the Stations and the good robots on stage, Wyld Stallyns perform a stunning rock ballad as De Nomolos' broadcast continues, broadcasting their music worldwide and creating harmony. The victorious Wyld Stallyns encounter many perks of fame that help them to fulfill their destinies and create their utopian society with their music, eventually taking their act to Mars.
Cast
Keanu Reeves as Ted "Theodore" Logan / Evil Ted
Brendan Ryan as young Ted
Alex Winter as William S. "Bill" Preston / Granny S. Preston / Evil Bill
William Throne as young Bill
William Sadler as Death
Sadler also plays an English Father
Joss Ackland as Chuck De Nomolos
George Carlin as Rufus
Chelcie Ross as Col. Oats
Pam Grier as Ms. Wardroe
Annette Azcuy as Elizabeth
Sarah Trigger as Joanna
Hal Landon Jr. as Captain Logan, Ted's father
J. Patrick McNamara as Mr. Ian Preston, Bill's father
Amy Stock-Poynton as Missy, formerly Bill's stepmother now Ted's
Ed Gale and Arturo Gil as Station
Tom Allard as Big Station
Michael "Shrimp" Chambers as Good Robot Bill
Bruno "Taco" Falcon as Good Robot Ted
Taj Mahal as Gatekeeper
Frank Welker as the voices of Satan, The Easter Bunny and Station
Tony Cox as Station
Progressive rock/metal band Primus appear as themselves during Battle of the Bands, performing "Tommy the Cat". Musician Jim Martin, at the time the lead guitarist of Faith No More, also appears as himself, introduced by Rufus as "Sir James Martin, head of the Faith No More Spiritual and Theological Center." Candace and Lauren Mead portray "Little Bill" Logan and "Little Ted" Preston; with the characters revealed in Bill & Ted Face the Music to be girls, whose full names are shown to be Billie Logan and Thea Preston.
Sadler had been drawn to the role of Death as at the time, he had been cast as a serious villain in numerous films, but had wanted to return to doing comedy as he had done earlier in the Broadway production of Biloxi Blues. Having enjoyed Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure, he thought the idea of Death as a villain in a comedic film would be a good role for him, auditioning via tape using an accent from Czechoslovakian actor Jan Tříska with whom he had co-performed in an earlier stage production. When he was called in to audition in person, they had asked him to come in aged makeup; Sadler contacted Scott Eddo, the makeup supervisor for Die Hard 2 to make him look authentically old, which Sadler believed helped get him the role, along with the humor he injected into the audition. Sadler said that in the film, nearly everything Death does was written into the script, outside of the same accent that he used from his audition forward.
The name "Station" was the result of a leftover editing typo, according to the movie's writers Chris Matheson and Ed Solomon. They had cut a scene from the script, labeled "INT. POLICE STATION" but had left the "STATION" part dangling, and as they were drunk at the time, found that saying "Station" in a "[tiny] Martian voice" was hilarious, and the name stuck.
Soundtrack
As was particularly common at the time, the soundtrack album focuses on the rock music heard throughout the film. An album of the full orchestral score by David Newman would not become available until 2007.
The song Bill and Ted play for the battle of the bands is "Final Guitar Solo" by Steve Vai, which he wrote to help blend into "God Gave Rock 'N' Roll to You II" by Kiss, although Bill appears similar in appearance to Dusty Hill and Billy Gibbons from ZZ Top. Vai also does all of the guitar riffs when Bill & Ted "air guitar" throughout the film.
There's also a reference to the lyrics from "Every Rose Has Its Thorn" by Poison.
Home media
Bogus Journey was released on VHS on June 6, 2000, then released on DVD, alongside Excellent Adventure, on December 4, 2001. Shout! Factory released the film on Blu-ray for the first time on November 20, 2018.
Reception
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 56% of 54 critics gave Bogus Journey a positive review, with an average rating of 6.00/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey has the same stars—and cheerfully wacky sense of humor—as its predecessor, but they prove a far less effective combination the second time around." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 10 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Desson Howe of The Washington Post called it "an entertaining, surreal journey" that is "funnier and livelier than the original." Janet Maslin of The New York Times called it "amusing but sloppy and overcomplicated". Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of a possible 4 stars, writing, "It's the kind of movie where you start out snickering in spite of yourself, and end up actually admiring the originality that went into creating this hallucinatory slapstick." (Ebert did not see or review the first film.) Dave Kehr, then of the Chicago Tribune, also gave the film 3 stars. He stated that it is unusual for an Ingmar Bergman parody to show up in a teen comedy, and referred to the film as a "genuine pleasure." Gene Siskel, also of the Tribune, gave the film only 2½ stars, but did say that the second film was better than the first. Leonard Maltin also gave Bogus Journey 2½ stars, a half-star more than he gave to Excellent Adventure. Variety wrote that the film has "a few triumphant moments, but not enough to sustain [the] pic's running time."
Marvel Comics adaptation
To coincide with the release of Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, Marvel Comics released a one-shot comic book adaptation of the film, hiring Evan Dorkin to adapt the screenplay and pencil the art. Like Archie Goodwin's adaptation of the first Star Wars film, Dorkin worked from the original script, which included many deleted scenes such as the fears from Hell attempting to block Bill and Ted from the concert, and Evil Bill and Ted killing Bill and Ted before they remind the Reaper that they are owed lives from beating him so many times. Death was portrayed as the archetypal skeletal figure. Due to the popularity of the comic, Marvel commissioned a spin-off series, Bill & Ted's Excellent Comic Book, which kept the talents of Dorkin, DeStefano, and Severin. The series ran for 12 issues, featuring original stories, such as Death taking a vacation, a medieval version of Bill and Ted, Bill and Ted gaining a band manager, a return by De Nomolos, an attempt to stop John Wilkes Booth, and meeting Little Bill and Ted from the future.
Sequel
In 2010, Reeves indicated that Matheson and Solomon were working on a script for a third film, confirming in April 2011 that a draft was complete. Winter said in March 2012 that he and Reeves both like the finished script, which revisits the two characters after the changes of the past twenty years. Despite the script being finished and satisfied by both parties, no specific filming dates were given.
In April 2016, Winter said that he hoped the film would begin production in 2017. Reeves gave an update on the film in February 2017; he said a story has been written for the third film. "Basically, they're supposed to write a song to save the world and they haven't done that. The pressure of having to save the world, their marriages are falling apart, their kids are kind of mad at them, and then someone comes from the future and tells them if they don't write the song it's not just the world, it's the universe. So they have to save the universe because time is breaking apart." On May 8, 2018, The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that Bill & Ted: Face the Music, was officially in pre-production, with Dean Parisot directing, and no announced release date. Both Reeves and Winter agreed to return to reprise their roles.
On February 6, 2019, Production Weekly listed production on Face the Music as slated to start on March 5 of that year.
Because of delays attributable to the COVID-19 pandemic, the release date was repeatedly pushed back. On August 6, 2020, Orion Pictures announced the film would be released on August 28, 2020, both in theaters and On Demand.
References
External links
1990s buddy comedy films
1990s fantasy-comedy films
1990s road movies
1990s science fiction comedy films
1990s teen comedy films
1991 comedy films
1991 directorial debut films
1991 films
American buddy comedy films
American films
American ghost films
American independent films
American parody films
American road movies
American science fantasy films
American sequel films
American teen comedy films
Android (robot) films
Bill & Ted
The Devil in film
1990s English-language films
God in fiction
Films about extraterrestrial life
Films about the afterlife
Films about time travel
Films adapted into comics
Films directed by Peter Hewitt
Films scored by David Newman
Films set in 1990
Films set in the 27th century
Films with screenplays by Ed Solomon
Films produced by Scott Kroopf
Films with screenplays by Chris Matheson (screenwriter)
Interscope Communications films
Orion Pictures films
Personifications of death in fiction
Films about coups d'état | [
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254270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint%20product%20pricing | Joint product pricing | In microeconomics, joint product pricing is the firm's problem of choosing prices for joint products, which are two or more products produced from the same process or operation, each considered to be of value. Pricing for joint products is more complex than pricing for a single product. To begin with, there are two demand curves. The characteristics of each could be different. Demand for one product could be greater than for the other. Consumers of one product could be more price elastic than consumers of the other (and therefore more sensitive to changes in the product's price).
To complicate things further, both products, because they are produced jointly, share a common marginal cost curve. There are also complexities in the production function. Their production could be linked in the sense that they are bi-products (referred to as complements in production) or in the sense that they can be produced by the same inputs (referred to as substitutes in production). Further, production of the joint product could be in fixed proportions or in variable proportions.
See also
Marketing
Pricing
Production, costs, and pricing
Cogeneration
Carnot method
Pricing | [
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254271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan%20Marsh | Stan Marsh | Stanley "Stan" Marsh is one of the four main characters of the adult animated television series South Park. He is voiced by and loosely based on series co-creator Trey Parker. Stan is one of the series' four central characters, along with Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick. He debuted on television when South Park first aired on August 13, 1997, after having first appeared in The Spirit of Christmas shorts created by Parker and long-time collaborator Matt Stone in 1992 (Jesus vs. Frosty) and 1995 (Jesus vs. Santa).
Stan is an elementary school student who commonly has extraordinary experiences not typical of conventional small-town life in his fictional hometown of South Park, Colorado. Stan is generally depicted as logical, brave, patient and sensitive. He is outspoken in expressing his distinct lack of esteem for adults and their influences, as adult South Park residents rarely make use of their critical faculties.
Like the other South Park characters, Stan is animated by computer in a way to emulate the show's original method of cutout animation. He also appears in the full-length feature film South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut (1999), as well as South Park-related media and merchandise. While Parker and Stone portray Stan as having common childlike tendencies, his dialogue is often intended to reflect stances and views on more adult-oriented issues and has been frequently cited in numerous publications by experts in the fields of politics, religion, popular culture and philosophy.
Role in South Park
Stan lives in South Park at 260 Avenue de los Mexicanos with his parents Randy and Sharon Marsh. Randy is a geologist, and Sharon is a secretary at a rhinoplasty clinic. Stan's family includes his 13-year-old sister Shelly, who bullies and beats him, and his centenarian grandfather, Marvin, who calls Stan "Billy". Stan attends South Park Elementary as part of Mr. Garrison's fourth grade class. During the show's first 58 episodes (1997 through the season 4 episode "4th Grade" in 2000), Stan and the other main child characters were in the third grade. His birthday is listed as October 19 (the same day as co-creator Trey Parker), 2001 on his Facebook page during the season 14 episode "You Have 0 Friends". Stan is frequently embarrassed and annoyed by his father's antics and frequent acts of public drunkenness. Stan's relationship to his uncle Jimbo received moderate attention in the show's first two seasons.
While the show's other main characters have a defining characteristic (Kyle is the only Jewish kid, Cartman is an overweight sociopath, and Kenny is poverty-stricken and suffers violent deaths), Stan is portrayed as "a normal, average, American, mixed-up kid".
Stan is modeled after Parker, while Kyle is modeled after Stone. Stan and Kyle are best friends, and their relationship, which is intended to reflect the real-life friendship between Parker and Stone, is a common topic throughout the series. The two do have their disagreements, but always reconcile without any long-term damage to their friendship. As is the case with his other friends and classmates, Stan is frequently at odds with Cartman, resenting Cartman's behavior and openly mocking his weight. Stan also shares a close friendship with Kenny, while Kenny professes that Stan is one of "the best friends a guy could have". Stan can understand Kenny's muffled voice perfectly, and typically exclaims the catchphrase "Oh my God! They killed Kenny!", following one of Kenny's trademark deaths, allowing Kyle to follow up with "You bastards!" Stan is the only character in the group to have had a steady girlfriend, Wendy Testaburger, and their relationship was a recurring topic in the show's earlier seasons. Despite reconciling and declaring to be a couple again in the season 11 (2007) episode "The List" after Wendy had dumped him in the season seven (2003) episode "Raisins", their relationship has received relatively less focus in recent seasons. As a running gag, a nervous Stan often vomits whenever Wendy approaches to kiss or speak to him. Stan is considered particularly attractive by the girls in the class, which is a subtle joke as all of the fourth-grade boys besides Cartman and the two disabled children use the exact same model before hair, clothing, and skin color are added. In many episodes, Stan contemplates ethics in beliefs, moral dilemmas, and contentious issues, and will often reflect on the lessons he has attained with a speech that often begins with "You know, I learned something today...".
Character
Creation and design
An unnamed precursor to Stan first appeared in the first The Spirit of Christmas short, dubbed Jesus vs. Frosty, created by Parker and Stone in 1992 while they were students at the University of Colorado. The character was composed of construction paper cutouts and animated through the use of stop motion. When asked three years later by friend Brian Graden to create another short as a video Christmas card that he could send to friends, Parker and Stone created another similarly animated The Spirit of Christmas short, dubbed Jesus vs. Santa, in which Stan also appeared. Stan next appeared on August 13, 1997, when South Park debuted on Comedy Central with the episode "Cartman Gets an Anal Probe".
In the tradition of the show's animation style, Stan is composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary colors. He is not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand-drawn characters; his character is mostly shown from only one angle, and his movements are animated in an intentionally jerky fashion.
Ever since the show's second episode, "Weight Gain 4000" (season one, 1997), Stan, like all other characters on the show, has been animated with computer software, though he is portrayed to give the impression that the show still utilizes its original technique.
Stan is usually depicted in winter attire which consists of a brown jacket, blue jeans, red gloves/mittens, and a red-brimmed blue knit cap adorned with a decorative red pom-pom. In the rare instances Stan is seen without his cap, he is shown to have shaggy black hair. He was given his full name in the season one episode "An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig", sharing his surname of "Marsh" with Parker's paternal step-grandfather. Parker specified that he came up with the voice of Stan while he and Stone were in film class, where they would speak in high-pitched childish voices, much to the annoyance of their film teachers. They would reuse these voices when South Park debuted. While originally voicing Stan without any computer manipulation, Parker now speaks within his normal vocal range while adding a childlike inflection. The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools, and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader.
Stan's birthday is October 19, which is also Trey Parker's birthday.
Personality and traits
Stan is foul-mouthed (a trait present in his friends as well) as a means for Parker and Stone to display how they claim young boys really talk when they are alone. In responding to certain situations, particularly during earlier seasons, Stan often exclaims "Dude, this is pretty fucked up right here". While Stan is cynical and profane, Parker still notes that there is an "underlying sweetness" to the character, and Time magazine described Stan and his friends as "sometimes cruel but with a core of innocence". He is amused by bodily functions and toilet humor, and his favorite television personalities are Terrance and Phillip, a Canadian duo whose comedy routines on their show-within-the-show revolve substantially around fart jokes.
Stan is an avid animal lover. He is highly against his uncle Jimbo's hunting, and was also known to commit to vegetarianism after feeling compassion for baby calves in a farm, even going as far to hide them in his room to protect them from being slaughtered. Later, he was forced to quit vegetarianism because of a severe illness he developed, however, he still fights for animal rights, becoming a member of PETA in "Douche and Turd" as well as saving whales and dolphins in "Whale Whores".
The only adult on the show that Stan liked was Chef, the cafeteria worker at his school, as Stan generally holds the rest of the show's adult population in low regard due to their tendency to both behave irrationally when subjected to the scams, cults, and sensationalized media stories of which he is often skeptical, and engage in hypocritical behavior. He doubts the legitimacy of holistic medicine, declares cults to be dangerous, and regards those claiming to be psychic mediums as frauds, specifically by declaring John Edward to be "the biggest douche in the universe".
Stan's friendships with the other main characters ended, his parents divorced and he moved out of his home. This episode formed a cliffhanger and set off widespread speculation that the series was coming to an end, but the premiere of the second half of the season resolved the arc as Stan was erroneously diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome and discovers Jameson Irish Whiskey cures cynicism. After struggling to repair his life, he finally explains he doesn't want things to go back to normal, when his parents get back together and his life is repaired, although the end of the episode implies Stan may be permanently bound to whiskey to continue an everyday life.
Cultural impact
In 2014, Stan was ranked by IGN at third place on their list of "The Top 25 South Park Characters", commenting that he "often acts as the voice of reason in the midst of the show's insane events, and in many ways he's more mature than his father Randy". The website concluded that "his history as one of the more stable and thoughtful characters in the series made him the perfect choice for the voice of Trey and Matt's own creative/professional frustrations".
Stan frequently offers his perspective on religion, and he was at the center of one of the most controversial episodes of the series, "Trapped in the Closet" (season nine, 2005), where he was recognized as the reincarnation of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard before denouncing the church as nothing more than "a big fat global scam".
In the show's 23 seasons, Stan has addressed other topics such as homosexuality, hate crime legislation, civil liberties, parenting, illegal immigration, voting, alcoholism, and race relations. His commentary on these issues have been interpreted as statements Parker and Stone are attempting to make to the viewing public, and these opinions have been subject to much critical analysis in the media and literary world. The book South Park and Philosophy: You Know, I Learned Something Today includes an essay in which East Carolina University philosophy professor Henry Jacoby compares Stan's actions and reasoning within the show to the philosophical teachings of William Kingdon Clifford, and another essay by Southern Illinois University philosophy professor John S. Gray which references Stan's decision to not vote for either candidate for a school mascot in the season eight (2004) episode "Douche and Turd" when describing political philosophy and the claimed pitfalls of a two-party system. Essays in the books South Park and Philosophy: Bigger, Longer, and More Penetrating, Blame Canada! South Park and Contemporary Culture, and Taking South Park Seriously have also analyzed Stan's perspectives within the framework of popular philosophical, theological, and political concepts.
References
External links
Stan Marsh at South Park Studios
Child characters in television
Child characters in animated films
Television characters introduced in 1997
Fictional characters from Colorado
South Park characters
Fictional characters based on real people
Comedy film characters
Male characters in animated series
Male characters in film | [
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254273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail%20Kasyanov | Mikhail Kasyanov | Mikhail Mikhailovich Kasyanov (; born 8 December 1957) is a Russian politician who served as Prime Minister of Russia from 2000 to 2004. Previously he had served as First Deputy Prime Minister in 2000 and Minister of Finance from 1999 to 2000. During the 1990s he worked in President Boris Yeltsin's administration in different positions before joining President Vladimir Putin's first administration. Since leaving the government over disagreements on economic policy, he has become one of the leading critics of President Putin and an opposition leader.
In 2008, Kasyanov was a candidate in the election of President of Russia but in the middle of the campaign was denied participation on political grounds. In 2010, he co-founded the coalition For Russia without Lawlessness and Corruption People's Freedom Party "For Russia without Lawlessness and Corruption" and became one of the leaders of the People's Freedom Party. He was an active speaker during the 2011–2013 Russian protests for fair elections. Since 2015, he has served as the leader of the political party People's Freedom Party (PARNAS). In 2005–2007, he was one of the leaders of the opposition coalition The Other Russia and democratic protest movement.
Early life
Kasyanov was born on 8 December 1957 in the settlement of Solntsevo near Moscow. His father was a teacher of mathematics and the headmaster of a local school. Joining the Red Army, his father participated in some major actions of the Second World War and fought until the victory in 1945. Kasyanov's mother was an economist, a head of a department of a governmental construction company (Glavmosstroy). In his childhood Mikhail studied at a music school and played the cello. In high school he played in a rock group. In 1974 Kasyanov entered the Moscow Automobile and Road Construction University. In 1976–1978, he served in the Soviet Army in the guard of honour at the Office of the Commandant of Moscow, which is today the Kremlin Regiment of the Federal Protective Service. From 19781981, he became a technician and then an engineer at the scientific institute of the State Committee for Construction of USSR. At the time he was still studying at the Moscow Automobile and Road Construction University. He finished in 1981. For nine years after graduation Kasyanov worked at the State Planning Committee (GosPlan) as an engineer, economist, leading specialist and chief of sector. In 1987 he was awarded the diploma of the Highest Economy Courses at GosPlan.
Ministry of Economy and Ministry of Finance
In 1990–1993, Kasyanov was working in the State Committee of Economy of the Russian Federation and then in the Ministry of Economy. In 1993 the Minister of Finance Boris Fedorov invited Kasyanov to join the Ministry. He was appointed the head of Foreign Loans and External Debt Department. In 1995 Kasyanov became the deputy Minister of Finance.
In 1994–1996, Kasyanov was occupied with the restructuring of Soviet externals debts (about $150 bn). In 1996 Kasyanov reached an agreement with the Paris Club and the London Club of creditors for a comprehensive restructuring of Soviet debts for a period of 25 years with a 7-year grace period. Thanks to this agreement Russia was able to gain access to international capital markets. In 1996 Kasyanov gave the road show of Russia's economy development prospects at various International finance centers. As a result, Russia, for the first time since 1913 issued securities, eurobonds on the capital markets of Europe and the United States, and Russian banks and companies were able to take cheap foreign capital for investments into the economy of the country.
In 1998, the global financial crisis started and the Russian government defaulted on its debts, rouble was dramatically devaluated. Kasyanov was the head of the working team for restructuring Russian government external debts and of the private banks of the country. At the same time he negotiated with Russian creditors for restructuring domestic debts. Kasyanov negotiated with the International Monetary Fund which granted favourable perspectives for reaching profitable agreements for Russia. As a result of this, the rouble rate was stabilised, which in its own turn helped reduce the inflation and restored production and services parts of Russian economy. These successes proved Kasyanov to be a good negotiator: he was called "the principal financial diplomat of the country". In February 1999 he was appointed First Deputy Minister and in May 1999 President Yeltsin appointed Kasyanov Minister of Finance of the Russian Federation.
Minister of Finance
In June 1999, Minister Kasyanov became a member of the Security Council of Russia. Kasyanov was occupied with the problem of budget deficit and external debt. His time as Finance Minister saw Russia's first non-deficit budget.
In July Russia received the first post-crisis loan from the IMF.
The government of Sergei Stepashin worked for three months; however, Kasyanov retained his post in the new government of Vladimir Putin. He continued the negotiations with international creditors on a global restructuring of the USSR's debts.
The war in Chechnya provoked the suspension of the negotiations with the London club of creditors. Nevertheless, Kasyanov was able to resolve the principal problems of Russian debts in a span of several months. This fact facilitated the transition towards economic growth in Russia.
As a result of non-deficit budget and prudent financial policy in general the multi-month delays in salary payments and pensions were overcome.
On 10 January 2000 Kasyanov was appointed the first Vice Premier of the Russian government. The situation was such that effectively Kasyanov was in charge of the government, serving as its chairman, as Vladimir Putin was the Acting President at the time. He was still the head of the Ministry of Finance.
Prime Minister
On 17 May 2000, Russian State Duma approved Mikhail Kasyanov's Prime Minister candidacy. The Chairman of the Cabinet started pursuing the policy of active collaboration with business community and civil society.
During its four-year term Kasyanov's Cabinet launched a number of structural reforms – tax and budget reform, liberalization of capital control and external trade, customs reform, reorganization of national infrastructure, pension reform, creation of land market and others. Successful implementation of systemic transformation measures led Russia to a trajectory of sustainable economic growth. Inflation was reduced significantly, the economy and people's income grew by one third while oil prices were at the level of $20–25 per barrel.
Experts think that the tax reform of 2000-2002 was one of the most successful reforms of Kasyanov's Cabinet. A flat income tax rate (13%) was introduced. All turnover taxes were eliminated. VAT was reduced to 18% and social taxes — to 26%. These measures together with the policy of strong fiscal discipline significantly increased budget revenue.
In addition to this in 2003 Kasyanov's Cabinet reformed the taxation of petroleum sector and established a special Stabilization fund. As a result, the budget revenue stream from this sector has increased and the Stabilization Fund has started accumulating significant amounts of foreign exchange creating a financial airbag for the country.
It was a time of an overall financial liberalization.
An important achievement of Kasyanov's Cabinet was the successful implementation of the small business encouragement policy. Introduction of simplified taxation system, easy state registration of businesses and ban on frequent inspections by state agencies were among those measures.
It was during Mikhail Kasyanov's time as Russian Prime Minister that the transfer of agricultural lands to private property began. Additionally to that credit support mechanism for agricultural production was introduced and Russia very rapidly again became one of the leading exporters of grain after decades of huge annual import of wheat.
Kasyanov was dismissed, along with the entire Russian cabinet, by President Vladimir Putin on 24 February 2004 after more than three years in office, two weeks before the 2004 Russian presidential election on 14 March. There were disagreements between Kasyanov and Putin on matters of policy. The President stated on national television "This decision bears no relation to any assessment of the performance of the former composition of the government. It was dictated by my desire to once again delineate my position on the issue of what development course the country will take after March 14, 2004."
After leaving the government
On the first anniversary of his dismissal (24 February 2005) Kasyanov gave a press conference at which he said that he might run for president in the 2008 elections. His bid was supported by Leonid Nevzlin, Boris Berezovsky and Garry Kasparov.
In April 2006, Mikhail Kasyanov was elected Chairman of the People's Democratic Union (PDU), a newly launched NGO. PDU was one of the co-founders of the first "The Other Russia" conference in July 2006 and of "The Other Russia" coalition that was set up at the conference. Kasyanov and the PDU were actively involved in the coalition's work and took part in the Dissenters' Marches in Moscow and St. Petersburg – the first protest manifestations in many years. On 3 March 2007, Kasparov and Kasyanov spoke against Putin's government to thousands of supporters at the Saint Petersburg Dissenters' March.
At a presentation in International Institute for Strategic Studies 26 June 2006, Kasyanov criticized Putin's administration. He said:
"Separation of powers has been effectively demolished and replaced by the so-called ‘Vertical of Power' which is based on the false idea that all the meaningful social and political processes must be kept under control by the state. The government and parliament cannot function any longer without daily instructions. The judiciary is increasingly servile. Independent TV does not exist any more at the federal level and is being quickly uprooted in the regions. Moreover, the state-owned companies and the state itself increase their grip over the electronic and printed media. Responsibility of the regional level of power is totally destroyed by the abolishment of direct elections for the governors."
PDU had regional branches in 75 regions of Russia. In June 2007 Kasyanov was nominated by the PDU as a candidate for the presidential elections. In September 2007 the new political party People for Democracy and Justice (:ru:Народ за демократию и справедливость) was established on the basis of the PDU, and Kasyanov was elected its chairman.
2008 presidential candidacy
In 2006, Kasyanov declared that he desired to establish a new political party and run for president in 2008.
Kasyanov left the opposition group The Other Russia in July 2007 due to the group's failure to agree on a single presidential candidate.
Kasyanov established the Russian Popular Democratic Union party. However, the Federal Registration Service blocked the party from participating in the 2007 legislative election
It was not known whether Kasyanov would continue his candidacy after Garry Kasparov entered the race, but on December 8, 2007 he reaffirmed he would run in the election. That day Russian Popular Democratic Union Party nominated Kasyanov as their presidential candidate.
On 16 January 2008, he announced that he had finished collecting the 2 million signatures necessary to run as a candidate. Later that month, however, the Central Election Commission rejected his candidacy on the grounds that 13.36% of the signatures were invalid. and he was disqualified. Kasyanov appealed the decision to the Supreme Court, which rejected the appeal on February 6, 2008.
Kasyanov claimed that the decision to prevent his candidacy was taken by Putin himself, who he claimed was afraid that, in a fair election, Dmitry Medvedev might lose.
Kasyanov described the election as a farce and called for a boycott.
After 2008 campaign
The presentation of Kasyanov's book Without Putin in the Ukrainian capital Kyiv on 18 December 2009 was cancelled merely minutes before its planned opening. Kasyanov's press secretary claimed that the electricity went out in the Premier Palace Hotel on minutes before the presentation was to start and that some 20 young men had blocked the entrance to the hotel to keep attendees from entering.
Fraud accusations and court case
Allegations that Kasyanov took a two percent commission in exchange for ignoring bribes and illegal business ventures whilst he was working at the Ministry of Finance between 1993 and 1999 were made in the "state-controlled" Russian media which branded him as "Misha 2 percent" . In an article by Peter J. Stavrakis entitled "Russia's evolution as a predatory state" (part of a compilation entitled "Russia's uncertain economic future", written for the United States Congress Joint Economic Committee), the allegations are described as credible. A Spiegel article from 2007 notes that Kasyanov insists that his only earnings as a public servant was his government salary and he was only involved in private business venture for "one year" since leaving the post of prime minister. The same article also claims that Kasyanov purchased the state-owned dacha of former Communist Party of the Soviet Union ideologue Mikhail Suslov which was worth several million euros.
On 11 July 2005, the Russian Office of Public Prosecutor started to investigate the privatization of two houses formerly owned by the government. According to allegations first made by the journalist and State Duma member Aleksandr Hinshtein, two luxury government houses had been put up for sale in 2003 by a Kasyanov decree. According to the court verdict of 16 March 2007, he was to return a house and pay 108,135,000 rubles in damages to the government for using the property illegally (approx. USD 4,150,000 or €3,130,000). In 2007, Kasyanov was still planning to appeal.
Threats against Kasyanov
In February 2016, Kasyanov's image was posted online by Ramzan Kadyrov on his social media account, with Kasyanov being in cross hairs of a sniper rifle. This was seen as a threat against Kasyanov. On 10 February, Kasyanov was attacked in a Moscow restaurant by a dozen men who yelled death threats at him.
Timeline
1981–90: Engineer; leading economist; Senior Specialist; Head of Section, Department of Foreign Economic Relations of the State Planning Committee of the RSFSR.
1990: appointed Head of Section, Sub-department of Foreign Economic Relations of the State Planning Committee of the RSFSR.
1991: Deputy Head, Sub-department, then Head, Sub-department of Foreign Economic Relations of the Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation.
1992–93: Head, Consolidation Department of the Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation.
1993–95: Head, Department of Foreign Credits and External Debt of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation and Member of the Board of the Ministry of Finance.
1995: appointed Deputy Minister of Finance.
1999: appointed First Deputy Minister of Finance.
May 1999: appointed Minister of Finance of the Russian Federation.
January 2000: appointed First Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation.
May 2000: Prime Minister of the Russian Federation.
February 2004: Sacked by President Putin along with the entire cabinet.
March 2005: Mikhail Kasyanov launched his advisory firm MK Analytica. He started to vocally criticize Russian authorities for their anti-democratic drift and declared his intention to take part in the presidential elections in 2008 to change the general political course of the country.
April 2006: Chairman of the People's Democratic Union (PDU), a newly launched NGO.
June 2007: Nominated by the PDU as a candidate for the presidential elections.
July 2007: due to the group's failure to agree on a single presidential candidate Kasyanov leaves The Other Russia.
September 2007: Chairman of the new political party "People for Democracy and Justice" established on the basis of PDU.
December 2007: approved by a congress of supporters as a candidate for the presidential elections.
January 2008: The Central Election Commission of Russia barred his candidacy for the presidential elections, citing an excess of forgeries within his required two million signatures.
November 2014: Appeared before the House of Lords EU External Affairs Sub-Committee in London Houses of Parliament to be questioned regarding his opinion as to how the European Union should best respond to Russian military intervention in Ukraine.
See also
Mikhail Kasyanov's Cabinet
Zelyonka attack
References
External links
"The Empire of Freedom", Mikhail Kasyanov Kommersant, 29 August 2006.
|-
|-
"House of Lords EU External Affairs Sub-Committee*, 19 November 2014
1957 births
Living people
Heads of government of the Russian Federation
Russian dissidents
Finance ministers of Russia
People's Freedom Party "For Russia without Lawlessness and Corruption" politicians
People's Freedom Party politicians
The Other Russia (coalition)
2011–2013 Russian protests
2003 Tuzla Island conflict
21st-century Russian politicians | [
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254274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Ninth%20Configuration | The Ninth Configuration | The Ninth Configuration (also known as Twinkle, Twinkle, "Killer" Kane) is a 1980 American psychological drama film written, produced, and directed by William Peter Blatty, in his directorial debut. The second installment in Blatty's "Faith Trilogy" after The Exorcist, it is based on Blatty's 1978 novel The Ninth Configuration, which was itself a reworking of an earlier version of his 1966 novel Twinkle, Twinkle, "Killer" Kane!. The initial 1966 publication of the novel featured an exclamation mark at the end of the title, while all subsequent publications saw it removed.
The first half of the film has the predominant tone and style of a comic farce. In the second half, the film becomes darker as it delves deeper into its central issues of human suffering, sacrifice and faith. The film also frequently blurs the line between the sane and insane. The film was recognized with the Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay and two other nominations at the 38th Golden Globe Awards.
Plot
Sometime in the early 1970s, "toward the end of the War in Vietnam" as stated in the opening narration, a large castle in the Pacific Northwest is used by the US government as an insane asylum for military personnel. Among the many patients there is a former astronaut, Billy Cutshaw (Scott Wilson), who aborted a moon launch and was dragged screaming from the capsule, suffering from an apparent mental breakdown.
Colonel Hudson Kane (Stacy Keach), a former member of a United States Marine Corps special unit, arrives at the castle to take over the treatment of the patients. He meets Colonel Fell (Ed Flanders), who helps Kane acclimate himself to the eccentricities of the patients. Kane pays special attention to Cutshaw, repeatedly asking him why he did not want to go to the moon. Cutshaw refuses to answer but instead gives him a St. Christopher medal. Later, Cutshaw talks with Lieutenant Reno about Kane. Reno, who is attempting to stage the works of William Shakespeare with a cast of dogs, suspects that Kane is crazy himself. Reno asserts that psychiatrists often go crazy and have the highest suicide rate of any profession.
Kane falls asleep in his office and has a nightmare. When recounting it, he explains to Fell that they are the nightmares of his brother Vincent, a former patient and murderer who is now dead.
Cutshaw talks with Kane again, and they debate God and the idea that there is a divine plan. Kane, who believes that the existence of a God is far more likely than humanity's having emerged from "random chance", argues that deeds of pure self-sacrifice are proof of human goodness, which can only be explained by divine purpose. Cutshaw demands that Kane recall one concrete example of pure self-sacrifice from his personal experience; Kane is unable. Kane takes Cutshaw to a church service, which Cutshaw interrupts with several outbursts, and Kane momentarily hallucinates. After returning to the castle, Cutshaw thanks Kane and asks him to send him a sign as proof of an afterlife should Kane die first. Kane promises to try.
When Kane meets with a new patient, the patient calls him "Killer Kane", and Kane flashes back to Vietnam, where he has killed a young boy. The soldier urges Kane to leave, and he screams. In the present, Kane collapses, unconscious. Fell explains to the staff that Kane is Vincent "Killer" Kane and suffered a breakdown in Vietnam. When Fell, who is Kane's brother Hudson, was dispatched back to America, Kane received the dispatch by accident. Kane created a new persona for himself – a healer, like his brother. Subconsciously hoping to heal people to make up for his "murders", Kane returned to the US as his brother. Realizing Kane's mental state, the Army psychiatric staff maintained the charade and sent him to Fell's hospital under the pretext of being its commanding officer. In reality, Fell has been the commanding officer all along. Kane awakens and remembers nothing of the incident.
Cutshaw escapes the castle and visits a bar. A biker gang recognizes Cutshaw from news reports and brutalize him. A waitress (Linda Tuero, Blatty's wife at the time) contacts the hospital, and Kane arrives to retrieve Cutshaw. Kane humbles himself to the bikers to extricate Cutshaw, but the bikers are disgusted by his behavior and assault him. The gang then attempts to rape Cutshaw, causing Kane to snap and kill most of the bikers with his bare hands.
Kane and Cutshaw return to the castle, and the police arrive to arrest Kane for the murders at the bar. Colonel Fell interjects and tells the policemen that Kane must stay since he was provoked. Cutshaw visits Kane, who has wrapped himself in a blanket. Dreamy and distant, Kane disjointedly mumbles to Cutshaw about God and proof of human goodness before passing out. As Cutshaw leaves, Kane's hand emerges from his blankets and drops a bloodied knife. Outside Kane's room, Cutshaw notices a spot of blood on his shoe. Rushing back in, Cutshaw discovers that Kane committed suicide to provide proof of human goodness.
Some time later, Cutshaw has returned to uniform, and visits the now-abandoned castle. After reading a note left by Kane, which expresses hope that his sacrifice will shock Cutshaw back to sanity, Cutshaw finds a Saint Christopher's medal has somehow appeared in his car. He turns it over to confirm whether it was the one he gave to Kane and silently rejoices at what he sees.
Cast
Stacy Keach as Colonel Vincent Kane
Scott Wilson as Captain Billy Cutshaw
Jason Miller as Lieutenant Frankie Reno
Ed Flanders as Colonel Fell
Neville Brand as Major Groper
George DiCenzo as Captain Fairbanks
Moses Gunn as Major Nammack
Robert Loggia as Lieutenant Bennish
Joe Spinell as Lieutenant Spinell
Alejandro Rey as Lieutenant Gomez
Tom Atkins as Sergeant Krebs
Steve Sandor as 1st Cyclist
Richard Lynch as 2nd Cyclist
William Peter Blatty as Lieutenant Fromme
Background
William Peter Blatty's novel Twinkle, Twinkle, "Killer" Kane! was first published in 1966. Blatty said: "I considered it a comic novel, but a great deal of philosophy and theology crept into it. But the farcical elements outweighed the serious elements." Blatty adapted the novel into a screenplay, and intended for it to be filmed by William Friedkin. Blatty said that the script "was what you might call bizarre material. I had hoped to direct it myself. But after seeing The Night They Raided Minsky's I thought the script would be safe with Friedkin. I sent it along to him. He liked it. But we couldn't find a studio that liked it." Blatty and Friedkin would later collaborate on the film version of The Exorcist (1973), with Blatty as screenwriter/producer and Friedkin as director, before Blatty returned to Twinkle, Twinkle, "Killer" Kane!. In lieu of filming the novel, Blatty decided to rewrite it: "After The Exorcist, I decided that I could develop the story a great deal. So I rewrote it and fleshed it out, Cutshaw became the astronaut in The Exorcist that Regan warns about going into outer space and fully developed the deeper implications and theological themes." The rewritten version of Twinkle, Twinkle, "Killer" Kane! was published in 1978 under the title The Ninth Configuration.
In his introduction to the 1978 novel, Blatty wrote:
However, Blatty subsequently stated he preferred the first version of the book to the second: "...the first one is infinitely funnier and wilder, and stranger and more of a one of a kind; the second one has the same plot, but the prose is more finely crafted, I think. In the first one I allowed the comedy to carry me, so I think I prefer that one...I loved the characters and it was a pleasure to write."
Blatty then developed The Ninth Configuration into a screenplay for Columbia Pictures (Blatty did not want to work with Warner Bros. as he had sued that studio over his proper share of profits from The Exorcist). Columbia then placed the screenplay in turnaround; Blatty took the script to Universal Pictures. Universal rejected it; according to Blatty, this was "not because of any consideration of quality, but simply because Columbia had let it go. There was nobody prepared to take a chance on their own judgement."
With no major film studio prepared to fund The Ninth Configuration, Blatty decided to raise the film's $4 million budget by putting up half the money himself, and persuading the PepsiCo conglomerate to provide the remaining $2 million. As writer/director of the film, Blatty was promised complete creative control over the production by PepsiCo with only one stipulation: that the film had to be shot in Hungary (PepsiCo had blocked funds in that country, and reinvested money from the film's production into a Pepsi bottling plant there). Ironically, Warner Bros. wound up initially releasing the film in selected markets, despite Blatty's misgivings.
Casting
Blatty retained Jason Miller, who had played Father Karras in The Exorcist, for The Ninth Configuration. Ed Flanders (once considered for the role of Karras in The Exorcist) was also cast; Michael Moriarty was set to play Captain Billy Cutshaw but dropped out of the production (he was replaced by Scott Wilson, who was originally cast in a different role). For the central role of Colonel Kane, Blatty cast Stacy Keach (another contender for the part of Father Karras in The Exorcist). Blatty had originally cast Nicol Williamson in the role of Kane, before deciding that the British actor was wrong for the part: "I was deluding myself. I so desperately admired [Williamson] and wanted him in my picture that I persuaded myself that he could be an American Marine corps colonel. I realised during rehearsals. He was magnificent, but there was no way he could be an American colonel. He came to Budapest and we rehearsed for two weeks. And we were coming up to the weekend before our first shoot on the following Monday, and then I remembered one of the people I'd strongly considered was Stacy Keach. And we found out that night that he was available and he was with us on Tuesday." Stacy Keach recalls the situation differently: "Ironically, I was the lucky benefactor of a Nicol tantrum in the late '70s. William Peter Blatty had cast him as Killer Kane in The Ninth Configuration (also known as Twinkle, Twinkle, Killer Kane), and the film was being shot in Budapest, Hungary. Nicol was staying at the Budapest Hilton, and was allegedly trying to make an international phone call when, presumably, something the operator did or said infuriated him, causing him to rip the phone out of the wall and toss it through the plate-glass window of his suite. Nicol was fired, and I was hired to play the role. It was a great part, and I often reflected on how Nicol would have played certain moments during the filming. I have no doubts that he would have been brilliant, as he always was. We became friends for a time, and I loved his company."
Tom Atkins had a minor role in the film, and in an interview in January 2009, he discussed what the film shoot was like: "I have always believed that a movie about the making of that film would have been much better than the actual movie turned out to be. It was kind of a zoo from the very beginning. William Peter Blatty wrote and directed it and financed part of it by selling a home that he had in Malibu. His idea of getting a good ensemble effort from his actors was to take people over to Budapest for two months—the part I had might have taken two weeks in the States but he had us all over there for two months. All he ended up getting was 22 really upset, angry and drunk actors who had a lot of trouble showing up for work. I thought that the script was wonderful but I don’t think that Blatty ever got what he wanted up on the screen. I think a lot of us took the job because we would be able to go to Prague and Moscow and bounce around Europe when we weren’t working. He decided that he would put up the call sheet for the next day at midnight so that you couldn’t go anywhere."
Blatty himself appears briefly near the start of the film as a patient pretending to be an army doctor (he is the one who stole Ed Flanders' pants), and would later cast Jason Miller, Ed Flanders, Scott Wilson, and Nicol Williamson in his next film as writer/director, The Exorcist III (1990).
Release and reception
United Film Distribution (UFD), affiliated with the United Artists theatre chain and best known for releasing George A. Romero's Dawn of the Dead, picked up the film for a planned December 1979 release; however, the company dropped the picture, and Warner Bros. subsequently picked it up. After initially poor box office returns in its test markets, Warner Bros. returned the film to Blatty and allowed him to take it to another distributor. UFD re-acquired the rights and released it in other markets under the title Twinkle, Twinkle, "Killer" Kane. It was not a commercial success upon its cinematic release in 1980; however, it received generally strong reviews and a Best Picture nomination at the 38th Golden Globe Awards in January 1981. Although the film did not win, Blatty did win a Golden Globe for the film's screenplay. Blatty re-edited the film for its 1985 re-release, which was distributed by New World Pictures under the original title, The Ninth Configuration.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, The Ninth Configuration has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . Leonard Maltin has described the movie as "hilarious yet thought-provoking, with endlessly quotable dialogue and an amazing barroom fight scene." Blatty's screenplay was later published in 2000 with commentary by English film critic Mark Kermode (Kermode also contributed to the audio commentary and featurette on the film's DVD release in 2002). Kermode has described The Ninth Configuration as "a breathtaking cocktail of philosophy, eye-popping visuals, jaw-dropping pretentiousness, rib-tickling humour and heart-stopping action. From exotically hallucinogenic visions of a lunar crucifixion to the claustrophobic realism of a bar-room brawl, via such twisted vignettes as Robert Loggia karaoking to Al Jolson and Moses Gunn in Superman drag, Blatty directs like a man with no understanding of, or interest in, the supposed limits of mainstream movie-making. The result is a work of matchless madness which divides audiences as spectacularly as the waves of the Red Sea, a cult classic that continues to provoke either apostolic devotion or baffled dismissal 20 years on."
Awards and nominations
38th Golden Globe Awards
Best Film – Drama – Nomination
Best Supporting Actor – Scott Wilson – Nomination
Best Screenplay – William Peter Blatty – WON
Saturn Awards
Best Screenplay – William Peter Blatty – WON
Best Fantasy Film – Nomination
Alternate versions
Several versions of The Ninth Configuration were released in cinemas and on video tape and DVD (one version retained the title Twinkle, Twinkle, "Killer" Kane). In the original theatrical release and the Blatty-endorsed DVD, it is the intention that Kane killed himself with the knife. In some versions released during the intervening years, an alternate ending was used in which it is said (via added voiceover by Stacy Keach) that Kane died of wounds inflicted by the bikers.
2016 remastered edition
The UK company Second Sight Films and the USA company Shout! Factory remastered this film in April 2016 for DVD and Blu-ray. It featured an added memorial dedication to William Peter Blatty's late son, Peter Vincent Blatty, who died in 2006, from a rare heart disorder. He died ten years before the film was remastered. The dedication mistakenly had the theme from the first two logos of Lorimar Television playing over it.
References
External links
TheNinthConfiguration.com – site concerning the movie
– Dedication at the end
1980 films
1980 directorial debut films
1980s psychological drama films
American films
American satirical films
English-language films
Films about psychiatry
Films based on American novels
Films directed by William Peter Blatty
Films scored by Barry De Vorzon
Films set in psychiatric hospitals
Films set in the 1970s
Vietnam War films
Warner Bros. films
Films about marines
Films about astronauts | [
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254279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%27s%20Gold | California's Gold | California's Gold is a public television human interest program that explores the natural, cultural, and historical features of California. The series ran for 24 seasons beginning in 1991, and was produced and hosted by Huell Howser in collaboration with KCET, Los Angeles. The series ceased production when Howser retired in November 2012, shortly before his death on January 7, 2013, although episodes continue to be shown on KCET and are featured on the page at the station's website about his shows.
The series theme song is "California, Here I Come." Typically, it is performed by local musicians who may be from a given episode's locale. However some episodes include an old-time recording of the California state song "I Love You, California".
Production
The minimal production allowed locations and people to remain the focal point of the program.
Howser's archives are now housed at Chapman University in Orange, California, and can be streamed online. The decision to donate them grew out his experiences making an episode of the show.
Episodes
California's Gold is divided into 24 seasons of varying lengths (plus specials), comprising 443 episodes.
In May 2016, KCET showed a "lost" episode on the Charles F. Lummis House, now considered to be the final episode. In March 2018, documentary filmmaker John McDonald released an unofficial episode of the series. "California's Gold: The Ghost Mountain Experiment" documents the life of California hermit Marshal South and family, and incorporates previously unreleased footage produced by Howser.
Related shows
Several related shows were also produced by Huell Howser Productions in collaboration with KCET. These were California's Green, a show about environmentally-friendly measures being undertaken in California; California's Golden Coast; California's Golden Parks; California's Water; California's Missions; Road Trip, a show about sights along California's highways and byways; Downtown, a show about Los Angeles' downtown; Visiting..., a show about sights in the Los Angeles area; and Palm Springs.
References
External links
Huell Howser Archives at Chapman University
California's Gold
Video Podcast Feed – California's Gold
California's Gold episodes available free on iTunes
California Gold History
1990s American television series
2012 American television series endings | [
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254283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vine%20%28demon%29 | Vine (demon) | Vine is a demon listed in demonological grimoires such the Lesser Key of Solomon (including Thomas Rudd's version) Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, and Jacques Collin de Plancy's Dictionnaire Infernal.
These texts rank Vine as both a king and an earl, describing him as a lion riding a black horse and carrying a viper. They ascribe to him the power to build towers, destroy walls, disturb seas, and furthermore answer questions on secrets, witches, and events past, present, and future.
Vine may be derived from or otherwise connected to the spirit "Royne" in the Liber Officiorum Spirituum, who is described only as an earl appearing like a lion-faced soldier (still riding a black horse and carrying a snake). Royne is given the power to build not only towers but houses, and can only answer questions on treasures or secrets but also has love magic, the ability to destroy enemies and consecrate objects (books especially).
According to Rudd, Vine is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Sealiah.
Notes
References
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254284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifrons%20%28demon%29 | Bifrons (demon) | Bifrons is a demon described in the demonological grimoires the Lesser Key of Solomon (as the forty-sixth spirit) and the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (as the forty-seventh spirit), as well as being mentioned in the Dictionnaire Infernal. In these works, he is described as an earl who initially appears as a monster before adopting a more human form. His duties include teaching arts and sciences, including astrology, geometry, and the properties of different plants and stones. He also moves bodies into different graves, lights candles over graves, and (depending on the version) commands either 6, 26, or 60 legions of spirits. According to Rudd, Bifrons is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Ariel.
References
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254289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadinite | Vanadinite | Vanadinite is a mineral belonging to the apatite group of phosphates, with the chemical formula Pb5(VO4)3Cl. It is one of the main industrial ores of the metal vanadium and a minor source of lead. A dense, brittle mineral, it is usually found in the form of red hexagonal crystals. It is an uncommon mineral, formed by the oxidation of lead ore deposits such as galena. First discovered in 1801 in Mexico, vanadinite deposits have since been unearthed in South America, Europe, Africa, and North America.
Origins
Vanadinite is an uncommon mineral, only occurring as the result of chemical alterations to a pre-existing material. It is therefore known as a secondary mineral. It is found in arid climates and forms by oxidation of primary lead minerals. Vanadinite is especially found in association with the lead sulfide, galena. Other associated minerals include wulfenite, limonite, and barite.
It was originally discovered in Mexico by the Spanish mineralogist Andrés Manuel del Río in 1801. He called the mineral "brown lead" and asserted that it contained a new element, which he first named pancromium and later, erythronium. However, he was later led to believe that this was not a new element but merely an impure form of chromium. In 1830, Nils Gabriel Sefström discovered a new element, which he named vanadium. It was later revealed that this was identical to the metal discovered earlier by Andrés Manuel del Río. Del Río's "brown lead" was also rediscovered, in 1838 in Zimapan, Hidalgo, Mexico, and was named vanadinite because of its high vanadium content. Other names that have since been given to vanadinite are johnstonite and lead vanadate.
Occurrence
Vanadinite occurs as a secondary mineral in the oxidized zone of lead-bearing deposits, the vanadium is leached from wall-rock silicates. Associated minerals include mimetite, pyromorphite, descloizite, mottramite, wulfenite, cerussite, anglesite, calcite, barite, and various iron oxide minerals.
Deposits of vanadinite are found worldwide including Austria, Spain, Scotland, the Ural Mountains, South Africa, Namibia, Morocco, Argentina, Mexico, and 4 states of the United States: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and South Dakota.
Vanadinite deposits are found in over 400 mines across the world. Notable vanadinite mines include those at Mibladen and Touisset in Morocco; Tsumeb, Namibia; Cordoba, Argentina; and Sierra County, New Mexico, and Gila County, Arizona, in the United States.
Structure
Vanadinite is a lead chlorovanadate with the chemical formula Pb5(VO4)3Cl. It is composed (by weight) of 73.15% lead, 10.79% vanadium, 13.56% oxygen, and 2.50% chlorine. Each structural unit of vanadinite contains a chlorine ion surrounded by six divalent lead ions at the corners of a regular octahedron, with one of the lead ions provided by an adjoining vanadinite molecule. The distance between each lead and chlorine ion is 317 picometres. The shortest distance between each lead ion is 4.48 Å. The octahedron shares two of its opposite faces with that of neighbouring vanadinite units, forming a continuous chain of octahedrons. Each vanadium atom is surrounded by four oxygen atoms at the corners of an irregular tetrahedron. The distance between each oxygen and vanadium atom is either 1.72 or 1.76 Å. Three oxygen tetrahedrons adjoin each of the lead octahedrons along the chain.
Crystals of vanadinite conform to a hexagonal system of symmetry. This internal structure is often reflected in the hexagonal external shape of the crystals. The crystals are usually in the form of short hexagonal prisms, but can also be found as hexagonal pyramids, rounded masses or crusts. A unit cell of vanadinite, the smallest divisible unit that possesses the same symmetry and properties, is in the form of a hexagonal prism. The unit cell of vanadinite is composed of two of its molecules and has the dimensions a = 10.331 Å and c = 7.343 Å), where a is the length of each side of the hexagon and c is the height of the prism. The volume of each unit cell of vanadinite, given by the formula V = a2c sin(60°), is 678.72 Å3.
Characteristics
Vanadinite is in the apatite group of phosphates, and forms a chemical series with the minerals pyromorphite (Pb5(PO4)3Cl) and mimetite (Pb5(AsO4)3Cl), with both of which it may form solid solutions. Whereas most chemical series involve the substitution of metallic ions, this series substitutes its anion groups; phosphate (PO4), arsenate (AsO4) and vanadate (VO4). Common impurities of vanadinite include phosphorus, arsenic and calcium, where these may act as an isomorphic substitute for vanadium. Vanadinite when containing a high amount of the arsenic impurity is known as endlichite.
Vanadinite is usually bright-red or orange-red in colour, although sometimes brown, red-brown, grey, yellow, or colourless. Its distinctive colour makes it popular among mineral collectors. Its streak can be either pale yellow or brownish-yellow. Vanadinite may be transparent, translucent or opaque, and its lustre can range from resinous to adamantine. Vanadinite is anisotropic, meaning that some of its properties differ when measured along different axes. When measured perpendicular and parallel to its axis of anisotropy, its refractive indices are 2.350 and 2.416 respectively. This gives it a birefringence of 0.066.
Vanadinite is very brittle, producing small, conchoidal fragments when fractured. Its hardness is 3–4 on the Mohs scale, about the same as a copper coin. Vanadinite is particularly heavy for a translucent mineral. It has a molar mass of 1416.27 g/mole and its specific gravity can range between 6.6 and 7.2 because of impurities.
Uses
Along with carnotite and roscoelite, vanadinite is one of the main industrial ores of the element vanadium, which can be extracted by roasting and smelting. Vanadinite is also occasionally used as a source of lead. A common process for extracting the vanadium begins with the heating of vanadinite with salt (NaCl) or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) at about 850 °C to produce sodium vanadate (NaVO3). This is dissolved in water and then treated with ammonium chloride to give an orange-coloured precipitate of ammonium metavanadate. This is then melted to form a crude form of vanadium pentoxide (V2O5). Reduction of vanadium pentoxide with calcium gives pure vanadium.
Image gallery
See also
List of minerals
References
Vanadate minerals
Lead minerals
Hexagonal minerals
Minerals in space group 176 | [
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254290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cord%20%28automobile%29 | Cord (automobile) | Cord was the brand name of an American luxury automobile company from Connersville, Indiana, manufactured by the Auburn Automobile Company from 1929 to 1932 and again in 1936 and 1937.
The Cord Corporation was founded and run by E. L. Cord as a holding company for his many transportation interests, including the Auburn Automobile Company. Cord was noted for its innovative technology and streamlined designs.
Innovations
Cord innovations include front-wheel drive on the L-29 and hidden headlamps on the 810 and 812.
Though DeSoto used them in 1942, hidden headlamps did not reappear as a luxury feature until the 1960s, beginning with the 1963 Chevrolet Corvette. It was followed two years later by fellow General Motors Division product the Buick Riviera, whose GM stylists later stated they were trying to capture the "feel" of the Cord's design.
"Servo" shifting was accomplished through a Bendix electro-vacuum pre-selector mechanism (a type of electromechanical shifting).
Cord L-29
This was the first American front-wheel drive car to be offered to the public, beating the Ruxton automobile by several months, in 1929. The brainchild of former Miller engineer Cornelius Van Ranst, its drive system borrowed from the Indianapolis 500-dominating racers, using the same de Dion layout and inboard brakes. Built in Auburn, Indiana, the Cord was the first front-wheel-drive car to use constant-velocity joints. While commonly used today in all front-wheel-drive vehicles, their first use was on the 1929 Cord. The lack of rear drivetrain components and straight frame (without rear kick-up to clear up the rear axle) allowed it to be much lower in height than competing cars whose average height was about six feet or almost two metres. Both stock cars and special bodies built on the Cord chassis by American and European coachbuilders won prizes in contests worldwide. The L-29 came with full instrumentation, including a temperature gauge, oil pressure gauge, and speedometer on the left with a gas gauge, oil level gauge, and Ammeter on the right of the steering wheel.
It was powered by a Lycoming L-head 120, with the crankshaft pushed out through the front of the block and the flywheel mounted there, driving a three-speed transmission. Gearing in both transmission and front axle was inadequate, and the car was underpowered, limited to a trifle over , inadequate even at the time, and readily exceeded by the less expensive Auburn. Still, the styling was lovely, and despite the wheelbase and steering demanding fully four turns lock-to-lock, handling was reportedly superb. Priced around US$3,000, ($ in dollars ) it was competitive with Cadillac, Marmon, Lincoln, Packard, Franklin, and Stutz; the 1930 Chrysler Imperial and Chrysler Eight copied several styling elements. It could not outrun the Great Depression, and by 1932, it was discontinued, with just 4,400 sold. Wheelbase was 137.5" and the height of the sedan was 61".
Cord Model 810/812
The Model 810/812 are probably the best-known of the company's products. Styled by Gordon M. Buehrig, they featured front-wheel drive and independent front suspension. Having front drive enabled the model 810 to be built so low, to render running boards unnecessary. Powered by a Lycoming V8 of the same as the L-29, the 810 had a four-speed electrically selected semi-automatic transmission,(called a pre-selector because you selected the gear and then stepped on the clutch) among other innovative features like roll up headlights.
The car caused a sensation at the New York Auto Show in November 1935. Orders were taken at the show with Cord promising Christmas delivery, expecting production of 1,000 per month. Production delays pushed the expected delivery date to February 1936. This still proved optimistic – the first production vehicles were actually delivered in April. In all, Cord managed to sell only 1,174 of the new 810 in its first model year. The car is well known for its flat front nose with a horizontal louvered grille design instead of the common radiator-style grille, that made its nose resemble a coffin, earning it the nickname of "Coffin Nose".
Demise of the Cord
Early reliability problems, including slipping out of gear and vapor lock, cooled initial enthusiasm, and the dealer base shrank rapidly. Unsold left-over and in-process 1936 810s were re-numbered and sold as 1937 812s. In 1937, Auburn ceased production of the Cord. A single 1938 Cord prototype with some changes to the grille and transmission cover was built, and it still exists (2015). The Cord empire, amid allegations of financial fraud, was sold to the Aviation Corporation, and E.L. Cord moved to Nevada where he earned millions in real estate and other enterprises.
Revival
The Cord 812 design was re-marketed almost immediately in 1940, as ailing automakers Hupmobile and Graham-Paige tried to save money, and revive the companies, by using the same body dies. Except for their similarity to the 810, their four-door sedans, the Hupp Skylark and the Graham Hollywood, were unremarkable. Retractable headlights gave way to plain headlight pods, and power came from a standard front-engine/rear-wheel drive design. While Hupp Motor Company built a few prototypes in 1939 that gained them sales orders for the 1939 model year they did not have the resources to manufacture the car. Graham Paige stepped in offering to build the Hupmobile Skylarks on a per piece contract basis. Graham built a combined 1850 units for sale in the 1940 model year. Hupmobile closed before the 1941 model came around. Of the 1850 cars produced in the 1940 model year by Graham only about 450 were the Hupmobile Skylarks. Graham continued to build the Hollywood late into 1941. They stopped production in November of that year having only built a rumored 400 units. The Hollywood was powered by a supercharged Continental in line six making 124 HP, almost 50 less than the original supercharged Cord.
Trivia
The plot of the David Niven movie Where the Spies Are features a rare Cord convertible as the incentive for the hero to undertake an espionage mission.
The movie Where the Spies Are was based on the James Leasor novel Passport to Oblivion, which is one of a series of suspense/intrigue novels featuring the fictitious Dr. Jason Love, whose "infatuation" with the Cord roadster played a prominent part.
In the novel Live and Let Die, Felix Leiter drives a Cord of unspecified model when he and James Bond are in Florida.
The original design for the Batmobile was a red convertible based on the Cord 812, which Batman creator Bob Kane considered one of his favorite vehicles and fitting for the millionaire vigilante.
The 1965 film What's New Pussycat? featured a rather battered red Cord 810 convertible with French selective yellow headlights. The car was piloted in several scenes by Woody Allen whose character drove on the Paris pavements (sidewalks).
In the 1994 film The Shadow, Moses Shrevnitz (Peter Boyle) drives a 1936 Cord 810 Westchester that was stretched and custom-painted as a taxi cab.
"bePUZZLED" brand puzzles is a series of puzzles which feature a short mystery story to go along with the picture in the assembled puzzle. A puzzle and story in the series is called A Classic Case of Murder and features a creme colored 1936 810 Cord in the story and pictured in the puzzle. Copyright 1992.
In the 2001 PlayStation exclusive car combat game Twisted Metal: Black. The playable driver No-Face has a car based on the Cord 810,
nicknamed "Crazy 8".
As part of his series Jay Leno's Garage in 2013, Jay featured his own Cord 812 which he had previously written about in Popular Mechanics. The car had been lovingly restored by amateur restorer Arthur Pirre.
On Gram Parsons' 1973 album GP, the song "The New Soft Shoe" is written about E.L Cord and his famous automobiles.
In classic crime film The Godfather, a Cord 810 convertible is briefly seen on the estate of Jack Woltz.
Some sung versions of Rodgers and Hart song The Lady is a Tramp refer to "Lincolns and Cords"
See also
List of automobile manufacturers
List of defunct United States automobile manufacturers
References
Sources
Wise, David Burgess. "Cord: The Apex of a Triangle", in Northey, Tom, ed. World of Automobiles, Vol. 4, pp. 435–7. London: Orbis, 1974.
External links
Auburn-Cord-Duesenberg Club
Auburn/Cord/Duesenberg Museum
Auburn-Cord-Dusenberg Flickr Group
Automotive History Online - Cord History and Photos Albums
CordNet, a site for Cord enthusiasts
History of second generation Cord Automobiles
References
Malks, Josh B. Cord 810/812: The Timeless Classic.
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana
Streamline Moderne cars
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Indiana
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Defunct brands
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1929
Luxury vehicles | [
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254292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cord | Cord | Cord or CORD may refer to:
Cord (unit), a unit of measurement for firewood and pulpwood used in North America
Electrical cable, in electronics
Extension cord
Power cord
String (structure) made of multiple strands twisted together or
thin rope
Cord or CORD may also refer to:
Places
Cord, Arkansas
People
Alex Cord (1933–2021), American actor and writer
Chris Cord (born 1940), American racing driver
Errett Lobban Cord (1894–1974) American industrialist
Ronnie Cord (1943–1986), Brazilian singer
Cord McCoy (born 1980), American bull and saddle bronc rider
Cord Meyer (1920–2001), American CIA official
Cord Parks (born 1986), American professional football player
Cord Phelps (born 1987), American professional baseball player
Cord Pool, guitarist for American red dirt metal band Texas Hippie Coalition
Cord Widderich (died 1447), German pirate
Arts, entertainment, and media
Cord (band), a British rock group
Cord (film), a 2000 film starring Daryl Hannah and Jennifer Tilly
Cordero "Cord" Buchanon, a fictional character in One Life to Live
The Cord Weekly, a student newspaper at Wilfrid Laurier University
Biology
Chronic obstructive respiratory disease or CORD, an alternate name for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Mycelial cord, a structure, used by fungi to transfer nutrients over larger distances
Spinal cord
Umbilical cord, a tube that connects a developing embryo or fetus to its placenta
Organizations
Organizations with the acronym CORD include:
Canadian Organization for Rare Disorders, a non-profit health organization
Christian Outreach for Relief & Development, a humanitarian organization, based in Leamington Spa, England
Coalition for Reforms and Democracy, a Kenyan political coalition
Council of Emergency Medicine Residency Directors, a scientific organization
Other uses
Cord (sewing), a decorative trim made of multiple strands of yarn twisted together
Cord, a short form for the textile type Corduroy
Cord Automobile, a former American car marque
See also
Chord (disambiguation)
Coord (short for coordinate)
Cordage (disambiguation)
Cordé, a fictional character in the Star Wars universe
CORDS (disambiguation)
Rope (disambiguation)
String (disambiguation) | [
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254293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultramicroscope | Ultramicroscope | An ultramicroscope is a microscope with a system that lights the object in a way that allows viewing of tiny particles via light scattering, and not light reflection or absorption. When the diameter of a particle is below or near the wavelength of visible light (around 500 nanometers), the particle cannot be seen in a light microscope with the usual methods of illumination.
In the system, the particles to be observed are dispersed in a liquid or gas colloid (or less often in a coarser suspension). The colloid is placed in a light-absorbing, dark enclosure, and illuminated with a convergent beam of intense light entering from one side. Light hitting the colloid particles will be scattered. In discussions about light scattering, the converging beam is called a "Tyndall cone". The scene is viewed through an ordinary microscope placed at right angles to the direction of the lightbeam. Under the microscope, the individual particles will appear as small fuzzy spots of light moving irregularly. The spots are inherently fuzzy because light scattering produces fuzzier images than light reflection. The particles are in Brownian motion in most kinds of liquid and gas colloids, which causes the movement of the spots. The ultramicroscope system can also be used to observe tiny nontransparent particles dispersed in a transparent solid or gel.
The ultra- in ultramicroscope refers to the ability to see objects whose diameter is shorter than the wavelength of visible light, on the model of the ultra- in ultraviolet.
Ultramicroscopes have been used for general observation of aerosols and colloids, in studying Brownian motion, in observing ionization tracks in cloud chambers, and in studying biological ultrastructure.
In 1902, the ultramicroscope was developed by Richard Adolf Zsigmondy (1865–1929) and Henry Siedentopf (1872–1940), working for Carl Zeiss AG. Applying bright sunlight for illumination they were able to determine the size of 4 nm small nanoparticles in cranberry glass. Zsigmondy further improved the ultramicroscope and presented the immersion ultramicroscope in 1912, allowing the observation of suspended nanoparticles in defined fluidic volumes. In 1925, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research on colloids and the ultramicroscope.
Later the development of electron microscopes provided additional ways to see objects too small for light microscopy.
See also
Dark-field microscopy, a different technique that leverages light scattering against a dark background
Light sheet fluorescence microscopy
References
Nobel lecture of R. A. Zsigmondy: Properties of colloids (including a short explanation of the ultramicroscope)
– Describing the early development of ultramicroscopes and showing the use of an antique immersion ultramicroscope with a video of vividly moving silver nanoparticles of 50 nm size.
Antique immersion ultramicroscope with optics as of the 1912 patent
Microscopes
Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)
Hungarian inventions | [
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254294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacoluthon | Anacoluthon | An anacoluthon (; from the Greek anakolouthon, from an-: "not" and ἀκόλουθος akólouthos: "following") is an unexpected discontinuity in the expression of ideas within a sentence, leading to a form of words in which there is logical incoherence of thought. Anacolutha are often sentences interrupted midway, where there is a change in the syntactical structure of the sentence and of intended meaning following the interruption.
An example is the Italian proverb "The good stuff – think about it." This proverb urges people to make the best choice. When anacoluthon occurs unintentionally, it is considered to be an error in sentence structure and results in incoherent nonsense. However, it can be used as a rhetorical technique to challenge the reader to think more deeply or in "stream of consciousness" literature to represent the disjointed nature of associative thought.
Anacolutha are very common in informal speech, where a speaker might start to say one thing, then break off and abruptly and incoherently continue, expressing a completely different line of thought. When such speech is reported in writing, a dash (—) is often included at the point of discontinuity. The listener is expected to ignore the first part of the sentence, although in some cases it might contribute to the overall meaning in an impressionistic sense.
Examples
In Paradise Lost, John Milton uses an anacoluthon with Satan's first words to illustrate his initial confusion:
Additionally, Conrad Aiken's Rimbaud and Verlaine has an extended anacoluthon as it discusses anacoluthon:
Etymology
The word anacoluthon is a transliteration of the Greek (anakólouthon), which derives from the privative prefix (an-) and the root adjective (akólouthos), "following". This, incidentally, is precisely the meaning of the Latin phrase non sequitur in logic. However, in Classical rhetoric anacoluthon was used both for the logical error of non sequitur and for the syntactic effect or error of changing an expected following or completion to a new or improper one.
Use of the term
The term "anacoluthon" is used primarily within an academic context. It is most likely to appear in a study of rhetoric or poetry. For example The King's English, an English style guide written by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler, mentions it as a major grammatical mistake.
We can hardly conclude even so desultory a survey of grammatical misdemeanours as this has been without mentioning the most notorious of all. The anacoluthon is a failure to follow on, an unconscious departure from the grammatical scheme with which a sentence was started, the getting switched off, imperceptibly to the writer, very noticeably to his readers, from one syntax track to another.
The term does occasionally appear in popular media as well. The word, though not the underlying meaning (see malapropism), has been popularized, due to its use as an expletive by Captain Haddock in the English translations of The Adventures of Tintin series of books.
The poet and critic Rachel Blau DuPlessis defines anacoluthon as "the grammatical switching of horses in midstream of a sentence: beginning a sentence in one grammar and ending it in another." She argues that it involves "the employing of multiple discursive ranges and disjunctive transpositions from one to the other[,] hence in any one poem, far from being in one mode, one register, one stable voice, a writer is like an acrobat ... a Barthesean weaver of a wacky fabric, or someone who 'samples', like a certain kind of contemporary DJ."
See also
English as She Is Spoke
Figure of speech
Non sequitur (literary device)
Rhetoric
References
Aiken, Conrad. Selected Poems. London: OUP, 2003. 141.
Brown, Huntington and Albert W. Halsall. "Anacoluthon" in Alex Preminger and T.V.F. Brogan, eds., The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993. 67–8.
External links
Silva Rhetoricae reference
Figures of speech
Poetics
Rhetoric | [
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254295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamina | Hamina | Hamina (; , , Sweden ) is a town and a municipality of Finland. It is located approximately east of the country's capital Helsinki, in the Kymenlaakso region, and formerly the province of Southern Finland. The municipality's population is (as of ) and covers an area of , of which
is water. The population density is
. The population of the central town is approximately 10,000. The municipal language of Hamina is Finnish.
Highway 7 (E18) is the town's road connection to Helsinki, after it was upgraded to a continuous motorway in September 2014. Hamina is also the base of one of the most important harbors of Finland, the Port of Hamina-Kotka. The port specializes in forest products and the transit of cargo to Russia. One of Google's five European data centers is situated in Hamina.
History
Vehkalahti was as a municipality first mentioned in 1336. At the proposal of Count Peter Brahe, the area surrounding the Vehkalahti church (today St. Mary's Church) received its charter in 1653 through the establishment of Vehkalahden Uusikaupunki (Veckelax Nystad in Swedish, "The New Town of Vehkalahti"). The town was later destroyed during the Great Northern War in 1712.
As the commercially vibrant city of Vyborg was lost to Russia in 1721, Fredrikshamn (named in 1723 in the honor of King Frederick I of Sweden) was dedicated to replace it. The town, hitherto a small domestic port with restricted trading privilege's, was granted extensive rights to conduct foreign trade. The Finnish speaking population soon abbreviated the name of the town to Hamina. The reconstruction of the town was completed between 1722 and 1724. The star-shaped fortress and the circular town plan, designed by Axel Löwen, were based on Central European and Italian Renaissance concepts from the 16th century. Fortress towns with a circular street plan like this are quite rare; one example is Palmanova in Italy.
In 1743, Hamina was surrendered to Russia, after the Russo–Swedish War, 1741–1743, and the town of Loviisa was the next Swedish candidate for an Eastern-Finnish trade center. Hamina became a Russian frontier town, for which a fortress was desirable.
The Treaty of Fredrikshamn (1809), by which Sweden ceded Finland, including parts of the province of Lappland and Åland, was signed in Hamina. Thus Sweden was split, and the eastern half was formed into the Grand Duchy of Finland, an autonomous part of the Russian Empire. In 1812, the previously conquered territories known as Old Finland (including Hamina) were joined to the Grand Duchy.
Hamina Cadet School was founded in 1819 and was in operation until 1903. In 1920 the Reserve Officer School began in the same facilities.
Because the town was founded next to the Vehkalahti Church, the municipal center had always been inside the town borders. Vehkalahti and Hamina were consolidated in 2003, and the old coat of arms was replaced with Vehkalahti's coat of arms. The old coat of arms was readopted in January 2013.
Results of the 2021 Finnish municipal elections, resulted in the True Finns being the largest group on Hamina council, in Hamina.
Main sights
Town Hall: Originally built in 1798, it was renovated by Carl Ludvig Engel in 1840.
Reserve Officer School: The site which trains reserve officers in the Army Academy of the Finnish Army
Town Museum: It is located in a building where King Gustav III of Sweden and Empress Catherine II of Russia met in 1783.
Shopkeeper's Museum
Google Data Center: (former Stora Enso pulp factory)
Hamina Fortress: Built in the 18th century, it is one of the star forts in Finland. The corners of the fortress form six bastions, named after towns in Finland. The Central Bastion was added at the end of the 18th century, and is currently used for cultural events.
Churches
St. Mary's Church, previously known as Vehkalahti Church, is the oldest building in Kymenlaakso. It was originally built in the Middle Ages, but it was burnt in 1821 and the current neoclassical exterior is designed by Carl Ludvig Engel and completed in 1828. The church has a museum dedicated to the church life from the 18th century onwards.
St. John's Church, formerly known as Hamina Church, was built between 1841-1843. It was designed by Carl Ludvig Engel in the neoclassical style.
Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, the Orthodox church in Hamina, was built in 1837. It was designed by Italian-French architect Louis Visconti. The architecture of the church is combination of neoclassical and Byzantine elements.
Twin towns
Vordingborg, Denmark
Falun, Sweden
Paide, Estonia
Røros, Norway
Notable people
Magnus Enckell (1870–1925), symbolist painter
Simo Häyhä (1905–2002), a farmer and military sniper
Pelle Miljoona (born 1955), a musician
Hugo Simberg (1873-1917), a painter
Emilie Mechelin (1838-1917), opera singer and pedagogue
Leo Mechelin (1839-1914), a professor, statesman, senator and liberal reformer
Meri Toppelius (1863–1896), educational theorist
See also
Maarianhamina
References
External links
Official website of Hamina in English
Guide map of Hamina
Map of Hamina
Hamina-Fredrikshamn at Northern Fortress
Cities and towns in Finland
Populated coastal places in Finland
Grand Duchy of Finland
Port cities and towns in Finland
Populated places established in 1653
1653 establishments in Sweden | [
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254297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Fredrikshamn | Treaty of Fredrikshamn | The Treaty of Fredrikshamn (; ), or the Treaty of Hamina (), was a peace treaty concluded between Sweden and Imperial Russia on 17 September 1809. The treaty concluded the Finnish War and was signed in the Finnish town of Hamina (). Russia was represented by Nikolai Rumyantsev and David Alopaeus (Russian ambassador to Stockholm), while Sweden by Infantry General Kurt von Stedingk (former Swedish ambassador to Petersburg) and Colonel Anders Fredrik Skjöldebrand.
In the treaty, Sweden ceded Finnish territories to Russia.
Terms
According to the treaty Sweden ceded parts of the provinces Lappland and Västerbotten (east of Tornio River and Muonio River), Åland, and all provinces east thereof. The ceded territories came to constitute the Grand Duchy of Finland, to which also the Russian 18th century conquests of Karelia, including small parts of Nyland and Savonia (later to be called Old Finland), were joined in 1812 as Viborg County. Together with the Diet of Porvoo (1809), and the Oath of the Sovereign, the Treaty of Fredrikshamn constitutes the cornerstone for the autonomous Grand Duchy, its own administration and institutions, and thereby a start of the development which would lead to the revival of Finnish culture, to equal position of the Finnish language, and ultimately in 1917 to Finland's independence.
A reference to Emperor Alexander's promise to retain old laws and privileges in Finland was included, but the treaty overstepped any formal guarantees of the legal position of Finland's inhabitants. The Russians refused, and the Swedes were not in a position to insist. Similar clauses had been common in peace treaties, but they were also regularly circumvented. At the period of Russification of Finland, 90 years later, the Russian government argued that the treaty was not violated and hence no outside party had any right to intervene, the question being solely a matter of the Emperor who had granted the original promise.
During the negotiations, Swedish representatives had namely endeavoured to escape the loss of the Åland islands, "the fore-posts of Stockholm," as Napoleon rightly described them. The Åland islands were culturally, ethnically and linguistically purely Swedish, but such facts were of no significance at that time. In the course of the 19th century, it would also turn out that the Åland islands were a British interest, which, after the Crimean War, led to the demilitarization of the islands according to the Åland Convention included in the Treaty of Paris (1856). During the War of the Sixth Coalition, Russia and Sweden concluded an alliance directed against France (5 April 1812). They planned to effect a landing in Swedish Pomerania, which had been overrun by the French. Russia promised to press Denmark into ceding Norway to Sweden. It was understood that Great Britain would join the treaty too, but that never came to pass. Other plans failed to materialise due to Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
Notes
References
Похлебкин В.В. (1995) Внешняя политика Руси, России и СССР за 1000 лет в именах, датах, фактах: Справочник, М.: Междунар. отношения —
Pokhlebkin, V.V. (1995) Foreign policy of Russia, Russia and the USSR in 1000 years: the names, the dates, the facts: a reference book, Moscow : International Relations,
External links
The Original Text of the Peace Treaty
1809 treaties
Napoleonic Wars treaties
Peace treaties of Russia
Peace treaties of Sweden
Treaties of the Russian Empire
Treaty of Fredrikshamn
Treaty of Fredrikshamn
Treaty of Fredrikshamn
Treaty of Fredrikshamn
Treaty of Fredrikshamn | [
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254299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curry%E2%80%93Howard%20correspondence | Curry–Howard correspondence | In programming language theory and proof theory, the Curry–Howard correspondence (also known as the Curry–Howard isomorphism or equivalence, or the proofs-as-programs and propositions- or formulae-as-types interpretation) is the direct relationship between computer programs and mathematical proofs.
It is a generalization of a syntactic analogy between systems of formal logic and computational calculi that was first discovered by the American mathematician Haskell Curry and the logician William Alvin Howard. It is the link between logic and computation that is usually attributed to Curry and Howard, although the idea is related to the operational interpretation of intuitionistic logic given in various formulations by L. E. J. Brouwer, Arend Heyting and Andrey Kolmogorov (see Brouwer–Heyting–Kolmogorov interpretation) and Stephen Kleene (see Realizability). The relationship has been extended to include category theory as the three-way Curry–Howard–Lambek correspondence.
Origin, scope, and consequences
The beginnings of the Curry–Howard correspondence lie in several observations:
In 1934 Curry observes that the types of the combinators could be seen as axiom-schemes for intuitionistic implicational logic.
In 1958 he observes that a certain kind of proof system, referred to as Hilbert-style deduction systems, coincides on some fragment to the typed fragment of a standard model of computation known as combinatory logic.
In 1969 Howard observes that another, more "high-level" proof system, referred to as natural deduction, can be directly interpreted in its intuitionistic version as a typed variant of the model of computation known as lambda calculus.
In other words, the Curry–Howard correspondence is the observation that two families of seemingly unrelated formalisms—namely, the proof systems on one hand, and the models of computation on the other—are in fact the same kind of mathematical objects.
If one abstracts on the peculiarities of either formalism, the following generalization arises: a proof is a program, and the formula it proves is the type for the program. More informally, this can be seen as an analogy that states that the return type of a function (i.e., the type of values returned by a function) is analogous to a logical theorem, subject to hypotheses corresponding to the types of the argument values passed to the function; and that the program to compute that function is analogous to a proof of that theorem. This sets a form of logic programming on a rigorous foundation: proofs can be represented as programs, and especially as lambda terms, or proofs can be run.
The correspondence has been the starting point of a large spectrum of new research after its discovery, leading in particular to a new class of formal systems designed to act both as a proof system and as a typed functional programming language. This includes Martin-Löf's intuitionistic type theory and Coquand's Calculus of Constructions, two calculi in which proofs are regular objects of the discourse and in which one can state properties of proofs the same way as of any program. This field of research is usually referred to as modern type theory.
Such typed lambda calculi derived from the Curry–Howard paradigm led to software like Coq in which proofs seen as programs can be formalized, checked, and run.
A converse direction is to use a program to extract a proof, given its correctness—an area of research closely related to proof-carrying code. This is only feasible if the programming language the program is written for is very richly typed: the development of such type systems has been partly motivated by the wish to make the Curry–Howard correspondence practically relevant.
The Curry–Howard correspondence also raised new questions regarding the computational content of proof concepts that were not covered by the original works of Curry and Howard. In particular, classical logic has been shown to correspond to the ability to manipulate the continuation of programs and the symmetry of sequent calculus to express the duality between the two evaluation strategies known as call-by-name and call-by-value.
Speculatively, the Curry–Howard correspondence might be expected to lead to a substantial unification between mathematical logic and foundational computer science:
Hilbert-style logic and natural deduction are but two kinds of proof systems among a large family of formalisms. Alternative syntaxes include sequent calculus, proof nets, calculus of structures, etc. If one admits the Curry–Howard correspondence as the general principle that any proof system hides a model of computation, a theory of the underlying untyped computational structure of these kinds of proof system should be possible. Then, a natural question is whether something mathematically interesting can be said about these underlying computational calculi.
Conversely, combinatory logic and simply typed lambda calculus are not the only models of computation, either. Girard's linear logic was developed from the fine analysis of the use of resources in some models of lambda calculus; is there typed version of Turing's machine that would behave as a proof system? Typed assembly languages are such an instance of "low-level" models of computation that carry types.
Because of the possibility of writing non-terminating programs, Turing-complete models of computation (such as languages with arbitrary recursive functions) must be interpreted with care, as naive application of the correspondence leads to an inconsistent logic. The best way of dealing with arbitrary computation from a logical point of view is still an actively debated research question, but one popular approach is based on using monads to segregate provably terminating from potentially non-terminating code (an approach that also generalizes to much richer models of computation, and is itself related to modal logic by a natural extension of the Curry–Howard isomorphism). A more radical approach, advocated by total functional programming, is to eliminate unrestricted recursion (and forgo Turing completeness, although still retaining high computational complexity), using more controlled corecursion wherever non-terminating behavior is actually desired.
General formulation
In its more general formulation, the Curry–Howard correspondence is a correspondence between formal proof calculi and type systems for models of computation. In particular, it splits into two correspondences. One at the level of formulas and types that is independent of which particular proof system or model of computation is considered, and one at the level of proofs and programs which, this time, is specific to the particular choice of proof system and model of computation considered.
At the level of formulas and types, the correspondence says that implication behaves the same as a function type, conjunction as a "product" type (this may be called a tuple, a struct, a list, or some other term depending on the language), disjunction as a sum type (this type may be called a union), the false formula as the empty type and the true formula as the singleton type (whose sole member is the null object). Quantifiers correspond to dependent function space or products (as appropriate).
This is summarized in the following table:
At the level of proof systems and models of computations, the correspondence mainly shows the identity of structure, first, between some particular formulations of systems known as Hilbert-style deduction system and combinatory logic, and, secondly, between some particular formulations of systems known as natural deduction and lambda calculus.
Between the natural deduction system and the lambda calculus there are the following correspondences:
Corresponding systems
Hilbert-style deduction systems and combinatory logic
It was at the beginning a simple remark in Curry and Feys's 1958 book on combinatory logic: the simplest types for the basic combinators K and S of combinatory logic surprisingly corresponded to the respective axiom schemes α → (β → α) and (α → (β → γ)) → ((α → β) → (α → γ)) used in Hilbert-style deduction systems. For this reason, these schemes are now often called axioms K and S. Examples of programs seen as proofs in a Hilbert-style logic are given below.
If one restricts to the implicational intuitionistic fragment, a simple way to formalize logic in Hilbert's style is as follows. Let Γ be a finite collection of formulas, considered as hypotheses. Then δ is derivable from Γ, denoted Γ ⊢ δ, in the following cases:
δ is an hypothesis, i.e. it is a formula of Γ,
δ is an instance of an axiom scheme; i.e., under the most common axiom system:
δ has the form α → (β → α), or
δ has the form (α → (β → γ)) → ((α → β) → (α → γ)),
δ follows by deduction, i.e., for some α, both α → δ and α are already derivable from Γ (this is the rule of modus ponens)
This can be formalized using inference rules, as in the left column of the following table.
Typed combinatory logic can be formulated using a similar syntax: let Γ be a finite collection of variables, annotated with their types. A term T (also annotated with its type) will depend on these variables [Γ ⊢ T:δ] when:
T is one of the variables in Γ,
T is a basic combinator; i.e., under the most common combinator basis:
T is K:α → (β → α) [where α and β denote the types of its arguments], or
T is S:(α → (β → γ)) → ((α → β) → (α → γ)),
T is the composition of two subterms which depend on the variables in Γ.
The generation rules defined here are given in the right-column below. Curry's remark simply states that both columns are in one-to-one correspondence. The restriction of the correspondence to intuitionistic logic means that some classical tautologies, such as Peirce's law ((α → β) → α) → α, are excluded from the correspondence.
Seen at a more abstract level, the correspondence can be restated as shown in the following table. Especially, the deduction theorem specific to Hilbert-style logic matches the process of abstraction elimination of combinatory logic.
Thanks to the correspondence, results from combinatory logic can be transferred to Hilbert-style logic and vice versa. For instance, the notion of reduction of terms in combinatory logic can be transferred to Hilbert-style logic and it provides a way to canonically transform proofs into other proofs of the same statement. One can also transfer the notion of normal terms to a notion of normal proofs, expressing that the hypotheses of the axioms never need to be all detached (since otherwise a simplification can happen).
Conversely, the non provability in intuitionistic logic of Peirce's law can be transferred back to combinatory logic: there is no typed term of combinatory logic that is typable with type
((α → β) → α) → α.
Results on the completeness of some sets of combinators or axioms can also be transferred. For instance, the fact that the combinator X constitutes a one-point basis of (extensional) combinatory logic implies that the single axiom scheme
(((α → (β → γ)) → ((α → β) → (α → γ))) → ((δ → (ε → δ)) → ζ)) → ζ,
which is the principal type of X, is an adequate replacement to the combination of the axiom schemes
α → (β → α) and
(α → (β → γ)) → ((α → β) → (α → γ)).
Natural deduction and lambda calculus
After Curry emphasized the syntactic correspondence between Hilbert-style deduction and combinatory logic, Howard made explicit in 1969 a syntactic analogy between the programs of simply typed lambda calculus and the proofs of natural deduction. Below, the left-hand side formalizes intuitionistic implicational natural deduction as a calculus of sequents (the use of sequents is standard in discussions of the Curry–Howard isomorphism as it allows the deduction rules to be stated more cleanly) with implicit weakening and the right-hand side shows the typing rules of lambda calculus. In the left-hand side, Γ, Γ1 and Γ2 denote ordered sequences of formulas while in the right-hand side, they denote sequences of named (i.e., typed) formulas with all names different.
To paraphrase the correspondence, proving Γ ⊢ α means having a program that, given values with the types listed in Γ, manufactures an object of type α. An axiom corresponds to the introduction of a new variable with a new, unconstrained type, the rule corresponds to function abstraction and the rule corresponds to function application. Observe that the correspondence is not exact if the context Γ is taken to be a set of formulas as, e.g., the λ-terms λx.λy.x and λx.λy.y of type would not be distinguished in the correspondence. Examples are given below.
Howard showed that the correspondence extends to other connectives of the logic and other constructions of simply typed lambda calculus. Seen at an abstract level, the correspondence can then be summarized as shown in the following table. Especially, it also shows that the notion of normal forms in lambda calculus matches Prawitz's notion of normal deduction in natural deduction, from which it follows that the algorithms for the type inhabitation problem can be turned into algorithms for deciding intuitionistic provability.
Howard's correspondence naturally extends to other extensions of natural deduction and simply typed lambda calculus. Here is a non-exhaustive list:
Girard-Reynolds System F as a common language for both second-order propositional logic and polymorphic lambda calculus,
higher-order logic and Girard's System Fω
inductive types as algebraic data type
necessity in modal logic and staged computation
possibility in modal logic and monadic types for effects
The calculus corresponds to relevant logic.
The local truth (∇) modality in Grothendieck topology or the equivalent "lax" modality (◯) of Benton, Bierman, and de Paiva (1998) correspond to CL-logic describing "computation types".
Classical logic and control operators
At the time of Curry, and also at the time of Howard, the proofs-as-programs correspondence concerned only intuitionistic logic, i.e. a logic in which, in particular, Peirce's law was not deducible. The extension of the correspondence to Peirce's law and hence to classical logic became clear from the work of Griffin on typing operators that capture the evaluation context of a given program execution so that this evaluation context can be later on reinstalled. The basic Curry–Howard-style correspondence for classical logic is given below. Note the correspondence between the double-negation translation used to map classical proofs to intuitionistic logic and the continuation-passing-style translation used to map lambda terms involving control to pure lambda terms. More particularly, call-by-name continuation-passing-style translations relates to Kolmogorov's double negation translation and call-by-value continuation-passing-style translations relates to a kind of double-negation translation due to Kuroda.
A finer Curry–Howard correspondence exists for classical logic if one defines classical logic not by adding an axiom such as Peirce's law, but by allowing several conclusions in sequents. In the case of classical natural deduction, there exists a proofs-as-programs correspondence with the typed programs of Parigot's λμ-calculus.
Sequent calculus
A proofs-as-programs correspondence can be settled for the formalism known as Gentzen's sequent calculus but it is not a correspondence with a well-defined pre-existing model of computation as it was for Hilbert-style and natural deductions.
Sequent calculus is characterized by the presence of left introduction rules, right introduction rule and a cut rule that can be eliminated. The structure of sequent calculus relates to a calculus whose structure is close to the one of some abstract machines. The informal correspondence is as follows:
Related proofs-as-programs correspondences
The role of de Bruijn
N. G. de Bruijn used the lambda notation for representing proofs of the theorem checker Automath, and represented propositions as "categories" of their proofs. It was in the late 1960s at the same period of time Howard wrote his manuscript; de Bruijn was likely unaware of Howard's work, and stated the correspondence independently (Sørensen & Urzyczyn [1998] 2006, pp 98–99). Some researchers tend to use the term Curry–Howard–de Bruijn correspondence in place of Curry–Howard correspondence.
BHK interpretation
The BHK interpretation interprets intuitionistic proofs as functions but it does not specify the class of functions relevant for the interpretation. If one takes lambda calculus for this class of function, then the BHK interpretation tells the same as Howard's correspondence between natural deduction and lambda calculus.
Realizability
Kleene's recursive realizability splits proofs of intuitionistic arithmetic into the pair of a recursive function and of
a proof of a formula expressing that the recursive function "realizes", i.e. correctly instantiates the disjunctions and existential quantifiers of the initial formula so that the formula gets true.
Kreisel's modified realizability applies to intuitionistic higher-order predicate logic and shows that the simply typed lambda term inductively extracted from the proof realizes the initial formula. In the case of propositional logic, it coincides with Howard's statement: the extracted lambda term is the proof itself (seen as an untyped lambda term) and the realizability statement is a paraphrase of the fact that the extracted lambda term has the type that the formula means (seen as a type).
Gödel's dialectica interpretation realizes (an extension of) intuitionistic arithmetic with computable functions. The connection with lambda calculus is unclear, even in the case of natural deduction.
Curry–Howard–Lambek correspondence
Joachim Lambek showed in the early 1970s that the proofs of intuitionistic propositional logic and the combinators of typed combinatory logic share a common equational theory which is the one of cartesian closed categories. The expression Curry–Howard–Lambek correspondence is now used by some people to refer to the three way isomorphism between intuitionistic logic, typed lambda calculus and cartesian closed categories, with objects being interpreted as types or propositions and morphisms as terms or proofs. The correspondence works at the equational level and is not the expression of a syntactic identity of structures as it is the case for each of Curry's and Howard's correspondences: i.e. the structure of a well-defined morphism in a cartesian-closed category is not comparable to the structure of a proof of the corresponding judgment in either Hilbert-style logic or natural deduction. To clarify this distinction, the underlying syntactic structure of cartesian closed categories is rephrased below.
Objects (types) are defined by
is an object
if and are objects then and are objects.
Morphisms (terms) are defined by
, , , and are morphisms
if is a morphism, λ is a morphism
if and are morphisms, and are morphisms.
Well-defined morphisms (typed terms) are defined by the following typing rules (in which the usual categorical morphism notation is replaced with sequent calculus notation ).
Identity:
Composition:
Unit type (terminal object):
Cartesian product:
Left and right projection:
Currying:
Application:
Finally, the equations of the category are
(if well-typed)
These equations imply the following -laws:
Now, there exists such that iff is provable in implicational intuitionistic logic,.
Examples
Thanks to the Curry–Howard correspondence, a typed expression whose type corresponds to a logical formula is analogous to a proof of that formula. Here are examples.
The identity combinator seen as a proof of α → α in Hilbert-style logic
As an example, consider a proof of the theorem . In lambda calculus, this is the type of the identity function and in combinatory logic, the identity function is obtained by applying S = λfgx.fx(gx) twice to K = λxy.x. That is, . As a description of a proof, this says that the following steps can be used to prove :
instantiate the second axiom scheme with the formulas , and to obtain a proof of ,
instantiate the first axiom scheme once with and to obtain a proof of ,
instantiate the first axiom scheme a second time with and to obtain a proof of ,
apply modus ponens twice to obtain a proof of
In general, the procedure is that whenever the program contains an application of the form (P Q), these steps should be followed:
First prove theorems corresponding to the types of P and Q.
Since P is being applied to Q, the type of P must have the form and the type of Q must have the form for some and . Therefore, it is possible to detach the conclusion, , via the modus ponens rule.
The composition combinator seen as a proof of (β → α) → (γ → β) → γ → α in Hilbert-style logic
As a more complicated example, let's look at the theorem that corresponds to the B function. The type of B is . B is equivalent to (S (K S) K). This is our roadmap for the proof of the theorem .
The first step is to construct (K S). To make the antecedent of the K axiom look like the S axiom, set equal to , and equal to (to avoid variable collisions):
Since the antecedent here is just S, the consequent can be detached using Modus Ponens:
This is the theorem that corresponds to the type of (K S). Now apply S to this expression. Taking S as follows
,
put , , and , yielding
and then detach the consequent:
This is the formula for the type of (S (K S)). A special case of this theorem has :
This last formula must be applied to K. Specialize K again, this time by replacing with and with :
This is the same as the antecedent of the prior formula so, detaching the consequent:
Switching the names of the variables and gives us
which was what remained to prove.
The normal proof of (β → α) → (γ → β) → γ → α in natural deduction seen as a λ-term
The diagram below gives proof of in natural deduction and shows how it can be interpreted as the λ-expression of type .
a:β → α, b:γ → β, g:γ ⊢ b : γ → β a:β → α, b:γ → β, g:γ ⊢ g : γ
——————————————————————————————————— ————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
a:β → α, b:γ → β, g:γ ⊢ a : β → α a:β → α, b:γ → β, g:γ ⊢ b g : β
————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
a:β → α, b:γ → β, g:γ ⊢ a (b g) : α
————————————————————————————————————
a:β → α, b:γ → β ⊢ λ g. a (b g) : γ → α
————————————————————————————————————————
a:β → α ⊢ λ b. λ g. a (b g) : (γ → β) -> γ → α
————————————————————————————————————
⊢ λ a. λ b. λ g. a (b g) : (β → α) -> (γ → β) -> γ → α
Other applications
Recently, the isomorphism has been proposed as a way to define search space partition in genetic programming. The method indexes sets of genotypes (the program trees evolved by the GP system) by their Curry–Howard isomorphic proof (referred to as a species).
As noted by INRIA research director Bernard Lang, the Curry-Howard correspondence constitutes an argument against the patentability of software: since algorithms are mathematical proofs, patentability of the former would imply patentability of the latter. A theorem could be private property; a mathematician would have to pay for using it, and to trust the company that sells it but keeps its proof secret and rejects responsibility for any errors.
Generalizations
The correspondences listed here go much farther and deeper. For example, cartesian closed categories are generalized by closed monoidal categories. The internal language of these categories is the linear type system (corresponding to linear logic), which generalizes simply-typed lambda calculus as the internal language of cartesian closed categories. Moreover, these can be shown to correspond to cobordisms, which play a vital role in string theory.
An extended set of equivalences is also explored in homotopy type theory, which became a very active area of research around 2013 and still is. Here, type theory is extended by the univalence axiom ("equivalence is equivalent to equality") which permits homotopy type theory to be used as a foundation for all of mathematics (including set theory and classical logic, providing new ways to discuss the axiom of choice and many other things). That is, the Curry–Howard correspondence that proofs are elements of inhabited types is generalized to the notion of homotopic equivalence of proofs (as paths in space, the identity type or equality type of type theory being interpreted as a path).
References
Seminal references
De Bruijn, Nicolaas (1968), Automath, a language for mathematics, Department of Mathematics, Eindhoven University of Technology, TH-report 68-WSK-05. Reprinted in revised form, with two pages commentary, in: Automation and Reasoning, vol 2, Classical papers on computational logic 1967–1970, Springer Verlag, 1983, pp. 159–200.
.
Extensions of the correspondence
refs=
.
.
.
. (Full version of the paper presented at Logic Colloquium '90, Helsinki. Abstract in JSL 56(3):1139–1140, 1991.)
.
. (Full version of a paper presented at Logic Colloquium '91, Uppsala. Abstract in JSL 58(2):753–754, 1993.)
.
.
. (Full version of a paper presented at 2nd WoLLIC'95, Recife. Abstract in Journal of the Interest Group in Pure and Applied Logics 4(2):330–332, 1996.)
, concerns the adaptation of proofs-as-programs program synthesis to coarse-grain and imperative program development problems, via a method the authors call the Curry–Howard protocol. Includes a discussion of the Curry–Howard correspondence from a Computer Science perspective.
. (Full version of a paper presented at LSFA 2010, Natal, Brazil.)
Philosophical interpretations
. (Early version presented at Logic Colloquium '88, Padova. Abstract in JSL 55:425, 1990.)
. (Early version presented at Fourteenth International Wittgenstein Symposium (Centenary Celebration) held in Kirchberg/Wechsel, August 13–20, 1989.)
.
Synthetic papers
, the contribution of de Bruijn by himself.
, contains a synthetic introduction to the Curry–Howard correspondence.
, contains a synthetic introduction to the Curry–Howard correspondence.
Books
, reproduces the seminal papers of Curry-Feys and Howard, a paper by de Bruijn and a few other papers.
, notes on proof theory and type theory, that includes a presentation of the Curry–Howard correspondence, with a focus on the formulae-as-types correspondence
, notes on proof theory with a presentation of the Curry–Howard correspondence.
.
, concerns the adaptation of proofs-as-programs program synthesis to coarse-grain and imperative program development problems, via a method the authors call the Curry–Howard protocol. Includes a discussion of the Curry–Howard correspondence from a Computer Science perspective.
.
Further reading
— gives a categorical view of "what happens" in the Curry–Howard correspondence.
External links
Howard on Curry-Howard
The Curry–Howard Correspondence in Haskell
The Monad Reader 6: Adventures in Classical-Land: Curry–Howard in Haskell, Pierce's law.
1934 in computing
1958 in computing
1969 in computing
Dependently typed programming
Proof theory
Logic in computer science
Type theory
Philosophy of computer science | [
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254300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoo-hoo | Yoo-hoo | Yoo-hoo is a chocolate beverage that was developed by Natale Olivieri in Garfield, New Jersey in 1928 and is manufactured by Keurig Dr Pepper. As of 2019, the drink is primarily made from water, high-fructose corn syrup and whey.
History
Natale Olivieri started bottling carbonated fruit drinks in the mid-1920s. However, when he attempted to bottle a chocolate drink, he found that it would soon spoil. Observing his wife canning fruits and vegetables, he asked her to use the same heat processing techniques with his chocolate drink. He began bottling the pasteurized chocolate drink named Yoo-Hoo at 133 Farnham Avenue, Garfield, New Jersey in 1928.
In the 1940s, Thomas Giresi opened a bottling plant in Batesburg, South Carolina, for distribution of Yoo-hoo. In the 1960s, an advertising campaign tried to appeal to an older public for the drink, and featured Yogi Berra and his New York Yankees teammates. Berra, in a pin-striped business suit, drinks a bottle of Yoo-hoo, lifts it next to his cheek, and says with a smile, "It's Me-He for Yoo-Hoo!"
BBC Industries purchased the rights to Yoo-hoo sometime in the 1950s and retained ownership until 1976, when it sold the brand to Iroquois Brands. Yoo-hoo was sold again in 1981 to a group of private investors, which owned the brand until 1989, when it was sold to the French conglomerate Pernod Ricard.
In 2001, Pernod Ricard sold Yoo-hoo to Cadbury Schweppes, with production responsibilities falling to CS's Mott's group and marketing and advertising responsibilities under Snapple. They heightened awareness of the once-popular beverage.
The drink company's headquarters are in Tarrytown, New York, with plants in Carlstadt, New Jersey, and Aspers, Pennsylvania. An Opelousas, Louisiana, location closed in 2009. At one time, Yoo-hoo owned several other chocolate milk brands as well, including Choc-Ola, Brownie, Cocoa Dusty, and Chocolate Soldier.
In May 2008, Cadbury-Schweppes split into the Cadbury candy business and the Dr. Pepper Snapple Group soft drink firm, with the latter taking over Yoo-hoo.
In 2010, a legal suit was brought against the Dr. Pepper Snapple Group in New York state by Timothy Dahl. The suit alleged that the Dr. Pepper Snapple Group engaged in misleading advertising as to nutritional makeup of Yoo-hoo. Papers filed by Dahl claimed that the drink “contains dangerous, unhealthy, non-nutritious partially hydrogenated oil”. Further, he stated that the drink “contains virtually no milk and instead is mostly water, sugars, milk by-products and chemicals.” However, Motts LLP, which made the drink during this time said the drink contains “seven vitamins and minerals and no preservatives” and they stood by their product.
An ABC News article mentioned that on a papal visit to Denver, a variety of sources reported that Pope John Paul II liked Yoo-hoo after a Vatican spokesman mentioned that the Pope wanted "a couple of cases of that American chocolate drink he likes" on board his plane. As popes do not give commercial endorsements, a subsequent statement from his spokesman denied that the pontiff had any particular preference among American milk drinks.
As of early February 2019, Yoo-hoo is made from water, high fructose corn syrup, whey (from milk), and less than 2% of: cocoa (alkali process), nonfat dry milk, natural and artificial flavors, sodium caseinate (from milk), corn syrup solids, calcium phosphate, dipotassium phosphate, palm oil, guar gum, xanthan gum, mono and diglycerides, salt, spice, soy lecithin, niacinamide (vitamin B3), sucralose, vitamin A palmitate, riboflavin (vitamin B2), and vitamin D3.
Flavors
Yoo-hoo's several flavors include chocolate, vanilla, strawberry, cookies & cream, chocolate banana, chocolate strawberry, chocolate peanut butter, and chocolate caramel. The double fudge flavor and Island Coconut flavor were discontinued.
See also
List of chocolate beverages
References
External links
Yoo-hoo.com
Dr.Pepper Snapple Group
Products introduced in 1928
Carlstadt, New Jersey
Chocolate drinks
Keurig Dr Pepper brands
Soft drinks
1928 establishments in New Jersey
Garfield, New Jersey | [
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254302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylometazoline | Xylometazoline | Xylometazoline, also spelled xylomethazoline, is a medication used to reduce symptoms of nasal congestion, allergic rhinitis, and sinusitis. Use is not recommended for more than seven days. Use is also not recommended in those less than three months of age and some say not less than 6 years of age. It is used directly in the nose as a spray or drops.
Side effects include trouble sleeping, irritation of the nose, nausea, nosebleed (3%), period pain (10%) and headache (3%). Long term use (> 10 days) is not recommended due to a rhinitis medicamentosa when stopped. Use is not recommended during pregnancy. Xylometazoline is in the decongestant and alpha-adrenergic agonist families of medication.
Xylometazoline was patented in 1956 and came into medical use in 1959. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Xylometazoline is available as a generic medication.
Mechanism of action
The drug works by stimulating adrenergic receptors on the lamina propria of blood vessels in the nose. The decongestant effect is due to constriction of large veins in the nose which swell up during the inflammation of any infection or allergy of the nose. The smaller arteries are also constricted and this causes the colour of the nasal epithelium to be visibly paler after dosage.
Xylometazoline is an imidazole derivative which is designed to mimic the molecular shape of adrenaline. It binds to α1 and α2 adrenergic receptors in the nasal mucosa. Due to its sympathomimetic effects, it should not be used by people with high blood pressure, or other heart problems.
Extended usage of xylometazoline can result in decreased effectiveness or a buildup of tolerance against the drug. The number of receptors decreases, and when the administration of the drug is ceased, chronic congestion can occur; this is called rhinitis medicamentosa, commonly referred to as rebound congestion. Moreover, long-term overdosing can cause degenerative changes in nasal mucous membranes that pose another health problem.
Society and culture
Brand names
The most common name for over-the-counter products containing xylometazoline internationally is "Otrivin" (used in Australia, Canada, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, India, Israel, Jordan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Sweden, Vietnam, Hong Kong), "Otrivine" (United Kingdom, Ireland, Turkey), or "Otriven" (Germany). A product marketed as "Otrivin Oxy" contains oxymetazoline instead of xylometazoline.
Other product names used include Antazol (Square, in Bangladesh), Xylomet (Opsonin, Bangladesh), Cirovin, Klarigen (in Denmark), Nasolin, Neo-Rinoleina, Novorin, Olynth, Otrinoz, Galazolin (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus), Nasomist-X, Otrix, Rhinoset, Zenfresh, Naphthyzinium, Xymelyn (in Latvia), Sinutab Nasal Spray, Snup akut, Sudafed, Xylo-COMOD, Xylolin (in UAE), Xylovit, Olynth (in Serbia and Slovakia), Meralys (in Croatia) Xynosine (in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan), Xymelin, Zymelin, Xylostar, Xylorin (in Poland), Nasobol, Xylo Mepha and others (Switzerland), Decozal (in Jordan), Nasic, Orinox (Romania), Narhimed (Italy), and nasa Rhinathiol (Belgium).
As of 2021, no consumer products containing xylometazoline are marketed in the United States, however imported products containing xylometazoline are available online.
Formulations
The standard adult solution strength is 0.1% w/v xylometazoline (or 1 mg per 1 mL solution), and the dose for children under 12 is usually 0.05% (0.5 mg/mL).
See also
Oxymetazoline
References
External links
Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor agonists
Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists
Imidazolines
Tert-butyl compounds
Topical decongestants
Vasoconstrictors
World Health Organization essential medicines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | [
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254310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead%20Boys | Dead Boys | The Dead Boys are an American punk rock band from Cleveland, Ohio, United States. The band was among the first wave of punk, and regarded by many as one of the rowdiest and most violent groups of the era. They were formed by vocalist Stiv Bators, rhythm guitarist Jimmy Zero, bassist Jeff Magnum, lead guitarist Cheetah Chrome, and drummer Johnny Blitz in 1975, with the later two having splintered from the band Rocket From The Tombs. The original Dead Boys released two studio albums, Young Loud and Snotty, and We Have Come for Your Children.
The Dead Boys were initially active from 1975 to 1980, briefly reuniting a few times in the mid-80s, and then later again in 2004 and 2005 for the first time without Bators, who had died in 1990. In September 2017, Chrome and Blitz reunited the band with a new line-up for a 40th anniversary tour along with a new album, Still Snotty: Young, Loud and Snotty at 40, a re-recording of their debut album. The new lineup includes vocalist Jake Hout, guitarist Jason "Ginchy" Kottwitz and bassist Ricky Rat, alongside Chrome and Blitz.
History
Formation and 1970s punk rock era
Chrome and Blitz joined Cleveland proto-punk band Rocket From The Tombs in late 1974. Chrome invited his friend Steve Bators on stage to sing a few songs at a show in August 1975. This caused most of the other band members to walk off stage and they broke up. Shortly thereafter Bators, Chrome and Blitz recruited Magnum and Zero to form Frankenstein who recorded demos in October but they broke up in January 1976. When the band members relocated to New York City in July 1976, they adopted the Dead Boys moniker which came from a line in the RFTT song "Down In Flames".
Moving to New York City at the encouragement of Joey Ramone, the Ramones' lead singer, the Dead Boys quickly gained notoriety for their outrageous live performances. Lewd gestures and profanity were the norm. On more than one occasion, lead singer Stiv Bators slashed his stomach with his mic stand. Such antics reportedly discouraged the development of a mainstream rock following, despite the relative breadth of their material beyond pure punk. They frequently played at the rock club CBGB (the band was briefly managed by club owner Hilly Kristal) and in 1977 they released their debut album, Young, Loud and Snotty, produced by Genya Ravan. Their song "Sonic Reducer" is often regarded as one of the classics of the punk genre, with AllMusic calling it "one of punk's great anthems."
Their second album, We Have Come for Your Children, produced by Felix Pappalardi, was recorded in Miami in early 1978 and released later that year. Sire Records pressured the group to change their look and sound to appeal more to the U.S. mainstream (which had yet to embrace punk on the level seen in the UK) and this contributed to Dead Boys breaking up in 1979.
Shortly after returning from Miami Johnny Blitz and a group of his friends got into an altercation on Second Avenue in Manhattan which led to Blitz being stabbed in the chest 5 times. While he was recovering in the hospital a benefit was held for him, at which the Dead Boys performed without him, with John Belushi and former New York Dolls and Johnny Thunders & the Heartbreakers drummer Jerry Nolan filling in for him on drums.
Several 1979 performances were featured in the 1980 film, D.O.A.. A few months after the breakup the band had to reunite to record a live album and thus fulfill their contractual obligations. To exact revenge on the label, Bators purposely sang off mic and the resulting recording was unusable. When the material eventually surfaced on Bomp! Records, Bators had re-recorded the vocals in a studio. They booked a 1979 - 80 tour but Magnum, then Chrome, Blitz and finally Zero left leaving Bators as the only original member. He recorded his first solo album with the final (until later reunions) Dead Boys lineup.
Bators' and Chrome's subsequent careers
Bators recorded a solo album, Disconnected, on BOMP! Records. Bators later formed Lords of the New Church with Brian James from The Damned and Dave Tregunna from Sham 69. They released several albums on IRS Records, including the keyboard-laden hit single "Open Your Eyes" and a cover of "Like a Virgin".
After the Dead Boys dissolved, Cheetah Chrome played around New York City (mostly at Max's Kansas City) doing shows with The Stilettos, as well as his own band Cheetah Chrome and the Casualties. He recorded a single for ORK Records, "Still Wanna Die" / "Take Me Home", recorded with Atlantic Records co-founder Herb Abramson. Shortly thereafter, he played on Ronnie Spector's debut solo album Siren. He appeared on several recordings during the 1980s, and rejoined the Dead Boys for their ill-fated reunions of the late 1980s.
In 2003, after the release of The Day the Earth Met the Rocket from the Tombs, Chrome reformed Rocket From The Tombs with David Thomas, Craig Bell, with Steve Mehlman (Pere Ubu) on drums and Richard Lloyd (Television) replacing the late Peter Laughner. This reincarnation of the group toured in 2003 and 2006.
In Summer 2003, they entered the studio to record some of the band's old material for the first time. The recordings were released as Rocket Redux. In 2005, the members of Rocket From The Tombs flew to Germany to headline one night (Buzzcocks headlined the other) of the International Punk Kongress in Kassel; then, in 2006, they reconvened in Cleveland, Ohio to write material for a new record. This material became the single "I Sell Soul"/"Romeo and Juliet", released in 2010, and the full-length album Barfly, released in 2011.
In September 2010 Cheetah Chrome: A Dead Boy's Tale From The Front Lines Of Punk Rock was published. At the end of a week-long Rocket From The Tomb tour in December 2011, Chrome announced to the band that he had decided to stop touring extensively after 2012. He currently works for Plowboy Records in Nashville, TN, mainly in production and promotion.
Reformation, death of Bators, 40th anniversary tour
The Dead Boys reformed for several gigs in the 1980s. They re-released their first album as Younger, Louder and Snottier in 1989, mastered from a cassette tape of rough mixes, attributed to a young Bob Clearmountain, a studio assistant at the time.
In June 1990, Bators died in France due to injuries sustained after having been hit by a taxi. In September 2004, the remaining members of the band re-formed for a one-off gig in Cleveland. In 2005, they played a benefit show for CBGB and another reunion show on Halloween.
On April 25, 2017, Chrome and Blitz played six shows in Canada as a tribute to the 40th anniversary of Young, Loud and Snotty. The band played the record in its entirety. Chrome and Blitz then announced in 2017 that the band would go on a full reunion tour.
On September 8, 2017, Still Snotty: Young, Loud and Snotty at 40 was released. The album is a re-recording of their debut album and the first album by the Dead Boys in 39 years. Along with Chrome and Blitz, the tour and album will feature Jason "Ginchy" Kottwitz (Bulemics, Sylvain Sylvain and the Sylvains, Cheetah Chrome solo band) on guitar, Ricky Rat (Trash Brats) on bass and vocalist Jake Hout from zombie-themed Dead Boys tribute band the Undead Boys.
Chrome said of the tour "With the 40th anniversary of the Dead Boys on the horizon and a solid band that could interpret and deliver the performance and sound needed to maintain the authenticity of the Dead Boys, I reached out to Johnny Blitz about an anniversary tour and he said yes and we began the journey of what would become Still Snotty. I've been singing the Dead Boys songs myself for 20 years because I couldn't find another singer I trusted enough to hand it to. The first gig with Jake, it was like, 'You got it, man!' I think Stiv would be very proud of our choice." A photobook, Dead Boys 1977: The Lost Photographs of Dave Treat, was also released on September 29, 2017.
CBGB movie
In 2013, an American-made motion picture titled CBGB was released to theaters. Bators is portrayed by actor Justin Bartha, best known for his roles in The Hangover films and the National Treasure films, while Rupert Grint, best known for his work in the Harry Potter film series as Ron Weasley, plays Cheetah Chrome. Chrome also makes a cameo appearance in the film.
Members
Current members
Cheetah Chrome (Gene O'Connor) – lead guitar (1976–1979, 1987, 2004–2005, 2017–present)
Jake Hout – vocals (2017–present)
Former members
Stiv Bators (Steve Bator) – vocals (1976–1979, 1987)
Johnny Blitz (John Madansky) – drums (1976–1979, 1987, 2004–2005, 2017–2019)
Jimmy Zero (William Wilden) – rhythm guitar (1976–1979, 1987, 2004–2005)
Jeff Magnum (Jeff Halmagy) – bass (1976–1979, 1987, 2004–2005)
Jason "Ginchy" Kottwitz – rhythm guitar (2017–2019)
Ricky Rat – bass (2017–2019)
Discography
The Dead Boys only have three official full-length studio releases, however many labels have released rough material and outtakes in the years following their initial 1979 breakup.
Studio albums
Young, Loud and Snotty (1977, Sire Records)
We Have Come for Your Children (1978, Sire)
Still Snotty: Young, Loud and Snotty at 40 (2017, Plowboy Records)
Re-recording of Young Loud and Snotty
Alternate mix albums
Younger, Louder and Snottier (1997, Bomp!)
Original rough mixes of Young, Loud and Snotty
3rd Generation Nation (1999, Bad Boy Production)
Premix of We Have Come for Your Children
Live albums
Night of the Living Dead Boys (1981, Bomp! Records)
The Return of the Living Dead Boys (1987, Revenge Records) (Import/France)
Recorded July 22, 1977 at CBGB
Liver Than You'll Ever Be (1988, Various Labels) (Import/Various)
Recorded December 26, 1987 at the Ritz, NYC
Twistin' on the Devil's Fork: Live At CBGB's (1998, Hell Yeah Records / Bacchus Records)
Recorded October 2, 1977 and August 31, 1978 at CBGB
All This and More (1998, Bomp!)
Recorded in 1977, November 1 in San Francisco and August 7, 22 and April 7 at CBGB
Singles
7" singles
"Sonic Reducer" (1977, Sire)
"Tell Me" (1978, Sire)
"Search and Destroy" (1979, live, Revenge) (Import/France)
"Buried Gems" (2000, Cold Front Records)
12" singles
"All The Way Down/Nights Are So Long" (1987, Relativity Records 8165) (never released on CD)
DVD
Return Of The Living Dead Boys! Halloween Night 1986 (2008, MVD Visual)
Live At CBGB's 1977 (2009, MVD Visual)
References
Further reading
Wolff, Carlo (2006). Cleveland Rock and Roll Memories. Cleveland, OH: Gray & Company, Publishers.
Musical groups from Cleveland
Punk rock groups from Ohio
Musical groups established in 1976
Musical groups disestablished in 2005
Musical quintets
Sire Records artists
1976 establishments in Ohio
Musical groups from Ohio | [
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254314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Mississippi | Trans-Mississippi | Trans-Mississippi was a common name of the geographic area west of the Mississippi River during the 19th century. The area included Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, Texas, Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), and many other territories.
The term "Trans-Mississippi" was historically used to refer to any land "across the Mississippi" (or the entire western two-thirds of the United States). In 1898, a Trans-Mississippi Exposition was held at Kountze Park (Omaha, Nebraska).
Legacy
The postage stamps of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition Issue are considered some of the most beautiful stamps ever issued by the United States, and a complete set of the "Trans-Miss" is highly prized. In 1998, a set of stamps using designs derived from the original issue was issued to commemorate its 100th anniversary.
See also
Trans-Mississippi Department
Trans-Pecos
Manifest Destiny
Former regions and territories of the United States
History of Omaha, Nebraska
Mississippi River | [
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254316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neomycin | Neomycin | Neomycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic that displays bactericidal activity against gram-negative aerobic bacilli and some anaerobic bacilli where resistance has not yet arisen. It is generally not effective against gram-positive bacilli and anaerobic gram-negative bacilli. Neomycin comes in oral and topical formulations, including creams, ointments, and eyedrops. Neomycin belongs to the aminoglycoside class of antibiotics that contain two or more amino sugars connected by glycosidic bonds.
Neomycin was discovered in 1949 by microbiologist Selman Waksman and his student Hubert Lechevalier at Rutgers University. Neomycin received approval for medical use in 1952. Rutgers University was granted the patent for neomycin in 1957.
Discovery
Neomycin was discovered in 1949 by the microbiologist Selman Waksman and his student Hubert Lechevalier at Rutgers University. It is produced naturally by the bacterium Streptomyces fradiae. Synthesis requires specific nutrient conditions in either stationary or submerged aerobic conditions. The compound is then isolated and purified from the bacterium.
Medical uses
Neomycin is typically applied as a topical preparation, such as Neosporin (neomycin/polymyxin B/bacitracin). The antibiotic can also be administered orally, in which case it is usually combined with other antibiotics. Neomycin is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and has been used as a preventive measure for hepatic encephalopathy and hypercholesterolemia. By killing bacteria in the intestinal tract, Neomycin keeps ammonia levels low and prevents hepatic encephalopathy, especially before gastrointestinal surgery.
Waksman and Lechevalier originally noted that neomycin was active against streptomycin-resistant bacteria as well as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent for tuberculosis. Neomycin has also been used to treat small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Neomycin is not administered via injection, as it is extremely nephrotoxic (damaging to kidney function) even when compared to other aminoglycosides. The exception is when neomycin is included, in small quantities, as a preservative in some vaccines – typically 25 μg per dose.
Spectrum
Similar to other aminoglycosides, neomycin has excellent activity against gram-negative bacteria and is partially effective against gram-positive bacteria. It is relatively toxic to humans, with allergic reactions noted as a common adverse reaction (see: hypersensitivity). Physicians sometimes recommend using antibiotic ointments without neomycin, such as Polysporin. The following represents minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) susceptibility data for a few medically significant gram-negative bacteria.
Enterobacter cloacae: >16 μg/ml
Escherichia coli: 1 μg/ml
Proteus vulgaris: 0.25 μg/ml
Side effects
In 2005–06, Neomycin was the fifth-most-prevalent allergen in patch test results (10.0%). It is also a known GABA gamma-Aminobutyric acid antagonist and can be responsible for seizures and psychosis. Like other aminoglycosides, neomycin has been shown to be ototoxic, causing tinnitus, hearing loss, and vestibular problems in a small number of patients. Patients with existing tinnitus or sensorineural hearing loss are advised to speak with a healthcare practitioner about the risks and side effects prior to taking this medication.
Molecular biology
Activity
Neomycin's antibacterial activity stems from its binding to the 30S subunit of the prokaryotic ribosome, where it inhibits prokaryotic translation of mRNA.
Neomycin also exhibits a high binding affinity for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), a phospholipid component of cell membranes.
Resistance
Neomycin resistance is conferred by either one of two kanamycin kinase genes. Genes conferring neomycin-resistance are commonly included in DNA plasmids used to establish stable mammalian cell lines expressing cloned proteins in culture. Many commercially available protein expression plasmids contain a neo-resistance gene as a selectable marker.
Biosynthetic pathway
Neomycin was first isolated from the Streptomyces fradiae and Streptomyces albogriseus in 1949 (NBRC 12773). Neomycin is a mixture of neomycin B (framycetin); and its epimer neomycin C, the latter component accounting for some 5–15% of the mixture. It is a basic compound that is most active with an alkaline reaction. It is also thermostable and soluble in water (while insoluble in organic solvents). Neomycin has good activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, but is ototoxic. Its use is thus restricted to the oral treatment of intestinal infections.
Neomycin B is composed of four linked moieties: D-neosamine, 2-deoxystreptamine (2-DOS), D-ribose, and L-neosamine.
Neomycin A, also called neamine, contains D-neosamine and 2-deoxystreptamine. Six genes are responsible for neamine biosynthesis: DOIS gene (btrC, neo7); L-glutamine:DOI aminotransferase gene (btrS, neo6); a putative glycosyltransferase gene (btrM, neo8); a putative aminotransferase (similar to glutamate-1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase) gene (btrB, neo18); a putative alcohol dehydrogenase gene (btrE, neo5); and another putative dehydrogenase (similar to chorine dehydrogenase and related flavoproteins) gene (btrQ, neo11). A deacetylase acting to remove the acetyl group on N-acetylglucosamine moieties of aminoglycoside intermediates (Neo16) remains to be clarified (sequence similar to BtrD).
Next is the attachment of the D-ribose via ribosylation of neamine, using 5-phosphoribosyl-1-diphosphate (PRPP) as the ribosyl donor (BtrL, BtrP); glycosyltransferase (potential homologues RibF, LivF, Parf) gene (Neo15).
Neosamine B (L-neosamine B) is most likely biosynthesized in the same manner as the neosamine C (D-niosamine) in neamine biosynthesis, but with an additional epimerization step required to account for the presence of the epimeric neosamine B in neomycin B.
Neomycin C can undergo enzymatic synthesis from ribostamycin.
Composition
Standard grade neomycin is composed of several related compounds including neomycin A (neamine), neomycin B (framycetin), neomycin C, and a few minor compounds found in much lower quantities. Neomycin B is the most active component in neomycin followed by neomycin C and neomycin A. Neomycin A is an inactive degradation product of the C and B isomers. The quantities of these components in neomycin vary from lot-to-lot depending on the manufacturer and manufacturing process.
DNA binding
Aminoglycosides such as neomycin are known for their ability to bind to duplex RNA with high affinity. The association constant for neomycin with A-site RNA is in the 109 M−1 range. However, more than 50 years after its discovery, its DNA-binding properties were still unknown. Neomycin has been shown to induce thermal stabilization of triplex DNA, while having little or almost no effect on the B-DNA duplex stabilization. Neomycin was also shown to bind to structures that adopt an A-form structure, triplex DNA being one of them. Neomycin also includes DNA:RNA hybrid triplex formation.
References
Aminoglycoside antibiotics
Cell culture reagents
DNA-binding substances
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254320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summerhill%20School | Summerhill School | Summerhill School is an independent (i.e. fee-paying) boarding school in Leiston, Suffolk, England. It was founded in 1921 by Alexander Sutherland Neill with the belief that the school should be made to fit the child, rather than the other way around. It is run as a democratic community; the running of the school is conducted in the school meetings, which anyone, staff or pupil, may attend, and at which everyone has an equal vote. These meetings serve as both a legislative and judicial body. Members of the community are free to do as they please, so long as their actions do not cause any harm to others, according to Neill's principle "Freedom, not Licence." This extends to the freedom for pupils to choose which lessons, if any, they attend. It is an example of both democratic education and alternative education.
History
In 1920, A.S. Neill started to search for premises in which to found a new school which he could run according to his educational principle of giving freedom to the children and staff through democratic governance. On a trip to Europe, which started out as a research visit into progressive schools on behalf of the Theosophical journal New Era, he found the ideal accommodation in Hellerau near Dresden, a village founded on principles based on the Garden City movement in England. By combining with two other projects, the Neue Deutsche Schule (New German School), founded by Carl Thiess the previous year and an existing school with many international students dedicated to the teaching of Eurhythmics, a joint venture named the International School or Neue Schule Hellerau was launched. Neill's sector was called the "foreign" school (in contrast to the Thiess's "German School"). Jonathan Croall wrote, "This, in essence, was the beginning of Summerhill" although the name Summerhill itself came later.
Neill was soon dissatisfied with Neue Schule's ethos, and moved his sector of the organisation to Sonntagberg in Austria. Due to the hostility of the local people, it moved again in 1923 to Lyme Regis in England. The house in Lyme Regis was called Summerhill, and this became the name of the school. In 1927, it moved to its present site in Leiston, Suffolk, England. It had to move again temporarily to Ffestiniog, Wales, during the Second World War so that the site could be used as a British Army training camp.
The school had a local impact as several teachers were involved in the formation of the Leiston Communist Party. Several teachers were involved in the Communist Party, some before they were appointed: Vivien Jackson, was the daughter of T. A. Jackson, a leading figure in the Communist Party of Great Britain and his wife Kate Hawkins, one of the founders of the Socialist Party of Great Britain. She married A. L. Morton, a prominent Communist Party historian who also worked at the school. The artist Paxton Chadwick was appointed as a part-time art teacher in the early thirties. At this time the Communist mathematician and computer pioneer Richard Goodman was also a teacher at the school. Cyril Eyre was also a member of staff. Although Neill himself was sympathetic towards the goal of communism, he was increasingly critical of Stalinism and the contemporary Communist Party. He wrote to David Barton, a former pupil at the time in the communist party, saying:
After Neill died in 1973, it was run by his wife, Ena May Neill, until 1985.
Today it is a boarding and day school serving primary and secondary education in a democratic fashion. It is now run by Neill's daughter, Zoë Readhead.
Although the school's founding could arguably be dated to other years, the school itself marks 1921 as the year of its establishment.
Schools based on Summerhill
Many schools opened based on Summerhill, especially in America in the 1960s. A common challenge was to implement Neill's dictum of "freedom, not licence": "A free school is not a place where you can run roughshod over other people. It's a place that minimises the authoritarian elements and maximises the development of community and really caring about the other people. Doing this is a tricky business."
Neill distanced himself from some schools for confusing freedom and licence: "Look at those American Summerhill schools. I sent a letter to the Greenwich Village Voice, in New York, disclaiming any affiliation with any American school that calls itself a Summerhill school. I've heard so many rumours about them. It's one thing to use freedom. Quite another to use licence."
Government inspections
Summerhill has had a less-than-perfect relationship with the British government. Already in the 1950s a government inspection found the school's finances were shaky, the number of students too high, and the quality of teaching poor among the junior faculty. In spite of these criticisms however, the inspectors apparently found the school praiseworthy.
During the 1990s, the school was inspected nine times. It later emerged that this was because OFSTED (The "OFfice for STandards in EDucation") had placed Summerhill on a secret list of 61 independent schools marked as TBW (To Be Watched).
In March 1999, following a major inspection from OFSTED, the then Secretary of State for Education and Employment, David Blunkett, issued the school a notice of complaint, based on the school's policy of non-compulsory lessons. Failure to comply with such a notice within six months usually leads to closure; however, Summerhill chose to contest the notice in court.
The case went before a special educational tribunal in March 2000, at which the school was represented by noted human rights lawyers Geoffrey Robertson QC and Mark Stephens. Four days into the hearing, the government's case collapsed and a settlement was agreed. The pupils attending the hearing on that day took over the courtroom and held a school meeting to debate whether to accept the settlement. They voted unanimously to do so.
The nature of the settlement was notably broader than could have been decided on the judge's authority alone. The educational tribunal only had the power to annul the notice of complaint, whereas the settlement made provisions that Summerhill be inspected with respect to its philosophy and values, that the voice of the child (through community meetings and in other ways) be included in the inspection, and that the inspectors be accompanied by two advisers from the school and one from the DfE to ensure that the inspection respected the school's aims and values. The school was the first in England to grant children a legal right to formally express their opinions and to meet with the inspectors. The DfE advisers have included Prof. Paul Hirst and Prof. Geoff Whitty, Director of the Institute of Education and now on OFSTED's governing body.
The first full inspection report since the disputed 1999 report was published in 2007. The 2007 inspection, conducted within the framework set out by the court settlement, was generally positive, even in areas previously criticised by the 1999 report. The school maintained that it had not changed its approach since the original inspection.
The full inspection on 5 October 2011 concluded that the school is outstanding in all areas except teaching, which was seen as good, and not outstanding due to issues of assessment.
In February 2013, the DfE unilaterally rescinded the court agreement by claiming that OFSTED now understood the school and the court mandated inspection process was no longer needed to ensure a fair inspection. The school sent evidence and questions to the Select Committee on Education for their meeting with the Chief Inspector of Schools, Sir Michael Wilshaw, on 13 February 2013. The evidence quoted a member of the Select Committee expressing shock at the lack of processes for OFSTED to learn by its mistakes.
A. S. Neill Summerhill Trust
The A. S. Neill Summerhill Trust was launched in 2004 by Prof. Tim Brighouse, Tom Conti, Bill Nighy, Mark Stephens and Geoffrey Robertson QC to raise funds for bursaries for pupils from poorer families and to promote democratic education around the world. It publishes an electronic newsletter and organises fund-raising events. An elected committee of schoolchildren, called the "External Affairs Committee", have—over the years since the court case and with the support of the Trust—promoted Summerhill as a case study to state schoolchildren, teachers and educationalists at conferences, schools and events. They have run full democratic meetings at the Houses of Parliament and London's City Hall. They have lobbied four chief inspectors of schools through the Select Committee on Education on the importance of children's rights in schools and school inspections. They have addressed the UNESCO Conference of Education Ministers, lobbied and protested at the UN Special Conference on the Rights of the Child in New York. They took an active part in advising and contributing to events for the children's rights group Article 12. They continue to work with schools, colleges and universities.
Philosophy and educational structure
Summerhill is noted for its philosophy that children learn best with freedom from coercion, a philosophy that was promoted by the New Ideals in Education Conferences (1914–37) that helped to define the good modern primary school as child-centred. At Summerhill all lessons are optional, and pupils are free to choose what to do with their time. Neill founded Summerhill with the belief that "the function of a child is to live his own life—–not the life that his anxious parents think he should live, not a life according to the purpose of an educator who thinks he knows best."
In addition to taking control of their own time, pupils can participate in the self-governing community of the school. School meetings are held twice a week, where pupils and staff alike have an equal voice in the decisions that affect their day-to-day lives, discussing issues and creating or changing school laws. The rules agreed at these meetings are wide-ranging—from agreeing to acceptable bed times to allowing nudity around the pool and within the classrooms. Meetings are also an opportunity for the community to vote on a course of action for unresolved conflicts, such as a fine for a theft (usually the fine consists of having to pay back the amount stolen). If there is an urgent reason to have a meeting, children and staff can ask the chairperson to hold a special meeting and this is written on the main whiteboard before a meal time so that the whole school knows and can attend.
In creating its laws and dealing out sanctions, the school meeting generally applies A. S. Neill's maxim "Freedom not Licence" (he wrote a book of the same name), the principle that you can do as you please so long as it doesn't cause harm to others. For example, pupils may swear within the school grounds, but calling someone else an offensive name is licence.
Summerhill School operates upon the major principles of democracy, equality and freedom.
Classes are voluntary at Summerhill. Although most students attend, depending on their age and reasons, children choose whether to go of their own accord and without adult compulsion. The staff discuss new children and those who they feel may have issues that interfere with their freedom to choose (e.g., fear of classrooms, shyness to learn in front of others, lack of confidence), and propose and vote on interventions, if needed, during staff meetings. This is called the 'Special Attention List'. The staff meet at least twice a week to discuss issues; those relevant to the community will be brought to a community meeting. Children can attend these meetings when they ask, but are asked to leave when individual students are discussed, to maintain the privacy of the student.
Academics
Although Neill was more concerned with the social development of children than their academic development, Summerhill nevertheless has some important differences in its approach to teaching. There is no concept of a "year" or "form" at Summerhill. Instead, children are placed according to their interest or level of understanding in a given subject. It is not uncommon for a single class to have pupils of widely varying ages, or for pupils as young as 13 or 14 to take GCSE examinations. This structure reflects a belief that children should progress at their own pace, rather than having to meet a set standard by a certain age.
There are also two classrooms which operate on a "drop-in" basis for all or part of the day, the workshop and the art room. Anyone can come to these classrooms and, with supervision, make just about anything. Children commonly play with wooden toys (usually swords or guns) they have made themselves, and much of the furniture and décor in the school has been likewise constructed by students.
Neill believed that children who were educated in this way were better prepared than traditionally educated children for most of life's challenges—including higher education. He wrote that Summerhill students who decided to prepare for university entrance exams were able to finish the material faster than pupils of traditional schools. Inspector accounts assert that this was inaccurate, and that interested pupils were disadvantaged by their dearth of preparation. However, Michael Newman has argued that the inspectors assumed that lesson attendance was necessary evidence of children learning, and that lack of attendance was equated with a lack of learning. Newman says the inspectors refused to accept as evidence the students' exam results, verbal evidence from teachers, current and previous children, and the success of children after leaving Summerhill.
The Summerhill classroom was popularly assumed to reflect Neill's anti-authoritarian beliefs, but in fact classes were traditional in practice. Neill did not show outward interest in classroom pedagogy, and was mainly interested in pupil happiness. He did not consider lesson quality important, and thus there were no distinctive Summerhillian classroom methods. Neill also felt that charismatic teachers taught with persuasion that weakened child autonomy.
Today the school peer-reviews its teachers, and has policies and systems in place to ensure the quality of teaching. Since Zoë Readhead took over as Principal, the school has developed an ethos of keeping its staff, through increase in wages and conditions of work. And there is an ongoing review and development of methods of teaching, assessment and record-keeping.
The staff now share with each other their methods, especially in relation to numeracy and literacy learning. The music department have developed over several years, including action research, methods of supporting spontaneous music performance, creativity and development of expression through music. This is being shared with the rest of the staff. The school has always had a creative drama delivery, based on spontaneous acting and development of plays through collaboration between actors, directors and writers. With small-group teaching and negotiated timetables, the curriculum is presented in multi-sensory, individual-focused lessons, with flexibility to respond to the student's needs.
Boarding houses and pastoral care
Children at Summerhill are placed in one of five groups which correspond to the buildings in which they are accommodated. Placement is generally decided at the beginning of term by the Principal, in theory according to age. In practice, a younger child may take priority if they have been waiting a long time for a place, if they have many friends in the upper group, or if they show a maturity characteristic of a member of the upper group.
Certain school rules pertain specifically to certain age groups. For instance, no one else may ride a San child's bicycle, and only Shack and Carriage children are allowed to build camp fires. The rules concerning when children must go to bed are also made according to age group.
Bedrooms generally accommodate four or five children.
Houseparents
Each of the boarding houses has a "houseparent": a member of staff whose duty is pastoral care. The duties of a houseparent include doing their charges' laundry, treating minor injuries and ailments, taking them to the doctor's surgery or hospital for more serious complaints and general emotional support. Depending on the age group, they might also tell them bedtime stories, keep their valuables secure, escort them into town to spend their pocket money, or speak on their behalf in the meetings.
San
Ages 6–8 (approx)
The San building is an outbuilding, near the primary classrooms; its name derives from the fact that it was originally built as a sanatorium. When there proved to be insufficient demand for a separate sanatorium, it was given over to accommodation for the youngest children and their houseparent. At one time, San children were housed in the main school building, and the San building was used as the library. They have since moved back, and the rooms they previously occupied now house the Cottage children.
The laws of the school generally protect San children, both by disallowing them from engaging in certain dangerous activities and preventing older children from bullying, swindling or otherwise abusing their juniors. San children have the right to bring up their cases at the beginning of the school meeting or have another student or a teacher bring the issue or issues up on their behalf.
San children can sleep in mixed-sex rooms, while older children have single-sex rooms.
Cottage
Ages 9–10 (approx)
Cottage children were originally housed in Neill's old cottage, at the edge of the school grounds. For some time, the San wholly replaced the Cottage, but Cottage children are now housed in the main school building.
House
Ages 12–13 (approx)
House children are accommodated in the main school building, called simply "the House".
Shack
Ages 13–14 (approx)
The Shack buildings (there are two, the Boys' Shack and the Girls' Shack) are small outbuildings, so called because of the somewhat ramshackle nature of their original construction. The buildings have since been renovated.
Children of Shack age and above are expected to take a more active role in running the school, standing for committees, chairing the meetings, acting as ombudsmen to resolve disputes and speaking in the school meetings. Of course, younger children can take on some of these roles if they so wish, and few of them are compulsory, even for the older children. The only compulsory role is to be added to a rotation to supervise work fines.
Carriages
Ages 15+ (approx)
The carriage buildings are similar to those of the Shack, only larger. However, they were originally converted rail carriages. Since the last renovation, the Boys' Carriage building incorporates a bathroom, shower, kitchenette and the Girls' Carriages a common room and shower block (other bathrooms in the main building have only baths). Either facility may be used by both sexes and all areas.
The Carriage children each have individual rooms. They are expected to do their own laundry and generally look after themselves. This is not to say that they have no houseparent, just that as part of their increased freedom they must take on additional responsibility.
Conflict resolution
There are two main methods of resolving conflicts at Summerhill.
Ombudsmen
In the first instance, one should go to an ombudsman to resolve a conflict. The ombudsmen are an elected committee of older members of the community, whose job it is to intervene in disputes. One party will go and find an ombudsman and ask for an "Ombudsman Case". Often, all the ombudsman has to do is warn someone to stop causing a nuisance. Sometimes, if the dispute is more complex, the ombudsman must mediate. If the conflict cannot be resolved there and then, or the ombudsman's warnings are ignored, the case can be brought before the school meeting.
In special cases, the meeting sometimes assigns an individual their own "special ombudsman", an ombudsman who only takes cases from one person. This usually happens if a particular child is being consistently bullied, or has problems with the language (in which case someone who is bilingual, in English and the language of the child in question, is chosen as the ombudsman.)
The tribunal
The tribunal is the school meeting which concerns itself with people who break the school rules. Sometimes there is a separate meeting for the tribunal, and sometimes the legislative and judicial meetings are combined. This is itself a matter which can be decided by the meeting.
A "tribunal case" consists of one person "bringing up" another, or a group of people. The person bringing the case states the problem, the chairperson asks those accused if they did it, and if they have anything to say, then calls for any witnesses. If the accused admits to the offence, or there are reliable witness statements, the chair will call for proposals. Otherwise, the floor is opened to discussion.
If there is no clear evidence as to who is guilty (for instance, in the case of an unobserved theft), the "investigation committee" is often called upon. The investigation committee has the power to search people's rooms or lockers, and to question people. They will bring the case back to the next meeting if they are able to obtain any new evidence. In a community as small as Summerhill, few events go totally unnoticed and matters are usually resolved quickly.
Once it has been established that a person has broken the rules, the meeting must propose and then vote to decide a fine. There is no such thing as a 'standard fine', no equivalent to a judge's sentencing guidelines, and most fines are given with consideration to the factors involved, such as severity of the offence, intent behind the action, consequences to others, remorse and/or behaviour displayed during the meeting, and whether it was a repeat offence. Fines can include a "strong warning" administered by the chair, a monetary fine, loss of privileges (for instance, not being allowed out of school, or being the last to be served lunch), or a "work fine" (e.g., picking up litter for a set time or similar job of benefit to the community). In the case of theft, it is usually considered sufficient for the thief to return what was stolen. Although there are some rare cases where the property stolen is no longer in the possession of the thief; in these cases, the thief is given a more severe fine and is questioned as to where the property has been sent.
Notoriety and criticism
Summerhill received most of its public attention in two waves: the 1920s/30s and 1960s/70s. In particular, the 1960 American edition of Neill's writings, Summerhill, made the school into an example for a wide public, and led to an American movement with copycat schools. A. S. Neill's biographer Richard Bailey linked this increased interest to the wider society's interest in social change (progressivism and the counterculture, respectively), though he added that Neill was not influenced by this reception.
Richard Bailey argued that the students' free choice of what to learn may leave them unexposed to subject matter which they do not know to exist, and also may narrow their exposure to subjects fashionable in a given time period. The school has said it now has mechanisms in place to alleviate such concerns.
Bailey reviews an account of an algebra lesson taught by Neill, and describes Neill's teaching technique as "simply awful", for his lack of pupil engagement, inarticulate explanations, and insults directed at pupils. Bailey criticised Neill's avoidance of responsibility for his pupils' academic performance, and his view that charismatic instruction was a form of persuasion that weakened child autonomy.
Bailey also did find, however, that the media were unreasonably critical in their coverage of the school. For instance they tended to emphasize casual teacher–pupil relations and lack of compulsory classes, instead of the weekly meeting. They also represented Summerhill's pupils as unrestricted and anarchic, to an unrealistic degree.
Sexual licence
Mikey Cuddihy, a graduate of Summerhill, wrote that in the 1960s: "It was common for students to get married in mock weddings, and they were allowed to sleep together...More worryingly, sexual relations between students and teachers were also common...Neill's 35-year-old stepson Myles, who taught pottery...went out with some of the more senior pupils (because) he has a special dispensation."
In his book Summerhill (1960), Neill shows an influence of Wilhelm Reich's theories, e.g., promoting adolescent sexual activity, and claiming that a negative attitude towards masturbation causes juvenile delinquency.
Although Neill was not a trained psychotherapist, he held amateur psychoanalytic sessions with some of his children. These sessions were designed to "unblock" the "energies" of the children. For this purpose Neill also gave body massages to the children, a technique advocated by Reich. In Summerhill, Neill gave accounts of such psychoanalytic sessions.
Neill wrote that "Promiscuity is neurotic; it is a constant change of partner in the hope of finding the right partner at last. [...] If the term free love has a sinister meaning, it is because it describes sex that is neurotic."
Notable former pupils
John Burningham, children's author and illustrator
Keith Critchlow, artist and professor of architecture
Rebecca De Mornay, actress
Storm Thorgerson, rock album cover designer
Gus Dudgeon, record producer
In fiction and television
Enid Blyton's The Naughtiest Girl series of novels, written in the 1940s and 50s, were her first series about school-aged children, and they were set in a school based on Summerhill, with democratic community meetings allowing the children to make decisions about the school and 'punishments' etc.
Ira Levin's novel Rosemary's Baby (1967) has the main character reading a copy of Neill's book Summerhill and discussing it with her friends.
The school was the subject of the 1987 ITV documentary Being Happy is What Matters Most. This was later parodied in the 1997 Channel 4 documentary show Brass Eye in its second episode, "Drugs". The fictional documentary entitled The Drumlake Experiment featured an interview with the school's headmaster, Donaldus Matthews, played by David Cann.
In 1991 Zoe Readhead made an extended appearance on the Channel 4 discussion programme After Dark alongside among others the 13-year-old James Harries.
In 1992, Channel 4's documentary show Cutting Edge created an episode on Summerhill at 70, broadcast on 30 March.
In 2008 BBC1, CBBC and BBC Four aired a miniseries called Summerhill. The show was set in Summerhill and presented a highly fictionalised version of the 2000 court case and the events leading up to it. Much of the production was recorded on location at Summerhill and used pupils as extras. The production presented an unabashedly positive view of the school as the Director, Jon East, wanted to challenge the present paradigm of what a school is, as presented in popular culture. It received two BAFTAs, including one for script, by Alison Hume
See also
Anarchistic free school
ERA School
European Democratic Education Community
European Democratic Education Conference
International Democratic Education Conference – I.D.E.C.
Democratic education
Reggio Emilia approach
Sudbury schools
Deschooling Society
References
Further reading
— A compilation of old & new writings from Mark Vaughan, Tim Brighouse, A. S. Neill, Zoë Neill Readhead and Ian Stronach
— A recent first-hand account of life as a member of staff at Summerhill
— A collection of essays, arguing both in favour and against the school's approach
— This is mainly a biography of Neill but of course has plenty of material about the school and Neill's ideas
A selection of autobiographical accounts taken from interviews with one student from every decade of Summerhill's existence.
Mikey Cuddihy, A Conversation About Happiness, Atlantic Books, May 2015,
External links
General
Summerhill School website
Summerhill: Education for Democracies
Website about Summerhill (CBBC series)
Summerhill at 70 Channel 4 short documentary on "pairing up" ceremony, 6 October 2011
Shepherd, Jessica. "So, kids, anyone for double physics? (But no worries if you don't fancy it)". The Guardian, 1 December 2007
OFSTED
Report of an independent inspection (Archived link) An independent report in response to the 1999 inspection
Campaign site to rescind the Summerhill 1999 Ofsted Report Describes the school's struggle to survive
'The Work of Ofsted – Sixth Report of Session 2003–04 House of Commons Education and Skills Committee report on the role of Ofsted
Ofsted care report from 2007
BBC: Summerhill closure threat lifted
Article by member of staff discussing the significance and events of the court case An examination of the court case and what it means about our education system.
Educational institutions established in 1921
Boarding schools in Suffolk
Independent schools in Suffolk
Democratic free schools
1921 establishments in England
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254325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concertgebouw | Concertgebouw | The Royal Concertgebouw (, ) is a concert hall in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The Dutch term "concertgebouw" translates into English as "concert building". Its superb acoustics place it among the finest concert halls in the world, along with Boston's Symphony Hall and the Musikverein in Vienna.
In celebration of the building's 125th anniversary, Queen Beatrix bestowed the royal title "Koninklijk" upon the building on 11 April 2013, as she had on the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra upon its 100th in 1988.
History
The architect of the building was , who was inspired by the Gewandhaus in Leipzig, built two years earlier (and destroyed in 1943).
Construction began in 1883 in a pasture that was then outside the city, in Nieuwer-Amstel, a municipality that in 1964 became Amstelveen. A total of 2,186 wooden piles, twelve to thirteen metres (40 to 43 ft) long, were emplaced in the soil. The Concertgebouw was completed in late 1886, however due to the difficulties with the municipality of Nieuwer-Amstel – filling in a small canal, paving the access roads and installing street lights – the grand opening of the building was delayed.
The hall opened on 11 April 1888 with an inaugural concert, in which an orchestra of 120 musicians and a chorus of 500 singers participated, performing works of Wagner, Handel, Bach, and Beethoven. The resident orchestra of the Concertgebouw is the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra (Koninklijk Concertgebouworkest), which gave its first concert in the hall on 3 November 1888, as the Concertgebouw Orchestra (Concertgebouworkest). For many decades from the 1950s to the present day the Netherlands Philharmonic Orchestra (previously the Amsterdam Philharmonic Orchestra) as well as the Radio Filharmonisch Orkest also provide their regular concert series in the Concertgebouw.
On 17 September 1969, British progressive rock band, Pink Floyd performed their The Man and The Journey show at Concertgebouw. The show's climax was a rendition of "Celestial Voices" (renamed "The End of the Beginning") in which keyboardist Rick Wright played the hall's organ in place of his Farfisa. The performance was released on CD as part of the band's 2016 box set, The Early Years 1965–1972 in Volume 3: 1969 Dramatis/ation.
Today, some nine hundred concerts and other events per year take place in the Concertgebouw, for a public of over 700,000, making it one of the most-visited concert halls in the world.
, the managing director of the Concertgebouw is Simon Reinink and the artistic director is Anneke Hogenstijn.
Building
The Main Hall (Grote Zaal) seats 1,974, and is 44 metres (144 ft) long, 28 metres (92 ft) wide, and 17 metres (56 ft) high. Its reverberation time is 2.8 seconds without audience, 2.2 seconds with, making it ideal for the late Romantic repertoire such as Mahler. Although this characteristic makes it largely unsuited for amplified music, groups such as Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd and The Who did perform there in the 1960s. In the Main Hall, there is a layer of dust in several places as removing this layer would impact the acoustics as they are now.
A smaller, oval-shaped venue, the Recital Hall (Kleine Zaal), is located behind the Main Hall. The Recital Hall is 20 metres (66 ft) long and 15 metres (50 ft) wide. Its more intimate space is well-suited for chamber music and Lieder. The Recital Hall has 437 seats.
In 1983, the Concertgebouw was found to be sinking into the damp Amsterdam earth, with several inch-wide cracks appearing in the walls, so the hall embarked on extensive fundraising for renovations. Its difficult emergency restoration started in 1985, during which the 2,186 rotting wooden pilings were replaced with concrete pillars. Pi de Bruijn, Dutch architect designed a modern annex for a new entrance and a basement to replace cramped dressing and rehearsal space.
Organ
The organ was built in 1890 by the organ builder Michael Maarschalkerweerd from Utrecht, and was renovated in the years 1990 to 1993 by the organ builder Flentrop. It has 60 registers on three divisions and pedal.
Couplers: II/I (also as Suboktavkoppel), III/I, III/II, I/P, II/P, III/P
Names of composers in the Main Hall
In the Main Hall, the surnames of the following 46 composers are displayed on the balcony ledges and on the walls:
In popular culture
The Concertgebouw is mentioned, along with Madison Square Garden, the Hollywood Bowl, and the Rainbow Theatre, in the song "Rock Show" from the 1975 Wings album Venus and Mars.
Belgian singer mentions the Concertgebouw in his song .
Erroll Garner recorded the live album The Amsterdam Concert in the venue in November 1964.
See also
History of Amsterdam
List of concert halls
List of tourist attractions in Amsterdam
References
External links
Archive of the Concertgebouw at the Amsterdam City Archives
1888 establishments in the Netherlands
Amsterdam-Zuid
Concert halls in Amsterdam
Music venues completed in 1888
Rijksmonuments in Amsterdam
Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra | [
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254328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20space | Public space | A public space is a place that is generally open and accessible to people. Roads (including the pavement), public squares, parks, and beaches are typically considered public space. To a limited extent, government buildings which are open to the public, such as public libraries are public spaces, although they tend to have restricted areas and greater limits upon use. Although not considered public space, privately owned buildings or property visible from sidewalks and public thoroughfares may affect the public visual landscape, for example, by outdoor advertising. Recently, the concept of Shared space has been advanced to enhance the experience of pedestrians in public space jointly used by automobiles and other vehicles.
Public space has also become something of a touchstone for critical theory in relation to philosophy, (urban) geography, visual art, cultural studies, social studies and urban design. The term 'public space' is also often misconstrued to mean other things such as 'gathering place', which is an element of the larger concept of social space. Public spaces have often been valorized as democratic spaces of congregation and political participation, where groups can vocalize their rights.
One of the earliest examples of public spaces are commons. Malls, regardless of private ownership percentage, are examples of 'public space' since no fees or paid tickets are required for entry.
Use of public spaces
Right to common passage
In Nordic countries, like Norway, Sweden, Finland, and also Estonia, all nature areas are considered public space, due to a law, the allemansrätten (the right to common passage).
Restrictions on state action in public spaces in the United States
In the United States the right of the people to engage in speech and assembly in public places may not be unreasonably restricted by the federal or state government. The government cannot usually limit one's speech beyond what is reasonable in a public space, which is considered to be a public forum (that is, screaming epithets at passers-by can be stopped; proselytizing one's religion probably cannot). In a private—that is, non-public—forum, the government can control one's speech to a much greater degree; for instance, protesting one's objection to medicare reform will not be tolerated in the gallery of the United States Senate. This is not to say that the government can control what one says in their own home or to others; it can only control government property in this way. The concept of a public forum is not limited to physical space or public property, for example, a newspaper might be considered a public forum, but see forum in the legal sense as the term has a specific meaning in United States law.
Parks, malls, beaches, waiting rooms, etc., may be closed at night. As this does not exclude any specific group, it is generally not considered a restriction on public use. Entry to public parks cannot be restricted based upon a user's residence.
Social norms in public spaces
In some cultures, there is no expectation of privacy in a public space, however civil inattention is a process whereby individuals are able to maintain their privacy within a crowd.
Controversy regarding restrictions on use
Public space is commonly shared and created for open usage throughout the community, whereas private space is owned by individuals or corporations. The area is built for a range of various types of recreation and entertainment. The physical setting is socially constructed, which creates a behavior influence. Limitations are imposed in the space to prevent certain actions from occurring—public behavior that is considered obnoxious or out of character (i.e., drug and alcohol consumption, urinating, indecent exposure, etc.)--and are supported by law or ordinance. Through the landscape and spatial organization of public space, the social construction is considered to be privately ruled by the implicit and explicit rules and expectations of the space that are enforced.
Whilst it is generally considered that everyone has a right to access and use public space, as opposed to private space which may have restrictions, there has been some academic interest in how public spaces are managed to exclude certain groups - specifically homeless people and young people.
Measures are taken to make the public space less attractive to them, including the removal or design of benches to restrict their use for sleeping and resting, restricting access to certain times, locking indoor/enclosed areas. Police forces are sometimes involved in moving 'unwanted' members of the public from public spaces. In fact, by not being provided suitable access, disabled people are implicitly excluded from some spaces.
As a site for democracy
Human geographers have argued that in spite of the exclusions that are part of public space, it can nonetheless be conceived of as a site where democracy becomes possible. Geographer Don Mitchell has written extensively on the topic of public space and its relation to democracy, employing Henri Lefebvre's notion of the right to the city in articulating his argument. While democracy and public space don't entirely coincide, it is the potential of their intersection that becomes politically important. Other geographers like Gill Valentine have focused on performativity and visibility in public spaces, which brings a theatrical component or 'space of appearance' that is central to the functioning of a democratic space.
Privatization
A privately owned public space, also known as a privately owned public open space (POPOS), is a public space that is open to the public, but owned by a private entity, typically a commercial property developer. Conversion of publicly owned public spaces to privately owned public spaces is referred to as the privatization of public space, and is a common result of urban redevelopment.
Beginning roughly in the 1960s, the privatization of public space (especially in urban centers) has faced criticism from citizen groups such as the Open Spaces Society. Private-public partnerships have taken significant control of public parks and playgrounds through conservancy groups set up to manage what is considered unmanageable by public agencies. Corporate sponsorship of public leisure areas is ubiquitous, giving open space to the public in exchange for higher air rights. This facilitates the construction of taller buildings with private parks.
In one of the newer U.S. incarnations of the private-public partnership, the business improvement district (BID), private organizations are allowed to tax local businesses and retail establishments so that they might provide special private services such as policing and increased surveillance, trash removal, or street renovation, all of which once fell under the control of public funds.
Semi-public spaces
A broader meaning of public space or place includes also places where everybody can come if they pay, like a café, train, or movie theater. A shop is an example of what is intermediate between the two meanings: everybody can enter and look around without obligation to buy, but activities unrelated to the purpose of the shop are not unlimitedly permitted.
The halls and streets (including skyways) in a shopping center may be declared a public place and may be open when the shops are closed. Similarly for halls, railway platforms and waiting rooms of public transport; sometimes a travelling ticket is required. A public library is a public place. A rest stop or truck stop is a public space.
For these "semi-public" spaces stricter rules may apply than outside, e.g. regarding dress code, trading, begging, advertising, photography, propaganda, riding rollerskates, skateboards, a Segway, etc.
Public space in design theory
Public space, as a term and as a concept in design, is volatile. There is much conversation around what constitutes public space, what role it plays, and how design should approach and deal with it.
Historical shift
Historically, public space in the west has been limited to town centres, plazas, church squares, i.e. nearly always engineered around a central monument, which informs the program of the space. These spaces acted as the 'commons' of the people; a political, social and cultural arena. Of the thirteen colonies that became the United States, three were comprehensively planned with integrated physical, social, and economic elements. These planned colonies of Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Georgia each placed emphasis on public space, in particular the public square. The plan for Georgia, known as the Oglethorpe Plan created a unique design in which a public square was created for every ward of forty residential lots and four civic or commercial lots. The design has been preserved in the Savannah historic district.
Jürgen Habermas' concept of the public sphere links its emergence with the development of democracy. A good example of this is the New Deal projects. The New Deal was a brief period in the US under Franklin Delano Roosevelt's government that produced a huge number of public works in an economic effort to boost employment during the depression. The result, however, was more than this. They constituted a legacy of what has been called the cultural infrastructure underlying American public space. The New Deal projects have been credited with significantly contributing to the quality of American life and encouraging unity between all aspects of the community. It has been recently argued, however, that the democratic ideal of public life through the use of public space has deteriorated. As our cities accelerate towards segregation (social, economic, cultural, ethnic), the opportunity for public interaction is on the decline. John Chase writes, "The importance of voluntary and obligatory participation in civic life has been usurped by the consciousness of the arbitrary nature of assigned cultural meanings and by the increasingly important role that consumption of goods and services plays in the formation of individual identity."
Modern critique
Modern architectural critics have lamented on the 'narrative of loss' within the public sphere. That is, modern society has withdrawn from public life that used to inform city centres. Political and social needs, and forums for expression, can now be accessed from the home. This sentiment is reflected in Michael Sorkin's and Mike Davis' declaration of "the end of public space" and the "destruction of any truly democratic urban spaces." Another side of the debate, however, argues that it is people who apply meaning to public space, wherever it may be. It has been suggested that the concepts of public, space, democracy, and citizenship are being redefined by people through lived experience. Discussion has surfaced around the idea that, historically, public space has been inherently contradictory in the way that it has always been exclusive in who has been able to participate. This has caused the "counterpublics", as identified by Nancy Fraser, to establish their own public spaces to respond to their own concerns. These spaces are in constant flux, and in response, its users restructure and reinterpret physical space. An example of this is in the African-American neighbourhood, Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles. Here, a parking lot has evolved into a scene of intense commercial and social activity. Locals gather here to meet and socialise, sell and consume goods. The example has been used to illustrate that the historical ideal of fixed public space around a monument is not viable for a contemporary diverse social range as "no single physical space can represent a completely inclusive 'space of democracy'."
Art in public space
This sense of flux and change, informs how contemporary public art has evolved. Temporal art in public spaces has been a long established practice. But the presence of public art has become increasingly prevalent and important within our contemporary cities. Temporal public art is so important because of its ability to respond to, reflect, and explore the context which it inhabits. Patricia Phillips describes the "social desire for an art that is contemporary and timely, that responds to and reflects its temporal and circumstantial context." Public art is an arena for investigation, exploration and articulation of the dense and diverse public landscape. Public art asks its audience to re-imagine, re-experience, re-view and re-live. In the design field, a heavy focus has been turned onto the city as needing to discover new and inspired ways to re-use, re-establish and re-invent the city, in step with an invigorated interest in rejuvenating our cities for a sustainable future. Contemporary design has become obsessed with the need to save the modern city from an industrialized, commercialized, urban pit of a death bed.
Approaching urban design
Contemporary perception of public space has now branched and grown into a multitude of non-traditional sites with a variety of programs in mind. It is for this reason that the way in which design deals with public space as a discipline, has become such a diverse and indefinable field.
Iris Aravot puts forward an interesting approach to the urban design process, with the idea of the 'narrative-myth'. Aravot argues that "conventional analysis and problem solving methods result in fragmentation...of the authentic experience of a city...[and] something of the liveliness of the city as a singular entity is lost." The process of developing a narrative-myth in urban design involves analysing and understanding the unique aspects of the local culture based on Cassirer's five distinctive "symbolic forms". They are myth and religion, art, language, history and science; aspects often disregarded by professional practice. Aravot suggests that the narrative-myth "imposes meaning specifically on what is still inexplicable", i.e. the essence of a city.
See also
References
Bibliography
Hoidn, Barbara. “Demo:Polis – The Right to Public Space” in Tom Bieling (Ed.): Design (&) Activism: Perspectives on Design as Activism and Activism as Design, Milano: Mimesis, 2019, p. 87–96
Illegal to be Homeless. National Coalition for the Homeless (2004).
Maasik, Sonia, and Jack Solomon. Signs of Life in the USA Readings on Popular Culture for Writers. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006.
Malone, K. "Children, Youth and Sustainable Cities". Local Environment 6 (1).
"Conclusions of the International Seminar on the Planning of Used Spaces in Towns", in: Monumentum (Louvain), Vol. 18–19, 1979, pp. 129–135.
External links
European Archive of Urban Public Space
Project for Public Spaces
Community building | [
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254331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiley%20College | Wiley College | Wiley College is a private historically black college in Marshall, Texas. Founded in 1873 by the Methodist Episcopal Church's Bishop Isaac Wiley and certified in 1882 by the Freedman's Aid Society, it is one of the oldest predominantly black colleges west of the Mississippi River.
In 2005–2006, on-campus enrollment approached 450, while an off-campus program in Shreveport, Louisiana, for students with some prior college credits who seek to finish a degree, enrolled about 250. As of the fall of 2006, total enrollment was about 750. By fall of 2013, total enrollment was approximately 1,400. Wiley is an open admissions college and about 96 percent of students receive some financial aid.
Over a 15-year period, Melvin B. Tolson's debate teams lost only one of 75 debates. Wiley's debate team competed against historically black colleges and earned national attention with its 1935 debate against University of Southern California's highly ranked debate team.
Academics
Wiley College offers bachelor's degrees through four academic divisions.
Division of Education
Division of Social Sciences & Humanities
Division of Business & Technology
Division of Sciences
Civil Rights Movement
Wiley, along with Bishop College, was instrumental in the Civil Rights Movement in Texas. Wiley and Bishop students launched the first sit-ins in Texas in the rotunda of the Old Harrison County Courthouse to protest segregation in public facilities.
James Farmer, son of James L. Farmer, Sr., graduated from Wiley and became one of the "Big Four" of the Civil Rights Movement. Together with Roy Wilkins, Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Whitney M. Young Jr., James Farmer helped organize the first sit-ins and Freedom Rides in the United States.
Debate team
Tony Scherman's article about the Wiley College debate team for the 1997 Spring issue of American Legacy sparked a renewed interest in its history.<ref>[http://www.blacknews.com/pr/americanlegacy701.html BlackNews.com – American Legacy Magazine'''s Story: The Great Debaters, Turns from Pages to the Big Screen Directed By and Starring Denzel Washington and Produced By Oprah Winfrey]</ref> The success of the 1935 Wiley College debate team, coached by professor and poet Melvin Tolson, was the subject of a 2005 AMS Pictures documentary, The Great Debaters, The Real Great Debaters of Wiley College, which received heavy play around Texas, followed by the 2007 dramatic movie, The Great Debaters, directed by and starring Denzel Washington. In 1935, the Wiley College debate team defeated the reigning national debate champion, the University of Southern California (depicted as Harvard University in The Great Debaters'').
In 2007, Denzel Washington announced a donation of $1 million to Wiley so the team could be re-established.
The Wiley College Debate Team, now also known as the Melvin B. Tolson/Denzel Washington Forensics Society of Wiley College, is under the direction of Dr. Courtney J. Wright. The purpose of The Wiley College Debate Team is not only to compete at a national and regional level, but also to instill a strong work ethic, a drive for academic excellence, and a spirit of ethical competition in its student leaders.
The Wiley College debate team earned the mantle "The Great Debaters." The name was bestowed on the team by director-actor Denzel Washington in a movie by the same name which premiered in 2008. The 23-person team met the best speakers and debaters from 80 colleges and universities sent by 26 states to the Pi Kappa Delta Comprehensive National Tournament staged in Indianapolis, Indiana. This was the largest Pi Kappa Delta Tournament in their 101-year history. The Great Debaters came away in first place. When the winning totals from the debates and individual events – 2000 entries in all – Wiley College was named champion.
The victory holds special meaning for the Historically Black College. Not only was it the first national speech and debate title won by an HBCU, another moral victory was won. During Melvin B. Tolson's tenure, Wiley College had not been permitted to join the national forensics fraternity, Pi Kappa Delta, or to participate in its national convention or national championship.
In 2017, Wiley College led the establishment of the first HBCU National Speech and Debate League. In 2018, Wiley hosted the first HBCU National Speech and Debate League Tournament.
Athletics
Wiley College teams, nicknamed the Wildcats, are part of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Red River Athletic Conference (RRAC). Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, soccer, and track & field. Women's sports include basketball, cross country, soccer, track & field, volleyball, and cheerleading. Wiley the Wildcat is the mascot.
Gallery
Notable people
Notable faculty
Notable alumni
References
External links
Historically black universities and colleges in the United States
Red River Athletic Conference
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Private universities and colleges in Texas
Buildings and structures in Harrison County, Texas
Education in Harrison County, Texas
1873 establishments in Texas
Educational institutions established in 1873
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Methodist Episcopal Church
Historically black universities and colleges in Texas | [
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] |
254348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20common%20carrier%20freight%20railroads%20in%20the%20United%20States | List of common carrier freight railroads in the United States | About 700 railroads operate common carrier freight service in the United States. There are about of railroad track in the United States, nearly all standard gauge.
Reporting marks are listed in parentheses.
A&R Terminal Railroad (ART)
Aberdeen and Rockfish Railroad (AR)
Aberdeen, Carolina and Western Railway (ACWR)
Acadiana Railway (AKDN)
Adams-Warnock Railway (AWRY)
Adrian and Blissfield Rail Road (ADBF)
Affton Terminal Services Railroad (AT)
Ag Valley Railroad (AVRR)
Aiken Railway (AIKR) (WCRSC)
Airlake Terminal Railway (ALKT) (PGR)
Akron Barberton Cluster Railway (AB) (WE)
Alabama and Gulf Coast Railway (AGR) (GWRR)
Alabama and Tennessee River Railway (ATN) (OMLX)
Alabama Export Railroad (ALE) (MSE)
Alabama Southern Railroad (ABS) (WATX)
Alabama Warrior Railway (ABWR) (WATX)
Alamo Gulf Coast Railroad (AGCR) (MMAX)
Alamo North Texas Railroad (ANTX) (MMAX)
Alaska Railroad (ARR)
Albany and Eastern Railroad (AERC)
Albany Port Railroad (APD)
Alexander Railroad (ARC)
Aliquippa and Ohio River Railroad (AOR) (GWRR)
Allegheny Valley Railroad (AVR) (CLEX)
Allentown and Auburn Railroad (ALLN)
Alton and Southern Railway (ALS) (UP)
AN Railway (AN) (GWRR)
Angelina and Neches River Railroad (ANR)
Ann Arbor Railroad (AA) (WATX)
Apache Railway (APA)
Appalachian and Ohio Railroad (AO) (PLTX)
Arcade and Attica Railroad (ARA)
Arizona and California Railroad (ARZC) (GWRR)
Arizona Central Railroad (AZCR) (WG)
Arizona Eastern Railway (AZER) (GWRR)
Arkansas–Oklahoma Railroad (AOK)
Arkansas and Missouri Railroad (AM)
Arkansas Midland Railroad (AKMD) (GWRR)
Arkansas Southern Railroad (ARS) (WATX)
Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi Railroad (ALM) (GWRR)
Ashland Railway (ASRY)
Ashtabula, Carson and Jefferson Railroad (ACJR)
AT&L Railroad (ATLT)
Atlantic and Western Railway (ATW) (GWRR)
Austin Western Railroad (AWRR) (WATX)
Autauga Northern Railroad (AUT) (WATX)
B&H Rail Corporation (BH) (LAL)
Baja California Railroad (BJRR)
Baldwin City & Southern Railroad (BCSO) (MIDL)
Ballard Terminal Railroad (BDTL)
Baton Rouge Southern Railroad (BRS) (WATX)
Batten Kill Railroad (BKRR)
Bauxite and Northern Railway (BXN) (GWRR)
Bay Colony Railroad (BCLR)
Bay Line Railroad (BAYL) (GWRR)
Bayway Terminal Switching Company (BAWT)
Beech Mountain Railroad (BEEM)
Bee Line Railroad (BLEX) (KBSR)
Bellingham International Railroad (BIRR) (BNSF)
Belt Railway of Chicago (BRC)
Belvidere and Delaware River Railway (BDRV) (CHD)
Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad (BLE) (CN)
BG&CM Railroad (BGCM) (MPRL)
Big 4 Terminal Railroad (BFT) (CNUR)
Big Spring Rail System (BSR)
Bighorn Divide and Wyoming Railroad (BDW)
Birmingham Terminal Railway (BHRR) (WATX)
Bi-State Development Agency (BSDA)
Belpre Industrial Parkersburg Railroad (BIP)
Black River and Western Corporation (BRW) (CHD)
Blacklands Railroad (BLR)
Blackwell Northern Gateway Railroad (BNG)
Bloomer Line (BLOL)
Blue Rapids Railway (BLRR) (UP)
Blue Ridge Southern Railroad (BLU) (WATX)
BNSF Railway (BNSF)
Bogalusa Bayou Railroad (BBAY) (WATX)
Boise Valley Railroad (BVRR) (WATX)
Boone and Scenic Valley Railroad (BSVY)
Border Transload & Transfer (BT) (RVSC) (IHRX)
Border Pacific Railroad (BOP)
Brandywine Valley Railroad (BVRY) (ARCL)
Branford Steam Railroad (BRFD)
Brookhaven Rail (BHR) (USRC)
Brownsville and Rio Grande International Railroad (BRG) (OMLX)
Buckingham Branch Railroad (BB)
Bucyrus Industrial Railroad (BIR) (BRRX)
Buffalo and Pittsburgh Railroad (BPRR) (GWRR)
Buffalo Southern Railroad (BSOR)
Burlington Junction Railway (BJRY)
Butte, Anaconda and Pacific Railway (BAP) (PATR)
C&NC Railroad (CNUR)
Caldwell County Railroad (CWCY)
California Northern Railroad (CFNR) (GWRR)
Camden and Southern Railroad (CSR) (ARSL)
Camp Chase Railway (CAMY) (IBCX)
Canadian National Railway (CN)
Canadian Pacific Railway (CP)
Caney Fork and Western Railroad (CFWR) (IHRX)
Canton Railroad (CTN)
Cape Fear Railways (CF) (USAX)
Cape May Seashore Lines (CMSL)
Carolina Coastal Railway (CLNA)
Carolina Piedmont Railroad (CPDR) (GWRR)
Cascade and Columbia River Railroad (CSCD) (GWRR)
CaterParrott Railnet (CPR)
CBEC Railroad (CBEC)
Cedar Rapids and Iowa City Railway (CIC)
Central California Traction Company (CCT)
Central Indiana and Western Railroad (CEIW)
Central Maine and Quebec Railway (CMQ) (RAH)
Central Midland Railway (CMR) (PGR)
Central Montana Rail, Inc. (CM)
Central New England Railroad (CNZR)
Central New York Railroad (CNYK) (NYSW)
Central Oregon and Pacific Railroad (CORP) (GWRR)
Central Railroad of Indiana (CIND) (GWRR)
Central Railroad of Indianapolis (CERA) (GWRR)
Central Washington Railroad (CWRR) (CBRW)
CG Railway (CGR)
Charlotte Southern Railroad (CHS) (ADBF)
Chattahoochee Industrial Railroad (CIRR) (GWRR)
Chattooga and Chickamauga Railway (CCKY) (GWRR)
Chesapeake and Albemarle Railroad (CA) (GWRR)
Chesapeake and Indiana Railroad (CKIN) (IBCX)
Chessie Logistics (CLCY)
Chestnut Ridge Railroad (CHR)
Chicago–Chemung Railroad (CCUO)
Chicago Heights Terminal Transfer (CHTT) (UP)
Chicago Junction Railway (CJRY) (PGR)
Chicago Port & Rail (CPRL)
Chicago Port Railroad (CPC)
Chicago Rail Link (CRL) (OMLX)
Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad (CSS) (APH)
Chicago, Fort Wayne and Eastern Railroad (CFE) (GWRR)
Chicago, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad (CSP) (PGR)
Cicero Central Railroad (CECR) (WATX)
Cimarron Valley Railroad (CVR) (WG)
Cincinnati Eastern Railroad (CCER)
City of Prineville Railway (COP)
Clackamas Valley Railroad (CVLY)(PGR)
Clarendon and Pittsford Railroad (CLP) (VTR)
Cleveland and Cuyahoga Railroad (CCYH) (OMLX)
Cleveland Port Railroad (CPRY) (OMLX)
Cleveland Works Railway (CWRO) (ARCL)
Clinton Terminal Railroad (CTR)
Cloquet Terminal Railroad (CTRR)
CMC Railroad (CMC)
Coffeen and Western Railroad (CAEG) (Ameren)
Colorado and Wyoming Railway (CW)
Columbia and Cowlitz Railway (CLC) (PATR)
Columbia Basin Railroad (CBRW)
Columbia Business Center Railroad (CBCX)
Columbia Terminal Railroad (CT)
Columbia & Walla Walla Railway (CWW) (FTRX)
Columbus and Chattahoochee Railroad (CCH) (GWRR)
Columbus and Greenville Railway (CAGY) (GWRR)
Columbus and Ohio River Rail Road (CUOH) (GWRR)
Commonwealth Railway (CWRY) (GWRR)
Conecuh Valley Railroad (COEH) (GWRR)
Connecticut Southern Railroad (CSOR) (GWRR)
Coopersville and Marne Railway (CPMY)
Coos Bay Rail Link (CBRL)
Copper Basin Railway (CBRY)
Corpus Christi Terminal Railroad (CCPN) (GWRR)
Crab Orchard and Egyptian Railroad (COER) (PGR)
CSX Transportation (CSXT)
Dakota & Iowa Railroad (DAIR)
D&W Railroad (DWRV) (IANR)
Dakota Northern Railroad (DN) (ILSX)
Dakota Southern Railway (DSRC) (MPRL)
Dakota, Missouri Valley and Western Railroad (DMVW)
Dallas, Garland and Northeastern Railroad (DGNO) (GWRR)
Dardanelle and Russellville Railroad (DR) (ARSL)
De Queen and Eastern Railroad (DQE) (PATR)
Decatur Central Railroad (DCC) (OMLX)
Decatur & Eastern Illinois Railroad (DREI) (WATX)
Decatur Junction Railway (DT) (PREX)
Delaware–Lackawanna Railroad (DL) (GVTX)
Delray Connecting Railroad (DC) (TSTR)
Delmarva Central Railroad (DCR) (CLEX)
Delta Southern Railroad (DSRR) (WBIH)
Delta Valley and Southern Railway (DVS)
Denver Rock Island Railroad (DRIR)
Depew, Lancaster and Western Railroad (DLWR) (GVTX)
Deseret Power Railroad (DPRW)
Detroit Connecting Railroad (DCON) (ADBF)
Dover and Delaware River Railroad (DD) (CHD)
Dover & Rockaway River Railroad (DRRV) (CHD)
Dubois County Railroad (DCRR) (ITM)
East Brookfield and Spencer Railroad (EBSR)
East Camden and Highland Railroad (EACH)
East Cooper and Berkeley Railroad (ECBR) (PRRY)
East Erie Commercial Railroad (EEC) (GE)
East Jersey Railroad (EJR)
East Penn Railroad (ESPN) (RRLX)
East Tennessee Railway (ETRY) (GWRR)
East Troy Electric Railroad (ETER) (METW)
Eastern Alabama Railway (EARY) (GWRR)
Eastern Idaho Railroad (EIRR) (WATX)
Eastern Illinois Railroad (EIRC)
Eastern Kentucky Railway Company (EKRC)
Eastern Maine Railway (EMRY) (NBSR)
Effingham Railroad (EFRR)
El Dorado and Wesson Railway (EDW)
Elizabethtown Industrial Railroad (EZR)
Elk River Railroad (ELKR) (ARCS)
Elkhart and Western Railroad (EWR) (PNRC)
Ellis and Eastern Company (EE)
Escalante Western Railway (EW) (WFAX)
Escanaba and Lake Superior Railroad (ELS)
Evansville Western Railway (EVWR) (PLTX)
Everett Railroad (EV)
Fairfield Southern Company (FS) (TSTR)
Falls Road Railroad (FRR) (GVTX)
Farmrail Corporation (FMRC)
FFG&C Railroad (FFGC)
Finger Lakes Railway (FGLK)
First Coast Railroad (FCRD) (GWRR)
Flats Industrial Railroad (FIR)
Florida Central Railroad (FCEN) (PNSY)
Florida East Coast Railway (FEC) (RAH)
Florida Gulf & Atlantic Railroad (FGAR) (RailUSA)
Florida Midland Railroad (FMID) (PNSY)
Florida Northern Railroad (FNOR) (PNSY)
Fordyce and Princeton Railroad (FP) (GWRR)
Fore River Transportation Corporation (FRVT)
Fort Smith Railroad (FSR) (PNRC)
Fort Worth and Western Railroad (FWWR)
Foxville and Northern Railroad (FVN)
Fredonia Valley Railroad (FVRR) (MMAX)
FreightCar Short Line (FCSL)
FTRL Railway (FTRL)
Fulton County Railroad (FC) (EWRY) (PNRC)
Fulton County Railway (FCR) (OMLX)
Galveston Railroad (GVSR) (GWRR)
Garden City Western Railway (GCW) (PNRC)
Gardendale Railroad (GRD) (IHRX)
Gary Railway (GRW) (TSTR)
Gateway Eastern Railway (GWWE) (KCS)
Gateway Industrial Railroad (GIRR)
Geaux Geaux Railroad (GOGR) (WATX)
Georges Creek Railway (GCK)
Georgetown Railroad (GRR)
Georgia and Florida Railway (GFRR) (OMLX)
Georgia Central Railway (GC) (GWRR)
Georgia Northeastern Railroad (GNRR) (PATR)
Georgia Southern Railway (GS) (PNRC)
Georgia Southwestern Railroad (GSWR) (GWRR)
Georgia Woodlands Railroad (GWRC) (OMLX)
Gettysburg and Northern Railroad (GET) (PNRC)
Global Container Terminals New York (GCTX)
Golden Isles Terminal Railroad (GITM) (GWRR)
Golden Triangle Railroad (GTRA) (PATR)
Goose Lake Railway (GLRY) (FTRX)
Grafton and Upton Railroad (GU)
Grainbelt Corporation (GNBC) (FMRC)
Grand Elk Railroad (GDLK) (WATX)
Grand Rapids Eastern Railroad (GR) (GWRR)
Grand River Railway (GRRL)
Great Lakes Central Railroad (GLC)
Great Northwest Railroad (GRNW) (WATX)
Great Walton Railroad (GRWR)
Great Western Railway of Colorado (GWR) (OMLX)
Green Mountain Railroad (GMRC) (VTR)
Greenville and Western Railway (GRLW) (WCRSC)
Grenada Railway (GRYR) (RailUSA)
Gulf Coast Switching (GCSX) (APH)
Hainesport Secondary Railroad (HSCR) (HT)
Hampton and Branchville Railroad (HB) (PRRY) (o/s)
Hartwell Railroad (HRT) (GRWR)
Heart of Georgia Railroad (HOG) (GWRR)
Heritage Railroad (HR) (SARM)
Herrin Railroad (HRRL)
High Point, Thomasville & Denton Railroad (HPTD) (CSXT) (NS)
Hilton & Albany Railroad (HAL) (GWRR)
Hondo Railway (HRR)
Hoffman Transportation (HTCX)
Hoosier Southern Railroad (HOS) (TNW)
Housatonic Railroad (HRRC)
Huntsville and Madison County Airport Authority (HMQR) (IICX) (NS)
Huntsville and Madison County Railroad Authority (HMCR)
Huron and Eastern Railway (HESR) (GWRR)
Hussey Terminal Railroad (HTRC)
Idaho and Sedalia Transportation Company (ISR)
Idaho Northern and Pacific Railroad (INPR) (RGPC)
Illini Terminal Railroad (ITR) (RRC)
Illinois and Midland Railroad (IMRR) (GWRR)
Illinois Railway (IR) (OMLX)
Illinois Western Railroad (ILW) (EFRR)
Indiana and Ohio Railway (IORY) (GWRR)
Indiana Eastern Railroad (IERR)
Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad (IHB)
Indiana Northeastern Railroad (IN)
Indiana Rail Road (INRD)
Indiana Southern Railroad (ISRR) (GWRR)
Indiana Southwestern Railway (ISW) (PNRC)
Iowa Interstate Railroad (IAIS) (RDC)
Iowa & Middletown Railway (IMRY) (REG)
Iowa Northern Railway (IANR)
Iowa River Railroad (IARR) (MPRL)
Iowa Southern Railway (ISRY) (PGR)
Iowa Traction Railroad (IATR) (PGR)
Ithaca Central Railroad (ITHR) (WATX)
Jackson & Lansing Railroad (JAIL) (ADBF)
Jacksonville Port Terminal Railroad (JXPT) (WATX)
Joppa and Eastern Railroad (JE)
Juniata Terminal Company (JTFS)
Juniata Valley Railroad (JVRR) (NSHR)
Kanawha River Railroad (KNWA) (WATX)
Kanawha River Terminal (KRT)
Kankakee, Beaverville and Southern Railroad (KBSR)
Kansas and Oklahoma Railroad (KO) (WATX)
Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS)
Kansas City Transportation Lines (KCTL) (KAW) (WATX)
Kaw River Railroad (KAW) (WATX)
Kendallville Terminal Railway (KTR) (PNRC)
Kennewick Terminal Railroad (KET) (FTRX)
Kentucky and Tennessee Railway (KT) (BSFX)
Keokuk Junction Railway (KJRY) (PNRC)
Kiamichi Railroad (KRR) (GWRR)
Kingman Terminal Railroad (KGTR) (PATR)
Kinston and Snow Hill Railroad (KSH) (G&O)
Kiski Junction Railroad (KJR)
Klamath Northern Railway (KNOR)
KM Railways (KM) (KMTX)
Knoxville and Holston River Railroad (KXHR) (G&O)
Kodak Park Railroad (KPK) (KODK) (RSS)
KWT Railway (KWT) (GWRR)
Kyle Railroad (KYLE) (GWRR)
Lake Michigan and Indiana Railroad (LMIC) (ARCL) (NS)
Lake State Railway (LSRC)
Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad (LSI)
Lake Terminal Railroad (LT) (TSTR)
Lancaster and Chester Railway (LC) (G&O)
Landisville Railroad (LVR)
Lapeer Industrial Railroad (LIRR) (ADBF)
LaSalle Railway (LSRY)
Laurinburg and Southern Railroad (LRS) (G&O)
Leetsdale Industrial Terminal Railway (LIT)
Lehigh Railway (LWRY) (OHRY)
Lehigh Valley Rail Management – Bethlehem Division (LVRB) (LVRM)
Lehigh Valley Rail Management – Johnstown Division (LVRJ) (LVRM)
Lewisburg and Buffalo Creek Railroad (LBCX) (UCIR) (NSHR)
Little Kanawha River Railroad (LKRR)
Little Rock and Western Railway (LRWN) (GWRR)
Little Rock Port Authority Railroad (LRPA)
Live Oak Railroad (LOR)
Livonia, Avon and Lakeville Railroad (LAL)
Longview Switching Company (LVSW) (BNSF) (UP)
Lorain Northern Railroad (LNOR) (TSTR)
Los Angeles Junction Railway (LAJ) (BNSF)
Louisiana and Delta Railroad (LDRR) (GWRR)
Louisiana and North West Railroad (LNW) (PATR)
Louisiana Southern Railroad (LAS) (WATX)
Louisville and Indiana Railroad (LIRC) (APH)
Lubbock and Western Railway (LBWR) (WATX)
Lucas Oil Rail Lines (LORL)
Luxapalila Valley Railroad (LXVR) (GWRR)
Luzerne and Susquehanna Railway (LS) (OHRY)
Lycoming Valley Railroad (LVRR) (NSHR)
M&B Railroad (MNBR) (GWRR)
Madison Railroad (CMPA)
Mahoning Valley Railway (MVRY) (GWRR)
Maine Northern Railway (MNRY) (NBSR)
Manning Rail (MANN) (Manning Grain)
Manufacturers' Junction Railway (MJ) (OMLX) (o/s)
Marquette Rail, LLC (MQT) (GWRR)
Maryland and Delaware Railroad (MDDE)
Maryland Midland Railway (MMID) (GWRR)
Massachusetts Central Railroad (MCER)
Massachusetts Coastal Railroad (MC) (IPH)
Massena Terminal Railroad (MSTR) (GWRR)
Meeker Southern Railroad (MSN) (BDTL)
Meridian Southern Railway (MDS) (OHRY)
MG Rail, Inc. (MGRI) (CTLC) (CGBE)
Michigan Shore Railroad (MS) (GWRR)
Michigan Southern Railroad (MSO) (PNRC)
Mid-Michigan Railroad (MMRR) (GWRR)
Middletown and Hummelstown Railroad (MIDH)
Middletown and New Jersey Railroad (MNJ) (RRLX)
Mineral Range Railroad (MRAX)
Minnesota Commercial Railway (MNNR)
Minnesota Northern Railroad (MNN) (ILSX) (KBNI)
Minnesota Prairie Line, Inc. (MPLI) (TCWR)
Minnesota, Dakota and Western Railway (MDW)
Mission Mountain Railroad (MMT) (WATX)
Mississippi Central Railroad (MSCI) (PNRC)
Mississippi Delta Railroad (MSDR) (ROCK)
Mississippi Export Railroad (MSE)
Mississippi Southern Railroad (MSR) (WATX)
Mississippi Tennessee Railroad (MTNR) (IHRX)
Itawamba Mississippian Railway (MSRW) (HMI)
Missouri and Northern Arkansas Railroad (MNA) (GWRR)
Missouri North Central Railroad (MNC) (MRIX)
Modesto and Empire Traction Company (MET)
Mohawk, Adirondack and Northern Railroad (MHWA) (GVTX)
Montana Rail Link (MRL)
Morristown and Erie Railway (ME)
Moscow, Camden and San Augustine Railroad (MCSA)
Mount Hood Railroad (MH) (IPH)
Mount Vernon Terminal Railway (MVT)
Napoleon, Defiance & Western Railroad (NDW) (PNRC)
Nashville and Eastern Railroad (NERR) (RJCR)
Nashville and Western Railroad (NWR) (RJCR)
Natchez Railway (NTZR) (AKRM)
Naugatuck Railroad Company (NAUG)
Navajo Mine Railroad (TNMR)
Northampton Switching Company (NDCR)
Nebraska Central Railroad (NCRC) (RGPC)
Nebraska Kansas Colorado Railway (NKCR) (OMLX)
Nebraska Northwestern Railroad (NNW)
Nevada Industrial Switch (NISX) (PSGX)
New Castle Industrial Railroad (NCIR)
New Century AirCenter Railroad (JCAX)
New England Central Railroad (NECR) (GWRR)
New England Southern Railroad (NEGS)
New Hampshire Central Railroad (NHCR)
New Hampshire Northcoast Corporation (NHN)
New Hope and Ivyland Railroad (NHRR)
New Jersey Rail Carriers, LLC (NJRC)
New Jersey Seashore Lines (NJSL) (CMSL)
New Orleans and Gulf Coast Railway (NOGC) (RGPC)
New Orleans Public Belt Railroad (NOPB)
New York and Atlantic Railway (NYA) (ARH)
New York and Lake Erie Railroad (NYLE) (OCTL)
New York and Ogdensburg Railway (NYOG) (VTR)
New York New Jersey Rail, LLC (NYNJ)
New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway (NYSW)
Newburgh and South Shore Railroad (NSR) (OMLX)
Nittany and Bald Eagle Railroad (NBER) (NSHR)
Norfolk and Portsmouth Belt Line Railroad (NPB)
Norfolk Southern Railway (NS) and subsidiaries: Alabama Great Southern Railroad (AGS), Camp Lejeune Railroad, Central of Georgia Railroad (CG), Chesapeake Western Railway (CHW), Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific Railway (CNTP), Georgia Southern and Florida Railway (GSF), Interstate Railroad (INT), State University Railroad, Tennessee Railway (TENN), Tennessee, Alabama and Georgia Railway (TAG)
North Carolina and Virginia Railroad (NCVA) (GWRR)
North Louisiana & Arkansas Railroad (NLA) (ARSL)
North Shore Railroad (NSHR)
Northern Lines Railway (NLR) (ARH)
Northern Ohio and Western Railway (NOW) (OMLX)
Northern Plains Railroad (NPR)
Northwestern Oklahoma Railroad (NOKL)
Northwestern Pacific Railroad (NWP) (NCRA)
Oakland Global Rail Enterprise (OGRE)
Ogeechee Railway (OGEE)
Ohi-Rail Corporation (OHIC)
Ohio Central Railroad (OHCR) (GWRR)
Ohio South Central Railroad (OSCR) (IERR)
Ohio Southern Railroad (OSRR) (GWRR)
Ohio Terminal Railway (OHIO) (CLEX)
Oil Creek and Titusville Lines, Inc. (OCTL)
Old Augusta Railroad (OAR)
Olympia and Belmore Railroad (OLYO) (GWRR)
Omaha, Lincoln and Beatrice Railway (OLB)
Ontario Central Railroad (ONCT) (FGLK)
Ontario Midland Railroad (OMID)
Orange Port Terminal Railway (OPT)
Oregon Eastern Railroad (OERR) (WG)
Oregon Pacific Railroad (OPR)
Oregon Railconnect (ORC) (FTRX)
Otter Tail Valley Railroad (OTVR) (GWRR)
Ouachita Railroad (OUCH) (ARSX)
Owego and Harford Railway (OHRY)
Ozark Valley Railroad (OVRR) (MPRL)
Pacific Harbor Line, Inc. (PHL) (APH)
Pacific Sun Railroad (PSRR) (WATX)
Paducah and Illinois Railroad (PI) (IC) (CN)
Paducah and Louisville Railway (PAL) (PLTX)
Palouse River and Coulee City Railroad (PCC) (WATX)
Pan Am Railways (PAR)
Pan Am Southern (PAS) (PAR)
Panhandle Northern Railroad (PNR) (OMLX)
Patriot Woods Railroad (PAW) (CLC) (PATR)
Pecos Valley Southern Railway (PVS) (WATX)
Pee Dee River Railway (PDRR) (AR)
Pend Oreille Valley Railroad (POVA)
Peninsula Terminal Company (PT)
Pennsylvania and Southern Railway (PSCC) (REG)
Pennsylvania Southwestern Railroad (PSWR) (WATX)
Perry County Railroad (PCYR)
Peru Industrial Railroad (PIRR) (IR) (OMLX)
Pickens Railway, Honea Path Division (PICK)
Pioneer Industrial Railroad (PRY) (PNRC)
Pioneer Valley Railroad (PVRR) (PNSY)
Pittsburgh and Ohio Central Railroad (POHC) (GWRR)
Pittsburgh, Allegheny and McKees Rocks Railroad (PAM)
Plainsman Switching Company (PMSW)
Plainview Terminal Company (PTM) (LBWR) (WATX)
Point Comfort and Northern Railway (PCN) (GWRR)
Port Bienville Short Line Railroad (PBVR)
Port Harbor Railroad (PHRR) (RRC)
Port Jersey Railroad (PJR) (NYNJ)
Port Manatee Railroad (MAUP)
Port of Beaumont Railroad (PBR) (ECRX)
Port of Catoosa Terminal Railroad (POCA)
Port of Muskogee Railroad (PMR)
Port of Palm Beach District (PPBD)
Port of Tucson Railroad (POT)
Port Rail, Inc (PRLC) (LCHD)
Port Terminal Railroad Association (PTRA)
Port Terminal Railroad of South Carolina (PTR) (PRRY)
Portland and Western Railroad (PNWR) (GWRR)
Portland Terminal Railroad (PTRC) (BNSF) (UP)
Portland Vancouver Junction Railroad (PVJR) (CBRW)
Prescott and Northwestern Railroad (PNW) (AKMD) (GWRR)
Progressive Rail, Inc. (PGR)
Providence and Worcester Railroad (PW) (GWRR)
Puget Sound and Pacific Railroad (PSAP) (GWRR)
Quincy Railroad (QRR) (Sierra Pacific)
Quinwood Coal Company (QCC)
Rainer Rail (RANR) (FTRX)
Rawhide Short Line (RHSL) (PRPA)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Allentown Lines (RJCN)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Bardstown Line (RJCR)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Carolina Line (RJCA)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Central Kentucky Lines (RJCC)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Cleveland Line (RJCL)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Memphis Line (RJCM)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Pennsylvania Lines (RJCP)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Tennessee Terminal (RJCK)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Texas Lines (RJCD)
R.J. Corman Railroad/West Virginia Line (RJCV)
R.J. Corman Railroad/Western Ohio Lines (RJCW)
Rapid City, Pierre and Eastern Railroad (RCPE) (GWRR)
Raritan Central Railway (RCRY) (REG)
Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad (RBMN)
Red River Valley and Western Railroad (RRVW)
Republic N&T Railroad (NTRY)
Riceboro Southern Railway (RSOR) (GWRR)
Richmond Pacific Railroad (RPRC)
Rio Valley Switching Company (RVSC) (IHRX)
Ripley & New Albany Railroad (RNAB) (PNRC)
Riverport Railroad (RVPR)
Rochester and Southern Railroad (RSR) (GWRR)
Rock and Rail LLC (RRRR)
Rockdale, Sandow and Southern Railroad (RSS) (GWRR) (o/s)
Rogue Valley Terminal Railroad (RVT) (CCTX)
Republic Short Line (RSL)
S&L Railroad (SLGG) (Progress Rail)
Sabine River and Northern Railroad (SRN)
Sacramento Southern Railroad (SSRR) (CARM)
Sacramento Valley Railroad (SAV) (PATR)
Salt Lake, Garfield and Western Railway (SLGW)
San Antonio Central Railroad (SAC) (WATX)
San Diego and Imperial Valley Railroad (SDIY) (GWRR)
San Francisco Bay Railway (SFBR)
San Joaquin Valley Railroad (SJVR) (GWRR)
San Manuel Arizona Railroad (SMA)
San Luis and Rio Grande Railroad (SLRG) (IPH)
San Luis Central Railroad (SLC) (PVCX)
San Pedro Valley Railroad (SPVR) (IHRX)
Santa Teresa Southern Railroad (STSR) (IHRX)
Sand Springs Railway (SS) (OMLX)
Sandersville Railroad (SAN)
Santa Cruz, Big Trees and Pacific Railway (SCBG)
Santa Maria Valley Railroad (SMV)
Saratoga and North Creek Railroad (SNC) (IPH)
Savage Bingham and Garfield Railroad (SBG) (SVGX)
Savannah Port Terminal Railroad (SAPT) (GWRR)
Seaview Transportation Company (SVTX)
Seminole Gulf Railway (SGLR)
SEMO Port Railroad (SE)
Sequatchie Valley Switching Company (SQSC) (IHRX)
Shamokin Valley Railroad (SVRR) (NSHR)
Shenandoah Valley Railroad (SV) (DGVR)
Sierra Northern Railway (SERA)
Sisseton Milbank Railroad (SMRR) (TCWR)
SJRE Railroad (SJRE)
SMS Rail Lines of New York, LLC (SNY) (SMS)
SMS Rail Service, Inc. (SLRS) (SMS)
South Branch Valley Railroad (SBVR)
South Buffalo Railway (SB)
South Carolina Central Railroad (SCRF) (GWRR)
South Central Florida Express, Inc. (SCXF) (USSG)
South Central Tennessee Railroad (SCTR) (WTNN)
South Chicago and Indiana Harbor Railway (SCIH) (ARCL)
South Kansas and Oklahoma Railroad (SKOL) (WATX)
South Plains Lamesa Railroad (SLAL)
South Plains Switching, Ltd (SAW) (PMSW)
Southern California Railroad (SCRR) (USG)
Southern Electric Railroad Company (SERC)
Southern Indiana Railway (SIND)
Southern Railroad of New Jersey (SRNJ)
Southern Switching Company (SSC) (IHRX)
Southwest Gulf Railroad (SWG)
Southwest Pennsylvania Railroad (SWP) (CLEX)
Southwestern Railroad (SW) (WG)
Squaw Creek Southern Railroad (SCS) (RRC)
St. Croix Valley Railroad (SCXY)
St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad (SLR) (GWRR)
St. Maries River Railroad (STMA) (MPRL)
St. Mary's Railroad (SM)
St. Marys Railway West (SMW)
Stillwater Central Railroad (SLWC) (WATX)
St. Paul and Pacific Northwest Railroad (SPPN) (PGR)
St. Paul and Pacific Railroad (SPPR) (PGR)
Stockton Public Belt Railway (SPBT) (CCT)
Stockton Terminal and Eastern Railroad (STE) (OMLX)
Stourbridge Railroad (SBRR)
Strasburg Rail Road (SRC)
Swan Ranch Railroad (SRRR) (WATX)
Tacoma Rail (TMBL)
Tacoma Rail Mountain Division (TRMW) (TMBL)
Tazewell and Peoria Railroad (TZPR) (GWRR)
Temple and Central Texas Railway (TC) (PATR)
Tennessee Southern Railroad (TSRR) (PATR)
Tennken Railroad (TKEN) (WTNN)
Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis (TRRA)
Terminal Railway Alabama State Docks (TASD)
Texas & New Mexico Railroad (TXN) (WATX)
Texas and Eastern Railroad (TESR) (WG)
Texas and Northern Railway (TN) (TSTR)
Texas and Oklahoma Railroad (TXOR)
Texas Central Business Lines Corporation (TCB)
Texas City Terminal Railway (TCT)
Texas North Western Railway (TXNW) (TNW)
Texas Northeastern Railroad (TNER) (GWRR)
Texas Pacifico Transportation (TXPF)
Texas Rock Crusher Railway (TXR) (TNW)
Texas South-Eastern Railroad (TSE)
Texas, Gonzales and Northern Railway (TXGN) (TNW)
Thermal Belt Railway (TBRY)
Three Notch Railroad (TNHR) (GWRR)
Timber Rock Railroad (TIBR) (WATX)
Toledo Junction Railroad (TJR) (JBCX)
Toledo, Peoria and Western Railway (TPW) (GWRR)
Tomahawk Railway (TR) (GWRR)
Tradepoint Rail (TPR)
Trona Railway (TRC)
Tulsa–Sapulpa Union Railway (TSU)
Turners Island, LLC (TI)
Twin Cities and Western Railroad (TCWR)
Tyburn Railroad (TYBR) (RRLX)
Tyner Terminal Railway (TYNT) (TVRM)
Union City Terminal Railroad (UCTR) (IBR)
Union County Industrial Railroad (UCIR) (NSHR)
Union Pacific Railroad (UP)
Union Railroad (URR) (TSTR)
Upper Merion and Plymouth Railroad (UMP) (ARCL)
Utah Railway (UTAH) (GWRR)
Utah Central Railway (UCRY) (PATR)
V&S Railway (VSR) (AKRM)
Valdosta Railway (VR) (GWRR)
Vandalia Railroad (VRRC) (PNRC)
Ventura County Railroad (VCRR) (GWRR)
Vermilion Valley Railroad (VVRR) (IBCX)
Vermont Railway (VTR)
Vicksburg Southern Railroad (VSOR) (WATX)
Virginia Southern Railroad (VSRR) (BB)
Wabash Central Railroad (WBCR)
Walking Horse Railroad (WHRR) (IHRX)
Wallowa Union Railroad Authority (WURR)
Warren and Saline River Railroad (WSR) (AKMD) (GWRR)
Warren and Trumbull Railroad (WTRM) (YB) (GWRR)
Washington and Idaho Railway (WIR) (MPRL)
Washington County Railroad (WACR) (VTR)
Washington Eastern Railroad (WERR) (WG)
Washington Royal Line (WRL) (FTRX)
Wellsboro and Corning Railroad (WCOR) (GWRR)
West Belt Railway (WBRW) (PATR)
West Isle Line (WFS) (FTRX)
West Michigan Railroad (WMI)
West Shore Railroad Corporation (WSRC) (UCIR) (NSHR)
West Tennessee Railroad (WTNN)
Western Maryland Scenic Railroad (WMSR)
Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad (WNYP) (LAL)
Western Rail Road (WRRC)
Western Washington Railroad (WWR) (FTRX)
Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway (WE)
White Deer and Reading Railroad (WDRR) (UCIR) (NSHR)
Wichita Terminal Association (WTA) (UP)
Wichita, Tillman and Jackson Railway (WTJR) (RGPC)
Willamette Valley Railway (WVR)
Wilmington Terminal Railroad (WTRY) (GWRR)
Wilmington and Western Railroad (WWRC)
Winchester and Western Railroad (WW)
Winston-Salem Southbound Railway (WSS) (CSXT) (NS)
Wiregrass Central Railroad (WGCR) (GWRR)
Wisconsin and Southern Railroad (WSOR) (WATX)
Wisconsin Great Northern Railroad (WGNR)
Wisconsin Northern Railroad (WN) (PGR)
Wolf Creek Railroad (WCKR) (REG)
Yakima Central Railroad (YCR) (FTRX)
Yadkin Valley Railroad (YVRR) (G&O)
Yellowstone Valley Railroad (YSVR) (WATX)
York Railway (YRC) (GWRR)
Youngstown and Austintown Railroad (YARR) (GWRR)
Youngstown and Southeastern Railroad (YSRR) (IBCX)
Youngstown Belt Railroad (YB) (GWRR)
Yreka Western Railroad (YW) (RMKX)
See also
List of Canadian railways
Reporting mark
List of defunct railroads of North America
Narrow gauge railroads in the United States
List of U.S. Class I railroads
Transportation in the United States
Oldest railroads in North America
References
Railway companies of the United States
Railroads, common carrier freight
United States railway-related lists | [
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254354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Ardennes | Battle of the Ardennes | The Battle of the Ardennes was a battle of the First World War fought on the frontiers of France, Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg from 21 to 23 August 1914. The German armies defeated the French and forced their retreat. The battle was part of the larger Battle of the Frontiers, the first battle of the Western Front.
Background
Belgium
Belgian military planning was based on an assumption that other powers would eject an invader but the likelihood of a German invasion did not lead to France and Britain being seen as allies or for the Belgian government intending to do more than protect its independence. The Anglo-French Entente (1904) had led the Belgian government to think that the British attitude to Belgium and that it had come to be seen as a protectorate. A Belgian General Staff was formed in 1910 but the , Lieutenant-Général Harry Jungbluth was retired on 30 June 1912 and only replaced in May 1914 by Lieutenant-General Chevalier Antonin de Selliers de Moranville, who began work on a contingency plan for the concentration of the army and met railway officials on 29 July.
Belgian troops were to be massed in central Belgium, in front of the National redoubt of Belgium ready to face any border, while the Fortified Position of Liège and Fortified Position of Namur were left to secure the frontiers. On mobilisation, the King became Commander-in-Chief and chose where the army was to concentrate. Amid the disruption of the new rearmament plan the disorganised and poorly trained Belgian soldiers would benefit from a central position to delay contact with an invader but it would also need fortifications for defence, which were on the frontier. A school of thought wanted a return to a frontier deployment in line with French theories of the offensive. Belgian plans became a compromise in which the field army concentrated behind the river Gete with two divisions forward at Liège and Namur.
Schlieffen–Moltke Plan
Field marshal Alfred Graf von Schlieffen was Chief of the German General Staff (Oberste Heeresleitung "OHL") from 1891 until his retirement in 1906. A student of Carl von Clausewitz, like other Prussian officers, he had been taught that "the heart of France lies between Paris and Brussels". In 1839, the Treaty of London masterminded by the British diplomat Lord Palmerston was signed by France, Prussia, Russia, Austria and the United Kingdom creating the independent Kingdom of Belgium. France and Russia joined in a military alliance in 1892, which threatened Germany with the possibility of a war on two fronts. German strategy gave priority to an offensive operation against France and a defensive against Russia. Planning would be determined by numerical inferiority, speed of mobilisation, concentration and the effect of modern weaponry. The Germans expected frontal attacks to be costly and protracted, leading to limited success, particularly after the French and Russians modernised the fortifications on their frontiers with Germany. To evade the fortified frontier with France, Schlieffen devised a plan that by 1898–99 envisioned German forces rapidly passing between Antwerp and Namur to take Paris from the north, thus delivering France a quick and decisive defeat. The German left flank in occupied Alsace would tempt the French into attacking there, drawing the French forces away from Paris and the German right.
In its 1906 version, the Schlieffen Plan would allocate six weeks and seven eighths of the Imperial German Army (a force of 1.5 million) to overwhelm France while the remaining force was to remain in East Prussia to contest the Russians. Helmuth von Moltke the Younger succeeded Schlieffen in 1906 and was less certain that the French would conform to German assumptions. Moltke adapted the deployment and concentration plan to accommodate an attack in the centre or an enveloping attack from both flanks as variants to the plan, by adding divisions to the left flank opposite the French frontier, from the expected to be mobilised in the (western army). The main German force would still advance through Belgium and attack southwards into France, the French armies would be enveloped on the left and pressed back over the Meuse, Aisne, Somme, Oise, Marne and Seine, unable to withdraw into central France. The French would either be annihilated or the manoeuvre from the north would create conditions for victory in the centre or in Lorraine on the common border. Moltke planned for a force of about 320,000 men to defend Alsace-Lorraine south of Metz, 400,000 men to invade France and Luxembourg through the Ardennes and 700,000 more troops to invade Belgium.
Plan XVII
After the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, France had been humiliated, forced to pay an indemnity of five billion francs and lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German Empire, so as to permanently put France on the defensive. Though the French did indeed build an extensive amount of fortifications along their border with Germany, after 30 years plans turned offensive, thanks in no small part to Ferdinand Foch. France had a population and birth rate smaller than those of Germany and invented the concept of élan vital and decided on a strategy of "offensive to the limit", making the will to fight the cornerstone of French military planning. Colonel Louis Loyzeau de Grandmaison, took up Foch's doctrine and delivered two speeches before the École Militaire that set the foundations of Plan XVII, which was formally adopted in May 1913. French strategists took account of the possibility of envelopment by the German right and calculated that the more powerful the German right, the weaker the center and left would be. The French decided to concentrate their forces on the Rhine, planning to break the German left and center on either side of Metz, to cut off the German right and defeat the German armies in detail.
Under Plan XVII, the French peacetime army was to form five field armies of about two million men, with groups of Reserve divisions attached to each army and a group of reserve divisions on the flanks. The armies were to concentrate opposite the German frontier around Épinal, Nancy and Verdun–Mezières, with an army in reserve around Ste. Ménéhould and Commercy. Since 1871, railway building had given the French General staff sixteen lines to the German frontier against thirteen available to the German army and the French could afford to wait until German intentions were clear. The French deployment was intended to be ready for a German offensive in Lorraine or through Belgium. The French expected that the Germans would use reserve troops but also assumed that a large German army would be mobilised on the border with Russia, leaving the western army with sufficient troops only to advance through Belgium, south of the rivers Meuse and Sambre. French intelligence had obtained a 1905 map exercise by the German general staff, in which German troops had gone no further north than Namur and assumed that plans to besiege Belgian forts were a defensive measure against the Belgian army.
A German attack from south-eastern Belgium towards Mézières and a possible offensive from Lorraine towards Verdun, Nancy and St. Dié was anticipated; the plan was a development of Plan XVI and made more provision for the possibility of a German offensive through Belgium. The First, Second and Third armies were to concentrate between Épinal and Verdun opposite Alsace and Lorraine, the Fifth Army was to assemble from Montmédy to Sedan and Mézières and the Fourth Army was to be held back west of Verdun, ready to move east to attack the southern flank of a German invasion through Belgium or south against the northern flank of an attack through Lorraine. No formal provision was made for joint operations with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) but discreet arrangements had been made between the French and British general staffs; during the Second Moroccan Crisis in 1911, the French had been told that six British divisions could be expected to operate around Maubeuge.
Declarations of war
At midnight on the German government sent an ultimatum to Russia and announced a state of (threat of war) during the day; the Turkish government ordered mobilisation and the London Stock Exchange closed. On 1 August, the British government ordered the mobilisation of the navy, the German government ordered general mobilisation and declared war on Russia. Hostilities commenced on the Polish frontier, the French government ordered general mobilisation and next day the German government sent an ultimatum to Belgium, demanding passage through Belgian territory and German troops crossed the frontier of Luxembourg. Military operations began on the French frontier, Libau was bombarded by the German light cruiser and the British government guaranteed naval protection for French coasts. On 3 August, the Belgian Government refused German demands and the British Government guaranteed military support to Belgium, should Germany invade. Germany declared war on France, the British government ordered general mobilisation and Italy declared neutrality. On 4 August, the British government sent an ultimatum to Germany which expired at midnight on Central European Time. Belgium severed diplomatic relations with Germany and Germany declared war on Belgium. German troops crossed the Belgian frontier and attacked Liège.
Prelude
French offensive preparations
French commander-in-chief Joseph Joffre ordered an attack through the Ardennes forest in support of the French invasion of Lorraine. According to the pre-war French war strategy document, Plan XVII, German forces in the area were only expected to be light, with French light, rapid-firing artillery proving advantageous in a wooded terrain such as that found in the Ardennes. By 20 August, however, it was becoming clear - first to General Charles Lanrezac's French Fifth Army, and then to Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre - that a massive German presence was gathering in the area. That same day the Germans launched a counter-attack against the French advance into Lorraine. Even so, Joffre ordered an invasion of the Ardennes on 20 August for the following day.
Battle
Joffre issued instructions on 18 August but held back the Third and Fourth armies because air and cavalry reconnaissance found few German troops opposite the two armies, only a large force moving north-west away. On 19 August the Fourth army of General Fernand de Langle de Cary was ordered to occupy the bridges over the Semois but not to advance into Belgium until the German offensive began. A premature attack would advance into a trap rather than give time for the Germans to empty Luxembourg of troops before the French advanced. On 20 August the German armies in the south attacked the French First and Second armies and next day the Third and Fourth armies began their offensive. The Fourth Army crossed the Semois and advanced towards Neufchâteau and the Third Army of General Pierre Ruffey attacked towards Arlon, as a right flank guard for the Fourth army. South of Verdun, the Third army was renamed Army of Lorraine and was to watch for a German offensive from Metz, which left the remainder of the Third Army free to concentrate on the offensive into Belgium. The French armies invaded Belgium with nine infantry corps but ten German corps and six reserve brigades of the 4th and 5th armies lay between Metz and the north of Luxembourg.
The German 4th Army under Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg, and 5th Army of Crown Prince Wilhelm had moved slower than the 1st, 2nd and 3rd armies and the French offensive towards them was reported on 21 August. The French armies had few maps and were unaware of the size of the German force opposite, as the Third Army brushed aside small German detachments. On 22 August in the Third army area, the V Corps attacked dug-in German troops at Longwy at in thick fog and heavy rain, with no artillery support. As the fog lifted, German artillery caught the French guns in the open and silenced them. A German counter-attack routed a French division and the corps was not rallied until the evening. To the north the IV Corps also advanced in fog and encountered German troops dug in near Virton and was forced back also with a division routed. On the southern Flank the VI Corps was pushed back a short distance. In the Fourth Army area the II Corps on the right flank managed to keep level with the Third Army to the south but was not able to advance further. The Colonial Corps on the left was defeated at the Battle of Rossignol, south of Neufchâteau, and had but the 5th Colonial Brigade on the left easily reached Neufchâteau before being repulsed with many casualties. Further north XII Corps advanced steadily but the XVII Corps beyond was outflanked and the 33rd Division lost most of its artillery. On the northern flank the XI and IX corps were not seriously engaged.
Aftermath
Analysis
Charbonneau explained that the defeat of the Colonial Corps was caused by faulty reconnaissance, the ineffectiveness of advanced guards in causing delay to advancing German units and that French offensive tactics neglected the importance of obtaining a superiority of fire, which had led to reckless attacks. The quality of the German opponents was not mentioned but German reconnaissance had been effective, communication between commanders and subordinates had not broken down, mutual support between neighbouring units had occurred and German artillery had provided continuous close fire support. At Neufchâteau, the French colonial infantry had been out-gunned and outnumbered by German units, which had been able to engage all their forces quickly. The French XII Corps had a greater number of guns but was not able to overcome two German infantry battalions. German artillery had engaged the Colonial Brigade from close range but when in a hastily occupied defensive position, the French had nullified much of the German artillery-fire; French troops caught in the open had been annihilated. Both sides had attempted to gain fire superiority before advancing and once this had been achieved by the Germans, they had been able to manoeuvre without severe casualties.
The French commanders were ordered by Joffre to continue the offensive on 23 August as early as possible, since his strategy depended on the success of the Third and Fourth armies. Ruffey replied in the morning that the attack could not begin until his divisions had reorganised and in the early afternoon found that the Germans had forestalled another advance, by pushing the V Corps in the centre back for , which led to the rest of the army falling back level. In the Fourth Army area, the 33rd Division of XVII Corps was routed and the rest of the corps had retired during the night of The 5th Colonial Brigade withdrew from Neufchâteau before dawn on 23 August, exposing the right flank of XII Corps, which also fell back. By the end of 23 August, the survivors of the Third and Fourth armies were back to their jumping-off positions except for the XI and IX corps on the northern flank.
Casualties
At Rossignol German casualties were French casualties
The French 4th Division had at Bellefontaine against casualties. At Neufchâteau the 5th Colonial Brigade had against units of the German XVIII Reserve Corps, which suffered At Bertrix the artillery of the 33rd Division was destroyed and against number of German casualties, which were noted as greater than all of the casualties in the Franco-Prussian War. At Massin-Anloy, the French 22nd Division and 34th Division lost killed and the 34th Division was routed. German casualties in the 25th Division were whom were killed. At Virton the French 8th Division was "destroyed" and the 3rd Division had German losses were In the fighting around Éthe and Bleid, the French 7th Division lost and the German 10th Division had At Longwy the French V Corps with the 9th and 10th divisions had and German units of the 26th Division had South of Longwy, German casualties in the 9th and 12th Reserve and 33rd divisions were against the French 12th 40th and 42nd divisions, of which the 40th Division was routed. In 2009, Herwig recorded from 21 to 31 August}} in the 4th Army and in the 5th Army. Herwig also recorded in the French 8th Division at Virton and wrote that at Ethe, the 7th Division had been "stomped". At Ochamps the 20th Infantry Regiment lost and the 11th Infantry Regiment lost The 5th Colonial Brigade lost
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
Further reading
Theses
External links
Battle of the Ardennes
Ardennes 1914
Conflicts in 1914
Battles of World War I involving France
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
1914 in France
August 1914 events | [
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254356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4ger%20Movement | Jäger Movement | The Jäger Movement ( ) consisted of volunteers from Finland who trained in Germany as Jägers (elite light infantry) during World War I. Supported by Germany to enable the creation of a Finnish sovereign state, the movement was one of many means by which Germany intended to weaken Russia and to cause Russia's loss of its western provinces and dependencies.
History
The recruitment of the Jäger volunteers from the Grand Duchy of Finland was clandestine and dominated by Germany-influenced circles, such as university students and the Finnish upper middle class. The recruitment was however in no way exclusive. In all, over 1,100 volunteers are estimated to have "slipped off" to train in Germany.
The recruits were transported across Finland's western border via Sweden to Germany, where they were formed into the Royal Prussian 27th Jäger Battalion. The Jäger Battalion fought in the ranks of the German Army from 1916 in the battles on the northern flank of the eastern front.
After the outbreak of the Civil War in Finland the Jägers were engaged on the "White" (non-communist) side in the war and formed the nucleus of the new Finnish Army. In Finland, these 2,000 volunteers were simply called The Jägers (Finnish pl. Jääkärit).
Their contribution to the White victory was crucial, not least through improving morale. Educated as elite troops they were also fit to assume command as officers over the untrained troops of the Civil War.
Immediately after the Civil War, they were given the right to use the word Jäger in their military ranks. Many of the Jägers continued their military careers. In the 1920s a long feud between officers with Jäger-background and Finnish officers who had served in the Russian Imperial army was concluded in favor of the Jägers: Most of the commanders of army corps, divisions, and regiments in the Winter War were Jägers. The Jäger March composed by Jean Sibelius for the words written by Jäger Heikki Nurmio, was the honorary march of many army detachments.
Conflict with Mannerheim
The Jäger conflict derived from rising tensions (short of armed conflict) between German-influenced Jägers and politicians who looked to Germany as their ally on one side, and the faction centered on former Russian General and Finnish Commander-in-Chief Baron Gustaf Mannerheim on the other side. The Mannerheim side was oriented towards an alliance with Sweden, which remained neutral during the war but which was opposed to Russia, and with which Finland shared its history up to 1809. Mannerheim, who was from a Finland Swedish family, was respected among Finns, Russians, and Swedes alike. Baron Mannerheim and some of the Swedish speaking officers of the Finnish Army left Finland as a direct consequence of this conflict, as the Finnish senate elected a German prince as King of Finland and would have made Finland a monarchy. However, the kingdom was never realized beyond this election; and when World War I ended and the German Kaiser fled, the nascent Finnish monarchy was replaced by a republic, whereupon Baron Mannerheim returned.
Today
At the present time, infantry in the Finnish Army are designated either as infantry or Jäger troops, specifically mechanized infantry or motorised infantry using APCs or vehicles such as Sisu Nasu. Mechanized infantry using IFVs are called panssarijääkäri or Armoured Jäger. Several other variations exist, including Finnish Navy Coastal Jäger (Marine), Guard's Jäger of the Guard Jaeger Regiment, in special forces (Para) Jäger, Special Jäger, and in the Border Guard border jäger and special border jäger.
Jääkäri "Jäger" is also the lowest basic rank in the infantry of the Finnish Army and the Uusimaa Brigade (marines) of the Finnish Navy. Also, a driver, medic, military police or mortar man may hold the rank of Jäger. In other troops, special ranks such as tykkimies "Gunner" are equivalent (see Finnish military ranks). The older rank of sotamies "Private" is no longer used in peace time educational units but remains in war time infantry use.
See also
Russification of Finland
Kagal (Finnish society)
References
Finnish Civil War
Anti-communist organizations | [
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254363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20II%20of%20Portugal | Peter II of Portugal | Dom Pedro II (Peter II; 26 April 1648 – 9 December 1706), nicknamed "the Pacific", was the King of Portugal from 1683 until his death, previously serving as regent for his brother Afonso VI from 1668 until his own accession. He was the fifth and last child of John IV and Luisa de Guzmán.
Early life
Third son of King John IV and Queen Luisa, he was created Duke of Beja and Lord of the House of the Infantado.
Following his father's death, his mother became regent for the new king Afonso VI, Peter's elder, partially paralysed, and mentally unstable brother. In 1662 Afonso put away his mother and assumed control of the state. In January 1668, shortly before Spanish recognition of Portugal's restoration of independence, Peter acquired political ascendancy over his brother and was appointed regent, banishing Afonso to the Azores and, later, Sintra where he died in 1683. Peter thereupon inherited the throne.
Peter not only inherited his brother's throne but also wed his former spouse, Queen Marie-Françoise of Savoy (1646–1683). They had one daughter, Isabel Luísa, Princess of Beira (1669–90), who was heir presumptive.
Rule (1668–1706)
Peter consolidated Portugal's independence with the signing of the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668, putting the Portuguese Restoration War, that began in 1640, to an end. He formed an alliance with England and had its decisive support based on marriage clauses that united Charles II of England with his sister Catherine of Braganza in 1661. Portugal ceded Tangier and Bombay as a dowry, and compromised to transfer to the English the majority of the places recovered from the Dutch, to share in half the commerce of cinnamon, to install English families with the same privileges of the Portuguese families in Goa, Cochin, Diu, Bahia, Pernambuco and Rio de Janeiro. In exchange, England would give Lisbon military support, protecting Portuguese shipments in the Mediterranean and the coasts of Lisbon and Porto.
The English alliance was decisive in the consolidation of Peter's leadership. He centralized the monarchy's power and dissolved the excessive strength the nobility had gained after the death of John IV in 1656.
His long tenure was one of important accomplishments. In 1671 he conceded freedom of commerce to the English residing in Portugal and began the establishment of textile manufactures. Isabel Luísa was proclaimed heir presumptive to the throne at the Portuguese Cortes of 1674, Peter promulgating a letter «on the regencies and tutorships of Kings» to better found the rights of his daughter.
In 1674 his main concern was to improve the defenses of the realm, asking for contributions from the Junta dos Três Estados to the keeping of border garrisons, its paraphernalia and indispensable works in castles and forts. The Cortes didn't attend to totality of his request, but the great apprehension was in the coastal defense. Veríssimo Serrão, in his book "History of Portugal", Volume V, page 213 says the following, "The shipments from India and Brazil were the main object of greed so that the Crown was obliged to arm a fleet of 11 boats. (...) The squadron left the Tejo on 21 July 1675, under the command of Pedro Jacques de Magalhães. (...) But the results of such a costly undertaking were none."
There was a legal impediment to the marriage of his daughter with her cousin, the Duke of Savoy. The so-called «Law of the Cortes of Lamego» prevented the marriage of an heiress with a foreign prince. This alleged document became fundamental law of the Realm in 1640. The Cortes, called on 1 November 1679, proceeded with the derogation. By then the ambassador of Savoy, the Marquis of Ornano, had come to Lisbon to celebrate the marriage by proxy. But it would all turn ineffective to the extent that the embassy of the Duke of Cadaval, sent to Turin in May 1682, did not reach or did not finish the project, by pressures, perhaps, of Louis XIV on the dynasty of Savoy.
In 1683, Queen Maria Francisca died. In the court there was a strong «French party», headed by the Duke of Cadaval, the then Count of Vila Maior and by the Viscount of Ponte de Lima, but others favored a closer alliance with Spain. By marrying again, Peter II chose the sister of the Queen of Spain, daughter of Philipp Wilhelm, Elector Palatine. The new queen, Maria Sophia of Neuburg, never influenced political life, maintaining a low profile. The couple had eight children, including the younger John, who succeeded his father in 1706 as King John V of Portugal.
European policy
Peter initially supported France and Spain in the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), but on 16 May 1703, Portugal and England signed the Methuen Treaty. This trade accord granted mutual commercial privileges for Portuguese wine and English textile traders and would later give England significant influence in the Portuguese economy. This was followed in December 1703 by a military alliance between Portugal, Austria and England for an invasion of Spain. Portuguese and Allied forces, under the command of the Marquis of Minas, captured Madrid in 1706, during the campaign which ended in the Allied defeat at Almansa.
Brazil
Peter obtained papal approval for the elevation of the Bahia bishopric to the status of archbishopric, and the creation of the bishoprics of Olinda and Rio de Janeiro in 1676. In 1677 saw the creation of the bishopric of Maranhão, directly subordinated to the archbishopric of Lisbon. In 1686, via decree from the Missionary Regiment, the privileges of the Jesuits in the interior of the Northern region were restricted. There was, however, resistance to the reordering process of the colonial administration, such as the Beckman revolt of 1684 that sublevated the Maranhão colonists against the monopoly of the General Company of Commerce of Grão-Pará and Maranhão and the rise of the Tapuias in the 1680s in various regions of the Northeast.
The discovery of gold in the interior of Caetés, Minas Gerais, at the end of the 17th century, began an age of economic prosperity and administrative change. The year 1693 saw the creation of the Captaincy of São Paulo and Minas Gerais. The Intendancy of Minas Gerais was formed in 1702. This period saw the destruction of the Quilombo dos Palmares, Alagoas, in 1695.
The King fixed the basis of his Brazilian policy in two main points: the importation of precious metals and stones and the expansion of the borders of the colony to the banks of the Río de la Plata. He sent the Viscount of Barbacena to Brazil with instructions to encourage mining exploration. The reputation of the Paulistas was such that, urged by Barbacena, Peter wrote to twelve frontiersmen Piratinganos, and provided them with the "incomparable honor" of a direct summoning them to place their employment at the royal service.
Under his reign the Casa da Moeda do Brasil was created on 8 March 1694. The King ceded his seigniorage rights, tribute owed to him, in favor of the better functioning of this institution, that minted the first Brazilian coins for usage within the colony. These coins of 2,000 and 4,000 réis in gold, and 640, 320, 160, 80, 40 and 20 réis in silver amplified and diversified the circulating midst in Brazil.
By the end of Peter's reign, there were two big problems in Brazil: the dispute over the Colónia do Sacramento that, even though since 1680 recognized as Portuguese territory, was occupied by the Spanish in 1705, and the first conflicts between Paulistas and Emboabas, competing outsiders, including metropolitan people (ie. people from European Portugal), who arrived in the region in search of gold.
Death
Beginning in 1703 the King went through times of deep drowsiness that doctors attributed to a "downflow of 'estilicido'", i.e., severe infection of the larynx. On 5 December 1706 he was stricken with a "legitimate pleurisy", that derived a seizure, with which he lost consciousness. The bloodletting from his feet did not yield results, and on 9 December, the attack became fatal. It is believed nowadays that the King suffered from a liver disease, because the autopsy found "a part of his liver twisted where 25 stones in the gall could be found". He died in the Palhavã Palace, in Lisbon.
He was the last surviving child of John IV of Portugal, and is buried in Lisbon in the Pantheon of the Braganzas.
Assessment
Historian Veríssimo Serrão says of The King in his "History of Portugal", Volume IV, page 233:
"A coeval historian extolled his physical qualities, skilled both in arms as in horseback bullfighting, having an agility and strength that predisposed him to the exercise of violence. It was during his time that the Palace of Salvaterra de Magos became again the favorite place of court, Pedro II settling there in the months of January and February, to devote himself to the sport of riding. (...) Master of a great memory, the monarch never refused an audience to whoever asked it, was it day or night, delighted to listen to others and to discuss the issues in the smallest details. This quality was (...) one of his biggest flaws, because he always wanted to hear the opinion of advisers, fact that led to him dilating the problems. His reign had as a great aim to rebuild the country, shaken by the wars of Restoration. Since 1693 he could dispose of the gold from Brazil that gave to this work the decisive push that Portugal needed. But the participation in the Wars of the Spanish Succession went against the national interests."
He was tall, well proportioned, with dark eyes and dark hair.
He earned the nickname "the Pacific", because peace was made with Spain during his regency in 1668.
Ancestry
Marriages and issue
References
Bibliography
PERES (Damião) – A DIPLOMACIA PORTUGUESA / E A SUCESSÃO DE ESPANHA / (1700–1704) / PORTUCALENSE EDITORA, LDª / 1931. The work recounts past events during the war of succession, in the reign of D. Peter II, and it is an important history of diplomatic relations at the time.
PEREIRA (Ana Cristina Duarte) – PRINCESAS E INFANTAS DE PORTUGAL / (1640–1736) / EDIÇÕES COLIBRI / 2008. The work deals with various princes and infantas of Portugal, legitimate and illegitimate, from 1640 to 1736, from the point of personal and political view, tracing the route of these stateswomen in the legitimization and consolidation of the Braganza dynasty.
LOURENÇO (Maria Paula Marçal) – D. PEDRO II / CÍRCULO DE LEITORES / 2006. The work is part of the collection of biographies of the kings of Portugal and narrated in an exemplary way the life and time of D. Peter II.
BRAGA (Paulo Drumond) – D. PEDRO II. UMA BIOGRAFIA / TRIBUNA DA HISTÓRIA / 2006. The best biography of the king.
|-
Portuguese infantes
106
1648 births
1706 deaths
Princes of Brazil
House of Braganza
17th-century Portuguese monarchs
18th-century Portuguese monarchs
Burials at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora
Regents of Portugal
People from Lisbon
Constables of Portugal | [
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254364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical%20fallacy | Mathematical fallacy | In mathematics, certain kinds of mistaken proof are often exhibited, and sometimes collected, as illustrations of a concept called mathematical fallacy. There is a distinction between a simple mistake and a mathematical fallacy in a proof, in that a mistake in a proof leads to an invalid proof while in the best-known examples of mathematical fallacies there is some element of concealment or deception in the presentation of the proof.
For example, the reason why validity fails may be attributed to a division by zero that is hidden by algebraic notation. There is a certain quality of the mathematical fallacy: as typically presented, it leads not only to an absurd result, but does so in a crafty or clever way. Therefore, these fallacies, for pedagogic reasons, usually take the form of spurious proofs of obvious contradictions. Although the proofs are flawed, the errors, usually by design, are comparatively subtle, or designed to show that certain steps are conditional, and are not applicable in the cases that are the exceptions to the rules.
The traditional way of presenting a mathematical fallacy is to give an invalid step of deduction mixed in with valid steps, so that the meaning of fallacy is here slightly different from the logical fallacy. The latter usually applies to a form of argument that does not comply with the valid inference rules of logic, whereas the problematic mathematical step is typically a correct rule applied with a tacit wrong assumption. Beyond pedagogy, the resolution of a fallacy can lead to deeper insights into a subject (e.g., the introduction of Pasch's axiom of Euclidean geometry, the five colour theorem of graph theory). Pseudaria, an ancient lost book of false proofs, is attributed to Euclid.
Mathematical fallacies exist in many branches of mathematics. In elementary algebra, typical examples may involve a step where division by zero is performed, where a root is incorrectly extracted or, more generally, where different values of a multiple valued function are equated. Well-known fallacies also exist in elementary Euclidean geometry and calculus.
Howlers
Examples exist of mathematically correct results derived by incorrect lines of reasoning. Such an argument, however true the conclusion appears to be, is mathematically invalid and is commonly known as a howler. The following is an example of a howler involving anomalous cancellation:
Here, although the conclusion = is correct, there is a fallacious, invalid cancellation in the middle step. Another classical example of a howler is proving the Cayley–Hamilton theorem by simply substituting the scalar variables of the characteristic polynomial by the matrix.
Bogus proofs, calculations, or derivations constructed to produce a correct result in spite of incorrect logic or operations were termed "howlers" by Maxwell. Outside the field of mathematics the term howler has various meanings, generally less specific.
Division by zero
The division-by-zero fallacy has many variants. The following example uses a disguised division by zero to "prove" that 2 = 1, but can be modified to prove that any number equals any other number.
Let a and b be equal, nonzero quantities
Multiply by a
Subtract b2
Factor both sides: the left factors as a difference of squares, the right is factored by extracting b from both terms
Divide out (a − b)
Observing that a = b
Combine like terms on the left
Divide by the non-zero b
Q.E.D.
The fallacy is in line 5: the progression from line 4 to line 5 involves division by a − b, which is zero since a = b. Since division by zero is undefined, the argument is invalid.
Analysis
Mathematical analysis as the mathematical study of change and limits can lead to mathematical fallacies — if the properties of integrals and differentials are ignored. For instance, a naive use of integration by parts can be used to give a false proof that 0 = 1. Letting u = and dv = , we may write:
after which the antiderivatives may be cancelled yielding 0 = 1. The problem is that antiderivatives are only defined up to a constant and shifting them by 1 or indeed any number is allowed. The error really comes to light when we introduce arbitrary integration limits a and b.
Since the difference between two values of a constant function vanishes, the same definite integral appears on both sides of the equation.
Multivalued functions
Many functions do not have a unique inverse. For instance, while squaring a number gives a unique value, there are two possible square roots of a positive number. The square root is multivalued. One value can be chosen by convention as the principal value; in the case of the square root the non-negative value is the principal value, but there is no guarantee that the square root given as the principal value of the square of a number will be equal to the original number (e.g. the principal square root of the square of −2 is 2). This remains true for nth roots.
Positive and negative roots
Care must be taken when taking the square root of both sides of an equality. Failing to do so results in a "proof" of 5 = 4.
Proof:
Start from
Write this as
Rewrite as
Add on both sides:
These are perfect squares:
Take the square root of both sides:
Add on both sides:
Q.E.D.
The fallacy is in the second to last line, where the square root of both sides is taken: a2 = b2 only implies a = b if a and b have the same sign, which is not the case here. In this case, it implies that a = –b, so the equation should read
which, by adding on both sides, correctly reduces to 5 = 5.
Another example illustrating the danger of taking the square root of both sides of an equation involves the following fundamental identity
which holds as a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem. Then, by taking a square root,
Evaluating this when x = , we get that
or
which is incorrect.
The error in each of these examples fundamentally lies in the fact that any equation of the form
where , has two solutions:
and it is essential to check which of these solutions is relevant to the problem at hand. In the above fallacy, the square root that allowed the second equation to be deduced from the first is valid only when cos x is positive. In particular, when x is set to , the second equation is rendered invalid.
Square roots of negative numbers
Invalid proofs utilizing powers and roots are often of the following kind:
The fallacy is that the rule is generally valid only if at least one of and is non-negative (when dealing with real numbers), which is not the case here.
Alternatively, imaginary roots are obfuscated in the following:
The error here lies in the third equality, as the rule only holds for positive real a and real b, c.
Complex exponents
When a number is raised to a complex power, the result is not uniquely defined (see Failure of power and logarithm identities). If this property is not recognized, then errors such as the following can result:
The error here is that the rule of multiplying exponents as when going to the third line does not apply unmodified with complex exponents, even if when putting both sides to the power i only the principal value is chosen. When treated as multivalued functions, both sides produce the same set of values, being .
Geometry
Many mathematical fallacies in geometry arise from using an additive equality involving oriented quantities (such as adding vectors along a given line or adding oriented angles in the plane) to a valid identity, but which fixes only the absolute value of (one of) these quantities. This quantity is then incorporated into the equation with the wrong orientation, so as to produce an absurd conclusion. This wrong orientation is usually suggested implicitly by supplying an imprecise diagram of the situation, where relative positions of points or lines are chosen in a way that is actually impossible under the hypotheses of the argument, but non-obviously so.
In general, such a fallacy is easy to expose by drawing a precise picture of the situation, in which some relative positions will be different from those in the provided diagram. In order to avoid such fallacies, a correct geometric argument using addition or subtraction of distances or angles should always prove that quantities are being incorporated with their correct orientation.
Fallacy of the isosceles triangle
The fallacy of the isosceles triangle, from , purports to show that every triangle is isosceles, meaning that two sides of the triangle are congruent. This fallacy has been attributed to Lewis Carroll.
Given a triangle △ABC, prove that AB = AC:
Draw a line bisecting ∠A.
Draw the perpendicular bisector of segment BC, which bisects BC at a point D.
Let these two lines meet at a point O.
Draw line OR perpendicular to AB, line OQ perpendicular to AC.
Draw lines OB and OC.
By AAS, △RAO ≅ △QAO (∠ORA = ∠OQA = 90°; ∠RAO = ∠QAO; AO = AO (common side)).
By RHS, △ROB ≅ △QOC (∠BRO = ∠CQO = 90°; BO = OC (hypotenuse); RO = OQ (leg)).
Thus, AR = AQ, RB = QC, and AB = AR + RB = AQ + QC = AC.
Q.E.D.
As a corollary, one can show that all triangles are equilateral, by showing that AB = BC and AC = BC in the same way.
The error in the proof is the assumption in the diagram that the point O is inside the triangle. In fact, O always lies at the circumcircle of the △ABC (except for isosceles and equilateral triangles where AO and OD coincide). Furthermore, it can be shown that, if AB is longer than AC, then R will lie within AB, while Q will lie outside of AC, and vice versa (in fact, any diagram drawn with sufficiently accurate instruments will verify the above two facts). Because of this, AB is still AR + RB, but AC is actually AQ − QC; and thus the lengths are not necessarily the same.
Proof by induction
There exist several fallacious proofs by induction in which one of the components, basis case or inductive step, is incorrect. Intuitively, proofs by induction work by arguing that if a statement is true in one case, it is true in the next case, and hence by repeatedly applying this, it can be shown to be true for all cases. The following "proof" shows that all horses are the same colour.
Let us say that any group of N horses is all of the same colour.
If we remove a horse from the group, we have a group of N − 1 horses of the same colour. If we add another horse, we have another group of N horses. By our previous assumption, all the horses are of the same colour in this new group, since it is a group of N horses.
Thus we have constructed two groups of N horses all of the same colour, with N − 1 horses in common. Since these two groups have some horses in common, the two groups must be of the same colour as each other.
Therefore, combining all the horses used, we have a group of N + 1 horses of the same colour.
Thus if any N horses are all the same colour, any N + 1 horses are the same colour.
This is clearly true for N = 1 (i.e. one horse is a group where all the horses are the same colour). Thus, by induction, N horses are the same colour for any positive integer N. i.e. all horses are the same colour.
The fallacy in this proof arises in line 3. For N = 1, the two groups of horses have N − 1 = 0 horses in common, and thus are not necessarily the same colour as each other, so the group of N + 1 = 2 horses is not necessarily all of the same colour. The implication "every N horses are of the same colour, then N + 1 horses are of the same colour" works for any N > 1, but fails to be true when N = 1. The basis case is correct, but the induction step has a fundamental flaw.
See also
Notes
References
.
.
.
.
External links
Invalid proofs at Cut-the-knot (including literature references)
Classic fallacies with some discussion
More invalid proofs from AhaJokes.com
Math jokes including an invalid proof
Recreational mathematics
Proof theory | [
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254366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20I%20of%20Portugal | Joseph I of Portugal | Dom Joseph I (, ; 6 June 1714 – 24 February 1777), known as the Reformer (Portuguese: o Reformador), was King of Portugal from 31 July 1750 until his death in 1777. Among other activities, Joseph was devoted to hunting and the opera.
Indeed, he assembled one of the greatest collections of operatic scores in Europe. His government was controlled by Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal.
The third child and second son of King Dom John V, Joseph became his father's heir as an infant when his older brother, Dom Pedro, Prince of Brazil, died. In 1729 he married Infanta Mariana Victoria, the eldest daughter of King Don Philip V of Spain, and Joseph's sister Infanta Barbara married Mariana Victoria's half-brother Prince Don Ferdinand (the future King Don Ferdinand VI of Spain). These marriages were known as the Exchange of the Princesses. Joseph and Mariana Victoria had four daughters.
With the death of his father in 1750, Joseph became king of Portugal. His reign witnessed, among other things, a deadly earthquake in Lisbon in 1755 and a Spanish-French invasion of Portugal in 1762. The Lisbon earthquake allowed the Marquis of Pombal to consolidate power and also caused King Joseph to develop claustrophobia, refusing to live in a walled building ever again. Afterwards, Joseph moved his court into a series of tents. A new palace was built for him in Lisbon in the aftermath of the earthquake, but this was left uncompleted. Joseph died in 1777, at which point he was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Queen Dona Maria I.
Early life
Joseph was the third child of King Dom John V of Portugal and his wife Maria Anna of Austria. He had an older brother Dom Pedro, Prince of Brazil, an older sister Barbara and three younger brothers. When his brother Pedro died in 1714 at the age of two, Joseph became heir apparent with the titles of Prince of Brazil and Duke of Braganza.
Marriage
On 19 January 1729, Joseph married Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain, daughter of King Don Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese, and his elder sister Barbara married King Philip's son and heir, Don Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias (later King Don Ferdinand VI of Spain). The ceremony became known as the Exchange of the Princesses. Mariana Victoria loved music and hunting, just like her husband, but she was also a serious woman who disapproved of Joseph's love affairs and did not hesitate to expose them to acquaintances. They had four daughters, all born before Joseph ascended the throne.
Reign
Joseph succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1750, when he was 36 years old, and almost immediately placed effective power in the hands of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo (in 1569, the king made him Marquis of Pombal). Indeed, the history of Joseph's reign is really that of the Marquis of Pombal himself. The king's eldest daughter, Maria Francisca, became heir presumptive with the title of Princess of Brazil.
Victory over Spain and France (1762)
One of the most difficult situations faced by the king was the Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal, in the end of the Seven Years' War (5 May-24 November 1762). France and Spain sent an ultimatum in order to force Portugal to abandon its alliance with Great Britain and close her ports to British ships. King Joseph refused to submit and asked for British help since both Portugal and its army were in a very poor condition, mainly because of the great 1755 Lisbon earthquake. England sent a force of 7,104 men led by John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun, and John Burgoyne, and also the exceptional military leader William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe, which reformed the Portuguese army and led the allied army of 14-15,000 men in a victorious war. The Bourbon invaders first led by Nicolás de Carvajal, Marquis of Sarriá, and then by Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of Aranda, were thrice defeated by a combination of popular uprising, scorched earth strategy/famine and encircling movements by the regular Anglo-Portuguese troops, which like the militia, skilfully used the mountainous terrain at their advantage. The Spanish and French troops suffered staggering losses when they were driven out from Portugal and chased into Spain. As synthesized by historian Walter Dorn:
In South America, the war ended in a draw; the Portuguese took territory from Spain (most of the Rio Negro Valley) and defeated a Spanish invasion of Mato Grosso, while Spain conquered Colónia do Sacramento and the vast territory of Rio Grande do Sul (1763). The Treaty of Paris (1763) restored the status quo ante bellum. The rich and huge territory of Rio Grande do Sul would be retaken from the Spanish army during the undeclared war of 1763-1777.
Marquis of Pombal
The powerful Marquis of Pombal sought to overhaul all aspects of economic, social and colonial policy to make Portugal a more efficient contender with the other great powers of Europe, and thus enhance his own political stature. A supposed conspiracy of nobles aimed at murdering King Joseph and Pombal gave him the opportunity (some say the pretext) to neutralize the Távora family in the Távora affair and to expel the Jesuits in September 1759, thus gaining control of public education and a wealth of church lands and ushering Portugal into the Age of the Enlightenment.
Legacy and death
Joseph's reign is also noteworthy for the Lisbon earthquake, firestorm and tsunami of 1 November 1755, in which between 30,000 and 40,000 people died. The earthquake caused Joseph to develop a severe case of claustrophobia, and he was never again comfortable living within a walled building. Consequently, he moved the royal court to an extensive complex of tents in the hills of Ajuda.
The Project for the Royal Palace in Campo de Ourique was an ambitious palatial complex planned for the Campo de Ourique neighborhood of Lisbon, but later abandoned due to a lack of impetus from the Portuguese royal family and a prioritization of other reconstruction efforts. The capital was eventually rebuilt at great cost, and an equestrian statue of King Joseph still dominates the Praça do Comércio, Lisbon's main plaza.
With Joseph's death on 24 February 1777, the throne passed to his daughter, Queen Dona Maria I, and his brother and son-in-law, King Dom Peter III. Pombal's iron rule was sharply brought to an end, because Maria disliked him since she had been heavily influenced by the Portuguese old nobility that strongly opposed Pombal.
Issue
Joseph I fathered four daughters by his wife Mariana Victoria, and there were also four stillbirths. Of their four daughters, only the eldest had issue:
Maria Francisca Isabel Rita Gertrudes Joanna (17 December 1734 – 20 March 1816), married her uncle Infante Peter of Portugal, with issue. After her father's death, she became the first queen regnant of Portugal as Dona Maria I.
Maria Ana Francisca Dorotea Josefa Antonia Gertrudes Rita Joanna Efigenia (7 October 1736 – 6 May 1813), potential bride for Louis, Dauphin of France, son and heir of King Louis XV. However, Maria Ana's mother refused to consent to the marriage, and the infanta died unmarried.
Stillborn son (February 1739).
Maria Francisca Doroteia Josefa Antónia Gertrudes Rita Joanna Efigénia de Braganca (21 September 1739 – 14 January 1771), potential bride for the French nobleman and revolutionary Philippe Égalité, but she refused to marry him and died unmarried.
Stillborn daughter (7 March 1742).
Stillborn daughter (15 October 1742).
Stillborn daughter (May 1744).
Maria Francisca Benedita Ana Isabel Joanna Antonia Laurencia Inacia Teresa Gertrudes Rita Rosa (25 July 1746 – 18 August 1829) married her nephew Dom Joseph, Prince of Brazil, no issue.
Ancestors
References
Portuguese royalty
Joseph of Portugal
Joseph of Portugal
18th-century Portuguese monarchs
Burials at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora
House of Braganza
Dukes of Braganza
Portuguese infantes
Princes of Brazil
People from Lisbon | [
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254378 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild%20Navigator | Guild Navigator | A Guild Navigator (alternately Guildsman or Steersman) is a fictional humanoid in the Dune universe created by Frank Herbert. In this series and its derivative works, starships called heighliners employ a scientific phenomenon known as the Holtzman effect to "fold space" and thereby travel great distances across the universe instantaneously. Humans mutated through the consumption of and exposure to massive amounts of the spice melange, Navigators are able to use a limited form of prescience to safely navigate interstellar space. Control of these Navigators gives the Spacing Guild its monopoly on interstellar travel and banking, making the organization a balance of power against the Padishah Emperor and the assembled noble Houses of the Landsraad.
Description
To enable their prescience, Guild Navigators not only consume large quantities of the spice, but are also continuously immersed in highly concentrated amounts of orange spice gas. This level of extreme and extended exposure causes their bodies to atrophy and mutate over time, their heads and extremities elongating, and causing them to become vaguely aquatic in appearance. The first external sign of melange-induced metabolic change is visible in the eyes, as the drug tints the sclera and iris to a dark shade of blue, called "blue-in-blue" or "the Eyes of Ibad," "a total blue so dark as to be almost black." This is a common side effect in all spice addicts.
In the original 1965 novel Dune, Duke Leto Atreides notes that the Guild is "as jealous of its privacy as it is of its monopoly," and that not even their own agents ever see Navigators. Leto's son Paul wonders if they are mutated to the point of no longer appearing human. At the end of the novel, two self-identified Guild Navigators accompanying Emperor Shaddam IV are described as "fat" but not otherwise non-human. The Guild Navigator Edric, introduced in the first chapter of Dune Messiah (1969), is called a "humanoid fish," and described in his tank of spice gas as "an elongated figure, vaguely humanoid with finned feet and hugely fanned membranous hands — a fish in a strange sea." The Navigators' "elongated and repositioned limbs and organs" are noted in Heretics of Dune. In 1985's Chapterhouse: Dune, Lucilla notes that "Navigators were forever bathed in the orange gas of melange, their features often fogged by the vapors," that they possess a "tiny v of a mouth" and "ugly flap of nose" and that "Mouth and nose appeared small on a Navigator's gigantic face with its pulsing temples." She also notes that their mutated voices require translation devices, describing "the singsong ululations of the Navigator's voice with its simultaneous mechtranslation into impersonal Galach."
In David Lynch's 1984 film Dune, the Navigator's mutation affects his entire body, and he resembles a giant newt or worm with a heavily deformed head, V-shaped mouth and vestigial limbs. The Navigator is not shown to have the blue-in-blue eyes of a spice addict. The 2000 miniseries Frank Herbert's Dune portrays the Navigator as a withered figure with a humanoid head, blue-in-blue eyes and arms which have mutated into wings with elongated webbed fingers. The 2003 sequel miniseries Frank Herbert's Children of Dune presents Edric as a sleek, golden humanoid with an elongated head and limbs and feathery appendages.
In an unused passage by Frank Herbert from Dune Messiah published in The Road to Dune (2005), Edric is described as surviving without spice gas once a hole is opened in his tank, though his prescient abilities are practically useless in this state.
Prequels
The Legends of Dune prequel trilogy (2002–2004) by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson establish that the Spacing Guild first start using Guild Navigators because the travel technique of spacefolding is not safe; only about nine out of every ten heighliners make it to their final destination without Navigators. Norma Cenva (the first Navigator and the creator of the Spacing Guild) at first uses super-computers to navigate space, but as the proscriptions of the Butlerian Jihad do not allow for the use of thinking machines, she uses melange to develop the prescient ability to visualize a heighliner's path before it actually travels. Cenva's own mutations are described at the end of The Battle of Corrin (2004):
Her direct physical senses were deadened, and Norma no longer cared about taste, touch, or smell ... She found it remarkable to see webbing between her fingers and toes. Her face, once blunt-featured and later flawlessly beautiful, now had a small mouth and tiny eyes surrounded by smooth folds. Her head was immense, while the rest of her body atrophied to a useless appendage.
In the Brian Herbert/Anderson Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy (1999–2001), some of the previously-unexplained process of becoming a Navigator is revealed through the story of D'murr Pilru.
Notable Navigators
Norma Cenva
Depicted in the Prelude to Dune prequel novels as the very first Navigator, Norma Cenva is the genius designer of the Holtzman engine who pioneers the use of melange to develop the prescience necessary to safely guide a spaceship through foldspace. The character reappears as the Oracle of Time in the Brian Herbert/Anderson novels Hunters of Dune (2006) and Sandworms of Dune (2007), which conclude the original series.
D'murr Pilru
In the Prelude to Dune novels, D'murr and C'tair Pilru (twin sons of Ambassador Cammar Pilru of Ix) take the initial examination to become Navigators, but only D'murr passes. From the moment he enters training, D'murr is told he will never communicate with his family again; he eventually becomes a full Navigator.
In House Corrino, D'murr is piloting one of two heighliners which Count Fenring uses to secretly test the synthetic melange created by the Tleilaxu in their Project Amal. The flawed spice disrupts and confuses D'murr's thoughts, feelings and prescience. He is compelled to send a telepathic message to his twin C'tair (who is hiding on Tleilaxu-conquered Ix) that his own heighliner carries rightful Ixian ruler Rhombur Vernius, on his way to free the planet. Disastrously, the first heighliner emerges from foldspace at the wrong point, striking the defensive shields of Wallach IX and plummeting into the atmosphere to its destruction. Affected by the tainted melange, D'murr misguides his ship out of the known universe and collapses. As his spice supply is replaced with real melange, D'murr senses with alarm that 'the enemy has seen us' (this is presumably the first reference to the Unknown Enemy that, millennia later, chases the Honored Matres back to the Old Empire in Heretics of Dune and threatens to destroy humanity). D'murr uses the last of his strength to return the ship safely to Junction, home of the Guild Headquarters, and dies.
Edric
In 1969's Dune Messiah, a Navigator named Edric takes part in a plot against the emperor, Paul Atreides, the other conspirators being the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam, the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, and Paul's embittered consort, Princess Irulan of House Corrino. Edric's involvement is solely to protect the conspirators from discovery by Paul's prescient sight, as the presence of a prescient such as Edric hides the activities of that person, and those around him, from other prescients. After the plot fails, Edric and Mohiam are executed in 10,207 A.G. by Fremen Naib Stilgar on orders from Paul's sister Alia Atreides.
In Chapterhouse Dune (1985), a "very powerful" Navigator is described as "one of the Edrics," suggesting a possible breeding plan or use of gholas.
Edrik
In Hunters of Dune, the 2006 Brian Herbert/Anderson sequel to Chapterhouse Dune, the Navigator Edrik fears his kind's obsolescence when the Spacing Guild itself (pressured by a shortage of melange) begins funding the development of superior Ixian navigation technology that would not require Navigators. Seeking an alternative source of spice to break the Bene Gesserit monopoly, he meets with Uxtal, the last of the Lost Tleilaxu, hoping that he can rediscover the method of producing melange in axlotl tanks (a secret believed lost when the Bene Tleilax were destroyed by the Honored Matres). However, Uxtal is in the forced service of the Matre Superior Hellica; her price for his expertise is Edrik's help transporting a certain cargo. He agrees, delivering by heighliner the Obliterators that destroy the planet Richese, where the Bene Gesserit are mass-producing weapons and armed battleships. Uxtal is ultimately unsuccessful, but the ghola he creates of deceased Tleilaxu Master Waff later offers Edrik something better in exchange for sanctuary — the genetic knowledge for the Guild to create their own, optimized sandworms to produce melange.
In Sandworms of Dune (2007), the sequel to Hunters and finale of the original Dune series, the Spacing Guild has begun replacing its Navigators with the more cost-effective Ixian navigation devices and cutting off the Navigators' supply of melange. More and more Navigators are dying from withdrawal of the spice — including Ardrae, "one of the oldest remaining Navigators" — and many defect and disappear into space rather than allow the devices on their ships. All are unaware that Face Dancer infiltrators are behind the plan, plotting their own takeover of the universe.
Waff works in secret, hidden on Edrik's own heighliner, on genetically engineering his "advanced" sandworms. He accomplishes this by altering the DNA of the sandtrout stage and creating an aquatic form of the worms, which are then released into the oceans of Buzzell. Adapting to their new environment, these "seaworms" quickly flourish, eventually producing a highly concentrated form of spice, dubbed "ultraspice."
Edrik and the ultraspice are later intercepted by Face Dancer leader Khrone, who seizes the valuable optimized melange. He incapacitates Edrik by damaging his tank and releasing its spice gas, soon destroying the entire heighliner to rid himself of the Navigator altogether.
Emperor: Battle for Dune
Apart from navigating heighliners ferrying the troops of the three Houses to Arrakis, Navigators have also been utilized by the Guild in the War of Assassins in the Emperor: Battle for Dune computer game as pilots for their NIAB Tanks (a hover tank that projects a single electrical bolt) and NIAP Flyers (an aerial version of the NIAB Tank, although without any weapons of its own). The NIAB Tank also has the ability to fold-space for short distances on the battlefield (suggesting a Holtzman generator, smaller than that of the massive heighliners). The acronyms NIAB and NIAP stand for 'Navigator in a Box' and 'Navigator in a Plane'.
The Guild forces in the game can also deploy a unit called the Maker, an infantry unit somewhat resembling both a Navigator and a small sandworm, armed with an electrical weapon.
Notes and references
External links
Guild Navigator on Dunepedia
Dune (franchise) species and races
Human-derived fictional species
Fictional occupations
Fictional navigators
Fictional elements introduced in 1965 | [
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254379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria%20I%20of%20Portugal | Maria I of Portugal | Dona Maria I (17 December 1734 – 20 March 1816) was Queen of Portugal from 24 February 1777 until her death in 1816. Known as Maria the Pious in Portugal and Maria the Mad in Brazil, she was the first undisputed queen regnant of Portugal and the first monarch of Brazil.
Maria was the eldest daughter of King Dom José I (Joseph I) of Portugal and Infanta Doña Mariana Victoria of Spain. As the heir to the throne, she held the titles of Princess of Brazil and Duchess of Braganza. She married her uncle Infante Dom Pedro (Peter) in 1760. They had six children, of whom three survived infancy: Dom José (Joseph), Prince of Brazil; King Dom João VI (John VI) of Portugal; and Infanta Mariana Vitória. The death of King José in 1777 placed Maria, then 42 years old, on the throne. Her husband Pedro was nominally king alongside her as Dom Pedro III.
Upon ascending the throne, Maria dismissed her father's powerful chief minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal. The early part of Maria's reign witnessed growth in Portugal's economy. Maria had a number of national buildings constructed and renovated, leading to the completion of the Palace of Queluz and the inauguration of the Palace of Ajuda and other new monuments. The death of her husband in 1786, followed by the deaths in 1788 of her eldest son José and her confessor Inácio de São Caetano, caused the queen to develop clinical depression. Her second son, João, then served as prince regent. With Napoleon's European conquests, Maria and her court moved to the Portuguese colony of Brazil in 1807. After Brazil was elevated to a kingdom in 1815, Maria became Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Upon her death in 1816, her son succeeded her as King Dom João VI.
Early life
Maria was born at the Ribeira Palace in Lisbon and baptized Maria Francisca Isabel Josefa Antónia Gertrudes Rita Joana. She was the eldest of four daughters born to Dom José (Joseph), Prince of Brazil (later King Dom José I of Portugal), and Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain. Her father José was the son of the reigning King Dom João V (John V) of Portugal and his wife Maria Anna of Austria. Her mother, Mariana Victoria, was the eldest daughter of King Don Felipe V (Philip V) of Spain and Queen Elisabeth Farnese. King João appointed his granddaughter Maria as the Princess of Beira on the day of her birth.
Maria's grandfather João V died on 31 July 1750. Her father, Prince José, then succeeded to the throne as Dom José I. As José's eldest child, Maria became his heir presumptive and was given the traditional titles of Princess of Brazil and Duchess of Braganza.
Influence of the Marquis of Pombal
King José's government was dominated completely by Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal. The king would often retire to the Palace of Queluz, which he later gave to his daughter, Princess Maria, and his brother and son-in-law, Infante Pedro (Peter). The Marquis of Pombal secured control of the government after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, in which around 100,000 people lost their lives. The palace of Maria's birth was also destroyed in the disaster.
After the earthquake, King José was often uncomfortable at the thought of staying in enclosed spaces, and later suffered from claustrophobia. The king had a palace built in Ajuda, away from the city centre. This palace became known as Real Barraca de Ajuda (Royal Hut at Ajuda) because it was made of wood. The family spent much time at the large palace. (The palace was the birthplace of Maria's first child, José, .) In 1794 the palace burned to the ground and the Palace of Ajuda was built in its place.
On 6 June 1760 Maria married the king's younger brother, her uncle Pedro (later King Dom Pedro III of Portugal). Maria and Pedro had six children: José, João Francisco, João (later King Dom João VI), Mariana Vitória, Maria Clementina, and Maria Isabel. Only José, João, and Mariana Vitória survived to adulthood. Maria also delivered a stillborn boy in 1762.
Reign
King José died on 24 February 1777. His daughter, Maria, then became the first undisputed queen regnant of Portugal. With Maria's accession, her husband became nominal king as Dom Pedro III, but the actual regal authority was vested solely in Maria, as she was the lineal heir of the crown. Also, as Pedro's kingship was jure uxoris only, his reign would cease in the event of Maria's death, and the crown would pass to Maria's descendants. However, Pedro predeceased his wife in 1786. Maria is considered to have been a good ruler in the period prior to her madness. Her first act as queen was to dismiss the popular secretary of state of the kingdom, the Marquis of Pombal, who had broken the power of the reactionary aristocracy via the Távora affair, partially because of his Enlightenment, anti-Jesuit policies. Noteworthy events of this period include Portugal's membership in the League of Armed Neutrality (July 1782) and the 1781 cession of Delagoa Bay from Austria to Portugal. However, the queen suffered from religious mania and melancholia and this would take a toll on her health. This acute mental illness (perhaps due to porphyria) made her incapable of handling state affairs after 1792.
Mental deterioration
Maria's madness was first officially noticed in 1786, when she had to be carried back to her apartments in a state of delirium. Afterward, the queen's mental state became increasingly worse. On 25 May 1786, her husband died; Maria was devastated and forbade any court entertainments. According to a contemporary account, state festivities began to resemble religious ceremonies. The queen's eldest son and heir, Prince Dom José, died aged 27 from smallpox on 11 September 1788, and her confessor Inácio de São Caetano, Titular Archbishop of Salonica, died in November that year. These deaths may have resulted in Queen Maria developing major depressive disorder. Another potential cause was her incestuous ancestry, this is substantiated by two of her sisters who had similar conditions.
In February 1792, Maria was deemed mentally insane and was treated by Francis Willis, the same physician who attended the British king George III. Willis wanted to take her to England, but the plan was refused by the Portuguese court. Potentially as a result of Willis' more advisory role in Maria's care, rather than the hands-on care of King George III, Willis deemed the queen incurable. Maria's second son, Dom João (John), now Prince of Brazil, took over the government in her name, even though he only took the title of Prince Regent in 1799. When the Real Barraca de Ajuda burnt down in 1794, the court was forced to move to Queluz, where the ill queen would lie in her apartments all day. Visitors would complain of terrible screams that would echo throughout the palace.
Napoleonic Wars
In 1801 Spanish Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy sent an army to invade Portugal with backing from the French leader Napoleon, resulting in the War of the Oranges. Though the Spanish ended their invasion, the Treaty of Badajoz on 6 June 1801 forced Portugal to cede Olivença and other border towns to Spain. (This cession is not recognized by the present Portuguese government, and the country officially considers those territories still to be Portuguese possessions.) On 29 September 1801 Prince Dom João signed the Treaty of Madrid (1801), ceding half of Portuguese Guyana to France, which became French Guiana.
The refusal of the Portuguese government to join the French-sponsored Continental Blockade against Britain culminated in the late 1807 Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal led by General Jean-Andoche Junot. The ultimate Napoleonic plan for Portugal was to split it into three sections. The northern parts of Portugal, from the Douro to the Minho, would become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania, and its throne was promised to King Louis II of Etruria. The Alentejo Province and Kingdom of the Algarve would be merged to form the Principality of the Algarves, of which Manuel de Godoy would be sovereign. The remaining portion of Portugal would have been directly ruled by France.
Transfer to Brazil
At the urging of the British government, the entire House of Braganza decided to flee on 29 November 1807 to establish a government in exile in the Portuguese Viceroyalty of Brazil. Along with the royal family, Maria was transported aboard the carrack Príncipe Real. During her move from the royal palace to the docks she was heard screaming throughout the trip, in the middle of the crowd and in the carriage. The queen's dementia was so great that she feared that she was going to be tortured or robbed during her movement by her servants.
In January 1808 Prince Regent João and his court arrived in Salvador da Bahia. Under pressure by local aristocracy and the British, the prince regent signed a commercial regulation after his arrival that opened commerce between Brazil and friendly nations, which in this case represented the interests of Great Britain above all. This law broke an important colonial pact that had previously allowed Brazil to maintain direct commercial relations only with Portugal.
On 1 August 1808 British General Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) landed a British army in Lisbon to initiate the Peninsular War. The impact of Wellesley's initial victory over Junot at the Battle of Vimeiro (21 August 1808) was wiped out by his superiors in the Convention of Cintra (30 August 1808), which allowed the defeated French troops to evacuate peacefully from Portugal.
Wellesley (soon to be made Lord Wellington) returned to Portugal on 22 April 1809 to recommence the campaign. Portuguese forces under British command distinguished themselves in the defence of the Lines of Torres Vedras (1809–1810) and in the subsequent invasion of Spain and France. In 1815 Prince João's government elevated Brazil to the status of a kingdom, and Maria was proclaimed Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. When Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815, Maria and her family remained in Brazil.
Death and legacy
Maria lived in Brazil for a total of eight years, always in a state of incapacitation. In 1816, she died at the Carmo Convent in Rio de Janeiro at the age of 81. After her death, the prince regent was acclaimed as King Dom João VI. Maria's body was returned to Lisbon to be interred in a mausoleum in the Estrela Basilica (), which she had helped found.
Maria is a greatly admired figure in both Brazil and Portugal due to the tremendous changes and events that took place during her reign. In Portugal, she is celebrated as a strong female figure. Her legacy shines at Portugal's Queluz Palace, a baroque-roccoco masterpiece that she helped conceive. A large statue of her stands in front of the palace, and a pousada near the palace is named in her honour. A large marble statue of the queen was erected at the Portuguese National Library in Lisbon by the students of Joaquim Machado de Castro.
In Brazil, Maria is admired as a key figure in the eventual independence of Brazil. It was during her reign, albeit through the government of her son's regency, that many of the national institutions and organizations in Brazil were created. These institutions were the precursors to their modern-day equivalents and granted large degree of power to the Brazilian colonials. While she is often called A Louca (the Mad) in Brazil, Brazilian and Portuguese historians hold her in high esteem.
Marriage and issue
Maria married her uncle Pedro on 6 June 1760. At the time of their marriage, Maria was 25 and Pedro was 42. Despite the age gap, the couple had a happy marriage. Upon Maria's accession in 1777, her husband became the nominal King Dom Pedro III of Portugal.
Ancestry
See also
List of mentally ill monarchs
References
Bibliography
Benevides, Francisco da Fonseca. Rainhas de Portugal: Estudo Historico - Volume I. Lisbon, Portugal: Typographia Castro Irmão.
Benevides, Francisco da Fonseca. Rainhas de Portugal: Estudo Historico - Volume II. Lisbon, Portugal: Typographia Castro Irmão.
External links
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1734 births
1816 deaths
House of Braganza
Brazilian monarchs
19th-century monarchs in South America
Regents of Portugal
Regents of Brazil
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Queens regnant
Princesses of Brazil
Dukes of Braganza
Princes of Beira
Dukes of Barcelos
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Titles of nobility in the Americas
Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel
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Knights of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
People of the Peninsular War
Burials at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora
18th-century Portuguese monarchs
19th-century Portuguese monarchs
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People from Lisbon
Royalty and nobility with disabilities | [
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254381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving%20walkway | Moving walkway | A moving walkway, also known as an autowalk, moving pavement, moving sidewalk, people-mover, travolator, or travelator, is a slow-moving conveyor mechanism that transports people across a horizontal or inclined plane over a short to medium distance. Moving walkways can be used by standing or walking on them. They are often installed in pairs, one for each direction.
History
The first moving walkway debuted at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, in Chicago, Illinois, in the United States as The Great Wharf Moving Sidewalk and was designed by architect Joseph Lyman Silsbee. It had two different divisions: one where passengers were seated, and one where riders could stand or walk. It ran in a loop down the length of a lakefront pier to a casino. Six years later a moving walkway was also presented to the public at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris as the Rue de l'Avenir. The walkway consisted of three elevated platforms, the first was stationary, the second moved at a moderate speed, and the third at about . These demonstrations likely served as inspiration for some of H. G. Wells' settings mentioned in the "Science Fiction" section below.
The Beeler Organization, a New York City consulting firm, proposed a Continuous Transit System with Sub-Surface Moving Platforms for Atlanta in 1924, with a design roughly similar to the Paris Exposition system. The proposed drive system used a linear induction motor. The system was not constructed.
The first commercial moving walkway in the United States was installed in 1954 in Jersey City, NJ, inside the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad Erie station at the Pavonia Terminal. Named the "Speedwalk" and built by Goodyear, it was long and moved up a 10 percent grade at a speed of . The walkway was removed a few years later when traffic patterns at the station changed.
The first moving walkway in an airport was installed in 1958 at Love Field in Dallas, Texas. On January 1, 1960, Tina Marie Brandon, age 2, was killed on the moving sidewalk.
Moving walkways generally move at a slower speed than a natural walking pace, and even when people continue walking after they step on a moving walkway they tend to slow their pace to compensate, thus moving walkways only minimally improve travel times and overall transport capacity.
Designs
Moving walkways are built in one of two basic styles:
Pallet type – a continuous series of flat metal plates join together to form a walkway – and are effectively identical to escalators in their construction. Most have a metal surface, though some models have a rubber surface for extra traction. The plates are one-piece, die-cast aluminium pallets, with a typical width between the walkway sides of . The walkway can be powered by an AC induction motor. Example speed is .
Moving belt – these are generally built with mesh metal belts or rubber walking surfaces over metal rollers. The walking surface may have a solid feel or a "bouncy" feel.
Both types of moving walkway have a grooved surface to mesh with combplates at the ends. Also, nearly all moving walkways are built with moving handrails similar to those on escalators.
High-speed walkways
Early examples
In 1961, Jim Downer designed and had produced by Dunlop, the first flat running ‘Travelator’ for a BBC exhibition in Charing Cross underground station.
In the 1970s, Dunlop developed the Speedaway system. It was in fact an invention by Gabriel Bouladon and Paul Zuppiger of the Battelle Memorial Institute at their former Geneva, Switzerland facility. A prototype was built and demonstrated at the Battelle Institute in Geneva in the early 1970s, as can be attested by a (French-speaking) Swiss television program entitled Un Jour une Heure aired in October 1974. The great advantage of the Speedaway, as compared to the then existing systems, was that the embarking/disembarking zone was both wide and slow-moving (up to four passengers could embark simultaneously, equating to around 10,000 per hour), whereas the transportation zone was narrower and fast-moving.
The entrance to the system was like a very wide escalator, with broad metal tread plates of a parallelogram shape. After a short distance the tread plates were accelerated to one side, sliding past one another to form progressively into a narrower but faster-moving track which travelled at almost a right angle to the entry section. The passenger was accelerated through a parabolic path to a maximum design speed . The experience was unfamiliar to passengers, who needed to understand how to use the system to be able to do so safely. Developing a moving hand-rail for the system presented a challenge, also solved by the Battelle team. The Speedaway was intended to be used as a stand-alone system over short distances or to form acceleration and deceleration units providing entry and exit means for a parallel conventional (but fast-running) Starglide walkway which covered longer distances. The system was still in development in 1975 but never went into commercial production.
Another attempt at an accelerated walkway in the 1980s was the TRAX (Trottoir Roulant Accéléré), which was developed by Dassault and RATP and whose prototype was installed at Invalides station in Paris. The speed at entry and exit was , while the maximum speed was . It was a technical failure due to its complexity, and was never commercially exploited.
In the mid-1990s, the Loderway Moving Walkway company patented and licensed a design to a number of larger moving walkway manufacturers. Trial systems were installed at Flinders Street railway station in Melbourne and Brisbane Airport Australia. These met with a positive response from the public, but no permanent installations were made. This system is of the belt type, with a sequence of belts moving at different speeds to accelerate and decelerate riders. A sequence of different speed handrails is also used.
Trottoir roulant rapide (TRR)
In 2002, CNIM designed and installed the experimental, high-speed walkway in the Montparnasse–Bienvenüe station in France. At first it operated at a speed of but was later reduced to due to safety concerns. As the design of the walkway requires riders to have at least one hand free to hold the handrail, those carrying bags, shopping, etc., or who are infirm or physically disabled, must use the ordinary walkway beside it, and staff were positioned at each end to determine who could and who could not use it.
Using this walkway is similar to using any other moving walkway, except that there are special procedures to follow when entering or exiting at either end. On entering, there is a acceleration zone where the "ground" is a series of metal rollers. Riders stand still with both feet on these rollers and use one hand to hold the handrail and let it pull them so that they glide over the rollers. The idea is to accelerate the riders so that they will be traveling fast enough to step onto the moving walkway belt. Riders who try to walk on these rollers are at significant risk of falling over. Once on the walkway, riders can stand or walk as on an ordinary moving walkway. At the exit, the same technique is used to decelerate the riders. Users step onto a series of rollers which decelerate them slowly, rather than the abrupt halt which would otherwise take place.
The walkway proved to be unreliable, leading to many users losing their balance and having accidents. Consequently, it was removed by RATP in 2011 after nine years in service, being replaced with a standard moving walkway.
ThyssenKrupp ACCEL
In 2007, ThyssenKrupp installed two high-speed walkways in Terminal 1 at Toronto Pearson International Airport. They connect the international gates in the newly opened Pier F, located at one end of the pier, with the rest of the terminal. One walkway serves departing passengers traveling towards the gates and the other serves arriving passengers traveling towards the terminal. The airport decided to decommission the walkway in 2020.
The walkway's pallet-type design accelerates and decelerates users in a manner that eliminates many of the safety risks generated by the moving belt-type used in Paris, making it suitable for use by people of all ages and sizes regardless of their health condition. The pallets "intermesh" with a comb and slot arrangement. They expand out of each other when speeding up, and compress into each other when slowing down. The handrails work in a similar manner, and because of this, there is no need to hold the handrails when entering or exiting the walkway. It moves at roughly when riders step onto it and speeds up to approximately , which it remains at until near the end, where it slows back down.
ThyssenKrupp continued development of that product, and its effect is Accel, an upgraded version of Express Walkway, offering speeds of up to , which is faster than of Express Walkway, and is the same speed as of original version of TRR walkway.
Inclined moving walkways
An inclined moving walkway is a type of vertical transportation used in airports and supermarkets to move people to another floor with the convenience of an elevator (namely, that people can take along their suitcase trolley, shopping cart, or baby carriage) and the capacity of an escalator. Conflicting sources name either Goodyear Tire or Canadian elevator company Turnbull as the inventor of the inclined moving walkway.
Some department stores instead use shopping cart conveyors to transport passengers and their carts between store levels simultaneously. Walmart in Canada require users of wheelchairs and other mobility aids to be accompanied by shop staff when using their moving walkways, which they refer to as 'movators'. This policy has been superseded in some stores by the installation of elevators.
Shopping carts used on inclined moving walkways usually have wheels specially designed to get caught in the grooves of the walkway's tread when rolled onto the walkway, thereby preventing the cart from rolling down. The wheels are lifted off the tread by the landing plate at the end.
Applications
Moving walkways are frequently found in the following locations:
Airports
Moving walkways are commonly used in larger airports, as passengers – often with heavy luggage in tow – typically need to walk considerable distances. Moving walkways may be used:
in passageways between concourses and the terminal
within particularly long concourses
as a connector between terminals, or
as access to a parking facility or a ground transport station.
Of particular note is the Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris, France, which has several moving walkways inside a series of futuristic suspended tubes.
Public transport
Moving walkways are useful for remote platforms in underground subway/metro stations, or assisting with lengthier connections between lines, for example:
London Underground (London): on the Waterloo & City line terminus at Bank station
Glasgow Subway (Glasgow): from Buchanan Street subway station to Queen Street railway station
MTR (Hong Kong): between Central and Hong Kong stations on Hong Kong Island, and between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations in Kowloon
MRT (Singapore): in Bugis, Dhoby Ghaut, Serangoon, Botanic Gardens, Orchard, Outram Park and Changi Airport stations
Chongqing Rail Transit/CRT(Chongqing): Moving walkways inside Jiaochangkou station’s interchange channel for transfers between Line 1 and Line 2.
Montreal Metro, the entrance of the Beaudry station
A moving walkway was formerly part of the complex in Spadina subway station in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Installed in 1978, it reduced the travel time needed to transfer between the platforms on the Bloor-Danforth and the Yonge-University-Spadina lines. They were removed in 2004 and patrons are now required to walk between the stations.
Urban areas
Hong Kong is one of the world's most heavily populated cities, and has public escalators that connect many streets. See: Central–Mid-Levels escalators
Museums
Moving sidewalks may be used:
to ensure that a museum exhibit is viewed in a certain sequence
to provide a particular aesthetic effect
to make sure the crowd moves through at a reliable pace.
The 1975–76 American Freedom Train did this with a moving walkway inside each successive railroad car, thus maximizing the number of people who could view the interior exhibits in the limited time the train was stopped in each town.
The National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, USA, uses a moving walkway to connect the two main buildings.
The Tower of London in London, England, uses a moving walkway where visitors are passing the cabinets which contain the Crown Jewels.
Zoos
Similar to museums, some zoological park exhibits have a moving walkway to ease guests through an animal display or habitat. An aquarium at the Mall of America does this with a moving walkway made up of specially rounded pallets that enable it to change directions en route. The San Diego Zoo uses moving ramps to help guests ascend steep grades.
Theme parks
Some amusement park rides, such as continuous-motion dark rides like Disney's Omnimover rides, make use of a moving sidewalk to assist passengers in boarding and disembarking rides and attractions. Some examples include:
the Ultra Twister, a roller coaster at the now closed Astroworld in Houston, Texas had a moving walkway with no handrail for passengers to step on prior to boarding their car. The walkway would move at the same speed as the approaching cars, allowing passengers completing the ride to step off and for boarding passengers to enter the car. An announcement played "Moving conveyor, please watch your step" to warn of the moving walkway.
the exit from the Space Mountain attraction at Walt Disney World Resort formerly had a long moving walkway which changed inclination multiple times. As of November 15, 2018, it has been converted to conventional flooring.
the exit from the Pirates of the Caribbean attraction at Walt Disney World has an inclined moving walkway leading towards a gift shop.
the Tomorrowland Transit Authority PeopleMover attraction at Walt Disney World Resort has two inclined moving walkways to carry guests between the ground level and the attraction's load and unload stations, where guests step onto another moving walkway that is one of the few circular moving walkways
Theatrical sets
The Phantom of the Opera by Andrew Lloyd Webber uses a travelator in the number 'The Phantom of the Opera' (act one, scene six), to give the illusion the Phantom and Christine are traveling the catacombs below the Paris Opera House a great distance to the Phantom's lair on the subterranean lake.
Ski resorts
Moving walkways known as Magic carpets are also used in ski resorts. Skiers can place their skis on the walkway, which is designed to provide a strong level of grip. Since the walkways cannot be too steep and are slow compared to other aerial lifts, they are used especially for beginners or to transport people over a short uphill distance, such as to reach a restaurant or another lift's station. Moving walkways can also be found at chairlifts' entrances to help passengers in the boarding process.
Retail
In the UK, inclined travelators are used in stores, including Asda, B&M Bargains, IKEA, Marks & Spencer, Morrisons, Sainsbury's, and Tesco. For example, Tesco in Aberystwyth uses six inclined travelators (three up, three down in a criss-cross layout) to transport shoppers and their trolleys between the store, the rooftop car park and the under-store car park).
In the United States, inclined walkways can be found in certain IKEA, Menards, Publix, H-E-B, Costco Wholesale, and Whole Foods Market stores.
Science fiction
The concept of a megalopolis based on high-speed walkways is common in science fiction. The first works set in such a location are "A Story of the Days To Come" (1897) and When The Sleeper Wakes (1899) (also republished as The Sleeper Awakes), written by H. G. Wells, which take place in a future London. Thirty years later, the silent film Metropolis (1927) depicted several scenes showing moving sidewalks and escalators between skyscrapers at high levels. Later, the short story "The Roads Must Roll" (1940), written by Robert A. Heinlein, depicts the risk of a transportation strike in a society based on similar-speed sidewalks. The novel is part of the Future History saga, and takes place in 1976. Isaac Asimov, in the novel The Caves of Steel (1954) and its sequels in the Robot series, uses similar enormous underground cities with a similar sidewalk system. The period described is about the year 5,000.
In each of these cases, there is a massive network of parallel moving belts, the inner ones moving faster. Passengers are screened from wind, and there are chairs and even shops on the belt. In the Heinlein work the fast lane runs at , and the first "mechanical road" was built in 1960 between Cincinnati and Cleveland. The relative speed of two adjacent belts is (in the book, the fast lane stops while the second lane keeps running at ). In the Wells and Asimov works there are more steps in the speed scale and the speeds are less extreme.
In Arthur C. Clarke's novel, Against the Fall of Night (later rewritten as The City and the Stars) the Megacity of Diaspar is interwoven with "moving ways" which, unlike Heinlein's conveyor belts, are solid floors that can mysteriously move as a fluid. In the novel, Clarke writes,
In his non-fiction book Profiles of the Future, Arthur C. Clarke mentions moving sidewalks but made of some sort of anisotropic material that could flow in the direction of travel but hold the weight of a person. The fluid would have the advantage of offering a continuous gradient of speed from the edge to edge so there would be no jumps, and simply moving from side to side would effect a change in speed.
In the Strugatsky brothers' Noon Universe, the worldwide network of moving roads is one of the first megaprojects undertaken on newly united Earth, before the advent of FTL starships and its consequences turned everybody's attention to the stars. These roads there are quasiliving organisms similar to Clarke's description and were used for both local commuting and long-distance non-urgent transport until their use was eclipsed by an instant teleportation network.
The animated TV series The Jetsons depicts moving walkways everywhere, even in private homes.
Slidewalk
A slidewalk is a fictional moving pavement structurally sound enough to support buildings and large populations of travelers. Adjacent slidewalks moving at different rates could let travelers accelerate to great speeds. The term is also used colloquially for a conventional moving walkway.
They were imagined by science fiction writer H. G. Wells in When the Sleeper Wakes. Robert A. Heinlein made them the instruments of social upheaval in the 1940 short story The Roads Must Roll. Isaac Asimov, in his Robot series, imagined slidewalks as the potential method of transportation of practically the entire urban population on Earth, with expressways moving at up to equipped with seating accommodations for long-distance travel, and with slower subsidiary tracks branching off from the main lines. Arthur C. Clarke also used them in The City and the Stars. Larry Niven used them in Ringworld and Flatlander. Slidewalks figure prominently in The Jetsons.
See also
Charles E. Downs and Joseph F. Fitzpatrick
Escalator
Moving floor
Shopping cart conveyor
Treadmill
References
External links
Walkway propels Paris metro into future, a BBC article on the high-speed travelator at Gare Montparnasse station in Paris. (provided by CNIM)
Paleofuture: Moving sidewalks before the Jetsons
Smart Links – Website for professionals working with short distance automated transport.
Pedestrian infrastructure
Articles containing video clips
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254383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentilla | Potentilla | Potentilla is a genus containing over 300 species of annual, biennial and perennial herbaceous flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae.
Potentillas may also be called cinquefoils in English, but they have also been called five fingers and silverweeds. Some species are called tormentils, though this is often used specifically for common tormentil (P. erecta). Others are referred to as barren strawberries, which may also refer to P. sterilis in particular, or to the closely related Waldsteinia fragarioides. Several other cinquefoils formerly included here are now separated in distinct genera - notably the popular garden shrub P. fruticosa, now Dasiphora fruticosa.
Potentillas are generally found throughout the northern continents of the world (holarctic), though some occur in montane biomes of the New Guinea Highlands.
Description
Typical cinquefoils look most similar to strawberries, but differ in usually having dry, inedible fruit (hence the name "barren strawberry" for some species). Many cinquefoil species have palmate leaves. Some species have just three leaflets, while others have 15 or more leaflets arranged pinnately. The flowers are usually yellow, but may be white, pinkish or red. The accessory fruits are usually dry but may be fleshy and strawberry-like, while the actual seeds – each one technically a single fruit – are tiny nuts.
Taxonomy
Among the Rosaceae, cinquefoils are close relatives of avens (genus Geum) and roses (Rosa), and even closer relatives of agrimonies (Agrimonia). Yet more closely related to Potentilla are lady's mantles (Alchemilla) and strawberries (Fragaria). Dryas is not as closely related as long believed.
Analysis of internal transcribed spacer DNA sequence data has yielded valuable information on cinquefoil relationships, supporting previous hypotheses about their relationships, but also resulting in a number of changes to the circumscription of Potentilla.
The genera Horkelia (horkelias) and Ivesia (mousetails) are sometimes included in Potentilla today. The mock-strawberries of Duchesnea have been included. Conversely, the shrubby plants previously included in this genus are now separated in the genus Dasiphora, while some distinctive and apparently protocarnivorous herbaceous cinquefoils are placed in Drymocallis. The marsh cinquefoil is now in the genus Comarum, and the three-toothed cinquefoil makes up the monotypic genus Sibbaldiopsis. As already proposed by John Hill in the 18th century, the silverweeds of genus Argentina may be distinct, but as the immediate sister genus of Potentilla, its boundary is still unclear.
Subdivision
Estimates of the number of valid species in this large genus depend on the circumscription used, and they recently vary from "over 300" to 400 to 500 to "several hundred".
See the list of Potentilla species.
Formerly included in Potentilla
Argentina (segregate)
Comarum
Dasiphora
Drymocallis
Sibbaldiopsis
Etymology
"Cinquefoil" in the Middle English Dictionary is described as "Pentafilon – from Greek Pentaphyllon – influenced by foil, a leaf. The European cinquefoil (Potentilla reptans), often used medicinally." The word is derived from Old French cinc, Middle English cink and ultimately Latin quinque – all meaning "five" –, and feuille and foil/foille which mean "leaf". Formerly this term referred to five-leaved plants in general. In medieval times, the word "cinquefoil" was used almost exclusively in England. In France, the genus was called quintefeuille, first attested in Normandy and Brittany in the 11th century.
The scientific name Potentilla seems to have been influenced by a fusion of ancient names for these plants. Common tormentil, P. erecta, was known as tormentilla in medieval Latin, derived from early Spanish – literally "a little torment", meaning pain that, while not debilitating, is unpleasant and persistent (such as a stomach ache, against which P. erecta was used). The change from initial "t" to "p" seems to have been influenced by terms such as poterium – Latin for the related burnets (genus Sanguisorba) – or propedila and similar words used for the European cinquefoil (P. reptans) in the now-extinct Dacian language, as attested in Latin herbals.
In another medieval dictionary the French word potentille is defined as a "wild Tansie, a silver weed", a reference to the tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) and similar taxa of the genus Tanacetum. The related adjective potentiel/potentiells means "strong", "forcible", or "powerful in operation". Its origin is the French potence ("strong", "powerful", "mighty", or "potent"). The origin of these words is the Latin potens, with the same meaning.
Distribution and habitat
Cinquefoils grow wild in most cool and cold regions of the world. Most species are herbaceous perennials but a few are erect or creeping shrubs. Some are troublesome weeds. Other types are grown in gardens.
Ecology
Cinquefoils are a prominent part of many ecosystems. In the United Kingdom alone, common tormentil (P. erecta) together with purple moor grass (Molinia caerulea) defines many grassy mires, and grows abundantly in the typical deciduous forest with downy birch (Betula pubescens), common wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella), and sessile oak (Quercus petraea). In upland pastures on calcareous soil it typically accompanies common bent (Agrostis capillaris), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), and wild thyme (Thymus praecox). It is most commonly seen in regions dominated by common heather (Calluna vulgaris), including common lowland heaths with bell heather (Erica cinerea), maritime heaths with spring squill (Scilla verna), submontane heaths dominated by red peat moss (Sphagnum capillifolium) and common bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), and the mountain heathlands of Scotland with alpine juniper (Juniperus communis ssp. alpina).
The leaves of cinquefoils are eaten by the caterpillars of many Lepidoptera, notably the grizzled skippers (genus Pyrgus), butterflies of the skipper family. Adult butterflies and moths visit cinquefoil flowers; for example, the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Plebejus melissa samuelis) takes nectar from common cinquefoil (P. simplex). The Polish cochineal (Porphyrophora polonica), a scale insect once used to produce red dye, lives on cinquefoils and other plants in Eurasia. Some, but not all, cinquefoils are insect-pollinated, producing nectar that lures bees, hoverflies, muscid flies, butterflies, true bugs, and ants.
Fossil record
One fossil fruitlet of †Potentilla pliocenica has been described from a middle Miocene stratum of the Fasterholt area near Silkeborg in Central Jutland, Denmark. Four fossil fruits of †Potentilla pliocenica have been extracted from bore hole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.
Uses
Horticulture
Some cinquefoils are grown as ornamental plants. These are generally high species with bright, showy flowers, such as ruby cinquefoil (P. atrosanguinea), Nepal cinquefoil (P. nepalensis), and sulphur cinquefoil (P. recta). Horticultural hybrids such as Hopwood's cinquefoil (Potentilla × hopwoodiana) and tongue cinquefoil (Potentilla × tonguei) have been bred, and there exists a range of cultivars. Some double-flowered cinquefoils have been bred, starting with Victor Lemoine's 'Gloire de Nancy' in 1854. Other taxa and varieties are useful for more specialized gardening purposes, such as rock gardens or swamps. Among the former is the hardy spring cinquefoil (P. neumanniana), the floral emblem of Cromartyshire.
Health
Some species are used in herbalism. Common tormentil (P. erecta), for example, has been used as an herbal remedy for inflammation and gastrointestinal disorders. Research continues to determine its safety and usefulness as an alternative medicine for such disorders as ulcerative colitis. Potentilla discolor and P. multifida are Chinese medicinal herbs used to treat diabetes.
Cultural references
In heraldry, the cinquefoil emblem or potentilla signified strength, power, honor, and loyalty. Depiction of the five-petalled flower appears as early as 1033, in the architecture of the church built in the village of Reulle-Vergy in Burgundy, France, two years before the reign of William the Conqueror. The cinquefoil emblem was used generously in the architecture of numerous churches built in Normandy and Brittany through the 15th century.
From the 11th to 14th century, the word potence, related to potentilla, was used mainly in a military context and to describe the condition of the soul.
At the time of William the Conqueror, the potentilla was used as the device of Bardolph of Brittany, who was the master of William's military engineer corps.
References
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254387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds%20%28disambiguation%29 | Leeds (disambiguation) | Leeds is a major town in West Yorkshire, England.
Leeds may also refer to:
Business
Leeds City Credit Union, a savings and loans co-operative
Leeds TV, formerly Made in Leeds, television station
Peerages
Baron Milner of Leeds
Duke of Leeds
Leeds baronets
Places
Canada
Leeds (electoral district), Ontario
Leeds County, Ontario, historic county
United Counties of Leeds and Grenville
England
West Yorkshire
Leeds city centre, the core inner portion of the settlement
City of Leeds, local government district created 1974
Leeds City Region, the area whose economic development is supported by the Leeds City Region Partnership, a sub-regional economic development partnership
Historical entities
Leeds manorial borough (1207–1626), within Leeds manor, within Leeds parish
Leeds (incorporated borough) (1626–1836)
Leeds Municipal Borough (1836–1889)
County Borough of Leeds (1889–1974)
Leeds (UK Parliament constituency) (1832–1885)
Leeds (European Parliament constituency) (1979–1999)
Kent
Leeds, Kent, a village near Maidstone
Leeds Castle, a castle near Leeds, Kent
Leeds Priory, a priory near Leeds, Kent
United States
Leeds, Alabama, a city
Leeds, Maine, a town
Leeds, Massachusetts, a village within Northampton, Massachusetts
Leeds Township, Murray County, Minnesota, a township
Leeds, Kansas City, a neighborhood of Kansas City, Missouri
Leeds, New York, a hamlet
Leeds, North Dakota, a city
Leeds Township, Benson County, North Dakota
Leeds, Utah, a town
Leeds, Wisconsin, a town
Leeds (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Leeds Center, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Schools
England
University of Leeds
Leeds Beckett University, formerly Leeds Metropolitan University and Leeds Polytechnic
Leeds Trinity University, Horsforth, West Yorkshire
Leeds Arts University, formerly Leeds College of Art
Leeds College of Music
Leeds College of Technology
Leeds City College
Leeds College of Building
United States
Leeds School of Business, Boulder, Colorado, United States
Sports
Leeds Carnegie, sports teams associated with the Carnegie School of Physical Education
Leeds City F.C., a 1904–19 football club
Leeds City Vixens L.F.C., now Guiseley A.F.C. Vixens, a women's football club
Leeds Rhinos, a rugby league club
Leeds Road, a former football stadium in Huddersfield, England
Leeds Tykes, a rugby union club
Leeds United F.C., a football club
Leeds United L.F.C., a football club
Other uses
Leeds (surname) (including a list of people bearing the surname)
Leeds railway station, the central station in Leeds city centre
HM Prison Leeds, a prison in Armley, Leeds, West Yorkshire, England
"Leeds", a song by the Indigo Girls from Shaming of the Sun
See also
Jersey Devil or Leeds Devil, a legendary creature said to inhabit southern New Jersey, US
LEED (disambiguation)
Leeds Building Society, previously Leeds and Holbeck Building Society
Leeds Permanent Building Society, since 1995 part of the Halifax
Leeds Talk-o-Phone, a record label
Live at Leeds (disambiguation)
Saint-Jacques-de-Leeds, Quebec, municipality in Quebec | [
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254389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Antoine%20de%20Bougainville | Louis Antoine de Bougainville | Louis-Antoine, Comte de Bougainville (, , ; 12 November 1729 – August 1811) was a French admiral and explorer. A contemporary of the British explorer James Cook, he took part in the Seven Years' War in North America and the American Revolutionary War against Britain. Bougainville later gained fame for his expeditions, including a circumnavigation of the globe in a scientific expedition in 1763, the first recorded settlement on the Falkland Islands, and voyages into the Pacific Ocean. Bougainville Island of Papua New Guinea as well as the Bougainvillea flower were named after him.
Biography
Early career
Bougainville was born in Paris, the son of notary Pierre-Yves de Bougainville (1688-1756), on either 11 or 12 November 1729. In early life, he studied law, but soon abandoned the profession. In 1753 he entered the French Army in the corps of musketeers. At the age of twenty-five he published a treatise on integral calculus, as a supplement to Guillaume de l'Hôpital's treatise, Des infiniment petits.
In 1755 he was sent to England as secretary to the French embassy in London, where he was made a member of the Royal Society.
Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
In 1756 Bougainville was stationed in Canada as captain of dragoons and aide-de-camp to the Marquis de Montcalm. He took an active part in the capture of Fort Oswego in 1756 and the 1757 Battle of Fort William Henry. He was wounded in 1758 at the successful defence of Fort Carillon. He sailed back to France the following winter, under orders from the marquis to obtain additional military resources for the colony. During this crossing, he continued to learn about the ways of the sea, skills that would later serve him well. Having distinguished himself in the war against Britain, Bougainville was rewarded with the Cross of St Louis and promoted to colonel. When he returned to Canada the following year, he had gained few supplies. The metropolitan officials had decided that, "When the house is on fire, one does not worry about the stables".
During the pivotal year of 1759 (see Seven Years' War and French and Indian War), Bougainville participated in the defence of fortified Quebec, the capital of New France. With a small elite troop under his command, among which were the Grenadiers and the Volontaires à cheval, he patrolled the north shore of the St. Lawrence River, upstream from the city; he prevented the British several times from landing and cutting communications with Montreal. He did not have sufficient time, however, to rally his troops and attack the British rear when they successfully ascended the Plains of Abraham and attacked Quebec on 13 September.
Following the death of the Marquis de Montcalm and the fall of Québec on 18 September 1759 – after the colonel's aborted attempt to resupply the besieged city – Bougainville was dispatched to the western front by his new commanding officer, the Chevalier de Lévis. He attempted to stop the three pronged attack against Montréal from his entrenchments at Île-aux-Noix. He was among the officers who accompanied Lévis to Saint Helen's Island off Montreal for the last French stand in North America before the general capitulation of September 1760. Of the war, Bougainville wrote in his journal: "It is an abominable kind of war. The very air we breathe is contagious of insensibility and hardness".
Shipped back to Europe along with the other French officers, all deprived of military honours by the victors, Bougainville was prohibited by the terms of surrender from any further active duty against the British. He spent the remaining years of the Seven Years' War (1761 to 1763) as a diplomat, helping to negotiate the Treaty of Paris. Under this France ceded most of New France east of the Mississippi River to the British Empire.
The first French circumnavigation
Îles Malouines settlement
After the peace, the French decided to colonise the "Isles Malouines" (Falkland Islands). These islands were at that time almost unknown. At his own expense, Bougainville undertook the task of resettling Acadians who had been deported to France by the British because of their refusal to sign loyalty oaths.
On 15 September 1763, Bougainville set out from France with the frigate L'Aigle (Eagle) (captained by Nicolas Pierre Duclos-Guyot) and the sloop Le Sphinz (Sphinx) (captained by François Chenard de la Giraudais). This expedition included the naturalist and writer Antoine-Joseph Pernety (known as Dom Pernety), the priest and chronicler accompanying the expedition, together with the engineer and geographer Lhuillier de la Serre.
The expedition arrived in late January 1764 in French Bay (later renamed Berkeley Sound). They landed at Port Louis named after King Louis XV. A formal ceremony of possession of the Islands was held on 5 April 1764, after which Bougainville and Pernety returned to France. Louis XV formally ratified possession on 12 September 1764.
Although the French colony did not number more than 150 people, for financial motivations (Bougainville having paid for the expeditions) and diplomatic reasons (Spain feared that the Falklands would become a rear base to attack her Peruvian gold), Bougainville was ordered by the French government to dismantle his colony and sell it to the Spanish. Bougainville received 200,000 francs in Paris and an additional 500,000 francs in Buenos Aires. Spain agreed to maintain the colony in Port Louis, thus preventing Britain from claiming title to the islands. Spain had claimed dominion before the French settlement in association with its colonies on the mainland. On 31 January 1767 at Río de la Plata, Bougainville met Don Felipe Ruiz Puente, commanding the frigate La Esmeralda and La Liebre ("the Hare") and future governor of Islas Malvinas, to transfer possession and evacuate the French population.
Bougainville wrote:
It was not before 1766, that the English sent a colony to settle in Port de la Croisade, which they had named Port Egmont; and captain Macbride, of the Jason frigate, came to our settlement the same year, in the beginning of December. He pretended that these parts belonged to his Britannic majesty, threatened to land by force, if he should be any longer refused that liberty, visited the governor, and sailed away again the same day.
Circumnavigation
In 1766 Bougainville received from Louis XV permission to circumnavigate the globe. He would become the 14th navigator, and the first Frenchman, to sail around the world (though some are led to believe that Richard of Normandie, who was part of the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan during his circumnavigation, was the first Frenchman to do so). Completion of his mission bolstered the prestige of France following its defeats during the Seven Years' War. This was the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe with professional naturalists and geographers aboard.
Bougainville left Nantes on 15 November 1766 with two ships: Boudeuse (captain : Nicolas Pierre Duclos-Guyot) and the Étoile (commanded by François Chenard de la Giraudais). This was a large expedition, with a crew of 214 aboard Boudeuse and 116 aboard Étoile.
Included in the party was the botanist Philibert Commerçon (who named the flower Bougainvillea) and his valet. The ship's surgeon later revealed this person as Jeanne Baré, possibly Commerçon's mistress; she would become the first woman known to circumnavigate the globe. Other notable people on this expedition were Count Jean-François de Galaup de la Pérouse (member of the crew); the astronomer Pierre-Antoine Veron; the surgeon of Boudeuse Dr. Louis-Claude Laporte; the surgeon of the Étoile Dr. François Vives; the engineer and cartographer aboard the Étoile Charles Routier de Romainville; and the writer and historian Louis-Antoine Starot de Saint-Germain.
Tahiti
He saw islands of the Tuamotu group on the following 22 March, on 2 April saw the peak of Mehetia and visited the island of Otaheite shortly after. He narrowly missed becoming their discoverer; a previous visit and claim had been made by British explorer Samuel Wallis in HMS Dolphin less than a year previously. Bougainville claimed the island for France and named it New Cythera.
During this part of his expedition, one of his crew members, Jeanne Baret confessed to lying about being a man and actually being a woman.
His expedition left Tahiti and sailed westward to southern Samoa and the New Hebrides, then on sighting Espiritu Santo turned west still looking for the Southern Continent. On 4 June he almost ran into heavy breakers and had to change course to the north and east. He had almost found the Great Barrier Reef. He sailed through what is now known as the Solomon Islands but, because of the hostility of the people there, avoided landing. He named Bougainville Island for himself. The expedition was attacked by people from New Ireland so the French expedition made for the Moluccas. At Batavia, they received news of Wallis and Carteret who had preceded Bougainville in discovering Tahiti.
Return to France
On 16 March 1769 the expedition completed its circumnavigation and arrived at St Malo. It had lost only seven of its 340 crew, an extremely low level of casualties. This result was considered a credit to the enlightened management of the expedition by Bougainville.
Bougainville brought to France a Tahitian named Ahutoru who volunteered to come with him. In France, Bougainville introduced Ahutoru to the high society, including introducing him to the King and Queen at Versailles. Bougainville also underwrote part of the costs for Ahutoru's return to Tahiti after a two-year absence. The voyage took place under Marion Dufresne, but Ahutoru died en route of smallpox in October 1771.
Voyage autour du monde
In 1771, Bougainville published his travel log from the expedition under the title Le voyage autour du monde, par la frégate La Boudeuse, et la flûte L'Étoile (a.k.a. Voyage autour du monde and A Voyage Around the World). The book describes the geography, biology and anthropology of Argentina (then a Spanish colony), Patagonia, Tahiti and Indonesia (then a Dutch colony). The book was a sensation, especially the description of Tahitian society. Bougainville described it as an earthly paradise where men and women lived in blissful innocence, far from the corruption of civilisation.
Bougainville's descriptions powerfully expressed the concept of the noble savage, influencing the utopian thoughts of philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau before the advent of the French Revolution. Denis Diderot's book Supplément au voyage de Bougainville retells the story of Bougainville's landing on Tahiti, narrated by an anonymous reader to one of his friends. Diderot used his fictional approach, including a description of the Tahitians as noble savages, to criticise Western ways of living and thinking.
American Revolutionary War
After several years of absence, Bougainville again accepted a naval command. In 1777, he was captain of the 74-gun Bien-Aimé. He took part in the War of American Independence, playing a crucial part in the French victory at the Battle of the Chesapeake.
At the Battle of the Saintes, Bougainville commanded the 80-gun Auguste. He managed to rally eight ships of his own division, and bringing them safely into Saint Eustace after the defeat of Comte de Grasse. He was promoted to chef d'escadre. When he re-entered the Army, he was commissioned as maréchal de camp.
After Peace of Paris in 1783, Bougainville returned to Paris. He obtained the place of associate of the Académie de Marine. He proposed a voyage of discovery to the North Pole, but did not gain the support of the French government.
Promotion and retirement
In 1787, he became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He obtained the rank of vice-admiral in 1791.
In 1794, having escaped from the Reign of Terror, he retired to his estate in Normandy. Returning to Paris, he was one of the founding members of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1799, the Consul Napoleon made him a senator. He died in Paris in August 1811.
Legacy and honours
Bougainville's name is given to the largest eastern island of Papua New Guinea; and to the strait which divides it from the island of Choiseul. It is also applied to the strait between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo islands of the New Hebrides group. In the Falklands, Port Louis, and "Isla Bougainville" (Lively Island's Spanish name) commemorate him.
The genus of South American climbing shrubs with colourful bracts, Bougainvillea, is named after him.
1804, he was made a Grand Officier de la Légion d'honneur in 1804.
1808, Napoleon gave him the title of count (the Comte de Bougainville).
Thirteen ships of the French Navy have been named in his honour, see French ship Bougainville.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
.
External links
Louis Antoine de Bougainville: "Voyage around the world 1766–1769", London 1772 (A transcription of the translation of "Le voyage autour du monde, par la frégate La Boudeuse, et la flûte L'Étoile" into English by John Reinhold Forster)
From the Warpath to the Plains of Abraham (Virtual exhibition)
Louis-Antoine de Bougainville: Eighteenth Century French Sailor, Soldier, Statesman, Mathematician and leader of a Voyage around the world
Gallica Digital Version Plates
Voyage autour du monde, audio version
1729 births
1811 deaths
Burials at the Panthéon, Paris
Circumnavigators of the globe
Counts of the First French Empire
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Members of the Sénat conservateur
Fellows of the Royal Society
French explorers
French explorers of the Pacific
French Navy admirals
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
People of New France
French people of the French and Indian War
Explorers of Chile
Scientists from Paris | [
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254390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Arts%20Centre%20Orchestra | National Arts Centre Orchestra | The National Arts Centre Orchestra (NAC Orchestra) is a Canadian orchestra based in Ottawa, Ontario led by Music Director Alexander Shelley. The NAC Orchestra's primary concert venue is Southam Hall at the National Arts Centre. Since its inception, the Orchestra has commissioned more than 90 works, mostly from Canadian composers. The NAC Orchestra has made over 50 commercially released recordings. The Orchestra has visited more than 125 cities in Canada and more than 130 cities internationally in its 51-year history, including a coast-to-coast Canadian tour in 1999 and again in 2017. In May 2019, the NAC Orchestra completed a major European tour, performing and delivering education events in five countries.
History
The NAC Orchestra was founded in 1969 as the resident orchestra of the newly opened National Arts Centre, with Jean-Marie Beaudet as Music Director and Mario Bernardi as founding conductor. Bernardi became Music Director in 1971 and held the post until 1982. The NAC Orchestra undertook first international tour in 1973 to Europe, travelling as far as Leningrad. The NAC Orchestra has remained committed to touring internationally, averaging approximately one tour per every two years. Previous tours have taken them to the UK, China, the United-States of America, and all over Europe.
Beaudet and Bernardi are the only Canadian conductors to be appointed Music Director of the NAC Orchestra. Bernardi was named Conductor Laureate in 1997. Subsequent NAC Orchestra music directors have included Franco Mannino (1982 to 1987), Gabriel Chmura (1987 to 1990), and Trevor Pinnock (1991-1997). From 1999 to 2015, Pinchas Zukerman was the NAC Orchestra's Music Director. The orchestra expanded to 61 players during Zukerman's tenure. In October 2013, the NAC Orchestra announced the appointment of Alexander Shelley as its next music director, as of the 2015–2016 season, with an initial contract of 4 years. In 2018, the NAC announced that his contract was renewed through to 2022.
Franz-Paul Decker was Principal Guest Conductor from 1991 to 1999. In 2001, Jean-Philippe Tremblay became the NAC Orchestra's Apprentice Conductor, a then newly created post, for a two-year term. John Storgards is the current Principal Guest conductor of the NAC Orchestra while Jack Everly is the Principal Pops Conductor.
Recordings
Music Directors
Jean-Marie Beaudet (1969–1971)
Mario Bernardi (1971–1982)
Franco Mannino (1982–1987)
Gabriel Chmura (1987–1990)
Trevor Pinnock (1991–1997)
Pinchas Zukerman (1999–2015)
Alexander Shelley (2015–present)
See also
List of symphony orchestras
Canadian classical music
References
Musical groups established in 1969
Canadian orchestras
Musical groups from Ottawa
Tourist attractions in Ottawa
1969 establishments in Ontario | [
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] |
254395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alforsite | Alforsite | Alforsite is a barium phosphate chloride mineral with formula: Ba5(PO4)3Cl. It was discovered in 1981, and named to honor geologist John T. Alfors (1930–2005) of the California Geological Survey for his work in the area where it was discovered.
Alforsite is a hexagonal colorless crystal in the chemical class phosphates and the group apatite. It is found in certain parts of central California, primarily Fresno, Mariposa, and Tulare Counties. It has also been found in Baja California, Mexico.
Alforsite is a constituent of the apatite group of minerals. It crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system with a point group of 6/m and space group P63/m. It occurs as colorless grains that are hard to distinguish from fluoroapatite, as they both display low birefringence and high relief.
Composition
Alforsite's ideal chemical formula is Ba5(PO3)4Cl. Chemical analysis of the composition of alfrosite was demonstrated by the use of an Ortex current digitizer and an electron microbe. Synthetic barium chlorapatite, strontianite, and fluorapatite were used as standards for the elements they contain. The chemical analysis revealed that traces of Mn, S, Si, and Pb were present and provided computational formulas of (Ba4.68Sr0.19Ca0.13)(P2.98Si0.01)O11.96(Cl0.99F0.05) and (Ba4.05Ca0.75Sr0.24Pb0.03)(P2.94Si0.01)O11.93(Cl0.93F0.14).
Structure
Alforsite exhibits Lau symmetry 6/m. It is concluded that the space group is P63/m because every single apatite compound possess that space group. The parameters of the unit cell are a=10.25 Å and c=7.64 Å. One barium atom in the unit cell is enclosed by nine oxygen atoms with a mean distance of 2.824 Å. Another barium atom is surrounded by six oxygen atoms with a mean distance of 2.791 Å and 3.230 Å, which creates two crystallographically distinctive barium atoms. The phosphate group in alforsite forms a regular tetrahedron.
Geologic occurrence
It is found crystallizing in the massive metasedimentary rock, sanbornite, which is found near granodiorite intrusions in Fresno and Mariposa counties, California. John T. Alfors’ colleagues named the mineral in his honor for his works with rare barium minerals of the sanbornite deposits.
Alforsite was first discovered in samples from the Big Creek locality. Electron microprobe analysis of a thin-section of the sample from Big Creek revealed the new mineral, which resembled ordinary apatite. Rare barium minerals, mainly silicates, can be uncovered in sanbornite deposits of eastern Fresno and Mariposa counties, California. Alforsite is found in metamorphic sanbornite quartz, which occurs within a few hundred meters of granodiorite intrusions, and foliated quartzite. Gneissic banded rocks contain the mineral, which has been shown to be associated with witherite, sanbornite, and celsian in samples (with quartz-rich and gillespite-rich bands) from Incline. In order for the witherite- sanbornite-quartz to be stable, temperatures of 500 °C to 600 °C and pressures of 1-3 kbar are required.
Special characteristics
Synthetic alforsite has environmental importance because it may be used to replicate contamination by lead without the harmful effects of lead toxicity. For this reason, remediation of metal in soil can be practiced. Synthetic alforsite is prepared in a laboratory and mixed with soil to create a polluted soil, and then is treated with a mixture of salt and ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and maintained at a pH level of nine for two weeks.
Physical properties
Alforsite occurs as colorless, minuscule subhedral grains with a diameter less than 0.05 mm. However, on rare occasions, it can crystallize to a diameter up to 0.2 mm. Minerals that belong to different groups, such as silicates, and sulfates exhibit the structural typology of apatite. This can pose problems and confusion because alforsite bears an almost exact resemblance to other barium silicates, which exemplifies its group Greek name, apatao, meaning, “I am misleading”. The only way to differentiate alforsite from other barium minerals is through microchemical analysis (Walstrom and Leising, 2005). This misleading mineral emulates the physical and structural features of apatite and is analogously similar to chlorapatite, providing alfrosite with the alternate name, barium chlorapatite. Alforsite has a low birefringence and a high relief resembling fluorapatite in thin-section. A reddish-violet cathodoluminescence appears on thin-section showing major levels of chlorine, phosphorus, and barium.
Alforsite can be recognized by electron microprobe analysis or by intense violet fluorescence in the 10-15 kV electron beam of a luminoscope
Origin of the name
The mineral Alforsite was named for John T. Alfors in recognition of his extensive research of the type locality of barium minerals and other related rare and new minerals. John T. Alfors was a highly regarded geologist and mineralogist who worked for the state Division of Mines and Geology in California.
References
External links
Euromin
California Geological Survey
John T. Alfors obituary (CGS)
Phosphate minerals
Hexagonal minerals
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254397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria%20II%20of%20Portugal | Maria II of Portugal | Dona Maria II (4 April 1819 – 15 November 1853) "the Educator" () or "the Good Mother" (), reigned as Queen of Portugal from 1826 to 1828, and again from 1834 to 1853. Born in Rio de Janeiro, she was the first child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina, and thus a member of the House of Braganza. One of the two surviving children born when Pedro was still heir apparent to Portugal, she inherited Portuguese titles and was placed in the line of succession to the former Portuguese throne, even after becoming a member of the Brazilian Imperial Family, from which she was excluded in 1835 after her definitive ascension to the Portuguese throne.
Early life
Birth
Maria II was born Maria da Glória Joana Carlota Leopoldina da Cruz Francisca Xavier de Paula Isidora Micaela Gabriela Rafaela Gonzaga on 4 April 1819 in the Palace of São Cristóvão in Rio de Janeiro, Kingdom of Brazil. She was the eldest daughter of Prince Dom Pedro de Alcântara, future King of Portugal as Pedro IV and first Emperor of Brazil as Pedro I, and his first wife Dona Maria Leopoldina (née Archduchess Caroline Josepha Leopoldine of Austria), herself a daughter of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. She was titled Princess of Beira upon her birth. Born in Brazil, Maria was the only European monarch to have been born outside of Europe, though she was still born in Portuguese territory.
Succession crisis
The death of Maria's grandfather, King Dom João VI, in March 1826 sparked a succession crisis in Portugal. The king had a male heir, Dom Pedro, but Pedro had proclaimed the independence of Brazil in 1822 with himself as Emperor. The late king also had a younger son, Infante Dom Miguel, but he was exiled to Austria after leading a number of revolutions against his father and his liberal regime.
Before his death, the king had nominated his favourite daughter, Dona Isabel Maria, to serve as regent until "the legitimate heir returned to the kingdom" — but he had failed to specify which of his sons was the legitimate heir: the liberal Emperor Dom Pedro I or the absolutist, exiled Miguel.
Most people considered Pedro to be the legitimate heir, but Brazil did not want him to unite Portugal and Brazil's thrones again. Aware that his brother's supporters were ready to bring Miguel back and put him on the throne, Pedro decided for a more consensual option: he would renounce his claim to the Portuguese throne in favour of his daughter Maria (who was only seven years old), and that she was to marry her uncle Miguel, who would accept the liberal constitution and act as a regent until his niece reached the age of majority.
Miguel pretended to accept, but upon his arrival in Portugal, he immediately deposed Maria and proclaimed himself king, abrogating the liberal constitution in the process. During his reign, Maria traveled to many European courts, including her maternal grandfather's in Vienna, as well as London and Paris.
Absolutist uprising
Maria's first reign was interrupted by the absolutist uprising led by her uncle, fiancé and regent Miguel, who proclaimed himself King of Portugal on 23 June 1828. Then began the Liberal Wars that lasted until 1834, the year in which Maria was restored to the throne and Miguel exiled to Germany.
The Marquis of Barbacena, arriving in Gibraltar with the princess on 3 September 1828, was informed by an emissary of what was happening in Portugal. He had the foresight to understand that Miguel had come from Vienna determined to put himself at the head of the absolutist movement, advised by Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was directing European politics, and so it was dangerous for the young Queen to go to Vienna. Taking responsibility, he changed the direction of the journey, and departed for London, where he arrived on 7 October. English policy was not conducive to its purpose. The Duke of Wellington's office openly sponsored Miguel, so the asylum the Marquis had sought was not safe. Maria II was received in court with the honors due to her high rank, but the British prevented their subjects or Portuguese emigres to go to reinforce the garrison of the island Terceira.
Miguel's coup d'état had not gone unopposed. On 16 May 1828, the garrison of Porto revolted, and in Lagos an infantry battalion. The revolts were stifled. Saldanha, Palmela, and others, who had come to take charge of the movement in Porto, re-embarked on the shipBelfast , which had brought them; the Porto garrison, reinforced by the academic volunteers of Coimbra and other liberal troops, emigrated to Galiza and from there to England. At the head of a small liberal expedition, the Marquis of Saldanha attempted to disembark in Terceira, Azores, but was not allowed to take the English cruise, whose vigilance he could not avoid for some time after the Count of Vila Flor, later of Terceira, was able to disembark. In time, because in August 1829 appeared in front of the island a huge Miguelist squadron that landed a body of disembarkation. Then there was the Battle of 11 August in the village of Praia, where the Miguelists were defeated. When the emigrants in England received the news of the victory, they felt great enthusiasm. They soon lost hope of knowing that the young queen was returning to the Brazilian Empire to her father. In fact, the situation of Maria II in the English court, next to the ministry in the power, became embarrassing and humiliating. The Queen left London to meet her future stepmother, Amélie of Leuchtenberg. They left together on 30 August 1829 for Rio de Janeiro, arriving on 16 October.
The constitutional cause was thought to have been lost. The dispersed emigres (France, England and Brazil) were divided into rival factions. Only Terceira Island recognized the constitutional principles, and even there appeared Miguelist guerillas. France was ready to recognize Miguel's government when the revolution of July broke out in Paris in 1830, which encouraged the Portuguese liberals.
Civil War
In 7 April 1831, Dom Pedro I abdicated the imperial crown of Brazil on behalf of his son Dom Pedro II, Maria's younger brother, and came to Europe with his daughter and his second wife, to support his daughter's rights to the crown from Portugal and joined the forces loyal to Maria in the Azores in their war against Miguel. He took the title of Duke of Braganza, and Regent in her name.
Almost at the same time the regency of the Ilha Terceira, named by Pedro and composed of the Marquis of Palmela, the Count of Vila Flor and José António Guerreiro, prepared an expedition that soon took possession of the Azores. While extending the constitutional territory, Pedro disembarked in France, being welcomed with sympathy by the new government and by Louis Philippe I. Miguel's government had defied the immunities of French subjects, had not at once satisfied the complaints of the French government, which had sent a squadron commanded by Admiral Roussin to force the bar of Lisbon and impose humiliating conditions of peace.
Pedro left his daughter in Paris to finish her education, delivered to her stepmother, Empress Amélie, with good masters, and left for the Azores at the head of an expedition organized on the island of Belle Isle, bringing his supporters together. Arriving in the Azores on 3 March 1832, he formed a new ministry, assembled a small army, whose command he gave to the Count of Vila Flor, and carried him aboard a squadron which he delivered to the English officer Sartorius, and departed for mainland Portugal. 8 July at Memória Beach in Matosinhos. It was followed by the Siege of Porto and a series of battles until, on 24 July 1833, the Duke of Terceira entered victorious in Lisbon, having won the Battle of Cova da Piedade the day before. Porto and Lisbon, the main cities, were in the power of the liberals. Pedro came to Lisbon, and summoned his daughter from Paris, forcing his brother, Miguel to abdicate in 1834. Maria was thereupon restored to the throne, and obtained an annulment of her betrothal. Soon after her restoration to the throne, her father died from tuberculosis.
On 7 February 1833, in order to protect the Queen, the 2nd Lancers Regiment was created, first known as the Regimento de Lanceiros da Rainha (Queen's Lancers Regiment), with the motto Morte ou Glória, "Death or Glory" (the same as the 17th Lancers, since Lt. Col. Sir Anthony Bacon was its first commander), a fortunate coincidence since the queen's name was Maria da Glória.
Occupying the Portuguese throne, Maria II was still heir presumptive to her brother Pedro II as Princess Imperial of Brazil, until her exclusion from the Brazilian line of succession by law no. 91 of 30 October 1835.
Consolidation
Reign
Maria married Auguste, Duke of Leuchtenberg, son of Eugène de Beauharnais and grandson of the Empress Josephine of France, on 26 January 1835, at the age of fifteen. However, he died only two months later, on 28 March 1835.
On 9 April 1836, Maria married the cultured and able Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. In accordance with Portuguese law, he was proclaimed King Dom Fernando II upon the birth of their first child and heir, Pedro.
In 1842, Pope Gregory XVI presented Maria with a Golden Rose.
Maria's reign saw a revolutionary insurrection on 16 May 1846, but this was crushed by royalist troops on 22 February 1847, and Portugal otherwise avoided the European Revolution of 1848. Maria's reign was also notable for a public health act aimed at curbing the spread of cholera throughout the country. She also pursued policies aimed at raising the levels of education throughout the country.
Death
From her first pregnancy at the age of eighteen, Maria II faced problems in giving birth, with prolonged and extremely difficult labor. An example of this was her third gestation, whose labor lasted 32 hours, after which a girl was baptized in articulo mortis with the name of Maria (1840).
At 25 years of age and in her fifth gestation, Maria II became obese and her births became even more complicated. In 1847, the fetal distress that preceded the birth of her eighth child – the Infante Augusto, Duke of Coimbra – brought to the world a child "quite purple and with little breathing".
The dangerous routine of successive pregnancies, coupled with obesity (which eventually caused her heart problems) and the frequency of dystocic births (worrisome, especially as a multiparous woman) led doctors to warn the queen about the serious risks she would face in future pregnancies. Indifferent to the warnings, Maria II merely replied: "If I die, I die at my post."
On 15 November 1853, thirteen hours after the onset of labor of the stillborn infant Eugénio, her eleventh child, Maria II died at the age of 34. The announcement of death was published in the Government Gazette of 16 November 1853:
In a letter dated 28 November 1853, the Duchess of Ficalho, the queen's lady-in-waiting, reported the outcome to her brother, the 2nd Count of Lavradio:
Queen Maria II is remembered as a good mother and a kind person who always acted according to her convictions in her attempt to help her country. She was later given the nickname "The Good Mother."
Marriages and issue
Maria first married Auguste Charles, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg, son of Eugène de Beauharnais, grandson of Empress Josephine, who died soon after arriving in Portugal.
She then married Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, son of Prince Ferdinand Georg August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and his wife Princess Maria Antonia Koháry de Csábrág.
Honours
National honours
Grand Master of the Three Orders
Grand Master of the Order of the Tower and Sword
Grand Master of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
Sovereign and Grand Mistress of the Order of Saint Isabel
: Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Southern Cross
Foreign honours
: Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross, 1st Class
: Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of Saint Catherine, September 1850
: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 27 May 1834
: Knight of the Order of Order of Saint Januarius
: Bailiff Knight Grand Cross with Collar of Justice of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George
Ancestry
In Literature
In 1832, Letitia Elizabeth Landon published The Queen of Portugal, a poem protesting at her banishment and offering sympathy and hope for a peaceful restoration.
See also
Belenzada
War of the Two Brothers
September Revolution
Footnotes
References
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1819 births
1853 deaths
Portuguese royalty
Queens regnant
Dukes of Braganza
Brazilian people of Portuguese descent
Brazilian people of Austrian descent
Deaths in childbirth
Modern child rulers
Portuguese infantas
Princesses Imperial of Brazil
Princesses of Grão-Pará
Princes of Beira
Dukes of Porto
House of Braganza
Princesses of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
People from Rio de Janeiro (city)
19th-century Portuguese monarchs
19th-century women rulers
Duchesses of Leuchtenberg
People of the Liberal Wars
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel
3
3
3
Daughters of emperors
Burials at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora | [
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254399 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bougainville%20Island | Bougainville Island | Bougainville Island (Tok Pisin: Bogenvil) is the main island of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, which is part of Papua New Guinea. It was previously the main landmass in the German Empire-associated North Solomons. Its land area is . The population of the whole province, including nearby islets such as the Carterets, is approximately 300,000 (2019 census). The highest point is Mount Balbi, on the main island, at . The much-smaller Buka Island, , lies to the north, across the wide Buka Strait. Even though the strait is narrow, there is no bridge across it, but there is a regular ferry service between the key settlements on either side. The main airport (or airstrip) in the north is in the town of Buka.
Bougainville is the largest island in the Solomon Islands archipelago. Most of the islands in this archipelago (which are primarily concentrated in the southern and eastern portions of it) are part of the politically independent Solomon Islands. Two of these islands - the closely connected Shortland Islands - are less than south or southeast of Bougainville, and about west of Choiseul, one of the settlements of which, Poroporo, faces Bougainville.
Buka has an outcropping that is from New Ireland. Among the large islands of Papua New Guinea, New Ireland is the closest to Buka.
The Autonomous Region of Bougainville is scheduled to gain independence from Papua New Guinea by 2027.
History
Bougainville was first settled some 8,000 years ago. Three to four thousand years ago, Austronesian people arrived, bringing with them domesticated pigs, chickens, dogs, and obsidian tools. The first European contact with Bougainville was in 1768, when the French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville arrived and named the main island after himself.
British and American whaling ships visited the island for provisions, water and wood in the 19th century. The first on record was the Roscoe in 1822, and the last was Palmetto in 1881.
The German Empire laid claim to Bougainville in 1899, annexing it into German New Guinea. Christian missionaries arrived on the island in 1902.
During World War I, Australia occupied German New Guinea, including Bougainville. It became part of the Australian Territory of New Guinea under a League of Nations mandate in 1920.
In 1942, during World War II, Japan invaded the island, but allied forces launched the Bougainville campaign to regain control of the island in 1943. Despite heavy bombardments, the Japanese garrisons remained on the island until 1945. Following the war, the Territory of New Guinea, including Bougainville, returned to Australian control.
It was on Bougainville Island, on April 18, 1943, during the Pacific War, that the Japanese admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who was the commander-in-chief of Japan’s Combined Fleet, died after his plane was attacked by US fighter planes and crashed into the jungle.
In 1949 the Territory of New Guinea, including Bougainville, merged with the Australian Territory of Papua, forming the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, a United Nations Trust Territory under Australian administration.
On 9 September 1975, the Parliament of Australia passed the Papua New Guinea Independence Act 1975. The Act set 16 September 1975 as date of independence and terminated all remaining sovereign and legislative powers of Australia over the territory. Bougainville was to become part of an independent Papua New Guinea. However, on 11 September 1975, in a failed bid for self-determination, Bougainville declared itself the Republic of the North Solomons. The republic failed to achieve any international recognition, and a settlement was reached in August 1976. Bougainville was then absorbed politically into Papua New Guinea with increased self-governance powers.
Between 1988 and 1998, the Bougainville Civil War claimed over 15,000 lives. Peace talks brokered by New Zealand began in 1997 and led to autonomy. A multinational Peace Monitoring Group (PMG) under Australian leadership was deployed. In 2001, a peace agreement was signed including promise of a referendum on independence from Papua New Guinea. This referendum was held between 23 November and 7 December 2019, with results being declared on 11 December. The referendum question was a choice between greater autonomy within Papua New Guinea, or full independence. Of the valid votes, 98.31% were in favour of full Independence. The vote is not binding; the Government of Papua New Guinea has the final say on the status of Bougainville.
Geography
Bougainville is the largest island in the Solomon Islands archipelago. It is part of the Solomon Islands rain forests ecoregion. Bougainville and the nearby island of Buka, are a single landmass separated by a deep wide strait. The island has an area of , and there are several active, dormant or inactive volcanoes which rise to . Bagana () in the north central part of Bougainville is conspicuously active, spewing out smoke that is visible for many kilometres. Earthquakes are frequent, but cause little damage.
Ecology
Bougainville Island is primarily forested with a diverse tropical ecosystem. Copper mining on the island by a Rio Tinto-owned mining operation caused significant detriment to the immediate and downstream ecology from the destruction of forest and heavy metal contaminated mine tailings, resulting in an uprising by the islanders to protect their land and native ecology. More recently, deforestation in order to feed the growing population has affected the flow of many rivers on the island. The United Nations Environmental Program has offered to facilitate the clean up of the Rio Tinto-owned Panguna mine and explore reopening the mine with more stringent environmental standards.
Climate
Economy
Bougainville has one of the world's largest copper deposits, which has been under development since 1972, but was shut down in a popular revolution against the foreign-owned mining interests. Due to a seven-year blockade of the island by the Papua New Guinean Army during the Coconut Revolution, the island was cut off from the outside world. This pressure forced the islanders to develop self-sustaining systems from salvaged parts and foraged resources, including village-scale hydropower, coconut bio-diesel, diversified forest-garden farms, and neo-traditional herbal medicine. These innovations were a major focus of the documentary film The Coconut Revolution.
Demographics
Religion
The majority of people on Bougainville are Christian, an estimated 70% being Roman Catholic and a substantial minority United Church of Papua New Guinea since 1968. Few non-natives remain as most were evacuated following the civil wars.
Languages
There are many indigenous languages in Bougainville Province, belonging to three language families. The languages of the northern end of the island, and some scattered around the coast, belong to the Austronesian family. The languages of the north-central and southern lobes of Bougainville Island belong to the North and South Bougainville families.
The most widely spoken Austronesian language is Halia and its dialects, spoken in the island of Buka and the Selau peninsula of Northern Bougainville. Other Austronesian languages include Nehan, Petats, Solos, Saposa (Taiof), Hahon and Tinputz, all spoken in the northern quarter of Bougainville, Buka and surrounding islands. These languages are closely related. Bannoni and Torau are Austronesian languages not closely related to the former, which are spoken in the coastal areas of central and south Bougainville. On the nearby Takuu Atoll a Polynesian language is spoken, Takuu.
The Papuan languages are confined to the main island of Bougainville. These include Rotokas, a language with a very small inventory of phonemes, Eivo, Terei, Keriaka, Naasioi (Kieta), Nagovisi, Siwai (Motuna), Baitsi (sometimes considered a dialect of Siwai), Uisai and several others. These constitute two language families, North Bougainville and South Bougainville.
None of the languages are spoken by more than 20% of the population, and the larger languages such as Nasioi, Korokoro Motuna, Telei, and Halia are split into dialects that are not always mutually understandable. For general communication most Bougainvilleans use Tok Pisin as a lingua franca, and at least in the coastal areas Tok Pisin is often learned by children in a bilingual environment. English and Tok Pisin are the languages of official business and government.
Human rights
Cut off from the outside world for several years by a Papua New Guinean blockade during the Coconut Revolution, the islanders suffered many deaths from a lack of medical resources.
A 2013 United Nations survey of 843 men found that 62% (530 respondents) of those have raped a woman or girl at least once, with 41% (217 respondents) of the men reported having raped a non-partner, whereas 14% (74 respondents) reported having committed gang rape. Additionally, the survey also found that 8% (67 respondents) of the men had raped other men or boys.
Popular culture
The Coconut Revolution, a documentary about the struggle of the indigenous population to save their island from environmental destruction and gain independence, was made in 1999.
An Evergreen Island (2000), a film by Australian documentary filmmakers Amanda King and Fabio Cavadini of Frontyard Films, showed the ingenuity with which the Bougainvillean people survived for almost a decade (1989-1997) without trade or contact with the outside world, because of a trade dispute.
Mr. Pip (2012) is a film by New Zealand director Andrew Adamson based on the book Mister Pip by Lloyd Jones.
Independence referendum
In late November 2019 a non-binding referendum was held to decide whether Bougainville should be a sovereign state independent from Papua New Guinea. The result was overwhelmingly in favour of sovereignty for the island, with 98% of the votes supporting secession. The Papua New Guinea government and Bougainville have agreed to give the region full independence in 2027.
See also
Battle of Empress Augusta Bay
Bougainville campaign
Bougainville Copper
Bougainville Revolutionary Army
Bougainvillea
The Bougainville Photoplay Project
Empress Augusta Bay
Francis Ona
List of birds of the Solomon Islands archipelago
North Solomon Islands
Solomon Archipelago
References
Bibliography
Hobbs, J. (2017). Fundamentals of World Regional Geography (4th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts.
Further reading
Robert Young Pelton, Hunter Hammer and Heaven, Journeys to Three Worlds Gone Mad.
Islands of Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands (archipelago)
.
1899 establishments in German New Guinea
1919 disestablishments in German New Guinea
1943 establishments in Australia
1975 disestablishments in Australia
1975 establishments in Papua New Guinea
Copper mines in Papua New Guinea | [
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254402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel%20I%20of%20Portugal | Miguel I of Portugal | Dom Miguel I (; English: Michael I; 26 October 1802 – 14 November 1866), nicknamed "the Absolutist" (), "the Traditionalist" () and "the Usurper" (), was the King of Portugal between 1828 and 1834, the seventh child and third son of King John VI and his queen, Carlota Joaquina of Spain.
Following his exile as a result of his actions in support of absolutism in the April Revolt (Abrilada), Miguel returned to Portugal as regent and fiancé of his niece Queen Maria II. As regent, he claimed the Portuguese throne in his own right, since according to the so-called Fundamental Laws of the Kingdom his older brother Peter IV and therefore the latter's daughter had lost their rights from the moment that Pedro had made war on Portugal and become the sovereign of a foreign state (Brazilian Empire). This led to a difficult political situation, during which many people were killed, imprisoned, persecuted or sent into exile, and which culminated in the Portuguese Liberal Wars between authoritarian absolutists and progressive constitutionalists. In the end Miguel was forced from the throne and lived the last 32 years of his life in exile.
In order to counter the Republican opposition from the Portuguese Freemasons, the dynastic order known as Order of Saint Michael of the Wing was revived in 1848, with statutes issued by King Miguel I of Portugal.
Early life
Miguel Maria do Patrocinio de Bragança e Bourbon, the third (second surviving) son of King John VI and Carlota Joaquina, was born in the Queluz Royal Palace, Lisbon, and was created by his father Duke of Beja. Some sources have suggested that Miguel I could be the illegitimate son from an adulterous affair between his mother, Queen Carlota, and one of her alleged lovers, possibly D. Pedro José Joaquim Vito de Meneses Coutinho, Marquis of Marialva. Apparently sources close to King John VI confirmed as much by asserting that he had not had sexual relations with his wife for two and a half years prior to Miguel's birth (a period when his parents carried out a conjugal war, during which they were involved in permanent conspiracies, and only encountered each other in rare official circumstances).
But despite the gossip, Miguel was always considered to be a son of the king, by the king, by his mother, by the rest of the family, by the court, and by the church. The "illegitimate child" theories may have had their origins in the writings of pro-liberal propagandists or royalists who wanted to denigrate the queen and undermine the claims of Miguel and of his descendants to the Portuguese throne.
What is clear is that Miguel was the queen's favourite child. After the death of her firstborn, it was Miguel who received most of her attention, rather than Pedro, who was closer to his father.
In 1807, at the age of 5, Miguel accompanied the Portuguese Royal Family on their transfer to Brazil in order to escape from the first Napoleonic invasion of Portugal; he returned in 1821 with John VI and his mother, while his brother Peter remained behind as regent of Brazil.
Miguel was a mischievous child, sometimes seen in the miniature uniform of a general. At sixteen he was seen galloping around Mata-Carvalos, knocking off the hats of passers-by with his riding crop. He spent most of his time with a rowdy band of half-caste or Indian farm-hands. In general, Miguel was spoiled by the queen and her royal household, and clearly influenced by the base tendencies of others. The Duke of Palmela described him as:
"A good man when among good men, and when among the bad, worse than they."
Revolt
Miguel was an avowed conservative and admirer of Prince Metternich, who had referred to the liberal revolutions in the 1820s as unrealistic and without any historical roots:
"A people who can neither read nor write, whose last word is the dagger — fine material for constitutional principles!...The English constitution is the work of centuries....There is no universal recipe for constitutions."
Miguel was 20 years old when he first challenged the liberal institutions established after the 1820 revolution, which may have been part of a wider strategy by the queen. He was at the head of the counter-revolution of 1823, known as the Vilafrancada, which erupted on May 27, 1823, in Vila Franca de Xira. Early in the day, Miguel joined the 23rd Infantry Regiment, commanded by Brigadier Ferreira Sampaio (later Viscount of Santa Mónica) in Vila Franca, where he declared his support for an absolutist monarchy. He immediately called on General Pampluna (later Marquis of Subserra) to join him and his cause. The general, not a fan of the liberal constitution, obeyed his summons and within five days he controlled the insurrectionary forces. The prince, supported by the queen, went so far as to demand the abdication of the king, who, faithful to his earlier oath, wanted to maintain the 1822 Constitution, despite the growing support for absolutist forces in Vila Franca.
Miguel and the queen were interested in overthrowing the parliamentary system and, inspired by the return of the absolutist monarchy in Spain (where the Holy Alliance and French Army had intervened to destroy the liberal forces there) they exploited factionalism and plotted with outside reactionaries to overthrow the liberal Cortes. But General Pampluna was loyal to the king, and made it perfectly clear that he would do nothing to defy the monarch, and advised the prince to obey his father's summons. The king himself marched on Vila Franca where he received the submission of the troops and his son. But he also took advantage of the situation to abolish the 1822 Constitution and dismiss the Cortes. Many liberals went into exile. Although Miguel returned to Lisbon in triumph, the king was able to maintain complete control of power and did not succumb to the ultra-reactionary forces that supported his abdication.
After the events of the Vilafrancada, Miguel was made Count of Samora Correia and appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Army. But the queen could not tolerate the king's continuing benevolence towards liberals and moderates, nor that he continued to be influenced by and to support ministers such as Palmela and Pamplona, who were more moderate in their outlook.
The mysterious death of the Marquis de Loulé in Salvaterra on February 28, 1824, in which it was suspected that Miguel or his friends were involved, was a symptom of the instability of the period. Prince Miguel was always influenced by his mother; and two months later, on April 30, 1824, as Commander-in-Chief of the Army he gathered his troops and ordered them to arrest ministers and other important people under pretext that a masonic conspiracy to assassinate the king existed, and placed his father in protective custody and incommunicado at Bemposta, where Miguel could "defend and secure his life". The Abrilada, as this was to be known, worried many of the foreign powers. The foreign diplomatic corp (and in particular Marshal Beresford), realizing that the king was a prisoner of his son, traveled to Bemposta and was able to ferry the king away and on board a British warship, the Windsor Castle. On board, the king summoned his son, whom he dismissed as Commander-in-Chief of the Army, and immediately exiling him to Vienna, where he remained for over three years.
Exile and return
While in Vienna, he was a guest and friend of the Prince Metternich.
Meanwhile, on March 10, 1826, his father, King John VI, died and his brother Peter, the heir-apparent to the throne, became king as Peter IV. Peter, however, was committed to continuing as Emperor of Brazil and therefore abdicated the crown of Portugal after two months (on May 2) in favor of his daughter, Maria II. Since the young sovereign was not yet of age, he instituted a regency, under his sister, Isabel Maria. Peter had already attempted to coerce Miguel to Brazil (1822) away from their mother without any success. Following the death of their father, Peter once again attempted to mend fences within the family and ensure Maria II's right to the throne by offering Miguel the regency of Portugal (when he became 25) under a new liberal Constitutional Charter that would re-establish a constitutional monarchy. Under this arrangement, Queen Maria II and Miguel would be married when she came of age; until then Miguel would be her regent in Portugal. The new Constitutional Charter gave the crown moderating authority between the legislative, executive and judiciary, and introduced a 100-member Chamber of Peers (which included aristocrats and bishops and archbishops), a royal veto and indirect elections. Miguel accepted the proposal from his brother, swore to uphold the Constitutional Charter and, since the young Queen was only nine years old, waited until she would reach the age of marriage.
The regency under Isabel Maria was extremely unstable; discord reigned in the government, there were divisions within the municipal councils, rivalries between ministers and at one point, after the resignation of General Saldanha, a revolt in Lisbon. With Isabel Maria dangerously ill, Peter resolved to entrust his brother Miguel with the kingdom, which Miguel was only too eager to accept. A decree was promulgated on July 3, 1827, that granted Miguel his new role, and he departed from Vienna for Lisbon.
On the trip back to Lisbon he stopped in England, arriving on December 30, 1827. He was met by the Duke of Clarence, heir-presumptive to the British throne, and by other upper members of the English Court who had gathered at the dock to meet him. Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, then leading an unpopular Tory government, hoped that they could mold Miguel into accepting the constitutional framework that Peter IV had devised, and used this visit to facilitate the transition. After lunching at the Hospital Governor's home, he traveled to London with his entourage in regal carriages and, escorted by cavalry officers, to the Palace of Westminster where he was met by a throng of people. While in London he stayed at the palace of Lord Dudley, on Arlington Street where he entertained his new friends; he was received by the ministers, ambassadors and municipal officials of King George IV, and was generally feted by English nobility, attending concerts and pheasant hunts, and visiting public works (such as the Thames Tunnel which was then under construction and, ironically, collapsed after his visit). On New Year's Eve he visited the King at Windsor Castle and was honored with a magnificent banquet. Later at Rutland House, Miguel received members of the Portuguese diaspora living in England, who presented him with a commemorative medallion. Throughout his visit he was generally well received.
Regent
On January 13, 1828, Miguel departed London; after spending some time at Stratfield Saye, the country home of the Duke of Wellington, he travelled to Plymouth en route to Lisbon. Due to bad weather, he was only able to transfer to the Portuguese frigate Pérola on February 9, which arrived in England accompanied by two British ships. On January 22, the Gazeta de Lisboa (English: Lisbon Gazette) published an open letter from the Ministério da Justiça (English: Ministry of Justice) which permitted any general demonstrations of jubilation (unless otherwise prohibited by law). The prince's ship arrived in Lisbon on February 22 and was met by cannon salvos from ships along the Tagus River and from the hilltops, beginning at two in the afternoon. The river was filled with ships when the Pérola arrived.
Although it was expected that the new regent would disembark at the Praça do Comércio, where a stage had been constructed, Miguel preferred to disembark in Belém. It is believed that Miguel's mother had sent a boatman to pick up the prince and with a message to see her upon arriving in Lisbon, in order to tell her where his loyalties lay. On shore the local population acclaimed their regent with cheers, while bells rang from some church towers and cheerful hymns were sung in the streets. There was a triumphal march to the Ajuda Palace, along streets adorned with silk banners, while the ladies of the city threw flowers. Everywhere there was a multitude of citizenry yelling "Viva o Senhor D. Miguel I nosso rei absoluto" (), while some interjecting cries of "death to D. Pedro" and "death to the liberal constitution".
But Miguel's role was clearly delineated by his first night in Lisbon: he would govern as regent in the name of the rightful sovereign of Portugal, Queen Maria II. On her reaching marriageable age, Miguel would be her consort. Furthermore, Miguel was obliged to govern in conformity with Peter's Constitutional Charter, something he accepted as a condition of the regency (even if he did not agree with its principles and favoured an absolute monarchy instead).
On February 26, in the main hall of the Ajuda Palace in the presence of both Chambers of the Cortes, the Royal Court and the diplomatic corp, as well as some of the Prince's colleagues from Brazil (carefully orchestrated by the Queen Dowager), the investiture began. At one o'clock Miguel, along with his sister, Isabel Maria, entered the chamber to formally hand over the Regency. After the spectacle of both of them in the same chair, the princess delivered the transitional oath and then left gracefully. Miguel was presented with the written oath to defend the Constitutional Charter along with a Bible, which caused him "...confusion and [he] seemed unable or unwilling to read it." It is also unclear whether he actually swore the oath, since there was no distinct enunciation of the words; nor did any one actually see him kiss the missal (since the Duke of Cadaval obscured the prince during this part of the ceremony). Lord Carnarvon, in Lisbon at the time of the ceremony, wrote of the conclusion of the scene:
"During the whole proceeding...his countenance was overcast, and he had the constrained manner of a most unwilling actor in an embarrassing part. I read the approaching fate of the Constitution in his sullen expression, in the imperfect manner in which the oath was administered, and in the strange and general appearance of hurry and concealment."
On March 1 some citizens of Lisbon gathered at the palace to acclaim Miguel "Absolute King", infuriating many of the liberal politicians and residents. Invested in his new title of regent, he presented his Ministers of State in the evening: Nuno III Álvares Pereira de Melo (Duke of Cadaval), José António de Oliveira Leite de Barros (later Count of Basto), Furtado do Rio de Mendonça (7th Viscount of Barbacena & 2nd Count of Barbacena), José Luis de Sousa Botelho Mourão e Vasconcelos (Count of Vila Real) and the Count of Lousã. Within a week numerous moderate army officers had been dismissed and the military governors of the provinces replaced, as the Prince and Queen Dowager "cleaned house" of their old enemies and liberalist sympathizers.
King of Portugal
On March 13, 1828, Miguel dissolved the Cortes without calling new elections, as stipulated in the Constitutional Charter. Some municipal councils, many nobles and clergy, and several important citizens requested that the regent revoke the Constitutional Charter and reign as king. Blood was first spilled by the liberals, when delegates from the University of Coimbra (who ostensibly traveled to Lisbon to present their compliments to Miguel) were murdered on March 18 by hot-headed Coimbran students. On April 25, the senate (of the university), issued a proclamation in which they requested that Miguel assume the throne. This only fueled the divisions between liberals and absolutists. Because of the independence of Brazil, Miguel's supporters considered Miguel to be the legitimate heir to the crown of Portugal. If, to liberals, the name of Miguel was despised, to the legitimists (the absolutists) it was venerated. But Miguel's reign was immediately marked by cruel, almost tyrannical, governance which some attribute to him personally; however some blame the injustices on his subordinates, while others attribute them to the malevolence of Queen Charlotte.
On May 3, 1828, the very nobles who had been nominated by Peter to the new Chamber of Peers met in the Palace of the Duke of Lafões, and invited Miguel to convoke a new cortes consisting of the Three Estates with a view to deciding the legitimate succession to the throne. Such a cortes met in June at Ajuda, where the Bishop of Viseu proposed that Miguel should assume the crown since "...the hand of the Almighty led Your Majesty from the banks of the Danube to the shore of the Tagus to save his people...". On July 7 Miguel was acclaimed as absolute ruler, and on July 15 the Three Estate Cortes closed.
Shortly afterwards the military garrison in Oporto revolted, formed a provisional governmental junta, and marched on Coimbra to defend the liberal cause. But the general in command of these troops was indecisive, and Miguel was able to raise his own troops, create a battalion of volunteers and blockade Oporto. In Lagos a similar revolt was attempted, but immediately quashed when the liberal General Saraiva was shot by the Miguelist General Póvoas. On this occasion, João Carlos Saldanha (later Duke of Saldanha) and Pedro de Sousa Holstein (later 1st Duke of Palmela), who had arrived from England on board the British ship Belfast in order to lead constitutional forces, quickly re-embarked, judging the liberal cause lost. The liberal army escaped to deplorable conditions in Galicia where they awaited the next move. In the former regency's court there were few strong supporters of a constitutional monarchy; Princess Isabella Maria was supported by weak-willed ministers or incompetents and was personally too timid to stand up to Miguel. The liberals and their supporters escaped into exile. All of Portugal recognized the sovereignty of the monarch, except the islands of Madeira and Terceira; Madeira was easily subjugated, but Terceira remained faithful to the liberal cause.
The excess zeal of his supporters to prosecute the liberals would blacken the reputation of Miguel's regime. During the liberal insurrection on March 6, 1829, in Cais do Sodré, Brigadier Moreira, his officers and their supporters were all bayoneted. On May 7, the members of the rebel garrison of Oporto who had revolted were also executed. In some cases, the local population contributed to these horrors and reprisals, as in Vila Franca da Xira where they assassinated 70 people believed to have liberal sympathies. Although these actions were disapproved of by many of Miguel's ministers, the Count of Basto was not one of them. Even the Viscount of Queluz, a medic and intimate friend of the Miguel, was exiled to Alfeite for joining the chorus of those who challenged the reprisal killings. But the Queen Mother continued to support the attacks on liberals, and motivated these actions in order to strengthen the monarchy. Even after she died on 7 January 1830, many atrocities continued to be committed in the name of Miguel, some against foreign nationals who intervened in the politics of Portugal.
While Spain, The Holy See, and the United States recognized Miguel as king, in England and France there was little public support for the regime. The imprudence that the Miguelist government showed in harassing English and French foreign nationals provoked them to protest. Eventually Admiral Albin Roussin, was ordered by Louis Philippe I (who, like England, could not obtain any diplomatic satisfaction), to take action; he sailed up the Tagus, captured eight Portuguese ships and forcibly imposed a treaty (July 14, 1831). But, Miguelist reprisals on liberals continued; most sentences were carried out within 24 hours. The 4th Infantry, in Lisbon, registered 29 executions on August 22 and 23, 1831, alone.
Liberal Wars
Only the island of Terceira in the Azores remained loyal to Queen Maria II; the constitutional government continued to function there in exile. At first João Carlos Saldanha was unable to reach the island, owing to the hostility of an English cruiser, but the Count of Vila Flor (later Duke of Terceira) was more successful; he arrived on the island, rebuilt the defences and quickly beat back Miguel's forces (on August 11, 1829) as they were attempting to invade the island. By 1831 the liberals had taken over all the islands of the Azores.
Peter, after abdicating the imperial crown of Brazil, placed himself at the head of the Liberal Army (1831) and from the Azores launched an invasion of northern Portugal, Landing at Mindelo, near Oporto which he quickly occupied. But Miguel's army was formidable, composed of the best troops, with dedicated volunteers and enthusiastic militiamen (although not, perhaps, the best senior officers). They easily encircled the city and lay siege to it. As the defense of Oporto persisted, Miguel resolved to visit his troops in April 1833. But in the meantime Lisbon fell into the hands of the Duke of Terceira, who had left Oporto earlier in the Liberal fleet commanded by Charles John Napier, disembarked in the Algarve and marched across the Alentejo to defeat the Miguelist General Teles Jordão (seizing the city on July 24). Napier, after defeating a Miguelist fleet off Cape St. Vincent, joined the Duke of Terceira in the north, taking control of the Tagus.
Miguel was assisted by the French General Bourmont, who, after the fall of Charles X of France came with many of his legitimist officers to the aid of the king of Portugal (that is, Miguel). He was later replaced by the Scottish General Ranald MacDonnell who withdrew the Miguelist army besieging Lisbond to the almost impregnable heights of Santarém, where Miguel established his base of operations. The battles continued in earnest. In Alcácer the Miguelist forces captured some ground but this was quickly lost to General Saldanha in Pernes and Almoster. The latter action (February 18, 1834) was the most violent and bloody of the civil war. In the end, politics sealed Miguel's fate: his alliance with Carlos of Spain alienated the sympathies of Ferdinand VII of Spain, who recognized Maria's claim to the Portuguese throne, and concluded a quadruple alliance with the queen and Peter as well as with the governments of France and England.
The Spanish General Rodil entered into Portugal while pursuing D. Carlos and his small force and at the same time the Duke of Terceira won the Battle of Asseiceira (16 May 1834) making D. Miguel's position critical. Miguel escaped Santarém and moved south-east in the direction of Elvas. While Miguel made for Évora, his generals voted in a council of war to suspend hostilities and sue for peace. Miguel accepted the decision.
After a three-year civil war, Miguel I was forced to abdicate at the Concession of Evoramonte (26 May 1834). While Carlos was transported to England (he later secretly returned to Spain), Miguel embarked on 1 June 1834 on a British warship from Sines bound for Genoa; he lived in exile first in Italy, then in England, and finally in Germany. He never returned to Portugal.
Second exile and death
In December 1834 the Portuguese Cortes banished Miguel and all his descendants from Portugal upon pain of immediate death. The Constitution of 1838 (article 98) categorically excluded the collateral Miguelist line from the throne (although with the return to the Constitutional Charter in 1842, this ceased to have force). The 1834 law remained in effect until repealed in May 1950. During his exile, he was known as Duke of Braganza, as well as Marquis of Vila Viçosa, Count of Arraiolos, Count of Barcelos, Count of Neiva and Count of Ourém.
On 15 January 1837 the Spanish Cortes, then in midst of the First Carlist War (1833–39), excluded Miguel from the Spanish succession, on the grounds that he was in rebellion along with his maternal uncle Carlos, the first Carlist pretender of Spain. Miguel's eldest sister Teresa, Princess of Beira, and his nephews (three sons of late Infanta Maria Francisca of Portugal, and Sebastian, son of Teresa, Princess of Beira) were also excluded.
Miguel lived the rest of his life in exile and, removed from Portuguese politics, his character altered radically; in his later years he was a portly heavily bearded patriarch and lacked the cowboy persona of his early life. He refused to accede to the terms of the Concession of Evoramonte and thereby forfeited his generous pension from the Portuguese government. He lived for a time as a destitute refugee in Rome, in apartments provided by Pope Gregory XVI, who also gave him a small monthly allowance. Following the death of Pope Gregory and the election of Pius IX as Pope, D. Miguel moved to London, arriving on 2 February 1847. In 1851, he moved to the Grand Duchy of Baden in southern Germany and married Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. They settled in the former Cistercian monastery of Bronnbach, and raised seven children. His widow succeeded in securing advantageous marriages for all their daughters.
Miguel died while hunting at Bronnbach, Grand Duchy of Baden on 14 November 1866. He was buried in his wife's family's vault in the Franciscan monastery of Engelberg at Grossheubach, Bavaria. In 1967 his body and that of his wife (then resting in Ryde on the Isle of Wight in England) were transferred to the Braganza pantheon in the old Monastery of São Vicente de Fora in Lisbon.
Titles and honours
In addition to his hereditary titles, over the course of his career Miguel received many awards and honors, including the following.
Portuguese honours
Grand Commander of the Three Military Orders of Christ, Aviz and St. James
Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword
Grand Cross of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
Grand Master of the Order of St. Michael of the Wing (revoked)
Grand Prior of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in Portugal
Foreign dynastic orders
Posthumously, or during his reign, Miguel was known by various epithets:
O Tradicionalista (English: The Traditionalist)
O Usurpador (English: The Usurper)
O Absolutista (English: The Absolutionist)
O Sacrificado (English: The Sacrificed)
O Rei Absoluto (English: The Absolute King)
Marriage and descendants
In 1851, at the age of 48, he married Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg, by whom he had a son and six daughters.
Ancestry
Patrilineal descent
Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations.
Miguel's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son.
Robert II, Count of Worms, Rheingau and Hesbaye, 770–807
Robert III, Count of Worms and Rheingau, 808–834
Robert IV the Strong, Duke of Maine, 820–866
Robert I, King of the Franks, 866–923
Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, 898–956
Hugh Capet, King of the Franks, 941–996
Robert II, King of the Franks, 972–1031
Robert I, Duke of Burgundy, 1011–1076
Henri of Burgundy, 1035–
Henrique, Count of Portugal, 1066–1112
Afonso Henriques, King of Portugal, 1109–1185
Sancho I, King of Portugal, 1154–1211
Afonso II, King of Portugal, 1185–1223
Afonso III, King of Portugal and the Algarve, 1210–1279
Dinis, King of Portugal and the Algarve, 1261–1325
Afonso IV, King of Portugal and the Algarve, 1291–1357
Pedro I, King of Portugal and the Algarve, 1320–1367
João I, King of Portugal and the Algarve, 1357–1433
Afonso, Duke of Braganza, 1377–1461
Fernando I, Duke of Braganza, 1403–1478
Fernando II, Duke of Braganza, 1430–1483
Jaime, Duke of Braganza, 1479–1532
Teodósio I, Duke of Braganza, 1510–1563
João I, Duke of Braganza, 1543–1583
Teodósio II, Duke of Braganza, 1558–1630
João IV, King of Portugal and the Algarves, 1604–1656
Pedro II, King of Portugal and the Algarves, 1648–1706
João V, King of Portugal and the Algarves, 1689–1750
Pedro III, King of Portugal and the Algarves, 1717–1786
João VI, King of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, 1767–1826
Miguel, King of Portugal and the Algarves, 1802–1866
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Law of his banishment (19 December 1834)
Diccionario Histórico () – (Portuguese) website on the life of Miguel
1802 births
1866 deaths
House of Braganza
Dukes of Braganza
Portuguese infantes
19th-century Portuguese monarchs
People of the Liberal Wars
People from Lisbon
Constables of Portugal
Burials at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
3
3
3
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Louis
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary | [
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254406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4ger%20%28infantry%29 | Jäger (infantry) | (singular , plural , ; "hunter") is a German military term referring to specific light infantry units.
In German-speaking states during the early modern era, the term Jäger came to denote light infantrymen whose civilian occupations (mostly hunters and foresters) made them well-suited to patrolling and skirmishing, on an individual and independent basis, rather than as part of a large-scale military unit or traditional line infantry. As a consequence, Jäger was used to describe skirmishers, scouts, sharpshooters and runners.
The word's usage and derivatives broadened over time. For instance, was the name given by the Prussian Army to scouts and runners. Conversely, in the modern German army (), is the name given to military police.
is usually translated into English as:
"rifleman" (in an infantry role) or "Rifles" (in regimental names); and
"ranger" (especially in North American English; see below).
In English is often written as (both pl. and sgl.) or anglicised as (pl. ) to avoid the umlaut.
Age of Enlightenment (18th century)
According to a popular theory, the earliest known Jäger unit was a company formed in about 1631 in Hesse-Kassel, under William V, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. Wilhelm supposedly formed an elite light infantry unit for the Hessian Army, around a core drawn from his personal staff of gamekeepers (Revierjäger; "game preserve hunter"), forest rangers and professional hunters.
However, it was not until the first half of the 18th century that the widespread recruitment began in various German states of gamekeepers, huntsmen and foresters employed on crown estates or those of noble landowners, for specialized units of riflemen and skirmishers.
By the early 19th century, because of their civilian occupations, Jäger were usually familiar with the first true rifles, rather than the muskets used by regular infantry. While early long rifles took longer to load than the smoothbore musket of the line infantry, they also had greater range and accuracy. The men were drawn from a "well-esteemed class". The Jäger became primarily used for reconnaissance, skirmishing or screening bodies of heavier troops.
Prussia, Hesse, Austria-Hungary, the Russian Empire and many smaller states raised Jäger-type small units during the Seven Years' War and thereafter. Initially these specialist units were formed for the duration of a particular campaign and thereafter disbanded. However, Russia maintained its Jäger companies on a permanent basis for frontier service against the Ottoman Empire, and His Majesty's Lifeguard Jäger Regiment continued in service until 1917.
The Prussian Jäger corps of Frederick the Great dated back to a mounted detachment raised in November 1740 and quickly expanded to two squadrons. Employed in wartime as guides and scouts, they eventually proved a useful frontier guard tasked with catching deserters and seizing contraband. After 1744, they were joined by an infantry branch of foot Jägers, initially divided into independent companies and then brought together as a full regiment by 1784.
For fighting at close quarters the Jäger carried a straight-bladed hunting dagger (Hirschfänger), a short sabre or a falchion.
While the English term "ranger" is older, emerging during the 17th century to describe highly-mobile ("ranging") foot and mounted infantry units in British North America, it became strongly associated with Jäger during the late 18th century, when German-speaking Hessian regiments served as part of the British Army in North America.
Napoleonic era
Interest in light infantry tactics increased across Europe after the Battle of Valmy, where the Prussian line infantry proved unable to break through the French sharpshooters. Initially soldiers were drawn directly from the line infantry to fight as skirmishers instead, but in time many German-speaking states adopted Jäger to fulfill this role. In theory the Jäger operated in pairs to protect each other while reloading, and remained within 100–200 yards of close-order infantry on which they could fall back if they were endangered by cavalry or driven off by infantry. However, it was admitted that, due to the difficulty of controlling troops spread out in open-order and in the thick of battle, these guidelines might not always be followed. Jäger were allowed to act with a certain amount of initiative on the battlefield, unlike line infantry who were rigidly drilled and kept under tight control by their officers. For this reason, it was the most energetic and daring soldiers who were selected to become a Jäger.
The Prussians in particular developed their light infantry tactics both in theory and in practice during the early Napoleonic era. There was much disagreement over how much emphasis should be placed on Jägers, though, and reform was for the most part at the regimental level by more energetic commanders such as Yorck. It was not until the reorganization of the army led by Scharnhorst that the Jäger corps was strengthened on a national level. Having suffered crippling defeats at Jena and Lübeck, the Prussian army undertook major reforms, in many ways following the example of the French Revolutionary Army, becoming a nationalized force. Foreign mercenaries were removed, corporal punishment became rare (and was abolished for Jäger troops), and promotions were based on merit rather than nobility. New volunteers from a bourgeois background were organized to resist Napoleon's invasion and occupation of Central Europe. Continuing the earlier traditions, in Prussia these Jäger were patriotic volunteers, bearing the cost of their weapons and uniforms at their own expense or with the help of contributions from friends and neighbours, and often organizing themselves into clubs and leagues. As one of the early adopters of skirmisher tactics, Yorck became inspector-general of the light infantry in Prussia and oversaw the increase and improvement of the new Jäger troops during the years of peace after the Treaty of Tilsit. The most famous of the Prussian Jäger were the volunteers of the Lützow Free Corps.
The Prussian army gained experience as an auxiliary force in the French invasion of Russia, where the Jäger were often used on the strategic level to provide support and cover for the rest of the army. They managed to escape the fate of Napoleon's French soldiers after Yorck negotiated a battlefield truce with Russia when, during a rear-guard action, the French withdrew and left Yorck's troops isolated. In the War of the Sixth Coalition that immediately followed, the Jäger of the various armies performed well against Napoleon's forces, and Prussian Jäger played a significant role in the battles of the Waterloo campaign, holding off Grouchy's corps at the Battle of Wavre.
The resistance against Napoleon exacted a high toll of military casualties, officers in particular. This in combination with a shift towards a meritocratic officer corps led to many promotions within the ranks. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars, many of the junior officers in the Germanic states' armies were former Jäger soldiers who had been promoted through the ranks.
Prior to First World War
By the early twentieth century, Jäger units were part of the Imperial German, Austro-Hungarian, Swedish, Dutch and Norwegian armies. They corresponded to the rifles, light infantry, chasseurs à pied or bersaglieri units of the British, French, Italian and other armies. While such units still enjoyed considerable prestige and high esprit de corps, their training, equipment and tactical roles had for the most part become aligned with those of the line infantry of their respective armies.
Jäger rank
Jäger was in Austria and Germany until 1918 the lowest rank of the Jäger regiments, equivalent to private or soldier.
Other follows private Gemeiner ranks - Musketier (musketeer), Grenadier, Füsilier (fusilier), Infanterist (infantryman), Dragoner (en: dragoon), Husar (hussar), Ulan (uhlan), Kanonier, (gunner), Pionier (pioneer), Sanitätssoldat (combat medic), Trainsoldat (trainman)
Imperial Germany
Best known were the German Jäger units who were distinguished by their peace-time wear of dark green tunics and shakos (in contrast to the dark blue tunics and spiked helmets of most German infantry).
In the peacetime Prussian Army, the main component of the Imperial German Army, there were one Imperial Guard Jäger battalion, the Garde-Jäger-Bataillon, and twelve Jäger battalions of the line. One Jäger battalion, the Großherzoglich Mecklenburgisches Jäger-Bataillon Nr. 14, was from the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Another, Westfälisches Jäger-Bataillon Nr. 7, known as the "Bückeburg Jägers", was raised in the Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, whose capital was Bückeburg. The other ten were from Prussian lands. In addition, another Prussian Guard unit, the Guards Rifles Battalion, though not designated Jäger, was a Jäger formation. Its origins were in a French chasseur battalion of the Napoleonic era, and its troops wore the shako and green tunic of the Jäger battalions.
The army of the Kingdom of Saxony added two Jäger battalions, which were included in the Imperial German Army order of battle as Kgl. Sächsisches 1. Jäger-Bataillon Nr. 12 and Kgl. Sächsisches 2. Jäger-Bataillon Nr. 13. The Saxon Jäger had a number of dress distinctions – notably tunics of a darker green than the Prussian colour, black facings instead of red and a black buffalo-hair plume buckled to the side of the shako. The autonomous Royal Bavarian Army provided a further two Jäger battalions, Kgl. Bayerisches 1. Jäger-Bataillon and Kgl. Bayerisches 2. Jäger-Bataillon, who wore the light blue of Bavarian infantry with green facings.
On mobilization in August 1914, each of these Prussian, Saxon and Bavarian Jäger battalions raised a reserve Jäger battalion. In September 1914, an additional twelve reserve Jäger battalions were raised (ten Prussian and two Saxon). In May 1915, the German Army began joining the Jäger battalions to form Jäger regiments, and in late 1917, the Deutsche Jäger-Division was formed.
During the early stages of World War I, the German Jäger maintained their traditional role as skirmishers and scouts, often in conjunction with cavalry units. With the advent of trench warfare, they were committed to an ordinary infantry role, integrated into divisions and lost their status as independent units. Cyclist Jäger served in the Balkan and Russian theatres of war, while Württemberg and Bavaria raised Ski-Jäger during the winter of 1914–15. Another specialist formation was the Jäger Storm Companies, serving as trench raiders during 1917–1918.
Mounted Jäger
In 1897, existing dispatch rider units within the Prussian Army were converted to Detachments Jäger' zu Pferde. Further mounted Jäger squadrons were subsequently raised, including short-lived Bavarian and Saxon detachments. After 1901, the original dispatch carrying role of the mounted Jäger were discontinued. Five newly raised squadrons were brought together to form a combined Mounted Jäger Regiment the same year. The experiment proved a successful one and between 1905 and 1913 a further 13 mounted Jäger regiments were created.
Austria-Hungary
The Austro-Hungarian Army in 1914 included four regiments of Tiroler Kaiserjäger, descended from a unit first raised in 1801. There were also 29 battalions of Feldjäger recruited from different regions across the Empire (including 7 Hungarian, 5 Bohemian and 4 Galician battalions) and one Bosnian-Herzegovinian Feldjäger Battalion (Bosnisch-hercegovinisches Feldjägerbataillon). All wore pike grey uniforms faced in green, with a form of bowler hat carrying a distinctive plume of dark green feathers. The exception was the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Feldjäger Battalion which wore the fez. Later, an additional three Feldjäger battalions and seven Bosnian-Herzegovinian Feldjäger Battalions were formed.
Second World War Germany
After the First World War, the Jäger units of the Imperial German Army were disbanded, but their traditions were carried by infantry regiments of the 100,000-man Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic. After the Nazis came to power in 1933 and the rearmament of Germany began, the new Wehrmacht revived the name Jäger for various types of units:
In 1935, the first specialized mountain infantry units were formed; their regiments and battalions were designated Gebirgsjäger ("mountain infantry" – Gebirge is German for "mountain range"). More specialized units, such as the Hochgebirgs-Jäger-Bataillone, for use in high-Alpine conditions, were also developed. The Waffen SS raised a "Karstjäger" Division.
When the Luftwaffe began forming parachute units in the late-1930s, the first parachute regiment was designated Fallschirm-Jäger-Regiment 1. German paratroopers became known as Fallschirmjäger (Fallschirm is German for "parachute"). At first, Fallschirmjäger was applied only to genuine airborne-qualified troops, but the term was retained for Fallschirmjäger regiments and divisions even after they began operating as regular infantry. A number of Luftwaffe Feld-Divisionen ("field divisions"), regular ground combat units raised by the Luftwaffe, also used the term Luftwaffen-Jäger-Regiment for their infantry regiments. Many of these were later taken over by the army but retained the name Jäger-Regiment.
Two Skijäger regiments were formed in 1943 as part of Skijäger-Brigade (later a Skijäger-Division).
Certain infantry divisions were raised as "light infantry divisions" (leichte Infanterie-Divisionen) in late 1940. They were raised to operate in rough terrain, especially in southeastern Europe. Their infantry regiments were called Jäger-Regimenter, and in 1942 the light and light infantry divisions were renamed Jäger divisions.
The antitank units of German divisions, originally called Panzer-Abwehr-Abteilungen ("anti-tank battalions"), began in 1940 to be redesignated as Panzerjäger-Abteilungen, (literally "tank hunter battalions"). These were equipped with towed or self-propelled guns (often the ad hoc mounting of an antitank gun on a captured or obsolete tank chassis). As the war progressed, some Panzerjäger-Abteilungen were fully equipped with specialized tank destroyers, initially known as Panzerjäger (tank hunters), and later by 1943 as Jagdpanzer ("hunting tank") with enclosed, armored casemate superstructures.
The military police of the Wehrmacht was known as the Feldgendarmerie. In December 1943, a new force of military police, directly subordinated to the Armed Forces High Command, was formed. Its units were designated Feldjäger-Kommandos with subordinated Feldjäger battalions and regiments. These were known collectively as the Feldjägerkorps. The name was taken from the Reitendes Feldjägerkorps, a Prussian Army military police-type unit directly under the General Staff.
After Second World War
Germany
Jäger (short: Jg; English: hunter) is the lowest soldier rank of enlisted men of the modern day's German Bundeswehr for soldiers belonging to the light infantry, paratroopers and mountain troops. It is grouped as OR1) in NATO, and might be comparable to Private (rank) in the United States Army as well as British Army, or to other Anglophone armed forces.
Reflecting military tradition, in German speaking armed forces there are a number of OR1-rank descriptions – including "Jäger" – used as the lowest rank of an individual soldier. These may vary according to the service branch (Heer, Luftwaffe, Bundeswehr, medical service etc.). Other examples are Grenadier for mechanized infantrymen and Kanonier for artillerymen.
The German Bundeswehr rejected the term Feldgendarmerie and instead kept the term Feldjäger for its military police units. To emphasize the traditional connection with the Prussian Reitendes Feldjägerkorps, rather than the Wehrmacht military police units, the Feldjäger of the Bundeswehr wear a red beret with star badge (the Gardestern) of the Order of the Black Eagle, Prussia's highest chivalric order. The Reitendes Feldjägerkorps had been granted the right to wear the Gardestern in 1847.
In addition, at certain periods, light infantry units of the Bundeswehr were designated as Jäger, and wore a green beret with a beret badge patterned after the Jäger sleeve patch of the Wehrmacht Jäger units. Each battalion of Jäger, Fallschirmjäger and Gebirgsjäger, has a "heavy company" of Wiesel weapon-carriers equipped with 20 mm cannon, TOW launchers or 120 mm mortars.
The modern Jäger-type infantry units are distinguished as follows:
Jäger – light infantry specialized for assault and defense operations in urban and rugged terrain, often equivalent to mechanised infantry, but using APCs rather than Infantry Fighting Vehicles. Capabilities also include raiding patrols and Jagdkampf, a special operations tactic for platoon-sized deployments primarily behind FLET (Forward Line of Enemy Troops) and to hunt down smaller enemy detachments (e.g. SOF) behind the own lines. They can also be deployed in air-mobile/air-assault operations (heliborne). They wear a green beret with a golden badge displaying oak leaves surrounded by a braided chord.
Fallschirmjäger – "Airborne Rangers" – paratroopers, light airborne infantry units. As above. They wear a Bordeaux beret with a badge displaying an attacking eagle.
Gebirgsjäger – "Mountain Rangers" – light infantry for mountain terrain, rugged an urban terrain, with special equipment for winter warfare. Instead of a beret, they wear a grey Bergmütze mountain cap - a type of stiff forage cap – see (German)) with Edelweiss insignia.
The Wachbataillon (Guard battalion at the Ministry of Defence) is named for there soldiers Grenadier.
With a former restructuring of the German Army, only one new air-mobile regiment, Jägerregiment 1 (JgRgt 1), two battalions, Jägerbataillon 291 (JgBtl 291) and Jägerbataillon 292 (JgBtl 292) (both battalions are part of the Franco-German Brigade) and two other new bataillons of the mechanised brigades are the only regular Jäger retained. On the other hand, Fallschirmjäger has become the most important infantry type, due to its versatility and the nature of modern-day peacekeeping missions abroad.
With the last restructuring of the German Army, Jägerregiment 1 was reduced to Jägerbataillon 1 (JgBtl 1), not air-mobile any longer. Two new battalions were established: Jägerbataillon 91 and Jägerbataillon 413.
Austria
In the Austrian Bundesheer, Jäger is used as the generic term for most infantry soldiers (armored infantrymen are known as Panzergrenadiere, as in the German Bundeswehr). In the Austrian Bundesheer, the special forces are called Jagdkommando (lit. Hunting Command).
Denmark
In Danish, Jæger is used for the special forces unit Jægerkorpset (Jaeger Corps).
Lithuania
In present-day Lithuania the Vytautas the Great Jäger Battalion (Lithianian: Vytauto Didžiojo jėgerių batalionas) forms part of the Lithuanian Special Operations Force.
Finland
Jäger as rank
Jääkäri / jägare (Finnish / Swedish word for "Jäger") is the lowest rank (Private) in peacetime infantry formations (in wartime Finnish Army all Jägers serve in the operative forces while 'regular' infantry typically consisting of older reservists is split between regional and local forces) of the Finnish Army and in the Marines of the Uusimaa Brigade (part of the Finnish Navy). In the Finnish Border Guards, the private rank is called rajajääkäri ("Border Jäger").
The rank pays homage to the role of the World War I era Jäger Movement in securing Finnish Independence.
Besides riflemen, specialists such as drivers, medics, military police and mortar squad members in the above-mentioned infantry formations usually hold the rank of Jäger (the rank-and-file mortar crew members in regional and local forces hold the rank of Private as mortar crews are seen as part of infantry rather than artillery, they also use the green background of infantry/jägers on their unit insignia while the forward observers directing their fire, though also viewed as part of infantry, use the red of artillery). In units other than infantry, equivalent ranks such as tykkimies ("Gunner") or viestimies ("Signalist") are used (see Finnish military ranks). Additionally, in all other Navy units except the Uusimaa Brigade, the private rank is matruusi ("Sailor").
The old infantry rank of sotamies ("private", lit. "soldier") is no longer used in peacetime training units, but remains reserved for war-time regular infantry usage as opposed to "Jääkäri" used by light and/or specialized infantry.
Jäger as troop type indicator
The word Jäger is also used to indicate a) in general the best trained & equipped combat arms troops of the Defence Forces and b) specifically for the following troops.
Finnish Army
Jääkärijoukot ("Jäger Troops") – refers to any 1st line infantry units with top-of-the-line equipment
Panssarijääkärit ("Armoured or Panzer Jägers") — mechanized infantry of the Armoured Brigade
Kaartinjääkärit ("Guards Jägers") — infantry of the Guard Jaeger Regiment, specializing in urban warfare
Laskuvarjojääkärit ("Parachute Jägers") — rangers / paratroopers of the Utti Jäger Regt (conscripts)
Erikoisjääkärit ("Special Jägers") — the Army's Special Forces, part of the Utti Jäger Regt (career military)
Finnish Navy
Rannikkojääkärit ("Coastal Jägers") — Marines of the Uusimaa Brigade
Border Guards
Rajajääkärit ("Border Jägers") — rangers / light infantry of the Border Guard
Erikoisrajajääkärit ("Special Border Jägers") — Special Operations Capable forces within the Border Guard
In addition to the above, some non-infantry units (such as Jääkäritykistörykmentti (JTR), "Jäger Artillery Regiment", formerly Jääkäripatteristo (JPsto), "Jäger Artillery Battalion" & the defunct Hämeen Ratsujääkäripataljoona (HämRjP), "Häme Mounted Jäger Battalion"-) use the word Jäger in their name to show direct lineage to the original Jäger Movement.
Norway
Jeger is the general term indicating highly trained soldiers and operators capable of conducting military ISTAR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, Reconnaissance) operations independently behind enemy lines. There are several units using the jeger term, both conventional forces and special operation forces.
SOF units
Whithin Norwegian Armed Forces there are two special operations forces with the jeger name. The commando name refers to the Norwegian specialised forces from World War 2 like Norwegian Independent Company 1.
Marinejegerkommandoen (Naval Special Operations Commando) – the SOF operators are referred to as Marinejeger (Navy Ranger) or Spesialbåtoperatør (Special Boat Operator) and is highly trained in naval SOF and ISTAR operations.
Forsvarets Spesialkommando (Special Operations Commando) – this unit's operators are referred to as Spesialjeger (Special Ranger) – SOF operators trained highly for airborne SOF and ISTAR.
Specialised jeger units
In the Norwegian Armed Forces, there are several jeger units of troop and company size, who fill the criteria as special operations, but are not designated as such by the Norwegian military. These units are a mix composed of professional soldiers and conscripts.
Kystjegerkommandoen (Coastal Ranger Command) – operators are referred to as Kystjeger (Coastal Ranger) and are highly trained in conducting direct action, raids, ship-boarding and naval ISTAR operations along the Norwegian shore lines.
Fjernoppklaring (Long-Range Recon) – the operators are referred to as Feltoperatør (Field Operator) and bears exactly the same status as a jeger. This unit is highly trained in conducting ISTAR and special reconnaissance operations far behind enemy lines.
Artillerijeger (Artillery Ranger) – the soldiers are highly trained to conduct ISTAR missions mainly to support the artillery battalion with information, locations and fire missions regarding high valued artillery targets. The unit also consists of a large amount of JTAC operators.
Fallskjermjegertroppen (paratrooper platoon) - The Armed Forces Special Commands training wing has a platoon consisting of conscripts highly trained for raid and airborne ISTAR operations.
Jegertroppen (Hunter troop) – The Armed Forces Special Commands training wing has a unit consisting of female conscripts only, highly trained for urban ISTAR operations.
Conventional jeger units
The armed forces includes ranger troops providing ISTAR for their own units.
Grensejeger (Border Ranger) – an infantry battalion consisting of conscripts trained as jegers in order to maintain surveillance along the Norwegian/Russian border.
Home Guard - ISTAR units in each regional district.
The Royal Guards - including an light armoured reconnaissance platoon.
Sweden
Swedish "jägare" are troops such as commandos or light infantry. The former now consist of:
Parachute Airborne Rangers – fallskärmsjägare (lit. "parachute rangers")
Marine commandos of the Swedish Amphibious Corps – kustjägare (lit. "coastal rangers")
Army Rangers of the Army Ranger Battalion
Examples of the latter include the airborne rangers of Life Regiment Hussars (same regiment as Fallskärmsjägarna), the Swedish Air Force's outer-perimeter patrols Flygbasjägarna (lit. "airbase rangers") and the Military Police units for urban warfare from the Life Guards.
Historically, the first units to be named "jägare" were infantry and cavalry units stationed in the sparsely populated border province of Jämtland: Jämtlands hästjägarkår in 1834 and Jämtlands fältjägarkår from 1853.
After World War II, the Army Ranger School, later Lapplands jägarregemente, was formed in Kiruna. In the following years, the then cavalry regiments mainly developed into either ranger regiments (K 3 and K 4) or into tank regiments.
Netherlands
After the Napoleonic period, the Jager Battalions were incorporated into the line infantry and disappeared as such (except for the Colonial Jager units destined for the West Indies). Their role was taken over by the flank companies of each battalion, one of every four battalions in an 'Afdeeling' or Regiment was designated a Flank Battalion (Light Infantry).
In 1829, a new Royal Guard was raised, which included a Grenadier Regiment and a Jager Battalion. These were immediately sent into action during the Belgian Secession (1830–1832). During that war, voluntary units like Van Dams' Jagers and several Voluntary Student Companies, were dressed and equipped as Jagers, including a mounted Jager detachment; after the war, these voluntary units were disbanded.
In 1995, after a long history as separate units, the Guard Grenadiers and Jagers were united into the Grenadiers' and Rifles Guard Regiment.
In 1950, several Infantry Regiments were disbanded; their traditions were transferred to a new regiment, which was located and closely tied to Limburg Province. Since it took over the traditions of the Jager Contingent of the German Confederation, which was provided by Limburg Province, the Regiment was called the Limburgse Jagers and adopted the French horn in their emblem. Currently the active troops of this infantry regiment are located in Oirschot, just outside their home province in North Brabant, but close ties to the province remain.
See also
Caçadores
Imperial-Royal Mountain Troops (Austria-Hungary)
List of Jäger units
Schützen (military)
Vânători de munte
References
Further reading
External links
Austro-Hungarian Infantry 1914-1918, from Austro-Hungarian Land Forces 1848-1918
Preußen Jäger Battalion 4 NCO Waffenrock, an example of a Jäger uniform from Kaiser's Bunker, a non-commercial reference site for Imperial German uniforms.
Lexikon der Wehrmacht, for detailed information on types of Wehrmacht units.
18th- and 19th-century warrior types
Combat occupations
German words and phrases
Infantry
Military ranks of Germany
Military units and formations of the Industrial era
Tactical formations of the Napoleonic Wars
Army reconnaissance units and formations | [
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254407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley%20M.%20Tilghman | Shirley M. Tilghman | Shirley Marie Tilghman, (; née Caldwell; born 17 September 1946) is a Canadian scholar in molecular biology and an academic administrator. She is now a professor of molecular biology and public policy and president emerita of Princeton University. In 2002, Discover magazine recognized her as one of the 50 most important women in science.
Tilghman was the 19th president of Princeton University; she was the first woman to hold the position and the second female president in the Ivy League. Tilghman was also the first biologist to hold the Princeton presidency. She is the fifth foreign-born president of Princeton, and the second academic born in Canada to be elected to the position.
A leader in the field of molecular biology, Tilghman was a member of the Princeton faculty for fifteen years before being named president. She has returned to the Princeton faculty as a professor of molecular biology. In that capacity, she has returned to the Lewis-Sigler Institute of Integrative Genomics as a faculty member; while she is not currently engaged in research, Tilghman actively advises undergraduates in their independent research, including the senior thesis for seniors.
Tilghman also continues to hold leadership positions in the global scientific community. She was the 2015 president of the American Society for Cell Biology.
Early life and family
Tilghman was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. As a young child, her father encouraged her interest in math. She graduated from Kelvin High School in Winnipeg, Manitoba and received her honours B.Sc. in chemistry from Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, in 1968. She was a secondary school teacher in Sierra Leone, West Africa, in the Canadian University Services Overseas (CUSO) Program.
Tilghman earned her Ph.D. in biochemistry from Temple University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania under Richard W. Hanson. Tilghman was Hanson's first graduate student. Her PhD Dissertation was entitled "The Hormonal Regulation of Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase."
Personal life
She married Joseph Tilghman in 1970. This marriage ended in 1983, leaving Shirley Tilghman with custody of their young daughter (Rebecca) and infant son (Alex). She attributes her successful balancing of a scientific career and caring for her family to organization and focus. Her goal was to not feel guilty while at work or at home, instead focusing on the task at hand.
Research
Tilghman's work in molecular genetics focused on the regulation of genes during development, particularly in the field of genomic imprinting.
During postdoctoral studies at the National Institutes of Health, Tilghman made a number of discoveries while a member of the team which cloned the first mammalian gene. She went on to demonstrate that the globin gene was spliced, a finding that helped confirm some of the revolutionary theories then emerging about gene behavior. As an independent investigator at the Institute for Cancer Research in Philadelphia and adjunct associate professor of Human Genetics at the University of Pennsylvania Tilghman continued to make scientific breakthroughs.
Tilghman went to Princeton University in 1986 as the Howard A. Prior Professor of the Life Sciences. Two years later, she also joined the Howard Hughes Medical Institute as an investigator. She was a leader in the use of mice to understand the behavior of genes by researching the effect of gene insertion in embryonic cells.
In 1998, she took on additional responsibilities as the founding director of Princeton's multi-disciplinary Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, while continuing to study how male and female genomes are packaged and the consequences of the differences for regulating embryo growth.
Tilghman's extensive series of published research papers are catalogued on the PubMed government website of the United States National Library of Medicine, the NLM division of the National Institutes of Health.
President of Princeton University
Tilghman succeeded Harold Tafler Shapiro and became the 19th president of Princeton University in 2001. She was elected Princeton's first woman president on May 5, 2001, and assumed office on June 15, 2001. Under her administration, the university built a sixth residential college, named in honor of alumna Meg Whitman, to accommodate an 11 percent expansion of the undergraduate student body (an increase of some 500 students), as recommended by a special committee of the Board of Trustees chaired by Paul M. Wythes. In 2012, Tilghman announced that she would step down from her presidency in June 2013. She was succeeded by the university's then-provost, Christopher L. Eisgruber.
For Tilghman, Princeton has two essential missions. "One is to ensure that our doors are open as wide as possible to every talented student in the world who is capable of doing the hard work we ask of them. And that means maintaining our commitment to financial aid, which is the tool – the critical tool – to get those students to Princeton. And the second thing is that we must address the most critical issues, and push back the frontiers of knowledge, and not just in science and technology, but in social policy, and in public policy, and in understanding the nature of the human condition."
The establishment of Whitman College, together with the reconstruction of Butler College, accompanied a significant reconfiguration of Princeton's residential college system, which now incorporates upperclassmen as well as freshmen and sophomores, providing new residential options and increasing opportunities for social interaction across the student body. In addition, an effort has been made to strengthen the relationship between the university and Princeton's independent eating clubs, where most upperclassmen take their meals, with the goal of enhancing the undergraduate experience of all students. In 2009, she appointed a committee chaired by Nannerl O. Keohane to review undergraduate women's leadership at Princeton.
Academics
Tilghman has presided over a number of academic initiatives at Princeton, including the creation of a Center for African American Studies, the Lewis Center for the Arts (named after alumnus Peter B. Lewis), the Princeton Neuroscience Institute and the Andlinger Center for Energy and the Environment (after alumnus Gerhard R. Andlinger). Along with the renewal of the Department of Chemistry, these steps have both capitalized on Princeton's existing strengths and broken new ground, ensuring that the university will, in Tilghman's words, continue "to make the world a better place through the power of the mind and the imagination."
Diversity
More broadly, Tilghman's presidency has placed an emphasis on increasing the diversity of Princeton's faculty and students; widening access to the university through improvements to its generous financial aid program and the elimination of admission through "early decision"; fostering a multidisciplinary approach to teaching and research; and strengthening the university's international perspective through a wide range of initiatives – from the Global Scholars Program, which brings international scholars to campus on a recurring basis, to the Bridge Year Program, which gives incoming freshmen an opportunity to defer their studies for a year in order to devote themselves to public service overseas.
Funding higher education
Student loans
As her presidency started the university accomplished the long-hoped-for goal of eliminating the need for student loans; Princeton became the first American university to replace student loans with grants from its endowment. In principle, students earning a Princeton degree could graduate debt free.
Tuition
The size of the endowment and the success of these programs prompted some to question whether Tilghman would implement a policy of eliminating tuition altogether. In her Wall Street Journal article on this matter, she indicated that Princeton would continue to charge tuition, and that she felt that charging tuition was a morally and economically correct policy to maintain.
Fundraising
During her tenure the percentage of students receiving some form of financial aid increased and the size of the average award also increased. These policies were partially facilitated by the growing size of the university's financial endowment, whose income is used to finance the university's mission alongside tuition, and the annual funding of the operating budget through alumni donations from Princeton's Annual Giving campaign.
Controversies
Pro-women hirings
Although President Tilghman has been accused of favoring women in her hiring practices, in fact, most of her appointees have been men.
The women she has hired to senior positions include Amy Gutmann as provost, the second-most-powerful administrative position in the university, Anne-Marie Slaughter as Dean of the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs as well as her successor Christina Paxson, Maria Klawe as Dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science, and Janet Lavin Rapelye as the Dean of Admission. Gutman would go on to lead the University of Pennsylvania as their president in early 2004; Klawe was chosen president of Harvey Mudd College in 2006. Slaughter took a leave from the university to serve as Director of Policy and Planning at the U.S. State Department, reporting to the Secretary of State at the time, Hillary Clinton. Paxson became president of Brown University in 2012.
Tilghman has appointed prominent men to leadership positions at Princeton, such as Charles Kalmbach as the senior vice president for administration, the highest non-academic administrative post, David P. Dobkin as dean of the faculty, Gutmann's replacement as provost and Tilghman's successor Christopher L. Eisgruber, and Klawe's replacement Vincent Poor.
She initiated a review of undergraduate women's leadership at Princeton, chaired by Nannerl O. Keohane; the review found that the early prominence for women in leadership positions that accompanied to introduction of women students to the campus had recently not been as frequently repeated.
Ivy League seven-week athletic moratorium
Tilghman signed on to the Ivy League-wide seven-week athletic moratorium, in which intercollegiate athletes were enjoined from taking part in supervised practices and other obligatory athletic activities for seven weeks during the academic year in order to encourage them to participate in other activities. Supporters of the proposal pointed to studies by former Princeton president William G. Bowen, whose book The Game of Life described the widespread academic underperformance of college athletes. Detractors claimed that it represented an encroachment on students' freedom to use their time as they saw fit.
University donor complaint
During her presidency, Tilghman was embroiled in a court case pitting her against the family of a major donor to the university, the Robertsons. The children of the original donors, who were themselves Princeton alums, alleged that the university failed to apply the funds donated by their parents to the intended purpose, and asked for the funds to be restored to the family for use elsewhere. The donated funds had become joined with the university's general endowment, resulting in efficiencies and benefits in fund management and performance, which were not the subject of the Robertsons' complaints. The case was amicably settled in 2008 with a return of some funds to the family.
Corporate board matters
In August 2012, Tilghman was subpoenaed in her dual capacities as Princeton's president and as a member of Google's board, as part of a suit to block a board approved 2-for-1 Google stock split that the complaining party claimed would represent "an unfair effort to diminish its voting power while reserving voting rights for the company’s founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin". All members of the Google board received subpoenas. In the case of Tilghman, "records of donations, contribution pledges or promises made by Tilghman or the university to any charities, organizations, foundations or educational institutions that have any affiliation with Page, Brin, Schmidt or Google" were demanded.
Precedents
While Tilghman disquieted some alumni by championing affirmative action policies, establishing a single admission process, and broadening the range of residential and dining options available to students, she also found strong support for these actions and their underpinning vision. Tilghman presided over a major effort to advance the growing community of Princeton Alumnae, culminating in a campus conference entitled "She Roars". In her final year, Tilghman led the first major university celebration for "alternative genders", resulting in an immensely successful on-campus LGBT alumni gathering; this was the first of its kind on any campus in the United States and set a precedent for the advancement of the LGBT community nationwide.
Internal roles
As president of Princeton University, Tilghman was also an ex-officio trustee of the Princeton Board of Trustees, and chairman of Princeton Honorary Degrees Committee.
Tilghman orchestrated an orderly transition from her other Princeton roles after being named president. David Botstein succeeded Tilghman as the Director of the Lewis-Sigler Institute of Integrative Genomics in 2003. Ned S Wingreen succeeded her as the Howard A Prior Professor of Life Sciences. She eventually closed her lab to dedicate her time fully to the presidency; in doing so, she assured that all students who had begun with her as adviser were able to successfully complete their degrees and associated research before the lab closed.
An award-winning teacher, Tilghman continued to conduct classes even while serving as president.
She became a "Princeton Parent" when her daughter matriculated at Princeton as an undergraduate during her tenure as president and was accorded honorary alumna status to a record number of Princeton classes.
External roles
While serving as president of Princeton, Tilghman accepted membership on the board of directors of Google, and served in that capacity from October 2005 to February 2018. As compensation for joining the board, she received 6,000 shares of stock that by 2005 were worth in excess of her Princeton compensation package that by 2003 had reached $533,057.
Beginning in 2001, she served for a time on the Queen University's Chemistry Innovation Council in order to help the development of the Chemistry program at Queen's, which is based in Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
Tilghman served on the board of trustees at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL), Long Island, New York, during the early years of her presidency.
In 2006, Tilghman was one of three sitting university presidents who served on the Duke University President's Council that investigated the university's wide-ranging actions after the lacrosse players scandal wherein members of the Duke lacrosse team were charged with various types of inappropriate and allegedly illegal off campus behavior.
Successor
On September 21, 2012, Shirley informed the Princeton Board of Trustees that she planned to step down as the 19th president of Princeton University at the end of the 2012 academic year. On April 21, 2013, it was announced that Christopher L. Eisgruber would succeed Tilghman as Princeton's president, effective July 1. Notable Princeton alumnus Peter Lewis 1955 said at the time, "Ideally, she'd be remembered for grooming a terrific successor."
Awards and honors
Memberships
Tilghman has been elected to the following organizations:
Member of the American Philosophical Society (2000),
Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences, with Primary Field Cellular and Developmental Biology and Secondary Field Genetics
Member, the Institute of Medicine
Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (1995)
Founding member of the International Mammalian Genome Society.
Honorary Member, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) (2014)
She serves as a trustee of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Saudi Arabia’s King Abdullah University of Science and Technology. From 1993 through 2000, Tilghman chaired Princeton's Council on Science and Technology, which encourages teaching science and technology to students outside the sciences. In 1996, she received Princeton's President's Award for Distinguished Teaching.
Nineteen Princeton graduating classes, from 1941 to 2005, have made President Tilghman an honorary member.
Awards
Tilghman has earned the following awards during her career:
American Society for Cell Biology (ASCB) Women in Cell Biology Award (2000)
L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science (2002)
Lifetime Achievement Award from the Society for Developmental Biology (2003)
The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Medal for Outstanding Contributions to Biomedical Research (2005)
Genetics Society of America Medal (2007)
American Dream Award to Successful Immigrants to the U.S.A. (2007)
Henry G. Friesen International Prize in Health Research (2010)
Officer of the Order of Canada (2014)
Benjamin Franklin Creativity Laureate in Science and Public Service, the Creativity Foundation (2014)
Person of the Year, Science Careers from the Journal of Science (2014)
UCSF (2017).
Patrusky Lecturer (2018)
Helen Dean King Award (2018)
Honorary degrees
The 19th president of Princeton University has received more than 19 honorary academic degrees:
Honorary Doctor of Science, Bard College (2002)
Honorary degree, Dickinson College (2002)
Honorary Doctor of Laws, Simon Fraser University (2002)
Honorary degree, University of British Columbia (2002)
Honorary Doctor of Science, Yale University (2002)
Honorary Doctor of Laws, Rider University (2002)
Honorary degree, Drew University (2004)
Honorary Doctor of Laws, Harvard University (2004)
Honorary degree, Watson School of Biological Sciences, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories (2004)
Honorary Doctor of Science, Columbia University (2005)
Honorary Doctor of Science, New York University (2005)
Honorary Doctorate, Rockefeller University (2006)
Honorary Doctor of Science, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey (2006)
Honorary degree, Memorial University of Newfoundland (2007)
Honorary Doctorate, Ryerson University (2007)
Honorary Doctor of Science, Washington University (2007)
Honorary Doctor of Human Letters, Amherst College (2008)
Honorary degree, Rensselaer (RPI) (2008)
Honorary Doctor of Science, UMBC (2009)
Honorary Doctor of Laws, Princeton University (2013)
Roles after Princeton presidency
Tilghman continues as a member of the Princeton faculty in the Department of Molecular Biology and is a faculty member of the Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics.
Upon leaving the Princeton presidency, Tilghman retained her seat on the Google board. At the time, Google's Eric Schmidt supported this retention by emphasizing the benefits Google had received from Tilghman generally in her service on the Board.
Tilghman continues to serve as a Trustee of Amherst College. She is a member of the Board of the Brookhaven Science Associates, the organization that manages Brookhaven National Laboratory on Long Island, New York.
She is a Trustee of the Institute for Advanced Study. Tilghman serves on the Board of the Broad Institute, founded to encourage a unique model of collaborative, inter-institutional research, initially through joint efforts between Harvard and MIT. She is a Trustee of LEDA, the Leadership Enterprise for a Diverse America.
In 2013, Tilghman was elected to serve as the 2015 president of the ASCB
Quotes
"What made it truly thrilling was that the genes were organized in a way that was totally unexpected. So nature took us by surprise."
"There are 25 years of good social science that demonstrate the many cultural practices that act collectively to discourage women from entering and continuing careers in science and engineering. The research is overwhelming, and it is there for anybody to see. On the other hand, the data that would suggest there are innate differences in the abilities of men and women to succeed in the natural sciences are nonexistent."
On how she hoped to spend her time during her sabbatical before returning to the faculty in 2014, Tilghman said,
"I’m going to be an attentive grandmother." (In The Daily Princetonian article "Princeton’s biggest fan, Princeton’s biggest critic" by Luc Cohen, May 30, 2013.)
On explaining the thinking that led her to found a backup day-care option for Princeton employees introduced in 2007, an idea that reflected her own career management while raising two children, Tilghman said, "For years, I had said that when I retired, I would start a company that hired retired people to sit for working mothers..."
Publications
Tilghman's publications as a research scientist are referenced in the Research section. Her other major publications are as follows:
Tilghman, Shirley, et al. (1994) The Funding of Young Investigators in the Biological and Biomedical Sciences.
Tilghman, Shirley and National Research Council Committee on Dimensions, Causes, and Implications of Recent Trends in the Careers of Life Scientists (1998) Trends in the Careers of Life Scientists. Molecular Biology of the Cell Vol. 9, 3007–3015
Tilghman, Shirley (1999) The Sins of the Fathers and Mothers: Genomic Imprinting in Mammalian Development. Cell Volume 96, Issue 2
Tilghman, Shirley, et al. (2014) Rescuing US Biomedical Research from its Systemic Flaws; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of America (PNAS), vol. 111, no. 16
Tilghman wrote the "President's Page" in each edition of the Princeton Alumni Weekly (the PAW) during her term as president. Electronic archives of past PAW issues are available at the magazine's website.
Speeches
Tilghman delivered eleven Commencement addresses at Princeton University during her tenure as president. The text of each Princeton Commencement Address is available at the Tilghman e-Archive on the website of the office of the president at Princeton University.
She has spoken at a number of other commencement and graduation exercises, often when awarded an honorary degree.
Tilghman has often been asked to deliver commemorative speeches, sometimes known as "Remarks", give testimony, and participate in panels at other universities and notable venues, including:
The Dehejia Lecture at the Sidwell Friends School, as the Dehejia Fellow: "Science: The Last Frontier." (2006)
The Ullyot Public Affairs Lecture at the Chemical Heritage Foundation: "Strategy or Happenstance:Science Policy in the U.S.A."(2007)
The Baldwin Lecture at Princeton University: "The Meaning of Race in the Post-Genome Era" (2010)
The inauguration of Anthony Monaco as president of Tufts University (2011)
Testimony before the U.S. Congress on Immigration and Visas
She has delivered the following additional addresses.
Tilghman, Shirley (2005) Recruiting, Retaining and Advancing Women Scientists in Academia. Address delivered March 24 at Columbia University.
References
External links
A Tilghman timeline
The announcement of Tilghman's appointment as the 19th president of Princeton
Tilghman's biography from Princeton
Office of the President of Princeton University
Shirley Tilghman Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America
Shirley Tilghman iBiology Seminar: The Malthusian Dilemma in Biomedical Research
1946 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Toronto
Scientists from Toronto
Women molecular biologists
Directors of Google
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Presidents of Princeton University
Queen's University at Kingston alumni
Canadian biologists
Canadian biochemists
L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science laureates
21st-century American women scientists
Temple University alumni
Female Fellows of the Royal Society
Princeton University faculty
Members of the National Academy of Medicine
Trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study
American corporate directors
American women business executives
Canadian corporate directors
Canadian women business executives
Canadian women scientists
Officers of the Order of Canada
Members of the American Philosophical Society
American molecular biologists
Articles containing video clips
Fellows of the Royal Society
Women heads of universities and colleges
American women academics | [
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254408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical%20functional%20grammar | Lexical functional grammar | Lexical functional grammar (LFG) is a constraint-based grammar framework in theoretical linguistics. It posits two separate levels of syntactic structure, a phrase structure grammar representation of word order and constituency, and a representation of grammatical functions such as subject and object, similar to dependency grammar. The development of the theory was initiated by Joan Bresnan and Ronald Kaplan in the 1970s, in reaction to the theory of transformational grammar which was current in the late 1970s. It mainly focuses on syntax, including its relation with morphology and semantics. There has been little LFG work on phonology (although ideas from optimality theory have recently been popular in LFG research).
Overview
LFG views language as being made up of multiple dimensions of structure. Each of these dimensions is represented as a distinct structure with its own rules, concepts, and form. The primary structures that have figured in LFG research are:
the representation of grammatical functions (f-structure). See feature structure.
the structure of syntactic constituents (c-structure). See phrase structure rules, ID/LP grammar.
For example, in the sentence The old woman eats the falafel, the c-structure analysis is that this is a sentence which is made up of two pieces, a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP). The VP is itself made up of two pieces, a verb (V) and another NP. The NPs are also analyzed into their parts. Finally, the bottom of the structure is composed of the words out of which the sentence is constructed. The f-structure analysis, on the other hand, treats the sentence as being composed of attributes, which include features such as number and tense or functional units such as subject, predicate, or object.
There are other structures which are hypothesized in LFG work:
argument structure (a-structure), a level which represents the number of arguments for a predicate and some aspects of the lexical semantics of these arguments. See theta-role.
semantic structure (s-structure), a level which represents the meaning of phrases and sentences. See Glue Semantics.
information structure (i-structure)
morphological structure (m-structure)
phonological structure (p-structure)
The various structures can be said to be mutually constraining.
The LFG conception of linguistic structure differs from Chomskyan theories, which have always involved separate levels of constituent structure representation mapped onto each other sequentially, via transformations. The LFG approach has had particular success with nonconfigurational languages, languages in which the relation between structure and function is less direct than it is in languages like English; for this reason LFG's adherents consider it a more plausible universal model of language.
Another feature of LFG is that grammatical-function changing operations like passivization are relations between word forms rather than sentences. This means that the active-passive relation, for example, is a relation between two types of verb rather than two trees. Active and passive verbs involve alternative mapping of the participants to grammatical functions.
Through the positing of productive processes in the lexicon and the separation of structure and function, LFG is able to account for syntactic patterns without the use of transformations defined over syntactic structure. For example, in a sentence like What did you see?, where what is understood as the object of see, transformational grammar puts what after see (the usual position for objects) in "deep structure", and then moves it. LFG analyzes what as having two functions: question-focus and object. It occupies the position associated in English with the question-focus function, and the constraints of the language allow it to take on the object function as well.
A central goal in LFG research is to create a model of grammar with a depth which appeals to linguists while at the same time being efficiently parsable and having the rigidity of formalism which computational linguists require. Because of this, computational parsers have been developed and LFG has also been used as the theoretical basis of various machine translation tools, such as AppTek's TranSphere, and the Julietta Research Group's Lekta.
See also
Glue semantics, a theory of the syntax-semantics interface
Head-driven phrase structure grammar
Relational grammar
Tree-adjoining grammar
References
Bresnan, Joan (2001). Lexical-Functional Syntax. Blackwell.
Bresnan, Joan; Asudeh, Ash; Toivonen, Ida; Wechsler, Stephen (2015). Lexical Functional Syntax. 2nd edition. Wiley Blackwell.
Dalrymple, Mary (2001). Lexical Functional Grammar. No. 42 in Syntax and Semantics Series. New York: Academic Press.
Dalrymple, Mary; Lowe, John J.; Mycock, Louise (2019). The Oxford Reference Guide to Lexical Functional Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Falk, Yehuda N. (2001). Lexical-Functional Grammar: An Introduction to Parallel Constraint-Based Syntax. CSLI.
Kroeger, Paul R. (2004). Analyzing Syntax: A Lexical-Functional Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
External links
Lexical Functional Grammar Home Page
Proceedings of the annual LFG conference
Julietta Research Group, Lekta Manual
Lexical Functional Grammar course lectures on YouTube, Prof Miriam Butt, University of Konstanz
Generative linguistics
Grammar frameworks
Syntactic theories | [
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254410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs%20I%20of%20Portugal | Luís I of Portugal | Dom Luís I (31 October 1838, in Lisbon – 19 October 1889, in Cascais), known as The Popular (Portuguese: O Popular) was a member of the ruling House of Braganza, and King of Portugal from 1861 to 1889. The second son of Queen Maria II and her consort, King Ferdinand, he acceded to the throne upon the death of his elder brother King Pedro V.
Reign
Luís was a cultured man who wrote vernacular poetry, but had no distinguishing gifts in the political field into which he was thrust by the deaths of his brothers Pedro V and Fernando in 1861. Luís's domestic reign was a tedious and ineffective series of transitional governments called Rotativism formed at various times by the Progressistas (Liberals) and the Regeneradores (Conservatives), the party generally favoured by King Luís, who secured their long term in office after 1881. Despite a flirtation with the Spanish succession prior to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, Luís's reign was otherwise one of domestic stagnation as Portugal fell ever further behind the nations of western Europe in terms of public education, political stability, technological progress and economic prosperity. In colonial affairs, Delagoa Bay was confirmed as a Portuguese possession in 1875, whilst Belgian activities in the Congo and the 1890 British Ultimatum prevented the Portuguese from colonizing modern-day Botswana in order to establish a link between Portuguese Angola and Portuguese Mozambique at the peak of the Scramble for Africa.
Personal interests
Luís was also very keen with literature, not only with books in Portuguese but also in English. He was the first to bring fully translated Shakespearean works to Portugal, such as The Merchant of Venice, Richard III and Othello, the Moor of Venice. His best-known work in Portugal was his translation of Hamlet.
Marriages and descendants
In June 1862, Luís asked Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria (1845–1927), a daughter of Archduke Albert, Duke of Teschen and Princess Hildegard of Bavaria, to marry him in a letter sent to her father. It was urgent for him to get married as his older brother, King Pedro V, had died in November 1861, without issue and two of his younger brothers, João and Fernando, followed him shortly after, which left the Braganza dynasty almost without heirs. Luís had already selected a number of brides including Princess Marie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1845-1912), sister of his late sister-in-law Stephanie, Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria (1847-1897), Princess Maria Pia of Savoy (1847-1911) and also considered some Austrian archduchesses, Maria Theresa being one of them, but didn't know which one to choose. So he sent letters to his cousin, Queen Victoria, and his great-uncle, King Leopold I of Belgium, to ask for their advice. Both agreed that the best choice was Maria Theresa. Thus, King Luís sent his letter. However, his wish was not fulfilled as her father, Archduke Albert, thought she was too young at the time (she was one month away from turning 17) and needed to finish her education. Two weeks after, Luís asked for the hand of Princess Maria Pia of Savoy and, this time, was accepted, even though Maria Pia, born in 1847, was even younger than Maria Theresa.
Luís married Maria Pia, the daughter of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and Maria Adelaide of Austria, on 6 October 1862. They both had a deep love at first, but Luis's countless mistresses led Maria Pia to depression. Together they had two sons who survived childhood, and a stillborn son in 1866.
Dom Carlos, Prince Royal of Portugal (28 September 1863 – 1 February 1908), successor as King Carlos I; murdered by the Carbonária.
Dom Afonso, Prince Royal of Portugal (31 July 1865 – 21 February 1920), Infante of Portugal, Duke of Porto, Viceroy of India, and after 1908 Prince Royal.
Miscarriage or Stillborn (1866)
The King also fathered one illegitimate son, also named Carlos, who was born in 1874 in Lisbon.
Honours
He received the following orders:
Ancestry
References
|-
1838 births
1889 deaths
Portuguese infantes
Portuguese royalty
House of Braganza-Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Princes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Dukes of Porto
19th-century Portuguese monarchs
Burials at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora
People from Lisbon
People from Cascais
Constables of Portugal
3
3
3
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
Extra Knights Companion of the Garter
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Grand Crosses of Naval Merit
Grand Crosses of Military Merit
Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Russia)
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo
Knights of Malta
Recipients of the Order of the Medjidie, 1st class
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Romania) | [
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254414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20House%20of%20Representatives | Minnesota House of Representatives | The Minnesota House of Representatives is the lower house of the Legislature of the U.S. state of Minnesota. There are 134 members, twice as many as the Minnesota Senate. Floor sessions are held in the north wing of the State Capitol in Saint Paul. Offices for members and staff, as well as most committee hearings, are located in the nearby State Office Building.
History
Following the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920, women were eligible for election to the Legislature. In 1922, Mabeth Hurd Paige, Hannah Kempfer, Sue Metzger Dickey Hough, and Myrtle Cain were elected to the House of Representatives.
Elections
Each Senate district is divided in half and given the suffix A or B (for example, House district 32B is geographically within Senate district 32). Members are elected for two-year terms. Districts are redrawn after the decennial United States Census in time for the primary and general elections in years ending in 2. The most recent election was held on November 3, 2020.
Composition
92nd Minnesota Legislature (2021–2023)
Members, 2021–2023
See also
Minnesota Senate
Minnesota Legislature
Past composition of the House of Representatives
Political party strength in Minnesota
Notes
References
External links
House
State lower houses in the United States | [
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254415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20Senate | Minnesota Senate | The Minnesota Senate is the upper house of the Legislature of the U.S. state of Minnesota. At 67 members, half as many as the Minnesota House of Representatives, it is the largest upper house of any U.S. state legislature. Floor sessions are held in the west wing of the State Capitol in Saint Paul. Committee hearings, as well as offices for senators and staff, are located north of the State Capitol in the Minnesota Senate Building. Each member of the Minnesota Senate represents approximately 80,000 constituents.
History
The Minnesota Senate held its first regular session on December 2, 1857.
Powers
In addition to its legislative powers, certain appointments by the governor are subject to the Senate's advice and consent. As state law provides for hundreds of executive appointments, the vast majority of appointees serve without being confirmed by the Senate; only in rare instances are appointees are rejected by the body. The Senate has rejected only nine executive appointments since 2000.
Elections
Each Senate district is split between an A and B House district (e.g., Senate District 41 contains House districts 41A and 41B). The Minnesota Constitution forbids a House district to be within more than one Senate district.
In order to account for decennial redistricting, members run for one two-year term and two four-year terms each decade. Senators are elected for four-year terms in years ending in 2 and 6, and for two-year terms in years ending in 0. Districts are redrawn after the decennial United States Census in time for the primary and general elections in years ending in 2. The most recent election was held on November 3, 2020.
Leadership
From statehood through 1972, the lieutenant governor served as president of the Senate. In 1972, voters approved a constitutional amendment that provided for the Senate to elect its own president beginning January 1973. The president, who presides over official Senate proceedings, also acts as the parliamentarian and oversees the secretary of the senate.
The majority leader is responsible for managing and scheduling the business of the Senate and oversees partisan and nonpartisan staff. The current majority leader is Jeremy Miller, a Republican from Winona. The current minority leader is Melisa Franzen, a Democrat from Edina. Each caucus also selects its own leaders and deputy leaders.
Minnesota Senate Building
Committee hearings primarily take place in the Minnesota Senate Building, a 293,000 square feet office building that opened in January 2016. The $90 million office building, which is located north of the State Capitol across University Avenue includes three committee hearing rooms, offices for all senators and staff, a raised terrace overlooking the State Capitol, and a 264-space underground parking facility.
The 2016 session was held in the newly-constructed Minnesota Senate Building due to an extensive restoration at the State Capitol. It was the first time the Senate held a regular session outside of the State Capitol since its opening in 1905.
Composition
92nd Minnesota Legislature (2021–2023)
Members, 2021-2023
See also
Minnesota House of Representatives
Minnesota Legislature
Past composition of the Senate
Political party strength in Minnesota
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Senate
State upper houses in the United States | [
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254416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Paul%20Saints | St. Paul Saints | The St. Paul Saints are a Minor League Baseball team of the Triple-A East and the Triple-A affiliate of the Minnesota Twins. They are located in Saint Paul, Minnesota, and have played their home games at CHS Field since 2015. They previously played at Midway Stadium from 1993 to 2014.
From their founding in 1993 through 2020, the Saints were an independent baseball team with no affiliation with Major League Baseball (MLB). They played in the Northern League from 1993 to 2005 and the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball from 2006 to 2020. The Saints became an MLB-affiliated team in conjunction with the reorganization of the minor leagues beginning with the 2021 season.
Before the arrival of the Minnesota Twins in 1961, there was a long history of minor league baseball teams called the St. Paul Saints, as well as their crosstown rivals the Minneapolis Millers. One incarnation of the Saints participated in the Union Association, a short-lived major league, in 1884. A second incarnation was active in the Western League from 1894 to 1899, and became a forerunner of the modern Chicago White Sox. The third and most long-lived incarnation of the Saints was active in the American Association from 1915 to 1960.
History
St. Paul Saints (1894–1899)
As described in Lee Allen's book, The American League Story (Putnam, 1962), the team began as the Sioux City Cornhuskers franchise in a minor league called the Western League. This circuit had reorganized itself in November 1893, with Ban Johnson as president. Johnson, a Cincinnati-based reporter, had been recommended by his friend Charles Comiskey, former major league star with the St. Louis Browns in the 1880s, who was then managing the Cincinnati Reds. After the 1894 season, when Comiskey's contract with the Reds was up, he decided to take his chances at ownership. He bought the Sioux City team and transferred it to St. Paul, where it enjoyed some success over the next five seasons.
In 1900, the Western League changed its name to the American League. It was still officially a minor league, a part of the National Agreement and an underling of the National League. The National League gave permission to the American League to put a team in Chicago, and on March 21, 1900, Comiskey moved his St. Paul club to the South Side, where they became the Chicago White Sox.
St. Paul Saints (1901–1960)
Another team called the Saints played Minor League Baseball in the American Association from 1901 to 1960. The Saints finished first in the American Association nine times, and won the Little World Series in 1924. During this period, the Saints were a farm club of the Chicago White Sox (1936–1942), the Brooklyn Dodgers (1944–1957), and the Los Angeles Dodgers (1958–1960). The Saints played streetcar home and away double headers with their local rivals, the Minneapolis Millers. When the Minnesota Twins came to town in 1961, the Saints became the Omaha Dodgers while the Millers ceased operations and their role as affiliate to the Boston Red Sox was filled by the Seattle Rainiers. Lexington Park served as the Saints' home stadium for most of those years.
During the six decades of the original American Association minor league, the Minneapolis Millers and St. Paul Saints engaged in vigorous rivalry known as the Streetcar Series. This series has been documented in a book by Rex Hamann entitled The Millers and the Saints, Baseball Championships of the Twin Cities Rivals (2014).
Current franchise
Independent baseball (1993–2020)
The current inception of the St. Paul Saints was formed in 1993 in the Northern League, one of several independent leagues not affiliated with Major League Baseball. The Saints are known for promotions that are sometimes over-the-top even by the standards of Minor League Baseball. In this regard, Mike Veeck, formerly the team's principal owner and still owner of a large interest in the team, is seen as following in the footsteps of his father Bill Veeck, who was famous for conceiving outlandish promotions as an owner of the major league St. Louis Browns, Cleveland Indians, and Chicago White Sox. The current majority owner, Marvin Goldklang, also owns a stake in four other Minor League Baseball teams: the Fort Myers Miracle, Sioux Falls Pheasants, Hudson Valley Renegades, and Charleston RiverDogs. Comedian and actor Bill Murray is also a part owner.
Despite the considerable naysaying at their inception, the Saints became one of the most successful teams in the Northern League and all of independent baseball. From 2002 to 2004, the Saints saw severely reduced attendance, owing partially to renewed interest in the Minnesota Twins of Major League Baseball, who won the 2002, 2003, and 2004 American League Central Division championships. In spite of an initially cool, if not outright hostile reception, the Saints and their major league neighbor (less than away) have worked together for several years to promote the sport of baseball.
The Saints have figured prominently in the creation of modern independent baseball. The team has been featured in books (Rebel Baseball by Steve Perlstein, 1993; Slouching Toward Fargo by Neal Karlen, 1998) and a cable network series (Baseball, Minnesota, FX Network, 1996–97). Mike Veeck wrote a book that covered the mantra "Fun is Good" (2005) and describes the business approach he has used for many years. The team's history is also featured in the documentary film For The Fun Of The Game, which was released in 2018.
On May 31, 1997, the Saints became the first professional men's baseball team since integration to have a female on their roster. Ila Borders, a pitcher, played with the team out of the bullpen for a month before being traded.
On September 29, 2005, the Saints left the Northern League, along with the Lincoln Saltdogs, Sioux City Explorers, and the Sioux Falls Pheasants to start the American Association for the 2006 season.
In June 2009, the Saints began a push to build a new stadium in Downtown Saint Paul. The proposed 7,500-seat stadium would be located in the Lowertown neighborhood near a planned maintenance facility for the METRO Green Line light rail. The city of Saint Paul requested $25 million in its 2010 bonding wish list to the Minnesota Legislature.
During their final 5 years in the American Association and their first 5 years in CHS Field, the Saints consistently led the league in attendance averaging more than 8,000 fans in the regular season from 2015-19.
In 2020, the Saints competed as one of six teams in a condensed 60-game season as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. They played much of their season away from their home stadium, CHS Field, instead being based at Sioux Falls Stadium, sharing a home field with the Sioux Falls Canaries. On August 4, 2020, however, the Saints returned to play at CHS Field.
The beginnings of a closer relationship with the local Major League Baseball franchise, the Minnesota Twins, came in the summer of 2020. Due to the pandemic, the 2020 MLB season was modified in several ways, including the cancellation of the 2020 Minor League Baseball season. Because of this, teams were allowed to use taxi squads located at nearby facilities where non-active minor league players were allowed to train. The Twins made use of the Saints' CHS Field facilities as home for their taxi squad.
Notable players to have played for the Saints during their independent baseball years include Shane Costa, Glenn Davis, J. D. Drew, Leon "Bull" Durham, Gavin Fingleson, Dan Johnson, Brandon Kintzler, Kevin Millar, Minnie Miñoso, Jack Morris, Darryl Motley, Matt Nokes, Rey Ordóñez, Tanner Scheppers, Dave Stevens, Darryl Strawberry and Caleb Thielbar.
Affiliated baseball (2021–present)
Due to the 2021 full-scale reorganization of Minor League Baseball, there was much speculation as to what would happen to independent leagues such as the American Association and specifically the Saints. On November 11, 2020, it was reported that the Minnesota Twins ended their 18-year affiliation with their Triple-A affiliate, the Rochester Red Wings. At this time it was also reported that the Saints were a front-runner to be the Twins' new Triple-A affiliate. The main barrier to a deal was said to be the $20 million fee required for affiliation. The Twins aided in this by becoming minority shareholders in the Saints and placing their Triple-A affiliation in St. Paul beginning with the 2021 season. The Saints were organized into the Triple-A East. At a distance of 12.9 miles (along Interstate 94, including surface streets), CHS Field is the closest Triple-A ballpark to its MLB parent team.
The Saints began competition as a Twins affiliate on May 4, 2021, with an 8–2 loss to the Omaha Storm Chasers at Werner Park in Papillion, Nebraska. St. Paul ended the season in third place in the Midwestern Division with a 61–59 record. No playoffs were held to determine a league champion; instead, the team with the best regular-season record was the declared the winner. However, 10 games that had been postponed from the start of the season were reinserted into the schedule as a postseason tournament called the Triple-A Final Stretch in which all 30 Triple-A clubs competed for the highest winning percentage over that stretch. St. Paul finished the tournament tied for seventh place with a 6–4 record.
Roster
Notable promotions
In an attempt to gain publicity in a metropolitan area that hosts five major pro sports teams and a major college program, the Saints create unique promotions that have received media attention numerous times.
The Saints celebrated the 40th anniversary of Animal House on August 14, 2018, by staging the world's largest food fight after the completion of the fifth inning against the Sioux Falls Canaries. Approximately 8,000 fans participated.
On August 22, 2017, the Saints held the world's largest Twister game, with over 56,000 dots painted on the outfield grass.
On July 21, 2015, in an event sponsored by My Pillow, the world's largest pillow fight was held after the second inning, with 6,261 participants. The event was hosted by Stephen Baldwin. Additionally, in honor of the 40th season of Saturday Night Live, former cast member Joe Piscopo performed the national anthem in his impression of Frank Sinatra, and made other appearances throughout the game.
A May 11, 2013, exhibition game between the Saints and Gary SouthShore Railcats was played without umpires. The team instead had a judge, in a judicial robe, call balls and strikes from behind the pitcher. Calls at first and third bases were made by a "jury" of 12 Little League players, with the judge able to overrule any calls.
In August 2012, as part of a regional conference held by the Minnesota Atheists, the Saints held "A Night of Unbelievable Fun", where the team wore alternate jerseys branding themselves as the "Mr. Paul Aint's". The promotion was reprised in subsequent seasons.
On July 23, 2011, the Saints celebrated National Hot Dog Day and parodied Anthony Weiner and his first sexting scandal. The first 1,501 fans age 18 or older received "Tweeting Wiener Boxer Shorts", depicting a blue bird taking a picture of a hot dog, or "wiener". The bird was deliberately drawn to resemble the logo of Twitter, the social media site that Weiner used to send links to indecent photos.
The Saints announced a giveaway for their May 23, 2009, game against the Sioux Falls Pheasants of 2,500 bobblehead dolls dressed as the Sesame Street character Count von Count, supposedly celebrating the 40th anniversary of the series. The Saints' version of this doll, however, had the face of Al Franken on one side and Norm Coleman on the other and was named "Count von Re-Count"—referring to the prolonged recount in the 2008 U.S. Senate election between the two men. The Saints made further jabs at the race:
The ceremonial first pitch was thrown by Dean Barkley, who ran in that election as a third-party candidate.
Fans were asked during the game to spin the heads of their dolls to either Coleman or Franken. Attorneys were present to count the "votes" from this process, poking fun at the extensive involvement of attorneys in the recount process. The team's website stated that fans could challenge the "results" at the team's Fan Services booth during the game.
The team also facetiously stated on its site that it would not make the results of that night's game official until mid-June—around the time that the entire Minnesota Supreme Court was scheduled to rule on Coleman's appeal of a panel ruling that Franken had won. (The Court issued its ruling in Franken's favor on June 30, with Coleman then conceding.)
In May 2008, the Saints announced the giveaway of 2,500 bobble foot dolls, ostensibly to celebrate National Tap Dance Day. The dolls, which featured two feet visible beneath the door of a bathroom stall, have been covered in the national news for their reference to Senator Larry Craig, notorious for soliciting sex in a Minneapolis–Saint Paul Airport restroom in August 2007.
In August 2007, the Saints announced that rubber dog toys would be given out as a jab to the federal dogfighting case involving Atlanta Falcons quarterback Michael Vick.
In April 2006, the Saints announced that rubber boats would be given out during a May 27, 2006, game, to honor the 30th anniversary of the television show The Love Boat. However, details of the promotion indicate that it was intended as a jab at the 2005 boat scandal involving the Minnesota Vikings, where several members of the team were allegedly involved in illicit behavior on a private cruise. The promotional rubber boats used the same color as the Vikings uniforms (purple and yellow) and were named Minnetonka Queen (a reference to Lake Minnetonka, where the cruise took place).
On May 8, 2005, the Saints hosted a Mother's Day exhibition game against the Sioux Falls Canaries which began at 5:35 a.m. and set an unofficial record for earliest game time in baseball history. 2,253 fans attended the 6-6 tie, with about 500 of them tailgating overnight in the parking lot. Free cereal was given away and all ticket sales went to charity.
In August 2004, the Saints held a Bobblehead Election to tap into the campaign buzz around the election year. Fans were told to select either a John Kerry or George Bush bobblehead as their "vote." The stunt was capped off with a speech by the winning bobblehead. A real donkey and a donkey dressed like an elephant (the Saints were unable to obtain a real elephant) added to the atmosphere.
In August 2003, the Saints held "Randy Moss Hood Ornament Night", poking fun at Randy Moss, then a wide receiver for the Vikings. Earlier that year, Moss was involved in an incident where he bumped a traffic control officer with his car while he attempted to make a turn.
During the 2002 Major League Baseball labor negotiations, the Saints gave away seat cushions with pictures of commissioner Bud Selig on one side and player's association Executive Director Donald Fehr on the other.
In 2002, in response to Selig's controversial decision to end the MLB All-Star Game in a 7–7 tie, the Saints gave out neckties (or "ties") with Bud Selig's image.
Season-by-season records
References
Specific
General
aabfan.com – yearly league standings & awards (American Association)
nlfan.com – yearly league standings & awards (Northern League)
External links
Official website
nlfan.com Saints Guide (Northern League 1993–2005)
aabfan.com Saints Guide (American Association 2006–present)
Former American Association of Professional Baseball teams
Minnesota Twins minor league affiliates
Northern League (baseball, 1993–2010) teams
Professional baseball teams in Minnesota
Sports in Saint Paul, Minnesota
Triple-A East teams | [
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254418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmond%20O%27Malley | Desmond O'Malley | Desmond Joseph O'Malley (2 February 1939 – 21 July 2021) was an Irish politician who served as Minister for Industry and Commerce from 1977 to 1981 and 1989 to 1992, Leader of the Progressive Democrats from 1985 to 1993, Minister for Trade, Commerce and Tourism from March 1982 to October 1982, Minister for Justice from 1970 to 1973 and Government Chief Whip and Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Defence from 1969 to 1970. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Limerick East constituency from 1968 to 2002.
A prominent Fianna Fáil member and government minister in the 1970s and 1980s, O'Malley went on to found the Progressive Democrats and served as the party's first leader from 1985 until 1993. He retired from politics at the 2002 general election.
Early life
O'Malley was born in Limerick in 1939. His family had long been involved in politics: His maternal grandfather, Denis O'Donovan, was murdered during the War of Independence by the Black and Tans, two of his uncles and his father held the office of Mayor of Limerick, and his uncle Donogh O'Malley was a Minister for Education.
O'Malley was educated at the Jesuit Crescent College and at University College Dublin, from which he graduated with a degree in law in 1962.
He was married to Pat McAleer, who predeceased him in 2017. They had six children, 4 daughters and two sons, including Fiona O'Malley.
Entering politics
In 1968, his uncle and sitting TD Donogh O'Malley died suddenly. Initially, Donogh's widow Hilda was asked by Fianna Fáil to stand in the coming by-election to try and retain the seat for the party. However, as Hilda was still in shock because of her husband's sudden death she declined and instead, after a canvass of many O'Malleys, Desmond O'Malley was selected and he stood in the subsequent by-election to fill the vacant seat. Desmond was successful and was elected to Dáil Éireann as a Fianna Fáil TD for the Limerick East constituency. At the time it was believed that this by-election victory by just 900 votes was partly due to Neil Blaney and his "Donegal Mafia". Blaney would subsequently deeply regret aiding O'Malley in his election as he always felt that Des was in the wrong party. The relationship between Desmond and Hilda was strained following Desmond's victory after Hilda had a change of heart about entering politics. She requested that Desmond stand aside in the 1969 Irish general election in favour of her becoming the main Fianna Fáil candidate, but Desmond refused. Both Desmond and Hilda stood in Limerick East in that 1969 Election, with Desmond for Fianna Fáil and Hilda as an Independent. Desmond came third while Hilda finished fifth in the four-seat constituency. Desmond was elected while Hilda just missed out. The "O'Malley vs O'Malley" dynamic of what was a very acrimonious contest drew enormous interest and discussion, to the point of attracting international headlines.
Arms Crisis and Minister for Justice
After the 1969 general election, O'Malley was appointed Parliamentary Secretary to the Taoiseach, Jack Lynch, and also Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Defence, Jim Gibbons. O'Malley had a central role in the prosecutions that arose from the Arms Crisis of 1970, the case against the accused government ministers Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney. The case was subsequently dismissed in the Supreme Court, where both ministers were acquitted.
In 1970, O'Malley succeeded Mícheál Ó Móráin as Minister for Justice. At age 31, O'Malley was the youngest Minister for Justice since Kevin O'Higgins who had presided over the tumultuous post-revolutionary period in Ireland in the 1920s following the Irish War of Independence and the Irish Civil War.
As Minister for Justice, O'Malley reinforced the Offences Against the State Act so that a person could be convicted of IRA membership on the word of a Garda Superintendent. He also introduced the Special Criminal Court, a juryless court presided over by three judges which tries cases of terrorism and serious organised crime, with the cited raison d'être being to avoid witness intimidation. O'Malley's plans to introduce internment without trial for Provisional IRA suspects in the Republic were not implemented, but following an assassination threat by the IRA he was permitted to carry a handgun at all times and was frequently moved from house to house.
O'Malley also introduced the Forcible Entry Bill, brought in to counter student agitation over the demolition of valued buildings. This move was bitterly despised by students in University College Dublin, who pelted him with eggs during a meeting in retaliation.
In opposition
Following the 1973 Irish general election Fianna Fáil were ousted from government for the first time in 16 years by Fine Gael and Labour, who had agreed to a pre-election pact to form a coalition should they win. In 1974 O'Malley cast doubts over the Fine Gael and Labour brokered Sunningdale agreement, declaring "Ireland is one Ireland, one nation, one country because God made it one". O'Malley also opposed the Coalition's attempts to end the ban in Ireland of the sale of contraceptives. When a supreme court judge declared that "the deterrence of fornication and promiscuity" was "a legitimate legislative aim and a matter not of private but of public morality", O'Malley publicly agreed. O'Malley's view on this matter would evolve over time and later in his career, radically alter his relationship with Fianna Fáil.
Fianna Fáil majority
At the 1977 general election, Fianna Fáil received a 23-seat majority in Dáil Éireann and O'Malley became Minister for Industry and Commerce at a time when Ireland's economic fortunes were going into rapid decline. In 1979, following Jack Lynch's resignation as Taoiseach and leader of Fianna Fáil, two candidates fought in the leadership election, George Colley and Charles Haughey. O'Malley and Martin O'Donoghue managed Colley's campaign, but Haughey won. Colley and O'Malley retained their positions in the government, but O'Donoghue's department was scrapped.
Opposition to Haughey
Following the February 1982 general election, Fianna Fáil, led by Haughey, failed to win an overall majority in the Dáil. Haughey was seen as the main reason for the election defeat. George Colley threw his support behind O'Malley as a leadership challenger, but no vote on the party leadership was taken. Haughey was elected Taoiseach again after negotiating confidence and supply arrangements with Sinn Féin The Workers' Party and two independents. O'Malley was appointed to the Cabinet as Minister for Trade, Commerce and Tourism.
A large number of TDs quickly grew disillusioned with Haughey's leadership and threw their support behind O'Malley in an effort to oust the incumbent leader. On 1 October 1982, a challenge to Haughey was initiated by the Kildare TD, Charlie McCreevy. O'Malley was on holiday in Spain at the time but rushed back to put his own name forward as a possible alternative to Haughey. He and his supporters resigned from the Cabinet. Haughey won an open vote by 58 votes to 22, with the result that those TDs who voted against Haughey, including O'Malley, became known as the Gang of 22.
In December 1982, a Fine Gael–Labour Party coalition government took office and its Minister for Justice, Michael Noonan, revealed that Haughey's government had been involved in the tapping of certain journalists' telephones. This set off another leadership struggle, with O'Malley, Gerry Collins, Michael O'Kennedy, Brian Lenihan and John Wilson all showing an interest in replacing Haughey. However, an official inquiry into the telephone tapping cleared Haughey of any wrongdoing and put more blame on Martin O'Donoghue than the other TDs involved. Haughey retained the leadership by 40 votes to 33.
George Colley died in 1983 and Martin O'Donoghue was no longer a TD. O'Malley became isolated within Fianna Fáil, with many of his supporters giving up hope of ever beating Haughey.
Expulsion from Fianna Fáil
In May 1984, the New Ireland Forum report was published. Haughey had been a key figure in the Forum and had agreed to several possible solutions for solving the problem of Northern Ireland. However, he responded to the publication by declaring that the only possible solution was a United Ireland. O'Malley strongly criticised this position and accused Haughey of stifling debate. At a meeting of the Fianna Fáil Parliamentary Party to discuss the report the whip was removed from O'Malley.
In early 1985, a bill was introduced by the Fine Gael–Labour Party government to liberalise the sale of contraceptives. Fianna Fáil opposed the bill, but O'Malley considered it a matter of conscience and wanted to support it. When it came to a vote he abstained. His famous phrase became "I stand by the Republic" stated during the extensive debates:
He then abstained on the bill however. O'Malley speech was later praised as one of the best ever delivered in the Dáil. However, that did not save him from Haughey's fury. On 26 February 1985, he was summoned to a party meeting and charged with "conduct unbecoming". Following a roll-call vote, he was expelled from Fianna Fáil by 73 votes to 9.
Progressive Democrats
Immediately afterwards, Desmond O'Malley was contacted by a young Fine Gael activist, Michael McDowell, who encouraged O'Malley to found a new political party and offered any help he could give. On 21 December 1985, O'Malley announced the formation of the Progressive Democrats. He was joined by Mary Harney (like O'Malley, an independent TD expelled from Fianna Fáil), and later by Fianna Fáil TDs Bobby Molloy and Pearse Wyse and Fine Gael TD Michael Keating. At the 1987 general election, the Progressive Democrats won 14 seats, making the new party the third-biggest in the Dáil. Among the TDs elected for the new party were O'Malley and his cousin Patrick O'Malley; Anne Colley, daughter of George Colley; Martin Gibbons, son of Jim Gibbons; Michael McDowell and Martin Cullen. Fianna Fáil returned to power with Haughey as head of a minority government.
Coalition with Fianna Fáil
In May 1989, Haughey called an early general election in the hope of winning an overall majority, but Fianna Fáil actually lost seats. The Progressive Democrats also lost seats, but held the balance of power. Haughey failed to be elected Taoiseach, as the Progressive Democrats voted for Fine Gael's leader Alan Dukes, but after Haughey formally resigned he entered into negotiations with the Progressive Democrats about forming a coalition. On 5 July 1989, Haughey and O'Malley agreed a deal for government, and O'Malley was appointed Minister for Industry and Commerce.
In 1990, Fianna Fáil's nominee in the presidential election was Brian Lenihan. A few weeks before the election a scandal broke over the accusation that Lenihan had phoned the President, Patrick Hillery in 1982, asking him not to dissolve the Dáil following the fall of Garret FitzGerald's government. Lenihan had always denied this, but now new evidence had come to light. O'Malley told Haughey that the Progressive Democrats would pull out of the coalition and support a no-confidence motion tabled by the opposition unless Lenihan left the government or Haughey opened an investigation into the incident. Haughey sacked Lenihan.
In early 1992, the programme for government was up for renewal. When it was revealed by Seán Doherty that Haughey had authorised the tapping of two journalists' telephones in 1982, O'Malley decided that the Progressive Democrats could no longer remain in his government. Haughey resigned on 11 February 1992 and was replaced as party leader and Taoiseach by Albert Reynolds. O'Malley and the Progressive Democrats continued in the coalition until Reynolds accused O'Malley of being "dishonest" while giving evidence to the Beef Tribunal. The collapse of the coalition led to the general election. Fianna Fáil returned to power in coalition with the Labour Party and the Progressive Democrats moved into Opposition.
Retirement and later life
In October 1993, O'Malley retired as leader of the Progressive Democrats. He was succeeded by Mary Harney, one of the co-founders of the party. In 1994, O'Malley ran for the European Parliament but was defeated by Pat Cox, a sitting MEP who left the Progressive Democrats to run as an independent when O'Malley was selected as the candidate to replace him. O'Malley remained as a TD until his retirement from politics at the 2002 general election, when he was succeeded as TD by his cousin Tim O'Malley. His daughter Fiona O'Malley was elected to the Dáil as a Progressive Democrats TD. His son Eoin O'Malley is a political scientist in the School of Law and Government at Dublin City University.
In October 2014 he released a memoir, Conduct Unbecoming: A Memoir. The book received mixed reviews. The Irish Examiner described it as "pungent and to the point" while historian Diarmuid Ferriter, writing for the Irish Times, dismissed it as "an infuriatingly bad and poorly-written book", noting that "all sorts of assertions are made without evidence or elaboration and this approach is maintained throughout the book, underlining the lack of coherence or focus". Ferriter also took issue with a number of claims made by O'Malley particularly regarding the Arms Crisis.
O'Malley died on 21 July 2021 at the age of 82, having been in poor health for some time.
See also
Families in the Oireachtas
References
External links
Desmond O'Malley file at Limerick city library, Ireland
1939 births
2021 deaths
Leaders of Progressive Democrats
Fianna Fáil TDs
Members of the 18th Dáil
Members of the 19th Dáil
Members of the 20th Dáil
Members of the 21st Dáil
Members of the 22nd Dáil
Members of the 23rd Dáil
Members of the 24th Dáil
Members of the 25th Dáil
Members of the 26th Dáil
Members of the 27th Dáil
Members of the 28th Dáil
Politicians from County Limerick
Local councillors in County Limerick
Ministers for Justice (Ireland)
Parliamentary Secretaries of the 19th Dáil
Progressive Democrats TDs
People educated at Crescent College
Alumni of University College Dublin
Government Chief Whip (Ireland)
Ministers for Enterprise, Trade and Employment | [
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254423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis%20Millers | Minneapolis Millers | The Minneapolis Millers were an American professional minor league baseball team that played in Minneapolis, Minnesota, through 1960. In the 19th century a different Minneapolis Millers were part of the Western League. The team played first in Athletic Park and later Nicollet Park.
History
The name Minneapolis Millers has been associated with a variety of professional minor league teams. The original Millers date back to 1884 when the Northwestern League was formed. This league failed and the Western League replaced it, absorbing some of the old teams. According to Stew Thornley, this team folded in 1891 due to financial problems. In 1894, another team calling itself the Millers was formed when Ban Johnson and Charles Comiskey revived the Western League in hopes of making it a second major league. The Millers continued to play in the Western League through 1900, when the name was changed to the American League to give it more of a national image. Following the 1900 season, several cities were abandoned for bigger markets in cities recently vacated by the National League, including Minneapolis. Some teams were transferred, as was the case of the Kansas City Blues franchise to become the Washington Nationals (Senators). However, some of the teams were just left out in the dark. It is unclear which of these two paths the Millers took, but most evidence seems to point toward abandonment, not a transfer to Baltimore, especially given that no player for the 1900 Millers played for the 1901 Orioles.
Several teams went by the nickname Millers, but the most prominent of these was the team in the American Association from 1902 to 1960. The Millers won four Association pennants during the 1910–23 tenure of "Pongo Joe" Cantillon, then were managed from 1924–31 by another legend, Michael Joseph Kelley, one of the great figures of American Association history. Kelley operated the team as club president until 1946. Broadcaster Halsey Hall was the Millers' play-by-play man from 1933 until the club folded in 1960 to make way for the Minnesota Twins.
Ted Williams, Willie Mays and Carl Yastrzemski were among some future major leaguers who played for the Millers. The Millers won nine pennants in the Association during their fifty-nine years. They played their home games at Nicollet Park until 1955, the ballpark being demolished the following year. That site, at 31st and Nicollet Avenue, is now the home of a Wells Fargo bank. In 1956 they moved into Metropolitan Stadium in Bloomington, until 1960.
They had a heated crosstown rivalry with the St. Paul Saints. The two clubs often played "streetcar double-headers" on holidays, playing one game in each city.
Over the years the Millers were participants in four Junior World Series; matchups between the champions of the American Association and the International League. In the 1932 championship, the team was defeated by the Newark Bears 4 games to 2. The Millers, under manager Bill Rigney, clinched the 1955 series against the Rochester Red Wings, 4 games to 3, in the final ball game played at Nicollet Park. In 1958, the Millers, with Gene Mauch as skipper, beat the Montreal Royals 4 games to 0. Their last appearance in this Series was in 1959, with Mauch as manager, when the Millers lost the series 4 games to 3 to the Havana Sugar Kings.
After the farm system era began, the Millers were top-level affiliates of the Boston Red Sox (1936–38; 1958–60) and New York Giants (1946–57). The Red Sox actually swapped ownership of their top farm club, the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League, for the Millers in 1957, enabling the Giants to move to San Francisco.
The Millers ceased operations after the 1960 season with the arrival of the Minnesota Twins in 1961. The Red Sox affiliated with the Pacific Coast League's Seattle Rainiers for 1961. The Millers ended with an overall record of 4,800–4,365. Through the years, Millers pitchers threw seven no-hitters, and a Miller batter was the league-leader in home runs twenty-one times and RBIs nine times.
Notable players
Numerous famous baseball players, managers and coaches have appeared for the Minneapolis Millers as players at some point in their careers, these players include:
Hall of Fame alumni
Orlando Cepeda (1957)
Jimmy Collins (1909)
Ray Dandridge (1949–1952)
Red Faber (1911–12)
George Kelly (1930–1931)
Billy Herman (1948)
Monte Irvin (1955)
Willie Mays (1951)
Rube Waddell (1911–1912)
Zack Wheat (1928)
Hoyt Wilhelm (1950–1951)
Ted Williams (1938)
Carl Yastrzemski (1960)
Notable alumni
Felipe Alou (1957)
Nick Altrock (1909–1911)
Moe Berg (1924)
Ossie Bluege (1922)
Sam Bohne (originally "Sam Cohen") (1927–29)
Zeke Bonura (1941)
Ralph Branca (1955)
Galen Cisco (1960)
Roger Bresnahan (1898–1899)
Gavvy Cravath (1909–1911)
Hughie Critz (1923–1924)
Jim Davenport (1957)
Chuck Dressen (1931)
Hobe Ferris (1910–1912)
Buck Freeman (1907–1908)
Mike González (1930)
Bubbles Hargrave (1931)
Long Tom Hughes (1909–10, 1918)
Ad Liska (1928)
Bill McKechnie (1921)
Gene Mauch (1958–1959)
Bill Monbouquette (1958)
Cy Morgan (1904)
Bob Meusel (1931)
Stu Miller (1957)
Billy Muffett (1959–1960)
Deacon Phillippe (1897–1898)
Dick Radatz (1960)
Paul Richards (1932)
Bill Rigney (1954–1955)
Don Schwall (1960)
Chuck Schilling (1960)
Haywood Sullivan (1959–1960)
Chuck Tanner (1959)
Hank Thompson (1957)
Phil Weintraub (1939–40)
Wes Westrum (1941–1942, 1947)
Earl Wilson (1959–1960)
Bill White (1956)
Al Worthington (1953–1955, 1960)
References
Before the Dome, Nodin Press, 1993, edited by David Anderson.
On to Nicollet: The Glory and Fame of the Minneapolis Millers, Nodin Press, 1988, by Stew Thornley.
Ballparks of North America, McFarland & Company, 1989, by Michael Benson.
Green Cathedrals, SABR, 1986, and Addison-Wesley, 1992, by Phil Lowry.
Baseball-Reference.com providing information regarding team rosters and players by individual years
External Links
Interview with Stew Thornley, author of On to Nicollet, the history of the Minneapolis Millers, NORTHERN LIGHTS Minnesota Author Interview TV Series #39 (1988)
Baseball teams established in 1884
Sports clubs disestablished in 1960
Defunct minor league baseball teams
Defunct American Association (1902–1997) teams
Sports in Minneapolis
Professional baseball teams in Minnesota
Boston Red Sox minor league affiliates
San Francisco Giants minor league affiliates
1884 establishments in Minnesota
1960 disestablishments in Minnesota
Defunct baseball teams in Minnesota
Northern League (1902-71) baseball teams
Defunct Western League teams
Baseball teams disestablished in 1960 | [
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254424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardhead | Hardhead | The hardhead (Aythya australis), also known as the white eyed duck, is the only true diving duck found in Australia. The common name "hardhead" has nothing to do with the density of the bird's skull, instead referring to the difficulty encountered by early taxidermists in processing the head. Hardheads are found in wetter, coastal regions of Australia, particularly in the south-east, but are known to disperse as far afield as New Guinea, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands.
Description
Hardheads are smaller than most ducks, usually not reaching much more than 45 cm long but sometimes reaching 60 cm, and noticeably more rounded in overall form than most ducks. Both male and female are a fairly uniform chocolate-brown above, with rufous flanks and white undersides (which are often not visible if the duck is in the water). The trailing edges and almost the entire underside of the wings are white. In the male, the eyes are a striking white, in the female, brown.
Distribution and habitat
Hardheads are common in the south-east of Australia, particularly in the Murray-Darling Basin, but also in the wetter country near the coasts. They are moderately nomadic in normal years, but disperse widely in times of drought. Significant numbers reach as far afield as New Guinea, New Zealand, and the islands of the Pacific, where they can remain for some time, even breeding for a season or two.
Hardheads prefer larger lakes, swamps and rivers with deep, still water, but are often seen in smaller streams, flooded grasslands, and shallow pools. As a general rule, they avoid coastal waters. They rarely come to land and never perch in trees.
Widespread throughout its large range, the hardhead is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Behaviour
Like the other members of the pochard group, hardheads feed by diving deeply, often staying submerged for as long as a minute at a time. They slip under the water with barely a ripple, simply lowering their heads and thrusting with their powerful webbed feet. They eat a broad range of small aquatic creatures, and supplement this with water weeds.
Hardheads are usually silent, but males have a soft, wheezy whistle and 'whirr'. Females have a loud rattling 'gaark' call.
References
External links
BirdLife Species Factsheet
Aythya
Birds described in 1838
Birds of Australia
Ducks
Taxa named by Thomas Campbell Eyton | [
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254426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right%20Back%20%28album%29 | Right Back (album) | Right Back is the debut album by Long Beach Dub Allstars, released September 28, 1999 through DreamWorks Records. It was followed up by the album Wonders of the World in 2001.
"Saw Red" is a cover of a Barrington Levy song, "She's Mine".
Track listing
Guest artists
This album features many additional artists, including:
Barrington Levy, performing on "Righteous Dub" & "Saw Red"
H.R., performing on "New Sun"
Dangr, performing on "Kick Down"
Tippa Irie, performing on "Sensi"
Half-Pint, performing on "Pass It On"
Fletcher Dragge, guitarist of Pennywise (band), performing on "My Own Life"
Credits
Eric Wilson: bass
Bud Gaugh: drums
Marshall Goodman: drums on 6, 7, 10, and 11, turntables, percussion, and programming
Opie Ortiz: lead vocals on 3, 6, 7, and 11
RAS-1: electric guitars, and lead vocals on 2, 4, 7, and 9
Jack Maness: keyboards, organ, and background vocals
Tim Wu: sax and flute
Mixed by: Miguel, Eddie Ashworth, and Field Marshall
Engineered by: Eddie Ashworth and Miguel Engineers: Rob "Smokey" Soto, and Jessy Moss
Production Assistant: Jessica Sickle So songs tracked at Record 2, Mendocino, California
Mastered by Eddy Shreyer at Oasis
Layout: Opie Ortiz and Donald Stodden
Artwork: Opie Ortiz and Joe Salamanca
Art Coordination: Mary Fagot
Management: Jon Phillips at Silverback Management
Executive Producers: Floyd Gaugh IV, Michael Happoldt, and Eric Wilson
References
1999 debut albums
Long Beach Dub Allstars albums
DreamWorks Records albums
Albums produced by Eddie Ashworth
Albums recorded at Long View Farm | [
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254427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20Beach%20Dub%20Allstars | Long Beach Dub Allstars | The Long Beach Dub Allstars are an American dub/ska/rock band formed in 1997 and disbanded in 2002, but reformed 10 years later.
History
Initial career (1997–2001)
Eric Wilson and Bud Gaugh met in childhood (in 1979) and later started their first garage punk band, consisting of drums, bass and vocals. In 1988, with Bradley Nowell, they formed the ska punk and reggae rock band Sublime, which went on to sell over 17 million albums worldwide. After Nowell's fatal heroin overdose in 1996, Wilson and Gaugh founded the Long Beach Dub Allstars (LBDAS), joined by frequent Sublime contributors Michael "Miguel" Happoldt, Todd Forman, and "Field" Marshall Goodman.
Eric Wilson said: "We will never replace the greatness that Sublime did or what Bradley has done." The LBDAS were originally a 10-piece and they recorded their debut recording called Right Back, which shortly after completion in 1999 saw the departure of three members. Their second album, Wonders of the World was recorded and released in 2001. It featured "Sunny Hours" featuring will.i.am from The Black Eyed Peas. "Sunny Hours" was also used as the theme song for the Friends spin-off Joey.
Breakup and aftermath (2002–2012)
In 2002, rumors that the band had broken up began to surface. Apparently the band had taken a hard-drug-free vow and some of the band's members had broken this vow, which caused Bud Gaugh to quit and join Eyes Adrift with Krist Novoselic of Nirvana and Curt Kirkwood of Meat Puppets. Gaugh subsequently played with Kirkwood and Michael Happoldt in the band Volcano. Eric Wilson, Trey Pangborn and RAS-1 formed Long Beach Shortbus with former Slightly Stoopid and temporary Sublime drummer, Kelly Vargas (later replaced by Damion Ramirez). Marshall Goodman, Jack Maness and Opie Ortiz formed Dubcat, with members of Hepcat. Shortbus has had slightly more success than Dubcat, though the latter has yet to release an album. Eric Wilson and Bud Gaugh have been reunited in Sublime with Rome, a new incarnation of Sublime which chiefly performs songs by that band and features Rome Ramirez in place of Bradley Nowell.
Reunion (2012–present)
On September 1, 2012, Long Beach Dub Allstars played their first show in 11 years at the Queen Mary Events Park next to the Queen Mary in Long Beach, California, where they opened for The Wailers and played alongside Tribal Seeds. Then on September 30, 2012, Long Beach Dub Allstars performed at the Yost Theater in Santa Ana, California, where they opened for Fishbone.
They played another show at the Brixton Southbay in Redondo Beach, California on January 25, 2013, with the local Redondo Beach Band Special "C". The reunion lineup consists of Marshall Goodman "Ras MG" on drums, Michael "Miguel" Happoldt on lead guitar/vocals, Opie Ortiz on vocals, Jack Maness on vocals/guitar/keys, Tim Wu on sax/flute/vocals, and Edwin Kampwith on bass.
When asked what kind of style the fans could look forward to hearing in possible new material, Jack Maness stated, "We’re doing some of the things that we’re true to and we’re also expanding into some other stuff."
According to Opie, they are currently doing some home recording but are looking to get into a studio: "Wherever we can get a good sound". Without giving too much away, the Long Beach legends hinted that guest appearances can be expected on future releases from artists they have worked with in the past, as well as new artists that they have plans on working with in the future.
In 2017, the group toured across California and played one-off shows in Nevada and Florida. They are set to play two shows in San Francisco and Sacramento early in 2018, as well as a gig at Red Rocks Amphitheatre on April 19.
On May 29, 2020, the Long Beach Dub Allstars released their eponymous third album under Suburban Noize Records.
Current group members
Opie Ortiz (vocals, album artwork)
Jack Maness (piano)
Edwin Kampwirth (bass)
Michael "Miguel" Happoldt (guitar, Sublime contributor)
Marshall Goodman "Ras MG" (drums, turntables, percussion, former Sublime member)
Tim Wu (alto saxophone, baritone saxophone, flute, vocals) now plays on and off with Reggae infused Rap-Rock group Chapter 11
Roger Rivas (organ)
Devin Morrison (guitar, vocals)
Group members
Opie Ortiz (vocals, album artwork)
Marshall Goodman "Ras MG" (drums, turntables, percussion, former Sublime member)
Roger Rivas (Keyboards)
Edwin Kampwirth (Bass)
Devin Morrison (Guitar)
Brad Croes (Sax)
Former members
Todd Forman (alto saxophone, percussion)
Isaiah Ikey Owens (Keyboard, The Mars Volta)
Eric Wilson (bass, Sublime and Sublime with Rome)
Bud Gaugh (drums, also Sublime and Sublime with Rome)
RAS-1 (Lead Vocals, guitar)
Jack Maness (keyboard, vocals)
Michael "Miguel" Happoldt (guitar, Sublime contributor)
Tim Wu (alto saxophone, baritone saxophone, flute, vocals) now plays on and off with Reggae infused Rap-Rock group Chapter 11
The group started out as a 10-piece, but Forman and Owens left while recording for the album Right Back. It is unclear whether or not they appear on the album. Miguel left shortly after it was recorded; he is shown on the album and is credited, but is not cited as a member.
Discography
Albums
Right Back (1999) No. 67 Billboard 200
Wonders of the World (2001) No. 59 Billboard 200
Long Beach Dub Allstars (2020)
Singles
"Trailer Ras" / "Kick Down" (1999)
"Sunny Hours" (2001) No. 28 Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks
"Holding On" / "Steady Customer" (2017)
Compilation appearances
Free the West Memphis 3 – "The Harder They Come" with Joe Strummer and Tippa Irie.
References
External links
MTV.com - The Long Beach Dub Allstars
Yahoo! LAUNCH - Long Beach Dub Allstars: Artist Page
MSN Entertainment page
Ex-Sublime Drummer Arrested
Sublime Official Website
Culture of Long Beach, California
Punk rock groups from California
Sublime (band)
Musical groups established in 1997
Musical groups disestablished in 2002
Musical groups reestablished in 2012
Reggae rock groups | [
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254428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander-in-chief | Commander-in-chief | A commander-in-chief or supreme commander is the person who exercises supreme command and control over armed forces or a military branch. As a technical term, it refers to military competencies that reside in a country's executive leadership, a head of state or a head of government.
Definition
The formal role and title of a ruler commanding the armed forces derives from Imperator of the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, who possessed imperium (command and other regal) powers.
In English use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639. It continued to be used during the English Civil War. A nation's head of state (monarchical or republican) usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. In a parliamentary system, the executive branch is ultimately dependent upon the will of the legislature; although the legislature does not issue orders directly to the armed forces and therefore does not control the military in any operational sense. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the military forces within their territory.
A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as supreme commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is also used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship, and as a subordinate (usually) to a head of state (see Generalissimo). The term is also used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch, special branch or within a theatre of operations.
Heads of state as commanders-in-chief
This includes heads of states who:
Are chief executives with the political mandate to undertake discretionary decision-making, including command of the armed forces.
Mostly ceremonial heads of state (constitutional monarchs, viceroys and presidents in parliamentary republics) with residual substantive reserve powers over the armed forces, acting under normal circumstances on the constitutional advice of chief executives with the political mandate to undertake discretionary decision-making.
Albania
According to the Constitution of Albania, the president of the Republic of Albania is the commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces.
Argentina
Under part II, chapter III, article 99, subsections 12, 13, 14 and 15, the Constitution of Argentina states that the president of the Argentine Nation is the "Commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Nation". It also states that the president is entitled to provide military posts in the granting of the jobs or grades of senior officers of the armed forces, and by itself on the battlefield; runs with its organization and distribution according to needs of the Nation and declares war and orders reprisals with the consent and approval of the Argentine National Congress.
The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the president in the management of the armed forces (Army, Navy and Air Force).
Armenia
The prime minister of Armenia holds the title of Supreme Commander in Chief of the Armenian Armed Forces (). The hereditary title and rank of Sparapet () was a used to describe the supreme commander of the military forces of ancient and medieval Armenia. Since its introduction in the 2nd century BC, it is often used today to describe famous and high-ranking military officials. Notable Armenians to have held the title include Garegin Nzhdeh, the supreme commander of the Republic of Mountainous Armenia. and Vazgen Sargsyan, the two-time defense minister of Armenia and prime minister in the 1990s.
Australia
Under chapter II of section 68 titled Command of the naval and military forces, the Constitution of Australia states that:
In practice, however, the Governor-General does not play an active part in the Australian Defence Force's command structure, and the democratically accountable Australian Cabinet (chaired by the Prime Minister) de facto controls the ADF. The Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. Section 8 of the Defence Act 1903 states:
Austria
Bangladesh
The commander-in-chief of Bangladesh Armed Forces is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence, headed by the minister of defence, which provides the policy framework and resources to the Armed Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the context of the defence of the country.
The only exception was the first commander-in-chief, General M. A. G. Osmani, during Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, who was commander of all Bangladesh Forces, reinstated to active duty by official BD government order, which after independence was gazetted in 1972. He retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the president of Bangladesh.
Belarus
The president of Belarus is the Commander-in-Chief of the Belarusian Armed Forces (). The Belarusian commander in chief has an official uniform befitting of the rank, which the president wears on official occasion and ceremonies in relation to the military. The role of commander in chief is laid out in Article 28 of the Constitution of Belarus, which states that he/she has the authority to "appoint and dismiss the high command of the Armed Forces".
Belgium
Article 167 of the Constitution of Belgium designates the king as the commander-in-chief. In practice, the Chief of Defence is the head and commander of the Belgian Armed Forces. He reports directly to the Minister of Defence and is responsible for advising the Minister, for the implementation of defence policy and for the administration of the department.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
According to the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the collective Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In peace, the commander-in-chief exercises his command through the minister of defence. In war and in cases where the minister of defence is not fulfilling orders, the commander-in-chief exercises his command directly through the Chief of Joint Staff.
Brazil
Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the supreme command of the president of the Republic.
Brunei
The Sultan of Brunei is the commander-in-chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces.
Canada
The powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the governor general of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief. In this capacity, the Governor General is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office and special cuff braid serving as rank insignia.
By constitutional convention, the Crown's prerogative powers over the armed forces and constitutional powers as commander-in-chief are exercised on the advice of the prime minister and the rest of Cabinet, the governing ministry that commands the confidence of the House of Commons. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to the Parliament of Canada for all matters related to national defence and the Canadian Armed Forces. In theory, the governor general could use his or her powers as commander-in-chief to stop any attempts to use the Canadian Forces unconstitutionally, though this has never occurred and would likely be highly controversial.
China
Article 93 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states the authority to direct the Central Military Commission (CMC) of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China is vested with the Central Military Commission; composed of a Chairman, and numerous Vice-Chairmen and members. The same article also states that the Chairman of the Central Military Commission assumes overall responsibility for the work of the Central Military Commission, as Supreme Military Commander, and that it is responsible to the National People's Congress and the Standing Committee.
Furthermore, Article 80 gives the president of the People's Republic of China (in addition to ceremonial head of state duties) the power to proclaim martial law, proclaim a state of war, and to issue mobilisation orders upon the decision of National People's Congress and its Standing Committee.
The CMC Chairman and the president are distinctly separate state offices and they have not always been held by the same persons. However, beginning in 1993, during the tenure of Jiang Zemin as CMC Chairman and General Secretary of the Communist Party, it has been standard practice to have the president, the CMC chairman, and the CCP general secretary to be normally held by the same person; although the slight differences in the start and end of terms for those respective offices means that there is some overlap between an occupant and his predecessor.
Hong Kong
When Hong Kong was under British authority, the civilian governor was the ex officio commander-in-chief of the British Forces Overseas Hong Kong. After the territory's handover to the People's Republic of China in 1997, the commanders of the People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison are PLA personnel from mainland China and commanded by the CMC.
Croatia
According to the Croatian constitution, the president of Croatia is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. In peace, the commander-in-chief exercises his command through the minister of defence. In war and in cases where the minister of defence is not fulfilling orders, the commander-in-chief exercises his command directly through the chief of General Staff.
Czech Republic
According to the 1992 constitution, the president of the Czech Republic is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces according to Article 63(1)(c), and appoints and promotes generals under Article 63(1)(f). The president needs the countersignature of the prime minister for decisions concerning the above-mentioned provisions as per Articles 63(3-4), or otherwise, they are not valid. The prime minister may delegate to other ministers the right to countersign these decisions of the president. The political responsibility for the Armed Forces is borne by the Government, which in Article 67 is defined as the "supreme body of executive power". According to Articles 39 & 43, the Parliament must give consent to the dispatch of Czech military forces outside the territory of the Czech Republic.
The Ministry of Defence is the central authority of the state administration for the control of the Armed Forces. The actual day-to-day management is vested in the chief of the general staff, the Czech chief of defence equivalent.
Denmark
The position of the Danish monarch as the head of the military is deeply rooted in tradition. While the 1953 constitution does not explicitly designate the monarch as commander-in-chief; it is implicit, given the general provision in article 12 and the more specific wording of article 19 (2): "Except for purposes of defence against an armed attack upon the Realm or Danish forces, the King shall not use military force against any foreign state without the consent of the Folketing. Any measure which the King may take in pursuance of this provision shall forthwith be submitted to the Folketing".
However, when reading the Danish Constitution, it is important to bear in mind that the king in this context is understood by Danish jurists to be read as the government (consisting of the prime minister and other ministers). This is a logical consequence of articles 12, 13 and 14, all of which in essence stipulates that the powers vested in the monarch can only be exercised through ministers, who are responsible for all acts. Thus, the Government, in effect, holds the supreme command authority implied in articles 12 and 19(2).
The Danish Defence Law () designates in article 9 the minister of defence as the supreme authority in Defence (). Under the minister is the chief of defence, the senior-ranking professional military officer heading the Defence Command, who commands the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and other units not reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence.
Dominican Republic
According to the Constitution, Article 128, Section II, Title IV, the president is the head of foreign policy, the civil administration and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, the National Police and all other state's security agencies.
Egypt
In Egypt, the president of the Republic holds the ceremonial title of Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. A member of the government, usually defence minister, is commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces, the incumbent being Mohamed Ahmed Zaki. The president is the only individual capable of declaring war. With the exception of Mohamed Morsi, who briefly served as president from 2012 to 2013, all Egyptian presidents have been former military officers, including the incumbent Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. During the Yom Kippur War, the president played a major role at all levels of the planning of the war, and was, in a literal sense, Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, giving direct orders to the commanders from the headquarters during the war as field marshal of the army, marshal of the air force and air defence forces and admiral of the navy. Anwar Sadat often wore his military uniform, while president Hosni Mubarak had abandoned this tradition.
Eswatini
The king of Eswatini is the commander in chief of the Umbutfo Eswatini Defence Force.
Finland
According to the Finnish constitution, the president of Finland is the commander-in-chief of all Finnish military forces. In practice, the everyday command and control is in the hands of Chief of Defence and the commander of the Finnish Border Guard. The economic administration of the Finnish Defence Force is the responsibility of Ministry of Defence. The duty of the president is to decide upon
main principles of the military defence of the realm
principles of the execution of the military defence
other military command matters with wide-ranging importance to the military activity or the military establishment
any other military command issue that he wishes to decide upon
Since the constitutional reform of 2000, the minister of defence has the right to be present when the president uses his command powers, unless the matter is of immediate concern. In questions of strategic importance, the prime minister has the same right.
The president commissions and promotes officers and decides on activating reservists for extraordinary service and on the mobilisation of the Defence Forces. If Parliament is not in session when a decision to mobilise is taken, it must be immediately convened. Declarations of a state of emergency (, literally, "state of preparedness") and state of war (, lit. "state of defence") are declared by a presidential decree, given after a motion by the government, which is then submitted to the Parliament for ratification.Puolustustilalaki (1083/1991) (State of Defence Act) §§3–4. Retrieved on 30 August 2015.
The president has, in a state of emergency, the right to transfer the position of the commander-in-chief to another Finnish citizen.
France
In France, the President of the Republic is designated as "Chef des Armées" (literally "Chief of the Armies") under article 15 of the Constitution; the officeholder is as such the supreme executive authority in military affairs. Article 16 provides the President with extensive emergency powers.
However, owing to the nature of the semi-presidential system, the Prime Minister also has key constitutional powers under article 21: "He shall be responsible for national defence" and has "power to make regulations and shall make appointments to civil and military posts".
Pre-1958
Since the reign of Louis XIV, France has been strongly centralised. After crushing local nobles engaged in warlord-ism, the kings of France retained all authority with the help of able yet discreet Prime ministers (Mazarin, Richelieu).
The French Revolution transferred the supreme authority to the King (in the context of the short-lived constitutional monarchy), then to the multi-member Comité de Salut Public during the Convention, as well as later to the Directoire, before being regained in the hands of Consul Napoléon Bonaparte, later Emperor Napoléon I, alone.
The Restoration restored the authority of the King, first in an absolute monarchy, then the constitutional July Monarchy of Louis Philippe, before it was overthrown in turn by the Second Republic and later the Second Empire of Napoleon III.
The following Third Republic was a parliamentary system, where the military authority was held by the President of the Council of Ministers, head of government, although the President, head of state, retained ceremonial powers. During World War I, the many visits to the trenches by the elder statesman Georges Clemenceau impressed the soldiers and earned him the nickname Father of Victory ().
During World War II, Maréchal Philippe Pétain assumed power and held the supreme authority in Vichy France, while Général Charles de Gaulle, acting on behalf of the previous regime, founded the Free French Forces, upon which he held supreme authority all through the war.
The following and short-lived Fourth Republic was a parliamentary system, which was replaced by the present Fifth Republic, a semi-presidential system.
Ghana
According to the Constitution of Ghana, the president of Ghana is the commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces.
Guyana
According to the Guyanese constitution, the president is commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. There is a rank insignia for the position.
India
Supreme command of the Indian Armed Forces is vested in the president of India, although effective executive power and responsibility for national defence resides with the Cabinet of India headed by the prime minister. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence, headed by the minister of defence, which provides the policy framework and resources to the Armed Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the context of the defence of the country.
On 15 August 1947, each service was placed under its own commander-in-chief. In 1955, the three service chiefs were re-designated as the chief of the Army staff (rank of general), the chief of the naval staff (rank of vice admiral) and the chief of the air staff (rank of Air marshal) with the president as the supreme commander. The chief of the air staff was raised to the rank of air chief marshal in 1965 and the chief of the naval staff raised to the rank of admiral in 1968. Starting from 1 January 2020, all the three chiefs of staff report to the newly formed chief of defence staff.
Indonesia
According to article 10 of the Constitution of Indonesia, the president of Indonesia holds the supreme command of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Day-to-day operations of the Armed Forces is handled by the Commander of the Armed Forces (), a 4-star officer whom can be a general (Army/Marine), an admiral (Navy), or an air chief marshal (Air Force). The commander of the Armed Forces is appointed by the president from active chiefs of staff (Army, Navy, or Air Force) and must get approval from the House of Representatives. The chief of staff is also appointed by the president from senior military officers. The president as commander-in-chief also has authority in senior military officer mutation and promotion in tour of duty. The minister of defense has responsibility to assist the president in defense issues and create policies about authorization use of military force, manage defense budget, etc. According to article 11 of the Constitution, For authorization use of military forces or declaration of war, the president must get approval from House of Representatives. The commander of Armed Forces gives recommendations to the minister of defense in creating national defense policies.
Iran
Before 1979, the Shah was the commander-in-chief in Iran. After the inception of the Islamic Republic, the president of Iran was initially appointed that task, with Abolhassan Bani Sadr being the first commander-in-chief. However, Abolhassan Bani Sadr was impeached on 22 June 1981. It was after this event that the role of commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran was given to the Supreme Leader of Iran.
Ireland
The supreme commander of the Defence Forces is the president of Ireland, but in practice the minister for defence acts on the president's behalf and reports to the Government of Ireland. The minister for defence is advised by the Council of Defence on the business of the Department of Defence. The Defence Forces are organised under the chief of staff, a three star officer, and are organised into three service branches, the Army, Naval Service, and Air Corps.
Italy
The Constitution of Italy, in article 87, states that the President of the Republic:
"is the commander of the armed forces and chairman of the supreme defense council constituted by law, although effective executive power and responsibility for national defence resides with the government headed by the Prime Minister; the President declares war according to the decision of the parliament".
Kenya
Chapter 131 of the Constitution of Kenya identifies the president as the commander-in-chief of the Kenya Defence Forces and the chairperson of the National Security Council. The president appoints a chief of general staff, known as the Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces, who acts as the principal military adviser to the president and the National Security Council. The Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces is drawn from one of the branches of the Armed Forces, the Kenya Army, the Kenya Navy or the Kenya Air Force.
Latvia
In accordance with Article 42 of the Constitution of Latvia, the president of Latvia is Commander-in-Chief of the Latvian National Armed Forces. Being a civilian, in times of war, he or she may appoint a chief military commander.
Malaysia
In accordance with Article 41 of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces. As such, he is the highest-ranking officer in the military establishment, with the power to appoint the Chief of Staff (on the advice of the Armed Forces Council). He also appoints the service heads of each of the three branches of the military.
The Federal Constitution establishes that the office of Supreme Commander is attached to the person of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as the Federation's head of state:
Federal Constitution, Article 41 - The Yang di-Pertuan Agong shall be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the Federation.
The Federal Parliament passed the Federal Armed Forces Act to consolidate in one law all regulations that govern the three services ( Army, Navy, and Air Force ). It establishes the function and duties of the Federal Head of State in the capacity as Supreme Commander.
Mauritius
In the Republic of Mauritius, the president of the Republic is the commander-in-chief, according to Article 28 of the Constitution.
After independence in 1968, Mauritius continued to recognise the queen of Mauritius, as represented by the governor-general of Mauritius, as commander-in-chief. After the country was proclaimed a Commonwealth Republic in 1992, the new constitution stipulated that a president would assume the position of the head of state and commander-in-chief.
Mexico
Section VI of Article 89 of the Constitution states that the President of the United Mexican States shall "Preserve national security, in accordance with the respective law, and dispose of the full permanent Armed Force, that is to say the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, for the interior security and exterior defense of the Federation".
Both the Organic Law of the Mexican Army and Air Force and the Organic Law of the Mexican Navy clearly state the President of the Republic is "Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces". The President is ex officio the only five-star general of Mexico.
The Constitution also grants the President freedom to appoint and remove the Secretary of the Navy and the Secretary of National Defense.
New Zealand
The governor-general of New Zealand serves as the commander-in-chief of New Zealand, and is constitutionally the supreme authority in defence matters in New Zealand. In practice however, the position of commander-in-chief is ceremonial, with the governor-general primarily serving as a "patron of the New Zealand Defence Force". The governor-general exercises his authority as commander-in-chief on the advice of the minister of defence or other ministers of the New Zealand Government.
Clause I of the Letter Patents 1983 formally named the office as Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief, although the document does not further enumerate on their role as "commander-in-chief". The governor-general's is also the statutory commander in chief of the New Zealand Defence Force through the Defence Act 1990. Sections five and six of the Defence Act 1990 outlines the governor-general's authority to raise and maintain armed forces.
Nigeria
In accordance with the Nigerian Constitution, the president of Nigeria is the commander-in-chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces.
Norway
Harald V, King of Norway, officially retains executive power. Article 25 of the constitution states: "The King is commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the realm"
However, following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government, the duties of the Monarch have since become strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the prime minister and other ministers in the executive government. Accordingly, the Monarch is commander-in-chief of the Norwegian Armed Forces, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad and as a symbol of unity.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, before the 1973 Constitution, the head of the army, i.e., the Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army, was referred as "Commander-in-Chief". The head of army term was replaced to "Chief of Staff" on 20 March 1972 during military reforms The chief of staff is a four-star officer whose term is 3 years, but can be extended or renewed once. After 1973 constitution The chief of Army/Air/Naval staff is chosen by the Prime Minister of Pakistan and appointed by the President of Pakistan as commander in chief of Pakistan Armed Forces.
Philippines
The president of the Philippines is both head of state and head of government, and is mandated by Article VII, Section 18 of the 1987 Constitution to be commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.
Poland
In Poland, the President is Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. However, the art. 134 ust. 4 of the constitution states:
During the interbellum period, the General Inspector of the Armed Forces was appointed the commander-in-chief for the time of war (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces). However, after the war this function ceased to exist—thus it is likely that if Poland formally participates in a war, Chief of the General Staff of the Polish Armed Forces will be appointed Supreme Commander.
Portugal
The president of the Portuguese Republic is the constitutional Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (in Portuguese: Comandante Supremo das Forças Armadas). However, the operational command is delegated in the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces.
In the Portuguese military parlance, the term "Commander-in-Chief" (in Portuguese: comandante-em-chefe or simply comandante-chefe) refers to the unified military commander of all the land, naval and air forces in a theater of operations.
Taiwan
As stipulated in the Constitution of the Republic of China, the president is also the commander-in-chief of the ROC Armed Forces (including the Military Police), the Special Forces, and the National Space Organization.
Russia
According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, (Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1) the president is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The president approves the military doctrine and appoints the defense minister and the chief and other members of the general staff.
The Russian Armed Forces is divided into three services: the Russian Ground Forces, the Russian Navy, and the Russian Air Force. In addition there are three independent arms of service: Strategic Missile Troops, Russian Aerospace Defense Forces, and the Russian Airborne Troops. The Air Defence Troops, the former Soviet Air Defence Forces, have been subordinated into the Air Force since 1998.
Rwanda
According to the Constitution of Rwanda, The president of Rwanda is the commander-in-chief of Rwanda Defence Forces.
Saudi Arabia
Article 60 of the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia states: "The King is the commander-in-chief of all the Military Forces. He appoints officers and puts an end to their duties in accordance with the law."
Article 61 further states: "The King declares a state of emergency, general mobilization and war, and the law defines the rules for this."
Lastly, Article 62 states: "If there is a danger threatening the safety of the Kingdom or its territorial integrity, or the security of its people and its interests, or which impedes the functioning of the state institutions, the King may take urgent measures in order to deal with this danger And if the King considers that these measures should continue, he may then implement the necessary regulations to this end."
Serbia
In accordance with the law, the president of Serbia is the commander-in-chief of Armed Forces and in command of the military. He appoints, promotes and recalls officers of the Army of Serbia.
Slovenia
In Slovenia, the commander-in-chief is formally the president of Slovenia, although he or she does not exercise this position in peacetime. Instead, this role is usually assumed by the minister of defence.
South Africa
Chapter 11, section 202(1) of the Constitution of South Africa states that the president of South Africa is the commander-in-chief of the South African National Defence Force. The constitution places conditions on when and how that power may be employed and requires regular reports to the Parliament of South Africa.
South Korea
In accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Korea, the Commander-in-Chief and the Supreme Authority on all military matters is the President of South Korea.
Spain
As with most remaining European monarchies, the position of the Spanish monarch as the nominal head of the armed forces is deeply rooted in traditions going centuries back.
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 authorizes the King in article 62 (h):
The king regularly chairs sessions of the National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of staff and the individual general staffs of each branch of the Armed Forces in his capacity as supreme commander.
All promotions to military rank and positions in the high command of the armed forces are made by Royal decree signed by the king and the minister of defense
However, article 64 require that all official acts of the King must be countersigned, by the President of the Government or other competent minister, for them to become valid. This counter/signature is used to limit a possible abuse of power by any single individual.
This constitutional provision can and has been made the subject of an exception in crisis situations.
In 1981 the king as supreme commander of the armed forces assumed direct command in order to put down a military coup attempt. All members of the government were at that time trapped/held hostage in Parliament and were unable to counter sign the kings orders. This did not however result in those orders being ruled unenforceable or unconstitutional. The coup collapsed after the king ordered all army units to leave the streets and return to their barracks. Furthermore, article 97 stipulates that;
No provision in the constitution requires the king/government to seek approval from the Cortes Generales before sending the armed forces abroad.
Since 1984, the chief of the defence staff is the professional head of the armed forces and, under the authority of the minister of defence, is responsible for military operations and military organisation.
Sri Lanka
As head of state, the president of Sri Lanka, is nominally the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The National Security Council, chaired by the president is the authority charged with formulating and executing defence policy for the nation. The highest level of military headquarters is the Ministry of Defence, since 1978 except for a few rare occasions the president retained the portfolio defence, thus being the minister of defence. The ministry and the armed forces have been controlled by the during these periods by either a minister of state, deputy minister for defence, and of recently the permanent secretary to the Ministry of Defence. Prior to 1978 the prime minister held the portfolio of minister of defence and external affairs, and was supported by a parliamentary secretary for defence and external affairs.
Responsibility for the management of the forces is Ministry of Defence, while the planning and execution of combined operations is the responsibility of the Joint Operations Command (JOC). The JOC is headed by the chief of the defence staff who is the most senior officer in the Armed Forces and is an appointment that can be held by an air chief marshal, admiral, or general. The three services have their own respective professional chiefs: the commander of the Army, the commander of the Navy and the commander of the Air Force, who have much autonomy.
Suriname
In Suriname, the constitution gives the president "supreme authority over the armed forces and all of its members".
Thailand
The "Head of the Thai Armed Forces" (; ) is a position vested in the Thai monarch, who as sovereign and head of state is the commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Armed Forces.
Turkey
President of the Republic of Turkey has the constitutional right to represent the Supreme Military Command of the Turkish Armed Forces, on behalf of the Turkish Grand National Assembly, and to decide on the mobilization of the Turkish Armed Forces, to appoint the chief of the general staff, to call the National Security Council to meet, to preside over the National Security Council, to proclaim martial law or state of emergency, and to issue decrees having the force of law, upon a decision of the Council of Ministers meeting under his/her chairmanship. With all these issues above written in the Constitution of Turkey, the executive rights are given to the president of the Republic of Turkey to be represented as the commander-in-chief of the nation.
United Kingdom
The British monarch is the "Head of the British Armed Forces" and has also been described as "Commander-in-Chief of the British Armed Forces". The prime minister (acting with the support of the Cabinet) makes the key decisions on the use of the armed forces.Review of the Royal Prerogative Powers: Final Report, Ministry of Justice, October 2009. Retrieved on 12 May 2013. The queen, however, remains the "ultimate authority" of the military, with officers and personnel swearing allegiance only to the monarch.
The term is also used for the military commander-in-chief of a command (a region of military authority, sometimes combined with the civil office of Governor of a colony (now called a British Overseas Territory)), and for the naval commander-in-chief of a station of the Royal Navy, such as the North America and West Indies Station.
United States
According to Article II, Section 2, Clause I of the Constitution, the president of the United States is “Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.”
Since the National Security Act of 1947, this has been understood to mean all United States Armed Forces.
U.S. ranks have their roots in British military traditions, with the president possessing ultimate authority, but no rank, maintaining a civilian status.
The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority.
U.S. states
In U.S. states, the governor also serves as the commander-in-chief of the National Guard, State Militia, and State Defense Forces. In the Commonwealth of Kentucky, for example, KRS 37.180 states:
Similarly, Section 140 of Article 2 of the California Military and Veterans Code states:
Uzbekistan
The Uzbek president holds the constitutional position of Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of Uzbekistan, according to the Constitution of Uzbekistan. In this capacity, the president give decisions on declaring war or martial law, the appointment of senior officials, and the development of the armed forces. In the event of an attack on the republic, the president announce a state of war and will submit within 72 hours a resolution for a plan of action to the Oliy Majlis. When the country is in a wartime situation, the minister of defense will serve in an official capacity as the deputy supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces, essentially assisting the president in his day-to-day activities and decisions regarding national security.
Venezuela
According to the Venezuelan constitution, the president is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The office of the Venezuelan military supreme commander in chief has always been held by the president of Venezuela as per constitutional requirements. However, with a new law sanctioned in 2008, the "comandante en jefe" rank is not only a function attributed to the executive branch but a full military rank given to the president upon taking office. Upon assumption he receives a saber, epaulette, shoulder knot, shoulder board and sleeve insignia and full military uniform to be used in military events while performing the duties as president. The shoulder insignia mirrors Cuban practice but is derived from the German-styled officer rank insignia.
Vietnam
The commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the president of Vietnam, through his post as chairman of National Defense and Security Council. Though this position is nominal and real power is assumed by the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam. The secretary of Central Military Commission (usually the general secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam) is the de facto commander.
The minister of Defence oversees operations of the Ministry of Defence, and the Vietnam People's Army. He also oversees such agencies as the General Staff and the General Logistics Department. However, military policy is ultimately directed by the Central Military Commission of the ruling Communist Party of Vietnam.
Other officeholders as commanders-in-chief or other situations
Ethiopia
The 1995 Constitution designates the prime minister of Ethiopia as "Commander-in-Chief of the national armed forces" in Article 74(1).
Germany
Present, Federal Republic (1956-)
Upon the re-militarization of West Germany in 1955, when it joined NATO, the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany was amended in 1956 to include constitutional provisions for the command of the armed forces.
In peacetime, under Article 65a, the federal minister of defence () holds the supreme command authority () over the Bundeswehr.
If the Bundestag declares the state of defence (), the Federal Chancellor, under Article 115b, assumes the command authority over the armed forces. , this has never happened.
The president of Germany has thus no role in the command of the forces, although he continues to receive the ceremonial honors due to his position as a head of state.
The rationale for placing the command authority over the armed forces directly with the responsible minister in charge of the military establishment, and thus breaking with the longstanding German constitutional tradition in both earlier monarchical and republican systems of placing it with the head of state, was that in a democratic parliamentary system the command authority should directly reside where it would be exercised and where it is subject to the parliamentary control of the Bundestag at all times. By assigning it directly to the responsible minister, instead of with the Federal Chancellor, this also meant that military affairs is but one of the many integrated responsibilities of the government; in stark contrast of earlier times when the separate division of the military establishment from the civil administration allowed the former to act as a state within a state (in contrast to the Federal Republic, the Weimar Republic began with the Ebert–Groener pact, which kept the military establishment as an autonomous force outside the control of politics; the 1925 election of Paul von Hindenburg as Reichpräsident, surrounded by his camarilla and the machinations of Kurt von Schleicher, did little to reverse the trend). Politik und Militär in Deutschland: die Bundespräsidenten und Bundeskanzler und ihre Beziehung zu Soldatentum und Bundeswehr, 2011. Retrieved on 21 August 2013.
East Germany (1960-1990)
The legislature of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), the Volkskammer, enacted on 13 February 1960 the Law on the Formation of the National Defense Council of the GDR, which established a council consisting of a chairman and at least 12 members. This was later incorporated into the GDR Constitution in April 1968. The National Defense Council held the supreme command of the National People's Army (including the internal security forces), and the council's chairman (usually the General Secretary of the ruling Socialist Unity Party) was considered the GDR's commander-in-chief.
The GDR joined with the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990, upon which the GDR's constitution and armed forces were abolished.
Before 1945
During the Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire, Weimar Republic and the Nazi era, whoever was the head of state—the king of Prussia/German emperor (under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia/Constitution of the German Empire) to 1918, the Reichspräsident (under the Weimar Constitution) to 1934, and the führer from 1934 to 1945—was the head of the Armed Forces (: literally "Possessor of highest command").
Below the level of the head of state, each military branch () had its own head who reported directly to the head of state and held the highest rank in his service; in the Reichsheer - Generalfeldmarschall, and in the Reichsmarine - Grossadmiral.
After Chancellor Adolf Hitler assumed power as Führer (after the death of President Paul von Hindenburg), he would later grant his war minister, Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg, the title of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in 1935, when conscription was reintroduced. However, in 1938 due to the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler withdrew the commander-in-chief title, abolished the war ministerial post and assumed personal command of the Armed Forces. The war ministerial post was de facto overtaken by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, which was headed by Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel until the German surrender.
Greece
According to Article 45 of the Greek Constitution, the president is the head of the Greek Armed Forces, but their administration is exercised by the government. The prime minister, the minister for national defence and the chief of the general staff are the ones who command the Armed Forces.
Israel
In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel (chaired by the prime minister) as a collective body. The authority of the government is exercised by the minister of defense on behalf of the Government. However, the commander-in-chief of the IDF is the chief of general staff who, despite being subordinate to the minister of defense, holds the highest level of command within the military.
Japan
In Japan, prior to the Meiji Restoration the role of the commander-in-chief was vested in the shōgun (the most militarily powerful samurai daimyō). After the dissolution of the Tokugawa shogunate the role of the commander-in-chief, resided with the emperor of Japan. The present-day constitutional role of the emperor is that of a ceremonial figurehead (Japanese Constitution calls it symbol) without any military role.
After Japan's move towards democracy, the position of commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces is held by the prime minister of Japan. Military authority runs from the prime minister to the cabinet-level minister of defense of the Japanese Ministry of Defense.
Malta
The Malta Armed Forces Act does not directly establish the president of Malta as the supreme commander of the Armed Forces. However, Maltese law allows the president to raise by voluntary enlistment and maintain an armed force. Likewise, the law allows the president to issue orders in order to the administrate the armed forces.
It is important to note that the Armed Forces do not swear allegiance to the president of Malta but rather to the Republic of Malta. On this basis, there is no direct link between the head of state and the armed forces. For this reason, this link is mediated by the minister responsible for defence.
Nonetheless, the Presidential Palaces are guarded by the Armed Forces as a symbolic gesture of social cohesion.
Myanmar
In Myanmar, the Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services (Tatmadaw) is the commanding officer national military, a position vested in a military officer, not the president. The commander-in-chief is, however, a member of the National Defence and Security Council and reports to the president. The commander-in-chief is assisted in his/her role by the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services.
Netherlands
The Constitution of the Netherlands states, in article 97, that "the Government shall have supreme authority over the armed forces". Article 42 defines the Government as the Monarch and the ministers, and that only ministers are responsible for acts of government. Article 45 further defines the ministers as constituting the Cabinet, chaired by the prime minister, with "authority to decide upon overall government policy".
Before a constitution change took place in 1983, even though the equivalent section stated that: "The King shall have supreme authority over the armed forces"; that did not give the monarch any autonomous command authority.
The minister of defence has the primary ministerial responsibility for the armed forces, which are formally a part of the Ministry of Defence. The chief of defence is the highest ranked professional military officer, and serves as an intermediary between the minister of defence and the Armed Forces, and is responsible to the minister for military-strategic planning, operations and deployment of the Armed Forces.
North Korea
According to chapter 6, section 2 of the Constitution of North Korea, the President of the State Affairs Commission is the supreme leader of North Korea, as well as the head of state and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
Starting in 2018, Kim Jong-un stopped issuing orders in the name of the Supreme Commander. Instead, he issues orders for the Korean People's Army in the name of the Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea.
Sweden
In Sweden, with the Ordinance of Alsnö in 1280, nobles were exempted from land taxation if they provided cavalrymen to the king's service. Following the Swedish War of Liberation (1521–53) from the Kalmar Union, a Guards Regiment was formed under the King and from there the modern Swedish Army has its roots. During the age of the Swedish Empire, several kings—Gustavus Adolphus, Charles X, Charles XI & Charles XII—personally led their forces into battle. Under the Instrument of Government of 1809, which was in force until the current Instrument of Government of 1974 went into force on 1 January 1975; the monarch was in §§ 14-15 explicitly designated as the commander-in-chief of the Swedish Armed Forces ().
At present, the Government () as a collective body, chaired and formed by the prime minister of Sweden, holds the highest Executive Authority, subject to the will of the Riksdag; and is thus the present day closest equivalent of a command-in-chief, although not explicitly designated as such. The reason for this change was, apart from the fact that the king was since 1917 no longer expected to make political decisions without ministerial advice, that the new Instrument of Government was intended to be made as descriptive on the workings of the State as possible, and reflective on how decisions are actually made. Minister of Justice Lennart Geijer further remarked in the government bill that any continued pretensions of royal involvement in government decisions would be of a "fictitious nature" and "highly unsatisfactory".
Certain government decisions regarding the Armed Forces () may be delegated to the minister for defence, under the supervision of the prime minister and to the extent laid down in ordinances.
To add to some confusion to the above, the title of the agency head of the Swedish Armed Forces and highest ranked commissioned officer on active duty, is actually the supreme commander of the Swedish Armed Forces ().
However, the Monarch (as of present King Carl XVI Gustaf), is still a four-star general and admiral à la suite in the Swedish Army, Navy and Air Force and is by unwritten convention regarded as the foremost representative of the Swedish Armed Forces. The king has, as part of his court, a military staff. The military staff is headed by a senior officer (usually a general or admiral, retired from active service) and is composed of active duty military officers serving as aides to the king and his family.
Switzerland
Supreme authority over the military belongs to the Federal Council, which is the Swiss collegial head of state. Notwithstanding the previous sentence, under the Constitution, the Federal Council can only, in the operational sense, command a maximum of 4,000 soldiers, with a time limit of three weeks of mobilisation. For it to field more service personnel, the Federal Assembly must elect a General who is given four stars. Thus, the General is elected by the Federal Assembly to give him the same democratic legitimacy as the Federal Council.
In peacetime, the Armed Forces are led by the Chief of the Armed Forces (Chef der Armee), who reports to the head of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports and to the Federal Council as a whole. The Chief of the Armed Forces has the rank of Korpskommandant or Commandant de corps (OF-8 in NATO equivalence).
In a time of declared war or national emergency, however, the Federal Assembly, assembled as the United Federal Assembly, specifically for the purpose of taking on the war-time responsibilities elect a General as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces under Article 168 of the Constitution. Whilst the General acts as the highest military authority with a high degree of autonomy, he is still subordinate to the Federal Council (See Articles 58, 60, 174, 177, 180 & 185). The Federal Assembly retains the sole power to dismiss the General, but the General remains subordinate to the Federal Council by the council's ability to demobilise, thereby making the position of General redundant.
Four generals were appointed in Swiss history, General Henri Dufour during the Swiss Civil War, General Hans Herzog during the Franco-Prussian War, General Ulrich Wille during the First World War, and General Henri Guisan during the Second World War ("la Mob", "the Mobilisation"). Although Switzerland remained neutral during the latter three conflicts, the threat of having its territory used as a battlefield by the much bigger war parties of Germany and France required mobilization of the army.
See also
Within NATO and the European Union, the term Chief of Defence (CHOD) is usually used as a generic term for the highest-ranked office held by a professional military officer on active duty, irrespective of their actual title or powers.Other Articles of Interest'
Caesarism
Civilian control of the military
Command and control
Commanding officer
Generalissimo
Militarism
Military junta
Minister of Defence
Praetorianism
State within a state
Strongman (politics)
Supreme Commander
Warlord
Magister militum
Notes
References
Military organization
Military sociology
Military ranks | [
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254430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A1n%20MacBride | Seán MacBride | Seán MacBride (26 January 1904 – 15 January 1988) was an Irish Clann na Poblachta politician who served as Minister for External Affairs from 1948 to 1951, Leader of Clann na Poblachta from 1946 to 1965 and Chief of Staff of the IRA from 1936 to 1937. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1947 to 1957.
Rising from a domestic Irish political career, he founded or participated in many international organisations of the 20th century, including the United Nations, the Council of Europe and Amnesty International. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1974, the Lenin Peace Prize for 1975–1976 and the UNESCO Silver Medal for Service in 1980.
Early years
MacBride was born in Paris in 1904, the son of Major John MacBride and Maud Gonne. His first language was French, and he retained a French accent in the English language for the rest of his life. He first studied at the Lycée Saint-Louis-de-Gonzague. He remained in Paris until his father's execution after the Easter Rising of 1916, when he was sent to school at Mount St Benedict's, Gorey, County Wexford in Ireland, and briefly at the Downside School. In 1919, aged 15, he joined the Irish Volunteers, which fought as part of the Irish Republican Army, and took part in the Irish War of Independence. He opposed the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty and was imprisoned by the Irish Free State during the Civil War.
On his release in 1924, MacBride studied law at University College Dublin and resumed his IRA activities. He worked briefly for Éamon de Valera as his personal secretary, travelling with him to Rome to meet various dignitaries.
In January 1925, on his twenty-first birthday, MacBride married Catalina "Kid" Bulfin, a woman four years his senior who shared his political views. Bulfin was the daughter of the Irish nationalist publisher and travel-writer William Bulfin.
Before returning to Dublin in 1927, where he became the IRA's Director of Intelligence, MacBride worked as a journalist in Paris and London. Soon after his return, he was arrested and charged with the murder of politician Kevin O'Higgins, who had been assassinated near his home in Booterstown, County Dublin. MacBride was able to prove, however, that he was on his way back to Ireland at the time, as he was able to call unionist-turned-Cumann na nGaedheal politician Bryan Cooper, whom he had met on the boat travelling home, as a witness. He was then charged with being a subversive and interned in Mountjoy Prison.
Towards the end of the 1920s, after many supporters had left to join Fianna Fáil, some members of the IRA started pushing for a more left-wing agenda. After the IRA Army Council voted down the idea, MacBride launched a new movement, Saor Éire ("Free Ireland"), in 1931. Although it was a non-military organisation, Saor Éire was declared unlawful along with the IRA, Cumann na mBan and nine other bodies. MacBride, meanwhile, became the security services' number-one target.
In 1936, the IRA's chief of staff Moss Twomey was sent to prison for three years; he was replaced by MacBride. At the time, the movement was in a state of disarray, with conflicts between several factions and personalities. Tom Barry was appointed chief of staff to head up a military operation against the British, an action with which MacBride did not agree.
In 1937, MacBride was called to the bar. He then resigned from the IRA when the Constitution of Ireland was enacted later that year. As a barrister, MacBride frequently defended IRA prisoners of the state (Thomas Hart & Patrick McGrath). MacBride was unsuccessful in stopping the execution in 1944 of Charlie Kerins, convicted of killing Garda Detective Denis O'Brien in 1942. In 1946, during the inquest into the death of Seán McCaughey, MacBride embarrassed the authorities by forcing them to admit that the conditions in Portlaoise Prison were inhumane.
Clann na Poblachta
In 1946, MacBride founded the republican/socialist party Clann na Poblachta. He hoped it would replace Fianna Fáil as Ireland's major political party. In October 1947, he won a seat in Dáil Éireann at a by-election in the Dublin County constituency. On the same day, Patrick Kinane also won the Tipperary by-election for Clann na Poblachta.
However, at the 1948 general election Clann na Poblachta won only ten seats. The party joined with Fine Gael, the Labour Party, the National Labour Party, Clann na Talmhan and several independents to form the First Inter-Party Government with Fine Gael TD John A. Costello as Taoiseach. Richard Mulcahy was the Leader of Fine Gael, but MacBride and many other Irish Republicans had never forgiven Mulcahy for his role in carrying out 77 executions under the government of the Irish Free State in the 1920s during the Irish Civil War. To gain the support of Clann na Poblachta, Mulcahy stepped aside in favour of Costello. Two Clann na Poblachta TDs joined the cabinet; MacBride became Minister for External Affairs while Noël Browne became Minister for Health.
On his ministerial accession, MacBride sent a telegram to Pope Pius XII offering:
"...to repose at the feet of Your Holiness the assurance of our filial loyalty and our devotion to Your August Person, as well as our firm resolve to be guided in all our work by the teaching of Christ and to strive for the attainment of a social order in Ireland based on Christian principles".
At MacBride's suggestion, Costello nominated the northern protestant Denis Ireland to the Seanad Eireann, the first resident of Northern Ireland to be appointed as a member of the Oireachtas. While a Senator (1948–1951), Ireland was Irish representative to the Council of Europe assisting MacBride in the leading role he was to play in securing acceptance of the European Convention on Human Rights--signed in Rome on 4 November 1950. In 1950, MacBride was president of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the Council of Europe, and he was vice-president of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC, later OECD) in 1948–51. He was responsible for Ireland not joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).
He was instrumental in the repeal of the External Relations Act and the passing of the Republic of Ireland Act which came into force in 1949. It declared that Ireland may officially be described as the Republic of Ireland and that the President of Ireland had the executive authority of the state in its external relations.
In 1951, MacBride controversially ordered Noël Browne to resign as a minister over the Mother and Child Scheme after it was attacked by the Irish Catholic hierarchy and the Irish medical establishment. Whatever the merits of the scheme, or of Browne, MacBride concluded in a Cabinet memorandum:
"Even if, as Catholics, we were prepared to take the responsibility of disregarding [the Hierarchy's] views, which I do not think we can do, it would be politically impossible to do so . . . We are dealing with the considered views of the leaders of the Catholic Church to which the vast majority of our people belong; these views cannot be ignored."
Also in 1951, Clann na Poblachta was reduced to two seats after the general election. MacBride kept his seat and was re-elected again in 1954. Opposing the internment of IRA suspects during the Border Campaign (1956–62), he contested both the 1957 and 1961 general elections but failed to be elected both times. He then retired from politics and continued practising as a barrister. He expressed an interest in running as an independent candidate for the 1983 Irish presidential election, but he did not receive sufficient backing and ultimately did not contest.
International politics
In 1929 an Irish section of the League Against Imperialism was formed and MacBride served as its secretary.
MacBride served as the International Chairman of Amnesty International from 1961 til 1975. He was Secretary-General of the International Commission of Jurists from 1963 to 1971. Following this, he was also elected Chair (1968–1974) and later President (1974–1985) of the International Peace Bureau in Geneva. He was Vice-President of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation from 1948–51 and President of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe in 1950. He was also involved in the International Prisoners of Conscience Fund and was appointed the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems in 1977.
He drafted the constitution of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU); and also the first constitution of Ghana (the first UK African colony to achieve independence) which lasted for nine years until the coup of 1966.
In 1966, the US government reported that he had been involved with a Central Intelligence Agency funding operation.
MacBride was a signatory of the Convention for European Economic Co-operation, the Convention for the Protection of War Victims (1949) and the European Convention on Human Rights. He also played a part in drawing up the constitutions of Ghana, Zambia and Tanzania.
Some of MacBride's appointments to the United Nations System included:
Assistant Secretary-General
President of the General Assembly
High Commissioner for Namibia, in which capacity he created the United Nations Institute for Namibia
President of UNESCO's International Commission for the Study of Communications Problems, which produced the controversial 1980 MacBride report.
Human rights
Throughout the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, MacBride worked for human rights worldwide. He took an Irish case to the European Court of Human Rights after hundreds of suspected IRA members were interned without trial in the Republic of Ireland in 1958. He was among a group of lawyers who founded JUSTICE—the UK-based human rights and law reform organisation—initially to monitor the show trials after the 1956 Budapest uprising, but which later became the UK section of the International Commission of Jurists. He was active in a number of international organisations concerned with human rights, among them the Prisoners of Conscience Appeal Fund (trustee).
In 1973, he was elected by the General Assembly to the post of High Commissioner for Namibia, with the rank of Assistant Secretary-General. The actions of his father John MacBride in leading the Irish Transvaal Brigade (known as MacBride's Brigade) for the Boers against the British Army, in the Boer War, gave Seán MacBride a unique access to South Africa's apartheid government. In 1977, he was appointed president of the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, set up by UNESCO. In 1980 he was appointed Chairman of UNESCO. MacBride supported the Dunnes Stores Strike and attended at least one of their gatherings in May 1985.
MacBride's work was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1974) as a man who "mobilised the conscience of the world in the fight against injustice". He later received the Lenin Peace Prize (1975–76) and the UNESCO Silver Medal for Service (1980). He received the Lenin Peace Prize for his opposition to what MacBride referred to as "this absolutely obscene arms race." He was one of only two to win both the Lenin and Nobel peace prizes, the other being Linus Pauling.
During the 1980s, he initiated the Appeal by Lawyers against Nuclear War which was jointly sponsored by the International Peace Bureau and the International Progress Organization. In close co-operation with Francis Boyle and Hans Köchler of the International Progress Organization he lobbied the General Assembly for a resolution demanding an Advisory Opinion from the International Court of Justice on the legality of nuclear arms. The Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons was eventually handed down by the ICJ in 1996.
In 1982, MacBride was chairman of the International Commission to enquire into reported violations of International Law by Israel during its invasion of the Lebanon. The other members were Richard Falk, Kader Asmal, Brian Bercusson, Géraud de la Pradelle, and Stefan Wild. The commission's report, which concluded that "the government of Israel has committed acts of aggression contrary to international law", was published in 1983 under the title Israel in Lebanon.
He proposed a plan in 1984, known as the MacBride Principles, which he argued would eliminate discrimination against Roman Catholics by employers in Northern Ireland and received widespread support for it in the United States and from Sinn Féin. However the MacBride Principles were criticised by the Irish and British Governments and most Northern Ireland parties, including the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), as unworkable and counterproductive.
He was also a keen pan-Celticist.
Later life and death
In his later years, MacBride lived in his mother's home, Roebuck House, that served as a meeting place for many years for Irish nationalists, as well as in the Parisian arrondissement where he grew up with his mother, and enjoyed strolling along boyhood paths. While strolling through the Centre Pompidou Museum in 1979, and happening upon an exhibit for Amnesty International, he whispered to a colleague "Amnesty, you know, was one of my children."
In 1978, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
Seán MacBride died in Dublin on 15 January 1988, eleven days before his 84th birthday. He is buried in Glasnevin Cemetery in a grave with his mother, and wife who died in 1976.
On the occasion of MacBride's death the African National Congress (ANC), Oliver Tambo stated "Seán MacBride will always be remembered for the concrete leadership he provided to the liberation movement and people of Namibia and South Africa. Driven by his own personal and political insight arising out of the cause of national freedom in Ireland . . . our debt to him can never be repaid."
Legacy
Streets in Windhoek, Namibia and Amsterdam are named after him. The HQ of Amnesty International Ireland is called 'Sean MacBride House' in his honour. and the International Peace Bureau likewise named the 'Seán MacBride Prize' in his name.
A bust of MacBride was unveiled in Iveagh House, headquarters of the Irish Department of Foreign Affairs in 1995.
A novel, The Casting of Mr O'Shaughnessy, was published in 1995 (revised edition 2002) by Éamon Delaney in which the eponymous Mr O'Shaughnessy was, in the author's own words "partly, but quite obviously, based on the career of the colourful Seán MacBride".
Career summary
1946–1965 Leader of Clann na Poblachta
1947–1958 Member of Dáil Éireann
1948–1951 Minister for External Affairs of Ireland in Inter-Party Government
1948–1951 Vice-President of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)
1950 President, Committee of Ministers of Council of Europe
1954 Offered but declined, Ministerial office in Irish Government
1963–1971 Secretary-General, International Commission of Jurists
1966 Consultant to the Pontifical Commission on Justice and Peace
1961–1975 chairman Amnesty International Executive
1968–1974 Chairman of the Executive International Peace Bureau
1975–1985 President of the Executive International Peace Bureau
1968–1974 chairman Special Committee of International NGOs on Human Rights (Geneva)
1973 vice-chairman, Congress of World Peace Forces (Moscow, October 1973)
1973 Vice-President, World Federation of United Nations Associations
1973–1977 Elected by the General Assembly of the United Nations to the post of United Nations Commissioner for Namibia with rank of Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations
1977–1980 chairman, Commission on International Communication for UNESCO
1982 Chairman of the International Commission to enquire into reported violations of International Law by Israel during its invasion of the Lebanon
Further reading
Jordan, Anthony J, (1993) {Sean A biography of Sean MacBride} Blackwater Press
References
External links
1904 births
1988 deaths
Alumni of University College Dublin
Amnesty International people
Burials at Glasnevin Cemetery
Clann na Poblachta TDs
Irish barristers
Irish expatriates in France
Ministers for Foreign Affairs (Ireland)
Irish Nobel laureates
Irish Republican Army (1919–1922) members
Irish Republican Army (1922–1969) members
People of the Irish Civil War (Anti-Treaty side)
Lenin Peace Prize recipients
Sean
Members of the 12th Dáil
Members of the 13th Dáil
Members of the 14th Dáil
Members of the 15th Dáil
Nobel Peace Prize laureates
Irish officials of the United Nations | [
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254439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoplasm | Protoplasm | Protoplasm (/prəʊtə(ʊ)ˌplaz(ə)m/, plural protoplasms) is the living part of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane.
In some definitions, it is a general term for the cytoplasm (e.g., Mohl, 1846), but for others, it also includes the nucleoplasm (e.g., Strasburger, 1882). For Sharp (1921), "According to the older usage the extra-nuclear portion of the protoplast [the entire cell, excluding the cell wall] was called "protoplasm," but the nucleus also is composed of protoplasm, or living substance in its broader sense. The current consensus is to avoid this ambiguity by employing Strasburger's [(1882)] terms cytoplasm [coined by Kölliker (1863), originally as synonym for protoplasm] and nucleoplasm ([term coined by van Beneden (1875), or] karyoplasm, [used by] Flemming [(1878)])". The cytoplasm definition of Strasburger excluded the plastids (Chromatoplasm).
Like the nucleus, whether to include the vacuole in the protoplasm concept is controversial.
Terminology
Besides "protoplasm", many other related terms and distinctions were used for the cell contents over time. These were as follows:
Urschleim (Oken, 1802, 1809),
Protoplasma (Purkinje, 1840, von Mohl, 1846),
Primordialschlauch (primordial utricle, von Mohl, 1846),
sarcode (Dujardin, 1835, 1841),
Cytoplasma (Kölliker, 1863),
Hautschicht/Körnerschicht (ectoplasm/endoplasm, Pringsheim, 1854; Hofmeister, 1867),
Grundsubstanz (ground substance, Cienkowski, 1863),
metaplasm/protoplasm (Hanstein, 1868),
deutoplasm/protoplasm (van Beneden, 1870),
bioplasm (Beale, 1872),
paraplasm/protoplasm (Kupffer, 1875),
inter-filar substance theory (Velten, 1876)
Hyaloplasma (Pfeffer, 1877),
Protoplast (Hanstein, 1880),
Enchylema/Hyaloplasma (Hanstein, 1880),
Kleinkörperchen or Mikrosomen (small bodies or microsomes, Hanstein, 1882),
paramitome (Flemming, 1882),
Idioplasma (Nageli, 1884),
Zwischensubstanz (inter-alveolar substance, Bütschli, 1892),
Grundplasma (ground plasma, Schütt, 1895),
ergastoplasme (Garnier, 1897),
phaneroplasm/cryptoplasm (Seifriz, 1931),
cytoplasmic matrix (Munson, 1899; zytoplasmatische Matrix, Bergmann, 1956),
Protoplasma- oder Zelleinschlüsse (protoplasmic or cellular inclusions, Szymonowicz, 1901),
kinoplasm/trophoplasm (Strasburger et at., 1912),
cytosol (Lardy, 1965).
History
The word "protoplasm" comes from the Greek protos for first, and plasma for thing formed, and was originally used in religious contexts. It was used in 1839 by J. E. Purkinje for the material of the animal embryo. Later, in 1846 Hugo von Mohl redefined the term (also named as Primordialschlauch, "primordial utricle") to refer to the "tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid" substance within plant cells, to distinguish this from the cell wall and the cell sap (Zellsaft) within the vacuole. Max Schultze in 1861 proposed the "Protoplasm Doctrine" which states that all living cells are made of a living substance called Protoplasm. Thomas Huxley (1869) later referred to it as the "physical basis of life" and considered that the property of life resulted from the distribution of molecules within this substance. The protoplasm became an "epistemic thing". Its composition, however, was mysterious and there was much controversy over what sort of substance it was.
In 1872, Beale created the vitalist term "bioplasm", to contrast with the materialism of Huxley. In 1880, term protoplast was proposed by Hanstein (1880) for the entire cell, excluding the cell wall, and some authors like Julius von Sachs (1882) preferred that name instead of cell.
In 1965, Lardy introduced the term "cytosol", later redefined to refer to the liquid inside cells.
By the time Huxley wrote, a long-standing debate was largely settled over the fundamental unit of life: was it the cell or was it protoplasm? By the late 1860s, the debate was largely settled in favor of protoplasm. The cell was a container for protoplasm, the fundamental and universal material substance of life. Huxley's principal contribution was to establish protoplasm as incompatible with a vitalistic theory of life. Attempts to investigate the origin of life through the creation of synthetic "protoplasm" in the laboratory were not successful.
The idea that protoplasm of eukaryotes is simply divisible into a ground substance called "cytoplasm" and a structural body called the cell nucleus reflects the more primitive knowledge of cell structure that preceded the development of electron microscopy, when it seemed that cytoplasm was a homogeneous fluid and the existence of most sub-cellular compartments, or how cells maintain their shape, was unknown. Today, it is known that the cell contents are structurally very complex and contain multiple organelles, the cytoskeleton and biomolecular condensates.
Description
Physical Nature
Protoplasm is physically translucent, granular slimy, semifluid or viscous. In it, granules of different shapes and sizes are suspended in solution. It may exist in two interchangeable states which are more liquid-like sol state and more solid-like gel state which is like jelly. The constituent molecules are free to move in sol state, while in gel state, the constituent molecules are compactly arranged. Protoplasm becomes opaque when it is heated. It also coagulates on heating. It occurs everywhere in the cell. In eukaryotes, the portion of protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus is known as the cytoplasm and the portion inside the nucleus as the nucleoplasm. In prokaryotes the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm, while in Gram-negative bacteria the region outside the plasma membrane but inside the outer membrane is the periplasm.
Chemical Composition
There are about 35 elements, like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and many others which are identified in protoplasm of different cells. They form compounds, like water (75-95%), carbohydrates, ions, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), fatty acids, glycerol, nucleotides, nucleosides and minerals. They are living as long as they are part of protoplasm. They are not able to perform functions of life independently. The composition of protoplasm is inconsistent and continuous changes take place in it.
Functions
Some functions of protoplasm are:-
It provides place where all life functions occur.
The cells respond to various stimuli like temperature, light, chemicals, gravitation, pricking, electric shocks and others because of properties of protoplasm.
Cyclosis (the streaming movement of protoplasm is known as Cyclosis. It helps in even distribution of various materials in the cells.)
See also
Chemical evolution
Membrane
Symplast
References
External links
Cell biology | [
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254441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Electric | Pacific Electric | The Pacific Electric Railway Company, nicknamed the Red Cars, was a privately owned mass transit system in Southern California consisting of electrically powered streetcars, interurban cars, and buses and was the largest electric railway system in the world in the 1920s. Organized around the city centers of Los Angeles and San Bernardino, it connected cities in Los Angeles County, Orange County, San Bernardino County and Riverside County.
The system shared dual gauge track with the narrow gauge Los Angeles Railway, "Yellow Car," or "LARy" system on Main Street in downtown Los Angeles (directly in front of the 6th and Main terminal), on 4th Street, and along Hawthorne Boulevard south of downtown Los Angeles toward the cities of Hawthorne, Gardena, and Torrance.
Districts
The system had four districts:
Northern District: San Gabriel Valley, including Pasadena, Mount Lowe, South Pasadena, Alhambra, El Monte, Covina, Duarte, Glendora, Azusa, Sierra Madre, and Monrovia.
Eastern District: Pomona, San Bernardino, Arrowhead Springs, Riverside, Rialto and Redlands in the Inland Empire.
Southern District: Long Beach, Newport Beach, Huntington Beach, San Pedro via Dominguez, Santa Ana, El Segundo, Redondo Beach via Gardena, and San Pedro Via Torrance.
Western District: Hollywood, Glendale/Burbank, San Fernando Valley, Beverly Hills, Santa Monica, Manhattan/Redondo/Hermosa Beaches, Venice, Playa Del Rey.
History
Origins
Electric trolleys first appeared in Los Angeles in 1887. In 1895 the Pasadena & Pacific Railway was created from a merger of the Pasadena and Los Angeles Railway and the Los Angeles Pacific Railway (to Santa Monica.) The Pasadena & Pacific Railway boosted Southern California tourism, living up to its motto "from the mountains to the sea."
The Pacific Electric Railway was created in 1901 by railroad executive Henry E. Huntington and banker Isaias W. Hellman. As a Vice President of the Southern Pacific Railroad (SP), operated by his uncle, Collis P. Huntington, Huntington had a background in electric trolley lines in San Francisco where he oversaw SP's effort to consolidate many smaller street railroads into one organized network. Hellman, the President of the Nevada Bank, San Francisco's largest, became one of the largest bond holders for these lines and he and the younger Huntington developed a close business relationship. The success of their San Francisco trolley adventure and Hellman's experience in financing some early Los Angeles trolley lines led them to invest in the purchase of some existing downtown Los Angeles lines which they began to standardize and organize into one network called the Los Angeles Railway. When uncle Collis died, Henry lost a boardroom battle for control of the Southern Pacific to Union Pacific President E. H. Harriman. Huntington then decided to focus his energies on Southern California.
In May 1901, Hellman, who had been Southern California's leading banker for almost three decades (and owned much property down there), wrote Huntington that "the time is at hand when we should commence building suburban railroads out of the city." Hellman added that he had already tasked engineer Epes Randolph to survey and lay out the company's first line which would be to Long Beach. In that same year, Huntington and Hellman incorporated a new entity, the Pacific Electric Railway of California, formed to construct new electric rail lines to connect Los Angeles with surrounding cities. Hellman and his group of investors owned the controlling majority of stock (double that of Huntington's) and the newspapers of the time referred to it as the Huntington-Hellman syndicate. Using surrogates, the syndicate began purchasing property and right-of-ways. The new company's first main project, the line to Long Beach, opened July 4, 1902.
Huntington experienced periods of opposition from organized labor with the construction of the new railways. Tensions between union leaders and like-minded Los Angeles businessmen were high from the early 1900s up through the 1920s. Strikes and boycotts troubled the Pacific Electric throughout those years until they reached the height of violence in the 1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles. The efforts of organized labor simmered with the onset of World War I.
Railroads were one part of the enterprise. Revenue from passenger traffic rarely generated a profit, unlike freight. The real money for the investors was in supplying electric power to new communities and in developing and selling real estate. To get the railways and electricity to their towns, local groups offered the Huntington interest opportunities in local land. Soon Huntington and his partners had significant holdings in the land companies developing Naples, Bay City (Seal Beach), Huntington Beach, Newport Beach and Redondo Beach.
Harriman, who controlled the powerful Southern Pacific Railroad, was concerned with the competition that these new electric lines gave his steam railroad traffic, and had been prodding Huntington for joint ownership of the lines but Huntington refused to negotiate. In early 1903, Harriman proposed a franchise plan with three-cent fare plan to the Los Angeles City Council, a plan which, if accepted, would have handicapped the other railways severely. Huntington countered with a ticket book which gave the rider of travel for $6.25 (), which undercut the Harriman strategy. The Council vetoed the franchise idea, unable to believe adequate service could be provided for such a low fare. Then, on April 14, 1903, Harriman bought Hook's Los Angeles Traction Company, which ran lines within the downtown area and, through its California Pacific subsidiary, was constructing a line from Los Angeles to San Pedro.
The final confrontation came over a bidding war for the 6th Street franchise, in which the franchise (thought to be worth maybe $10,000), finally went to the top bidder for $110,000 (equivalent to $ in ), with Harriman the secret winner. In May 1903, Huntington made an overnight trip to San Francisco and worked out an arrangement with Harriman. The Pacific Electric would get the Los Angeles Traction Lines, SP's San Gabriel Valley Rapid Transit Railway line, the 6th Street franchise, and some downtown trackage. In return, Harriman got 40.3% of PE stock, an amount equal to Huntington's, with Hellman, Borel and De Guigne owning the remaining 20%. Huntington could expand the PE as he saw fit, but he was not to compete with existing SP lines. A byproduct of this sale was that Harriman sold the banking unit of his Wells Fargo Company to Hellman who merged it with his Nevada Bank operations and established the Pacific Coast's largest, most powerful bank.
Construction
On June 6, 1903, Huntington created the Los Angeles Inter-Urban Railway, capitalized at $10 million (equivalent to $ in ), with plans to extend lines to Santa Ana, Newport Beach, the San Fernando Valley, La Habra, Redlands and Riverside, with branches to Colton and San Bernardino. He simultaneously created the Los Angeles Land Company. Huntington owned almost all the stock in the companies, with token amounts allotted to company directors. Although the company allowed Huntington to proceed with construction plans unencumbered by outside interference, the poor state of the bond market meant that he had to turn to stockholders to finance expansion. In 1904 he acquired and finished the Los Angeles and Glendale Railway. In June, LAIU assumed control of the Riverside and Arlington Railway and the Santa Ana and Orange Motor Railway, and soon after, PE and LAIU finished their extension to Huntington Beach and began building a line to Covina.
Huntington continued to expand and not declare profits. On December 7, 1904, the Hellman group sold the rest of their shares and bonds in PE and LAIU to Huntington and Harriman for $1.2 million (equivalent to $ in ). Huntington and Harriman were now equal partners in ownership of the Pacific Electric. The Hellman syndicate retained their 45% interest in the Los Angeles Railway, which they thought would eventually declare dividends.
By 1905, the Newport and Santa Ana lines were completed. In 1906, the Newport line was extended to Balboa, and in late 1906, lines to Sierra Madre and Oak Knoll in Pasadena were finished. The two firms controlled 449 miles of track, with the Pacific Electric at 197 miles and the LAIU, 252 miles. Huntington purchased the Los Angeles and Redondo Railway in July 1905, along with the Redondo Land Company, which owned 90% of the land in the beach community. This announcement precipitated a land boom in the area which resulted in a quick return of Huntington's entire investment in the area and in the railway.
On March 19, 1906, an agreement was reached to sell control of the Los Angeles Pacific Railroad lines, owned by Moses Sherman and Eli P. Clark, for a reported $6 million to Harriman (equivalent to $ in ); this turned over all the lines in downtown Los Angeles to Santa Monica and down the coast to Redondo Beach to the Southern Pacific. In January 1907, the Hellman syndicate, after seeing that Huntington ran the Los Angeles Railway similarly to PE, continually expanding and not declaring dividends, sold their 45% stake in the Los Angeles Railway to Harriman and the Southern Pacific.
The Covina line was completed in 1907, as well as a line from Monrovia to Glendora. The system reached La Habra in 1908. By 1910 PE operated nearly of track. Routes had been built into or passed through areas just beginning to grow.
1905 was the Pacific Electric's most profitable year, when the road made $90,711 (equivalent to $ in ). Profits from the Huntington Land and Improvement Company made up for the poor earnings of the interurban system, with profits of $151,000 in 1905 rising to $402,000 in 1907 (equivalent to $ and $ in ). However, in 1909, earnings were only $75,000.
Huntington had begun long negotiations with Harriman about consolidating the Los Angeles electric railways beginning in 1907. There had always been a difference between the two men as to the purpose of the railway, with Huntington seeing the PE as a means to facilitate his real estate efforts, and Harriman seeing it as part of the Southern Pacific's overall transportation system in Southern California. Harriman left Huntington alone until 1910, when the former refused to allow the latter to run a line to San Diego that would have interfered with a competitive arrangement Harriman had worked out with the Santa Fe Railway.
In June 1908, Huntington leased all the lines of the Los Angeles Inter-Urban Railway to Harriman. In 1909 he sold the systems in Fresno and Santa Clara County to the Southern Pacific. Talks paused after the death of Harriman on September 9, 1909, but resumed in early 1910. On September 27, 1910, Huntington and Southern Pacific management came to a final agreement. In a complicated stock and bond transaction, Huntington conveyed his 50% of Pacific Electric to the Southern Pacific, while he acquired SP's 45% interest in the Los Angeles Railway. In addition, Huntington conveyed the Los Angeles and Redondo Railway to the Southern Pacific. Huntington retained control of the Los Angeles Railway, the narrow gauge street car system known locally as "Yellow Cars," until a controlling interest in this company was sold off by Huntington's estate in 1945.
The Great Merger and the "New" Pacific Electric
In what was called the "Great Merger" of September 1, 1911, the Southern Pacific created a new Pacific Electric Railway Company, with all electrical operations now under the Pacific Electric name. The constituent railroads were:
The original "old" PE owned by Huntington
The Los Angeles Inter-Urban Railway
The Los Angeles Pacific Railway
The Los Angeles and Redondo Railway
The San Bernardino Valley Traction Company
The San Bernardino Interurban
The Redlands Central
The Riverside and Arlington
Following these acquisitions, PE was the largest operator of interurban electric railway passenger service in the world, with 2,160 daily trains over of track. It operated to many destinations in Southern California, particularly to the south and east.
The Southern Pacific now began to emphasize freight operations. From 1911, when revenue from freight was $519,226 ($ adjusted for inflation), freight revenue climbed to $1,203,956 in 1915 (equivalent to $ in ), 13% of total revenue.
During the 1920s profits were good and the lines were extended to the Pasadena area, to the beaches at Santa Monica, Del Rey, Manhattan/Redondo/Hermosa Beach, Long Beach in Los Angeles County and to Newport Beach and Huntington Beach in Orange County. Extra service beyond the normal schedules was provided on weekends, particularly in the late afternoon when passengers wanted to return simultaneously. Comedian Harold Lloyd highlighted the popularity and utility of the system in an extended sequence in his 1924 film Girl Shy, where, after finding one Red Car too crowded, he commandeered another and drove at high speed through the streets of Culver City and Los Angeles.
PE operated frequent freight trains under electric power throughout its service area (as far as ) to Redlands, including operating electrically powered Railway Post Office routes, one of the few U.S. interurbans to do so. This provided important revenue. The PE was responsible for an innovation in grade crossing safety: the automatic electromechanical grade crossing signal, nicknamed the wigwag. This device was quickly adopted by other railroads. A few wigwags continue in operation .
During this period, the Los Angeles Railway provided local streetcar service in central Los Angeles and to nearby communities. These trolleys were known as the "Yellow Cars" and carried more passengers than the PE's "Red Cars" since they ran in the most densely populated portions of Los Angeles, including south to Hawthorne and along Pico Boulevard to near West Los Angeles to terminate at the huge Sears Roebuck store and distribution center (the L.A. Railway's most popular line, the "P" line). The Yellow Cars' unusual narrow gauge PCC streetcars, by now painted MTA two-tone green, continued to operate until the end of rail service in 1963.
Large profits from land development were generated along the routes of the new lines. Huntington Beach was incorporated in 1909 and developed by the Huntington Beach Company, a real-estate development firm owned by Henry Huntington, which still owns both land in the city and most of the mineral rights.
There are other local streetcar suburbs. Angelino Heights was built around the Temple Street horsecar, which was later upgraded to electric streetcar as part of the Yellow Car system. Highland Park was developed along the Figueroa Street trolley lines and railroads linking downtown Los Angeles and Pasadena. Huntington owned nearly all the stock in the Pacific Electric Land Company. West Hollywood was established by Moses Sherman and his partners of the Los Angeles and Pacific Railway. Moses Sherman, Harry Chandler, Hobart Johnstone Whitley, and others bought the entire southern San Fernando Valley in 1910. The electric railway and a $500,000 boulevard called Sherman Way connected the three townsites they were selling. These included Van Nuys, Marion (now Reseda), and Owensmouth (now Canoga Park). Parts of Sherman Way are now called Chandler Boulevard and Van Nuys Boulevard.
The railway company "connected all the dots on the map and was a leading player itself in developing all the real estate that lay in between the dots".
Decline
Huntington's involvement with urban rail was intimately tied to his real estate development operations. Real estate development was so lucrative for Huntington and SP that they could use the Red Car as a loss leader. However, by 1920, when most of the company's holdings had been developed, their major income source began to deplete. Many rural passenger lines were unprofitable, with losses offset by revenue generated from passenger lines in populated corridors and from freight operations. The least-used Red Car lines were converted to cheaper bus routes as early as 1925. In 1936, Pacific Electric acquired the Motor Transit Company, which operated intercity bus service within Southern California.
In the pre-automobile era, electric interurban rail was the most economical way to connect outlying suburban and exurban parcels to central cities.
Although the railway owned extensive private roadbeds, usually between urban areas, much PE trackage in urban areas such as downtown Los Angeles west of the Los Angeles River was in streets shared with automobiles and trucks. Virtually all street crossings were at-grade, and increasing automobile traffic led to decreasing Red Car speeds on much of its trackage. At its nadir, the busy Santa Monica Boulevard line, which connected Los Angeles to Hollywood and on to Beverly Hills and Santa Monica, had an average speed of
Traffic congestion was of such great concern by the late 1930s that the influential Automobile Club of Southern California engineered an elaborate plan to create an elevated freeway-type Motorway System, a key aspect of which was the dismantling of the streetcar lines, replacing them with buses that could run on both local streets and on the new express roads.
When the freeway system was planned in the 1930s the city planners planned to include interurban tracks in the center margin of each freeway but the plan was never implemented. There was one exception that was within the Hollywood Freeway through Cahuenga Pass. The San Fernando Valley line from Hollywood took to the center of the Freeway over the pass and exited at Lankershim Boulevard. When that service was terminated, the freeway was expanded onto the former PE roadbed.
The Whittier & Fullerton line was cut in 1938, Redondo Beach, Newport Beach, Sawtelle via San Vicente, and Riverside in 1940. When the San Bernardino Freeway opened in 1941 but was not yet connected to the Hollywood Freeway, while the "Four Way" overpass was being constructed, westbound car traffic from the SB freeway poured onto downtown streets near the present Union Station. PE's multiple car trains coming and going from Pasadena, Sierra Madre, and Monrovia/Glendora used those same streets the final few miles from private right-of-way to reach the 6th and Main PE terminal and were bogged down within this jammed traffic. Schedules could not be met, plus former patrons were now driving. The San Bernardino line, Pomona branch, Temple City branch via Alhambra's Main St., San Bernardino's Mountain View local to 34th St., Santa Monica Blvd. via Beverly Hills, and all remaining Pasadena local services were all cut in 1941. Permission was received in September 1942 to abandon the shuttle line to General Hospital which company officials said had been operating at a loss for several months.
The Glendale line survived to the early 1950s due to the convenience of a subway into downtown Los Angeles and used the company's only modern equipment, a group of streamlined PCC cars. In 1940, Pacific Electric sold its Glendale, Burbank, and Pasadena operations to Pacific City Lines. San Bernardino operations were sold to San Bernardino Valley Transit.
PE carried increased passenger loads during World War II, when Los Angeles County's population nearly doubled as war industries concentrated in the region attracting millions of workers. There were several years when the company's income statement showed a profit when gasoline and rubber were rationed and much of the populace depended on mass transit. At peak operation toward the end of the war, the PE dispatched over 10,000 trains daily and was a major employer in Southern California. However, the equipment in use was old and suffered from deferred maintenance.
The nation's last interurban Railroad post office (RPO) service was operated by PE on its San Bernardino Line. This was inaugurated comparatively late, on September 2, 1947. It left LA's new Union Station interurban yard on the west side of the terminal, turned north onto Alameda Street at 12:45 pm and reached San Bernardino at 4:40 pm, taking three hours for the trip while making postal stops en route as required. It did not operate on Sundays or holidays. This last RPO was pulled off May 6, 1950.
Aware that most new arrivals planned to stay in the region after the war, local municipal governments, Los Angeles County and the state agreed that a massive infrastructure improvement program was necessary. At that time politicians agreed to construct a web of freeways across the region. This was seen as a better solution than a new mass transit system or an upgrade of the PE.
Freeway construction
Large-scale land acquisition for new freeway construction began in earnest in 1951. The original four freeways of the area, the Hollywood, Arroyo Seco (formerly Pasadena), Harbor, and San Bernardino, were in use or being completed. Partial completion of the San Bernardino Freeway to Aliso Street near downtown Los Angeles led to traffic chaos when inbound automobiles left the freeway and entered city streets.
The Southern District's passenger service to Santa Ana and Baldwin Park ended in 1950 as did the Northern District's Pasadena's Oak Knoll line, and the Sierra Madre line. The Western District's last line to Venice and Santa Monica also ended. The Pasadena and Monrovia/Glendora lines ended in 1951.
The various public agencies—city, county, and state—agreed with PE that further abandoning service was necessary and PE happily complied. PE management had earlier compared costs of refurbishing the Northern District interurban lines to Pasadena, Monrovia/Glendora, and Baldwin Park versus the alternative of converting to buses, and found in favor of the latter.
Remaining PE passenger service was sold off in 1953 to Metropolitan Coach Lines, which was given two years of rent-free usage of rail facilities. Jesse Haugh, of Metropolitan Coach Lines, was a former executive of Pacific City Lines which together with National City Lines acquired local streetcar systems across the country with the intention of shutting them down and converting them to bus operation in what became known as the Great American Streetcar Scandal.
Several lines operating to the north and the west which used the Belmont Tunnel from the Subway Terminal Building downtown ceased operation – the Hollywood Boulevard and Beverly Hills lines were shut down in 1954 and service to the San Fernando Valley, Burbank and Glendale using newly acquired PCC streetcars lasted only to 1955. The Bellflower line to the south closed in 1958 as the Golden State/Santa Ana (Interstate 5) neared completion.
Public ownership
The Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority was established in 1951 to study the possibility of establishing a publicly owned monorail line running north from Long Beach to downtown Los Angeles and then west to Panorama City in the San Fernando Valley. In 1954, the agency's powers were expanded to allow it to propose a more extensive regional mass-transit system. In 1957, it was given the authority to operate transit lines.
In 1958, the California state government through its Public Utility Commission took over the remaining and most popular lines from Metropolitan Coach Lines. The MTA also purchased the remaining streetcar "Yellow Car" lines of the successor of the Los Angeles Railway, then called Los Angeles Transit Lines. LARy/LATL had been purchased from the Huntington estate by National City Lines in 1945. The MTA started operating all lines as a single system on March 3, 1958.
The Los Angeles-to-Long Beach passenger rail line served the longest, from July 4, 1902, until April 9, 1961. It was both the first and last interurban passenger line of the former Pacific Electric system. It was replaced by the Motor Coach 36f ("F" representing Freeway Flyer) route. The line, which used long stretches of open country running on private right-of-way, was later utilized when the Southern California RTD was designing and building the Metro Blue Line light rail line. The Blue Line, the first modern mass transit line in Los Angeles since the discontinuation of the Red Car service, was first opened in 1990.
The few remaining trolley-coach routes and narrow gauge streetcar routes of the former Los Angeles Railway "Yellow Cars" were removed in early 1963. The public transportation system continued to operate by the Los Angeles MTA until the agency was reorganized and relaunched as the Southern California Rapid Transit District in September 1964.
PE's lucrative freight service was continued operation until August 13, 1965, under the Pacific Electric name by the Southern Pacific Railroad using diesel-electric locomotives on the heavy-duty PE rail-bed and rails and tripping the "Wig-Wag" crossing signals of the former PE. A Christmas tree lot was operated in the small stub yard at the northwest corner of Willow and Long Beach Blvd. – the stock arrived in and was stored in a steel sided box car until the Christmas trees were prepared for sale – the busy intersection was where dual trackage departed Long Beach Blvd and joined the private right-of-way from Huntington Beach and Seal Beach towards Los Angeles. The crossing signal there was the first installation of the final design of the Magnetic Watchman wigwag crossing signal and crossbucks. Oil tank cars were still shuttled to Signal Hill even as the surface street tracks were torn up from the center of Long Beach Blvd. long after the copper overhead catenary supply wires had been removed. Southern Pacific (now part of Union Pacific) continues to operate freight service utilizing former PE right-of-way.
Post-closure
Successors
During the 1970s, there was serious discussion about the need for additional mass transit systems based on environmental concerns, increasing population and the 1973 oil crisis. A 1974 inquiry in the Senate heard allegations about the role that General Motors and other companies, including Pacific City Lines, played in the dismantlement of streetcar systems across the United States and in particular in Los Angeles, in what became known as the Great American Streetcar Scandal. The plot of the 1988 movie Who Framed Roger Rabbit is loosely modeled on the alleged conspiracy to dismantle the streetcar lines in Los Angeles.
In 1976, the state of California formed the Los Angeles County Transportation Commission to coordinate the Southern California Rapid Transit District's (SCRTD, advertised and known locally by Angelenos as the RTD) efforts with those of various municipal transit systems in the area and to take over planning of countywide transportation systems. The SCRTD continued planning of the Metro Subway (the Red Line), while the LACTC developed plans for the light rail system. Caltrans surveyed the condition of former Pacific Electric lines in 1982. Construction began in 1985. In 1988, the two agencies formed a third entity under which all rail construction would be consolidated, and in 1993, the SCRTD and the LACTC were merged into the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (LACMTA).
When the Metro Blue Line commenced commuter service in 1990 from downtown Los Angeles to Long Beach, electric rail passenger train service returned to Los Angeles, using much of the PE roadbed that ceased in 1965. Since then, the LACMTA has opened additional lines.
The Metro Red Line subway opened next in three parts between 1993 and 2000, first from Union Station in central Los Angeles connecting with short subway which forms the northern terminus of Metro Blue Line at 7th/Figuroa Metro Center station, and then west under Wilshire Blvd. onward to Western Avenue. Construction was halted in 1985 due to an unrelated explosion of methane fumes in an underground portion of a Ross Dress for Less store along the proposed route turning north at Fairfax Avenue to Hollywood, which was to service the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Museum Row and the La Brea Tar Pits. After then-Congressman Henry Waxman banned federal funding for subway construction underneath Wilshire Blvd. past Western Avenue, the subway had to be re-routed. The second portion was the result of this: the subway now traveled north under Vermont Avenue to Hollywood Boulevard turning west to Highland Avenue. When the Hollywood Freeway was built, two PE tracks remained in the center, entering the canyon to Cahuenga Pass under the freeway at what is now the northbound Highland Avenue onramp. PE trackage continued to provide mass transit efficiently until the line was abandoned; the former roadbed was eventually converted for highway use. RTD bus service replaced rail service and remained the highest daily passenger volume corridor. When the third expansion of the Red Line subway opened, most long-distance commuter bus routes from Downtown Los Angeles to the San Fernando Valley were trimmed to connect with the new subway stations, reducing diesel fumes and motor vehicle congestion. At the northernmost Metro Red Line terminus, North Hollywood, connections can be made to several MTA bus routes of the San Fernando Valley, including several routes along the private right-of-way Metro Rapidway Metro Orange Line (route 901) dedicated exclusively for MTA vehicles that replicates many PE thru lines by transferring buses.
The Metro Green Line opened in 1995. Its right-of-way was planned from inception to be entirely isolated and protected, running in the median of Interstate 105, the Century Freeway west from Norwalk, connecting at Rosa Parks Station with Metro Blue Line, then further west to Los Angeles International Airport, and then south on elevated tracks to Redondo Beach. The Century Freeway, named for Century Blvd. the equivalent of 100th St., was the world's first freeway built to bypass and relieve traffic congestion from another freeway – the 91, Artesia Freeway. It reutilized a segment of the West Santa Ana Branch for its part of its route.
The Metro Gold Line opened in 2003, connecting downtown Los Angeles to Pasadena. Mostly at-grade, the line runs along the former Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad (AT&SF) historic Super Chief right-of-way, which was converted to dual track overhead electric light rail. California's oldest surviving iron railroad bridge, built across the Arroyo Seco (1895), was also included in the conversion. The Gold Line Eastside Extension now connects Union Station, Downtown Los Angeles to East Los Angeles. A second extension extended east from Pasadena, again utilizing the former AT&SF right-of-way in the median of Interstate 210.
Metrolink (Southern California) provides weekday interurban commuters with high speed reversible trains – consisting of Diesel Locomotives hauling double-deck high capacity passenger cars servicing much of Los Angeles County and operating to connections in Ventura County, San Bernardino County, Riverside County, Orange County, and San Diego County as well.
Waterfront Red Car was a streetcar line connecting the World Cruise Center south to Ports O' Call and the 22nd St. terminal, where a shuttle bus connected other attractions along the San Pedro waterfront. Two newly constructed Red Car replicas, #500 & #501, provided service along the line on cruise ship arrival/departure days as well as weekends – Friday, Saturday and Sunday. In addition, a restored 1907-vintage Pacific Electric car, No. #1508 originally rebuilt from two wrecks as a unique motor coach, was available for special rail excursions. It began operation as a tourist attraction on July 19, 2003. The last day of service was on September 27, 2015. The Port of Los Angeles financed, constructed and operated the replica equipment on heritage PE track, one of many of its waterfront revival projects. A new pedestrian esplanade featuring public art and fountains, sculpture and fountains was built alongside the track from the World Cruise Center to the Maritime Museum and Fire Boat Station. It connected to the Cabrillo Marine Aquarium and other San Pedro attractions when using the Waterfront Red Car trolley/shuttle. There were plans to extend the Waterfront Red Car line approximately two more miles south to the Cabrillo Marine Aquarium and the tidepools of Cabrillo Beach, which never came to pass. Plans for an extension of the line north into Wilmington to Avalon Blvd. along existing trackage were discussed as a part of the waterfront improvement plan. These same plans led to this line being discontinued in favor of redevelopment. Some transit advocates proposed linking this line to the Metro Blue Line Long Beach terminus, a very intensive and expensive expansion.
There are several plans in motion to connect the congested West Los Angeles area with rail service. Service began on the Expo Line, a light rail line, as of April 28, 2012 to the intersection of La Cienega and Jefferson; and then as of June 20, 2012, about further west, to the corner of National and Washington Boulevards, just east of central Culver City. In 2011 construction began on Phase Two of the Expo Line, continuing from Culver City to Santa Monica, which opened in May 2016.
Proposed developments
More rail lines are in the planning and building stages. Light rail is being designed to connect the city center of San Bernardino with the University of Redlands via the Redlands Subdivision by 2021. It will also be the first line in the country with a zero-emission, battery-operated passenger train.
If construction funds are identified, the "Foothill Extension" of the Gold Line will continue with Phase 2 to extend the service to Montclair, or possibly all the way to Ontario International Airport. The line opened to Azusa on March 5, 2016. The Gold Line Foothill Extension Phase 2B began construction on July 10, 2020.
In 2005, with growing congestion along Wilshire Boulevard to the Westside, then Congressman Henry Waxman introduced legislation to repeal the ban on federal dollars being used for subway tunneling underneath Wilshire Blvd he had passed 20 years earlier. The ban resulted in the Red Line subway ending at Wilshire and Western Avenue before being re-routed up Vermont Avenue towards the Valley. In 2006, the MTA renamed the line from Union Station to Wilshire/Western the Purple Line to differentiate it from the Red Line, which splits at Wilshire/Vermont. As a result, in May 2012, the MTA approved plans to extend the Purple Line to the west as far as the VA Hospital in Westwood, on an alignment mostly following Wilshire Boulevard, the city's most densely populated corridor, as was originally planned in mass transit plans designed as early as the 1920s. In 2005, Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa made as one of his most publicized campaign promises a pledge to set the wheels in motion for eventual construction of the "Subway to the Sea" as he called it. Construction finally began in 2014 on the Purple Line Extension, with the first phase to LaCienega Boulevard scheduled for completion in 2023, and full completion to the VA Hospital campus in West Los Angeles projected for the 2030s, though if additional funding can be found, the subway could be completed earlier.
Also under consideration is a new passenger rail line on the abandoned Harbor Subdivision railway corridor, connecting Carson to downtown Los Angeles via Torrance and the LA west side. Connections to the Harbor Subdivision from the World Cruise Center cruise ship terminal in the San Pedro District of Los Angeles Harbor to the Long Beach Transit Mall and the Metro Blue Line are also under evaluation.
The West Santa Ana Branch was acquired by local transit agencies with the intent to reactivate the line for rail transit. The West Santa Ana Branch Transit Corridor project aims install a new light rail line to Artesia. On the south end of the line, the Orange County Transportation Authority is constructing the OC Streetcar, a modern streetcar system expected to commence service in 2022.
Legacy
The Pacific Electric Trail is a 21-mile (34-kilometer) rail trail that has been constructed along the former San Bernardino Line. , approximately 18 miles (29-kilometer) have been completed, from the planned western terminus at Huntington Drive in Claremont () to the temporary eastern terminus at Maple Avenue in Fontana (). An additional segment is planned from this point into Rialto, as well as connection to a 6.9-mile (11-kilometer) rail trail project being planned to run from Claremont to San Dimas.
Plot elements of the 1988 movie Who Framed Roger Rabbit are loosely based on folklore about the decline of streetcars in LA.
A transportation attraction based on the PE, the Red Car Trolley, is located at Disney California Adventure Park at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim. It features two stylized replicas of PE rolling stock and is the first attraction in the park to provide transportation, running from Buena Vista Street to Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout! in Hollywood Land, with four stations. Construction began on January 4, 2010, and the attraction opened on June 15, 2012. The Ghost Town & Calico Railroad attraction at Knott's Berry Farm uses a PE depot formerly located at Hansen station along the ROW in Stanton as the main station building. The building was moved to the theme park in 1952.
The iconic red livery of the Red Cars is also said to be the inspiration for the livery of trains on the Keikyu Railway, a commuter railway out of Tokyo with origins in an interurban line.
Routes
Northern Division:
Alhambra–San Gabriel
Annandale
Arlington–Corona
Arrowhead
Covina
East Washington
El Monte–Baldwin Park
Highland
Lamanda Park
Monrovia–Glendora
Mount Lowe
North Lake
Pasadena Short Line
Pasadena via Oak Knoll
Ontario–San Antonio Heights
Pomona
Pomona–Claremont
Redlands
Riverside–Arlington
Riverside–Rialto
San Bernardino–Riverside
San Dimas
San Dimas Local
Shorb
Sierra Madre
Sierra Vista Local
South Pasadena Local
Upland–Ontario
Upland–San Bernardino
Western Division:
Brush Canyon
Coldwater Canyon
Echo Park Avenue
Edendale Local
Glendale–Burbank
Hollywood
Lankershim–Van Nuys
Laurel Canyon
Owensmouth
Redondo Beach via Playa del Rey
San Fernando
Santa Monica Air Line
Sawtelle
Sherman
Soldiers' Home
Venice–Inglewood
Venice–Playa del Rey
Venice Short Line
West 16th Street
Western and Franklin Avenue
Westgate
Southern Division:
American Avenue
Balboa
Bellflower
Catalina Dock
East Seventh Street
East Third Street
Fullerton
Hawthorne–El Nido
Hawthorne–El Segundo
Huntington Beach–La Bolsa
La Habra–Fullerton–Yorba Linda
Long Beach
Long Beach–San Pedro
Redondo Beach via Gardena
San Pedro via Dominguez
San Pedro via Gardena
Santa Ana
Santa Ana–Huntington Beach
Santa Ana–Orange
Seal Beach
Seal Beach–Huntington Beach–Newport Beach
Terminal Island
Torrance
Watts
Whittier
Facilities
The Pacific Electric railway electrification system was based on 600 volt direct current power delivered to cars via overhead line. The San Bernardino Line operated partially at 1200 volts DC.
Some maintenance and operational sites include:
West Hollywood Car Barn and Yard
Ocean Park Car Barn and Yard
Torrance Shops
Pacific Electric Building (6th & Main Station)
Subway Terminal Building (4th and Hill St. Station)
Belmont Tunnel (Hollywood Subway)
Substation No. 8
Substation No. 14
Redlands Trolley Barn
Fleet
The number of cars that Pacific Electric owned after the merger would require its own separate page.
Passenger cars
Work cars
LAP trolley wire greaser 1898–1957
PE tower car 1915–1957
Locomotives
1600 class electric locomotives
Freight cars
LA&R flat-top caboose 1896
PE flat-top caboose PE 1939
LS&MS caboose 1915
LV caboose 1926
RF&P caboose 1905
SSC box car 1924
Buses
GM yellow coach
See also
Belmont Tunnel
Historic Downtown Los Angeles Streetcar
Pacific Electric Building
Pacific Electric Railroad Bridge
Redlands Trolley Barn
San Diego Electric Railway
Streetcars in Los Angeles
Subway Terminal Building
Notes
Bibliography
Predecessor lines
External links
Pacific Electric Railway system map, 1949
Pacific Electric Railway Elec Railway Historical Association of So. California guide to PE traction heritage
The Red Cars of Los Angeles (USC archives)
Surviving Equipment of the Pacific Electric Railway
Photos
Pacific Electric Railway Historical Society Online Image Archive
DVD Documentary – This Was Pacific Electric – Complete documentary on the Pacific Electric. Movies, stills, and interviews.
Pacific Electric photos (Jim Stubchaer)
Pacific Electric Subway – Toluca Portal: 1925 – 1955 – 2008 photos (Harry Marnell)
Pacific Electric Railway Monuments archival photographs
Pacific Electric Subway photos (Elson Trinidad)
Bill Volkmer collection of Red Car photos and post cards
Electric railways in California
Interurban railways in California
Light rail in California
Public transportation in Southern California
Defunct California railroads
Defunct public transport operators in the United States
Defunct companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Passenger rail transportation in California
History of Los Angeles
History of Los Angeles County, California
Public transportation in Los Angeles
Public transportation in Los Angeles County, California
Public transportation in Orange County, California
Public transportation in Riverside County, California
Public transportation in San Bernardino County, California
Transportation companies based in California
Railway companies established in 1901
1901 establishments in California
Railway companies disestablished in 1961
1961 disestablishments in California
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Predecessors of the Southern Pacific Transportation Company
Southern Pacific Railroad subsidiaries | [
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254443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent%20boundary | Convergent boundary | A convergent boundary (also known as a destructive boundary) is an area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide. One plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as subduction. The subduction zone can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur, called the Wadati–Benioff zone. These collisions happen on scales of millions to tens of millions of years and can lead to volcanism, earthquakes, orogenesis, destruction of lithosphere, and deformation. Convergent boundaries occur between oceanic-oceanic lithosphere, oceanic-continental lithosphere, and continental-continental lithosphere. The geologic features related to convergent boundaries vary depending on crust types.
Plate tectonics is driven by convection cells in the mantle. Convection cells are the result of heat generated by the radioactive decay of elements in the mantle escaping to the surface and the return of cool materials from the surface to the mantle. These convection cells bring hot mantle material to the surface along spreading centers creating new crust. As this new crust is pushed away from the spreading center by the formation of newer crust, it cools, thins, and becomes denser. Subduction begins when this dense crust converges with less dense crust. The force of gravity helps drive the subducting slab into the mantle. As the relatively cool subducting slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it is heated, causing hydrous minerals to break down. This releases water into the hotter asthenosphere, which leads to partial melting of asthenosphere and volcanism. Both dehydration and partial melting occurs along the isotherm, generally at depths of .
Some lithospheric plates consist of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. In some instances, initial convergence with another plate will destroy oceanic lithosphere, leading to convergence of two continental plates. Neither continental plate will subduct. It is likely that the plate may break along the boundary of continental and oceanic crust. Seismic tomography reveals pieces of lithosphere that have broken off during convergence.
Subduction zones
Subduction zones are areas where one lithospheric plate slides beneath another at a convergent boundary due to lithospheric density differences. These plates dip at an average of 45° but can vary. Subduction zones are often marked by an abundance of earthquakes, the result of internal deformation of the plate, convergence with the opposing plate, and bending at the oceanic trench. Earthquakes have been detected to a depth of 670 km (416 mi). The relatively cold and dense subducting plates are pulled into the mantle and help drive mantle convection.
Oceanic – oceanic convergence
In collisions between two oceanic plates, the cooler, denser oceanic lithosphere sinks beneath the warmer, less dense oceanic lithosphere. As the slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it releases water from dehydration of hydrous minerals in the oceanic crust. This water reduces the melting temperature of rocks in the asthenosphere and causes partial melting. Partial melt will travel up through the asthenosphere, eventually, reach the surface, and form volcanic island arcs.
Continental – oceanic convergence
When oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere collide, the dense oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the less dense continental lithosphere. An accretionary wedge forms on the continental crust as deep-sea sediments and oceanic crust are scraped from the oceanic plate. Volcanic arcs form on continental lithosphere as the result of partial melting due to dehydration of the hydrous minerals of the subducting slab.
Continental – continental convergence
Some lithospheric plates consist of both continental and oceanic crust. Subduction initiates as oceanic lithosphere slides beneath continental crust. As the oceanic lithosphere subducts to greater depths, the attached continental crust is pulled closer to the subduction zone. Once the continental lithosphere reaches the subduction zone, subduction processes are altered, since continental lithosphere is more buoyant and resists subduction beneath other continental lithosphere. A small portion of the continental crust may be subducted until the slab breaks, allowing the oceanic lithosphere to continue subducting, hot asthenosphere to rise and fill the void, and the continental lithosphere to rebound. Evidence of this continental rebound includes ultrahigh pressure metamorphic rocks, which form at depths of , that are exposed at the surface.
Volcanism and volcanic arcs
The oceanic crust contains hydrated minerals such as the amphibole and mica groups. During subduction, oceanic lithosphere is heated and metamorphosed, causing breakdown of these hydrous minerals, which releases water into the asthenosphere. The release of water into the asthenosphere leads to partial melting. Partial melting allows the rise of more buoyant, hot material and can lead to volcanism at the surface and emplacement of plutons in the subsurface. These processes which generate magma are not entirely understood.
Where these magmas reach the surface they create volcanic arcs. Volcanic arcs can form as island arc chains or as arcs on continental crust. Three magma series of volcanic rocks are found in association with arcs. The chemically reduced tholeiitic magma series is most characteristic of oceanic volcanic arcs, though this is also found in continental volcanic arcs above rapid subduction (>7 cm/year). This series is relatively low in potassium. The more oxidized calc-alkaline series, which is moderately enriched in potassium and incompatible elements, is characteristic of continental volcanic arcs. The alkaline magma series (highly enriched in potassium) is sometimes present in the deeper continental interior. The shoshonite series, which is extremely high in potassium, is rare but sometimes is found in volcanic arcs. The andesite member of each series is typically most abundant, and the transition from basaltic volcanism of the deep Pacific basin to andesitic volcanism in the surrounding volcanic arcs has been called the andesite line.
Back-arc basins
Back-arc basins form behind a volcanic arc and are associated with extensional tectonics and high heat flow, often being home to seafloor spreading centers. These spreading centers are like mid-ocean ridges, though the magma composition of back-arc basins is generally more varied and contains a higher water content than mid-ocean ridge magmas. Back-arc basins are often characterized by thin, hot lithosphere. Opening of back-arc basins may arise from movement of hot asthenosphere into lithosphere, causing extension.
Oceanic trenches
Oceanic trenches are narrow topographic lows that mark convergent boundaries or subduction zones. Oceanic trenches average wide and can be several thousand kilometers long. Oceanic trenches form as a result of bending of the subducting slab. Depth of oceanic trenches seems to be controlled by age of the oceanic lithosphere being subducted. Sediment fill in oceanic trenches varies and generally depends on abundance of sediment input from surrounding areas. An oceanic trench, the Mariana Trench, is the deepest point of the ocean at a depth of approximately .
Earthquakes and tsunamis
Earthquakes are common along convergent boundaries. A region of high earthquake activity, the Wadati-Benioff zone, generally dips 45° and marks the subducting plate. Earthquakes will occur to a depth of along the Wadati-Benioff margin.
Both compressional and extensional forces act along convergent boundaries. On the inner walls of trenches, compressional faulting or reverse faulting occurs due to the relative motion of the two plates. Reverse faulting scrapes off ocean sediment and leads to the formation of an accretionary wedge. Reverse faulting can lead to megathrust earthquakes. Tensional or normal faulting occurs on the outer wall of the trench, likely due to bending of the downgoing slab.
A megathrust earthquake can produce sudden vertical displacement of a large area of ocean floor. This in turn generates a tsunami.
Some of the deadliest natural disasters have occurred due to convergent boundary processes. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami was triggered by a megathrust earthquake along the convergent boundary of the Indian plate and Burma microplate and killed over 200,000 people. The 2011 tsunami off the coast of Japan, which caused 16,000 deaths and did US$360 billion in damage, was caused by a magnitude 9 megathrust earthquake along the convergent boundary of the Eurasian plate and Pacific Plate.
Accretionary wedge
Accretionary wedges (also called accretionary prisms) form as sediment is scraped from the subducting lithosphere and emplaced against the overriding lithosphere. These sediments include igneous crust, turbidite sediments, and pelagic sediments. Imbricate thrust faulting along a basal decollement surface occurs in accretionary wedges as forces continue to compress and fault these newly added sediments. The continued faulting of the accretionary wedge leads to overall thickening of the wedge. Seafloor topography plays some role in accretion, especially emplacement of igneous crust.
Examples
The collision between the Eurasian Plate and the Indian Plate that is forming the Himalayas.
The collision between the Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate that formed the Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana in New Zealand
Subduction of the northern part of the Pacific Plate and the NW North American Plate that is forming the Aleutian Islands.
Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate to form the Andes.
Subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Australian Plate and Tonga Plate, forming the complex New Zealand to New Guinea subduction/transform boundaries.
Collision of the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate formed the Pontic Mountains in Turkey.
Subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Mariana Plate formed the Mariana Trench.
Subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath the North American Plate to form the Cascade Range.
See also
References
External links
Plate tectonics
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254446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20N%C3%A9el | Louis Néel | Louis Eugène Félix Néel (22 November 1904 – 17 November 2000) was a French physicist born in Lyon.
Biography
Néel studied at the Lycée du Parc in Lyon and was accepted at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris. He obtained the degree of Doctor of Science at the University of Strasbourg. He was corecipient (with the Swedish astrophysicist Hannes Alfvén) of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1970 for his pioneering studies of the magnetic properties of solids. His contributions to solid state physics have found numerous useful applications, particularly in the development of improved computer memory units. About 1930 he suggested that a new form of magnetic behavior might exist; called antiferromagnetism, as opposed to ferromagnetism. Above a certain temperature (the Néel temperature) this behaviour stops. Néel pointed out (1948) that materials could also exist showing ferrimagnetism. Néel has also given an explanation of the weak magnetism of certain rocks, making possible the study of the history of Earth's magnetic field.
He is the instigator of the Polygone Scientifique in Grenoble.
The Louis Néel Medal, awarded annually by the European Geophysical Society, is named in Néel's honour.
Awards and honours
Néel received numerous awards and honours for his work including:
Awards
Hughes Prize of the Académie des sciences (1935)
Félix Robin Prize of the Société française de physique (1938)
André Blondel Medal (1948)
Grand prix du conseil de l’association « Au service de la pensée française » (1949)
Holweck Prize (1952)
Elected Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1959)
Three Physicists Prize (1963)
Gold Medal of CNRS (1965)
Elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1966
Nobel Prize in Physics (1970)
Great Gold Medal of l’Électronique (1971)
Great Gold Medal of the Société d’encouragement pour la recherche et l’invention (1973)
Founding member of the World Cultural Council (1981).
Distinctions
Owing to his involvement in national defense, particularly through research in the protection of warships by demagnetization against magnetic mines, he received numerous distinctions:
Legion of Honour:
Knight (for exceptional military services) (1940)
Officer (1951)
Commander (1958)
Grand Officer (1966)
Grand Cross (1974)
Croix de Guerre with Palm (1940)
Commander of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques (1957)
Knight of the Order of Social Merit (1963)
Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (1972)
Honorary Admiral (French Navy)
See also
Néel effect
Néel relaxation theory
Néel temperature
Néel wall
Néel TRM model
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1970 Magnetism and the Local Molecular Field
1904 births
2000 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physics
French Nobel laureates
French physicists
École Normale Supérieure alumni
University of Strasbourg alumni
University of Strasbourg faculty
Scientists from Lyon
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Founding members of the World Cultural Council | [
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254452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary%20differentiation | Planetary differentiation | In planetary science, planetary differentiation is the process of separating out the different components within a planetary body as a consequence of their physical or chemical behavior (e.g. density and chemical affinities). The process of planetary differentiation is mediated by partial melting with heat from radioactive isotope decay and planetary accretion. Planetary differentiation has occurred on planets, dwarf planets, the asteroid 4 Vesta, and natural satellites (such as the Moon).
Physical differentiation
Gravitational separation
High-density materials tend to sink through lighter materials. This tendency is affected by the relative structural strengths, but such strength is reduced at temperatures where both materials are plastic or molten. Iron, the most common element that is likely to form a very dense molten metal phase, tends to congregate towards planetary interiors. With it, many siderophile elements (i.e. materials that readily alloy with iron) also travel downward. However, not all heavy elements make this transition as some chalcophilic heavy elements bind into low-density silicate and oxide compounds, which differentiate in the opposite direction.
The main compositionally differentiated zones in the solid Earth are the very dense iron-rich metallic core, the less dense magnesium-silicate-rich mantle and the relatively thin, light crust composed mainly of silicates of aluminium, sodium, calcium and potassium. Even lighter still are the watery liquid hydrosphere and the gaseous, nitrogen-rich atmosphere.
Lighter materials tend to rise through material with a higher density. A light mineral such as plagioclase would rise. They may take on dome-shaped forms called diapirs when doing so. On Earth, salt domes are salt diapirs in the crust which rise through surrounding rock. Diapirs of molten low-density silicate rocks such as granite are abundant in the Earth's upper crust. The hydrated, low-density serpentinite formed by alteration of mantle material at subduction zones can also rise to the surface as diapirs. Other materials do likewise: a low-temperature, near-surface example is provided by mud volcanoes.
Chemical differentiation
Although bulk materials differentiate outward or inward according to their density, the elements that are chemically bound in them fractionate according to their chemical affinities, "carried along" by more abundant materials with which they are associated. For instance, although the rare element uranium is very dense as a pure element, it is chemically more compatible as a trace element in the Earth's light, silicate-rich crust than in the dense metallic core.
Heating
When the Sun ignited in the solar nebula, hydrogen, helium and other volatile materials were evaporated in the region around it. The solar wind and radiation pressure forced these low-density materials away from the Sun. Rocks, and the elements comprising them, were stripped of their early atmospheres, but themselves remained, to accumulate into protoplanets.
Protoplanets had higher concentrations of radioactive elements early in their history, the quantity of which has reduced over time due to radioactive decay. For example, the hafnium-tungsten system demonstrates the decay of two unstable isotopes and possibly forms a timeline for accretion. Heating due to radioactivity, impacts, and gravitational pressure melted parts of protoplanets as they grew toward being planets. In melted zones, it was possible for denser materials to sink towards the center, while lighter materials rose to the surface. The compositions of some meteorites (achondrites) show that differentiation also took place in some asteroids (e.g. Vesta), that are parental bodies for meteoroids. The short-lived radioactive isotope 26Al was probably the main source of heat.
When protoplanets accrete more material, the energy of impact causes local heating. In addition to this temporary heating, the gravitational force in a sufficiently large body creates pressures and temperatures which are sufficient to melt some of the materials. This allows chemical reactions and density differences to mix and separate materials, and soft materials to spread out over the surface. Another external heat source is tidal heating.
On Earth, a large piece of molten iron is sufficiently denser than continental crust material to force its way down through the crust to the mantle.
In the outer Solar System, a similar process may take place but with lighter materials: they may be hydrocarbons such as methane, water as liquid or ice, or frozen carbon dioxide.
Fractional melting and crystallization
Magma in the Earth is produced by partial melting of a source rock, ultimately in the mantle. The melt extracts a large portion of the "incompatible elements" from its source that are not stable in the major minerals. When magma rises above a certain depth the dissolved minerals start to crystallize at particular pressures and temperatures. The resulting solids remove various elements from the melt, and melt is thus depleted of those elements. Study of trace elements in igneous rocks thus gives us information about what source melted by how much to produce a magma, and which minerals have been lost from the melt.
Thermal diffusion
When material is unevenly heated, lighter material migrates toward hotter zones and heavier material migrates towards colder areas, which is known as thermophoresis, thermomigration, or the Soret effect. This process can affect differentiation in magma chambers. A deeper understanding of this process can be drawn back to a study done on the Hawaiian lava lakes. The drilling of these lakes led to the discovery of crystals formed within magma fronts. The magma containing concentrations of these large crystals or phenocrysts demonstrated differentiation through the chemical melt of crystals.
Moon's KREEP
On the Moon, a distinctive basaltic material has been found that is high in "incompatible elements" such as potassium, rare earth elements, and phosphorus and is often referred to by the abbreviation KREEP. It is also high in uranium and thorium. These elements are excluded from the major minerals of the lunar crust which crystallized out from its primeval magma ocean, and the KREEP basalt may have been trapped as a chemical differentiate between the crust and the mantle, with occasional eruptions to the surface.
Differentiation through collision
Earth's Moon probably formed out of material splashed into orbit by the impact of a large body into the early Earth. Differentiation on Earth had probably already separated many lighter materials toward the surface, so that the impact removed a disproportionate amount of silicate material from Earth, and left the majority of the dense metal behind. The Moon's density is substantially less than that of Earth, due to its lack of a large iron core. On Earth, physical and chemical differentiation processes led to a crustal density of approximately 2700 kg/m3 compared to the 3400 kg/m3 density of the compositionally different mantle just below, and the average density of the planet as a whole is 5515 kg/m3.
Core formation mechanisms
Core formation utilizes several mechanisms in order to control the movement of metals into the interior of a planetary body. Examples include percolation, diking, diapirism, and the direct delivery of impacts are mechanisms involved in this process. The metal to silicate density difference causes percolation or the movement of a metal downward. Diking is a process in which a new rock formation forms within a fracture of a pre-existing rock body. For example, if minerals are cold and brittle, transport can occur through fluid cracks. A sufficient amount of pressure must be met for a metal to successfully travel through the fracture toughness of the surrounding material. The size of the metal intruding and the viscosity of the surrounding material determines the rate of the sinking process. The direct delivery of impacts occurs when an impactor of similar proportions strikes the target planetary body. During the impact, there is an exchange of pre-existing cores containing metallic material.
The planetary differentiation event is said to have most likely happened after the accretion process of either the asteroid or a planetary body. Terrestrial bodies and iron meteorites consist of Fe-Ni alloys. The Earth's core is primarily composed Fe-Ni alloys. Based on the studies of short lived radionuclides, the results suggest that core formation process occurred during an early stage of the solar system. Siderophile elements such as, sulfur, nickel, and cobalt can dissolve in molten iron; these elements help the differentiation of iron alloys.
The first stages of accretion set up the groundwork for core formation. First, terrestrial planetary bodies enter a neighboring planet's orbit. Next, a collision would take place and the terrestrial body could either grow or shrink. However, in most cases, accretion requires multiple collisions of similar sized objects to have a major difference in the planet's growth. Feeding zones and hit and run events are characteristics that can result after accretion.
See also
Core–mantle differentiation
Iron catastrophe
Rain-out model
References
Planetary science | [
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254457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20News | A News | A News, or Netnews Version A, originally known simply as news, was the first widely distributed program for serving and reading Usenet newsgroups. The program, written at Duke University by Steve Daniel and Tom Truscott, was released on a tape given out at the June 1980 USENIX conference held at the University of Delaware. Steve Daniel from Duke offered a presentation on the then-new Usenet network and invited attendees to join.
Seventh Edition Unix included a "message of the day" facility, which allowed the system operator to cause messages to be displayed to the user at login. A News (so called because each message began with "A" as a marker character) was an expansion of this facility that allowed news messages to be distributed across an arbitrary number of systems using the new uucp service.
In addition to the login display, news articles could be read at any time from the command line. A user could also post new messages to the local machine (by posting to a special default newsgroup called "general") or queue it for network-wide transmission by placing it in a public group such as "NET.general".
The software was designed primarily for announcements, so the interface was extremely simple. There were no provisions built in for replying to articles over news (e-mail replies were supported), skipping over messages, or threading. Because the system was designed only with uucp in mind, posters were identified by their uucp "bang path" addresses, a feature that persists (albeit more for identifying servers than users) in modern Usenet. ARPAnet addressing was not supported.
The message format was designed for compactness rather than flexibility, consistent with the slow dialup modems used in 1980. The initial "A" dictated the layout of header and message information, and expansions would require changing the initial character. This scheme was abandoned after A news for the more verbose but expandable format seen .
Because Usenet grew rapidly, the limited capabilities and simplistic article storage scheme (all articles were placed in a single disk directory and there was no facility for expiring old articles) quickly made A News impractical to use. It was largely superseded by B News, although some organizations continued to use it for internal communications for many years. Later modifications did add the ability to process the early B News article format and act on B News control articles.
References
External links
world.std.com archive containing A News, including documentation and the Delaware Usenet invitation. The source code will need some modification to run on a modern Unix-like system.
Peter H. Salus, 2005: The Daemon, the Gnu and the Penguin – Chapter 5: UUCP and USENET
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254464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoceros%20%28play%29 | Rhinoceros (play) | Rhinoceros () is a play by Eugène Ionesco, written in 1959. The play was included in Martin Esslin's study of post-war avant-garde drama The Theatre of the Absurd, although scholars have also rejected this label as too interpretatively narrow. Over the course of three acts, the inhabitants of a small, provincial French town turn into rhinoceroses; ultimately the only human who does not succumb to this mass metamorphosis is the central character, Bérenger, a flustered everyman figure who is initially criticized in the play for his drinking, tardiness, and slovenly lifestyle and then, later, for his increasing paranoia and obsession with the rhinoceroses. The play is often read as a response and criticism to the sudden upsurge of Fascism and Nazism during the events preceding World War II, and explores the themes of conformity, culture, fascism, responsibility, logic, mass movements, mob mentality, philosophy and morality.
Plot
Act I
The play starts in the town square of a small provincial French village. Two friends meet at a coffee shop: eloquent, intellectual and prideful Jean, and the simple, shy, kind-hearted drunkard Bérenger. They have met to discuss an unspecified but important matter. Rather than talk about it, Jean berates Bérenger for his tardiness and drunkenness, until a rhinoceros rampages across the square, causing a commotion. During the discussion that follows, a second rhinoceros appears and crushes a woman's cat. This generates outrage and the villagers band together to argue that the presence of the rhinoceroses should not be allowed.
Act II
Bérenger arrives late for work at the local newspaper office. Daisy, the receptionist, with whom Bérenger is in love, covers for him by sneaking him a time sheet. At the office, an argument has broken out between sensitive and logical Dudard and the violent, temperamental Botard. The latter does not believe a rhinoceros could appear in France.
Mrs. Bœuf (the wife of an employee) says that her husband is unwell and that she was chased all the way to the office by a rhinoceros. Botard scoffs at the so-called "rhinoceritis" movement and says that the local people are too intelligent to be swayed by empty rhetoric. A rhinoceros arrives and destroys the staircase that leads out of the office, trapping all the workers inside. Mrs. Bœuf recognizes the rhinoceros as her husband, transformed. Despite a warning, she joins him by jumping down the stairwell onto her husband’s back. Daisy has called the firemen. The office workers escape through a window.
Bérenger visits Jean in order to apologize for the previous day's argument. He finds Jean sick and in bed. They argue once more, this time about whether people can transform into rhinoceroses and then about the morality of such a change. Jean is at first against it, then more lenient. Jean begins to gradually transform. Finally, Jean proclaims that they have just as much of a right to life as humans, then says that "Humanism is dead, those who follow it are just old sentimentalists". After transforming fully, he chases Bérenger out of the apartment.
Act III
Bérenger is at home having a nightmare. He fears transforming like Jean, earlier. He has a sip of brandy and retires to bed. Dudard visits him and they have nearly the same exchange as with Jean earlier. Only this time, Dudard is accepting of the transformation and Bérenger resists the idea and defies that he will change.
Daisy arrives with a basket of love. Both Dudard and Bérenger desire her. Botard, Daisy reveals, has also changed. Many villagers, including firemen, have begun to transform. Dudard leaves, wanting to see firsthand. Bérenger tries to stop him. Dudard turns into a rhinoceros himself.
Bérenger laments the loss of Dudard. Daisy tells Berenger that they have no right to interfere in others’ lives. Bérenger says he will defend her. He blames both himself and Daisy for aiding, through lack of sympathy, the transformations of Jean and Papillon, respectively. Daisy allays his guilt.
The phone rings, but they hear only rhino trumpeting on the line. They turn to the radio for help, but the rhinos have taken that over, too. Bérenger professes his love for Daisy. She seems to reciprocate. They attempt to have a normal life amongst beasts. Bérenger suggests that they attempt to repopulate the human race. Daisy begins to move away from him, suggesting that Bérenger does not understand love. She has come to believe the rhinoceroses are truly passionate.
Bérenger slaps Daisy without thinking and then immediately recants. Bérenger exclaims that, "in just a few minutes we have gone through twenty-five years of married life!" They attempt to reconcile, but once more fight. As Bérenger examines himself in a mirror for any evidence of transformation, Daisy slips away to join the animals.
Now alone completely, Bérenger regrets his actions towards Daisy. In his solitude, he begins to doubt his existence. He attempts to change into a rhinoceros but cannot, then regains his determination to fight the beasts, shouting, "I'm not capitulating!"
Background and meaning
American scholar Anne Quinney argues that the play, which obviously was based on real events, was autobiographical, and reflected Ionesco's own youth in Romania. Ionesco was born in Romania to a Romanian father and French mother. Ionesco's father was a Romanian ultra-nationalist of the Orthodox faith with few political scruples, who was willing to support whatever party was in power - while his mother was a French Protestant who came from a family of Sephardic Jews who had converted to Calvinism to better fit into French society. In the increasing antisemitic atmosphere of Romania in the interwar period, being even partly ethnically Jewish was enough to put Ionesco in danger. The Israeli historian Jean Ancel states that the Romanian intelligentsia had a "schizophrenic attitude towards the West and its values," yet considered the West, especially France, to be their role model. At the same time antisemitism was rampant in Romania. Most Romanian Jews were descendants of Ashkenazi Jews who had moved to Romania in the 18th and 19th centuries from Poland. A recurring claim of the Romanian radical right was that most Romanian Jews were illegal immigrants or had obtained Romanian citizenship fraudulently. In the 19th century, the newly independent Romanian state proved very reluctant to grant citizenship to Romania's Jews, and a volatile atmosphere of antisemitism flourished with many intellectuals like A. C. Cuza claiming the Jews were a foreign and alien body in Romania that needed to be removed.
In interwar Romania, the most virulent and violent antisemitic movement was the fascist Iron Guard (formed as the paramilitary branch of the Legion of the Archangel Michael), founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. As a university student, Ionesco saw one of his professors, Nae Ionescu, who taught philosophy at the University of Bucharest, use his lectures to recruit his students into the Legion. In an interview in 1970, Ionesco explained the play's message as an attack on those Romanians who become caught up in the "ideological contagion" of the Legion:
University professors, students, intellectuals were turning Nazi, becoming Iron Guards one after another. We were fifteen people who used to get together, to find arguments, to discuss, to try to find arguments opposing theirs. It was not easy ... From time to time, one of the group would come out and say 'I don't agree at all with them, to be sure, but on certain points, I must admit, for example the Jews ...' And that kind of comment was a symptom. Three weeks later, that person would become a Nazi. He was caught in a mechanism, he accepted everything, he became a Rhinoceros. Towards the end, it was only three or four of us who resisted. In 1936, Ionesco wrote with disgust that the Iron Guard had created "a stupid and horrendously reactionary Romania".
Romanian university students were disproportionately over-represented in the Iron Guard, a fact which rebuts the claim that the Iron Guard attracted support only from social "losers". Romania had a very large intelligentsia relative to its share of the population with 2.0 university students per one thousand of the population compared to 1.7 per one thousand of the population in far wealthier Germany, while Bucharest had more lawyers in the 1930s than did the much larger city of Paris. Even before the Great Depression, Romania's universities were turning out far more graduates than there were jobs for, and a mood of rage, desperation and frustration prevailed on campuses as it was apparent to most Romanian students that the middle class jobs that they were hoping for after graduation did not exist. In interwar Romania, Jews played much the same role as Greeks and Armenians did in the Ottoman Empire and the ethnic Chinese minorities do in modern Malaysia and Indonesia, namely a commercially successful minority much resented for their success. The Legion's call to end the "Jewish colonization" of Romania by expelling all the Jews, whom the Legion claimed were all illegal immigrants from Poland, and confiscate their assets so that Christian Romanians could rise up to the middle class, was very attractive to many university students. Codreanu's call for a Romania without individualism, where all Romanians would be spiritually united together as one, greatly appealed to the young people who believed that when Codreanu created his "new man" (omul nou), it would be the moment that a utopian society would come into existence. Ionesco felt that the way in which so many of his generation, especially university students, had abandoned the French ideas about universal human rights in favor of the death cult of the Legion, was a "betrayal" both personally and in a wider political sense of the sort of society Romania should be. As a young writer and playwright in 1930s Bucharest who associated with many leading figures of the intelligentsia, Ionesco felt more and more out of place as he clung to his humanist values while his friends all joined the Legion, feeling much as Bérenger does by the end of Rhinoceros as literally the last human being left on an earth overrun by rhinoceroses. In an interview with a Romanian newspaper shortly before his death in 1994, Ionesco stated how Rhinoceros related to his youth in Romania: It is true. I had the experience of an extrême droite. And of the second hand left, which had been a radical socialist...Maybe I should have belonged to the left for a while, maybe I should have been of the left before being-not of the right-of the non-left, an enemy of the left. But at a certain moment, the left was no longer the left, at a certain moment the left become a right of horror, a right of terror and that's what I was denouncing, the terror.
In Rhinoceros, all of the characters except Bérenger talk in clichés: for example, when first encountering the rhinoceros, all of the characters apart from Bérenger insipidly exclaim "Well, of all things!", a phrase that occurs in the play twenty-six times. Ionesco was suggesting that by vacuously repeating clichés instead of meaningful communication, his characters had lost their ability to think critically, and were thus already partly rhinoceros. Likewise, once a character repeats a platitudinous expression such as "It's never too late!" (repeated twenty-two times in the play) or "Come on, exercise your mind. Concentrate!" (repeated twenty times), the other characters start to mindlessly repeat them, which further shows their herd mentality. In the first act, the character of the logician says: "I am going to explain to you what a syllogism is ... The syllogism consists of a main proposition, a secondary one and a conclusion". The logician gives the example of: "The cat has four paws. Isidore and Fricot have four paws. Therefore, Isidore and Fricot are cats". Quinney sums up the logician's thinking as: "The logic of this reasoning would allow any conclusion to be true based on two premises, the first of which contains the term that is the predicate of the conclusion and the second of which contains the term that is the subject of the conclusion". Based on this way of thinking as taught by the logician, the character of the old man is able to conclude that his dog is in fact a cat, leading him to proclaim: "Logic is a very beautiful thing", to which the logician replies as "As long as it is not absurd". It is at this moment that the first rhinoceros appears. One of the leading Romanian intellectuals in the 1930s who joined the Iron Guard was Emil Cioran who in 1952 published in Paris a book entitled Syllogismes d'amertume. After Cioran joined the Legion in 1934, he severed his friendship with Ionesco, an experience that very much hurt the latter. The character of the logician with his obsession with syllogisms and a world of pure reason divorced from emotion is a caricature of Cioran, a man who claimed that "logic" demanded that Romania have no Jews. More broadly, Ionesco was denouncing those whose rigid ways of thinking stripped of any sort of humanist element led them to inhumane and/or inane views.
In the first act of the play, the characters spend much time debating whether the rhinoceroses that have mysteriously appeared in France are African or Asian rhinoceroses, and which of the two types were superior to the other - a debate that Ionesco meant to be a satire on racism. Regardless of whether the rhinoceros are African or Asian, the French characters comfortably assume their superiority to the rhinoceros; ironically the same people all become rhinoceroses themselves. Bérenger's friend Jean judges the superiority of African vs. Asian rhinoceroses by their number of horns (making him a caricature of those people who judge other people by the color of their skin) and at one point shouts at Bérenger: "If anybody's got horns, it is you! You are an Asiatic Mongol!" A recurring theme in Nazi propaganda was that the Jews were an "Asiatic" people who were unfortunately living in Europe, a message that many of the French became familiar with during the German occupation of 1940–1944. Ionesco alludes to the atmosphere of that period in his depiction of Jean taunting Bérenger over his supposed horns, and being "Asiatic". Ionesco intended the character of Jean, an ambitious functionary whose careerism robs him of the ability to think critically, to be a satirical portrayal of the French civil servants who served the Vichy government. At various points in the play, Jean shouts out such lines as "We need to go beyond moral standards!", "Nature has its own laws. Morality against Nature!" and "We must go back to primeval integrity!" When Jean says "humanism is all washed up", Bérenger asks: "Are you suggesting we replace our moral laws with the law of the jungle?"
Lines such as these show that Ionesco also created the character of Jean as a satire of the Iron Guard, which attacked all the humanist values of the modern West as "Jewish inventions" designed to destroy Romania, and claimed that there was a "natural law" in which "true" Romanians would discover their "primal energy" as the purest segment of the "Latin race" and assert their superiority over the "lower races". Notably, the more Jean rants about "natural laws" trumping all, the more he transforms into a rhinoceros.
When Romanian nationalism first emerged in the late 18th century – at a time when the Romanians in Bukovina and Transylvania were ruled by the Austrian Empire while the Romanians in Moldavia, Wallachia and the Dobruja were ruled by the Ottoman Empire – there was an intense emphasis on the Latinity of the Romanians, who were depicted as a lonely island of Latin civilization in Eastern Europe surrounded by "Slavic and Turanian barbarians". The reference to "Turanian barbarians" was to both the Turks and the Magyars who both "Turanian" peoples from Asia. This tradition of seeing Romania as a bastion of Latinism threatened by enemies everywhere culminated in the 1930s where the Iron Guard argued there were "natural laws" that determined Romania's struggle for existence, which allowed the Legion to justify any act of violence no matter how amoral as necessary because of the "natural laws". Ionesco parodied the Legion's talk of "natural laws" and "primeval values" by putting dialogue that closely resembled the Legion's rhetoric into Jean as he transforms into a green rhinoceros.
At the same time, Ionesco also attacked in Rhinoceros the French intelligentsia, a disproportionate number of whom were proud members of the French Communist Party in the 1950s. As an anti-Communist Romanian émigré living in France, Ionesco was often offended by the way in which so many French intellectuals embraced Stalinism and would either justify or deny all of the crimes of the Stalin regime under the grounds that the Soviet Union was a "progressive" nation leading humanity to a better future. Ionesco satirized French Communist intellectuals with the character of Botard, who is clearly the most left-wing character in the play. Botard professes himself to be the champion of progressive values, saying about the debate in regards to the debate over the superiority of African vs. Asian rhinoceros that: "The color bar is something I feel strongly about, I hate it!". But at the same time, Botard shows himself to be rigid, small-minded and petty in his thinking, using Marxist slogans in place of intelligent thought. Most notably, Botard is unable to accept the fact of rhinoceritis despite overwhelming evidence of its existence. For an example, Botard dismisses rhinoceritis as: "An example of collective psychosis, Mr. Dudard. Just like religion-the opiate of the people!". Despite seeing the rhinoceroses with his own eyes, Botard convinces himself that rhinoceritis is all a gigantic capitalist plot, dismissing rhinoceritis as an "infamous plot" and "propaganda". Ionesco created the character of Botard as a caricature of French Communist intellectuals who managed to ignore overwhelming evidence of Stalin's terror and proclaimed the Soviet Union to be the "Worker's Paradise, dismissing any evidence to the contrary as mere anti-Soviet propaganda. A further attack on Communism was provided by the character of the pipe-smoking intellectual Dudard. Ionesco stated in an interview that: "Dudard is Sartre". Ionesco disliked Jean-Paul Sartre - France's most famous intellectual in the 1950s - for the way in which he sought to justify Stalin's murderous violence as necessary for the betterment of humanity as a betrayal of everything that a French intellectual should be, and intended the character of Dudard who always finds excuses for the rhinoceros as a caricature of Sartre who always found excuses for Stalin.
Ionesco also intended Rhinoceros as a satire of French behavior under the German occupation of 1940–1944. The green skin of the rhinoceros recalled not only the green uniforms of the Iron Guard, but also the green uniforms of the Ordnungspolizei who enforced German power in France during the occupation. Several French critics when they saw the première of Rhinoceros in 1960 wrote in their reviews that the green skin of the rhinoceros invoked memories of the Occupation, with the Ordnungspolizei in their green uniforms and the Wehrmacht in their muddy-green uniforms. During the Occupation, the French applied nicknames to the Germans that often used the word vert, calling the Germans haricots verts (green beans), sauterelles verts (green locusts), and race verte (green race). In France during the occupation, the color green was indelibly associated with the Germans.
For the French people, the defeat of June 1940 came as a very profound shock, something that they could never imagine would actually happen. The experience of the Occupation was a deeply psychologically disorienting one for the French as what was once familiar and safe become strange and threatening. Many Parisians could not get over the shock experienced when they first saw the huge swastika flags hanging over the Hôtel de Ville and on top of the Eiffel Tower. The British historian Ian Ousby wrote:Even today, when people who are not French or did not live through the Occupation look at photos of German soldiers marching down the Champs Élysées or of Gothic-lettered German signposts outside the great landmarks of Paris, they can still feel a slight shock of disbelief. The scenes look not just unreal, but almost deliberately surreal, as if the unexpected conjunction of German and French, French and German, was the result of a Dada prank and not the sober record of history.
This shock is merely a distant echo of what the French underwent in 1940: seeing a familiar landscape transformed by the addition of the unfamiliar, living among everyday sights suddenly made bizarre, no longer feeling at home in places they had known all their lives. Ousby wrote that by the end of summer of 1940: "And so the alien presence, increasingly hated and feared in private, could seem so permanent that, in the public places where daily life went on, it was taken for granted". At the same time France was also marked by disappearances as buildings were renamed, books banned, art was stolen to be taken to Germany and as time went on, various people, especially Jews were arrested and deported to death camps.
Afterwards, many of the French learned to accept the changes imposed by the German occupation, coming to the conclusion that Germany was Europe's dominant power and the best that could be done was to submit and bow down before the might of the Reich. The more difficult and dangerous choice of becoming a résistant to the German occupation was taken only by a minority of brave people; estimates of those French who served in the Resistance varied from 2%-14% of the population depending on the historian and what one chooses to define as resistance. Many historians argued that such activities like writing for an underground newspaper, sheltering Jews and Allied servicemen, providing intelligence to the Allies or sabotaging the railroads and factories counts as resistance. Only about 2% of the French population or about 400,000 people engaged in armed resistance during the Occupation. In Rhinoceros, the characters are shocked and horrified that people are turning into brutal rhinoceros, but during the course of the play learn to accept what is happening, as just the French people were shocked by their defeat in 1940, but many learned to accept their place in the "New Order" in Europe. Dudard expresses collaborationist feelings towards the rhinoceros, saying: "Well, I'm surprised, too. Or rather I was. Now I am getting used to it". Dudard also says of the rhinoceros: "They don't attack you. If you leave them alone, they just ignore you. You can't say they are spiteful". Dudard's statements recall those feelings of the French who were initially shocked to see German soldiers, policemen and the SS marching around their cities and towns in 1940, but swiftly learned that if offered no resistance, the Germans would usually leave them alone to live their lives (provided that they were not Jewish).
Along the same lines, Bérenger wonders "Why us?", asking how rhinoceritis could possibly be happening in France. Bérenger goes on to say:If only it happened somewhere else, in some other country, and we'd just read about it in the papers, one could discuss it quietly, examine the question from all points of view and come to an objective conclusion. We could organize debates with professors and writers and lawyers, blue-stockings and artists and people and ordinary men in the street as well—it would be very interesting and instructive. But when you're involved yourself, when you suddenly find yourself up against brutal facts, you can't help feeling directly concerned—the shock is too violent for you to stay detached. Besides alluding to the German occupation, lines such as these also recall Ionesco's youth in Romania in the 1930s. Bérenger, the hard-drinking, slovenly, kindly everyman is regarded as the alter ego of Ionesco.
In an interview, Ionesco said:
The rhinoceroses, rhinoceritis and rhinoceration are current matters and you single out a disease that was born in this century. Humanity is besieged by certain diseases, physiologically and organically, but the spirit too is periodically besieged by certain diseases. You discovered a disease of the 20th century, which could be called after my famous play, rhinoceritis. For a while, one can say that a man is rhinocerised by stupidity or baseness. But there are people—honest and intelligent—who in their turn may suffer the unexpected onset of this disease, even the dear and close ones may suffer...It happened to my friends. That's why I left Romania.
Aspects of Bérenger who stubbornly remains human and vows never to give in recall Ionesco's own youth in Romania in the shadow of the Iron Guard. Jean and Dudard both mock Bérenger for weakness because he drinks too much and believes in love which they view as signs of lack of self-control, but Ionesco said about Bérenger that the strength of the modern hero "stemmed from what may be taken for weakness". When Bérenger declares his love for Daisy, it is a sign that he still retains his humanity, despite the way that others mocked him for believing in love. Ionesco wrote during his youth, he had the "strange responsibility" of being himself, feeling like the last (metaphorical) human being in Romania, as "all around me men were metamorphosed into beasts, rhinoceros... You would run into an old friend, and all of sudden, right before your eyes, he would start to change. It was if his gloves had become paws, his shoes hoofs. You could no longer talk intelligently with him for he was not a rational human being". Quinney noted that in both French and English, the word rhinoceros is both a singular and plural term, and argued that Ionesco made people transform into rhinoceros in his play as indicating that when an individual becomes part of a herd mindlessly following others, such a man or a woman lose part of their humanity.
Ionesco chose to stay in Romania to fight against the "rhinocerisation" of the intelligentsia, despite the fact that one by one his friends all become members of the Legion, or refused to talk to him out of cowardice until the regime of General Ion Antonescu passed a law in 1940 that forbade all Jews (defined in racial terms) from participating in the arts in Romania in any way or form. Quinney argued that Ionesco's théâtre de l'absurde plays were a form of "lashing out" against his friends who in his youth had abandoned him for the Legion, and reflected his dual identity as both Romanian and French. Quinney maintained that terror felt by Bérenger at being the last human left in the world reflected Ionesco's own terror as saw his friends caught up in youthful idealism all become Legionaries while the rest were either too cynical or cowardly to resist the Legion. Quinney further argued that the Rhinoceros was an allegory of and attack on the Legion of the Archangel Michael has been ignored by literary scholars who have seen Ionesco only as a French playwright and neglected the fact that Ionesco saw himself as both Romanian and French.
Adaptations
In April 1960 the play was performed by the English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre in London, England under the direction of Orson Welles with Laurence Olivier as Bérenger, Joan Plowright as Daisy, and Michael Bates, Miles Malleson and Peter Sallis in the cast. The production moved to the Strand Theatre (now the Novello Theatre) that June. Following the move Dudard and Daisy were played by Michael Gough and Maggie Smith. In 1961, a production of Rhinoceros opened on Broadway, at the Longacre Theater under the direction of Joseph Anthony. Eli Wallach played Bérenger, Anne Jackson appeared as Daisy, Jean Stapleton played Mrs. Bœuf (Mrs. Ochs in this adaptation), and Zero Mostel won a Tony Award for his portrayal of Jean.
The play was adapted to an urban American setting for a 1973 film (also called Rhinoceros) directed by Tom O'Horgan and starring Zero Mostel as John (Jean in the play), Gene Wilder as Stanley (Bérenger) and Karen Black as Daisy. The play was also adapted for a 1990 musical, titled Born Again at the Chichester Festival Theatre, by Peter Hall, Julian Barry and composer Jason Carr. The setting was relocated to an American shopping mall.
The 2008 comedy horror film Zombie Strippers is a loose adaptation of the play, but with zombies instead of rhinoceroses.
The Royal Court Theatre revived the play in 2007 and starred Benedict Cumberbatch as Bérenger and directed by Dominic Cooke. The Bangalore Little Theatre, in collaboration with the Alliance Française de Bangalore, presented Eugene Ionesco’s Rhinoceros, a play in the Theatre of the Absurd tradition. This adaptation is written by Dr. Vijay Padaki, a veteran in Theatre. In 2016 Rhinoceros was adapted and directed by Wesley Savick. It was performed by Modern Theatre in Boston.
Awards and honors
Original Broadway production
"Rhinocerization"
The term Rhinocerization (התקרנפות, hitkarnefut) became colloquial in Israel for getting swayed in a nationalistic fervor, or any other general sentiment. It was originally coined by theatre critic Asher Nahor in his review of the play in 1962, which was played at the Haifa Theatre. However, it seems that popular usage followed only after Amos Oz employed the infinitive verb form (להתקרנף, lehitkarnef) ten years later.
One use of "rhinocerization" was by Israeli historian Jean Ancel to describe how Romanian intellectuals were subsumed by the appeal of the Legion of the Archangel Michael in particular and radical antisemitism in general in his 2002 book The History of the Holocaust In Romania.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Ionesco, Eugene, (Translated into English by Derek Prouse), Rhinoceros and Other Plays, New York : Grove Press, 1960.
External links
Rhinoceros: Thick-skinned Phenomenon
Rhinoceros study guide
Rhinoceros (film)
Musical Version of Rhinoceros
Plays by Eugène Ionesco
French plays adapted into films
Theatre of the Absurd
1959 plays
Fantasy theatre
Fiction about shapeshifting
Rhinoceroses in popular culture | [
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