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249684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange%20star | Strange star | A strange star is a quark star made of strange quark matter. They form a subgroup under the quark star category.
Strange stars might exist without regard to the Bodmer–Witten assumption of stability at near-zero temperatures and pressures, as strange quark matter might form and remain stable at the core of neutron stars, in the same way as ordinary quark matter could. Such strange stars will naturally have a crust layer of neutron star material. The depth of the crust layer will depend on the physical conditions and circumstances of the entire star and on the properties of strange quark matter in general. Stars partially made up of quark matter (including strange quark matter) are also referred to as hybrid stars.
This theoretical strange star crust is proposed to be a possible reason behind fast radio bursts (FRBs). This is still theoretical, but there is good evidence that the collapse of these strange star crusts may be an FRB point of origin.
Characteristics
Recent theoretical research has found the mechanisms by which the quark stars with "strange quark nuggets" may decrease the objects' electric fields and the densities from previous theoretical expectations, causing such stars to appear nearly indistinguishable from ordinary neutron stars. This suggests that many, or even all, known neutron stars might be the strange stars. However, the investigating team of Jaikumar, Reddy, and Steiner (2006) made some fundamental assumptions that led to uncertainties in their results significant enough that the question is not settled. More research, both observational and theoretical, remains to be done on strange stars in the future.
Other theoretical work contends that:
Addressing key parameters like surface tension and electrical forces that were neglected in the original study, the results show that as long as the surface tension is below a low critical value, the large strangelets are indeed unstable to fragmentation and strange stars naturally come with complex strangelet crusts, analogous to those of neutron stars.
Crust collapse
For a strange star's crust to collapse, it must accrete matter from its environment in some form.
The release of even small amounts of its matter causes a cascading effect on the star's crust. This is thought to result in a massive release of magnetic energy as well as electron and positron pairs in the initial phases of the collapsing stage. This release of high energy particles and magnetic energy in such a short period of time causes the newly released electron/positron pairs to be directed towards the poles of the strange star due to the increased magnetic energy created by the initial secretion of the strange star's matter. Once these electron / positron pairs are directed to the star's poles, they are then ejected at relativistic velocities, which is proposed to be one of the causes of FRBs.
Primordial strange stars
Theoretical investigations have revealed that quark stars might not only be produced from neutron stars and powerful supernovae, they could also be created in the early cosmic phase separations following the Big Bang.
If these primordial quark stars can transform into strange quark matter before the external temperature and pressure conditions of the early universe renders them unstable, they might become stable, if the Bodmer–Witten assumption holds true. Such primordial strange stars could survive to this day.
Observability
Strange dwarfs, unlike neutron stars with strange cores, are postulated to be different from white dwarfs. A database of white dwarfs has been analyzed. Knowledge of the mass and surface gravity of a star, allows calculation of its radius. A team that compared 40,000 white dwarfs to the mass-radius relation for white dwarfs discovered that most of them followed that relation. Eight exceptions were much smaller in size and matched predictions for a strange dwarf.
See also
Stellar classification
References
Further reading
– Original scientific paper source
– Simpler breakdown of said scientific paper.
Star types
Quark stars
Hypothetical stars
Exotic matter
Strange quark | [
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249686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Chronology%20%28Rohl%29 | New Chronology (Rohl) | The New Chronology is an alternative chronology of the ancient Near East developed by English Egyptologist David Rohl and other researchers beginning with A Test of Time: The Bible - from Myth to History in 1995. It contradicts mainstream Egyptology by proposing a major revision of the established Egyptian chronology, in particular by re-dating Egyptian kings of the Nineteenth through Twenty-fifth Dynasties, bringing forward conventional dating by up to 350 years. Rohl asserts that the New Chronology allows him to identify some of the characters in the Hebrew Bible with people whose names appear in archaeological finds.
The New Chronology, one of several proposed radical revisions of the conventional chronology, has not been accepted in academic Egyptology, where the conventional chronology or small variations of it remains standard. Amélie Kuhrt, head of Ancient Near Eastern History at University College London, in one of the standard reference works of the discipline, notes,
Rohl's most vocal critic has been Kenneth Kitchen, one of the leading experts on biblical history and the author of the standard work on the conventional chronology of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt, the period most directly affected by the New Chronology's redating of the Nineteenth to Twenty-fifth Dynasties.
Rohl's New Chronology
David Rohl's published works A Test of Time (1995), Legend (1998), The Lost Testament (2002), and The Lords of Avaris (2007) set forth Rohl's theories for re-dating the major civilisations of the ancient world. A Test of Time proposes a down-dating (bringing closer to the present), by several centuries, of the New Kingdom of Egypt, thus needing a major revision of the conventional chronology of ancient Egypt. Rohl asserts that this would let scholars identify some of the major events in the Hebrew Bible with events in the archaeological record and identify some of the well-known biblical characters with historical figures who appear in contemporary ancient texts. Lowering the Egyptian dates also dramatically affects the dating of dependent chronologies, such as that currently used for the Greek Heroic Age of the Late Bronze Age, removing the Greek Dark Ages, and lowering the dates of the Trojan War to within two generations of a ninth-century-BC Homer and his most famous composition, the Iliad.
Rejecting the Revised Chronology of Immanuel Velikovsky and the Glasgow Chronology presented at the Society for Interdisciplinary Studies's 1978 "Ages in Chaos" conference, the New Chronology lowers the Egyptian dates (established within the traditional chronology) by up to 350 years at points before the universally accepted fixed date of 664 BC for the sacking of Thebes by Ashurbanipal.
Before the 1995 publication of A Test of Time, Thomas L. Thompson, a theologian associated with Biblical Minimalism, had insisted that any attempt to write history based on a direct integration of biblical and extra-biblical sources was "not only dubious but wholly ludicrous". Rohl explained his view on the issue in The Lost Testament (2007): "Is the Old Testament history or myth? The only way to answer that question is to investigate the biblical stories using the archaeological evidence, combined with a study of the ancient texts of the civilisations which had a role to play in the Bible story. But this has to be done with an open mind. In my view the biblical text – just like any other ancient document – should be treated as a potentially reliable historical source until it can be demonstrated to be otherwise." Rohl had previously remarked in A Test of Time (1995) that he "did not originally set out to challenge our current understanding of the Old Testament narratives. This has come about simply because of the need to explore the ramifications of my TIP [Egyptian Third Intermediate Period] research. I have no religious axe to grind – I am simply an historian in search of some historical truth."
Rohl's redating is based on criticism of three of the four arguments which he considers are the original foundations of the conventional chronology for the Egyptian New Kingdom:
He asserts that the identification of "Shishaq [Shishak], King of Egypt" (1 Kings 14:25f; 2 Chronicles 12:2-9) with Shoshenq I, first proposed by Jean-François Champollion, is based on incorrect conclusions. Rohl argues instead that Shishaq should be identified with Ramesses II (probably pronounced Riamashisha), which would move the date of Ramesses' reign forward some 300 years.
Rohl also asserts that the record in the Ebers Papyrus of the rising of Sirius in the ninth regnal year of Amenhotep I, which is used in conventional chronology to fix that year to either 1542 BC or 1517 BC, has been misread, and instead should be understood as evidence for a reform in the Egyptian calendar. This negative view of Papyrus Ebers is exemplified in a statement by Professor Jürgen von Beckerath who is of the opinion that "The calendar on the verso of the Ebers Medical Papyrus is by now so disputed that we must ask ourselves whether we really possess a sure basis for the chronology of this period of Egyptian history which is, after all, of the greatest importance for fixing the sequence of historical events, as well as for neighbouring countries". Professor Wolfgang Helck concludes that "We therefore think it is safer to start from the regnal dates rather than from interpretations of real or supposed Sirius (Sothic) or New Moon dates".
Papyrus Leiden I.350, which dates to the 52nd year of Ramesses II, records a lunar observation which places that year of Ramesses's reign in one of 1278, 1253, 1228 or 1203 BC within the date-range of the conventional chronology. Having questioned the value of the Ebers Papyrus, Rohl argues that, since the lunar cycle repeats itself every 25 years, it is only useful for fine tuning a chronology and could equally apply to dates 300 years later as in the New Chronology.
Thus, Rohl is of the opinion that none of these three foundations of the conventional Egyptian chronology are secure, and that the sacking of Thebes by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in 664 BC is the earliest fixed date in Egyptian history.
Evidence adduced
Rohl bases his revised chronology (the New Chronology) on his interpretation of numerous archeological finds and genealogical records from Egypt. For example:
Rohl notes that no Apis bull burials are recorded in the Lesser Vaults at Saqqara for the Twenty-first and early Twenty-second Dynasties. He also argues that the reburial sequence of the mummies of the New Kingdom pharaohs in the Royal Cache (TT 320) shows that these two dynasties were contemporary (thus explaining why there are too few Apis burials for the period). Rohl finds that in the royal burial ground at Tanis it appears that the tomb of Osorkon II of the 22nd Dynasty was built before that of Psusennes I of the 21st Dynasty; in Rohl's view this can only be explained if the two dynasties were contemporary.
Rohl offers inscriptions that list three non-royal genealogies which, when one attributes 20 to 23 years to a generation, show, according to Rohl, that Ramesses II flourished in the 10th century BC as Rohl advocates. In the conventional chronology, all three genealogies would be missing seven generations. He also argues that there are no genealogies that confirm the conventional dates for Ramesses II in the 13th century BC.
One of Rohl's methods is the use of archaeoastronomy, which he employs to fix the date of a near-sunset solar eclipse during the reign of Akhenaten and observed from the city of Ugarit. Based on calculations, using computer astronomy programs, Rohl asserts that the only time when this eclipse could have occurred during the whole second millennium BC was on 9 May 1012 BC. This is approximately 350 years later than the conventional dates for Akhenaten (1353-1334 BC).
Rohl's dates for Amenemhat III of the Twelfth Dynasty in the 17th century BC have found support in the work of astronomer David Lappin, whose research finds matches for a sequence of 37 out of 39 lunar month lengths recorded in 12th Dynasty contracts; the conventional chronology matches at best 21. According to Lappin, this pattern provides "startling" support for Rohl's chronology.
Shishaq
Most Egyptologists accept Shishaq as an alternative name for Shoshenq I. Rohl disputes that Shoshenq's military activity fits the biblical account of Shishaq on the grounds that the two kings' campaigns are completely different and Jerusalem does not appear in the Shoshenq inscription as a subjected town. He also points out that Ramesses did campaign against Israel and that he had a short form of his formal name which was in use in Palestine. That name was Sysw, whilst the early Hebrew alphabet did not distinguish between S and SH, so the biblical name may have originally been Sysq. Rohl has also argued that the qoph ending may be a later misreading of the early sign for waw which in the 10th century was identical to the 7th century sign for qoph. Thus 7th-century Sysq may have been a mistaken later reading of 10th-century Sysw.
The theory that Ramesses II (hypocoristicon Sysa), rather than Shoshenq I, should be identified with the biblical Shishak is not widely accepted.
Kevin Wilson agrees only partially with David Rohl. Wilson accepts that there is a mismatch between the triumphal relief of Shoshenq I and the biblical description of King Shishak. However, he does not think that this discrepancy gives sufficient reason for doubting the identification of Shoshenq I with King Shishak of the Bible. Wilson writes about Shoshenq's inscription, "Contrary to previous studies, which have interpreted the relief as a celebration of his Palestine campaign, neither the triumphal relief nor any of its elements can be utilized as a source for historical data about that campaign. … the triumphal relief can unfortunately play no role in the reconstruction of Shoshenq’s campaign."
Wilson's view is not supported by Kenneth Kitchen who states: "That the great topographical list of Shoshenq I at Karnak is a document of the greatest possible value for the history and nature of his campaign against Judah and Israel is now clearly established beyond all dispute, thanks to the labours expended on that list by a series of scholars. However, the composition and interpretation of the list still require further examination and clarification". Other leading scholars who have studied the campaign relief point out that it is indeed a unique list of subjected towns and not a copy of an earlier campaign by a more celebrated pharaoh. This originality makes it far more likely that it is a true representation of cities and locations brought under Egyptian control by the military activities of Shoshenq I.
Implications of the New Chronology
The implications of a radical down-dating of the conventional Egyptian chronology, such as that proposed by Rohl and other revisionists, are complex and wide-ranging. The New Chronology affects the historical disciplines of Old Testament studies, Levantine archaeology, Aegean and Anatolian archaeology and Classical studies, and raises major issues concerning Mesopotamian chronology and its links with Egypt and Anatolia.
Implications for Egypt and her neighbours
Redating the reign of Ramesses II to three centuries later than that given by the conventional chronology would reposition the date of the Battle of Kadesh and revise the linked chronology of Hittite history, and would need a revision of the chronology of Assyrian history before 911 BC. Given the dependence of Hittite chronology on Egyptian chronology, a lowering of Egyptian dates would result in a lowering of the end of the Hittite New Kingdom and a resulting reduction (or complete removal) of the Anatolian Dark Age.
During the Amarna period, a chronological synchronism between Egypt and Assyria is attested through the correspondence of Pharaoh Akhenaten and a King Ashuruballit. In the conventional chronology, this Ashuruballit is identified with Ashur-uballit I of the early Middle Assyrian Empire, but the New Chronology has proposed the addition of an otherwise unknown King Ashuruballit "II" during the Middle Assyrian "dark age" as the author of the Amarna letters. Given that the Ashuruballit I synchronism with Akhenaten has become the crucial link between Egyptian and Mesopotamian history in recent years, this issue is a key area of focus and dispute.
Implications for the Bible
As explained above, the New Chronology rejects the identification of Shoshenq I with the biblical Shishaq, and instead offers Ramesses II (also known by his nickname "Sysa") as the real historical figure behind the Shishaq narrative.
Rohl identifies Labaya, a local ruler in Canaan whose activities are documented in the Amarna Letters, with Saul, and identifies David with Dadua ("Tadua"), also mentioned in Amarna Letter EA256. Saul and Labaya share the same demise - "both die in battle - against a coalition of city states from the coastal plain - on or near Mount Gilboa, both as a result of betrayal." Both also have a surviving son whose name translates as "Man of Baal."
The New Chronology places Solomon at the end of the wealthy Late Bronze Age rather than in the relatively impoverished Early Iron Age. Rohl and other New Chronology researchers contend that this fits better with the Hebrew Bible's description of Solomon's wealth.
Furthermore, Rohl shifts the Israelite Sojourn, Exodus and Conquest from the end of the Late Bronze Age to the latter part of the Middle Bronze Age (from the Nineteenth Dynasty to the Thirteenth/Hyksos period). Rohl claims that this solves many of the problems associated with the historicity issue of the biblical narratives. He makes use of the archaeological reports from Avaris, in the eastern Nile Delta, which show that a large Semitic-speaking population lived there during the Thirteenth Dynasty. These people were culturally similar to the population of Middle Bronze Age (MB IIA) Canaan. Rohl identifies these Semites as the people upon whom the biblical tradition of the Israelite Sojourn in Egypt was subsequently based.
Towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age (late MB IIB) archaeologists have revealed a series of city destructions which John Bimson and Rohl have argued correspond closely to the cities attacked by the Israelite tribes in the Joshua narrative. Most importantly, the heavily fortified city of Jericho was destroyed and abandoned at this time. On the other hand, there was no city of Jericho in existence at the end of the Late Bronze Age, drawing William Dever to conclude that "Joshua destroyed a city that wasn’t even there". Rohl claims that it is this lack of archaeological evidence to confirm biblical events in the Late Bronze Age which lies behind modern scholarly skepticism over the reliability of the Hebrew Bible narratives before the Divided Monarchy period. He gives the example of Israeli professor of archaeology, Ze'ev Herzog, who caused an uproar in Israel and abroad when he gave voice to the "fairly widespread" view held among his colleagues that "there had been no Exodus from Egypt, no invasion by Joshua and that the Israelites had developed slowly and were originally Canaanites," concluding that the Sojourn, Exodus and Conquest was “a history that never happened.” However, Rohl contends that the New Chronology, with the shift of the Exodus and Conquest events to the Middle Bronze Age, removes the principal reason for that widespread academic skepticism.
Identifications in the New Chronology
Personal identifications
Rohl identifies:
Nebkaure Khety IV (16th Pharaoh of the 10th Dynasty) with the Pharaoh who had dealings with Abraham.
Amraphel (Genesis 14) with Amar-Sin, king of Sumer (1834-1825 BC/BCE by Rohl's chronology).
Tidal (Bible), King of Goyim/King of Nations (Genesis 14), with Tishdal, Hurrian ruler from the Zagros mountains.
Zariqum, governor of Ashur, with king Arioch of Ellasar.
Kutir-Lagamar of Elam with Chedorlaomer of Elam.
Amenemhat III with the Pharaoh of Joseph, and Joseph with the vizier of Amenemhat III.
The "new king who did not know Joseph" in Exodus 1:8 is identified by Rohl with Sobekhotep III.
Neferhotep I with the adoptive grandfather of Moses.
Khanefere Sebekhotep IV, brother and successor of Neferhotep, with Khenephres, the Pharaoh from whom Moses fled to Midian.
The Pharaoh of the Exodus with Manetho's Tutimaeus, whom Rohl identifies with Dedumose II.
Ibni, Middle Bronze Age ruler of Hazor, with Jabin, king of Hazor in Joshua 11:10.
Akish or Achish, king of Gath, is identified with Šuwardata, King of Gath in the Amarna letters. Akish is believed to be a shortened form of the Hurrian name Akishimige, "the Sun God has given." Shuwardata is an Indo-European name meaning "the Sun God has given."
Aziru of the Amarna Letters is identified with Hadadezer, Syrian king in II Samuel.
Labaya, a ruler in the Amarna Letters, with King Saul.
King David with Dadua in Amarna Letter EA 256.
Mutbaal, writer of the letter, is identified with Ishbaal (aka Ishbosheth). The two names have exactly the same meaning: "Man of Baal." Following the death of his father (Labaya/Saul), Mutbaal/Ishbaal moved his center to Transjordan.
"The Sons of Labaya," in the Amarna Letter 250, with Mutbaal/Ishbaal and David/Dadua, the latter being the son-in-law of Labaya/Shaul.
Benemina, also mentioned in EA 256, is identified by Rohl with Baanah, Israelite chieftain in II Samuel 4, who would later betray and assassinate Ishbosheth.
Yishuya, also mentioned in EA 256, is identified with Jesse (Ishai in Hebrew), father of David.
Ayyab, the subject of EA 256, is held to be the same as the Biblical Yoav (English "Joab").
Lupakku ("Man of Pakku"), Aramean army commander in the Amarna Letters, with Shobach ("He of Pakku"), Aramean army commander in the Bible.
Nefertiti with Neferneferuaten and with Smenkhkare.
Horemheb is identified with the Pharaoh who destroyed Gezer and later gave it to Solomon, together with one of his daughters as a wife. When Horemhab took Gezer he was not yet the ruler, but was acting under Tutankhamun. However, he became Pharaoh not long after, and Tutankhamun died too young to have left any marriageable daughters.
Ramses II (hypocoristicon = Shysha) with Shishaq in the Bible.
Irsu the Syrian, who took over control of Egypt according to the Harris Papyrus, with Arza, Master of the Palace of Israel according to I Kings 16:8-10.
Sheshi, a Hyksos ruler, with Sheshai, a ruler of Hebron descended from Anak (Joshua 15:13-15).
Io of the Line of Inachus with Queen Ahhotep of the 17th Dynasty of Egypt at Waset
Cadmus of Thebes with Cadmus in the line of Pelasgian rulers of Crete
Inachus with Anak-idbu Khyan of the Greater Hyksos
Auserre Apepi of the Greater Hyksos with Epaphus
Cush, son of biblical Ham with Meskiagkasher of the First Dynasty of Uruk
Nimrod, son of biblical Cush with Enmerkar ('Enmer the Hunter') of the First Dynasty of Uruk
Geographical identifications
Rohl, in addition to his chronology, also has some geographical ideas that are different from the conventional notions. These include:
The Garden of Eden (the urheimat [homeland] of the Sumerians), according to Rohl, was located in what is now northwestern Iran, between Lake Urmia and the Caspian Sea.
The Tower of Babel, according to Rohl, was built in the ancient Sumerian capital of Eridu.
The site of the ancient city of Sodom is "a little over 100 metres beneath the surface of the Dead Sea," a few kilometers south-by-southeast from En-Gedi.
The Amalekites defeated by King Saul were not the ones living in the Negev and/or the Sinai, but a northern branch of this people, "in the territory of Ephraim, on the highlands of Amalek" - or, in an alternative translation "in the Land of Ephraim, the mountains of the Amalekites" (Judges 12:15). This is supported by the report that, immediately following his destruction of the Amalekites, "Saul went to Carmel and set up a monument" (I Samuel 15:12). Once Saul is removed from the Negev and the Sinai, "Saul's kingdom as described in the Bible is precisely the area ruled over by Labaya according to the el-Amarna letters."
Rohl's revised chronology of pharaohs
Dates proposed by Rohl for various Egyptian monarchs, all dates BCE (NC=New Chronology, OC=Orthodox/conventional Chronology):
Reception
In Egyptology
Egyptology has not adopted the New Chronology, continuing to employ the standard chronology in mainstream academic publications. Rohl's most vocal critic has been Professor Kenneth Kitchen, formerly of Liverpool University, who called Rohl's thesis "100% nonsense." By contrast, other Egyptologists recognise the value of Rohl's work in challenging the bases of the Egyptian chronological framework. Professor Erik Hornung acknowledges that "...there remain many uncertainties in the Third Intermediate Period, as critics such as David Rohl have rightly maintained; even our basic premise of 925 [BC] for Shoshenq’s campaign to Jerusalem is not built on solid foundations." Academic debate on the New Chronology, however, has largely not taken place in Egyptological or archaeological journals. Most discussions are to be found in the Institute for the Study of Interdisciplinary Sciences' Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum (1985–2006).
Chris Bennett (1996), while saying "I am quite certain that Rohl’s views are wrong" notes that besides academic debate on problems with the conventional chronology, such as those associated with the Thera eruption, a "far deeper challenge ... has been mounted in the public arena." The history of this challenge to mainstream consensus outside of academic debate originates with the 1991 Centuries of Darkness by Peter James, together with Rohl, co-founder of the Institute for the Study of Interdisciplinary Sciences. Centuries of Darkness postulated 250 years of non-existent "phantom time" in the conventional chronology based on an archaeological "Dark Age".
Kenneth Kitchen's arguments against the New Chronology have focused on Rohl's Third Intermediate Period revision which proposes an overlap between the 21st and 22nd Dynasties. In particular Kitchen challenges the validity of the chronological anomalies raised by Rohl, questioning whether they are true anomalies and offering his own explanations for the apparent problems raised by Rohl. Kitchen accuses New Chronologists of being obsessed with trying to close gaps in the archaeological record by lowering the dating.
Grouping all radical revisions of Egyptian chronology together without distinction, Erik Hornung, in his Introduction to the Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology, makes the following statement:
We will always be exposed to such attempts, but they could only be taken seriously if not only the arbitrary dynasties and rulers, but also their contexts, could be displaced.... In the absence of such proofs we can hardly be expected to "refute" such claims, or even to respond in any fashion ... It is thus neither arrogance nor ill-will that leads the academic community to neglect these efforts which frequently lead to irritation and distrust outside of professional circles (and are often undertaken with the encouragement of the media). These attempts usually require a rather lofty disrespect of the most elementary sources and facts and thus do not merit discussion. We will therefore avoid discussion of such issues in our handbook, restricting ourselves to those hypotheses and discussions which are based on the sources.
Bennett (1996), whilst not accepting Rohl's thesis, suggests that such out-of-hand rejection may be inappropriate in Rohl's case, since "there is a world of difference between [Rohl's] intellectual standing and that of Velikovsky, or even Peter James" since, unlike "popular radicalisms" such as those of Velikovsky, Bauval or Hancock, "Rohl has a considerable mastery of his material."
Professor Amélie Kuhrt, head of Ancient Near Eastern History at University College, London, in one of the standard reference works of the discipline, states:
An extreme low chronology has been proposed recently by a group devoted to revising the absolute chronology of the Mediterranean and Western Asia: P. James et al., Centuries of Darkness, London, 1991; similar, though slightly diverging revisions, are upheld by another group, too, and partly published in the Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum. The hub for the dating of other cultures is Egypt, so much of the work of both groups focuses on Egyptian evidence. Many scholars feel sympathetic to the critique of weaknesses in the existing chronological framework presented in these volumes, but most archaeologists and ancient historians are not at present convinced that the radical redatings proposed stand up to close examination.
Radiocarbon dating
In 2010, a series of corroborated radiocarbon dates were published for dynastic Egypt which suggest some minor revisions to the conventional chronology, but do not support Rohl's proposed revisions.
In popular media
In 1995, Rohl published his version of the New Chronology, in the best-selling book A Test of Time, accompanied by a 1995 Channel 4 three-part series Pharaohs and Kings - A Biblical Quest. A Test of Time takes up the general scenario presented by James, adding many details omitted in 1991, including the "dramatic results" pertaining to Biblical chronology. Whilst the New Chronology has not been broadly accepted in academia, it has been widely disseminated to the public since the 1990s via Rohl's best-selling books and the 1995 Channel 4 television documentary, aired in the United States in 1996 on The Learning Channel. Berthoud (2008) contrasts the "near-unanimous" rejection of Rohl's theories in Egyptology with the "sensational effect" his books, combined with the television series, had on the general public.
The reaction of some leading figures from the academic establishment has been very hostile. Kenneth Kitchen presented a "savage review" of Centuries of Darkness in the Times Literary Supplement, and the British Museum banned A Test of Time from its museum store.
By evangelicals
In December 1999, the Dutch language internet journal Bijbel, Geschiedenis en Archeologie (Bible, History and Archaeology) devoted space to a debate about Rohl's New Chronology. According to evangelical scholar, J.G. van der Land, editor of the journal, Rohl's time-line resolves some archaeological anomalies surrounding ancient Egypt, but creates conflicts with other areas that make it untenable. His arguments were then countered by Peter van der Veen and Robert Porter. In the final article in the issue, van der Land identified some new issues for Rohl's chronology arising from recent finds in Assyrian letters.
Sources
Published in the U.S. as
Published in paperback as
References
External links
David Rohl's official web site
A Test of Time Home Page
Official David Rohl discussion forum
Review of A Test of Time (originally published in KMT)
ISIS - Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum
The Revision of Ancient History - A Perspective
Rohl at Catastrophism.com
Egyptology
Alternative chronologies
Historical theories and materials on the Exodus
1995 introductions
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249689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20Island%20MacArthur%20Airport | Long Island MacArthur Airport | Long Island MacArthur Airport (formerly known as Islip Airport) is a public airport in Ronkonkoma, in Suffolk County, on Long Island, in New York, United States. The Town of Islip owns and operates the airport, which serves about two million airline passengers a year, as well as general aviation. Long Island MacArthur Airport (LIMA) covers 1,311 acres (531 ha) and has three runways and two helipads.
MacArthur Airport serves Nassau and Suffolk counties as an alternative to the JFK and LaGuardia airports – both in Queens in New York City. Shuttle buses connect the airport to the Ronkonkoma Railroad Station.
The FAA designated LIMA an Official Metro Airport in early 2011, meaning it is now grouped with LaGuardia, JFK and Newark in travel and informational searches for New York airports, providing better exposure. MacArthur Airport does not share the congested airspace of the city-centric airports and has an exceptional record of on-time performance. In 2009, 83.6% of flights arrived on time and 85.6% of flights departed on time.
In 2017 the airport served more than 1.29 million airline passengers. In 2016 it had 124,154 aircraft operations, an average of 340 per day; 84% general aviation; 7% scheduled airline; 6% air taxi and 2% military. In July 2018, 247 aircraft were based at Islip: 141 single-engine, 30 multi-engine, 36 jets, 31 helicopters, and 9 military. The Town-owned Foreign Trade Zone is next to the airport property.
History
In April 1942 the Town of Islip contracted with the federal government to build an airfield on town-owned land for military use. Within months the Civil Aeronautics Administration – predecessor to today's Federal Aviation Administration – funded construction of three paved runways. Originally named Islip Airport, at the suggestion of Charles H. Duryea, a local elected official, the airport was renamed MacArthur Airport after General Douglas MacArthur, whose dramatic escape from the Philippines had captured the attention of the world.
In 1944 Lockheed Aircraft Corporation built the first hangar at the airport. Five years later the Town built the airport's first terminal building preparing for airline flights. Through the 1950s the Sperry Corporation conducted aerospace research at the airport.
In 1947, the Town of Islip offered the airport to the Port of New York Authority (now the Port Authority of New York & New Jersey). The offer was rejected because of the airport's location outside of the port region.
In 1960 Allegheny Airlines was the first scheduled passenger airline at Islip, flying to Boston, Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. The March 1961 Official Airline Guide lists five weekday Convair 440 departures: a nonstop to Washington National, one to Baltimore, and three flights direct to Boston via several stops. The General Douglas MacArthur Terminal was completed in 1966. In 1967 Mohawk Airlines began two Fairchild Hiller FH-227 flights a day, to Bridgeport and Albany and beyond with one flight continuing to Toronto. By 1969 Mohawk was flying BAC One-Elevens nonstop to Syracuse. In 1972 Mohawk had nonstops to Albany with direct service to Buffalo and Rochester. Mohawk would soon be merged into Allegheny Airlines.
In 1971 American began flying nonstop Boeing 727-100s to Chicago O'Hare Airport. By 1974 Allegheny had started BAC One-Elevens and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30s nonstop to Albany and Washington D.C. National Airport, and direct jets to Burlington, VT, Cincinnati and Detroit. Allegheny continued Convair 580s nonstop to Albany, Boston, Bridgeport and Washington D.C. in addition to direct Convair 580s to Buffalo and Rochester. Allegheny would be renamed USAir, which then became US Airways, with these respective airlines operating service into the airport for many years before US Airways was merged into American.
The Official Airline Guide (OAG) shows the following passenger jets to Long Island MacArthur nonstop from the following at various times from the late 1960s to the late 1990s, with types:
Allegheny Airlines: Albany, NY, New Haven, CT, Washington, D.C. National Airport – BAC One-Eleven, McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30
American: Chicago O'Hare Airport, Raleigh/Durham, NC – Boeing 727-100, Boeing 727-200, Fokker 100, McDonnell Douglas MD-80
Braniff International Airlines: Orlando, FL – Boeing 727-200
Carnival Air Lines: Fort Lauderdale, FL, Fort Myers, FL, Orlando, FL, Tampa, FL, West Palm Beach, FL – Boeing 737-400
Continental: Washington, D.C. Dulles International Airport – Boeing 737-300
Delta Express: Fort Lauderdale, FL, Orlando, FL, Tampa, FL – Boeing 737-200
Eastern Airlines: Atlanta, GA, Fort Lauderdale, FL, Orlando, FL, Providence, RI – Boeing 727-100, Boeing 727-200
Mohawk Airlines: Syracuse, NY – BAC One-Eleven
New York Air: Washington, D.C. Dulles International Airport - McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30
Northeastern International Airways: Boston, MA, Fort Lauderdale, FL, Hartford, CT, Orlando, FL, Philadelphia, PA, St. Petersburg, FL, West Palm Beach, FL – Boeing 727-100, Boeing 727-200, Douglas DC-8
Spirit Airlines: Detroit, MI, Fort Lauderdale, FL, Fort Myers, FL, Tampa, FL, West Palm Beach, FL – McDonnell Douglas MD-80, McDonnell Douglas MD-87
United: Chicago O'Hare Airport – Boeing 727-100, Boeing 727-200
USAir: Albany, NY, Baltimore, MD, Charlotte, NC, Fort Lauderdale, FL, Orlando, FL, Pittsburgh, PA, Syracuse, NY, Washington, D.C. National Airport – Boeing 727-200, Boeing 737-200, Boeing 737-300, Boeing 737-400, BAC One-Eleven, Fokker F28, Fokker 100, McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30
Southwest arrived at Islip in 1999 with nonstop Boeing 737-700s to Baltimore, MD, Chicago Midway Airport, Nashville, TN and Tampa, FL.
Most of the above airlines ceased serving Long Island MacArthur, but between 1999 and 2009 passenger traffic grew with the airport now serving about two million passengers a year on three airlines: Southwest, Frontier and US Airways Express, with the latter now operating as American Eagle Airlines after the merger of US Airways with American.
A number of commuter and regional airlines served the airport from the late 1970s to the late 1990s, including Allegheny Commuter, Altair Airlines, Atlantic Coast Airlines operating as United Express, Business Express Airlines operating as Delta Connection, Continental Express, Empire Airlines (1976-1985), Mall Airways, Metro Airlines Northeast operating as Trans World Express, Mohawk Airlines (a later commuter air carrier version), NewAir and its predecessor New Haven Airways, Piedmont Regional Airlines operating on behalf of Piedmont Airlines (1948-1989), Pilgrim Airlines, Precision Airlines operating as Northwest Airlink, Ransome Airlines and USAir Express and its successor US Airways Express. According to the OAG, prop types operated by these smaller airlines to the airport included the ATR-42, Beechcraft 99, Beechcraft 1900C, BAe Jetstream 31, de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter, de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7, de Havilland Canada DHC-8 Dash 8, Dornier 228, Embraer EMB-110 Bandeirante, Nord 262, Piper Navajo, Saab 340, Short 330, Short 360 and Swearingen Metro.
In 1994 Continental Express was operating ATR-42s nonstop between the airport and the Continental Airlines hub at Newark Airport. By 1999 Atlantic Southeast Airlines (ASA) flying as Delta Connection was operating Canadair CRJ-200s nonstop to the Delta Air Lines hub in Atlanta while Comair, also flying as Delta Connection, was operating Canadair CRJ-200s nonstop to Delta's hub in Cincinnati. Also in 1999, Continental Express was flying Embraer ERJ-145s nonstop to the Continental Airlines hub in Cleveland.
In later years Continental Express continued to serve the airport with nonstop regional jets to Cleveland while Continental Connection scheduled nonstop turboprops to Albany, NY; both services ended in 2005. Spirit Airlines scheduled flights to several Florida cities and Detroit, before moving to LaGuardia Airport in 2001; in May 2008 the airline resumed service to Fort Lauderdale from MacArthur, dropping it soon after. Delta Express, which had nonstops to Orlando and Fort Lauderdale, dropped MacArthur Airport in 2003 after a decline in traffic. Delta Connection regional jet service to Atlanta flown by Atlantic Southeast Airlines (ASA) on behalf of Delta Air Lines ended on May 1, 2008 following a mid-April announcement that Delta and Northwest Airlines were planning to merge – a move that led to changes for the merged airline.
As of January 2014 Southwest was operating year-round non-stops to Baltimore, Fort Lauderdale, Orlando, Tampa, and West Palm Beach, and seasonal service to Fort Myers. Allegiant Air previously operated two weekly flights on a seasonal basis to Fort Myers/Punta Gorda, FL. with McDonnell Douglas MD-80s but no longer serves the airport. PenAir began operating two daily nonstop flights to Boston in July 2013, but stopped flying to MacArthur a year later. The only legacy carrier serving Islip now is American Airlines with Embraer ERJ-145 code share flights operated by its American Eagle Airlines regional affiliate Piedmont Airlines to Philadelphia. Service to Washington–National ended on July 2, 2014, after the merger between US Airways and American. The newly merged airline had to cut service to 17 cities from Washington–National because of an antitrust lawsuit preventing the airline from monopolizing slots at National Airport. American Airlines reapplied for nonstop service between MacArthur Airport and Washington–National when two slots opened up, but in early 2015 the airline lost the bid for these two slots.
Passenger enplanements and operations
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks MacArthur Airport saw a 25% decrease in passenger traffic. Passenger traffic later increased, but they decreased again in 2006. Charts depicting annual operations and passenger enplanements are in Appendix C and D. In 2005 MacArthur Airport had 173,135 total operations; during this year 1,055,832 passenger were enplaned, 7.07% more than 2004. In 2006 MacArthur had 189,390 total operations with 1,138,061 passenger enplanements. The year 2007 brought total operations at MacArthur down to 184,760 but passenger enplanements increased to 1,167,515, MacArthur's highest enplanements in the last 6 years. In 2008, total operations at MacArthur were 179,230 and passenger enplanements were down to 1,048,768; in 2009, 159,736 total operations and 929,902 passenger enplanements. From 2005 to 2009 almost every category of MacArthur's operations has declined: airline, military, air taxi, and general aviation. A recent figure was released citing a 46.4% decrease from 2007 to 2012, the most loss in any small hub airport.
Growth in the 21st century
Established about midway through the 20th century, by the end of the century MacArthur Airport had been transformed. Growth and expansion continued in the early years of the 21st century, but by 2014 the airport was experiencing financial difficulties.
In 2004 MacArthur Airport embarked on an expansion that included a Southwest Airlines terminal built by the airline at a cost of $65 million. Phase one of the expansion included four gates to be used by Southwest, as well as space for shops and restaurants. Phase two, completed in November 2006, added four more gates for a total of eight new gates. Prior to the expansion project, passengers had to pass back through the ticketing area of the airport to reach the baggage claim area. With the completion of Phase two, the new concourse provided a more convenient exit point to baggage claim, ground transportation, and the airport's roadway exit. Nevertheless, the location of the baggage claim area still requires most travelers using the airport's long-term parking lots to still pass back through the ticketing area of the airport to reach their vehicles.
A major proponent of the airport's 2004–2006 expansion projects was Peter J. McGowan, then the Islip Town Supervisor; the new concourse was named after McGowan. The terminal was renamed Veterans Memorial Concourse in homage to Long Island's distinction as home to more military veterans than almost any other community in the United States.
The 2004 expansion was built without state approvals and in violation of fire and safety codes, which resulted in a scandal.
In late September 2007, Ryanair, an ultra-low cost airline based in Ireland, proposed to fly between MacArthur Airport and Dublin, Ireland. However, the proposal failed.
A new control tower was completed in 2010 and opened in 2011 to replace the tower built in the early sixties. In 2010 a new state-of-the-art Fuel Farm will increase the jet fuel supply. The airport has plans to reconfigure the roadway in front of the terminal; another taxiway is planned along with other projects using FAA airport improvement program funds. Development of the West Side, home to a thriving general aviation sector, will get underway in late 2010.
While the airport continues to expand it has added numerous amenities, including free courtesy cell phone parking (located in the rear of Lot 6B). In November 2009 MacArthur Airport became the only airport in the tri-state region to offer free wireless Internet service in the entire terminal and in the courtesy cell phone parking lot. In addition, the airport launched several tools designed to provide up-to-date information to travelers, including its first official website, flyLIMA.com. All passenger food catering within the airport terminal is provided by HMSHost, which operates five restaurants.
In March 2017, plans were announced to build a U.S. Customs Station at MacArthur Airport by the end of 2019 with help from financial assistance from New York State Governor Andrew Cuomo. This will be an attempt at making MacArthur an international destination and at enticing airlines to add MacArthur to their destinations. Beginning in late March, a marketing campaign is to be undertaken by the Town Of Islip to announce the revival of the airport. This will include advertisements on public transportation, digital marketing, and radio spots. In years past, previous campaigns have targeted airlines. This time, the $180 million campaign focus will be on potential passengers and commuters. A new logo and slogan will be announced in the future, as well. The thought process is that by attracting more passengers, the airport will attract more airlines, including international flights.
On July 17, 2017, Frontier Airlines announced service to 10 new cities using aircraft as large as the Airbus A321 which approaches the Boeing 757 in range and passenger capacity, a first for the airport in the past decade.
Airlines and destinations
MacArthur Airport currently has two concourses in one main terminal. Concourse A has nine gates, concourse B has two gates with jetways and multiple gates that board from the ramp.
Passenger
Destinations map
Statistics
Passenger numbers
Top destinations
Carrier shares
Administration
Long Island MacArthur Airport is owned and operated by the Town of Islip. The Department of Aviation is led by the Commissioner of Aviation and Transportation, which works closely with the Town Board to manage and steward the airport. Departments include Airport Operations, Custodial, Fire Rescue, Law Enforcement, Maintenance, Construction, and Administration.
Tenants
Long Island MacArthur Airport's houses numerous general aviation tenants, including three fixed based operators: Sheltair Aviation, ExcelAire, and Mid Island Air, which offers a full range of general aviation services. There are three flight schools based on the field, ATP Flight School, Heritage Flight Academy, and Mid Island Air Service.
The Suffolk County Police (SCPD) Aviation Section has a law enforcement and MEDEVAC helicopter based at MacArthur Airport. The base is staffed 24 hours a day by police pilots, as well as flight paramedics employed by the Stony Brook University Medical Center.
Until the early 1990s, the 2nd Battalion (Attack), 142nd Aviation Regiment of the N.Y. Army National Guard's 42nd Infantry Division Aviation Brigade, was based at MacArthur Airport, equipped with Bell Helicopter AH-1 Cobra (F model) gunships. In 2006, the 3rd Battalion (Assault), 142nd Aviation Regiment moved its headquarters from Latham, N.Y. to Long Island MacArthur Airport, bringing its Sikorsky UH-60L Black Hawk helicopters. In May 2007, following yet another reorganization in which the battalion was re-configured, the unit received its mobilization alert order to participate in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Over the course of their deployment, the unit – which came to be known as Task Force Jester – flew more than 15,000 flight hours. The last of the battalion's troops returned home to Long Island MacArthur Airport in May 2009.
It is also home to Civil Air Patrol's Long Island Group's Suffolk Cadet Squadron 10.
Radio station WRCN-FM (Broadcasting as LI News) maintains its offices and studios within the airport.
Accidents and incidents
On April 4, 1955, a Douglas DC-6 of United Airlines operating on a pilot test flight bound for LaGuardia Airport lost control soon after take-off and subsequently crashed, killing all three crew members on board.
On November 23, 1999, a U.S. Army National Guard UH-1H "Huey" helicopter crashed in fog during an attempted landing after training exercises above eastern Long Island in which two were killed and two injured.
On February 3, 2022, a Pilatus PC12 collided with a Hawker 1000 on the ramp. No one was injured. Investigation is still ongoing.
Ground transportation
MacArthur Airport is connected with the nearby Long Island Rail Road station at Ronkonkoma by shuttle buses and taxi service. The LIRR offers passengers transportation to nearby New York City. The LIRR currently offers a discount package for airport passengers, which includes the cost of shuttle service between the train station and airport terminal.
Suffolk Transit's S57 route serves the airport, connecting it with Sayville and the Smith Haven Mall, located in Lake Grove, New York.
The Hampton Jitney's Westhampton, Montauk, and North Fork lines stop along the Long Island Expressway (Interstate 495) at Exit 60. It is called the Islip Airport Connection, and is a short cab ride away from the airport terminal.
In popular culture
Long Island MacArthur Airport has been used several times as a filming location:
In the 1970s film The Out-of-Towners, the airport scene, in which George Kellerman (Jack Lemmon) and his wife Gwen (Sandy Dennis) depart Ohio for New York.
In 2008, several scenes for the independent film Every Day, starring Helen Hunt, Liev Schreiber, and Brian Dennehy.
Scenes for the 2010 FX comedy Louie were filmed at the airport.
In 2011, Sean Paul's music video She Doesn't Mind was filmed at the airport.
In 2012, part of the movie Non-Stop was filmed in various locations at the airport.
In 2014, scenes from Ricki and the Flash were filmed at the airport.
See also
Transportation on Long Island
Transportation in New York City
References
External links
Airports in Suffolk County, New York
Airports established in 1944
Brookhaven, New York
Islip (town), New York
1944 establishments in New York (state) | [
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249690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westchester%20County%20Airport | Westchester County Airport | Westchester County Airport is a county-owned airport in Westchester County, New York, three miles (6 km) northeast of downtown White Plains, with territory in the towns of North Castle and Harrison, New York, and village of Rye Brook, New York. It is sometimes referred to as the White Plains Airport and is so identified by the Official Airline Guide (OAG).
The airport primarily serves Westchester County, New York and Fairfield County, Connecticut; the New York-Connecticut state border runs along its eastern perimeter. Being approximately 33 miles (53 km) north of Midtown Manhattan, it is also considered a satellite or reliever airport for the New York metropolitan area.
HPN is currently serviced by five airlines, including regional code-sharing affiliates with scheduled flights for their major airline partners, to sixteen destinations throughout the United States. Three scheduled charter airlines also offer flights.
The National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 categorized HPN as a primary commercial service airport. Per Federal Aviation Administration records, the airport had 904,482 passenger enplanements in calendar year 2008, 964,927 in 2009, and 999,831 in 2010.
History
Westchester County Airport was built during World War II in 1942 as a home to an Air National Guard unit to protect New York City and Rye Lake, part of the city's water supply system. In May 1983, with the growth of suburban Westchester, the Guard unit abandoned Westchester Air National Guard Base and moved to Stewart International Airport, in Orange County.
The first scheduled airline flights were by American Airlines in late 1949 with a weekday morning flight from New York LaGuardia Airport to HPN continuing to Syracuse Hancock International Airport and beyond and returning in the evening. Mohawk Airlines replaced American in 1955; Mohawk and successor Allegheny Airlines served HPN until 1979. The first scheduled jet flight was a Mohawk BAC One-Eleven in 1965. Before the federal Airline Deregulation Act in 1978, the airport was served in 1976 by Allegheny Airlines BAC One-Elevens and by several commuter air carriers including Air Speed, Command Airways and Commuter Airlines. Air Florida arrived in 1980 and United Airlines during the mid 1980s. American Airlines also resumed mainline service. On January 5, 2006, the last flight operated by regional carrier Independence Air left HPN for Washington, D.C. at 7:26 pm.
Major airlines that previously served the airport include American Airlines, Northwest Airlines, Republic Airlines (1979-1986), United Airlines and USAir (now part of American Airlines). New start up carriers Air Florida, AirTran Airways, Carnival Air Lines and Midway Airlines also served the airport. AirTran Airways began service at the airport in 2006 with flights to Atlanta, Orlando and West Palm Beach. These flights ended on August 11, 2012. Smaller regional and commuter air carriers that previously operated flights included Air North, Altair Airlines, Business Express Airlines, Boston-Maine Airways (operating as Pan Am Clipper Connection), Brockway Air, Command Airways, Commuter Airlines, Continental Express (now United Express), Empire Airlines, Independence Air, Island Air, Mall Airways and USAir Express.
These airlines operated the following jets to the airport:
Air Florida – Boeing 737-200
AirTran – Boeing 717-200
Allegheny Airlines – BAC One-Eleven
American Airlines – Fokker 100
Carnival Air Lines – Boeing 737-200
Continental Express – Embraer ERJ-135 (operated by ExpressJet for Continental Airlines)
Empire Airlines – Fokker F28 Fellowship
Midway Airlines – Douglas DC-9-10
Mohawk Airlines – BAC One-Eleven
Northwest Airlines – McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30
Northwest Jetlink (operated by Mesaba Airlines on behalf of Northwest Airlines] - Avro RJ85
Republic Airlines (1979-1986) – McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30
United Airlines – Boeing 737-200, 737-300 and 737-500
USAir – Fokker 100
In the summer of 1981 Air Florida's timetable listed international nonstop Boeing 737-200 service to Bermuda from the airport.
In June 2005, a drunken teenager and two of his friends stole a Cessna 172 from nearby Danbury Municipal Airport around 1AM and landed on a taxiway at Westchester County Airport around 4AM. The aircraft was low on fuel and allegedly flying erratically. HPN airport was closed at the time and no runway lights were illuminated. Police arrived on the scene and reported beer bottles falling out of the aircraft as they arrested the teens, all of whom were charged with various felonies relating to the unauthorized use of the aircraft, theft, and alcohol impairment.
JetBlue began service at the airport in 2007 and is now the airport's largest carrier with eleven daily round trips to five destinations, all in Florida—Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport, Orlando International Airport, Palm Beach International Airport, Southwest Florida International Airport, and Tampa International Airport. JetBlue is the only airline that operates mainline jet aircraft at HPN year-round, offering flights on board the Airbus A320 and Embraer E190 aircraft. Delta Air Lines operates mainline aircraft at HPN only on a seasonal basis, using the Boeing 717-200 to fly to and from the Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport.
In June 2009, Cape Air commenced service to Westchester with flights to Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts. Cape Air introduced service to Lebanon Municipal Airport in New Hampshire in early 2010. All Cape Air flights depart and arrive from the Signature Flight Support facility south of the Main Terminal due to a lack of ticket counter space in the main terminal building.
In June 2010, a regional airline affiliate for Air Canada announced it would cease all flights into the airport. Commuter code sharing service with Beechcraft turboprop aircraft was flown on behalf of Air Canada for several years between the airport and Toronto. This ended international flights until service to the Bahamas began in 2011. The airport currently does not have any international nonstop service.
On November 18, 2010, American Airlines ended its American Eagle regional airline service to the airport and instead introduced American Connection flights operated by Chautauqua Airlines as a replacement flying smaller Embraer ERJ-140 regional jet aircraft. Later, the American Connection name was dropped and American Eagle service returned.
In 2013, Delta Air Lines announced that it would begin seasonal service to Orlando starting in December of that year. Delta doesn't serve this route anymore, with JetBlue being the only airline that currently does serve this route.
In December 2015, Tradewind Aviation began service to the Morrisville-Stowe Airport in northern Vermont.
In August 2016, American Airlines announced nonstop service to Miami via its American Eagle subsidiary. Flights would depart twice-daily from HPN at 7 AM and 1:59 PM on Embraer E-175 aircraft operated by Republic Airways. Service commenced on December 15, 2016, only to cease in late 2017. This was the first commercial airline service addition since AirTran Airways folded. This route is no longer served by American or Republic Airlines as of September 2021.
Between December 2 and 20, 2017, Delta Air Lines upgauged 1–2 flights on select days to Boeing 717-200 aircraft to test increased payload feasibility to HPN. This was necessitated by the airport's limit of 240 arriving and departing passengers per half-hour; operators who exceed this cap are fined. As of the present time, Delta uses this equipment for flights on the HPN-ATL route on a seasonal basis along with the Embraer E-175 and Bombardier CRJ900, with the latter being used on a full-time basis.
On November 13, 2018, JetBlue announced that it would be offering service to Nantucket Memorial Airport from HPN on a seasonal and 5x round-trip flight per week basis onboard the Embraer E190 stating in June 2019. It operated this route from early June to early October with 1 round-trip flight per day on Sundays, Mondays, Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays. JetBlue didn't operate this route in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
On April 27, 2020, the airport was closed to general aviation traffic for one week and commercial airlines for about a month so Runway 16/34 could be repaved, a project originally scheduled to span four months with construction only occurring from midnight to 6 AM. This decision was made in the midst of COVID-19 pandemic-related air travel cuts, which drastically reduced commercial airline service to the airport. Some operators were forced to ferry their aircraft to nearby airports where they could continue flights. This was the first total shutdown of a U.S. commercial airport for reasons relating to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Several capital projects are planned, including a new US Customs and Border Protection facility and a new ARFF Station.
Noise abatement systems and procedures
In its effort to mitigate aircraft noise pollution into neighboring communities, HPN maintains six major noise abatement programs that are in effect daily.
One of them is its Voluntary Restraint from Flying Program (VRFF), sometimes referred to as a voluntary curfew, that helps assuage anti-airport complainants by requesting—not mandating—that operators refrain from flying into the airport between midnight and 6:30 AM. Those that breach the VRFF are reminded of the initiative and notified of any noise complaints that may have resulted from their operations.
The airport's Airport Noise and Operations Monitoring System (ANOMS) collects noise data from remote noise-monitoring terminals, and both registered aircraft and community noise levels are published in the Airport Monitor. This system works in conjunction with the High Range Noise Event (HRNE) Program; ANOMS staff can identity any operator who causes a maximum noise level event of 90.0 decibels or higher at any of its remote noise monitor terminals and advise them in order to prevent future noise level transgressions. As of September 2020, there are no fines, penalties, or aircraft restrictions associated with this program.
Additionally, HPN prohibits intersection takeoffs from its runways and restricts maintenance runups and use of reverse thrust. It also employs Advanced Authorization for operations.
Local context
Following several renovations and discussions about the airport's viability, HPN is currently served by six passenger airlines with flights to sixteen destinations throughout the United States. Although there has long been controversy over the airport and its proposed expansions, concerns have also arisen regarding travelers seeking relief from long delays at the other New York metropolitan area airports, such as John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK) and LaGuardia Airport (LGA).
More recently, these concerns pertain to flight paths and vehicular congestion. The latter has been addressed by the County of Westchester with Bee-Line Bus System (bus #12 from downtown White Plains) service to the airport and the encouragement of travelers to share rides to the airport.
The airport's environmental management performance is monitored through its ISO 14001 certified Airport Environmental Management System (AEMS). This enables operators to report the airport's impacts on surface water, groundwater, and noise. Airport-wide environmental management practices are also continually revised with this technology, and annual objectives and targets are determined to avoid or mitigate adverse environmental impacts. In addition, airport employees receive environmental training. In 2004, HPN was the third airport in the U.S. to achieve this level of environmental performance.
In May 2011, the New York State Department of Transportation published the "New York Statewide Airport Economic Impact Study," highlighting the economic impacts of public-use airports in New York state for fiscal year 2009. The study noted that HPN was one of only three airports in the state that increased its enplanements, surpassing the U.S. benchmark. It also noted that the cumulative economic activity for the airport was approximately $736 million.
Approaches
The airport can be accessed from I-684's Exit 2 onto New York State Route 120. More directly, the terminals are accessed by NY Route 135.
IATA code
The IATA code for Westchester County Airport is HPN. The origins of this code are in dispute. Some believe it is derived from the name of the city, White Plains (IATA codes normally do not begin with W because those are reserved for radio signals), while others maintain the IATA code represents the first letter of the airport's three neighboring communities, Harrison, Purchase, and North Castle. The full ICAO code for Westchester County Airport is KHPN.
Facilities and aircraft
Westchester County Airport covers 702 acres (284 ha) at an elevation of 439 feet (134 m) above mean sea level. It has two asphalt paved runways: 16/34 is 6,549 by 150 feet (1,996 x 46 m) and 11/29 is 4,451 by 150 feet (1,357 x 46 m). Runway 29's threshold is displaced 1,297 feet (395 m) due to trees obstructing the approach path. The trees (in Connecticut) are 37 ft (11 m) tall and 370 ft (113 m) from the end of the runway.
Westchester County Airport has several fixed-base operators (FBOs), including Signature Flight Support East and West, Ross Aviation East and West, NetJets, and Million Air. Although varied in services offered, the FBOs at Westchester County Airport provide Jet A and 100LL fueling services, repairs and maintenance, aircraft tiedowns, de-icing, United States Customs, and other aircraft services. Some of the FBOs are particularly luxurious, providing limousine transportation services and deluxe surroundings.
There are three flight schools. Performance Flight operates out of the Million Air at Hangar M, while Academy of Aviation operates out of Ross Aviation West at Hangar T. Wings Air offers helicopter flight training out of Hangar T. Additionally, the Westchester Flying Club, a private organization of pilots, is based at the airport as well as the Westchester Aviation Association, a not-for-profit organization that promotes aviation education and understanding on the part of government authorities and the public.
Westchester County Airport is also the home of the New York Wing Civil Air Patrol headquarters, the Lt. Anthony L. Willsea Cadet Squadron (NY-422).
Aircraft Rescue Fire Fighting (ARFF) is provided by Airport Operations Crews. The airport owns three ARFF apparatuses (three Oshkosh Striker 1500s), two of which are in service full-time. The ARFF Crews only respond to aircraft emergencies. All structure-related fire and rescue calls are deferred to the local fire departments. The Purchase Fire Department, for example, handles all structure calls on the southern part of the airfield, the Armonk Fire Department handles calls on the northern part and the Rye Brook/Port Chester Fire Department handle all calls on the east end, including the main terminal. EMS calls are handled by Port Chester-Rye-Rye Brook EMS, Harrison EMS and Armonk Fire/EMS depending on location of call.
In 2010, the airport had 191,017 total aircraft operations, an average of 523 per day: 23% commercial aviation, 48% heavy general aviation, and 29% light general aviation. 316 aircraft, including helicopters, are based out of this airport.
Terminal
Westchester County Airport has one small, three-level terminal with six gates, of which only four can be used simultaneously because only four aircraft can be scheduled to use the terminal's ramp at any given time. The $35 million terminal was built in 1995 and designed by Lothrop Associates. Gates A, B, C, and F have jetways. The terminal also has a luggage carousel, a baggage reclaim office and two Transportation Security Administration (TSA) screening lanes. Passenger amenities include a gift shop, departure lounge, and food concessions such as a Dunkin' Donuts.
In November 2015, the airport began a $30 million construction project to expand the terminal and ramp areas. The project will expand the terminal by 20% and include additional check-in, screening and passenger waiting areas. The expansion will also include the addition of four new jet bridges. A separate terminal with "lodge-like ambiance" to serve passengers of private jets opened in 2019.
Airlines and destinations
Statistics
Airline market share
Top destinations
Controversy
Expansion of the airport has raised concerns over adverse environmental impacts by numerous community advocacy groups and area residents. The facility lies between the Blind Brook watershed and the Rye Lake watershed/Kensico Reservoir. The Citizens for a Responsible County Airport, which count the Sierra Club Lower Hudson and Federated Conservationists of Westchester as supporters, has raised safety concerns about the stormwater runoff directed towards Westchester and New York City's drinking water supply. They are especially alarmed about PFAS discovered in groundwater tests between the Airport and the Kensico watershed.
In popular culture
The airport was a filming location for The Best Man, Random Hearts, and Meet The Parents.
In The West Wing episode "Celestial Navigation", Leo tells Toby and Sam to "Fly to Westchester County Airport and rent a car" to get their United States Supreme Court nominee, Roberto Mendoza, out of jail in Connecticut.
In an episode of The Newsroom, Don Keefer explains to Sloan Sabbith that the most likely airports for out-of-town equity firm executives to use while visiting New York City in their private jets would be either "Teterboro or White Plains."
Accidents and incidents
December 18, 1954: A Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar, registration number N711SE, operated by Sangamo Electric Company clipped trees about 800 feet before it struck the ground on a 680-foot knoll located on the instrument landing system (ILS) approach path. The ceiling was 300 feet with one mile visibility. Both pilots out of the three on board were killed.
February 11, 1981: A Lockheed Jetstar, registration number N520S, operated by Texasgulf Aviation crashed 6,000 feet from the approach end of the runway into a heavily wooded area. The aircraft's electrical system had malfunctioned causing a deviation of the flightpath. All 8 occupants (2 crew, 6 passengers) died.
December 24, 1988: A Beechcraft A36 Bonanza, registration number N555ST, crashed and was destroyed after departure in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC); the pilot and two passengers were killed. The crash occurred about 35 seconds after the pilot acknowledged an air traffic control (ATC) instruction to change radio frequencies, and witnesses reported that the aircraft was flying in a circle before impact. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) attributed the accident to spatial disorientation, pilot distraction, and the pilot's failure to maintain the climb; contributing factors were fog, low ceilings, and obscuration.
June 14, 1990: A Cessna 337G Skymaster, registration number N72476, went into a stall and crashed after flying through low clouds on approach. The pilot, who did not have an instrument rating nor any documented experience with instrument flight rules (IFR) operations, had been given a special visual flight rules (SVFR) landing clearance after being advised of IMC weather at the airport. The aircraft was destroyed and the pilot and single passenger were killed. The NTSB attributed the accident to the pilot's decision to fly under visual flight rules into instrument meteorological conditions (VFR into IMC) and his subsequent loss of aircraft control. Fog, clouds, rain and the pilot's lack of instrument flight experience were contributing factors.
June 22, 2001: A Piper PA-32R-301, registration number N13VH, collided with terrain while the pilot was executing a missed approach in low visibility; the crash destroyed the aircraft and killed the pilot, who was the sole aircraft occupant. Immediately prior to the accident, the pilot had failed to respond to ATC, and performed a series of erratic ascents and descents. Post-crash toxicology tests found signs of chlorpheniramine, a sedating antihistamine, in the pilot's blood and urine. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) attributed the accident to "The pilot's failure to maintain control of the airplane while maneuvering in instrument meteorological conditions, due to spatial disorientation. Factors in the accident were the fog, and the pilot's use of a sedating medication."
December 31, 2001: A Raytheon BE-23-B24R Sierra, registration number N2173W, lost altitude in a steep turn and crashed in a parking lot while maneuvering to land. The crash and ensuing fire destroyed the aircraft and killed the pilot, who was the sole aircraft occupant. The pilot had been flying to Northeast Philadelphia Airport when he lost radio communications and diverted to Westchester County Airport; the cause of the radio failure was not conclusively determined. The NTSB attributed the accident to "The pilot's failure to maintain aircraft control."
April 23, 2005: A Cessna 172R, registration number N61AF, crashed into trees about short of runway 16 during a practice Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach in IMC. The aircraft was destroyed and the student pilot and flight instructor in the aircraft were killed. The NTSB attributed the accident to "The flight instructor's failure to maintain the proper altitude\clearance during the approach, which resulted in an in-flight collision with trees. Factors in this accident were low ceilings, fog, and gusty wind conditions."
June 18, 2011: A Cessna T210N, registration number N210KW, crashed on approach after the pilot took off from Westchester County Airport, immediately declared an emergency of an unspecified nature, and attempted to return. The aircraft came to rest inverted and was consumed in a post-crash fire, killing the pilot and 3 passengers. Witnesses reported that the engine was intermittently running rough before the flight and that the pilot performed an unusually large number of engine runups, while post-crash examination of the engine found evidence of severe detonation in the No. 2 cylinder and improper timing of the left magneto. Furthermore, noise abatement recordings from the airport revealed that the engine was significantly quieter on approach than during departure, suggesting that the pilot had reduced the power setting. The NTSB attributed the accident to "The pilot's decision to depart on the flight with a suspected mechanical deficiency and his subsequent decision to fly the final approach at a reduced power setting. Contributing to the accident was the improper timing of the magneto(s) that resulted in a severe detonation event."
June 13, 2014: A Piper PA-46-500TP, registration number N5335R, crashed into trees at high speed immediately after an IMC takeoff, destroying the aircraft and killing the pilot, who was the sole occupant. Reportedly in a rush to attend a meeting, the pilot arrived at the airport 1 hour and 15 minutes prior to his scheduled departure time, demanding that the aircraft be readied immediately; the aircraft departed 23 minutes later. The accident was attributed to "The pilot's failure to maintain a positive climb rate after takeoff due to spatial disorientation (somatogravic illusion). Contributing to the accident was the pilot's self-induced pressure to depart and his decision to depart in low-ceiling and low-visibility conditions."
References
33.
https://www.newstimes.com/news/amp/Teens-in-stolen-plane-ask-for-a-break-53653.php
External links
Westchester County Airport, official site
from New York State DOT
Aerial image as of April 1991 from USGS The National Map
Airports in New York (state)
Harrison, New York
Transportation buildings and structures in Westchester County, New York
Airports established in 1942
1942 establishments in New York (state) | [
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249691 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20the%20Dutch%20Golden%20Age | List of people from the Dutch Golden Age | The Dutch Golden Age was a period in Dutch history, roughly equivalent to the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science and art were top ranking in the world until Tulip Mania in 1637 and onwards.
The accompanying article about the Dutch Golden Age focuses on society, religion and culture. There are also articles about the Eighty Years' War (the Dutch revolt against Spain) and the Anglo-Dutch Wars. A concise broader picture is painted in History of the Netherlands.
People are listed here per category in order of year of birth.
Note: Many Dutchmen from this period had a middle name ending in szoon, which means son of. It is also commonly written as sz., for instance Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn.
Sciences and philosophy
Carolus Clusius (1526–1609), Flemish doctor and botanist
Jan Leeghwater (1575–1650), hydraulic engineer
Willebrord Snellius (1580–1626), Dutch astronomer and mathematician
Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), Dutch jurist and philosopher, who laid the foundations for international law
Isaac Beeckman (1588–1637), Dutch philosopher
David Gorlaeus (1591-1612), Dutch natural philosopher and proponent of atomism
Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670), Czech educator and writer
René Descartes (1596–1650), French philosopher lived in Holland from 1628 to 1649
Franciscus Sylvius (1614–1672), German-born Dutch physician
Frans van Schooten (1615–1660), Dutch mathematician
Johannes Phocylides Holwarda (1618-1651), Dutch natural philosopher and proponent of atomism
John Locke (1632–1704), English philosopher, exiled in Holland (1683–1688)
Nicolas Steno (1638–1686), Danish Catholic bishop and scientist
Menno van Coehoorn (1641–1704), Dutch military engineer
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695), Dutch mathematician, physicist and astronomer
Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680), Dutch biologist and microscopist
Frederik Ruysch (1638–1731), Dutch botanist and anatomist
Regnier de Graaf (1641–1673), Dutch physician and anatomist
Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), French philosopher and writer
Simon Stevin (1548–1620), Flemish-Dutch mathematician and engineer
Baruch de Spinoza (1632–1677), Dutch Jewish philosopher
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), Dutch scientist and businessman, first microbiologist
Nicolaes Tulp (1593–1674), doctor, magistrate, and mayor of Amsterdam
Bernard Mandeville (1670–1733), Dutch philosopher, political economist and satirist
Cornelis Corneliszoon (1550–ca. 1600), inventor of the wind-powered sawmill
Govert Bidloo (1649–1713), physician, anatomist and author who wrote the anatomical atlas Anatomia Humani Corporis
Frederik de Wit (1630–1706), engraver, cartographer and publisher
Petrus Plancius (1552–1622), Dutch astronomer and cartographer
Jodocus Hondius (1563–1612), Flemish-Dutch cartographer
Willem Blaeu (1571–1638), Dutch cartographer
Joan Blaeu (1596–1673), Dutch cartographer, Willem Blaeu's son
Religion
Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609), Dutch theologian, served from 1603 as professor in theology at the University of Leiden
Gerardus Vossius (1577-1649), Dutch theologian and humanist
Gisbertus Voetius (1589-1676), Dutch theologian, served from 1634 as professor in theology at the University of Utrecht. Noted opponent of Cartesianism.
Painting
The best known Dutch painters of the 17th century include:
Frans Hals (ca. 1583–1666), portraits, schutterstukken, regent groups, genre pieces (inns, figures)
Hendrick Avercamp (1585–1634), landscapes with snow
Hendrick Terbruggen (1588–1629), historical and biblical paintings
Willem Claeszoon Heda (1594–1680), still lifes
Jan van Goyen (1596–1656), landscapes
Pieter Jansz Saenredam (1597–1665), church interiors, cityscapes
Salomon van Ruysdael (ca. 1600–1670), landscapes
Adriaen Brouwer (c. 1605–1638), genre pieces (inns)
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606–1669), historical and biblical paintings, portraits, schutterstukken, regent groups, genre pieces (figures)
Jan Lievens (1607–1674), historical and biblical paintings, portraits
Adriaen van Ostade (1610–1684), genre scenes of peasant life
Willem van de Velde, the elder (ca. 1611–1693), seascapes
Bartholomeus van der Helst (1613–1670), portraits, schutterstukken, regent groups
Jan Both (1615–1652), Italian landscapes
Govert Flinck (1615–1660), historical and biblical paintings, portraits, schutterstukken
Ferdinand Bol (1616–1680), historical and biblical paintings
Emanuel de Witte (ca. 1617–1692), church interiors
Gerard Terborch (1617–1681), portraits, genre pieces (family scenes)
Philips Wouwermans (1619–1668), landscapes
Aelbert Cuyp (1620–1691), Italian and Dutch landscapes
Carel Fabritius (1622–1654), historical and biblical paintings, genre pieces (figures)
Paulus Potter (1625–1654), animals in landscapes
Jan Steen (1626–1679), genre pieces (inns, family scenes)
Jacob Isaakszoon van Ruisdael (c. 1628–1682)
Gabriel Metsu (1629–1667), genre pieces (family scenes)
Pieter de Hooch (1629–1683), genre pieces (family scenes)
Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675), cityscapes, genre pieces (family scenes)
Nicolaes Maes (1634–1693), portraits, genre pieces (family scenes, figures)
Meindert Hobbema (1638–1709), landscapes
For a more comprehensive listing, see the List of Dutch painters.
Less famous painters from this period were:
Cornelis Ketel (1548–1616), portraits, schutterstukken
Hendrik Goltzius (1558–1617), landscapes
Abraham Bloemaert (1564–1651), historical and biblical paintings, landscapes
Michiel Janszoon van Miereveld (1567–1641), portraits
Johannes Anthoniszoon van Ravesteyn (ca. 1570 – 1657), portraits
Ambrosius Bosschaert (1573–1621), flowers
Floris Claeszoon van Dijck (1575–1651), still lifes
Roelant Savery (1576–1639), landscapes
Cornelis van der Voort (1576–1624), portraits, schuttersstukken
Jan Pynas (ca. 1580–1633), historical and biblical paintings
Pieter Pieterszoon Lastman (1583–1633), historical and biblical paintings
Jan Porcellis (1584–1632), sea sights
Cornelis van Poelenburgh (1586–1667), Italian landscapes
Hercules Seghers (ca. 1589–1638), landscapes
Gerhard van Honthorst (1590–1656), historical and biblical paintings, genre pieces (family scenes, figures)
Dirck van Baburen (ca. 1590–1624), genre pieces (figures)
Cornelis Hendrickszoon Vroom (ca. 1591–1661), sea sights
Esayas van der Velde (ca. 1591–1630), landscapes
Dirck Hals (1591–1656), genre pieces (family scenes, figures)
Willem Pieterszoon Buytewech (ca. 1591–1624), landscapes, genre pieces (figures)
Cornelis Corneliszoon van Haarlem (1592–1638), portraits, historical and biblical paintings
Balthasar van der Ast (ca. 1593–1657), flowers
Pieter de Molijn (1595–1661), landscapes
Thomas de Keyser (ca. 1596–1667), portraits, schutterstukken
Johannes Corneliszoon Verspronck (1597–1662), portraits
Pieter Claesz (ca. 1597–1660), still lifes
Bartholomeus Breenbergh (1599–1657), Italian landscapes
Pieter Franszoon de Grebber (c. 1600–1652), historical and biblical paintings
Gerrit Hoeckgeest (ca. 1600–1661), church interiors
Simon de Vlieger (1601–1653), sea sights
Aert van der Neer (1603–1677), sea sights
Christiaen van Couwenbergh (1604–1667), historical and biblical paintings
Jan Davidszoon de Heem (1606–ca.1683), still lifes
Judith Leyster (1609–1660), genre pieces (figures)
Jan Asselyn (1610–1652), Italian landscapes
David Teniers the Younger (1610–1690), genre pieces (inns)
Jan Miense Molenaer (ca. 1610–1668), genre pieces (family scenes)
Pieter de Ringh (1615–1660), still lifes
Caesar van Everdingen (1617–1678), historical and biblical paintings
Willem Kalf (1619–1693), still lifes
Philips Koninck (1619–1688), landscapes
Otto Marseus van Schrieck (c. 1619–1678), flowers
Nicolaes Pieterszoon Berchem (1621–1683), Italian landscapes
Abraham van Beyeren (ca. 1620–1690), still lifes
Jan Baptist Weenix (1621–1663), Italian landscapes
Gerbrand van den Eeckhout (1621–1674)
Karel Dujardin (1622–1678), Italian landscapes
Adam Pynacker (1622–1673), Italian landscapes
Jan van de Cappelle (1626–1679), seascapes
Job Adriaenszoon Berckheyde (1630–1693), church interiors
Willem Drost (1630–1680), historical and biblical paintings
Frederik de Moucheron (1633–1686), Italian landscapes
Jan de Baen (1633–1702), portraits
Willem van de Velde the younger (1633–1707), sea sights
Frans van Mieris sr. (1635–1681), genre pieces (family scenes, figures)
Adriaen van de Velde (1636–1672), landscapes
Gerrit Adriaenszoon Berckheyde (1636–1698), cityscapes
Jan van der Heyden (1637–1712), cityscapes
Caspar Netscher (1639–1684), portraits
Gerard de Lairesse (1641–1711), historical and biblical paintings
Aert de Gelder (1645–1727), historical and biblical paintings
Jan van Huysum (1682–1749), flowers
Hendrik Martenszoon Sorgh (1609/1611–1670)
Abraham Danielsz Hondius (c. 1625–1695), dogs, hunting scenes and landscapes
Architecture
The most famous Dutch architects of the 17th century were :
Lieven de Key (1560–1627), master builder of Haarlem; still used a fair amount of ornamentation, built De Waag (1598), front of the Town Hall (1597), De Vleeshal (1602–1603), New Church tower (1613), all of which are in Haarlem
Hendrick de Keyser (1565–1621), preferred a style that was much more sober than his contemporary Lieven de Key, built the Zuiderkerk (1606–1614), the Westerkerk (1620–1638) and the Exchange (1608–1611) in Amsterdam, Town Hall of Delft (1619), several canal houses in Amsterdam (see also section sculpture)
Jacob van Campen (1595–1657), embraced classicism fully and served as an example for many colleagues, built the Mauritshuis in The Hague (1635), the Dam Palace in Amsterdam (1648–1655), which was originally the town hall, now a royal palace
Less famous architects from this period were:
Hans Vredeman de Vries (1527–1606), architect in Antwerp, used a lot of ornamentation
Arent van 's-Gravenzande (..-1662), built De Lakenhal (1639) and the Marekerk (1638–1640), both in Leiden, and the Oostkerk (1646) in Middelburg
Philip Vingboons (1607–1678), built many canal houses in Amsterdam in classicistic style
Pieter Post (1608–1669), built Huis ten Bosch in The Hague (1645-)
Adriaen Dortsman (1625–1682), built the Lutheran Church in Amsterdam
Elias Bouman (1636–1686), built the Portuguese-Israelitic Synagogue in Amsterdam (1671/1675)
Maurits Post (1645–1677), built Slot Amerongen (1676)
Literature
The most famous Dutch men of letters of the 17th century were:
Joost van den Vondel (1587–1679), poet and playwright, who wrote more than 30 plays, many of those based on biblical stories. After The Gijsbrecht (see above) his best known drama is Lucifer (1654). He translated many French, Italian, Latin and Greek works. A recurring theme is man's inner conflicts, on the one hand rebellious, on the other hand pledging obedience to God.
Gerbrand Adriaensz. Bredero (1585–1618), poet (sonnets) and dramatist (comedies), his most famous comedy, De Spaanse Brabander (English: The Spanish Brabanter), describes the seamy side of life in Amsterdam
Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft (1581–1647), historian, poet and dramatist, who wrote Nederlandsche Historiën (English: Dutch History), which was never completed, but highly valued. His poetry was of high standard as well. He introduced French and Italian lyricism into Dutch poetry.
Jacob Cats (1577–1660), poet, famous for his moralistic writings. Houwelijck and Trouringh (English:Marriage and Wedding ring) are two major volumes to educate the Dutch about these serious affairs. Indeed, his all too serious tone, lacking humour and esprit, made him a lesser writer than the three named above, and sometimes the object of mockery. His Kinderen zijn hinderen (English: Children are a nuisance) is still a Dutch saying, often followed by the remark that Cats probably had forgotten that he had been a child himself.
Less famous literary men from this period were:
Roemer Visscher (1547–1620), writer of epigrams and emblemata
Karel van Mander (1548–1606), wrote the Schilderboeck, a book about painting, and also several biographies about painters
Justus de Harduyn (1582–1636), poet from the southern Low Countries
Samuel Coster (1579–1665), good friend of Bredero, founder of the First Dutch Academy in 1617
Jacob Revius (1586–1658), poet but worked also on the new bible translation known as the Statenbijbel that appeared in 1637 and is still in use today in some Protestant circles
Thomas Asseleyn (1620–1701), writer of comedies
Willem Godschalk van Focquenbroch (1640–1670), poet and playwright
Jan Luyken (1649–1712)
Sculpture
Dutch sculptors of the 17th century were:
Hendrick de Keyser (1565–1621), also an architect (see above). He created the Mausoleum for William of Orange in the Nieuwe Kerk (English: New Church) in Delft (1614). All ruling descendants of Willem of Orange and their kin have been interred here to this date. De Keyser also created the statue of Erasmus in Rotterdam (1618)
Artus I Quellinus (1609–1668), Artus II Quellinus (his nephew) (1625–1700) and Rombout Verhulst (1625–1696). All originating from the southern Netherlands (present day Belgium), they were the most prominent sculptors in the Northern Netherlands. Among their greatest works is the decoration of the Amsterdam city hall (built between 1648 and 1665), now known as the Royal Palace of Amsterdam.
Music
The most famous Dutch composers of the 17th century were:
Jan P. Sweelinck (1562–1621), composer and organ player, major force in the development of 17th century organ music
Constantijn Huygens (1596–1687), more famous as a poet, member of the famous chamber of rhetoric De Muiderkring, composed some 800 pieces, most of which got lost, promoted use of the organ during church services
Less famous composers/musicians from this period were:
Gerbrand Adriaenszoon Bredero, songwriter
Adrianus Valerius (1570–1625), songwriter
Jacob van Eyck (1590–1657), composer
Cornelis Schuyt (1557–1616), composer
Joan Albert Ban (1597–1644), composer
Cornelis Padbrué (1592–1670), composer
Joan Schenk (1656-1612+), composer
Karel Hacquart (ca 1640-ca 1730), composer
François (1609–1667) and Pierre (1619–1680) Hemony (brothers), famous carillon builders
Exploration
Olivier van Noort (1558–1627), first Dutchman to circumnavigate the world
Adriaen Block (c. 1567–1627), the first European to enter Long Island Sound and the Connecticut River and determine that Manhattan and Long Island are islands
Willem Schouten (c. 1567–1625), Dutch explorer, who was first to sail the Cape Horn route to the Pacific Ocean
Jacob Le Maire (c. 1585–1616), Dutch Flemish explorer
Abel Janszoon Tasman (1603–1659), the first European to discover New Zealand, Tasmania and Fiji
Willem Barentsz (c. 1550–1597), explorer of the Arctic
Cornelis de Houtman (1565–1599), explorer of the East Indies
Frederick de Houtman (1571–1627), Dutch explorer, elder brother of Cornelis de Houtman
Willem Janszoon (c. 1570–1630), Dutch navigator and colonial governor, the first European known to have seen the coast of Australia (1606)
Cornelis Nay, explorer of the Arctic
Henry Hudson (c. 1565–1611), Englishman who sailed to the Arctic for the Dutch East India Company
Colonization
Kiliaen van Rensselaer (before 1596–after 1643), co-founder of the Dutch West India Company and first patroon of Rensselaerswyck
Jan Pieterszoon Coen (1587–1629), Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies
Peter Stuyvesant (c. 1612–1672), colonial governor of the New Netherland colony
Jan van Riebeeck (1619–1677), commander of the Cape Colony and founder of Cape Town
Business
Isaac Le Maire (1558–1624), largest shareholder in the VOC
Louis De Geer (1587–1652), Walloon/Dutch merchant, considered the father of Swedish industry
Pieter de la Court (1618–1685), Dutch economist and businessman
Joseph de la Vega (1650–1692), Amsterdam's Jewish merchant
Politics
Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (1567–1625), stadtholder
Frederik Hendrik, Prince of Orange (1584–1647), stadtholder
Willem III van Oranje (1650–1702), King-Stadtholder
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (1547–1619), statesman who played an important role in the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain
Jan de Witt (1625–1672), statesman who played an important role in the Dutch Golden Age
Cornelis de Graeff (1599–1664), Amsterdam regent who played an important role in the Dutch Golden Age
Andries de Graeff (1611–1678), Amsterdam regent who ruled the city after the death of his brother Cornelis
Agatha Welhouk (1637–1715), central figure in 17th-century court case and daughter of Delft's mayor
Nicolaes Witsen (1641–1717), Dutch statesman who was mayor of Amsterdam thirteen times, between 1682-1706
Military
Maarten Tromp (1598–1653), admiral
Cornelis Tromp (1629–1691), admiral, commander-in-chief of the Dutch and Danish navies
Michiel de Ruyter (1607–1676), admiral in the Anglo-Dutch Wars
Cornelis Jol (1597–1641), admiral and privateer
Cornelius Cruys (1655–1727), Dutch Vice Admiral of the Imperial Russian Navy and the first commander of the Russian Baltic Fleet
References
Dutch Golden Age
Golden Age
Dutch Golden Age | [
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249697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart%20International%20Airport | Stewart International Airport | Stewart International Airport, officially New York Stewart International Airport , is a public/military airport in Orange County, New York, United States. It is in the southern Hudson Valley, west of Newburgh, south of Kingston, and southwest of Poughkeepsie, approximately north of Manhattan, New York City. The airport is in the Town of Newburgh and the Town of New Windsor. It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021, in which it is categorized as a non-hub primary commercial service facility.
Developed in the 1930s as a military base to allow cadets at the nearby United States Military Academy at West Point to learn aviation, it has grown into a significant passenger airport for the mid-Hudson region and continues as a military airfield, housing the 105th Airlift Wing of the New York Air National Guard and Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 452 (VMGR-452) of the United States Marine Corps Reserve. The Space Shuttle could have landed at Stewart in an emergency.
After its closure as a U.S. Air Force base in the early 1970s, an ambitious plan by Governor Nelson Rockefeller to expand and develop the airport led to a protracted struggle with local landowners that led to reforms in the state's eminent domain laws but no actual development of the land acquired. In 1981 the 52 American hostages held in Iran made their return to American soil at Stewart.
In 2000 the airport became the first U.S. commercial airport privatized when United Kingdom-based National Express was awarded a 99-year lease on the airport. After postponing its plans to change the facility's name after considerable local opposition, it sold the rights to the airport seven years later; the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey board voted to acquire the remaining 93 years of the lease and later awarded AFCO AvPorts the contract to operate the facility. The Port Authority rebranded the airport as New York Stewart International Airport in 2018 to emphasize its proximity to New York City.
History
Stewart Dairy Farm
In 1930 Thomas "Archie" Stewart, an early aviation enthusiast and descendant of prominent local dairy farmer Lachlan Stewart, convinced his uncle Samuel Stewart to donate "Stoney Lonesome", split between the towns of Newburgh and New Windsor, to the nearby city of Newburgh for use as an airport. However, with the city strapped for cash due to the Depression, it was unable to develop it in any way.
Stewart Airfield
In 1934 Douglas MacArthur, then superintendent of the United States Military Academy, proposed flight training cadets at the airport. The city sold the land to the military academy for one dollar. A small dirt airstrip was cleared and graded. One of the gates at USMA has been known as Stoney Lonesome Gate ever since.
During World War II many barracks and other buildings, which still stand, were built on the base. In January 2008, the Town of New Windsor received a $2.5 million grant from the state to demolish 30–40 buildings as part of the redevelopment of the former base. First Columbia, the developer, said that 20–30 could be retained and reused.
Stewart Air Force Base/Stewart Air National Guard Base
After the creation of the United States Air Force following World War II, the army airfield was converted to an air force base while still being used for training of cadets at West Point. The air force base was deactivated in 1970 and it officially remained unoccupied until 1983 when the 105th Airlift Wing (105 AW) and the 213th Engineer Installation Squadron (213 EIS) of the New York Air National Guard took up quarters. The Air National Guard unit has flown support missions not only for U.S. military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan but also for humanitarian relief efforts.
This area of the airport, now called Stewart Air National Guard Base, was home to the Air Force C-5 Galaxy aircraft before being replaced by the newer and smaller C-17 Globemaster III in 2011. Stewart ANGB also hosts VMGR-452, a Marine Corps Reserve squadron flying the KC-130J.
Stewart International Airport
MTA Expansion plan
In the early 1970s, Governor Nelson Rockefeller's administration saw the potential for Stewart to support the metropolitan area. Its long runway made it particularly attractive for intercontinental service via supersonic transport (SST), then under development in the U.S. and elsewhere.
The Metropolitan Transportation Authority was the first government body to try to convert it into the New York metropolitan area's fourth major airport. It tripled the airport's territory, extending its land well beyond its previous western boundary at Drury Lane, a two-lane rural road. The state government used its eminent domain powers to take 7,500 acres (30 km) for terminals, runways and a buffer zone expanding the airport from Newburgh into neighboring towns of Montgomery and a small portion of Hamptonburgh. The land was bounded by I-84 to the north, Route 207 along the south and roughly by Rock Tavern and Maybrook in the west.
Local opposition
Area residents who were already fighting a large power plant proposal at nearby Storm King Mountain fiercely fought the expansion. They took the state to court, ultimately forcing the legislature to write and pass the New York State Eminent Domain Procedure Act, a sweeping overhaul of its existing law on the subject. In order to get the last holdouts off their land, state officials pledged that outside the proposed airport facilities, none of the land taken would ever be redeveloped, a promise that was to haunt them years later.
By the time the land was finally available, the 1973 oil crisis and the attendant increase in the price of jet fuel had forced airlines to cut back, and some of the airport's original backers began arguing it was no longer economically viable. US SST development was canceled in 1971, undercutting another argument for the project. Malcolm Wilson, Rockefeller's successor, put the project on hold; and his successor, Hugh Carey, ended it permanently in 1976.
New York State Department of Transportation ownership
In early 1981, the 52 U.S. hostages held at the former U.S. Embassy in Tehran, Iran, returned to American soil there following two weeks at U.S. bases in Germany and 444 days of captivity, ending the Iran hostage crisis. The route they took from there to West Point is marked today as "Freedom Road."
The next year the state transferred control from MTA to its own Department of Transportation (NYSDOT), with a mandate to improve and develop the airport. Three years later W.R. Grace became the first private tenant when it built a corporate jet hangar, and the following year an industrial park was built nearby. Finally, in 1990, commercial airline service began with American Airlines offering service with three daily round trips to both Chicago and Raleigh/Durham.
Continuing development issues
As the 1980s wore on, veterans of earlier battles over Stewart returned to start new ones. NYSDOT and the Stewart Airport Commission found themselves overseeing not only the airport but the acres of now-vacant land the state had acquired a decade before. After turning over management of most of the property to the state's Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), which was better equipped for the task, it still faced the problem of what to do with the land.
The region's needs had changed. With IBM and other large industrial concerns cutting workers and closing plants, and people leaving, a large swath of buildable land with few environmental problems was seen by many in the local business community as a goose's golden egg. It couldn't be a sprawling airport, but it could be something else, they thought.
But those people who remained or moved up from more crowded areas to the south had begun to enjoy the outdoor recreation possibilities the lands, referred to variously as the Stewart Properties or the buffer, offered. Mountain bikers, horses, dirt bikers, ATVers, and hikers had all begun to explore and create trails, and DEC's management opened up the area as a popular spot for local hunters and anglers. DEC had also released captured beavers on the properties, who built dams and created new wetlands.
One local hunter, Ben Kissam, formed the Stewart Park and Reserve Coalition (SPARC) in 1987 to oppose efforts to develop the lands. They and other environmentalists and conservationists argued that the whole area would be better off left as a park, pointing to the growing diversity of species on the lands and the state's original promise not to redevelop the area. They were joined, too, by some area residents who said that the existing air traffic, particularly the military
C-5s were noisy enough as it was.
Also generating a lot of noise was the continuing debate in Orange County about what to do with the land, with participants' choice of words ("buffer" vs. "properties") suggesting where they stood, and interpretations differing about just how much of the land was really meant to serve as a buffer.
The administration of Mario Cuomo tried several times to come up with a plan that would balance these interests, but failed. As one of its last acts, it started a renovation of the passenger terminal using a federal grant.
SWF had occasionally had scheduled air-taxi service, but in April 1990 American Airlines arrived with three Boeing 727-200 nonstops a day to Chicago and three more to their new hub in Raleigh–Durham. Nonstop flights to Dallas Fort/Worth were later added as well. Jet nonstops to Atlanta (Delta) and Pittsburgh (USAir) appeared in the next couple of years; Delta later added Cincinnati and USAir tried Baltimore.
Privatization
In 1994 George Pataki campaigned on improving efficiencies by privatizing money-losing state projects. Ronald Lauder, who had written a book about European successes in privatizations, suggested Stewart be privatized. Pataki created the New York State Council on Privatization and appointed Lauder its chair.
Federal law at the time required that all airports providing passenger service had to be owned by some public entity. With much support from the New York delegation, the United States Congress eventually passed legislation allowing five airports to be privatized as a pilot program, providing certain conditions, such as approval by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and by the carriers representing at least two-thirds of the airport's flights.
In 1997 the state formally began, through the Empire State Development Corporation (ESDC), the process of soliciting bids for a 99-year lease on the airport and, potentially, the adjacent undeveloped lands as well, whatever bidders wanted. Efforts by SPARC, now headed by Kissam's widow Sandra, and other citizen activists to find out about who might be bidding and what they planned to do with Stewart were blocked by the state's invocation of a clause in its State Finance Law prohibiting disclosure of competitive bids prior to the award of the contract, an interpretation which survived a court challenge.
Two years later, after approval by the state's attorney general and comptroller as well as the FAA and the carriers, the contract was awarded to the UK-based National Express PLC, the only one of five bidders to have declined to present at a special forum organized a week prior to award, and also a company Lauder had praised in his book for its success with the UK's national bus service and subsequent acquisition of East Midlands Airport, leading to some suspicions that the state had always intended to give them the airport from the beginning. NEG (National Express Group) was prepared to pay $35 million for the lease, and after working out the details Pataki handed over a ceremonial key at the passenger terminal in late 2000.
The award also ended, for the most part, the controversy over whether to develop the properties or not. NEG was uninterested in the lands west of Drury Lane, and Pataki announced with the privatization deal that he was directing that ownership as well as management of 5,600 acres (22.4 km2) of the lands west of an envelope DOT retained around Drury for possible future development or disposal be transferred directly to DEC, which has since made that portion Stewart State Forest.
Stewart was one of the many regional airports to be used during the Emergency Ground Stop after the September 11th Attacks, taking in dozens of planes forced to land.
The Drury Lane exit
Simultaneously with the privatization, the state proceeded with long-held plans to build a new interchange on Interstate 84 at Drury Lane, which would also be widened. A four-lane east–west access road, International Boulevard, would also be created to better solve the airport's longstanding access problems (see below). Conveniently, the initial price tag, $35 million, was exactly the amount bid by National Express. The new exit, designated 5A, was opened in the fourth quarter of 2007. The new north–south route is now designated Route 747.
Another complication emerged due to the proximity of the Catskill Aqueduct of New York City's water supply system to the exit; a proposed widening of Drury between the interstate and Route 17K would have required that a bridge be built over the aqueduct to protect it from the vibrations associated with heavy trucks, adding to the cost of the whole project. An alternative emerged during a value-engineering study of simply rerouting Drury to create another four-way intersection further down 17K, which was ultimately done.
Whether the properties along Drury could even be developed in any measure remains to be seen, as a good portion of that parcel is either wetlands or a trapezoid-shaped Runway Protection Zone in which the FAA mandates that nothing be built, and the remainder is land considered by conservationists to be the best land in the properties.
SPARC, the Orange County Federation of Sportsmen's Clubs and the national Sierra Club filed a lawsuit in federal court alleging that required environmental reviews were not done or done improperly; that action tied up the exit's construction for a while. In March 2005, an area slated for wetlands mitigation under the plans was found to harbor purple milkweed, a Species of Special Concern on the National Heritage Program's rare plant list. SPARC and its co-plaintiffs sought an injunction against further action such as the consideration of bids, yet that went ahead anyway.
The controversy was settled by a deal announced on November 21 of that year. SPARC accepted a compromise where in exchange for the construction of the exit and access road 1,700 acres (6.8 km2) of the remaining buffer lands would be added to the forest and restrictions would be imposed on development of the remaining 400 acres (1.6 km2) in the northeast corner of the properties, near the exit.
In July 2006, the state formally transferred ownership of the state forest from DOT to DEC, ending the process of creating Stewart State Forest. However, Orange County was not thrilled with the state's decision to charge it $3.7 million for the area near the exit, saying that it was too much on top of the costs it would incur putting in infrastructure. DOT says it's just asking fair market value for the land.
NEG Management
NEG's marketing initiatives included several proposed new names for the airport to emphasize its proximity to the city. The last one, in 2006, which would have dropped the "Stewart" name entirely, met with local opposition and was ultimately dropped.
Stewart has a limited selection of flights available and is relatively uncrowded most of the day. Some tenants have moved into nearby former military buildings, but most remain as unoccupied as they were the day the base was closed down. It has drawn some passengers from western Connecticut who might otherwise have flown out of Hartford. But most of the fliers within Stewart's catchment area have continued to prefer Albany International Airport, Newark or other metropolitan airports.
Delta pulled out of the airport shortly after the privatization announcement, ostensibly to better serve new routes it had won to Latin America, leaving it to codeshare partners Comair and ASA. Even one of the "tourist draws" for the airport evaporated in 2003 when the Concorde was grounded. Its pilots had used the lengthy runway to practice touch-and-go landings.
NEG's dealings with the state were not as harmonious as they were initially represented; documents made public by SPARC after the privatization was completed showed that there were many lingering issues between the two parties even at that time and that NEG had in fact considered breaking the deal at one point (as it would later ultimately do). The company has gone through some local management shuffles as well, and the parent corporation's sale of East Midlands, considered the example it would follow with Stewart, was a cause for concern in the region.
While some local officials expressed disappointment, others saw NEG as getting out of the airport business entirely to concentrate on its core business in the bus and rail sectors. They hoped at first that another European company with experience running privatized airports would be interested, and industry analysts said the timing was good. Governor Eliot Spitzer promised area leaders that Stewart would be a top priority for his administration, and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which runs the New York area's three main airports, expressed interest in assuming NEG's obligations. Allegiant Air pulled out of Stewart in early 2007 but later returned and currently serves the airport. Both AirTran Airways and JetBlue announced plans for service from Stewart in 2007. AirTran, which had previously served Newburgh in 1995, was subsequently acquired by and merged into Southwest Airlines which in turn currently does not serve the airport.
Port Authority takeover and end of privatization
On January 25, 2007, the Port Authority voted to buy the lease for Stewart. It took over operating control on November 1, 2007, after New Jersey's acting governor Richard Codey signed a bill the New Jersey Legislature had to pass, changing the law to allow the move. The PA will pay NEG $78.5 million for the remaining 93 years on its lease. The day after the takeover, an opening ceremony was held in which New York State Governor Elliot Spitzer attended and the Port Authority flag was raised. It has set aside $500 million in its ten-year capital improvement plan to expand the airport. After the takeover, law enforcement became the responsibility of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department.
Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Cargo
Status and expansion
Although 2006's bad numbers may have led NEG to pull out, Stewart's commercial service seemed to be on the rise. Shortly after taking over, the PA reported that the airport's traffic for 2007 would be triple that of 2006. It was reported in January 2008 that Stewart had achieved its goal and had handled 970,000 passengers in 2007.
A 2007 plan envisioned changing Stewart's image over the next 20 years: major renovations such as a new terminal, a train station next to the new terminal connecting the airport to Metro North via a new spur from the Port Jervis Line, a extension of runway 16–34, new taxiways, and a major expansion of the cargo facilities. A new control tower has been built. In the fourth quarter of 2007 Interstate 84's new Drury Lane exit, NY Route 747, and International Boulevard opened.
In addition to commercial and passenger services, Stewart excels in many other areas not seen by the public. NEG had some success selling private helicopter shuttle service to midtown Manhattan's heliports to business travelers from Stewart at rates competitive with those offered from JFK Airport; it also remains a popular place to service corporate jets due to the large space available.
Cargo services are also part of the mix – FedEx Express maintains a large distribution presence just outside the airport, as does the U.S. Postal Service, whose main general-mail facility for the mid-Hudson region is not far away. Importers of plant and animal products also route their flights to Stewart and the USDA inspection facility for those is nearby, on Drury Lane.
In 2005, the airport was used to transport emergency personnel and supplies to help the cleanup after the destruction of Hurricane Katrina, which devastated the Gulf Coast.
With its long runway, Stewart bills itself as an "efficient diversion airport" for aircraft intending to land at one of the three major New York City airports (Newark, LaGuardia, and JFK), especially during bad weather. The largest such diversion occurred during the January 2018 blizzard, when a Singapore Airlines Airbus A380 on a Frankfurt-JFK flight diverted to Stewart after JFK closed. While the airport's runways are sufficiently long to allow such a large aircraft to land and take off, the plane was so large it could not use any of the terminal building's gates. Passengers had to leave the plane using stairs, and were transported to New York City by bus.
American Airlines, which had served Stewart since 1990, ended American Eagle regional jet service to Chicago O'Hare International Airport on September 5, 2007. In 1991, American was operating up to five mainline departures a day nonstop to Chicago O'Hare with Boeing 727-200 jetliners.
In 2008, AirTran Airways ended service to Stewart International Airport.
The Port Authority sees Stewart as offering relief to those airports and (especially) Teterboro, estimating it could handle five times its present passenger volume. It will probably follow its standard procedure and contract the actual operations of the airport out.
In February 2008, the PA's new general manager, Diannae Ehler, said she had been discussing the possibility of foreign flights with a number of European carriers. She felt encouraged and hoped that by 2009 there could be regular passenger service between Stewart and some European destinations.
In September 2010, it was announced that Apple Vacations would begin non-stop charter service to Cancún. Flights are operated by Allegiant Air.
On August 20, 2013, Allegiant Air announced that it would be returning to Stewart with new flights to St. Petersburg/Clearwater after leaving the airport in 2007. Flights began on October 31, 2013.
In May 2015, the Port Authority announced it was considering changing the airport's name to "New York International Airport at Stewart Field." Its stated rationale was to give the airport "global status," to ensure that its name appears higher in Internet searches done by travelers abroad, in keeping with the business model followed by many low-cost European airlines of flying into less busy airports further from the cities they serve in order to keep expenses down. Many local residents were cool to the idea, since the Stewart family name has a long history with the airport and the PA had promised it would never change the name when it took over.
On December 5, 2016, General Manager Edmond Harrison announced that Norwegian Air Shuttle planned to set up a base at Stewart for flights to Europe using its Irish subsidiary. The first international flight departed for Edinburgh on June 15, 2017. On September 14, 2019, Norwegian Air Shuttle ended service.
By 2020, American Eagle had reduced service to one daily flight to Philadelphia. This flight was suspended on October 7, 2020, was resumed on January 5, 2021, then ended on September 30, 2021.
On September 30, 2021, about two years after the low cost long haul flights operated by Norwegian Air Shuttle ended, a new European carrier - Norse Atlantic Airways - announced to operate flights from Europe to Stewart within the first quarters of 2022.
Facilities
New York Stewart International Airport covers 1,552 acres (628 ha) at an elevation of 491 feet (150 m) above mean sea level. It has two asphalt runways and one helipad.
The east–west runway 9–27 is long by wide, but the landing threshold at each end is displaced . Aircraft landing to the east have a landing distance available restriction, an additional reduction in length, making only usable for landing. Runway 27 has available for landing. The full length is available for takeoff in both directions. Runway 9 has an instrument landing system for category I and category II approaches and an ALSF2 approach lighting system. Runway 27 got an instrument landing system in recent years, but without any approach lighting landing minimums for this runway are higher.
The crosswind runway 16–34 is long by wide and each end has GPS-based instrument approaches.
The helipad H1 is asphalt, 40 by 40 feet (12 x 12 m).
Statistics
For the 12-month period ending November 30, 2017 the airport had 47,081 aircraft operations, an average of 129 per day: 54% general aviation, 18% air taxi, 17% military, and 10% scheduled commercial. In June 2018, 85 aircraft were then based at this airport: 43 jet, 3 multi-engine, 27 military, 5 single-engine, and 7 helicopter.
Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 392,464 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2008, 197,655 in 2009 and 201,684 in 2010.
Top destinations
Carrier shares
Annual traffic
Access
One of the biggest impediments to the use of Stewart by more airlines and passengers has been getting to it. The Drury Lane exit and the access road, International Boulevard, are intended to remedy this.
There have been plans to possibly implement a light rail connection along Broadway in Newburgh that could conceivably go out to Stewart from the ferry connection with the Metro-North passenger line across the Hudson River in Beacon; however that does not appear likely to happen any time soon. Currently, the only connection is via a shuttle bus.
In 2006, with construction of the Drury Lane exit underway, Senator Charles Schumer put his weight behind getting federal aid for another long-discussed access improvement: a rail link to the nearby Metro-North Port Jervis Line, to give passengers an express train trip from the airport into the city or Newark Airport via Secaucus Junction. This would entail acquiring property and laying new tracks, to link to the existing line somewhere near the Salisbury Mills station. NEG had had success with the similar Gatwick Express and Midland Mainline rail-air connections in its native Britain. While the federal government has approved the idea, the money has not yet been appropriated.
Starting in June 2017, to support Norwegian's growth in making the airport a terminal for visitors to New York City, Coach USA began providing a bus service between the airport and Port Authority Bus Terminal in Manhattan. This service is operating under the name "Stewart Airport Express."
Accidents and incidents
On the morning of August 20, 1987, an Emery Worldwide (operating as Rosenbalm Aviation Flight 74) Douglas DC-8-63 collided with Airborne Express Flight 124, operated by a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-31, on Runway 09/27 in fog. The Emery airplane landed without first receiving clearance while the Airborne Express plane, which had landed just prior to the DC-8, was taxiing on the runway. Both aircraft were repaired and returned to service.
In the early-morning hours of September 5, 1996, the pilots of Federal Express Flight 1406, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 from Memphis to Boston reported smoke in the cargo compartment and made an emergency landing at Stewart to fight the fire. All five crewmembers escaped with only minor injuries but, despite a prompt effort by the firefighting teams from the ANG base (which also handle the civilian airport's fire protection needs) the fire completely consumed the aircraft. Two years later, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) traced the source of the fire to an area where some flammables had been stored but could not pin down exactly which had combusted, and faulted the captain for failing to get full information on potentially hazardous materials being shipped.
Early on the morning of November 21, 2007, a single-engine Cirrus piloted by Brian Early of Wayne, Pennsylvania, got lost in the fog on its approach and crashed in the state forest. He had been dropping off his two passengers, a son and one of his friends, to visit friends of theirs at West Point for Thanksgiving. It took rescuers three hours to find the wreckage using the plane's transponder. Early was killed but the younger men survived.
A small aerobatic plane crashed at the airport August 28, 2015, killing the pilot, who was practicing stunts at Stewart for the two-day New York Air Show that was to be held there starting the following day. The two-seater single-engine fixed-wing Giles G-202, a homebuilt aircraft, assembled from a kit, was completing dramatic climbs and dives as a crowd of mostly journalists watched below. Around 2 p.m., as the pilot went into a dive followed by a steep corkscrew climb, part of the tail appeared to break off, witnesses said and photographs indicated. The plane then crossed the crowd line and spun over the heads of spectators, crashing in a wooded area behind the crowd. The pilot, the plane's only occupant, was identified as the plane's owner, Andrew Wright of Austin, Texas. The National Transportation Safety Board and the New York State Police were to investigate to determine the crash's probable cause, the state police and Federal Aviation Administration said. The NTSB determined that the resin bond between two parts had failed under stress after repeated aileron rolls. Examination of the bond between the horizontal stabilizer and the flange that attached it to the left side of the fuselage revealed that a portion had a poor bond, with the resin inadequately transferring between the two surfaces. The accident was compared to a similar event in France on the same type of aircraft. As a result of these accidents, the Giles' designer specified several new procedures for aircraft flight handling and inspection.
On August 21, 2018, a Gulfstream IV carrying rapper Post Malone and 15 other people made a successful precautionary landing after two main tires blew during takeoff. The plane was scheduled to go to London, England but quickly diverted to hold over Long Island so the pilots could assess the situation. They decided to go to Stewart International Airport because of its long runway. After circling to burn fuel, the plane landed safely despite both of the Gulfstream IV's main tires being flat.
See also
Gander International Airport, in Canada, also shared with a separate military base
Goose Bay Airport, in Canada, also shared with a separate military base
References
External links
by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
105th Air Cargo Wing, New York Air National Guard
Remember Archie Stewart (site for opponents of 2006 name change)
History of Stewart International Airport
Stewart Park and Reserve Coalition
Airports in New York (state)
Economy of Orange County, New York
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
Newburgh, New York
New Windsor, New York
Airports established in 1934
1934 establishments in New York (state)
Transportation buildings and structures in Orange County, New York
Buildings and structures in New Windsor, New York | [
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249708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Palmito%20Ranch | Battle of Palmito Ranch | The Battle of Palmito Ranch, also known as the Battle of Palmito Hill, is considered by some criteria as the final battle of the American Civil War. It was fought May 12 and 13, 1865, on the banks of the Rio Grande east of Brownsville, Texas, and a few miles from the seaport of Los Brazos de Santiago, at the southern tip of Texas. The battle took place more than a month after the general surrender of Confederate forces to Union forces at Appomattox Court House, which had since been communicated to both commanders at Palmito, and in the intervening weeks the Confederacy had collapsed entirely, so it could also be classified as a postwar action.
Union and Confederate forces in southern Texas had been observing an unofficial truce since the beginning of 1865, but Union Colonel Theodore H. Barrett, newly assigned to command an all-black unit and never having been involved in combat, ordered an attack on a Confederate camp near Fort Brown for unknown reasons. The Union attackers captured a few prisoners, but the following day the attack was repulsed near Palmito Ranch by Colonel John Salmon Ford, and the battle resulted in a Confederate victory. Union forces were surprised by artillery said to have been supplied by the French Army garrison occupying the up-river Mexican town of Matamoros.
Casualty estimates are not dependable, but Union Private John J. Williams of the 34th Indiana Infantry Regiment is believed to have been the last man killed during the engagement. He could then arguably be reckoned as the last man killed in the war.
Background
After July 27, 1864, the Union Army withdrew most of the 6,500 troops deployed to the lower Rio Grande Valley, including Brownsville, which they had occupied since November 2, 1863. The Confederates were determined to protect their remaining ports, which were essential for cotton sales to Europe and the importation of supplies. The Mexicans across the border tended to side with the Confederates because of the lucrative cotton export trade. Beginning in early 1865, the rival armies in south Texas honored a gentlemen's agreement, as they saw no point in further hostilities between them.
Union Major General Lew Wallace proposed a negotiated end of hostilities in Texas to Confederate Brigadier General James E. Slaughter, and met with Slaughter and his subordinate Colonel Ford at Port Isabel on March 11–12, 1865. Despite Slaughter's and Ford's agreement that combat would prove tragic, Slaughter's superior, Confederate Maj. Gen. John G. Walker, rejected the ceasefire in a scathing exchange of letters with Wallace. Despite this, both sides honored a tacit agreement not to advance on the other without prior written notice.
A brigade of 1,900 Union troops commanded by Col. Robert B. Jones of the 34th Indiana Veteran Volunteer Infantry were on blockade duty at the Port of Brazos Santiago at the mouth of the present-day ship channel of the Port of Brownsville. The 400-man 34th Indiana was an experienced regiment that had served in the Vicksburg Campaign and was reorganized in December 1863 as a "Veteran" regiment, composed entirely of veterans from several other regiments whose original enlistments had expired. The 34th Indiana deployed to Los Brazos de Santiago on December 22, 1864, replacing the 91st Illinois Volunteer Infantry, which returned to New Orleans. The brigade also included the 87th and 62nd United States Colored Infantry Regiments ("United States Colored Troops", or U.S.C.T.) which had a combined strength of about 1,100. Shortly after Gen. Walker rejected the armistice proposal, Col. Jones resigned from the army to return to Indiana. He was replaced in the regiment by Lt. Col. Robert G. Morrison and at Los Brazos de Santiago by Colonel Theodore H. Barrett, commander of the 62nd U.S.C.T.
The 30-year-old Barrett had been an army officer since 1862, but he had yet to see combat. Anxious for higher rank, he volunteered for the newly raised "colored" regiments and was appointed in 1863 as colonel of the 1st Missouri Colored Infantry. In March 1864, the regiment became the 62nd U.S.C.T. Barrett contracted malaria in Louisiana that summer, and while he was on convalescent leave, the 62nd was posted to Brazos Santiago. He joined it there in February 1865.
Reasons for fighting
Historians still debate why this engagement at Palmito Ranch took place. Lee had surrendered to Grant in Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, triggering a series of formal surrenders in other places throughout the country. The Confederate and Union officers in Brownsville also knew that Lee had surrendered, effectively ending the war.
Soon after the battle, Barrett's detractors claimed he desired "a little battlefield glory before the war ended altogether." Others have suggested that Barrett needed horses for the 300 unmounted cavalrymen in his brigade and decided to take them from his enemy. Louis J. Schuler, in his 1960 pamphlet "The last battle in the War Between the States, May 13, 1865: Confederate Force of 300 defeats 1,700 Federals near Brownsville, Texas", asserts that Brig. Gen. Egbert B. Brown of the U.S. Volunteers had ordered the expedition to seize as contraband 2,000 bales of cotton stored in Brownsville and sell them for his own profit. But Brown was not even appointed to command at Brazos Santiago until later in May.
According to historian Jerry Thompson:
What was at stake was honor and money. With a stubborn reluctance to admit defeat, Ford asserted that the dignity and manhood of his men had to be defended. Having previously proclaimed that he would never capitulate to "a mongrel force of Abolitionists, Negroes, plundering Mexicans, and perfidious renegades"...Ford was not about to surrender to invading black troops.... Even more important was the large quantity of Richard King and Mifflin Kenedy's cotton stacked in Brownsville waiting to be sent across the river to Matamoros. If Ford did not hold off the invading Federal force, the cotton would be confiscated by the Yankees and thousands of dollars lost."
Battle
Union Lieutenant Colonel David Branson wanted to attack the Confederate encampments commanded by Ford at White and Palmito ranches near Fort Brown outside Brownsville. Branson's Union forces consisted of 250 men of the 62nd U.S.C.T. in eight companies and two companies of the (U.S.) 2nd Texas Cavalry Battalion. The 300-man 2nd Texas, like the earlier-formed 1st Texas Cavalry Regiment, was composed largely of Texans of Mexican origin who remained loyal to the United States. They moved from Brazos Santiago to the mainland. At first Branson's expedition was successful, capturing three prisoners and some supplies, although it failed to achieve the desired surprise. During the afternoon, Confederate forces under Captain William N. Robinson counterattacked with less than 100 cavalry, driving Branson back to White's Ranch, where the fighting stopped for the night. Both sides sent for reinforcements; Ford arrived with six French guns and the remainder of his cavalry force (for a total of 300 men), while Barrett came with 200 troops of the 34th Indiana in nine under-strength companies.
The next day, Barrett started advancing westward, passing a half-mile to the west of Palmito Ranch, with skirmishers from the 34th Indiana deployed in advance. Ford attacked Barrett's force as it was skirmishing with an advance Confederate force along the Rio Grande about 4 p.m. He sent a couple of companies with artillery to attack the Union right flank and the remainder of his force into a frontal attack. After some confusion and fierce fighting, the Union forces retreated toward Boca Chica. Barrett attempted to form a rearguard, but Confederate artillery prevented him from rallying a force sufficient to do so. During the retreat, which lasted until 14 May, 50 members of the 34th Indiana's rearguard company, 30 stragglers, and 20 of the dismounted cavalry were surrounded in a bend of the Rio Grande and captured. The battle is recorded as a Confederate victory.
Fighting in the battle involved Caucasian, African-American, Hispanic, and Native American troops. Reports of shots from the Mexican side, the sounding of a warning to the Confederates of the Union approach, the crossing of Imperial cavalry into Texas, and the participation by several among Ford's troops are unverified, despite many witnesses reporting shooting from the Mexican shore.
In Barrett's official report of August 10, 1865, he reported 115 Union casualties: one killed, nine wounded, and 105 captured. Confederate casualties were reported as five or six wounded, with none killed. Historian and Ford biographer Stephen B. Oates, however, concludes that Union deaths were much higher, probably around 30, many of whom drowned in the Rio Grande or were attacked by French border guards on the Mexican side. He likewise estimated Confederate casualties at approximately the same number.
Using court-martial testimony and post returns from Brazos Santiago, historian Jerry D. Thompson of Texas A&M International University determined that:
the 62nd U.S.C.T. incurred two killed and four wounded;
the 34th Indiana had one killed, one wounded, and 79 captured; and
the 2nd Texas Cavalry Battalion had one killed, seven wounded, and 22 captured,
totaling four killed, 12 wounded, and 101 captured.
Private John J. Williams of the 34th Indiana was the last fatality during the Battle at Palmito Ranch, likely making him the final combat death of the entire war.
Aftermath
President Jefferson Davis was captured and imprisoned on May 10, 1865, marking the effective end of the Confederate government. In addition, that day United States President Andrew Johnson declared "armed resistance ...virtually at an end." Historian James McPherson joins other historians in concluding that the war ended when the government ended.
Confederate General Edmund Kirby Smith officially surrendered all Confederate forces in the Trans-Mississippi Department on June 2, 1865, except those under the command of Brigadier General Chief Stand Watie in the Indian Territory. Stand Watie, of the 1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles, on June 23, 1865, became the last Confederate general to surrender his forces, in Doaksville, Indian Territory. On that same day, United States President Andrew Johnson ended the Union blockade of the Southern states.
Many senior Confederate commanders in Texas (including Smith, Walker, Slaughter, and Ford) and many troops with their equipment fled across the border to Mexico. Wanting to resist capture, they may also have intended to ally with French Imperial forces, or with Mexican forces under deposed President Benito Juárez.
The Military Division of the Southwest (after June 27 the Division of the Gulf), commanded by Maj. Gen. Phillip H. Sheridan, occupied Texas between June and August. Consisting of the IV Corps, XIII Corps, the African-American XXV Corps, and two 4,000-man cavalry divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Wesley Merritt and Maj. Gen. George A. Custer, it aggregated a 50,000-man force on the Gulf Coast and along the Rio Grande to pressure the French intervention in Mexico and garrison the Reconstruction Department of Texas.
In July 1865, Barrett preferred charges of disobedience of orders, neglect of duty, abandoning his colors, and conduct prejudicial to good order and military discipline against Morrison for actions in the battle, resulting in the latter's court martial. Confederate Col. Ford, who had returned from Mexico at the request of Union Gen. Frederick Steele to act as parole commissioner for disbanding Confederate forces, appeared as a defense witness and assisted in absolving Morrison of responsibility for the defeat at Palmito Ranch.
The history of this engagement provides accounts of the roles of Hispanic Confederate veterans and of the treatment by Confederates in South Texas of black prisoners-of-war. Hispanic Confederates served at Fort Brown in Brownsville and on the field of Palmito Ranch. Col. Santos Benavides, who was the highest-ranking Hispanic in either army, led between 100 and 150 Hispanic soldiers in the Brownsville Campaign in May 1865.
When Colonel Ford surrendered his command following the campaign of Palmito Ranch, he urged his men to honor their paroles. He insisted that "The negro had a right to vote."
"Last battle of the Civil War"
Although officially most historians say this was the last land action fought between the North and the South, some sources suggest that the battle on May 19, 1865, of Hobdy's Bridge, located near Eufaula, Alabama, was the last skirmish between the two forces. Union records show that the last Northern soldier killed in combat during the war was Corporal John W. Skinner in this action. Three others were wounded, also from the same unit, Company C, 1st Florida U.S. Cavalry.
Historian Richard Gardiner stated in 2013 that on May 10, 1865:
A confrontation took place at Palmetto Ranch. There was no Confederacy in existence when the "battle" occurred. The ex-Confederates at Palmetto Ranch were aware that Lee had surrendered and that the war was over. What happened in Texas can only be understood as a "post-war" encounter between Federals and ex-Confederate "outlaws."
The Confederates won this engagement, but as there was no organized command structure, there has been controversy about the Union casualties. In 1896 these same men had their pensions cut, although this was quickly rectified by an appeal to the commissioner of pensions. The assistant secretary to the commissioner overturned the pension cut, legally ruling the men as the last Union casualties of the war.
On April 2, 1866, President Johnson declared the insurrection at an end, except in Texas. There a technicality concerning incomplete formation of a new state government prevented declaring the insurrection over. Johnson declared the insurrection at an end in Texas and throughout the United States on August 20, 1866.
Battlefield
The area has remained relatively unchanged, with the marshy, windswept prairies almost the same as they were in 1865. The site is more than in size, and was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1997. The area is indicated by a large highway marker telling the history of the engagement, installed on the "Boca Chica Highway" (Texas State Highway 4) near where Palmito Ranch originally stood. The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved of the battlefield.
See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in Texas
National Register of Historic Places listings in Cameron County, Texas
Notes
References
Theodore Barrett's and David Branson's Official Battle Reports, pp. 265–269, Digital Library, Cornell University
Bailey, Anne, J. Trans-Mississippi Department. p. 1100
Benedict, H. Y. Texas In The Encyclopedia Americana. New York: The Encyclopedia Americana Corporation, 1920
Blair, Jayne E. The Essential Civil War: A Handbook to the Battles, Armies, Navies and Commanders. Jefferson, NC and London: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2006.
Catton, Bruce. The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 3, Never Call Retreat. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965.
Comtois, Pierre. "War's Last Battle." America's Civil War, July 1992 (Vol. 5, No. 2)
Conyer, Luther. Last Battle of the War. From the Dallas, Texas News, December 1896. In Brock, R. A. Southern Historical Society Papers. Volume XXIV. Richmond: Published by the Society, 1896
Civil War Trust web site. Retrieved January 20, 2014
Civil War Preservation Trust. Campi, James, ed. and Mary Goundrey, Wendy Valentine. Civil War Sites: The Official Guide to the Civil War Discovery Trail, 2d ed. Guilford, CT: The Globe Pequot Press, 2008. . First edition published 2003
Delaney, Norman C. Palmito Ranch, Tex., eng. at. May 12–13, 1865. p. 556. In Historical Times Illustrated History of the Civil War, edited by Patricia L. Faust. New York: Harper & Row, 1986.
Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. . Retrieved January 20, 2014
Forgie, George B. Brownsville, Texas: City of Brownsville In Current, Richard N. ed. The Confederacy: Selections from the Four-Volume Macmillan Encyclopedia of the Confederacy New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1993, introductory material, 1998. . p. 173
Frazier, Donald S. Brownsville, Texas: Battles of Brownsville. p. 173
Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 3, Red River to Appomattox. New York: Random House, 1974.
Gillett, Mary C. (US Army). The Army Medical Department, 1818–1865. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1987 Retrieved January 18, 2014
Glatthaar, Joseph T. The American Civil War: The War in the West 1863 – May 1865. Taylor & Francis, 2003. . First published: Oxford: Osprey, 2001. . Retrieved January 20, 2014
Greeley, Horace. The American conflict: a history of the great rebellion in the United States of America. Volume II. Hartford: O.D. Case and Company, 1867. . Retrieved April 9, 2011.
Hendrickson, Robert. The Road to Appomattox. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2000. , p. 221.
Hunt, Jeffrey Wm. The Last Battle of the Civil War: Palmetto Ranch. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2000. , a scholarly history
Hunt, Jeffrey Wm. Palmito Ranch, Battle of Handbook of Texas Online (1999)
Jones, Terry L. Historical Dictionary of the Civil War, Volume 1. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2011. . Retrieved January 20, 2014
Keegan, John. The American Civil War: A Military History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, 2009.
Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998.
Kurtz, Henry I. "Last Battle of the War." Civil War Times Illustrated, April 1962 (Vol. I, No. 1)
Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971 Page numbers are from 1971 print edition; web address is for 2012 reprint.
Lossing, Benson John and William Barritt. Pictorial history of the civil war in the United States of America, Volume 3 Hartford: Thomas Belknap, 1877. Retrieved May 1, 2011.
Martin, ed., John H. Columbus, Geo., from Its Selection as a "trading Town" in 1827, to Its Partial Destruction by Wilson's Raid in 1865.. Columbus, GA: Gilbert, Book Printer and Binder, 1874. p. 178
Marvel, William. Battle of Palmetto Ranch: American Civil War's Final Battle. Originally published by Civil War Times magazine as "Last Hurrah at Palmetto Ranch", January 2006 (Vol. XLIV, No. 6). Published Online: June 12, 2006. Retrieved from Historynet.com on January 20, 2014
Pollard, Edward A. The Lost Cause; A New Southern History of the War of the Confederates. New York: E. B. Treat & Co. 1867
Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, Volume 36. New York: Columbia University Press, 1910, p. 26
Swanson, Mark. Atlas of the Civil War, Month by Month: Major Battles and Troop Movements. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2004. . Retrieved January 17, 2014
Tucker, Phillip Thomas. The Final Fury: Palmito Ranch, The Last Battle of the Civil War (2001), a scholarly history
Tucker, Spencer C., ed. Almanac of American Military History, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2012. . Retrieved January 20, 2014
Trudeau, Noah Andre. Like Men of War: Black Troops in the Civil War 1862–1865. Edison, NJ: Castle Books, 2002. . Originally published: New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1998
Trudeau, Noah Andre. Out of the Storm: The End of the Civil War, April – June 1865. Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1994.
"Battle of Palmito Ranch", U.S. National Park Service; CWSAC Battle Summaries. Retrieved January 20, 2014
Wagner, Margaret E., Gary W. Gallagher,Hayden L Gomez, and Paul Dicklemen. The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, Inc., 2009 edition. . First Published 2002. pp. 328–330
Ward, Geoffrey C. and Kenneth Burns. The Civil War. New York: Knopf, 1990, p. 317. . Retrieved January 17, 2014
Wertz, Jay and Edwin C. Bearss. Smithsonian's Great Battles and Battlefields of the Civil War. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1997.
External links
A PDF of Fish and Wildlife Service Information on the Park and Battle
PDF on Texas Historic Civil War Battlefields
Conflicts in 1865
Palmito Ranch
Palmito Ranch
Palmito Ranch
Cameron County, Texas
1865 in the American Civil War
1865 in Texas
May 1865 events
National Historic Landmarks in Texas
Battlefields of the Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War
Protected areas of Cameron County, Texas
Conflict sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas
Texas in the American Civil War
National Register of Historic Places in Cameron County, Texas
American Civil War on the National Register of Historic Places | [
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249712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummichog | Mummichog | The mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) is a small killifish found along the Atlantic coast of the United States and Canada. Also known as Atlantic killifish, mummies, gudgeons, and mud minnows, these fish inhabit brackish and coastal waters including estuaries and salt marshes. The species is noted for its hardiness and ability to tolerate highly variable salinity, temperature fluctuations from , very low oxygen levels (down to 1 mg/L), and heavily polluted ecosystems. As a result, the mummichog is a popular research subject in embryological, physiological, and toxicological studies. It is also the first fish ever sent to space, aboard Skylab in 1973.
Taxonomy
The genus name Fundulus comes from , meaning bottom, from the fish's habit of swimming near muddy bottoms. The species name heteroclitus means irregular or unusual. The type specimen was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766, from near Charleston, South Carolina. Other scientific names now considered synonyms for this species include Cobitis heteroclita, Fundulus fasciatus, Fundulus pisculentus, and Fundulus nigrofasciatus. The mummichog belongs to the order Cyprinodontiformes, and the family Fundulidae. There are two subspecies: F. h. heteroclitus (Linnaeus, 1766), in the south and F. h. macrolepidotus (Walbaum, 1792) in the north. As Fundulus mudfish this species was designated the type species of the genus Fundulus when he created the genus.
The name mummichog is derived from a Narragansett term which means "going in crowds", which reflects the mummichog's strong shoaling tendency. Colloquial names include mummy, killie, kelley, chub, salt water minnow, mud minnow, mud dabbler, marsh minnow, brackish water chub, gudgeon, and common killifish. Some of these terms may lead to confusion: the term minnow should be reserved for species of the family Cyprinidae, the mudminnows are members of the family Umbridae, and the name gudgeon is used for various bottom-dwelling species of cyprinid, eleotrid, and ptereleotrid fishes, none of which belongs to the same family as the fundulid mummichog.
Description
The body of the mummichog is elongate but thick, with a deep caudal peduncle. Usual length is but a maximum length of up to is possible. The mouth is upturned and the lower jaw protrudes when the mouth is closed. Pectoral and tail fins are round. Mummichogs have 10-13 dorsal fin rays, 9-12 anal fin rays, 16-20 pectoral fin rays. Males have larger dorsal and anal fins than females. There is no lateral line on the body, but lateral line pores are present on the head. The colour is variable (and may even change in shade within the same individual when placed near different backgrounds) but is generally olive-brown or olive-green. There can be vertical bars on the sides that are thin, wavy, and silvery. Colors are more intense in males during the reproductive season, as they become dark olive-green on the back, steel-blue on the sides with about 15 silvery bars, and yellow or orange-yellow on the underside; the dorsal fin is mottled and a small eyespot may be present near the rear edge. Females tend to be paler, without bars or the intense yellow on the belly, and their dorsal fin is uniformly coloured.
Adults of the two subspecies can be distinguished based on slight morphological differences. and genomic Further, eggs of the northern subspecies have filaments (adhesive chorionic fibrils) that eggs of the southern subspecies lack. While the northern subspecies deposits eggs in the sand, the southern subspecies often deposits eggs inside empty mussel shells.
The mummichog is very similar to the banded killifish, Fundulus diaphanus, and indeed the two species have been known to interbreed. The two species may overlap in their choice of habitat, but in general the banded killifish is more commonly found in freshwater, which is not the case for the mummichog. The banded killifish tends to have thin dark bars on a light side, whereas in the mummichog the bars are thin and light on a dark side. Internally, the banded killifish has 4-7 gill rakers, as opposed to 8-12 in the mummichog.
Distribution and habitat
This species ranges along the Atlantic coast of North America, from Gaspé Peninsula, Anticosti Island and Port au Port Bay in the north to northeastern Florida in the south. It is present on Sable Island, southeast of the closest point of mainland Nova Scotia in the Atlantic Ocean. The approximate geographical division between the two subspecies lies in New Jersey, Delaware and Virginia.
Introduced populations have become established on the Atlantic coast of Portugal and southwestern Spain, starting in the 1970s and some have now reached the western Mediterranean basin. There may also be introduced populations in Hawaii and the Philippines. As bait fish, mummichogs are sometimes released in freshwater habitats, where they can survive, and there have been reports of individuals in New Hampshire ponds, as well as the upper Ohio River and Beaver River.
The mummichog is a common fish in coastal habitats such as salt marshes, muddy creeks, tidal channels, brackish estuaries, eelgrass or cordgrass beds, and sheltered shorelines. It can be found within coastal rivers but seldom beyond the head of tide. A few landlocked populations may exist in freshwater lakes close to shore, for example on Digby Neck, Nova Scotia.
Diet
Mummichogs are omnivorous. Analyses of their stomach contents have found diatoms, amphipods and other crustaceans, molluscs, fish eggs (including their own species), very small fish, insect larvae, and bits of eelgrass.
Physiology
This fish is well known for its ability to withstand a variety of environmental conditions. They can survive temperatures between ; even within the same tidal cycle they can tolerate rapid temperature changes from . They are able to survive this vast temperature range by altering their metabolic rates at high and low temperatures. This is partly achieved by varying the isoenzyme of the lactate dehydrogenase (Ldh-B) enzyme expressed in warm or cold waters. These two versions of the enzyme allow for faster catalytic function and metabolism depending on if the fish is in northern, colder waters or southern, warmer waters. Based on genetic studies, the enzymes serum esterase (SERE) and malate dehydrogenase (MDH) also appear to play an important role in mummichog temperature control.
They are also among fish species most tolerant of salinity changes (euryhaline). Mummichog larvae can grow in salinities ranging from 0.4 to 100 parts per thousand, the latter being about three times the normal salinity of seawater. Adult mummichogs tolerate low oxygen levels down to 1 mg/L, at which they resort to aquatic surface respiration (breathing in the surface layer of water, richer in oxygen because of contact with air) to survive. They can even survive for a few hours in moist air outside of water, breathing air directly.
Populations have developed resistance to methylmercury, kepone, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyl, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. One study has looked at the genomic variation exhibited by mummichogs populations living in Newark Bay, New Bedford Harbor, and the Elizabeth River (Virginia) (in some areas heavily polluted with polychlorinated biphenyls and creosote, a complex mixture containing dioxin-like chemicals) and has found that about 20% of their genes were modified as compared to populations living in clean sites.
Behavior
Mummichogs live in dense shoals that can include several hundred individuals.
During cold winter months in the northern parts of their range, mummichogs move to upstream tidal pools, where they burrow into the mud at depths up to to overwinter. They can also bury themselves in mud if they are caught in a drying tidal pool between spring tides. Alternatively, they can travel short distances on land to get back to the sea.
In the laboratory, mummichogs have yielded clear examples of free-running circadian rhythms, in both body colour and swimming activity. For the latter, clear rhythms were obtained in single individuals as well as in groups of 5 or 25 individuals. Evidence of free-running semi-lunar rhythms have also been obtained in mummichogs: in constant laboratory conditions, egg production peaked every 14.8 days for up to 5 months.
Reproduction
Spawning takes place from spring through fall. In the southernmost populations, up to eight spawnings are possible in a season. Spawning takes place most often at high tide and when the moon is new or full. Maximal spawning occurs when high spring tides coincide with night, though spawning during the day remains possible.
During courtship, males may pursue females, and females may attract males by turning on their sides near the bottom and flicking their tails. A male and female may swim together for a while, after which the male crowds the female against a rock or a plant and clasps her: the male's larger dorsal and anal fins curve around the female's body. Fingerlike projections that develop on the male's scales behind and below the dorsal fin may help the male maintain contact with the female. The pair quivers vigorously and eggs and sperm are released.
The eggs are pale yellow, about in diameter, and strongly adhesive. During a spawning event, a female can deposit up to 740 eggs in separate clutches of 10 to 300 eggs at a time. The eggs adhere to plants, algal mats, empty mussel shells, sand, or mud at sites that are reached by water only at high spring tides. Eggs therefore develop while exposed to moist air, and they hatch when the next high spring tides reach them. The eggs cannot hatch in air, nor can they do so in moving water; hatching is initiated by a lack of oxygen, something that can happen in the boundary layer of relatively still water surrounding the metabolically active egg at high tide, but not in air or in moving water.
As opposed to their northern counterparts, the southern subspecies have eggs that lack filaments (adhesive chorionic fibrils) and they often deposit those eggs inside empty mussel shells. The two subspecies are also distinguished based on slight morphological and genomic differences.
Most mummichogs become sexually mature when two years old, around in length. Normal lifespan is four years.
Parasites
Mummichogs are hosts to a parasitic fluke, Homalometron pallidum, which has a complex lifecycle involving the aquatic snail, Ecrobia truncata. Other parasite species reported in mummichogs include 10 protozoans, eight trematodes, one nematode, two acanthocephalans, and two crustaceans. A study in New Jersey found that mummichogs heavily infested with the digenean gill parasite Ascocotyle phagicola, spent more time near the surface and exhibited conspicuous behaviors such as jerking, an example of a parasite affecting the behavior of its host in a way beneficial to the parasite, as conspicuous behaviors near the surface make the fish more likely to be noticed by predatory wading birds, the next host in the parasite's life cycle.
Interest to humans
Mummichogs readily eat mosquito larvae and attempts have been made to use them as biocontrol agents of mosquito populations.
Fishing
Mummichogs are sold as bait in sport fisheries for marine species such as summer flounder and bluefish, or even sometimes for freshwater species. They are the most popular baitfish species in the Northeast of America and traditionally when used as bait they were lip hooked and then dressed with a piece of squid.
Scientific utility
Mummichogs are considered an important environmental model organism because of their ability to tolerate various extremes of chemical (pollution, etc.) and physical (temperature, salinity, oxygen, etc.) conditions. They are relatively abundant in nature and can be easily captured, transported and reared in laboratory facilities. They are commonly used in scientific studies of stress biology, thermal physiology and toxicology, and have also been studied in the contexts of evolutionary biology, developmental biology, endocrinology, cancer biology, and chronobiology (study of circadian rhythms). With the successful sequencing and assembly of the full killifish genome, they serve as a premier scientific model for studying biochemical and physiological responses to varying environmental conditions.
Their remarkable ability to tolerate various extremes of temperature and salinity has made them popular subjects in scientific studies of toxicology. For decades the killifish has been a useful laboratory model for toxicological studies that include exposures to single chemicals, chemical mixtures, and complex contaminated media. It is sometimes the only fish species found in severely polluted and oxygen-deprived waterways, such as the Elizabeth River in Virginia and, in New Jersey, the Hackensack River and the Arthur Kill. A 2008 Virginia Institute of Marine Science report stated that 38% of mummichogs from Elizabeth River had cancerous lesions, and "more than half had pre-cancerous lesions. That was largely due to high levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons".
Killifish eggs are used in developmental studies and when teaching embryology because the eyes, the beating heart, and the different stages of ontogenesis can be easily examined. Embryos are also extremely durable and easy to manipulate in the laboratory.
Mummichogs were the first fish sent to space. In 1973 a couple of them were flown in a plastic bag aquarium aboard Skylab, during the Skylab 3 mission. In the absence of gravity the fish at first exhibited an unusual swimming behavior: they constantly pitched forward and therefore described tight circles. However, by day 22 of the mission they swam normally. Fifty eggs at an advanced stage of development had also been taken on board, and 48 of them hatched during the flight. The hatchlings swam normally. More experiments with mummichogs in space followed as part of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project and as part of a biological package aboard the Bion 3 satellite.
See also
Japanese rice fish (Oryzias latipes), first fish to breed in space in 1994
References
External links
Fishbase entry (with image)
Fundulus
Fish of the Western Atlantic
Fish of the Eastern United States
Fish of Canada
Fauna of Atlantic Canada
Fauna of the Northeastern United States
Least concern biota of the United States
Least concern biota of North America
Fish described in 1766
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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249713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melito%20of%20Sardis | Melito of Sardis | Melito of Sardis ( Melítōn Sárdeōn; died ) was the bishop of Sardis near Smyrna in western Anatolia, and a great authority in early Christianity. Melito held a foremost place in terms of bishops in Asia due to his personal influence and his literary works, most of which have been lost. What has been recovered, however, has provided a great insight into Christianity during the second century. Jerome, speaking of the Old Testament canon established by Melito, quotes Tertullian to the effect that he was esteemed as a prophet by many of the faithful. This work by Tertullian has been lost but Jerome quotes pieces regarding Melito for the high regard in which he was held at that time. Melito is remembered for his work on developing the first Old Testament Canon. Though it cannot be determined what date he was elevated to an episcopacy, it is probable that he was bishop during the arising controversy at Laodicea in regard to the observance of Easter, which resulted in him writing his most famous work, an Apology for Christianity to Marcus Aurelius. Little is known of his life outside what works are quoted or read by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Eusebius. A letter of Polycrates of Ephesus to Pope Victor about 194 (Eusebius, Church History V.24) states that "Melito the eunuch [this is interpreted "the virgin" by Rufinus in his translation of Eusebius], whose whole walk was in the Holy Spirit", was buried at Sardis. His feast day is celebrated on April 1.
Melito's Jewish and Hellenistic background
Polycrates of Ephesus, a notable bishop of the time, was a contemporary of Melito, and in one of the letters preserved by Eusebius, Polycrates describes Melito as having fully lived in the Spirit. Jewish by birth, Melito lived in an atmosphere where the type of Christianity practiced was largely oriented toward the Jewish form of the Christian faith. Though Melito's extant writings never quote directly from the New Testament corpus, it is thought that his orientation represents the Johannine tradition, and that his theological understanding of Christ often mirrored that of John. However, like most of his contemporaries, Melito was fully immersed in Greek culture. This Johannine tradition led Melito to consider the Gospel of John as the chronological timeline of Jesus's life and death. This in turn led to Melito's standpoint on the proper date of Easter discussed in Peri Pascha which he held as the 14th of Nisan. He is often described, based on a passage in Eusebius, as a Quartodecimanist.
Formerly the capital of the Kingdom of Lydia, Sardis underwent a process of Hellenization due to the influence of Alexander the Great, thus making Sardis a thoroughly Greek city long before Melito was born. Trained in the art of rhetorical argumentation, Melito is believed to have been greatly influenced by two Stoic philosophers in particular, namely, Cleanthes and Poseidonius. Also proficient in the allegorical interpretation of Homer due to being schooled by sophists, it is highly likely that his background in Stoicism fed into how he wrote and how he interpreted past events and figures of religious significance such as Moses and the Exodus. Both his Jewish background and background in Stoicism led to his beliefs that the Christian Passover, celebrated during Easter, should be celebrated at the same time as the Jewish Passover. His belief in the Old Covenant being fulfilled in Jesus Christ also led to his opinion of the date of Easter.
Peri Pascha
Written during the second century AD, and only coming to light within the modern world due to the efforts of Campbell Bonner in 1940, some have argued that Peri Pascha (On the Passover) is not a homily, but is based on a haggadah, which is a retelling of the works of God at Passover. The Quartodeciman celebration mainly being a commemoration of Christ's passion and death, Melito stood by the belief that Christ died on the evening of the 14th, when the Passover meal was being prepared. F. L. Cross states that Melito's treatise on Pascha is “the most important addition to Patristic literature in the present century”. Aside from the liturgical function of the Peri Pascha, this early Christian document has traditionally been perceived as a somewhat reliable indicator concerning how early Christians felt toward Judaism in general. The Peri Pascha provides an accurate description of Christian feelings towards Jews at the time and their opinion of Judaism. The text is not an all-out attack on the Jewish people; however, the Jewish people are explicitly blamed for killing Christ. Melito does not blame Pontius Pilate for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. However, the goal was not to incite anti-Semitic thoughts in Christians but to bring light to what truly happened during the Passion of Jesus Christ. Another consideration to take note of is that perhaps Melito was in a competition with the local Jewish community for pagan converts. Wanting to differentiate the Christian community from the Jewish one since the two were very similar, it was more a matter of strengthening the Christian sense of distinctiveness than an all out attack on the local Jews of Sardis. Thus, Melito is widely remembered for his supersessionism. This view basically assumes that the Old Covenant is fulfilled in the person of Jesus Christ. This view of supersessionism also assumes that the Jewish people fail to fulfill the Old Covenant due to their lack of belief in Jesus Christ.
Issues raised by the Quartodeciman controversy
Attracting the attention of persons such as Epiphanius, Chrysostom, and Pseudo-Hippolytus, Quartodeciman practices have encouraged many to deeply ponder questions pertaining to the duration of the period of fasting, and when it should end within the celebration of any Christian Passover. Another question which bothered many individuals was whether everyone ought to uniformly observe Easter on the same day. Melito thought that the Christian Passover should be on the 14th of Nisan, but the Council of Nicaea determined that Jesus Christ's resurrection from the dead should always be celebrated on a Sunday. Uniformity in church practice was thus the primary drive behind this initiative. Known for following a Johannine chronology, and for believing in a paschal lamb typology, Quartodeciman thought is constituted as such. One of the issues raised is that Quartodeciman thought is the idea that Christian Passover would be celebrated at the same time as Jewish Passover. Ultimately the Council of Nicea decided otherwise and agreed that it would always be on a Sunday.
Apology to Marcus Aurelius
During the controversy in Laodicea over the observance of Easter, Melito presented an Apology for Christianity to Marcus Aurelius, according to Eusebius, in his Chronicon, during the years 169–170 AD. A Syriac translation of this apology was rediscovered and placed in a British museum where it was translated into English by Cureton. In this apology, Melito describes Christianity as a philosophy that had originated among the barbarians, but had attained to a flourishing status under the Roman Empire. Melito asks the emperor to rethink the accusations against the Christians and to renounce the edict against them. Melito argues that Christianity had in no way weakened the empire which continued to grow despite the presence of Christianity. Complaining about how the godly are being persecuted and harassed by new decrees, Christians are openly robbed and plundered by those who are taking advantage of the said ordinances. The suffering of Christians at the time in regard to these decrees was mostly of property and taxations while not as much physical suffering. Certainly Christians were persecuted physically as well but in terms of the decrees they were openly robbed and considered to be incestuous and take part in ritualistic acts such as eating children. Melito aimed to dispel the suffering of the Christian people and to change the Greek opinion of them. Demonstrating how Christian thought first flourished among the Gentiles, and how it has benefited the empire, Melito tried to convince the emperor to rethink his current policies since Christianity only brought greatness and success to Rome. Reminding the emperor of the virtuous conduct of Hadrian, Melito called for an end to all violence toward the growing Christian communities within the empire.
Melito's high Christology
Emphasizing, like John, the unity of Christ and the Father, Melito declared that Christ is at once God and a perfect man. Having two essences while being one and the same, his godhead was demonstrated by way of all of the signs and miracles he performed after being baptized. Successfully managing to hide his divinity from the world before that central event occurred with John the Baptist, Jesus felt the pangs of hunger just like everyone else. Writing against Marcion, Melito focused on Christ's divinity and humanity in order to counter the claim that Jesus was simply and uniquely divine; having no material counterpart. Melito does not anthropomorphize the divine nature of Christ and keeps the attributes of the divine nature and the human nature wholly separate. While he describes the attributes of each nature separately, he also speaks of the two natures of Christ combined. The form of speech used is that of two natures in one Christ. According to Melito, Jesus Christ was both entirely human and entirely divine.
Old Testament canon
Melito gave the first Christian list of the canon in the Old Testament. In his canon he excludes the book of Esther and possibly all the Apocrypha though there is debate on whether he includes Wisdom. Around 170 after traveling to Palestine, and probably visiting the library at Caesarea Maritima, Melito compiled the earliest known Christian canon of the Old Testament, a term he coined. A passage cited by Eusebius contains Melito's famous canon of the Old Testament. Melito presented elaborate parallels between the Old Testament or Old Covenant, which he likened to the form or mold, and the New Testament or New Covenant, which he likened to the truth that broke the mold, in a series of Eklogai, six books of extracts from the Law and the Prophets presaging Christ and the Christian faith. His opinion of the Old Covenant was that it was fulfilled by Christians, whereas the Jewish people failed to fulfill it. The New Covenant is the truth found through Jesus Christ.
Death and legacy
In regard to the death of Melito, there is not much information preserved or recorded. Polycrates of Ephesus, in a letter addressed to Pope Victor (AD. 196) preserved in Eusebius’ history, says, “What shall I say of Melito, whose actions' were all guided by the operations of the Holy Spirit? Who was interred at Sardis, where he waits the resurrection and the judgement?". From this it may be deduced that he had died some time previous to the date of this letter at Sardis, which is the place of his interment.
Melito's reputation as a writer remained strong into the Middle Ages: numerous works were pseudepigraphically ascribed to him. Melito was especially skilled in the literature of the Old Testament, and was one of the most prolific authors of his time. Eusebius furnished a list of Melito's works. While many of these works are lost, the testimony of the fathers remains to inform us how highly they were viewed. Eusebius presents some fragments of Melito's works and some others are found in the works of different writers. Fragments' of his works found preserved in a Syriac translation are now stored in the library of the British Museum. Cureton has translated some and others have been published in Kitto's Journal of Sacred Literature, vol 15. Due to Melito's reputation, many works are falsely attributed to him due to the lack of recorded literature surrounding him. Melito was a Chiliast, and believed in a Millennial reign of Christ on Earth, and followed Irenaeus in his views. Jerome (Comm. on Ezek. 36 ) and Gennadius (De Dogm. Eccl., Ch. 52) both affirm that he was a decided millennarian and as such believed that Christ would reign for 1000 years before the coming of the final judgement.
Notes
References
Melito of Sardis, (English translation) in Ante Nicene Fathers, Vol 8
Melito of Sardis, (Greek original) in Eusebius, Church History, 4.26, Loeb, ed. Kirsopp Lake
Hansen, Adolf, and Melito. 1990. The "Sitz im Leben" of the paschal homily of Melito of Sardis with special reference to the paschal festival in early Christianity. Thesis (Ph.D.)--Northwestern University, 1968.
Melito, and Bernhard Lohse. 1958. Die Passa-Homilie des Bischofs Meliton von Sardes. Textus minores, 24. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Melito, J. B. Pitra, and Pier Giorgio Di Domenico. 2001. Clavis Scripturae. Visibile parlare, 4. Città del Vaticano: Libreria editrice vaticana.
Melito, J. B. Pitra, and Jean Pierre Laurant. 1988. Symbolisme et Ecriture: le cardinal Pitra et la "Clef" de Méliton de Sardes. Paris: Editions du Cerf.
Melito, and Josef Blank. 1963. Vom Passa: die älteste christliche Osterpredigt. Sophia, Quellen östlicher Theologie, Bd. 3. Freiburg im Breisgau: Lambertus-Verlag.
Melito, and Othmar Perler. 1966. Sur la Pâque et fragments. Sources Chrétiennes, 123. Paris: Éditions du Cerf.
Melito, and Richard C. White. 1976. Sermon "On the Passover.". Lexington Theological Seminary Library. Occasional studies. Lexington, Ky: Lexington Theological Seminary Library.
Melito, and Stuart George Hall. 1979. On Pascha and fragments. Oxford early Christian texts. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Waal, C. van der, and Melito. 1973. Het Pascha der verlossing: de schriftverklaring in de homilie van Melito als weerspiegeling van de confrontatie tussen kerk en synagoge. Thesis—Universiteit van Suid-Afrika.
Waal, C. van der, and Melito. 1979. Het Pascha van onze verlossing: de Schriftverklaring in de paaspreek van Melito van Sardes als weerspiegeling van de confrontatie tussen kerk en synagoge in de tweede eeuw. Johannesburg: De Jong.
External links
"Melito of Sardis, (English translation) in Ante Nicene Fathers, Vol 8"
"Melito of Sardis, (Greek original) in Eusebius, Church History, 4.26, Loeb, ed. Kirsopp Lake"
Melito, Homily on Passover (Peri Pascha) from Kerux: The Journal of Northwest Theological Seminary
A different assembly of Melito’s Peri Pascha fragments
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with Analytical Indexes
Saints from Roman Anatolia
2nd-century deaths
2nd-century bishops in Roman Anatolia
2nd-century Christian saints
Year of birth unknown
Church Fathers
Early Jewish Christians
Bishops of Sardis | [
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249718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaview%20%28Galloway%2C%20New%20Jersey%29 | Seaview (Galloway, New Jersey) | The Seaview is a golf club on the East Coast of the United States, located in Galloway Township, New Jersey, north of nearby Atlantic City. The club hosted the ShopRite LPGA Classic in 1986-87, from 1998-2006 and again starting in 2010. During World War II, it hosted the PGA Championship in 1942, Sam Snead's first major title. The course also cooperates with Rutgers University on testing of new turf breeds and natural control of mosquitoes.
The resort has two golf courses, Bay and Pines, and a 300-room hotel with tennis courts, swimming pools, two mini basketball courts, jogging trails, a fitness center, and a spa.
On September 1, 2010, The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey took ownership of the hotel and the Bay course.
On August 1, 2018, it was announced that The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey sold the club to Florida-based KDG Capital LLC for $21 million.
History
The golf club dates from 1914, when public utility magnate Clarence H. Geist founded the Seaview Country Club. The original golf course, known today as the Bay Course, was partially designed by Hugh Wilson (who also designed the two courses at Merion Golf Club) and opened in 1915. The following year, Donald Ross completed the course by adding the sand bunkers. In 1998, the course was restored by Bob Cupp Jr. to be close to the original design. Today the course plays as a par 71, from the back tees. In 2006, the hole numbers were rearranged to improve logistics.
In 1929, the club opened a nine-hole course designed by William S. Flynn and Howard C. Toomey. A second nine holes were built by Flynn disciple William Gordon in 1957, and the rearranged layout became known as the Pines Course. Three holes were removed in 1990 to make room for a practice facility, with replacements designed by Al Janis. Today, the course is from the back tees and is also a par 71.
In 1984, the Marriott Corporation bought the club, and turned it into a resort open to the public. Marriott sold the property to LaSalle Hotel Properties in 1998, but continued to manage it until 2009. Marriott Vacation Club owns the adjacent Fairway Villas vacation condominium complex and the Pines course, but both courses and recreational facilities are seamlessly open to guests from the hotel and the vacation club. Dolce Hotels and Resorts took over management of the hotel and Troon Golf was retained to manage the golf courses.
In 2009, Seaview was honored by Golfweek magazine as one of the “Best Courses You Can Play” in New Jersey, and by Golf World magazine with a 2009 Readers' Choice Award.
In July 2010, it was reported that the Richard Stockton College of New Jersey was negotiating with LaSalle Hotel Properties regarding the possible purchase of the hotel. On September 1, 2010, Stockton College finalized the deal for 20 million.
Tournaments
The Seaview Country Club hosted the 1942 PGA Championship, then a match play event. Sam Snead won the final match at 2 & 1 over Jim Turnesa to claim the first of his seven major championships. He closed out the match by holing a chip shot for birdie on the 35th hole. A composite course was used for the event, using the front nine of the Bay Course coupled with the nine holes designed by Flynn.
In 1986, the Bay Course hosted the inaugural Atlantic City Classic, an LPGA Tour event, and did so again the following year. The tournament, by then named the ShopRite LPGA Classic, returned in 1998 and remained at the club through 2006, and was revived as an annual event in 2010.
Scorecard
Sources:
References
External links
Official hotel site
Official golf site
A number of pictures of the Bay Course
1914 establishments in New Jersey
Buildings and structures in Atlantic County, New Jersey
Galloway Township, New Jersey
Golf clubs and courses in New Jersey
Golf clubs and courses designed by Donald Ross
College golf clubs and courses in the United States
Hotels in New Jersey
Tourist attractions in Atlantic County, New Jersey
Sports venues completed in 1914 | [
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249719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%20Crookham | Church Crookham | Church Crookham is a large suburban village and civil parish, contiguous with the town of Fleet, in northeast Hampshire, England. It is west-southwest of London. Formerly a separate village, it figures as a southern suburb of Fleet, and approximately constitutes one of the 18 wards of the Hart District – adding to parts of two others, as currently drawn for the purpose of electing particular councillors to the District Council.
History
Crookham (in many of the earliest records, Crokeham) dates back at least as far as the Domesday Book, though Church Crookham, including Crookham Village (its west part in traditional terms), was a hamlet until the first and only Anglican church was built in 1840. This is dedicated to Christ and for which Church Crookham is named and to reflect all of the local land's ecclesiastical freehold farms and manors until the dissolution of the monasteries, as there is a Crookham in Berkshire and in Northumberland. In the 13th to 14th centuries, the De Burgh family held notable lands in Crookham of (under) the Prior and Convent of Saint Swithun, Winchester. During this time, one of the family saw a confirmation (re-grant) and was bailiff of the priory, in 1257. One of his grandsons passed all the lands of his mother in the "hamlets" of "Crookham" and "Velmeads" to another such grandson.
The parent sprawling parish of Crondall (in Crondall Hundred) was mostly rural at this time, with the 1831 edition of Samuel Lewis's Topographical Dictionary of England, which used the census returns to assess that Crookham had 623 inhabitants and not even mentioning the (at the time) much smaller Fleet. Other than Crondall tithing, this parish in 1800 consisted of four other tithings, Crookham (otherwise Church Crookham), Ewshot, Swanthorpe, and portions of Dippenhall (partly in Surrey, in Farnham Hundred). The soil is sandy here and in Ewshot, but is chalky in Swanthorpe and has some clay in other tithings.
Crookham was made its own church parish in 1842; Fleet was (before in this parish) in 1863. The same zones gained civil parishes counterpart statuses in 1894. The canal has served as the traditional divide of the two since Fleet was separated into its own church parish. In the centre west of Church Crookham is the Anglican church that continues to serve both the suburb and the older Crookham Village to the west. The ecclesiastical parish is roughly a broad rectangle with the church at the true centre.
Forestry was significant in eastern Crookham with several 'old copse enclosures' and areas of 'woodland'. A few of the neediest poor were housed in almshouses, by request of Isabelle Cottrell of Bath.
In 1903, the noted large homes and their owner-occupiers were:
In 1903, the commercial crops were corn and root vegetables. Defunct hop farming is noted. This saw a revival ending in 1974 (see Crookham Village).
The Second World War
Church Crookham lies on GHQ Line – the most important of a number of fortified stop lines constructed as a part of British anti-invasion preparations of World War II – and was at one of the most heavily fortified sections of that line.
Notable large newer neighbourhoods
In Crookham (a term only used in historic studies and as a local shorthand) southwest of Church Crookham and south-east of Crookham Village is Zebon Copse, over two hundred homes built in the late 1980s. A much larger development followed in the early 2010s at Crookham Park, on the former Queen Elizabeth Barracks site.
Economy
Past notable employers and innovators
Vertu mobile phones were made at its Crookham headquarters until the business folded in 2014. The head office of Ferranti Thomson Sonar Systems was on the Redfields Industrial Estate until 2004.
Tobacco plantation and growers association
Church Crookham hosted Britain's only commercially successful tobacco plantation, which produced among other brands "Blue Pryor" cigarettes and pipe tobacco. Whole-process growing and manufacturing ended in 1938.
Redfields hosted the British Pioneer Tobacco Growers Association (BPTGA) after World War Two. Tobacco was grown there, cured and a commercial brand 'Trowards Rayon D'or' was produced alongside the main purpose of supplying plants to members, curing and shredding their leaves then returning for their smoking. Charles Baggs served as the general manager, and Admiral Sir Clement Moody was among members. A BBC film was made during the 1950s entitled Tobacco Road, which featured the Redfields site and their site in nearby Crondall. The BPTGA closed after the death of owner Troward but Baggs supplied plants and cure the members' product some time after. The BPTGA employed twenty to thirty local staff. The site is now Redfields Garden Centre, save for Redfields House, which is now part of the buildings of St Nicholas' School.
Present notable employers and innovators
HSES Group's headquarters are in the suburb.
Notes of interest
Motorists entering Fleet from the south and west are met with signs welcoming them to Church Crookham, whereas those entering the town from the north and east are welcomed to Fleet instead.
The Basingstoke Canal bounds the northeast and briefly the northwest of Church Crookham. Across this are modern outer neighbourhoods of Fleet.
The English poet John Keble was a regular visitor to Church Crookham's Christ Church.
Replaced by housing (Crookham Park) and landscaping from 2012, the British Army's 1938 to 2000 Queen Elizabeth Barracks was quite central in the parish.
Tweseldown race course
Tweseldown race course is a point-to-point horse racing track. This racing track was used for the eventing steeplechase in the 1948 London Olympics.
Filming location
Church Crookham has hosted scenes for several films. These include the 2002 James Bond movie Die Another Day, which used woodland and flat ground between the village and Aldershot to represent the demilitarised zone between North and South Korea. Church Crookham was also one of several English towns and villages (others including nearby Aldershot, Farnham, and Chobham) that served as filming locations for the 2006 movie Children of Men.
Education
For a list of local schools, see the list of Hampshire schools.
References
Notes
General references
External links
http://www.church-crookham.co.uk
Fleet & Crookham Local History Group – Group Books and Historical Papers – includes reference to paper "Mr Brandon's Tobacco Farm" by Phyllis Ralton (2007)
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249724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmer%20Bernstein | Elmer Bernstein | Elmer Bernstein (April 4, 1922August 18, 2004) was an American composer and conductor. In a career that spanned more than five decades, he composed "some of the most recognizable and memorable themes in Hollywood history", including over 150 original film scores, as well as scores for nearly 80 television productions. For his work he received an Academy Award for Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967) and Primetime Emmy Award. He also received seven Golden Globe Award, five Grammy Award, and two Tony Award nominations.
He composed and arranged scores for over 100 film scores including such films as Sudden Fear (1952), The Man with the Golden Arm (1955), The Ten Commandments (1956), Sweet Smell of Success (1957), The Magnificent Seven (1960), To Kill a Mockingbird (1962), The Great Escape (1963), Hud (1963), Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967), True Grit (1969), My Left Foot, The Grifters (1990), Cape Fear (1991), Twilight (1998), and Far from Heaven (2002). He is also known for his work on the comedic films, Animal House (1978), Meatballs (1979), Airplane! (1980), The Blues Brothers (1980), Stripes (1981), Trading Places (1984), Ghostbusters (1984), Spies Like Us (1985), and Three Amigos (1986).
Early life
Bernstein was born to a Jewish family in New York City, the son of Selma (née Feinstein, 1901–1991), from Ukraine, and Edward Bernstein (1896-1968), from Austria-Hungary.
He was not related to the celebrated composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein, though they were friends. Within the world of professional music, they were distinguished from each other by the use of the nicknames Bernstein West (Elmer) and Bernstein East (Leonard), based on their bases of operation: East for New York City, West for Hollywood/Los Angeles. They also pronounced their surnames differently. Elmer pronounced his name "BERN-steen", and Leonard used "BERN-styne".
During his childhood, Bernstein performed professionally as a dancer and an actor, in the latter case playing the part of Caliban in The Tempest on Broadway, and he also won several prizes for his painting. He attended Manhattan's progressive Walden School and gravitated toward music. At the age of twelve, he was awarded a piano scholarship by Henriette Michelson, a Juilliard teacher who guided him throughout his entire career as a pianist. She took him to play some of his improvisations for composer Aaron Copland, who was encouraging and selected Israel Citkowitz as a teacher for the young boy.
Elmer was drafted into the United States Army Air Forces during the World War II era where he wrote music for the Armed Forces Radio.
Elmer Bernstein's music has some stylistic similarities to Copland's music, most notably in his western scores, particularly sections of Big Jake, in the Gregory Peck film Amazing Grace and Chuck, and in his spirited score for the 1958 film adaptation of Erskine Caldwell's novel God's Little Acre.
He had a lifelong enthusiasm for an even wider spectrum of the arts than his childhood interests would imply and, in 1959, when he was scoring The Story on Page One, he considered becoming a novelist and asked the film's screenwriter, Clifford Odets, to give him lessons in writing fiction.
Career
Early career
Bernstein wrote the theme songs or other music for more than 200 films and TV shows, including The Magnificent Seven, The Great Escape, The Ten Commandments (1956), True Grit, The Man with the Golden Arm, To Kill a Mockingbird, Robot Monster, Ghostbusters, Baby the Rain Must Fall (1965), and the fanfare used in the National Geographic television specials.
His theme for The Magnificent Seven is also familiar to television viewers, as it was used in commercials for Marlboro cigarettes. Bernstein also provided the score to many of the short films of Ray and Charles Eames.
In 1961 Bernstein co-founded Äva Records, an American record label based in Los Angeles together with Fred Astaire, Jackie Mills and Tommy Wolf.
Broadway
In addition to his film music, Bernstein wrote the scores for two Broadway musicals, How Now, Dow Jones, with lyricist Carolyn Leigh, in 1967 and Merlin, with lyricist Don Black, in 1983.
One of Bernstein's tunes has since gained a lasting place in U.S. college sports culture. In 1968, University of South Carolina football head coach Paul Dietzel wrote new lyrics to "Step to the Rear", from How Now, Dow Jones. The South Carolina version of the tune, "The Fighting Gamecocks Lead the Way", has been the school's fight song ever since.
1950s: Hollywood Blacklist
Along with many other artists in Hollywood, Bernstein faced censure during the McCarthy era of the early 1950s. Bernstein was called by the House Un-American Activities Committee when it was discovered that he had written some music reviews for a Communist newspaper. After he refused to name names, pointing out that he had never attended a Communist Party meeting, he found himself composing music for movies such as Robot Monster and Cat-Women of the Moon, a step down from his earlier Sudden Fear and Saturday's Hero.
1980s: Comedic works
John Landis grew up near Bernstein, and befriended him through his children. Years later, he requested that Bernstein compose the music for National Lampoon's Animal House, over the studio's objections. He explained to Bernstein that he thought that Bernstein's score, playing it straight as if the comedic Delta frat characters were actual heroes, would emphasize the comedy further.
The opening theme to the movie is based upon a slight inversion of a secondary theme from Brahms's Academic Festival Overture. Bernstein accepted the job, and it sparked a second wave in his career, where he continued to compose music for high-profile comedies such as Ghostbusters, Stripes, Airplane! and The Blues Brothers, as well as most of Landis's films for the next 15 years, including An American Werewolf in London, Trading Places, and the music video to the Michael Jackson song "Thriller".
1990s: Continued work
When Martin Scorsese announced that he was re-making Cape Fear, Bernstein adapted Bernard Herrmann's original score to the new film. Bernstein leapt at the opportunity to work with Scorsese, as well as to pay homage to Herrmann. Scorsese and Bernstein subsequently worked together on two more films, The Age of Innocence (1993) and Bringing Out the Dead (1999). Bernstein had previously conducted Herrmann's original unused score for Alfred Hitchcock's 1966 Torn Curtain.
Classical
Having studied composition under Aaron Copland, Roger Sessions, and Stefan Wolpe, Bernstein also performed as a concert pianist between 1939 and 1950 and wrote numerous classical compositions, including three orchestral suites, two song cycles, various compositions for viola and piano and for solo piano, and a string quartet.
As president of the Young Musicians Foundation, Bernstein became acquainted with classical guitarist Christopher Parkening and wrote a Concerto for Guitar and Orchestra, which Parkening recorded with the London Symphony Orchestra under Bernstein's baton for the Angel label in 1999. In addition, Bernstein was a professor at the University of Southern California's Thornton School of Music and conductor of the San Fernando Valley Symphony in the early 1970s.
Personal life and death
Bernstein was married three times, first to Rhoda Federgreen. Their marriage lasted from 1942 to 1946. Bernstein's second wife was Pearl Glusman, whom he wed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on December 21, 1946. After the couple's divorce in 1965, Bernstein married Eve Adamson. They remained together for 39 years, until his death.
In the 1960s, Elmer Bernstein was an owner in the Triad Stable Thoroughbred racing partnership, named for a music term. His partners included his assistant, Robert Helfer, and the wife of the Triad Stable's trainer Morton Lipton.
The Bernsteins in the 1990s resided in Hope Ranch, a suburb of Santa Barbara, California. Later, they moved to a home in Ojai, California, where Bernstein died from cancer on August 18, 2004, at age 82. His publicist Cathy Mouton simply stated at the time that Bernstein had died following a lengthy illness. He was survived by his wife Eve and their two daughters, Emilie and Elizabeth; by his two sons, Peter and Gregory Bernstein, from his earlier marriage to Pearl Glusman; and by five grandchildren.
Influences and legacy
Bernstein considered these artists as influences on his work: Benny Goodman, Count Basie, Dimitri Tiomkin, Duke Ellington, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Franz Waxman, Miklós Rózsa, Jimmie Lunceford, Max Steiner, Victor Young, Aaron Copland, Bernard Herrmann, Nino Rota, Roger Sessions, Stefan Wolpe.
Those who consider Bernstein a legacy on their careers include Alan Silvestri, Georges Delerue, Howard Shore, James Newton Howard, John Barry, Lalo Schifrin, Dick Hyman, Hans Zimmer, James Horner, Jerry Goldsmith, John Williams, Trevor Jones, Mark Isham, Bear McCreary, Ennio Morricone, Danny Elfman, Alan Menken, Randy Newman, and Randy Edelman.
Compositions
Awards and nominations
Over the course of his career, Bernstein won an Academy Award, an Emmy Award, and two Golden Globe Awards. In addition, he was nominated for the Tony Award three times and a Grammy Award five times. He received 14 Academy Award nominations and was nominated at least once per decade from the 1950s until the 2000s, but his only win was for Thoroughly Modern Millie for Best Original Music Score. Bernstein was recognized by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association with Golden Globes for his scores for To Kill a Mockingbird and Hawaii. In 1963, he won the Primetime Emmy Award for his score of The Making of The President 1960. He is the recipient of Western Heritage Awards for The Magnificent Seven (1960) and The Hallelujah Trail (1965).
Additional honors included Lifetime achievement awards from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP), the Society for the Preservation of Film Music, the US, Woodstock, Santa Barbara, Newport Beach and Flanders International Film Festivals and the Foundation for a Creative America. In 1996, Bernstein was honored with a star on Hollywood Boulevard. In 1999, he received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Five Towns College in New York City and was honored by the American Film Institute in Los Angeles. Bernstein again was honored by ASCAP with its marquee Founders Award in 2001 and with the NARAS Governors Award in June 2004. Bernstein was the subject of This Is Your Life in 2003 when he was surprised by Michael Aspel at London's Royal Albert Hall, after conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra as part of his 80th year celebrations.
His scores for The Magnificent Seven and To Kill a Mockingbird were ranked by the American Film Institute as the eighth and seventeenth greatest American film scores of all time, respectively, on the list of AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores. Bernstein, Bernard Herrmann, Max Steiner, and Jerry Goldsmith are the only composers to have two scores listed, and are therefore in second place for the most scores on the list, behind John Williams, who has three. Other Bernstein film scores nominated for the list are as follows: The Age of Innocence (1993), Far from Heaven (2002), The Great Escape (1963), Hawaii (1966), The Man with the Golden Arm (1955), Summer and Smoke (1961), Sweet Smell of Success (1957), The Ten Commandments (1956), and Walk on the Wild Side (1962).
References
External links
Discography at SonyBMG Masterworks
Lifetime Achievement Sammy Film Music Award
BernsteinWest.com, a fan tribute site
1922 births
2004 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century classical composers
American classical composers
American film score composers
American male classical composers
American male conductors (music)
American male film score composers
American male songwriters
American musical theatre composers
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Äva Records artists
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Broadway composers and lyricists
Deaths from cancer in California
Golden Globe Award-winning musicians
Golden Raspberry Award winners
Imperial Records artists
Jewish American classical composers
Jewish American classical musicians
Jewish American film score composers
Jewish American songwriters
Juilliard School alumni
La-La Land Records artists
Male musical theatre composers
Musicians from New York City
Pupils of Roger Sessions
Songwriters from New York (state)
Thornton School of Music faculty
American racehorse owners and breeders
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
United States Army Air Forces soldiers
Varèse Sarabande Records artists
Walden School (New York City) alumni
20th-century American Jews
21st-century American Jews | [
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249726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed%20radix | Mixed radix | Mixed radix numeral systems are non-standard positional numeral systems in which the numerical base varies from position to position. Such numerical representation applies when a quantity is expressed using a sequence of units that are each a multiple of the next smaller one, but not by the same factor. Such units are common for instance in measuring time; a time of 32 weeks, 5 days, 7 hours, 45 minutes, 15 seconds, and 500 milliseconds might be expressed as a number of minutes in mixed-radix notation as:
... 32, 5, 7, 45; 15, 500
... ∞, 7, 24, 60; 60, 1000
or as
32∞577244560.15605001000
In the tabular format, the digits are written above their base, and a semicolon indicates the radix point. In numeral format, each digit has its associated base attached as a subscript, and the radix point is marked by a full stop or period. The base for each digit is the number of corresponding units that make up the next larger unit. As a consequence there is no base (written as ∞) for the first (most significant) digit, since here the "next larger unit" does not exist (and note that one could not add a larger unit of "month" or "year" to the sequence of units, as they are not integer multiples of "week").
Examples
The most familiar example of mixed radix systems is in timekeeping and calendars. Western time radices include decimal centuries, decades and years as well as duodecimal months, trigesimal (and untrigesimal and (for February) octovigesimal and enneavigesimal) days, overlapped with duoquinquagesimal weeks and septenary days. One variant uses tridecimal months, quaternary weeks, and septenary days. Time is further divided by quadrivigesimal hours, sexagesimal minutes and seconds, then decimal fractions thereof.
A standard form for dates is 2021-04-10 16:31:15 which would be a mixed radix number in this definition, but is different because the number of days in a month varies for each month and in leap years.
A mixed radix numeral system can often benefit from a tabular summary. The system for describing the 604800 seconds of a week starting from midnight on Sunday runs as follows:
In this numeral system, the mixed radix numeral 37172451605760 seconds would be interpreted as 17:51:57 on Wednesday, and 0702402602460 would be 00:02:24 on Sunday. Ad hoc notations for mixed radix numeral systems are commonplace.
The Maya calendar consists of several overlapping cycles of different radices. A short count tzolk'in overlaps vigesimal named days with tridecimal numbered days. A haab' consists of vigesimal days, octodecimal months, and base-52 years forming a round. In addition, a long count of vigesimal days, octodecimal winal, then vigesimal tun, k'atun, b'ak'tun, etc. tracks historical dates.
A second example of a mixed radix numeral system in current use is in the design and use of currency, where a limited set of denominations are printed or minted with the objective of being able to represent any monetary quantity; the amount of money is then represented by the number of coins or banknotes of each denomination. When deciding which denominations to create (and hence which radices to mix), a compromise is aimed for between a minimal number of different denominations, and a minimal number of individual pieces of coinage required to represent typical quantities. So, for example, in the UK, banknotes are printed for £50, £20, £10 and £5, and coins are minted for £2, £1, 50p, 20p, 10p, 5p, 2p and 1p—these follow the 1-2-5 series of preferred values.
Prior to decimalisation, monetary amounts in the UK were described in terms of pounds, shillings, and pence, with 12 pence per shilling and 20 shillings per pound, so that "£1 7s 6d", for example, corresponded to the mixed-radix numeral 1∞720612.
United States customary units are generally mixed-radix systems, with multipliers varying from one size unit to the next in the same manner that units of time do.
Mixed-radix representation is also relevant to mixed-radix versions of the Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm, in which the indices of the input values are expanded in a mixed-radix representation, the indices of the output values are expanded in a corresponding mixed-radix representation with the order of the bases and digits reversed, and each subtransform can be regarded as a Fourier transform in one digit for all values of the remaining digits.
Manipulation
Mixed-radix numbers of the same base can be manipulated using a generalization of manual arithmetic algorithms. Conversion of values from one mixed base to another is easily accomplished by first converting the place values of the one system into the other, and then applying the digits from the one system against these.
APL and J include operators to convert to and from mixed-radix systems.
Factorial number system
Another proposal is the so-called factorial number system:
For example, the biggest number that could be represented with six digits would be 543210 which equals 719 in decimal: 5×5! + 4×4! + 3×3! + 2×2! + 1×1! It might not be clear at first sight but the factorial based numbering system is unambiguous and complete. Every number can be represented in one and only one way because the sum of respective factorials multiplied by the index is always the next factorial minus one:
There is a natural mapping between the integers 0, ..., n! − 1 and permutations of n elements in lexicographic order, which uses the factorial representation of the integer, followed by an interpretation as a Lehmer code.
The above equation is a particular case of the following general rule for any radix (either standard or mixed) base representation which expresses the fact that any radix (either standard or mixed) base representation is unambiguous and complete. Every number can be represented in one and only one way because the sum of respective weights multiplied by the index is always the next weight minus one:
, where ,
which can be easily proved with mathematical induction.
References
Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. . Pages 65–66, 208–209, and 290.
Georg Cantor. Über einfache Zahlensysteme, Zeitschrift für Math. und Physik 14(1869), 121–128.
External links
Mixed Radix Calculator — Mixed Radix Calculator in C#
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249731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven%20Van%20Zandt | Steven Van Zandt | Steven Van Zandt (né Lento; born November 22, 1950), also known as Little Steven or Miami Steve, is an American singer, songwriter, musician, producer, actor, activist and author. He is best known as a member of Bruce Springsteen's E Street Band, in which he plays guitar and mandolin. He is also known for his roles in several television drama series, including as Silvio Dante in The Sopranos (1999–2007) and as Frank Tagliano in Lilyhammer (2012–2014). Van Zandt has his own solo band called Little Steven and The Disciples of Soul, intermittently active since the 1980s. In 2014, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the E Street Band. Van Zandt has produced music, written songs, and had his own songs covered by Bruce Springsteen, Meat Loaf, Nancy Sinatra, Pearl Jam, Artists United Against Apartheid, and the Iron City Houserockers, among others.
Early life
Van Zandt was born Steven Lento on November 22, 1950 to Mary (née Lento) Van Zandt, in Winthrop, Massachusetts. He is of part Italian descent; his grandfather was from Calabria and his grandmother's parents were from Naples. His mother, Mary, remarried in 1957 and he took the last name of his stepfather, William Brewster Van Zandt. The family moved to Middletown Township, New Jersey, when he was seven.
Van Zandt found his love for music at an early age, when he learned how to play the guitar. He watched the performances of the Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show and the Rolling Stones on Hollywood Palace in 1964, and referred to the former as "The Big Bang of Rock n' Roll". He said that when he was 13, George Harrison was his favorite Beatle, and he later became friends with Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr. Around August 1964, he formed his first band, the Whirlwinds, which was short-lived. He later formed the Mates in 1965 and joined the Shadows in May 1966. Van Zandt has cited British Invasion bands such as the Dave Clark Five, as well as Ravi Shankar and the culture of India, as early influences.
Van Zandt attended Middletown High School, where he got kicked out for having long hair. He went back to school to appease his mother and graduated in 1968. As a teenager, he was involved in a car accident that caused him to smash his head through the windshield, leaving several scars on his head. To cover this up, he began wearing hats, and later, large bandanas, which has become his characteristic look.
Actor Billy Van Zandt is Van Zandt's half-brother and actress Adrienne Barbeau is his ex sister-in-law. He also has a half-sister named Kathi, who is a writer.
Career
Band member
Van Zandt grew up in the Jersey Shore music scene, and was an early friend and pre-E Street bandmate of Bruce Springsteen. Springsteen met Van Zandt for the first time in 1965 when Springsteen went to the Hullabaloo club in Middletown. Van Zandt was performing a cover of the Turtles' "Happy Together" with the Shadows. They performed together in bands such as Steel Mill and the Bruce Springsteen Band. During the early 1970s, Van Zandt worked in road construction for two years, before returning to show business. In 1973, he toured with The Dovells. The tour ended in Miami on December 31, 1974 with Dick Clark's Good Old Rock 'n' Roll Show at the Deauville Star Theater. After going back to Jersey, Van Zandt continued wearing Hawaiian shirts because he did not particularly like winter, which was how he got the nickname "Miami Steve".
He co-founded Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes, in addition to The Miami Horns, who got their name from Van Zandt's nickname. Van Zandt helped establish the rhythm and blues oriented style of music that the band performed. He also produced Southside Johnny's first three albums. Overall, Van Zandt wrote a significant bulk of Southside Johnny's music which helped provide them with the success that they achieved.
Van Zandt then started to switch between writing for Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes and touring with the E Street Band. He confirmed in an interview on The Howard Stern Show that he arranged the horns on "Tenth Avenue Freeze-Out" in 1975 when Springsteen was at a loss, earning him a spot in the E Street Band shortly thereafter. In the Wings For Wheels documentary, Springsteen revealed that Van Zandt was partially responsible for the signature guitar line in "Born to Run"; "Arguably Steve's greatest contribution to my music." Ultimately, Van Zandt officially joined the E Street Band on July 20, 1975 during the first show of the Born to Run Tour.
In those early years, Van Zandt supplied a great deal of the lead guitar work for the band in concert, as can be seen on the 1975 concert DVD within Born to Run 30th Anniversary Edition (later released as the CD Hammersmith Odeon London '75). In 1984, Van Zandt left the E Street Band. He originally joined to see Bruce Springsteen rise in success, and once the band rose to that success he left. Despite leaving the band, he appeared as a special guest at certain concerts on the Born in the U.S.A. Tour and appeared in a couple of videos, including the one for "Glory Days".
Later in life, Van Zandt returned to the E Street Band when it was reformed (briefly in 1995, and on an ongoing basis since 1999) and remains a member. By this time, his guitar playing had mostly been reduced to a background rhythm role, due to Nils Lofgren's position in the band and his capability as a lead guitarist. In addition, Springsteen had begun taking many more guitar solos as his music became more guitar-centered. Van Zandt said on the Howard Stern Show that he is okay with being second in command, especially since he has been in charge before with his solo music and his role in Lilyhammer. Notwithstanding this, among E Street Band members he often had the second-most amount of "face time" in concert after Clarence Clemons, frequently mugging and posing for the audience and sometimes delivering his unpolished, nasal backing vocals while sharing a microphone with Springsteen. His playing or singing is most prominently featured on the songs "Glory Days", "Two Hearts", "Long Walk Home" (which featured a Van Zandt outro vocal solo during live performances) "Land of Hope and Dreams", "Badlands", "Ramrod", and "Murder Incorporated", among others like the live versions of "Rosalita". He often trades vocals with Springsteen in live versions of "Prove It All Night". He features prominently in the video for "Glory Days", sharing the spotlight with Springsteen during the choruses, while swapping lines with him during the (non)fade, and in live versions he does the same. During the E Street Band's performance at the Super Bowl in 2009, Van Zandt was the most prominently featured member of the band, playing a guitar solo on the final number of the set, "Glory Days," as well as sharing lead vocals and exchanging humorous banter with Springsteen.
Songwriter, arranger, producer
Van Zandt became a songwriter and producer for fellow Jersey shore act Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes in 1974, penning their signature song "I Don't Want to Go Home", co-writing other songs for them with Springsteen, and producing their most-acclaimed record, Hearts of Stone. As such, Van Zandt became a key contributor to the Jersey Shore sound. He also produced two Gary U.S. Bonds albums. Van Zandt then went on to share production credits on the classic Springsteen albums The River and Born in the U.S.A. The first Springsteen song he co-produced was "Hungry Heart." In 1989, Jackson Browne covered the 1983 Van Zandt composition "I Am A Patriot" on his World in Motion album. Van Zandt has produced a number of other records, including an uncredited effort on the Iron City Houserockers' Have A Good Time (But Get Out Alive). Less successful was his work on Lone Justice's second album Shelter, which was a career-ending flop for the Los Angeles cowpunk band.
In 1989, Van Zandt wrote "While You Were Looking at Me" for Michael Monroe's album Not Fakin' It and co-wrote videohits "Dead, Jail or Rock'n Roll" and "Smoke Screen". He was an arranger and backing vocalist for a few songs on the album. In 1992, he produced Austin TX-based Arc Angels' debut album. In 1991 Van Zandt produced a successful album, Spirit of Love, for Nigerian superstar and raggae icon, Majek Fashek. In 1992, Van Zandt wrote and produced "All Alone on Christmas" for the soundtrack of the Chris Columbus film Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, which yielded singer Darlene Love her first hit since "A Fine, Fine Boy" from 1963, thirty-one years earlier.
In 1994, Van Zandt produced the eponymous debut album of the punk rock band Demolition 23 which featured ex-Hanoi Rocks members Michael Monroe and Sami Yaffa. Van Zandt also co-wrote six songs for the album with Monroe and Jude Wilder. In 1995, Van Zandt aided Meat Loaf with the song "Amnesty Is Granted" off of his Welcome to the Neighborhood album. In 2004, he contributed the song "Baby Please Don't Go" to Nancy Sinatra's self-titled album.
Solo artist
During the summer of 1981, EMI-America approached Van Zandt with a record deal due to his success with the E Street Band, Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes, and Gary U.S. Bonds. He began fronting an on-and-off group known as Little Steven and the Disciples of Soul, while Springsteen was working on Nebraska. The band included Dino Danelli on drums, Jean Beauvoir on bass, and the Miami Horns. They made their live debut at the Peppermint Lounge on July 18, 1982. In October 1982, Van Zandt's debut album, Men Without Women, was released. This album earned the most critical praise and Jay Cocks of TIME magazine dubbed it one of the ten best albums of the year. Van Zandt released four more solo albums, and has written that these albums are each elements in a five-part political concept cycle: the individual, the family, the state, the economy, and religion. These albums range from soul music to hard rock to world music. Van Zandt's second album, Voice of America, did the best on the U.S. albums chart, although none of his albums were much of a commercial success. After touring with the E Street Band during The River Tour in 1980–81, he started to realize and understand the perceptions of Americans made by people in other countries. He started to become interested in politics and, with Voice of America, his music became explicitly political. One of the album's leading singles, "Solidarity", is a general statement of international common ground. In April 1984, shortly before the release of Born in the U.S.A. and Voice of America, Van Zandt left the E Street Band, but rejoined in 1999.
Continuing his involvement in issues of the day, in 1985 he created the music-industry activist group Artists United Against Apartheid as an action against the Sun City resort in South Africa. Forty-nine recording artists, including Springsteen, U2, Bob Dylan, Pete Townshend, Joey Ramone, Tom Petty, Afrika Bambaataa and Run DMC, collaborated on a song called "Sun City" in which they pledged to never perform at the resort. The song was modestly successful, and played a part in the broad international effort to overthrow apartheid. Van Zandt also produced the award-winning documentary The Making of Sun City and oversaw the production of the book, Sun City by Artists United Against Apartheid, the Struggle for Freedom in South Africa: The Making of the Record, as well as the teaching guide.
In 1987, he released the album Freedom - No Compromise, which continued the political messaging. Some U.S. appearances in that year as opening act for U2's arena-and-stadium Joshua Tree Tour continued in the same vein, but were not well received by some audiences. Both the record and his concerts were popular in Europe. He also performed at the "Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute" concert at Wembley Stadium in 1988.
His fourth album, 1989's Revolution, attracted little attention. Later in 1989, Van Zandt recorded another album, Nobody Loves and Leaves Alive with his garage band The Lost Boys. Although the album remains unreleased, several tracks from it were heard on the Sopranos and Lilyhammer television shows: including "Nobody Loves and Leaves Alive", "Affection", and "Come for Me". "Affection" appeared on The Sopranos: Peppers & Eggs (Music From the HBO Original Series).
Due to a loss of recording contract, his next album, Born Again Savage, which was recorded in 1994, was not released until 1999. In 1995, Van Zandt wrote, produced, and sang "The Time of Your Life" for the soundtrack to the film Nine Months. He also toured with Bon Jovi during the first European leg of their These Days Tour.
Van Zandt's song "Under The Gun" was covered by Carla Olson & The Textones on their Detroit '85 Live & Unreleased album which was released in 2008. Another of his songs, "All I Needed Was You", appeared on the 2013 Carla Olson album Have Harmony, Will Travel.
On April 29, 2013, Van Zandt performed a cover of Frank Sinatra's "My Kind of Town" at a Springsteen concert in Oslo, Norway, during the Wrecking Ball Tour. Although the song was featured in the Lilyhammer season one episode "My Kind of Town," it was not released as a single until September 23, 2014, when it was "the Coolest Song in the World" on Underground Garage to help promote the show. It was released under the title "Frank Tagliano Sings! My Kind of Town" and the lyrics were changed to be about Lillehammer, Norway, instead of Chicago. Van Zandt performed the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on December 9, 2014, to help promote the series. Van Zandt performed all the music for Lilyhammer from season 2 on and released Lilyhammer: The Score on December 16, 2014.
Van Zandt reformed his band, the Disciples of Soul, for the first time since 1990 to play their only European show of 2016 at the O2 Indigo Lounge in London for BluesFest on October 29, 2016. The new Disciples included Richie Sambora and Marc Ribler on guitar, Eddie Manion on saxophone, Hook Herrara on harmonica, Leo Green on tenor sax, Richard Mecurio on drums, Jack Daley on bass, Andy Burton on B3 organ, Clifford Carter on piano, Danny Sadownick on percussion, Tommy Walsh and Matt Holland on trumpet, Neil Sidwell on trombone, George Millard on flute, and a women's section called the Divas of Soul (Julie Maguire, Sarah Carpenter and Jess Greenfield) on backing vocals. They played a series of Van Zandt's own solo songs, songs he wrote for Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes, a song he co-wrote for the Breakers, cover songs, and "Goodbye", a song that he performed with the Lost Boys. His plans included a European tour during the summer of 2017 and a tour of the United States in the fall. Van Zandt insists that he is not leaving the E Street Band and he is only touring because the band is not on the road.
Van Zandt announced in November 2016 that he was in the process of remastering and reissuing his albums for a 2017 release, including the unreleased Lost Boys album. Additionally, Van Zandt has stated that he was planning on releasing a new cover album, including a cover of Etta James' "The Blues Is My Business", as well as new recordings of songs Van Zandt wrote for others, including Southside Johnny, that he describes as "me covering me." The album is a soul record, composed of a 15 piece band including 5 horns and 3 singers. Van Zandt revealed that Richie Mercurio plays drums on the album.
On February 9, 2017, Van Zandt released "Saint Valentine's Day," a cover of the song, "Saint Valentine's Day Massacre," that he originally wrote for the Cocktail Slippers, as a single. The song was repeatedly played on the Underground Garage radio show.
He debuted his new album at the annual Rock and Roll for Children event at the Fillmore Theater in Silver Spring, Maryland, on March 18, 2017. Van Zandt debuted a doo-wop song called "The City Weeps Tonight," that was an outtake from Men Without Women. At the end of the show, he covered "Bye Bye Johnny" as a tribute to the late Chuck Berry. According to Backstreets, Van Zandt's new album was going to be called Soulfire, titled after the song he co-wrote for the Breakers. The album was officially released on May 19, 2017.
Van Zandt released his first official live album, Soulfire Live!, recorded with the Disciples of Soul during their 2017 tour of the same name, on April 27, 2018 via iTunes. A 7 LP vinyl box set, CD, and two-disc Blu-ray video were released on February 15, 2019 via Wicked Cool Records/UMe. Consisting of the best performances from their North American and European concerts, the collection feature Little Steven and his 15-strong band taking you on a musical history lesson as they blast through an arsenal of songs spanning rock, pop, soul, blues, funk, doo-wop, reggae and everything in between. Of note, is a performance of "I Saw Her Standing There" recorded at The Roundhouse in London with a special appearance by Paul McCartney.
Little Steven and the Disciples of Soul recorded a cover of Elvis Presley's "Santa Claus Is Back in Town", featuring actor Kurt Russell on lead vocals, for the 2018 film The Christmas Chronicles.
On March 8, 2019 Van Zandt announced the May 3, 2019 CD, digital and vinyl release of Summer of Sorcery via Wicked Cool/UME. It was written, arranged, and produced by him at his Renegade Studios in New York City and marks his first new album of original material in 20 years. A tour for the album began in May 2019, but was cancelled in September 2019 due to illness.
Van Zandt finally reissued his albums in the 7 LP and 4-CD box set, Rock N Roll Rebel: The Early Work, released on December 6, 2019. Limited to 1,000 copies, it includes the first United States pressing of 1989's Revolution, as well as the first vinyl release of Born Again Savage, originally released in 1999. The box set also includes rare outtakes and live performances. The Lost Boys album, however, remains unreleased. Van Zandt stated that the album contains his favorite songs that he recorded and wants to wait until the album can be "properly promoted."
Actor
Until 1999, Van Zandt had no professional acting experience. His main focus had been music, whether it was the multiple bands he participated in, groups he composed pieces for, or music he wrote on his own. Then, he was asked to play a part in The Sopranos, and from there on, acting became part of Van Zandt's career.
The Sopranos
In 1999, Van Zandt took one of the core roles in The Sopranos, playing level-headed but deadly mob consigliere and strip club owner Silvio Dante. Van Zandt had no acting experience, and the unusual casting choice was made by series creator David Chase.
Chase invited Van Zandt to audition after seeing him induct The Rascals at the 1997 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and being impressed with his humorous appearance and presence. Van Zandt had never acted before; he auditioned for the role of Tony Soprano, but HBO felt that the role should go to an experienced actor, so Chase wrote him into a part that did not exist. Van Zandt eventually agreed to star on the show as consigliere Silvio Dante, and his real-life spouse Maureen (née Santoro) was cast as his on-screen wife Gabriella.
In late 2008, Van Zandt reprised his role as Silvio Dante in an advertisement for the popular online game World of Warcraft, where he can be seen quoting Michael Corleone's famous phrase from The Godfather Part III, "Just when I thought I was out, they pulled me back in."
Tussles in Brussels
Van Zandt recorded the narration for The Hives biography on their concert DVD Tussles in Brussels (2004).
Hotel Cæsar
In 2010, Van Zandt appeared as himself in the Norwegian soap opera Hotel Cæsar, broadcast on Norway's biggest commercial channel TV2 Norway. He also appeared on Scandinavia's largest talkshow Skavlan.
Lilyhammer
In 2011, he starred in, co-wrote, and was the executive producer for an English and Norwegian language series entitled Lilyhammer, the first original Netflix series that was produced in collaboration with Norwegian broadcaster NRK. The name recalls the city of Lillehammer, which hosted the 1994 Winter Olympics. On the show, Van Zandt portrays a Sopranos-like role of an ex-mafioso who enters the witness protection program and flees to Norway to escape a colleague against whom he testified. The show premiered on NRK television on January 25, 2012 with an audience of 998,000 viewers (one fifth of Norway's population), and ran for three seasons before being cancelled in 2015.
The Irishman
Van Zandt appears in the Martin Scorsese-produced gangster epic The Irishman as singer Jerry Vale, lip-syncing Vale's Al Di La.
Radio host and entrepreneur
Radio host
Since 2002, Van Zandt has hosted Little Steven's Underground Garage, a weekly syndicated radio show that celebrates garage rock and similar rock subgenres from the 1950s to the present day. As of December 2006, the show is heard on over 200 US radio stations and in some international markets. For example, in Spain it has beamed through Rock & Gol since 2007 and later on Rock FM Radio in Finland; Radio Helsinki started beaming Little Steven's Underground Garage in August 2008.
On October 20, 2011, the program recorded its 500th show in front of a sold-out crowd at the Hard Rock Cafe in New York's Times Square. The guests included the band Green Day; Steve Buscemi, star of The Sopranos and Boardwalk Empire; Vincent Pastore, aka "Big Pussy Bonpensiero" from The Sopranos; actor and director Tim Robbins; and singer Debbie Harry of the group Blondie.
Program director
Van Zandt is also the program director for two radio channels for the Sirius Satellite Radio network. The channels continuously broadcast on satellite radio in the US, and worldwide on Sirius Internet Radio. One channel, named Underground Garage, has the same philosophy and musical mandate as his own radio show. On-air hosts on the channel include original Rolling Stones manager/producer Andrew Loog Oldham, singer/guitarist Joan Jett, former record executive Kid Leo, punk rock singer Handsome Dick Manitoba and rock entrepreneur Kim Fowley. The second channel, named the Outlaw Country, presents the edgier side of country music, both roots and contemporary. On-air hosts for this channel include pop-culture satirist Mojo Nixon.
Record label
In December 2004, Van Zandt launched his own record label, Wicked Cool Records.
The first album released by Wicked Cool was Fuzz for the Holidays by Davie Allan and the Arrows, released on December 14, 2004. The first set of records released by Wicked Cool also included new albums from Underground Garage favorites the Charms, the Chesterfield Kings and the Cocktail Slippers; and CBGB Forever, a tribute to the famous, now-defunct venue. The label continues to release new albums from the next generation of garage rockers including the Cocktail Slippers as well as volumes of Little Steven's Underground Garage presents The Coolest Songs in the World, a compilation of selected songs from the Underground Garage radio show's popular feature, the "Coolest Song in the World This Week". In 2007, the label signed The Launderettes. The label's first Halloween and Christmas themed compilations were released in 2008. Lost Cathedral is a subsidiary label of Wicked Cool Records and home to the band Crown of Thorns.
Rock and Roll Forever Foundation
In 2007, Van Zandt launched the non-profit Rock and Roll Forever Foundation and its TeachRock project, which creates K-12 national curriculum. TeachRock includes interdisciplinary, arts-driven materials designed to keep students engaged and in school. The initiative features lesson plans covering topics in social studies, general music, language arts, media studies, and more while aligning with national and state education standards. The material is available at no cost to educators.
Musical director
In September 2006, Van Zandt assembled and directed an all-star band to back Hank Williams Jr. on a new version of "All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight" for the season premiere (and formal ESPN debut) of Monday Night Football. The all-star lineup included Little Richard, Rick Nielsen (Cheap Trick), Joe Perry (Aerosmith), Questlove (The Roots), Charlie Daniels, Bootsy Collins, Chris Burney (Bowling for Soup), and Bernie Worrell.
Since 2007, Van Zandt has been the director of a music selection committee for the video game Rock Band; he is in charge of selecting new music for the game.
Activist career
After leaving the E Street Band in 1984, Van Zandt used his celebrity as a musician to fight issues surrounding apartheid in South Africa by creating a group called the Artists United Against Apartheid.
This activist group was created in 1985 by Van Zandt and record producer Arthur Baker. Van Zandt and Baker assembled over 54 different artists to record an album entitled Sun City in order to raise awareness about the apartheid policy in South Africa. The title referred to a resort in South Africa that catered to wealthy white tourists. The resort upheld racist apartheid policies, yet many famous entertainers chose to perform there. Artists that took part in the making of the album included Bruce Springsteen, Peter Gabriel, Miles Davis, Bob Dylan and Lou Reed.
The Sun City project was originally meant to only be one song, but other musicians contributed their own pieces which transformed it into a full-length album. Sun City was one of the first musical collaborations among major recording stars to support a political cause rather than a social cause. The album raised over $1 million in support of anti-apartheid efforts. The primary goal of the album and foundation was to draw attention to South Africa's racist policy of apartheid and to support a cultural boycott of the country.
Van Zandt was a part of the 1989 charity single, "Spirit of the Forest", dedicated to saving rain forests.
Later in his career, Van Zandt worked to raise awareness about the US military interference in governments of Central America and other issues.
Author
Van Zandt's memoir Unrequited Infatuations was published September 28, 2021 by Hachette Books.
Tours with Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band
Born to Run tours, 1975–1977
Darkness Tour, 1978–1979
The River Tour, 1980–1981
Tunnel of Love Tour, 1988
Reunion Tour, 1999–2000
The Rising Tour, 2002–2003
Vote for Change Tour, 2004
Magic Tour, 2007–2008
Working on a Dream Tour, 2009
Wrecking Ball Tour, 2012–2013
High Hopes Tour, 2014
River Tour 2016/Oceania '17, 2016–2017
Personal life
Van Zandt married actress Maureen Santoro in New York City on December 31, 1982. Later she portrayed his wife on The Sopranos. Bruce Springsteen was the best man at their wedding, Little Richard presided over it, and it featured Percy Sledge singing "When a Man Loves a Woman".
Philanthropy
Van Zandt is an Honorary board member of Little Kids Rock, a national nonprofit organization that works to restore and revitalize music education programs in disadvantaged U.S. public schools. He was also awarded the fourth annual "Big Man of the Year" award at the organization's 2013 Right to Rock Benefit Event.
He and his wife Maureen also serve on the Count Basie Theatre's Board of Directors, and were named as that organization's honorary capital campaign chairs in 2015.
Van Zandt hosts the annual "Policeman's Ball," donating the funds raised to the Detectives Endowment Association Widows and Children's Fund and NYPD With Arms Wide Open, a foundation that supports NYPD officers with children who have special needs.
Discography
Men Without Women (1982)
Voice of America (1984)
Freedom – No Compromise (1987)
Revolution (1989)
Nobody Loves and Leaves Alive (1989 - unreleased)
Born Again Savage (1999)
Soulfire (2017)
Summer of Sorcery (2019)
Filmography
The Sopranos as Silvio Dante (1999–2007)
Lilyhammer as Frank Tagliano (2012–2014)
The Christmas Chronicles as Wolfie (2018)
The Irishman as Jerry Vale (2019)
References
External links
1950 births
American radio DJs
American rock guitarists
American male singers
American rock singers
American mandolinists
Lead guitarists
Singer-songwriters from New Jersey
Rhythm guitarists
American male guitarists
E Street Band members
Living people
Male actors from New Jersey
Guitarists from New Jersey
Guitarists from Massachusetts
Record producers from New Jersey
Record producers from Massachusetts
American people of Italian descent
People of Calabrian descent
People of Campanian descent
People from Winthrop, Massachusetts
People from Middletown Township, New Jersey
Southside Johnny & The Asbury Jukes members
Jersey Shore musicians
American male television actors
20th-century American guitarists
Little Steven and the Disciples of Soul members
Singer-songwriters from Massachusetts | [
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249733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanie%20Chartoff | Melanie Chartoff | Melanie Barbara Chartoff (born December 15, 1948) is an American actress and comedian. She first became famous for her comedy work on the ABC series Fridays (1980–82), and in the 1990s Fox sitcom Parker Lewis Can't Lose. She voiced both Didi Pickles and Grandma Minka, Didi's mother on the Nickelodeon animated series Rugrats and All Grown Up!.
Early life
Chartoff was born on December 15, 1948, in New Haven, Connecticut, and attended West Haven High School. She went on to earn a Bachelor of Arts from Adelphi University. She is Jewish.
Career
Her first Broadway appearances were in Galt MacDermot's space opera Via Galactica (1972), directed by Peter Hall, and The Young Vic's Scapino, starring Jim Dale (1974).
Chartoff's first TV role came in 1976 when she played a nurse on Search For Tomorrow, after which appeared in the 1978 motion picture American Hot Wax. She first became a nationally known figure on ABC's Fridays, which was ABC's attempt to create its own version of Saturday Night Live. She immediately stood out on the series, partly thanks to her regular role as the anchor on the show's fake newscasts, but also due to her comedic skills (particularly an impression of Nancy Reagan). On one sketch, she was cold-cocked on live TV when co-star Maryedith Burrell failed to pull her punch during a skit and chipped Chartoff's tooth.
Between the demise of Fridays in 1982 and her return to a regular series in 1990 with Parker Lewis Can't Lose (in which she co-starred for three seasons as the high-strung Principal Grace Musso), Chartoff continued to work steadily on television throughout the 1980s, including appearances on Mr. Belvedere, Wiseguy, and St. Elsewhere, as well as a recurring role on Newhart as Dr. Kaiser. She made two appearances on Seinfeld, including one in the 1998 series finale in which four of her former Fridays co-stars were also involved (including Michael Richards). She appeared in the 2006 season finale of Desperate Housewives.
In the Los Angeles premiere of Bill Finn and James Lapine's musical March of the Falsettos (1982), for which she won a Drama-Logue Award, she played Trina. She played Mary Jane Wilkes in the La Jolla Playhouse premiere of Big River (1984). At South Coast Repertory she appeared in the world Premiere of On the Jump. She played Dot in the West Coast premiere of Sunday in the Park with George at San Francisco's American Conservatory Theater (1986).
Inventing
In 1991, Chartoff and fellow voice actor Michael Bell conceived the Grayway Rotating Drain, a graywater recycling device for reuse of shower and sink water in the home. The following year, they finished and patented the product with the help of Ronald K. Ford.
Voice acting and current projects
Chartoff's first voice-over work was a guest role on Challenge of the Super Friends. She has continued her work as an in-demand voice actress and also takes occasional TV and stage roles. She works as a coach to both actors and non-actors to make them more charismatic in public performances. In 2005, she interviewed Laraine Newman for Autograph Collector magazine. She writes for The Huffington Post, The Jewish Journal, Defenestration Magazine, and The Funny Times. She performs her original material at such Los Angeles venues as Comedy Central's "Sit n' Spin," "Tasty Words," and "I Love a Good Story."
Rugrats
From 1991 to 2008, Chartoff voiced Didi Pickles and Grandma Minka, Didi's mother on Nickelodeon's hit series Rugrats, for which she won a Daytime Emmy. She continued to voice Didi on the Rugrats spin-off series, All Grown Up!. 13 years later in 2021, Chartoff was replaced by actress Ashley Spillers, who currently voices the character in the 2021 revival series of the same name.
Awards
Aside from Drama-Logue and Daytime Emmy Awards, she was cited by the City of Hope for creating and producing the yearly event Halloween for Hope to benefit children's cancer research and received a Certificate of Appreciation from the Mayor of Los Angeles for her concerts for the homeless. She is listed in Who's Who in California, and Who's Who in American Colleges and Universities.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
References
External links
Patent 5274861 information
"Actress Stars as Inventor", Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 2, 2015.
Profile, TheaterMania.com. Retrieved July 2, 2015.
1948 births
Living people
Actresses from New Haven, Connecticut
Adelphi University alumni
American sketch comedians
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
American women comedians
Daytime Emmy Award winners
Jewish American actresses
Women inventors
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
20th-century American inventors
21st-century American Jews | [
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249741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra%20Birdsell | Sandra Birdsell | Sandra Louise Birdsell, CM (née Bartlette) (born 22 April 1942) is a Canadian novelist and short story writer of Métis and Mennonite heritage from Morris, Manitoba.
Life and career
Born in Hamiota, Manitoba, Birdsell was the fifth of eleven children. She lived most of her early life in Morris, Manitoba, where the family moved after her father joined the army in 1943. Her father was a French-speaking Cree Métis born in Canada and her mother was a Low-German speaking Mennonite who was born in Russia. When Birdsell was six and a half, her sister died from leukemia, which left a four-year gap between her and her next older sister. Her loneliness led her to ponder by herself to the nearby parks and rivers allowing her imagination to go wild.
Her hometown of Morris experienced a major flood in 1950. Her first three stories in Night Travellers are based on that flood. Birdsell left home at the age of fifteen, where she studied at the University of Winnipeg and the University of Manitoba, where she studied under Robert Kroetsch. In 1996, she moved to Regina, Saskatchewan, and currently resides in Ottawa, Ontario.
At the age of thirty-five, she enrolled in Creative Writing at the University of Winnipeg. Five years later, Turnstone Press published her first book, Night Travellers.
In January 2007, Birdsell began a four-month term as the Carol Shields writer in residence at the University of Winnipeg. In 2010, Birdsell was appointed a Member of the Order of Canada and in 2012 she was invested with Saskatchewan Order of Merit (SOM).
She is a mother to three children and a grandmother to four children.
Publications
Short stories
Night Travellers
Birdsell's first book, a collections of interconnected short stories, Night Travellers(1982), is set in the imaginary Manitoba town of Agassiz, and concerns the large Lafreniere family: the teenaged sisters Betty, Lureen and Truda, their Mennonite mother Mika and their Métis father Maurice and the girls’ maternal grandparents, Oma and Opa Thiessen. Agassiz is based on the flood-prone town of Morris, on the banks of the Red River. where Birdsell spent her childhood. The source for the name Agassiz is Lake Agassiz, an enormous glacial lake that around 13,000 years ago covered much of what are now Manitoba, northwestern Ontario, northern Minnesota, eastern North Dakota, and Saskatchewan. Lake Agassiz is a controlling metaphor for the stories ... representing memory and ancestry". While the devastating flood that happened in Morris in 1950 "is a related image that reverberates throughout the text".
1984 Night Travellers received the Gerald Lampert Award from League of Canadian Poets. Usually this its awarded for a first book of poetry.
Ladies of the House
Birdsell's second collection, from 1984, is a sequel collection to Night Travellers that the focuses on the Laftenierre family women from Agassiz and their women friends, though most of the stories ae set in Winnipeg. In 1987 it was republished with Night Travellers, in one volume called Agassiz Stories. An American edition, titled Agassiz: A Novel in Stories, appeared in 1991 (Minneapolis: Milkweed).
Childrens' literature
The Town That Floated Away (1997) was influenced by Birdsell's experience as a child of the 1950 flood in Morris, and narrates the adventures of young Virginia Potts after she is left behind when her town floats away. Birdsell also wrote A Prairie Boy’s Winter, a one act play for children, which was co-written and produced by Prairie Theatre Exchange, in 1986.
Novels
The Missing Child
Birdsell's first novel, published in 1989, is "an evocative magic realist portrait of the fictional town of Agassiz",
which won the W.H. Smith/Books in Canada First Novel Award.
Chrome Suite
Birdsell's second novel was published in 1992, and covers four decades of script-writer Amy Barber's life: from an extraordinarily hot summer in a small Manitoba town in 1950; "to the 1960s and the 1970s, when Amy marries, goes to live in the city, and begins to have reason to fear for her young son"; to the present, with Amy traveling from Toronto to Winnipeg with her young Polish, film-maker lover.
The Russländer
Published in 2001, this is Birdsell's third novel, and it explores Birdsell's own family history. The word Russländer means "Russians" in German and her mother and maternal grandparents were Mennonite emigrants from Russia. It was published as Katya in the US.
It is the story of Katherine (Katya) Vogt, and her Mennonite family's life in Russia from the end of 1910, until she, her husband, two sisters, and grandparents emigrated to Canada in 1923. Katya was born in 1902.
The story begins with the family living on the prosperous Mennonite estate of Abram Suddermann in the Ukraine, where Katya's father is the overseer. They are under the protection of the Tsar whose wife is German. This is part of the Chortitza Colony, land granted to German-speaking Mennonites for colonization. Chortitza was founded in 1789 by Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonite settlers from West Prussia, and consisted of many villages. It was the first of many Mennonite settlements in the Russian Empire.
Life then becomes much harder when World War I begins and there is suspicion as to the loyalty of the Mennonites because they speak German. Life then eases when where the area is occupied by Austrian and German soldiers. However, Russia falls into chaos when they leave in 1917, with the February and October Revolutions. The Russian workers on the estate take the bloody revenge on the Mennonites. Katya's parents and her siblings, but for two sisters are brutally murdered. After years of poverty and near-starvation. Katya, her husband, sisters, and grandparents eventually emigrate to Canada in 1923, to settle in Manitoba: "Between 1923 and 1930, nearly 25,000 Mennonites fled violence that erupted in the Soviet Union".
Recognition
Prizes and honours
1984 Gerald Lampert Award from League of Canadian Poets, 1984, for Night Travellers
1990 Books in Canada First Novel Award (for The Missing Child)
1992 Shortlist, Governor General's Award for English-language fiction (for The Chrome Suite)
1993 Marian Engel Award
1997 Shortlist, Governor General's Award for Fiction (for The Two-Headed Calf)
1997 Shortlist, Silver Birch Award; Saskatchewan Children's Literature Award, for The Town That Floated Away
2001 Shortlist, Giller Prize (for The Russländer)
2001 Saskatchewan Book of the Year, Best Saskatchewan Fiction and City of Regina (for The Russländer)
2007 Longlist, International Dublin Literary Award (for Children of the Day)
2007 Saskatchewan Best Fiction Award (for Children of the Day)
2010 Shortlist, Governor General's Award for English fiction (Waiting for Joe)
Juno Award nomination for radio play, The Town That Floated Away"
Awards
Marion Engel Award for meritorious achievements of a woman writer in mid-career.
The Joseph S. Stauffer Prize, The Canadian Council 1992, for meritorious achievements in the arts.
Juno Award nomination for radio play, The Town that Floated Away.
National Magazine Award and nomination for short fiction.
45 Below Award, by The Canadian Book Information Center. Chosen as one of ten most promising below the age of 45.
Awarded writing grant from The Manitoba Arts Council, The Canadian Council and the Saskatchewan Arts Board.
Nominee for 2010 Saskatchewan Book Award Shortlists: Fiction Award. Waiting for Joe (Random House Canada).
Bibliography
NovelsThe Missing Child (1989). Lester & Orpen DennysThe Chrome Suite (1992). McClelland & StewartThe Russländer (2001). McClelland & Stewart; as Katya in the US in 2004Children of the Day (2005). Random HouseWaiting for Joe (2010). Random House
ChildrensThe Town that Floated Away (illustrations by Helen Flook) (1997). HarperCollins. See 1992 radio play below.
Short storiesNight Travellers. Turnstone Press, 1982Ladies of the House. Turnstone Press, 1984Agassiz Stories (combined the two earlier collections); republished in the US, as Agassiz: A Novel in Stories. Minneapolis: Milkweed, 1991.Agassiz. Traduit de l'anglais par Maryse Trudeau. Montréal : Du Roseau, 1990.The Two-Headed Calf. McClelland & Stewart, 1997
Scripts
Birdsell has also written for television, theatre and radio.Birdsell pdf - University of Manitoba
The Waiting Time. 60 minute radio drama commissioned by CBC produced in Mar. 1993.
Another View of North. 60 minute radio drama commissioned by CBC and produced in Jun. 1992.
The Town That Floated Away. 30 minute radio drama produced by Barbara Nicol, CBC, Sept. 1992. Released on CD and cassette, BMG records
Niagara Falls. A 45-minute film script as part of a trilogy, In Good Season. Produced in a 30-minute format for the CBC The Way We Are. series. West End Productions Inc.
Summer Storm . Novina Motion Pictures. 30 minute film script produced for a CBC Family Pictures series.
Falling In Love. 30 minute film script as part of a trilogy, In Good Season. West End Productions Inc.
Places Not Our Own. 60 minute drama for the mini series, Daughters of the Country. National Film Board.
Theatre
A Prairie Boy’s Winter. A one act play for children. Co-written and produced by Prairie Theatre Exchange, 1986.
The Revival''. A Two Act Play. Commissioned by Prairie Theatre Exchange and produced in 1987.
Archives
There is Sandra Birdsell archives at Library and Archives Canada.
References
External links
Sandra Birdsell's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia
1942 births
Living people
Canadian Métis people
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
Canadian people of German descent
Canadian people of Métis descent
Canadian women novelists
Writers from Regina, Saskatchewan
Writers from Winnipeg
Writers from Manitoba
Members of the Order of Canada
Members of the Saskatchewan Order of Merit
Mennonite writers
Métis writers
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian women writers
Canadian women short story writers
20th-century Canadian short story writers
21st-century Canadian short story writers | [
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249742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%20Nash | Graham Nash | Graham William Nash (born 2 February 1942) is a British-American singer-songwriter and musician. Nash is known for his light tenor voice and for his songwriting contributions as a member of the English pop/rock group the Hollies and the folk-rock supergroups Crosby, Stills & Nash and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. Nash became an American citizen on 14 August 1978 and holds dual citizenship with the United Kingdom and the United States.
Nash is a photography collector and a published photographer. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Crosby, Stills & Nash in 1997 and as a member of the Hollies in 2010.
Nash was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2010 Birthday Honours List for services to music and to charity.
Nash holds four honorary doctorates, including one from New York Institute of Technology, one in Music from the University of Salford in 2011 and his latest Doctorate in Fine Arts from Lesley University in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Early life and early music career
Nash was born in 1942 in Blackpool, Lancashire, England, his mother having been evacuated there from the Nashes' home town of Salford, Lancashire, because of the Second World War. The family subsequently returned to Salford, where Nash grew up. In the early 1960s he co-founded the Hollies, one of the UK's most successful pop groups, with school friend Allan Clarke, and was credited as the group's leader on their first album. He was featured vocally on "Just One Look" (1964) and sang his first lead vocal on the original Hollies song "To You My Love" on the band's second album In The Hollies Style of the same year. He often sang featured bridge vocals on later Hollies recordings ("So Lonely", "I've Been Wrong", "Pay You Back With Interest") and provided lead vocals on several later singles, notably "On a Carousel" and "Carrie Anne" (both 1967).
Nash encouraged the Hollies to write their own songs, initially with Clarke, then with Clarke and guitarist Tony Hicks. From 1964 to mid-1966 they wrote under the alias L. Ransford. Their own names were credited on songs from "Stop Stop Stop" from October 1966 onward.
In 1965, Nash, with Allan Clarke and guitarist Tony Hicks, formed Gralto Music Ltd, a publishing company which handled their own songs and later signed the young Reg Dwight (a.k.a. 'Elton John' – who played piano and organ on Hollies 1969 and 1970 recordings).
Career
Songwriting
Nash was pivotal in the forging of a sound and lyrics, often writing the verses on Clarke, Hicks & Nash songs. However, Nash also composed songs by himself under the 'team banner' (like Lennon & McCartney), for example, 'Fifi the Flea' (1966), 'Clown' (1966), 'Stop Right There', 'Everything is Sunshine' (1967). The Butterfly album included several of his songs that had less group participation and exhibited more of a singer-songwriter approach. He was disappointed when this new style did not register with their audience, especially "King Midas in Reverse" (Nash and producer Ron Richards clashed over this song because Richards believed it was 'too complex' to work as a hit single).
Nash initially met both David Crosby and Stephen Stills in 1966 during a Hollies US tour. On a subsequent visit to the US in 1968, he was more formally introduced to Crosby by mutual friend Cass Elliott in Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles. Nash left the Hollies to form a new group with Crosby and Stills. A trio at first, Crosby, Stills & Nash later became a quartet in 1969 with Neil Young: Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young (CSNY).
With both configurations, Nash went on to even greater worldwide success, penning many of CSN's most-commercial hit singles such as "Our House" (about the house in Laurel Canyon shared with his then-lover Joni Mitchell); "Teach Your Children" and "Marrakesh Express" (both of which had been rejected by the Hollies); "Just a Song Before I Go"; and "Wasted on the Way". Nash, nicknamed "Willy" by his bandmates, has been described as the glue that keeps their often fragile alliances together.
Nash became politically active after moving to California, as reflected in his anti-Vietnam War songs "Military Madness" and "Chicago / We Can Change the World" (about the trial of the Chicago Eight).
In 1972, during CSNY's first hiatus, Nash teamed with Crosby, forming a successful duo. They have worked in this configuration on and off ever since, producing four studio albums and a few live and compilation albums. His song "Immigration Man", Crosby & Nash's biggest hit as a duo, arose from a tiff he had with a US Customs official while trying to enter the country.
In 1979, Nash co-founded Musicians United for Safe Energy which is against the expansion of nuclear power. MUSE put on the educational fundraising No Nukes events. In 2007 the group recorded a music video of a new version of the Buffalo Springfield song "For What It's Worth".
Nash briefly rejoined the Hollies in 1983 (to mark their 20th anniversary) to record two albums, What Goes Around... and Reunion. In 1993, Nash again reunited with the Hollies to record a new version of "Peggy Sue Got Married" that featured lead vocal by Buddy Holly (taken from an alternate version of the song given to Nash by Holly's widow Maria Eleana Holly)—this Buddy Holly & the Hollies recording opened the Not Fade Away tribute album to Holly by various artists.
In 2005, Nash collaborated with Norwegian musicians A-ha on the songs "Over the Treetops" (penned by Paul Waaktaar-Savoy) and "Cosy Prisons" (penned by Magne Furuholmen) for the Analogue recording. In 2006, Nash worked with David Gilmour and David Crosby on the title track of David Gilmour's third solo album, On an Island. In March 2006, the album was released and quickly reached No. 1 on the UK charts. Nash and Crosby subsequently toured the UK with Gilmour, singing backup on "On an Island", "The Blue", "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", and "Find the Cost of Freedom".
In addition to his political songs Nash has written many songs on other themes he cares about such as of nature and ecology—beginning with the Hollies' "Signs That Will Never Change" (first recorded by the Everly Brothers in 1966)—later CSNY's "Clear Blue Skies", plus anti-nuclear-waste-dumping ("Barrel of Pain"), anti-war ("Soldiers of Peace") and social issues ("Prison Song").
Nash appeared on the season 7 finale of American Idol singing "Teach Your Children" with Brooke White.
In 2010, Nash was inducted a second time to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, this time as a member of the Hollies. He received an OBE "for services to music and charitable activities", becoming an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the Diplomatic and Overseas Division of the Queen's Birthday Honours List on 12 June 2010. Nash received the title of George Eastman Honorary Scholar at the George Eastman House on 22 January 2011, in Rochester, New York.
Nash contributed a cover of "Raining in My Heart" to the 2011 tribute album Rave on Buddy Holly.
On 22 January 2016, Nash announced the forthcoming release on 15 April 2016 of his new studio album entitled This Path Tonight (his first collection of new songs in fourteen years) and shared the title track from it through MOJO magazine's website. On 4 February 2016, Rolling Stone magazine unveiled a new song from the new album, the reflective "Encore," the tender tune that wraps up Nash's new album. Upon the upcoming release of his new studio album in April 2016, Nash planned a solo tour from 25 March 2016 at Bluesfest in Byron Bay, Australia, continuing United States on 22 April 2016 at Saban Theatre, Beverly Hills, California, to visit Europe starting from the UK on 21 May 2016 at the Albert Hall, Manchester and ending 14 June 2016 at the Alte Oper Hall, Frankfurt, Germany.
He was still touring in the fall of 2017, performing in New Jersey and New York in September.
On 29 June 2018, Rhino Records released the two-disk box set Over The Years, a 30-track collection of Nash's demos made from 1968 to 1980, featuring highlights from the CSN debut album Crosby, Stills & Nash ("Marrakesh Express"), CSNY follow-up Déjà Vu ("Our House", "Teach Your Children"), song selections from subsequent CSN albums, four tracks from Nash's 1971 solo album Songs For Beginners, with "Better Days" and "I Used To Be King" presented as unreleased mixes. The most recent recording on the compilation is "Myself at Last" from Nash's 2016 solo album This Path Tonight. The second disc in this set features 15 demo recordings, 12 of which have never been released.
Photography career
Interested in photography as a child, Nash began to collect photographs in the early 1970s. Having acquired more than a thousand prints by 1976, Nash hired Graham Howe as his photography curator. In 1978 through 1984 a touring exhibition of selections from the Graham Nash Collection toured to more than a dozen museums worldwide. Nash decided to sell his 2,000 print collection through Sotheby's auction house in 1990 where it set an auction record for the highest grossing sale of a single private collection of photography. Nash said that some of the auction profit would be given to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art for the acquisition of contemporary photographs.
In 2010 21st Editions published a monograph titled "Love, Graham Nash" which includes facsimiles of his lyrics paired with signed photographs by Graham Nash and printed by Nash Editions.
Early digital fine art printing
Experimenting
In the late 1980s Nash began to experiment with digital images of his photography on Macintosh computers with the assistance of R. Mac Holbert who at that time was the tour manager for Crosby, Stills and Nash as well as handling computer/technical matters for the band. Nash ran into the problem common with all personal computers running graphics software during that period: he could create very sophisticated detailed images on the computer, but there was no output device (computer printer) capable of reproducing what he saw on the computer screen. Nash and Holbert initially experimented with early commercial printers that were then becoming available and printed many images on the large format Fujix inkjet printers at UCLA's JetGraphix digital output centre. When Fuji decided to stop supporting the printers, John Bilotta, who was running JetGraphix, recommended that Nash and Holbert look into the Iris printer, a new large format continuous-tone inkjet printer built for prepress proofing by IRIS Graphics, Inc. Through IRIS Graphics national sales rep Steve Boulter, Nash also met programmer David Coons, a colour engineer for Disney, who was already using the IRIS printer there to print images from Disney's new digital animation system.
Coons worked off hours at Disney to produce large images of 16 of Nash's photographic portraits on arches watercolour paper using Disney's in-house model 3024 IRIS printer for a 24 April 1990 show at Simon Lowinsky gallery. Since most of the original negatives and prints had been lost in shipment to a book publisher, Coons had to scan contact sheets and enhance the images so they could be printed in large format. He used software he had written to output the photographic images to the IRIS printer, a machine designed to work with proprietary prepress computer systems.
In July 1990, Nash purchased an IRIS Graphics 3047 inkjet printer for $126,000 and set it up in a small carriage house in Manhattan Beach, California near Los Angeles. David Coons and Steve Boulter used it to print an even larger November 1990 show of Nash's work for Parco Stores in Tokyo. The show entitled Sunlight on Silver was a series of 35 celebrity portraits by Nash which were 3 feet by 4 feet in an edition of 50 prints per image, a total of 1,750 images. Subsequently, Nash exhibited his photographs at the Museum of Photographic Arts in San Diego and elsewhere.
Nash Editions
In 1991, Nash agreed to fund Mac Holbert to start a fine art digital-based printing company using the IRIS Graphics 3047 printer sitting in Nash's Manhattan Beach, California carriage house. Holbert retired as road manager for Crosby, Stills and Nash so that he could run the company. It opened its doors on 1 July 1991 with the name of Nash Editions Ltd. Early employees included David Coons, John Bilotta and a serigraphic print maker named Jack Duganne. They worked to further adapt the IRIS printer to fine art printing, experimenting with ink sets to try to overcome the fast-fading nature of IRIS prints, and even going as far as sawing off part of the print heads so they could be moved back to clear thicker printing paper stocks (voiding the $126,000 machine's warranty). Nash and Holbert decided to call their fine art prints "digigraphs" although Jack Duganne coined the name "Giclée" for these type of prints. The company is still in operation and currently uses Epson-based large format printers.
In 2005, Nash donated the original IRIS Graphics 3047 printer and Nash Editions ephemera to the National Museum of American History, a Smithsonian Institution.
Personal life
Nash was married to his first wife, Rose Eccles from 1964 until 1966. As an in-joke, her surname inspired "Jennifer Eccles", a 1968 single by The Hollies; and also a jocular verse about Jennifer Eccles in "Lily the Pink", a 1968 single by The Scaffold on which Nash sang backing vocals. Nash was married to his second wife, Susan Sennett for 38 years until 2016, when they divorced and he moved to New York. He has three adult children. In April 2019, Nash married artist Amy Grantham.
Nash released an autobiographical memoir in September 2013 entitled Wild Tales: A Rock & Roll Life, published by Crown Publishing. Photographs that he took during his career are on display as an art collection at the San Francisco Art Exchange. In interviews pertaining to both the memoir and art exhibit he mentions the impact of Joni Mitchell, with whom he lived from 1968 to 1970 in his early time in California. Nash also had a short-term relationship with Rita Coolidge, as had Stephen Stills.
Nash endorsed Bernie Sanders for the 2016 United States presidential election.
Late in life Nash learned the Transcendental Meditation technique. He said: "I recently started Transcendental Meditation as a gift from director David Lynch. He paid for me and my wife, Amy, to learn T.M. And quite frankly, I’m 78 years old and I wish I’d had been doing it for 50 years."
Discography
See also discographies for Crosby Stills Nash & Young, The Hollies and Crosby & Nash.
Studio albums
Compilations
Singles
Other appearances
Studio
Live
References
Bibliography
Eye to Eye: Photographs by Graham Nash by Nash and Garrett White (2004) Steidl,
Off the Record: Songwriters on Songwriting by Graham Nash (2002) Andrews McMeel Publishing,
Love, Graham Nash (2 vols. 2009)
Wild Tales: A Rock & Roll Life by Graham Nash (17 September 2013), Penguin,
External links
Graham Nash official website
Nash Editions official website
Crosby-Nash official website
CSN official website
CSNY official website
Graham Nash Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2016, 2017)
1942 births
British harmonica players
British soft rock musicians
Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young members
English expatriates in the United States
English folk guitarists
English male guitarists
English keyboardists
English male singers
English rock guitarists
English rock singers
English male singer-songwriters
Living people
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People from Blackpool
People from Salford
Rhythm guitarists
The Hollies members
People from Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles | [
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249743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbushe%20Airport | Blackbushe Airport | Blackbushe Airport is an operational general aviation airport in the civil parish of Yateley in the north-east corner of the English county of Hampshire. Built during the Second World War, Blackbushe is north of the A30 road between Camberley and Hook. For a time, it straddled this road with traffic having to wait whilst airliners were towed across. The south side was used for aircraft maintenance, using wartime-built hangars. Today, only the part of the airfield that lay north of the A30 remains in active use. The historical name for the flat piece of land on which it is sited is Hartford Bridge Flats. The nearest towns are Yateley and Fleet.
Blackbushe Aerodrome has a CAA Ordinary Licence (Number P693) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee (Blackbushe Airport Limited). The aerodrome is licensed for night use.
One of several airfields eclipsed since 1958 by the growth of London Heathrow Airport and London Gatwick Airport, Blackbushe was once a significant airport for passenger and cargo charter flights for the London area.
Currently based aircraft include several corporate jets, two flying schools, a helicopter training facility, as well as Aerobility, a flying charity. The airport is open to the general public and is also popular for walks around its perimeter and to see the wildlife in Yateley Common and Castle Bottom National Nature reserve.
Royal Air Force
The airport started life in 1942 as RAF Hartford Bridge, and it was used by RAF squadrons throughout the remainder of Second World War for reconnaissance, defence and strike operations using Spitfires and Mosquitoes. It was also the home of the Free French Squadron (Lorraine).
A number of important people landed at the airport including King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, Supreme Allied Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Field Marshal Montgomery.
RAF Hartfordbridge was also the home of a new system known as "FIDO" (Fog Investigation and Dispersal Operation) built by the Airforce Construction Unit. Pipes were laid down both sides on Runway 26, and fed with fuel. The pipes had small holes, and if the airfield was shrouded in fog, the fuel was ignited. The heat created would cause the fog to rise and disperse.
On 18 November 1944, the airfield was renamed to RAF Blackbushe, due to confusion over a similar area in Norfolk. On 15 November 1946, the RAF had moved out, and the airport was handed over to the Ministry of Civil Aviation, becoming Blackbushe Airport. The A30 was reopened to traffic.
Ministry of Civil Aviation
In February 1947 the airfield was opened as Blackbushe Airport under the control of the Ministry of Civil Aviation. Full customs facilities were provided for both air transport operators and the private owners of light and executive aircraft.
Over the next few years, airlines such as Britavia, Westminster Airways, Airwork, and Silver City all moved in operating Lancastrians (passenger aircraft derived from Lancaster bombers), DC-3s, and Bristol Freighters. Movements by 1950 had risen to 11,000 per year, with 16,000 passengers.
The 1950s saw further expansion, Air Contractors started a scheduled service to the Channel Islands, and Eagle Aviation launched several routes to Europe on DC-3s and Viking airliners. Britavia and Airwork also brought in the Hermes airliner, flying charters to Africa and Australia. Blackbushe became a robust diversion airport for London Heathrow, and as a home for aircraft visiting the Farnborough Airshow. The facilities were constantly being upgraded with new buildings, runway extensions, and new navigational aids and lighting.
Overseas-based charter airlines often used Blackbushe for their flight to the UK, normally finding that the airfield was open for operations, even when other airports in the London area were closed by fog. The airfield's hilltop position helped in this respect. The Avro Yorks of Tropic Airways of Johannesburg visited for several years.
Blackbushe was used as a major location for the 1956 film The Crooked Sky in which the former RAF station buildings and then current commercial aircraft are seen.
The airport was also used as a filming location in the making of the 1951 film No Highway in the Sky directed by Henry Koster, starring James Stewart, Marlene Dietrich and Jack Hawkins.
United States Navy operations
From the early 1950s, the United States Navy (USN) had a facility on the north-east edge of the airport which frequently handled visiting naval aircraft. These included patrol types such as the Lockheed P2V Neptune and the Martin P4M Mercator. Large USN transports that used the airport regularly were the Douglas R5D Skymaster and Douglas R6D Liftmaster. In 1955 USN UK-based communications and liaison aircraft of FASRON 200, previously attached to RAF Hendon, in north London, were switched to Blackbushe.
By 1955 the airport was handling 36,000 movements per year. The US Navy also set up a base as a communications headquarters. This brought new aircraft such as Beech Expediters, Dakotas, DC-7s and Super Constellations. In the late 1950s, BOAC launched operations of the Comet airliners. Other operators such as Pan-Am, SAS, and BEA were using Blackbushe regularly as a diversion from Heathrow. However, with the newly built Gatwick airport, the lease on Blackbushe was not granted, and these operators were forced to start using Gatwick.
On 31 May 1960 the airport closed. All of the infrastructure, fixtures, and fittings were auctioned off. Parts of the runways were dug up. The airport remained closed until 6 October 1962 when it was formally reopened as a general aviation field. During the closure, many light aircraft continued to use the airfield.
Private ownership
The airport passed into private ownership and was formally reopened as a general aviation field on 6 October 1962. There had been a fight to reopen the airport, as there were many objections; however the reopening was due to one man and his resolve, Air Vice Marshal Don Bennett, CB, CBE, DSO. Born in Toowoomba, Australia and best known for his RAF Pathfinder exploits in the Second World War and his escape after being shot down during the raid on the German battleship Tirpitz, he evaded capture and escaped to Sweden, from where he was able to return to Britain.
The Hampshire County Council Planning Committee rejected an application on 25 August 1961, one of two applications for the development of a private aerodrome on the site of Blackbushe Airport. The applications, made by AVM Bennett, were for the use of an area of 325 acres as a private aerodrome, and for the erection of aircraft hangars. The vice-chairman of the committee, Lord Porchester, said that the Ministry of Aviation was not supporting AVM Bennett in his attempt to re-open Blackbushe for private flying. The reported reasons for the committee's decision were that most of the land was to be an open space, so that the proposal would be detrimental to the amenities of Yateley village, and it would interfere with safety and traffic flow on the Basingstoke - London trunk road. Despite many objections AVM Bennett battled the red tape and finally owned and opened the aerodrome in 1962.
The airport became a base for a large collection of historic World War II aircraft, including four Junkers Ju 52s, six Douglas DC-3s and a number of smaller planes, such as Spitfires, which were rarely seen on the tarmac. The finest was, perhaps, a Heinkel bomber, but this was sold in order to purchase a replacement which then crashed soon afterwards.
On 15 July 1978, the airfield hosted an all-day open-air concert, the Picnic at Blackbushe, which was attended by some 200,000 people. Bob Dylan headlined, with Eric Clapton, Joan Armatrading, Graham Parker and the Rumour, Lake, and Merger also appearing.
From 1985 to 2015, the airport was owned by British Car Auctions (BCA), who refurbished the terminal building, and replaced the tower in 1992.
From 1998 to 2009 The Queen's Helicopter was based there.
In 2008, the newly formed Blink launched their European air-taxi service from Blackbushe to over 600 destinations using a fleet of Cessna Citation Mustang aircraft. These were a regular sight at Blackbushe until Blink was closed by its new French owners in 2018.
In 2014, PremiAir, who had been based at Blackbushe since the early 2000s, and who operated light jets and executive helicopters from Blackbushe, went into administration. They were evicted from the 40,000 sq ft of hangars on the north side, and BCA repurposed them as part of their auction facilities.
Present day
In 2015, the airport was sold to a group of investors led by Sir Peter Ogden. These investors had previously founded Blink in 2008. The north side hangars were not included in the sale, so Blackbushe currently has no hangar facilities.
The new owners plan to invest in the refurbishments of the airport and bring the facilities into the 21st century, including building new hangars to replace the space lost on the north side.
Investment has been made in repairs to the taxiways and parking areas, as well as repainting all of the airside markings.
In late 2017, a new airport management team was put in place. They have set about supporting the general aviation activities at the airport.
De-registration of common land and future development
Blackbushe Airport sits on part of Yateley Common. Despite access to the active airfield site being restricted since the 1940s, and provisions of the Aviation Security Act 2018 prohibiting trespass on an aerodrome, development of new facilities is restricted by this common land status. In November 2016, an application was submitted by Blackbushe Airport to Hampshire County Council to deregister the active aerodrome.
Blackbushe Airport have published its vision for the airport's future, which includes a new terminal building, a new café, hangarage for maintenance and aircraft parking, and a club house for general aviation activities.
A public inquiry was held at the Elvetham Hotel on 2–5 April 2019. On 12 June 2019, the Planning Inspectorate issued a decision granting the application to deregister the airport from Yateley Common.
Hampshire County Council subsequently sought a Judicial Review of the Inspector's decision which was held at the Royal Courts of Justice on 11–12 February 2020. On 23 April 2020, the High Court ruled in favour of Hampshire County Council, referring the matter back to the Planning Inspectorate to make a new decision. Blackbushe Airport issued a statement saying they were considering appealing to the Court of Appeal.
Accidents and incidents
On 20 January 1956, a Vickers Viscount G-AMOM of British European Airways crashed on take-off when the training pilot mishandled the controls for the starboard engines when simulating an engine failure on take-off.
Shortly before midnight on 5 November 1956, a Handley Page Hermes chartered from the Britavia company bringing military families home from Tripoli crashed. 3 crew and 4 children were killed.
On 1 May 1957 a Vickers Viking G-AJBO operated by Eagle Aviation crashed near Blackbushe Aerodrome. The Viking suffered a port engine failure after takeoff the aircraft returned and crashed on Star Hill on approach to Blackbushe; five crew and 29 passengers died. The aircraft was on charter to War Office and carrying servicemen and families to RAF Idris in Libya.
On 1 September 1958 a RN Sea Hawk XE462 from HMS Ark Royal and part of a seven aircraft display team at Farnborough suffered an engine fire warning, the pilot peeled away toward Blackbushe and felt it necessary to eject from the aircraft over Blackbushe. The aircraft pitched up and entered into a spin and crashed into the ground close to the Silver City Hangar. The pilot Lt R.C.Dimmock survived with a broken ankle.
On 26 April 1987 a Cessna 441 Conquest II G-MOXY operated by Brown Air Services Ltd, crashed south of the A30 road as a go-around was initiated after unsafe landing gear indication on final approach. The pilot, as sole occupant, was killed.
On 23 December 2000 a Beechcraft King Air 200 VP-BBK spiralled out of control and crashed into a business park at the end of the runway, shortly after takeoff. All 5 people on board were killed.
20 July 2004, A Boeing B-52 bomber overflew the airport by mistake, having been scheduled to fly past Farnborough
On 31 July 2015, an Embraer 505 Phenom 300 HZ-IBN overshot the runway on landing and crashed into the British Car Auctions site. All four people on board were killed, including three members of the bin Laden family.
References
External links
Blackbushe Airport website
Blackbushe Airport Enthusiast's Forum
The Picnic at Blackbushe 1978
Airports established in 1942
Airports in Hampshire
1942 establishments in England | [
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249745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Jealous%20God | The Jealous God | The Jealous God is a novel by John Braine which was first published in 1964. Set in the early 1960s among the Irish Catholic community in a small Yorkshire town, the book is about a 30-year-old mummy's boy and his attempts at liberating himself from his domineering mother. The title refers to the latter's wish that her "favourite" son, although already rather old for following his alleged vocation, become a clergyman. It was said that it was John Braine's personal favourite novel of all those that he wrote and was finally filmed in 2005.
Summary
Vincent Dungarvan is a history teacher at a Catholic school for boys. Whereas his two brothers Matthew and Paul have been married with children for many years, Vincent is still single and living at home with his widowed mother, who is also a teacher. At 30 he is still a virgin. He has gone out with one or two nice Catholic girls but has rejected them when he found them too superficial and boring.
One day, in the local library, he encounters Laura, a new librarian. Fascinated by her good looks and driven by, as he sees it, sinful desire, he is for once able to overcome his shyness and asks her out. Laura accepts, they immediately fall in love with each other and start dating on a regular basis. However, he prefers not to tell his possessive mother about her let alone invite her home.
In the course of the following weeks Vincent's life is shattered by a number of revelations concerning Laura. He is disappointed when she tells him that she is a Protestant and that, on top of that, she has stopped going to church altogether. What is more, through a deliberate indiscretion by Laura's flatmate Ruth, he learns that Laura is divorced. For him as a Catholic, this means that he is seeing a married woman, and both his guilt and his helplessness about the situation increase enormously. Accordingly, they break up their relationship.
Surprisingly, soon afterwards Vincent loses his virginity with Maureen, his sister-in-law, while his brother Matthew has gone out and the children are asleep. On the following morning, back at his mother's, he recollects what happened the previous evening:
That very day, Vincent has an appointment with a senior clergyman about his vocation and once and for all makes up his mind not to become a priest. He also decides to see Laura again. In the meantime she has settled down in a flat of her own, and this is where they have sex for the first time, without Vincent confessing to Laura that he has recently made love to his own sister-in-law. When, some weeks later, Maureen announces that she is pregnant again, he is of course afraid that he might be the father of her baby. Out of jealousy, Maureen writes Laura's ex-husband Robert an anonymous letter, urging him to make up with his wife again. Vincent and Laura split up again as Laura is not certain about her husband's intentions.
In the end two instances of deus ex machina resolve the complicated situation. First, Maureen has a miscarriage, freeing Vincent of any doubt that he might have fathered an illegitimate child. Then Robert commits suicide, paving the way for a Catholic wedding between Vincent and Laura, who are planning to leave the past behind and start a new life somewhere else.
Quote
"Muyah! There's no friendship between grown men and grown women, and no one can tell me different." (See also When Harry Met Sally....)
Film
The novel was adapted as a feature film and released to British cinemas in 2005. The writer-director was Steven Woodcock. Jason Merrells played Vincent, Denise Welch played Maureen, and Mairead Carty played Laura. Other actors featured were Marcia Warren (Mrs Dungarvan), Andrew Dunn (Matthew) and Roy Walker (the Monsignor). Allan Gill School boy #4 (uncredited)
Other reading
For a spiritual account by a convert to Roman Catholicism, see the writings of Ronald Knox.
For a fictional treatment of the lives of Catholics in England in the 20th century, see the novels of David Lodge, in particular The British Museum Is Falling Down and How Far Can You Go?.
For an example of the motif of the evil mother, see Christopher Isherwood's novel All the Conspirators.
For a light-hearted look at adultery, see Iris Murdoch's A Severed Head.
See also
The Jealous God (film)
1964 in literature
1964 British novels
Adultery in novels
British novels adapted into films
Novels set in Yorkshire
Catholic novels
Eyre & Spottiswoode books
Novels by John Braine | [
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249746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20York | Battle of York | The Battle of York was a War of 1812 battle fought in York, Upper Canada (today's Toronto, Ontario, Canada) on April 27, 1813. An American force supported by a naval flotilla landed on the lakeshore to the west and advanced against the town, which was defended by an outnumbered force of regulars, militia, and Ojibway natives under the overall command of Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe, the Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada.
Sheaffe's forces were defeated and Sheaffe retreated with his surviving regulars to Kingston, abandoning the militia and civilians. The Americans captured the fort, town, and dockyard. They themselves suffered heavy casualties, including force leader Brigadier General Zebulon Pike and others killed when the retreating British blew up the fort's magazine. The American forces subsequently carried out several acts of arson and looting in the town before they withdrew several days later.
Although the Americans won a clear victory, the battle did not have decisive strategic results as York was a less important objective in military terms than Kingston, where the British armed vessels on Lake Ontario were based.
Background
York, the capital of Upper Canada, stood on the north shore of Lake Ontario. During the War of 1812, the lake was both the front line between Upper Canada and the United States, and also served as the principal British supply line from Quebec to the various forces and outposts to the west. At the start of the war, the British had a small naval force, the Provincial Marine, with which they seized control of Lake Ontario, and Lake Erie. This made it possible for Major General Isaac Brock, who led British forces in Upper Canada, to gain several important victories in 1812 by shifting his small force rapidly between threatened points to defeat disjointed American attacks individually.
The United States Navy appointed Commodore Isaac Chauncey to regain control of the lakes. He created a squadron of fighting ships at Sackett's Harbor, New York by purchasing and arming several lake schooners and laying down purpose-built fighting vessels. However, no decisive action was possible before the onset of winter, during which the ships of both sides were confined to harbour by ice. To match Chauncey's shipbuilding efforts, the British laid down the sloop of war, , at Kingston and , at York Naval Shipyards.
Prelude
American planning
On January 13, 1813, John Armstrong Jr. was appointed United States Secretary of War. Having been a serving soldier, he quickly appreciated the situation on Lake Ontario, and devised a plan by which a force of 7,000 regular soldiers would be concentrated at Sackett's Harbor on April 1. Working together with Chauncey's squadron, this force would capture Kingston before the Saint Lawrence River thawed and substantial British reinforcements could arrive in Upper Canada. The capture of Kingston and the destruction of the Kingston Royal Naval Dockyard together with most of the vessels of the Provincial Marine, would make almost every British post west of Kingston vulnerable if not untenable. After Kingston was captured, the Americans would then capture the British positions at York and Fort George, at the mouth of the Niagara River.
Armstrong conferred with Major General Henry Dearborn, commander of the American Army of the North, at Albany, New York during February. Both Dearborn and Chauncey agreed with Armstrong's plan at this point, but they subsequently had second thoughts. That month, Lieutenant General Sir George Prévost, the British Governor General of Canada, travelled up the frozen Saint Lawrence to visit Upper Canada. This visit was made necessary because Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe, who had succeeded Brock as Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, was ill and unable to perform his various duties. Prévost was accompanied only by a few small detachments of reinforcements, which participated in the Battle of Ogdensburg en route. Nevertheless, both Chauncey and Dearborn believed that Prévost's arrival indicated an imminent attack on Sackett's Harbor, and reported that Kingston now had a garrison of 6,000 or more British regulars.
Even though Prévost soon returned to Lower Canada, and deserters and pro-American Canadian civilians reported that the true size of Kingston's garrison was 600 regulars and 1,400 militia, Chauncey and Dearborn chose to accept the earlier inflated figure. Furthermore, even after two brigades of troops under Brigadier General Zebulon Pike reinforced the troops at Sackett's Harbor after a gruelling winter march from Plattsburgh, the number of effective troops available to Dearborn fell far short of the 7,000 planned, mainly as a result of sickness and exposure. During March, Chauncey and Dearborn recommended to Armstrong that when the ice on the lake thawed, they should attack the less well defended town of York instead of Kingston. Although York was the Provincial capital of Upper Canada, it was far less important than Kingston as a military objective. Historians such as John R. Elting have pointed out that this change of plan effectively reversed Armstrong's original strategy, and by committing the bulk of the American forces at the western end of Lake Ontario, it left Sackett's Harbor vulnerable to an attack by British reinforcements arriving from Lower Canada.
Armstrong, by now back in Washington, nevertheless acquiesced in this change of plan as Dearborn might well have better local information. Armstrong also believed that an easy victory at York would provide the government with a significant propaganda coup, as well as bolster support for the Democratic-Republican Party for the gubernational election in New York.
The attack was originally planned to commence in early April, although a long winter delayed the attack on York by several weeks, threatening the political value of such an attack. In an attempt to overcome these delays, Democratic-Republicans supporters circulated proclamations of victory prior to the battle to the New York electorate. The American naval squadron first attempted to depart from Sackets Harbor on April 23, 1813, although an incoming storm forced the squadron back to harbour, in order to wait out the storm. The squadron finally departed on April 24, 1813.
British preparations
The town was not heavily fortified, with insufficient resources preventing the construction of necessary works needed to adequately defend it. As a result, Sheaffe had instructed government officials in early April 1813 to hide legislative papers in the forest and fields behind York, to ensure they would not be seized in the event of an attack.
York's defences included the town's blockhouse situated near the Don River east of the town, the blockhouses at Fort York to the west, and another blockhouse at Gibraltar Point. The settlement was also defended by three batteries at the fort and the nearby "Government House Battery" which mounted two 12-pounder guns. Another crude battery, known as the Western Battery, was located west of the fort, in present day Exhibition Place. It contained two obsolete 18-pounder guns, which originated from earlier conflicts and had been disabled by having their trunnions removed, but they were fixed to crude log carriages and could still be fired.
Fort York was also defended by a western wall, and a small unarmed earthwork between the fort and the Western Battery. About a dozen cannons, including older condemned models, were mounted in these positions, in addition to two 6-pounders on field carriages. Further west were the ruins of Fort Rouillé, and the Half Moon Battery, neither of which was in use.
Sheaffe was at York to conduct public business. He was originally scheduled to leave the settlement for Fort George but had postponed his departure due to suspicions of an American assault on York. His regulars, most of whom were also passing through York en route to other posts, consisted of two companies (including the grenadier company) of the 1st battalion 8th Regiment of Foot, a company of the Glengarry Light Infantry Fencibles, a company-sized detachment of the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles, a small squad from the 49th Regiment of Foot, and thirteen soldiers from the Royal Artillery. There were also 40 or 50 Mississaugas and Ojibwe warriors, and the Canadian militia.
The American naval squadron was spotted by British sentries posted at the Scarborough Bluffs on April 26, who alerted the town and its defenders using flag signals and signal guns. The Militia was ordered to assemble, but only 300 of the 1st and 3rd Regiments of the York Militia, and the Incorporated Militia, could be mustered at short notice. Sheaffe expected the Americans to launch a two-pronged attack, with the main American landing to the west of Fort York, and another landing in Scarborough to cut off a potential retreat to Kingston. To counteract this, Sheaffe concentrated most of his regulars, the Native warriors and a small number of militiamen at Fort York, while most of the militia and the companies of the 8th Regiment of Foot positioned themselves at the town's blockhouse.
Battle
The Americans appeared off York late on April 26. Chauncey's squadron consisted of a ship-rigged corvette, a brig and twelve schooners. The embarked force commanded by Brigadier General Zebulon Pike numbered between 1,600 and 1,800, mainly from the 6th, 15th, 16th and 21st U.S. Infantry, and the 3rd U.S. Artillery fighting as infantry. Dearborn, the overall army commander, remained aboard the corvette Madison during the action.
Early on April 27, the first American wave of boats, carrying 300 soldiers of Major Benjamin Forsyth's company of the U.S. 1st Rifle Regiment, landed about west of the town, supported by some of Chauncey's schooners firing grapeshot. The American force intended to land at a clear field, west of Fort York, but strong winds pushed their landing craft west of their desired landing site, towards a wooded coastline. Forsyth's riflemen were opposed only by Native warriors, led by Indian Agent James Givins, and the grenadier company of the 8th Regiment of Foot, who were dispatched to the area by Sheaffe. Only the Natives initially engaged the American landing. With American cannon fire threatening the roads on the waterfront, the British units dispatched from Fort York had to traverse through the forest behind the waterfront; and were unable to reach the landing site before the Americans started their landings.
Sheaffe had also ordered a company of the Glengarry Light Infantry to support the Natives at the landing, but they became lost in the outskirts of the town, having been misdirected by Major-General Æneas Shaw, the Adjutant General of the Canadian Militia, who took some of the militia north onto Dundas Street to prevent any wide American flanking maneuver. After it became apparent that no landing would occur east of the settlement, Sheaffe recalled the companies of the 8th Regiment of Foot from the town's blockhouse.
As the landings progressed, the British and Native force was outflanked and began to fall back into the woods. The U.S. 15th Infantry Regiment was the second American unit to land, with bayonets fixed, under a hail of fire, shortly followed by Pike, who assumed personal command of the landing. Sheaffe arrived with the rest of the 8th Regiment of Foot, the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles, and a few dozen militiamen, after the U.S. 15th Infantry Regiment's had landed. The grenadier company of the 8th Regiment of Foot charged them with the bayonet. The grenadiers were already outnumbered and were repulsed with heavy loss. Pike ordered an advance by platoons, supported by two 6-pounder field guns, which steadily drove back Sheaffe's force. After Sheaffe failed to get the Fenicibles to renew their advance, the British began to withdraw, with the newly arrived Glengarry Light Infantry covering the retreat.
During these landings, the American naval squadron bombarded the four gun batteries defending York. Chauncey's schooners, most of which carried a long 24-pounder or 32-pounder cannon, also bombarded the fort and Government House battery, with Chauncey himself directing them from a small boat. British return fire was ineffective.
The British tried to rally around the Western battery, but the battery's travelling magazine (a portable chest containing cartridges) exploded, apparently as the result of an accident. This caused further loss (including 20 killed) and confusion among the British regulars, and they fell back to a ravine at Garrison Creek north of the fort, where the militia were forming up. American forces advanced east towards the fort, and assembled themselves outside its walls, exchanging artillery fire with the fort. The naval squadron also bombarded the fort, having re-positioned themselves directly south of the fort's stockade. Sheaffe decided that the battle was lost and ordered the regulars to retreat, setting fire to the wooden bridge over the River Don east of the town to thwart pursuit. The militia and several prominent citizens were left "standing in the street like a parcel of sheep". Sheaffe instructed the militia to make the best terms they could with the Americans, but without informing the senior militia officers or any official of the legislature, he also dispatched Captain Tito LeLièvre of the Royal Newfoundland to set fire to the sloop of war HMS Sir Isaac Brock under construction at York's Naval Shipyard, and to blow up the fort's magazine. The two sides continued to exchange artillery fire until Sheaffe's withdrawal from the fort was complete. The British had left the flag flying over the fort as a ruse, and the Americans assembling outside its walls assumed that the fort was still occupied.
By 1:00 pm, the Americans were from the fort, and their artillery and the naval squadron were preparing to bombard it. Pike was questioning a prisoner as to how many troops were defending the fort. Shortly after the bombardment began, the magazine (which contained over 74 tons of iron shells and 300 barrels of gunpowder and had been rigged by the British to explode) blew up. The explosion threw debris over a radius. General Pike and 37 other American soldiers were killed by the explosion, which caused an additional 222 casualties. Fearing a counterattack after the explosion, American forces regrouped outside the wall, and did not advance onto the abandoned fort until after the British regulars had left the settlement.
Casualties
The American loss for the entire battle was officially reported as 52 killed and 254 wounded for the Army and 3 killed and 11 wounded for the Navy, for a total of 55 killed and 265 wounded. The majority of American casualties originated from the explosion at the fort's powder magazine. An archaeological dig in 2012 unearthed evidence that the destruction of the magazine and the impact it had on American soldiers was a result of poor position, and bad luck. The Americans just happened to be at the exact distance of the shock wave and its debris field.
The British loss was officially reported by Sheaffe as 59 killed, 34 wounded, 43 wounded prisoners, 10 captured and 7 missing, for a total of 153 casualties. However, historian Robert Malcomson has found this return to be inaccurate: it did not include militia, sailors, dockyard workers or Native Americans and was incorrect even as to the casualties of the regulars. Malcomson demonstrates that the actual British loss was 82 killed, 43 wounded, 69 wounded prisoners, 274 captured and 7 missing, for a total of 475 casualties.
Surrender
Colonel William Chewett and Major William Allen of the 3rd York Regiment of militia tried to arrange a capitulation, assisted by Captain John Beverley Robinson, the acting Attorney General of Upper Canada. The process took time. The Americans were angry over their losses, particularly because they believed that the ship and fort had been destroyed after negotiations for surrender had already begun. Nevertheless, Colonel Mitchell of the 3rd U.S. Artillery agreed to terms. While they waited for Dearborn and Chauncey to ratify the terms, the surrendered militia were held prisoner in a blockhouse without food or medical attention for the few wounded. Forsyth's company of the 1st U.S. Rifle Regiment was left as guard in the town. At this stage, few Americans had entered the town.
The next morning, the terms had still not been ratified, since Dearborn had refused to leave the corvette Madison. When he eventually did, Reverend John Strachan (who held no official position other than Rector of York at the time) first brusquely tried to force him to sign the articles for capitulation on the spot, then accused Chauncey to his face of delaying the capitulation to allow the American troops licence to commit outrages. Eventually, Dearborn formally agreed to the articles for surrender. The official terms of surrender permitted civil servants to continue carrying out their duties, and surgeons to treat British wounded. As a part of the terms of surrender, any troops remaining in York became prisoners of war, although those serving in the militia were "paroled," allowing them to return home, so long as they not rejoin the conflict until an official prisoner exchange had secured their "release". Members of the York Militia were ordered to relinquish their arms, and proceed to Fort York garrison. The officers of the militia were subsequently released on "parole," although the rest of the militia remained imprisoned for two days. Kept without food, water, or medical attention, the imprisoned militia was eventually released at the behest of Strachan.
The Americans took over the dockyard, where they captured a brig () in poor state of repair, and twenty 24-pounder carronades and other stores intended for the British squadron on Lake Erie. Sir Isaac Brock was beyond salvage. The Americans had missed another ship-rigged vessel, , which carried 16 guns, as she sailed for Kingston to collect ordnance two days before the Americans had been sighted. The Americans also demanded and received several thousand pounds in Army Bills, which had been in the keeping of Prideaux Selby, the Receiver General of Upper Canada, who was mortally ill.
Burning of York
Between April 28 and 30, American troops carried out many acts of plunder. Some of them set fire to the buildings of the Legislative Assembly, and Government House, home to the Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada. It was alleged that the American troops had found a scalp there, though folklore had it that the "scalp" was actually the Speaker's wig. The Parliamentary mace of Upper Canada was taken back to Washington and was only returned in 1934 as a goodwill gesture by President Franklin Roosevelt. The Printing Office, used for publishing official documents as well as newspapers, was vandalized and the printing press was smashed. Other Americans looted empty houses on the pretext that their absent owners were militia who had not given their parole as required by the articles of capitulation. The homes of Canadians connected with the Natives, including that of James Givins, were also looted regardless of their owners' status. Before they departed from York, the Americans razed most of the structures in the fort, except the barracks.
During the looting, several officers under Chauncey's command took books from York's first subscription library. After finding out his officers were in possession of looted library books, Chauncey had the books packed in two crates, and returned to York. However, by the time the books arrived, the library had closed, and the books were auctioned off in 1822. Several looted items ended up in the possession of the locals, with Sheaffe later alleging that local settlers had unlawfully come into possession of government owned farming tools or other stores looted and discarded by the Americans, and demanded that they be handed back.
The looting of York occurred in spite of Pike's earlier orders that all civilian property be respected, and that any soldier convicted of such transgressions would be executed. Dearborn similarly emphatically denied giving orders for any buildings to be destroyed and deplored the worst of the atrocities in his letters, but he was nonetheless unable or unwilling to rein in his soldiers. Dearborn himself was embarrassed by the looting, as it made a mockery of the terms of surrender he arranged. His soldiers' disregard for the terms he arranged, and local civil leaders' continued protest against them, made Dearborn eager to leave York as soon as all the captured stores were transported.
Aftermath
The Americans occupied the town for nearly two weeks. They sent the captured military stores, including 20 artillery pieces, away on May 2 but were then penned in York harbour by a gale. Chauncey's vessels were so overcrowded with troops that only half of them could go below decks to escape the rain at any time. They left York on May 8, departing for the Niagara peninsula. where they required several weeks to recuperate. Sheaffe's troops endured an equally miserable fourteen-day retreat overland to Kingston.
Around 300 to 400 Iroquois warriors assembled and marched towards York shortly after the battle, in an effort to launch an attack on the American forces there. The Iroquois were approximately west of York, in present day Burlington, when they learned that the Americans had departed York; resulting in the expedition to be called off.
Effects on the war
Many members of the Provincial Assembly and other prominent citizens severely criticized Sheaffe, both for his conduct generally and during the fighting at York. For example, Militia officers Chewitt and Allan, the Reverend Strachan and others wrote to Governor General Prévost on May 8, that Sheaffe "kept too far from his troops after retreating from the woods, never cheered or animated them, nor showed by his personal conduct that he was hearty in the cause." Sheaffe lost his military and public offices in Upper Canada as the result of his defeat.
However, the Americans had not inflicted crippling damage on the Provincial Marine on Lake Ontario, and they admitted that by preserving his small force of regulars rather than sacrificing them in a fight against heavy odds, Sheaffe had robbed them of decisive victory. Secretary of War Armstrong wrote, "[W]e cannot doubt but that in all cases in which a British commander is compelled to act defensively, his policy will be that adopted by Sheaffe – to prefer the preservation of his troops to that of his post, and thus carrying off the kernel leave us the shell."
The effects of the capture of York were probably most significant on Lake Erie, since the capture of the ordnance and supplies destined for the British squadron there contributed to the defeat of the British squadron at the Battle of Lake Erie. However, most of the naval supplies captured were not used by the Americans, who abandoned a portion of the captured goods before they departed from York, while the remaining supplies were set on fire during the Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor in May 1813.
Societal consequences
As the American attack on York occurred on the first of New York's three day election period, the battle did not directly benefit the Democratic-Republic Party as Armstrong had originally envisioned. However, early proclamations of victory issued prior to the battle, did contribute to the reelection of Daniel D. Tompkins, the Democratic-Republican candidate for the Governor of New York.
According to Pierre Berton, the battle, and occupation of York served as a watershed moment for the settlers of York. Those who fought the Americans became celebrated in the local community, while those who aided the occupation were viewed by the community as traitors. The documentary film Explosion 1812 argues that the battle had a much greater impact than previously assumed. The mistreatment by US forces of the civilian Canadian population, dogged resistance by militia and the burning of British symbols and buildings after the battle led to a hardening of Canadian popular opinion.
Several commentators viewed the American transgressions at York as justification for the British Burning of Washington later in the war. Prévost wrote that "as a just retribution, the proud capital at Washington has experienced a similar fate". Strachan wrote to Thomas Jefferson that the damage to Washington "was a small retaliation after redress had been refused for burnings and depredations, not only of public but private property, committed by them in Canada".
Later attacks
Second incursion, July 1813
Chauncey and Dearborn subsequently won the Battle of Fort George on the Niagara peninsula, but they had left Sacket's Harbor defended only by a few troops, mainly militia. When reinforcements from the Royal Navy commanded by Commodore James Lucas Yeo arrived in Kingston, Yeo almost immediately embarked some troops commanded by Prévost and attacked Sackett's Harbor. Although the British were repelled by the defenders at the Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor, Chauncey immediately withdrew into Sacket's Harbor until mid-July, when a new heavy sloop of war had been completed.
Chauncey sortied again on July 21 with 13 vessels. Six days later, he embarked a battalion of 500 troops commanded by Colonel Winfield Scott at Niagara. Chauncey sought to relieve the British-Native blockade of Fort George, by attacking British supply lines at Burlington Heights at the western end of Lake Ontario. Winfield Scott's force disembarked east of the heights at Burlington Beach (present day Burlington) on July 29, but found the defenders too well entrenched for any assault to be successful.
Anticipating Chauncey's intentions, Major-General Francis de Rottenburg, Sheaffe's successor as Lieutenant Governor, ordered the bulk of the troops at York to the Burlington Heights. However, this left York largely undefended, as most of its militia were still on parole. The American squadron proceeded to York in order to seize food stores to feed its soldiers. The last remaining troop in York, members of the 19th Light Dragoons, collected the military supplies they could carry, and withdrew along the Don River. The American landing of 340 men at York was unopposed, with the American force burning the barracks at the fort, the military fuel yards, and looted several properties. They also seized 11 batteaux, 5 cannons and some flour, before reembarking on their ships, leaving the settlement later that night. The library books that were looted from the battle in April 1813, were returned to the settlement during the second incursion into York.
The Ontario Heritage Foundation erected a plaque in 1968 near the entrance to Coronation Park, Exhibition Place, Lake Shore Boulevard, in commemoration of the event. The plaque reads:
On the morning of July 31, 1813, a U.S. invasion fleet appeared off York (Toronto) after having withdrawn from a planned attack on British positions at Burlington Heights. That afternoon 300 American soldiers came ashore near here. Their landing was unopposed: there were no British regulars in town, and York's militia had withdrawn from further combat in return for its freedom during the American invasion three months earlier. The invaders seized food and military supplies, then re-embarked. The next day they returned to investigate collaborators' reports that valuable stores were concealed up the Don River. Unsuccessful in their search, the Americans contented themselves with burning military installations on nearby Gibraltar Point before they departed.
Third incursion, August 1814
In the months after the second American incursion into York, the defences around the harbour were significantly improved, as the British needed to protect a four-vessel squadron that would be stationed at the town's harbour. On August 6, 1814, the American Lake Ontario squadron pursued HMS Magnet, before its captain set fire to the ship, preventing its capture. Suspecting the ship sailed from York, the American naval squadron made its way to the settlement in order to evaluate the situation, and discover if any more ships could be captured there.
Arriving near York's harbour, the American squadron dispatched to negotiate under a white flag, in a ploy to evaluate the town's defences. However, the militia stationed at Fort York opened fire at the schooner, which returned fire, before withdrawing to rejoin the American squadron. The 8th Regiment of Foot, and the 82nd Regiment of Foot were sent to York in an effort to bolster the town's defences. The American squadron did not attempt to engage the newly built defences, although they remained outside York's harbour for the next three days before sailing away.
Legacy
The burning and looting of York after the battle, along with the destruction of other Upper Canadian settlements during the war, saw public opinions on Americans shift among the residents of Upper Canada. Historian, Charles Perry Stacey notes in the years before the war, American settlers had regularly settled into Upper Canada, with the colony essentially becoming a "transnational space," and the only distinction between Americans and Upper Canadians existing on paper. However, in the years after the war, Stacey notes a "deep prejudice against the United States," had emerged amongst the colony's settlers. Stacey further notes that, the burning of York, and other American transgressions during the war, was later used by Canadian nationalists to create a national narrative that sees the "birth of the Canadian nation," as a result of the conflict.
Several Canadian Army Reserve units perpetuate the linages of Fencibles, and militia units involved in the Battle of York, including the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders (Glengarry Light Infantry), the Queen's York Rangers (1st and 3rd regiments of the York Militia), and the Royal Newfoundland Regiment (Royal Newfoundland Fencibles). Five active regular battalions of the United States Army (2-1 ADA, 1-2 Inf, 2-2 Inf, 1-5 Inf and 2-5 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of several American units engaged during the Battle of York (including Crane's Company, 3rd Regiment of Artillery, and the old 6th, 16th, and 21st Infantry Regiments). Within the British Army, the 8th Regiment of Foot is today perpetuated by the Duke of Lancaster's Regiment while the 49th Regiment of Foot is perpetuated by The Rifles Regiment.
On July 1, 1902, Walter Seymour Allward was commissioned to sculpt the Defence of York monument at the Fort York burial grounds. The monument was erected to commemorate those that fought in defence of York; as well as the British, Canadian, and Native warriors who fought in the War of 1812.
On April 27, 2013, the City of Toronto government and the Canadian Armed Forces commemorated the 200th anniversary of the battle with a Presentation of Colours to the 3rd Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment. The ceremony took place at Queen's Park, and was presided by Prince Philip. The ceremony was followed by a military parade of 1,500 sailors and soldiers from the Canadian Army, and the Royal Canadian Navy; from Queen's Park to Fort York. The ceremony and parade were organize in conjunction with other War of 1812 bicentennial commemorations held in Toronto, and the other municipalities in Ontario. During the bicentennial celebrations, the City of Toronto Museum Services commissioned the creation of the exhibit Finding the Fallen: the Battle of York Remembered at Fort York. The exhibit attempts to document American, British (including the militia), and First Nations combatant that died during the battle.
References
Bibliography
For more sources / further reading see Bibliography of early American naval history or Bibliography of the War of 1812
External links
Conflicts in 1813
York
York
History of Toronto
1813 in Upper Canada
Fires at legislative buildings
April 1813 events
Attacks on legislatures | [
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249748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil%20Bissoondath | Neil Bissoondath | Neil Devindra Bissoondath (born April 19, 1955, in Arima, Trinidad and Tobago) is a Trinidadian-Canadian author who lives in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. He is a noted writer of fiction. He is an outspoken critic of Canada's system of multiculturalism and is the nephew of authors V.S. Naipaul and Shiva Naipaul, grandson of Seepersad Naipaul, grandnephew of Rudranath Capildeo and Simbhoonath Capildeo, and cousin of Vahni Capildeo.
Life and career
Bissoondath attended St. Mary's College in Trinidad and Tobago, where he was born in Arima. Although he was from a Hindu tradition, he was able to adapt to a Catholic high school. He describes himself as not very religious and distrustful of dogma. In the early 1970s, political upheaval and economic collapse had created a climate of chaos and violence in the island nation.
In 1973, at the age of 18, Bissoondath left Trinidad and settled in Ontario, where he studied at York University and received a Bachelor of Arts in French in 1977. He then taught English and French at the Inlingua School of Languages and the Toronto Language Workshop. He won the McClelland and Stewart award and the National Magazine award, both in 1986, for the short story "Dancing". Bissoondath was interviewed by Ali Lakhani in the journal Rungh about his views on writing and life.
Awards
He won the Writers' Trust of Canada's Gordon Montador Award in 1995 for Selling Illusions.
Bissoondath has received honorary doctorates from Glendon College, York University and Université de Moncton. In 2010 he was made a Chevalier of the Ordre national du Québec. In 2012, he was awarded the NALIS (National Library of Trinidad and Tobago) Lifetime Literary Achievement Award.
Bibliography
Novels
A Casual Brutality () – 1989
The Innocence of Age – 1993
The Worlds Within Her () – 1999 (Nominated for a Governor General's Award)
Doing the Heart Good () – 2002
The Unyielding Clamour of the Night () – 2005
The Soul of All Great Designs () – 2008
Novella
Postcards from Hell – 2009
Short story collections
Digging Up Mountains – 1987
On the Eve of Uncertain Tomorrows – 1991
Non-fiction
Selling Illusions: The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada 1994
See also
Capildeo family
References
External links
Neil Bissoondath's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia
Neil Bissoondath biography at NALIS.
Nicholas Dinka, "Neil Bissoondath - Hard questions", Quill & Quire.
1955 births
Living people
Canadian Hindus
Canadian male novelists
Canadian people of Indian descent
Critics of multiculturalism
Trinidad and Tobago novelists
Trinidad and Tobago emigrants to Canada
Trinidad and Tobago Hindus
Writers from Quebec City
People from Arima
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
Trinidad and Tobago people of Indian descent
Trinidad and Tobago male writers
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian male writers
Université Laval faculty
Officers of the Order of Canada | [
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249749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfinance | Microfinance | Microfinance is a category of financial services targeting individuals and small businesses who lack access to conventional banking and related services. Microfinance includes microcredit, the provision of small loans to poor clients; savings and checking accounts; microinsurance; and payment systems, among other services. Microfinance services are designed to reach excluded customers, usually poorer population segments, possibly socially marginalized, or geographically more isolated, and to help them become self-sufficient.
Microfinance initially had a limited definition: the provision of microloans to poor entrepreneurs and small businesses lacking access to credit. The two main mechanisms for the delivery of financial services to such clients were: (1) relationship-based banking for individual entrepreneurs and small businesses; and (2) group-based models, where several entrepreneurs come together to apply for loans and other services as a group. Over time, microfinance has emerged as a larger movement whose object is: "a world in which as everyone, especially the poor and socially marginalized people and households have access to a wide range of affordable, high quality financial products and services, including not just credit but also savings, insurance, payment services, and fund transfers."
Proponents of microfinance often claim that such access will help poor people out of poverty, including participants in the Microcredit Summit Campaign. For many, microfinance is a way to promote economic development, employment and growth through the support of micro-entrepreneurs and small businesses; for others it is a way for the poor to manage their finances more effectively and take advantage of economic opportunities while managing the risks. Critics often point to some of the ills of micro-credit that can create indebtedness. Many studies have tried to assess its impacts.
New research in the area of microfinance call for better understanding of the microfinance ecosystem so that the microfinance institutions and other facilitators can formulate sustainable strategies that will help create social benefits through better service delivery to the low-income population.
History of microfinance
Over the past centuries, practical visionaries, from the Franciscan friars who founded the community-oriented pawnshops of the 15th century to the founders of the European credit union movement in the 19th century (such as Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen) and the founders of the microcredit movement in the 1970s (such as Muhammad Yunus and Al Whittaker), have tested practices and built institutions designed to bring the kinds of opportunities and risk-management tools that financial services can provide to the doorsteps of poor people.
The history of microfinancing can be traced back as far as the middle of the 1800s, when the theorist Lysander Spooner was writing about the benefits of small credits to entrepreneurs and farmers as a way of getting the people out of poverty. Independently of Spooner, Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen founded the first cooperative lending banks to support farmers in rural Germany.
The modern use of the expression "microfinancing" has roots in the 1970s when Grameen Bank of Bangladesh, founded by microfinance pioneer Muhammad Yunus, was starting and shaping the modern industry of microfinancing. The approach of microfinance was institutionalized by Yunus in 1976, with the foundation of Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. Another pioneer in this sector is Pakistani social scientist Akhtar Hameed Khan.
Since people in the developing world still largely depend on subsistence farming or basic food trade for their livelihood, significant resources have gone into supporting smallholder agriculture in developing countries.
Microfinance and poverty
In developing economies, and particularly in rural areas, many activities that would be classified in the developed world as financial are not monetized: that is, money is not used to carry them out.This is often the case when people need the services money can provide but do not have dispensable funds required for those services. This forces them to revert to other means of acquiring the funds.
In their book, The Poor and Their Money, Stuart Rutherford and Sukhwinder Arora cite several types of needs:
Lifecycle Needs: such as weddings, funerals, childbirth, education, home building, holidays, festivals, widowhood and old age
Personal Emergencies: such as sickness, injury, unemployment, theft, harassment or death
Disasters: such as wildfires, floods, cyclones and man-made events like war or bulldozing of dwellings
Investment Opportunities: expanding a business, buying land or equipment, improving housing, securing a job, etc.
People find creative and often collaborative ways to meet these needs, primarily through creating and exchanging different forms of non-cash value. Common substitutes for cash vary from country to country, but typically include livestock, grains, jewelry and precious metals.
As Marguerite S. Robinson describes in his book, The Micro Finance Revolution: Sustainable Finance for the Poor, the 1980s demonstrated that "micro finance could provide large-scale outreach profitably", and in the 1990s, "micro finance began to develop as an industry".
In the 2000s, the microfinance industry's objective was to satisfy the unmet demand on a much larger scale, and to play a role in reducing poverty. While much progress has been made in developing a viable, commercial microfinance sector in the last few decades, several issues remain that need to be addressed before the industry will be able to satisfy massive worldwide demand.
The obstacles or challenges in building a sound commercial microfinance industry include:
Inappropriate donor subsidies
Poor regulation and supervision of deposit-taking microfinance institutions (MFIs)
Few MFIs that meet the needs for savings, remittances or insurance
Limited management capacity in MFIs
Institutional inefficiencies
Need for more dissemination and adoption of rural, agricultural microfinance methodologies
Members' lack of collateral to secure a loan
Microfinance is the proper tool to reduce income inequality, allowing citizens from lower socio-economical classes to participate in the economy. Moreover, its involvement has shown to lead to a downward trend in income inequality.
Ways in which poor people manage their money
Rutherford argues that the basic problem that poor people face as money managers is to gather a "usefully large" amount of money. Building a new home may involve saving and protecting diverse building materials for years until enough are available to proceed with construction. Children's schooling may be funded by buying chickens and raising them for sale as needed for expenses, uniforms, bribes, etc. Because all the value is accumulated before it is needed, this money management strategy is referred to as "saving up".
Often, people don't have enough money when they face a need, so they borrow. A poor family might borrow from relatives to buy land, from a moneylender to buy rice, or from a microfinance institution to buy a sewing machine. Since these loans must be repaid by saving after the cost is incurred, Rutherford calls this 'saving down'. Rutherford's point is that microcredit is addressing only half the problem, and arguably the less important half: poor people borrow to help them save and accumulate assets. However, Microfinance is not the magical solution to take people out of poverty; it is merely a tool that the poor can use to raise their prospects for an escape from poverty.
Most needs are met through a mix of saving and credit. A benchmark impact assessment of Grameen Bank and two other large microfinance institutions in Bangladesh found that for every $1 they were lending to clients to finance rural non-farm micro-enterprise, about $2.50 came from other sources, mostly their clients' savings. This parallels the experience in the West, in which family businesses are funded mostly from savings, especially during start-up.
Recent studies have also shown that informal methods of saving are unsafe. For example, a study by Wright and Mutesasira in Uganda concluded that "those with no option but to save in the informal sector are almost bound to lose some money—probably around one quarter of what they save there".
The work of Rutherford, Wright and others has caused practitioners to reconsider a key aspect of the microcredit paradigm: that poor people get out of poverty by borrowing, building microenterprises and increasing their income. The new paradigm places more attention on the efforts of poor people to reduce their many vulnerabilities by keeping more of what they earn and building up their assets.
Examples
The microfinance project of "saving up" is exemplified in the slums of the south-eastern city of Vijayawada, India. This microfinance project functions as an unofficial banking system where Jyothi, a "deposit collector", collects money from slum dwellers, mostly women, in order for them to accumulate savings. Jyothi does her rounds throughout the city, collecting Rs5 a day from people in the slums for 220 days, however not always 220 days in a row since these women do not always have the funds available to put them into savings. They ultimately end up with Rs1000 at the end of the process. However, there are some issues with this microfinance saving program. One of the issues is that while saving, clients are actually losing part of their savings. Jyothi takes interest from each client—about 20 out of every 220 payments, or Rs100 out of 1,100 or 9%. When these slum dwellers find someone they trust, they are willing to pay up to 30% to someone to safely collect and keep their savings. There is also the risk of entrusting their savings to unlicensed, informal, peripatetic collectors. However, the slum dwellers are willing to accept this risk because they are unable to save at home, and unable to use the remote and unfriendly banks in their country. This microfinance project also has many benefits, such as empowering women and giving parents the ability to save money for their children's education. This specific microfinance project is an example of the benefits and limitations of the "saving up" project.
The microfinance project of "saving through" is shown in Nairobi, Kenya which includes a Rotating Savings and Credit Associations or ROSCAs initiative. This is a small scale example, however Rutherford (2009) describes a woman he met in Nairobi and studied her ROSCA. Everyday 15 women would save 100 shillings so there would be a lump sum of 1,500 shillings and everyday 1 of the 15 women would receive that lump sum. This would continue for 15 days and another woman within this group would receive the lump sum. At the end of the 15 days a new cycle would start. This ROSCA initiative is different from the "saving up" example above because there are no interest rates affiliated with the ROSCA, additionally everyone receives back what they put forth. This initiative requires trust and social capital networks in order to work, so often these ROSCAs include people who know each other and have reciprocity. The ROSCA allows for marginalized groups to receive a lump sum at one time in order to pay or save for specific needs they have.
Microfinance debates and challenges
There are several key debates at the boundaries of microfinance.
Loan Pricing
Before determining loan prices, one should take into account the following costs: 1) administrative costs by the bank (MFI) and 2) transaction cost by the client/customer. Customers, on the other hand, may have expenses for travelling to the bank branch, acquiring official documents for the loan application, and loss of time when dealing with the MFI (“opportunity costs”). Hence, from a customer's point of view the cost of a loan is not only the interest and fees she/he has to pay, but also all other transaction costs that she/he has to cover.
One of the principal challenges of microfinance is providing small loans at an affordable cost. The global average interest and fee rate is estimated at 37%, with rates reaching as high as 70% in some markets. The reason for the high interest rates is not primarily cost of capital. Indeed, the local microfinance organizations that receive zero-interest loan capital from the online microlending platform Kiva charge average interest and fee rates of 35.21%. Rather, the main reason for the high cost of microfinance loans is the high transaction cost of traditional microfinance operations relative to loan size.
Microfinance practitioners have long argued that such high interest rates are simply unavoidable, because the cost of making each loan cannot be reduced below a certain level while still allowing the lender to cover costs such as offices and staff salaries. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa credit risk for microfinance institutes is very high, because customers need years to improve their livelihood and face many challenges during this time. Financial institutes often do not even have a system to check the person's identity. Additionally they are unable to design new products and enlarge their business to reduce the risk. The result is that the traditional approach to microfinance has made only limited progress in resolving the problem it purports to address: that the world's poorest people pay the world's highest cost for small business growth capital. The high costs of traditional microfinance loans limit their effectiveness as a poverty-fighting tool. Offering loans at interest and fee rates of 37% mean that borrowers who do not manage to earn at least a 37% rate of return may actually end up poorer as a result of accepting the loans.
According to a recent survey of microfinance borrowers in Ghana published by the Center for Financial Inclusion, more than one-third of borrowers surveyed reported struggling to repay their loans. Some resorted to measures such as reducing their food intake or taking children out of school in order to repay microfinance debts that had not proven sufficiently profitable.
In recent years, the microfinance industry has shifted its focus from the objective of increasing the volume of lending capital available, to address the challenge of providing microfinance loans more affordably. Microfinance analyst David Roodman contends that, in mature markets, the average interest and fee rates charged by microfinance institutions tend to fall over time. However, global average interest rates for microfinance loans are still well above 30%.
The answer to providing microfinance services at an affordable cost may lie in rethinking one of the fundamental assumptions underlying microfinance: that microfinance borrowers need extensive monitoring and interaction with loan officers in order to benefit from and repay their loans. The P2P microlending service Zidisha is based on this premise, facilitating direct interaction between individual lenders and borrowers via an internet community rather than physical offices. Zidisha has managed to bring the cost of microloans to below 10% for borrowers, including interest which is paid out to lenders. However, it remains to be seen whether such radical alternative models can reach the scale necessary to compete with traditional microfinance programs.
Use of loans
Practitioners and donors from the charitable side of microfinance frequently argue for restricting microcredit to loans for productive purposes—such as to start or expand a microenterprise. Those from the private-sector side respond that, because money is fungible, such a restriction is impossible to enforce, and that in any case it should not be up to rich people to determine how poor people use their money.
Reach versus depth of impact
There has been a long-standing debate over the sharpness of the trade-off between 'outreach' (the ability of a microfinance institution to reach poorer and more remote people) and its 'sustainability' (its ability to cover its operating costs—and possibly also its costs of serving new clients—from its operating revenues). Although it is generally agreed that microfinance practitioners should seek to balance these goals to some extent, there are a wide variety of strategies, ranging from the minimalist profit-orientation of BancoSol in Bolivia to the highly integrated not-for-profit orientation of BRAC in Bangladesh. This is true not only for individual institutions, but also for governments engaged in developing national microfinance systems. BRAC was ranked the number one NGO in the world in 2015 and 2016 by the Geneva-based NGO Advisor.
Women
Microfinance provides women around the world with financial and non-financial services, especially in the most rural areas that do not have access to traditional banking and other basic financial infrastructure. It creates opportunities for women to start-up and build their businesses using their own skills and talents.
Utilizing savings, credit, and microinsurance, Microfinance helps families create income-generating activities and better cope with risk. Women particularly benefit from microfinance as many microfinance institutions (MFIs) target female clients. Most microfinance institutions (MFIs) partner with other organizations like Water.org and Habitat for Humanity to provide additional services for their clients.
Microfinance is a sustainable process that creates real jobs, opens opportunities for future investments and helps the women clients provide for the education to their children.
Microfinance generally agree that women should be the primary focus of service delivery. Evidence shows that they are less likely to default on their loans than men. Industry data from 2006 for 704 MFIs reaching 52 million borrowers includes MFIs using the solidarity lending methodology (99.3% female clients) and MFIs using individual lending (51% female clients). The delinquency rate for solidarity lending was 0.9% after 30 days (individual lending—3.1%), while 0.3% of loans were written off (individual lending—0.9%). Because operating margins become tighter the smaller the loans delivered, many MFIs consider the risk of lending to men to be too high. This focus on women is questioned sometimes, however a recent study of microentrepreneurs from Sri Lanka published by the World Bank found that the return on capital for male-owned businesses (half of the sample) averaged 11%, whereas the return for women-owned businesses was 0% or slightly negative.
Microfinance's emphasis on female-oriented lending is the subject of controversy, as it is claimed that microfinance improves the status of women through an alleviation of poverty. It is argued that by providing women with initial capital, they will be able to support themselves independent of men, in a manner which would encourage sustainable growth of enterprise and eventual self-sufficiency. This claim has yet to be proven in any substantial form. Moreover, the attraction of women as a potential investment base is precisely because they are constrained by socio-cultural norms regarding such concepts of obedience, familial duty, household maintenance and passivity. The result of these norms is that while micro-lending may enable women to improve their daily subsistence to a more steady pace, they will not be able to engage in market-oriented business practice beyond a limited scope of low-skilled, low-earning, informal work. Part of this is a lack of permissivity in the society; part a reflection of the added burdens of household maintenance that women shoulder alone as a result of microfinancial empowerment; and part a lack of training and education surrounding gendered conceptions of economics. In particular, the shift in norms such that women continue to be responsible for all the domestic private sphere labour as well as undertaking public economic support for their families, independent of male aid increases rather than decreases burdens on already limited persons.
If there were to be an exchange of labour, or if women's income were supplemental rather than essential to household maintenance, there might be some truth to claims of establishing long-term businesses; however when so constrained it is impossible for women to do more than pay off a current loan only to take on another in a cyclic pattern which is beneficial to the financier but hardly to the borrower. This gender essentializing crosses over from institutionalized lenders such as the Grameen Bank into interpersonal direct lending through charitable crowd-funding operations, such as Kiva. More recently, the popularity of non-profit global online lending has grown, suggesting that a redress of gender norms might be instituted through individual selection fomented by the processes of such programs, but the reality is as yet uncertain. Studies have noted that the likelihood of lending to women, individually or in groups, is 38% higher than rates of lending to men.
This is also due to a general trend for interpersonal microfinance relations to be conducted on grounds of similarity and internal/external recognition: lenders want to see something familiar, something supportable in potential borrowers, so an emphasis on family, goals of education and health, and a commitment to community all achieve positive results from prospective financiers. Unfortunately, these labels disproportionately align with women rather than men, particularly in the developing world. The result is that microfinance continues to rely on restrictive gender norms rather than seek to subvert them through economic redress in terms of foundation change: training, business management and financial education are all elements which might be included in parameters of female-aimed loans and until they are the fundamental reality of women as a disadvantaged section of societies in developing states will go untested.
Organizations supporting this work
ADA
FINCA
NWTF
akhuwat Foundation Pakistan
Alkhidmat Foundation Pakistan
Whole Planet Foundation
Kiva
MCPI
Women's World Banking
Benefits and limitations
Microfinancing produces many benefits for poverty stricken and low-income households. One of the benefits is that it is very accessible. Banks today simply won't extend loans to those with little to no assets, and generally don't engage in small size loans typically associated with microfinancing. Through microfinancing small loans are produced and accessible. Microfinancing is based on the philosophy that even small amounts of credit can help end the cycle of poverty. Another benefit produced from the microfinancing initiative is that it presents opportunities, such as extending education and jobs. Families receiving microfinancing are less likely to pull their children out of school for economic reasons. As well, in relation to employment, people are more likely to open small businesses that will aid the creation of new jobs. Overall, the benefits outline that the microfinancing initiative is set out to improve the standard of living amongst impoverished communities.
There are also many social and financial challenges for microfinance initiatives. For example, more articulate and better-off community members may cheat poorer or less-educated neighbours. This may occur intentionally or inadvertently through loosely run organizations. As a result, many microfinance initiatives require a large amount of social capital or trust in order to work effectively. The ability of poorer people to save may also fluctuate over time as unexpected costs may take priority which could result in them being able to save little or nothing some weeks. Rates of inflation may cause funds to lose their value, thus financially harming the saver and not benefiting the collector.
While the success of the Grameen Bank (which now serves over 7 million poor Bangladeshi women) has inspired the world, it has proved difficult to replicate this success. In nations with lower population densities, meeting the operating costs of a retail branch by serving nearby customers has proven considerably more challenging. Hans Dieter Seibel, board member of the European Microfinance Platform, is in favour of the group model. This particular model (used by many Microfinance institutions) makes financial sense, he says, because it reduces transaction costs. Microfinance programmes also need to be based on local funds.
Microfinance standards and principles
Poor people borrow from informal moneylenders and save with informal collectors. They receive loans and grants from charities. They buy insurance from state-owned companies. They receive funds transfers through formal or informal remittance networks. It is not easy to distinguish microfinance from similar activities. It could be claimed that a government that orders state banks to open deposit accounts for poor consumers, or a moneylender that engages in usury, or a charity that runs a heifer pool are engaged in microfinance. Ensuring financial services to poor people is best done by expanding the number of financial institutions available to them, as well as by strengthening the capacity of those institutions. In recent years there has also been increasing emphasis on expanding the diversity of institutions, since different institutions serve different needs.
Some principles that summarize a century and a half of development practice were encapsulated in 2004 by CGAP and endorsed by the Group of Eight leaders at the G8 Summit on 10 June 2004:
Poor people need not just loans but also savings, insurance and money transfer services.
Microfinance must be useful to poor households: helping them raise income, build up assets and/or cushion themselves against external shocks.
"Microfinance can pay for itself." Subsidies from donors and government are scarce and uncertain and so, to reach large numbers of poor people, microfinance must pay for itself.
Microfinance means building permanent local institutions.
Microfinance also means integrating the financial needs of poor people into a country's mainstream financial system.
"The job of government is to enable financial services, not to provide them."
"Donor funds should complement private capital, not compete with it."
"The key bottleneck is the shortage of strong institutions and managers." Donors should focus on capacity building.
Interest rate ceilings hurt poor people by preventing microfinance institutions from covering their costs, which chokes off the supply of credit.
Microfinance institutions should measure and disclose their performance – both financially and socially.
Microfinance is considered a tool for socio-economic development, and can be clearly distinguished from charity. Families who are destitute, or so poor they are unlikely to be able to generate the cash flow required to repay a loan, should be recipients of charity. Others are best served by financial institutions.
Scale of microfinance operations
No systematic effort to map the distribution of microfinance has yet been undertaken. A benchmark was established by an analysis of 'alternative financial institutions' in the developing world in 2004. The authors counted approximately 665 million client accounts at over 3,000 institutions that are serving people who are poorer than those served by the commercial banks. Of these accounts, 120 million were with institutions normally understood to practice microfinance. Reflecting the diverse historical roots of the movement, however, they also included postal savings banks (318 million accounts), state agricultural and development banks (172 million accounts), financial cooperatives and credit unions (35 million accounts) and specialized rural banks (19 million accounts).
Regionally, the highest concentration of these accounts was in India (188 million accounts representing 18% of the total national population). The lowest concentrations were in Latin America and the Caribbean (14 million accounts representing 3% of the total population) and Africa (27 million accounts representing 4% of the total population, with the highest rate of penetration in West Africa, and the highest growth rate in Eastern and Southern Africa ). Considering that most bank clients in the developed world need several active accounts to keep their affairs in order, these figures indicate that the task the microfinance movement has set for itself is still very far from finished.
By type of service, "savings accounts in alternative finance institutions outnumber loans by about four to one. This is a worldwide pattern that does not vary much by region."
An important source of detailed data on selected microfinance institutions is the MicroBanking Bulletin, which is published by Microfinance Information Exchange. At the end of 2009, it was tracking 1,084 MFIs that were serving 74 million borrowers ($38 billion in outstanding loans) and 67 million savers ($23 billion in deposits).
Another source of information regarding the environment of microfinance is the Global Microscope on the Microfinance Business Environment, prepared by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), the Inter-American Development Bank, and others. The 2011 report contains information on the environment of microfinance in 55 countries among two categories, the regulatory framework and the supporting institutional framework. This publication, also known as the Microscope, was first developed in 2007, focusing only on Latin America and the Caribbean, but by 2009, this report had become a global study.
As yet there are no studies that indicate the scale or distribution of 'informal' microfinance organizations like ROSCA's and informal associations that help people manage costs like weddings, funerals and sickness. Numerous case studies have been published, however, indicating that these organizations, which are generally designed and managed by poor people themselves with little outside help, operate in most countries in the developing world.
Help can come in the form of more and better-qualified staff, thus higher education is needed for microfinance institutions. This has begun in some universities, as Oliver Schmidt describes. Mind the management gap
Ecosystem of Microfinance
In recent years, there have been calls for better understanding of the ecosystem of Microfinance. The practitioners and researchers felt that it was important to understand the ecosystem in which microfinance institutions operated in order for the market system actors and facilitators to understand what they have to do to achieve their objectives of participating in the ecosystem. Professors Debapratim Purkayastha, Trilochan Tripathy and Biswajit Das have designed a model for the ecosystem of microfinance institutions (MFIs) in India. The researchers mapped the ecosystem and found the ecosystem to be very complicated, with complex interactions among numerous actors themselves, and their environment. This ecosystem framework can be used by MFIs to understand the ecosystem of microfinance and formulate strategy. It can also help other stakeholders such as donors, investors, banks, government, etc. to formulate their own strategies relating to this sector.
Microfinance in the United States and Canada
In Canada and the US, microfinance organizations target marginalized populations unable to access mainstream bank financing. Close to 8% of Americans are unbanked, meaning around 9 million are without any kind of bank account or formal financial services. Most of these institutions are structured as nonprofit organizations. Microloans in the U.S. context is defined as the extension of credit up to $50,000. In Canada, CRA guidelines restrict microfinance loans to a maximum of $25,000. The average microfinance loan size in the US is US$9,732, ten times the size of an average microfinance loan in developing countries (US$973).
Impact
While all microfinance institutions aim at increasing incomes and employment, in developing countries the empowerment of women, improved nutrition and improved education of the borrower's children are frequently aims of microfinance institutions. In the US and Canada, aims of microfinance include the graduation of recipients from welfare programs and an improvement in their credit rating. In the US, microfinance has created jobs directly and indirectly, as 60% of borrowers were able to hire others. According to reports, every domestic microfinance loan creates 2.4 jobs. These entrepreneurs provide wages that are, on average, 25% higher than minimum wage. Small business loans eventually allow small business owners to make their businesses their primary source of income, with 67% of the borrowers showing a significant increase in their income as a result of their participation in certain micro-loan programs. In addition, these business owners are able to improve their housing situation, 70% indicating their housing has improved. Ultimately, many of the small business owners that use social funding are able to graduate from government funding.
United States
In the late 1980s, microfinance institutions developed in the United States. They served low-income and marginalized minority communities. By 2007, there were 500 microfinance organizations operating in the US with 200 lending capital.
There were three key factors that triggered the growth in domestic microfinance:
Change in social welfare policies and focus on economic development and job creation at the macro level.
Encouragement of employment, including self-employment, as a strategy for improving the lives of the poor.
The increase in the proportion of Latin American and Asian immigrants who came from societies where microenterprises are prevalent.
These factors incentivized the public and private supports to have microlending activity in the United States.
Canada
Microfinance in Canada took shape through the development of credit unions. These credit unions provided financial services to the Canadians who could not get access to traditional financial means. Two separate branches of credit unions developed in Canada to serve the financially marginalized segment of the population. Alphonse Desjardins introduced the establishment of savings and credit services in late 1900 to the Quebecois who did not have financial access. Approximately 30 years later Father Moses Coady introduced credit unions to Nova Scotia. These were the models of the modern institutions still present in Canada today.
Efforts to transfer specific microfinance innovations such as solidarity lending from developing countries to Canada have met with little success.
Selected microfinance institutions in Canada are:
Rise Asset Development
Founded by Sandra Rotman in 2009, Rise is a Rotman and CAMH initiative that provides small business loans, leases, and lines of credit to entrepreneurs with mental health and/or addiction challenges.
Alterna Savings
Formed in 2005 through the merging of the Civil Service Savings and Loan Society and the Metro Credit Union, Alterna is a financial alternative to Canadians. Their banking policy is based on cooperative values and expert financial advising.
Access Community Capital Fund
Based in Toronto, Ontario, ACCESS is a Canadian charity that helps entrepreneurs without collateral or credit history find affordable small loans.
Montreal Community Loan Fund
Created to help eradicate poverty, Montreal Community Loan Fund provides accessible credit and technical support to entrepreneurs with low income or credit for start-ups or expansion of organizations that cannot access traditional forms of credit.
Momentum
Using the community economic development approach, Momentum offers opportunities to people living in poverty in Calgary. Momentum provides individuals and families who want to better their financial situation take control of finances, become computer literate, secure employment, borrow and repay loans for business, and purchase homes.
Vancity
Founded in 1946, Vancity is now the largest English speaking credit union in Canada.
Limitations
Complications specific to Canada include the need for loans of a substantial size in comparison to the ones typically seen in many international microfinance initiatives. Microfinance is also limited by the rules and limitations surrounding money-lending. For example, Canada Revenue Agency limits the loans made in these sort of transactions to a maximum of $25,000. As a result, many people look to banks to provide these loans. Also, microfinance in Canada is driven by profit which, as a result, fails to advance the social development of community members. Within marginalized or impoverished Canadian communities, banks may not be readily accessible to deposit or take out funds. These banks which would have charged little or no interest on small amounts of cash are replaced by lending companies. Here, these companies may charge extremely large interest rates to marginalized community members thus increasing the cycle of poverty and profiting off of another's loss.
In Canada, microfinancing competes with pay-day loans institutions which take advantage of marginalized and low-income individuals by charging extremely high, predatory interest rates. Communities with low social capital often don't have the networks to implement and support microfinance initiatives, leading to the proliferation of pay day loan institutions. Pay day loan companies are unlike traditional microfinance in that they don't encourage collectivism and social capital building in low income communities, however exist solely for profit.
Microfinance Networks and Associations
There are several professional networks of microfinance institutions, and organisations that support microfinance and financial inclusion.
MicroFinance Network
The Microfinance Network is a network of 20 to 25 of the world's largest microfinance institutions, spread across Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and Latin America. Established in 1993, the Microfinance Network provided support to members that helped steer many industry leaders to sustainability, and profitability in many of their largest markets. Today as the sector enters a new period of transition, with the rise of digital financial technology that increasingly competes with traditional microfinance institutions, the Microfinance Network provides a space to discuss opportunities and challenges that arise from emerging technological innovations in inclusive finance. The Microfinance Network convenes once a year. Members include Al Majmoua, BRAC, BancoSol, Gentera, Kamurj, LAPO, and SOGESOL.
Partnership for Responsible Financial Inclusion
The Partnership for Responsible Financial, previously known as the Microfinance CEO Working Group, is a collaborative effort of leading international organizations and their CEOs active in the microfinance and inclusive finance space, including direct microfinance practitioners, and microfinance funders. It consists of 10 members, including Accion, Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance, BRAC, CARE USA, FINCA Impact Finance, Grameen Foundation, Opportunity International, Pro Mujer, Vision Fund International and Women's World Banking. Harnessing the power of the CEOs and their senior managers, the PRFI advocates for responsible financial services and seeks catalytic opportunities to accelerate financial access to the unserved. As part of this focus, PRFI is responsible for setting up the Smart Campaign, in response to negative microfinance practices that indicated the mistreatment of clients in certain markets. The network is made up of the CEO working group, that meet quarterly and several subcommittee working groups dedicated to communications, social performance, digital financial services, and legal and human resources issues.....
European Microfinance Network
The European Microfinance Network (EMN) was established in response to many legal and political obstacles affecting the microfinance sector in Europe. The Network is involved in advocacy on a wide range of issues related to microfinance, micro-enterprises, social and financial exclusion, self-employment and employment creation. Its main activity is the organisation of its annual conference, which has taken place each year since 2004. The EMN has a wide network of over 100 members.
Microfinance Centre
The Microfinance Centre (MFC) has a membership of over 100 organisations, and is particularly strong in Eastern Europe, the Balkans and Central Asia.
Africa Microfinance Network (AFMIN)
The Africa Microfinance Network (AFMIN) is an association of microfinance networks in Africa resulting from an initiative led by African microfinance practitioners to create and/or strengthen country-level microfinance networks for the purpose of establishing shared performance standards, institutional capacity and policy change.
AFMIN was formally launched in November 2000 and has established its secretariat in Abidjan (Republic of Côte d'Ivoire), where AFMIN is legally recognized as an international Non-Governmental Organisation pursuant to Ivorian laws. Because of the political unrest in Côte d'Ivoire, AFMIN temporarily relocated its office to Cotonou in Benin.
Inclusive financial systems
The microcredit movement that began in the 1970s has emerged and morphed into a 'financial systems' approach for creating universal financial inclusion. While Grameen model of delivering small credit achieved a great deal, especially in urban and near-urban areas and with entrepreneurial families, its progress in delivering financial services in less densely populated rural areas was slow; creating the need for many and multiple models to emerge across the globe. The terms have evolved from Microcredit, to Microfinance, and now Financial Inclusion. Specialized microfinance institutions (MFIs) continue to expand their services, collaborating and competing with banks, credit unions, mobile money, and other informal and formal member owned institutions.
The new financial systems approach pragmatically acknowledges the richness of centuries of microfinance history and the immense diversity of institutions serving poor people in developing and developed economies today. It is also rooted in an increasing awareness of diversity of the financial service needs of the world's poorest people, and the diverse settings in which they live and work. It also acknowledges that quality and rage of financial services are also important for the banking system to achieve fuller and deeper financial inclusion, for all. Central banks and mainstream banks are now more intimately engaging in the financial inclusion agenda than ever before, though it is a long road, with 35–40% of world's adults remaining outside formal banking system, and many more remaining "under-banked". Advent of mobile-phone-based money management and digital finance is changing the scenario fast; though "social distance" between the economically poor or social marginalized and the banking system remains large.
Informal financial service providers
These include moneylenders, pawnbrokers, savings collectors, money-guards, ROSCAs, ASCAs and input supply shops. These continue their services because they know each other well and live in the same community, they understand each other's financial circumstances and can offer very flexible, convenient and fast services. These services can also be costly and the choice of financial products limited and very short-term. Informal services that involve savings are also risky; many people lose their money.
Member-owned organizations
These include self-help groups, Village Savings and Loan Associations (VSLAs), Credit unions, CVECAs and a variety of other members owned and governed informal or formal financial institutions. Informal groups, like their more traditional cousins, are generally small and local, which means they have access to good knowledge about each other's financial circumstances and can offer convenience and flexibility. Since they are managed by poor people, their costs of operation are low. Often, they do not need regulation and supervision, unless they grow in scale and formalize themselves by coming together to form II or III tier federations. If not prepared well, they can be 'captured' by a few influential leaders, and run the risk of members losing their savings. Experience suggests though that these informal but highly disciplined groups are very sustainable, and continue to exist even after 20–25 years. Formalization, as a Cooperative of Credit Union, can help create links with the banking system for more sophisticated financial products and additional capital for loans; but requires strong leadership and systems. These models are highly popular in many rural regions of countries across Asia, Africa, and Latin America; and a platform for creating deeper financial inclusion.
NGOs
The Microcredit Summit Campaign counted 3,316 of these MFIs and NGOs lending to about 133 million clients by the end of 2006. Led by Grameen Bank and BRAC in Bangladesh, Prodem in Bolivia, Opportunity International, and FINCA International, headquartered in Washington, DC, these NGOs have spread around the developing world in the past three decades; others, like the Gamelan Council, address larger regions. They have proven very innovative, pioneering banking techniques like solidarity lending, village banking and mobile banking that have overcome barriers to serving poor populations. However, with boards that don't necessarily represent either their capital or their customers, their governance structures can be fragile, and they can become overly dependent on external donors.
Formal financial institutions
In addition to commercial banks, these include state banks, agricultural development banks, savings banks, rural banks and non-bank financial institutions. They are regulated and supervised, offer a wider range of financial services, and control a branch network that can extend across the country and internationally. However, they have proved reluctant to adopt social missions, and due to their high costs of operation, often can't deliver services to poor or remote populations. The increasing use of alternative data in credit scoring, such as trade credit is increasing commercial banks' interest in microfinance.
Automated Loans
Automated Loans include point-of-sale loans offered by financial technology companies like Affirm, Klarna, Afterpay, and Quadpay. These “buy now, pay later” services are accelerating the automatization of the finance industry. Point-of-sale loans are embedded within retail websites to offer consumers the chance to take out a loan for the price of the product, and pay them back in installments. These “buy now, pay later” lenders either make money by having high late fees or a high interest rate, often higher than the average APR of a credit card. When applying for a loan, these companies data profile by recording the customer's history in making payments on time, social media history, income level, education, and previous purchases. Regardless of whether or not the consumer accepts the terms of the loan, these fintech companies have access to this information. Many of them have stated that they sell the information back to the merchant.
These services are often targeting marginalized groups such as low-income people as 60% of users are 18-34 years old and 40% earn under $40,000. As a result, they are trapping young consumers into a cycle of debt by ease of taking out a loan. This reinforces risky consumer habits and results in 1 out of 6 borrowers defaulting on their payments to these point of sale lenders. Moreover, the companies benefit at the expense of the consumer, so they make it seem harmless while advertising. Yet, it may hurt the consumers' credit by reporting to a credit bureau, trap them with debt, and give the merchant access to the consumer data profile. This creates a “feedback loop of injustice.”
Unfortunately, many vulnerable consumers come from low-income backgrounds and do not understand misleading practices, given their lack of digital literacy skills. When investigating these inequalities through activities related to these issues, Gangadharan (2015) discusses, “marginal users are exposed and vulnerable to various forms of profiling (e.g. committed by corporate, government, or bad actors) that target unwitting users for both intentionally and unintentionally harmful purposes.” Additionally, filling out the fields on their application without submitting the form can still send the information to the server, thus giving the company access to the information typed. However, many marginalized users come to expect a lack of data privacy given that companies engage in data profiling tactics, calling it “the price of using the internet.” Many feel that these marketplace and society see and target them as “second class citizens”. In addition, a 2015 survey conducted by the Data & Society Research Institute studying technological experiences of 3,000 adults found that, “52% of surveyed consumers from the lowest income group said they did not know what information is being collected about them or how it is being used.”
With appropriate regulation and supervision, each of these institutional types can bring leverage to solving the microfinance problem. For example, efforts are being made to link self-help groups to commercial banks, to network member-owned organizations together to achieve economies of scale and scope, and to support efforts by commercial banks to 'down-scale' by integrating mobile banking and e-payment technologies into their extensive branch networks.
Brigit Helms in her book Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems, distinguishes between four general categories of microfinance providers, and argues for a pro-active strategy of engagement with all of them to help them achieve the goals of the microfinance movement.
Microcredit and the Web
Due to the unbalanced emphasis on credit at the expense of microsavings, as well as a desire to link Western investors to the sector, peer-to-peer platforms have developed to expand the availability of microcredit through individual lenders in the developed world. New platforms that connect lenders to micro-entrepreneurs are emerging on the Web (peer-to-peer sponsors), for example MYC4, Kiva, Zidisha, myELEN, Opportunity International and the Microloan Foundation. Another Web-based microlender United Prosperity uses a variation on the usual microlending model; with United Prosperity the micro-lender provides a guarantee to a local bank which then lends back double that amount to the micro-entrepreneur. In 2009, the US-based nonprofit Zidisha became the first peer-to-peer microlending platform to link lenders and borrowers directly across international borders without local intermediaries.
The volume channeled through Kiva's peer-to-peer platform is about $100 million as of November 2009 (Kiva facilitates approximately $5M in loans each month). In comparison, the needs for microcredit are estimated about 250 bn USD as of end 2006.
Most experts agree that these funds must be sourced locally in countries that are originating microcredit, to reduce transaction costs and exchange rate risks.
There have been problems with disclosure on peer-to-peer sites, with some reporting interest rates of borrowers using the flat rate methodology instead of the familiar banking Annual Percentage Rate. The use of flat rates, which has been outlawed among regulated financial institutions in developed countries, can confuse individual lenders into believing their borrower is paying a lower interest rate than, in fact, they are. In the summer of 2017, within the framework of the joint project of the Central Bank of Russia and Yandex, a special check mark (a green circle with a tick and 'State MFO Register' text box) appeared search results on the Yandex search engine, informing the consumer that the company's financial services are offered on the marked website, which has the status of a microfinance organization.
Microfinance and social interventions
There are currently a few social interventions that have been combined with micro financing to increase awareness of HIV/AIDS. Such interventions like the "Intervention with Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Equity" (IMAGE) which incorporates microfinancing with "The Sisters-for-Life" program a participatory program that educates on different gender roles, gender-based violence, and HIV/AIDS infections to strengthen the communication skills and leadership of women "The Sisters-for-Life" program has two phases; phase one consists of ten one-hour training programs with a facilitator, and phase two consists of identifying a leader amongst the group, training them further, and allowing them to implement an action plan to their respective centres.
Microfinance has also been combined with business education and with other packages of health interventions. A project undertaken in Peru by Innovations for Poverty Action found that those borrowers randomly selected to receive financial training as part of their borrowing group meetings had higher profits, although there was not a reduction in "the proportion who reported having problems in their business". Pro Mujer, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) with operations in five Latin American countries, combines microfinance and healthcare. This approach shows that microfinance can not only help businesses to prosper; it can also foster human development and social security. Pro Mujer uses a "one-stop shop" approach, which means in one building, the clients find financial services, business training, empowerment advice and healthcare services combined.
According to technology analyst David Garrity, Microfinance and Mobile Financial Services (MFS) have provided marginal populations with access to basic financial services, including savings programs and insurance policies.
Impact and criticism
Most criticisms of microfinance have actually been criticisms of microcredit. Criticism focuses on the impact on poverty, the level of interest rates, high profits, overindebtedness and suicides. Other criticism include the role of foreign donors and working conditions in companies affiliated to microfinance institutions, particularly in Bangladesh.
Impact
The impact of microcredit is a subject of much controversy. Proponents state that it reduces poverty through higher employment and higher incomes. This is expected to lead to improved nutrition and improved education of the borrowers' children. Some argue that microcredit empowers women. In the US and Canada, it is argued that microcredit helps recipients to graduate from welfare programs.
Critics say that microcredit has not increased incomes, but has driven poor households into a debt trap, in some cases even leading to suicide. They add that the money from loans is often used for durable consumer goods or consumption instead of being used for productive investments, that it fails to empower women, and that it has not improved health or education. Moreover, as the access to micro-loans is widespread, borrowers tend to acquire several loans from different companies, making it nearly impossible to pay the debt back. As a result of such tragic events, microfinance institutions in India have agreed on setting an interest rate ceiling of 15 percent. This is important because microfinance loan recipients have a higher level of security in repaying the loans and a lower level of risk in failing to repay them.
Unintended consequences of microfinance include informal intermediaton: That is, some entrepreneurial borrowers become informal intermediaries between microfinance initiatives and poorer micro-entrepreneurs. Those who more easily qualify for microfinance split loans into smaller credit to even poorer borrowers. Informal intermediation ranges from casual intermediaries at the good or benign end of the spectrum to 'loan sharks' at the professional and sometimes criminal end of the spectrum.
Competition and market saturation
Microcredit has also received criticism for inducing market saturation and fueling problematically competitive, rather than collaborative business communities. The influx of supply generated by the creation of new microcredit-fueled-businesses can be difficult for small economies to absorb. The owners of micro-enterprises within such communities often have limited skill sets and resources available. This can cause a “copycat” phenomenon among small business due to the limited variation in products and services offerings. The high number of individuals selling similar products and services can cause new entrepreneurs to be subject to cutthroat competition over a demand that has not expanded proportionally with the supply.
Mission drift in microfinance
Mission drift refers to the phenomena through which the MFIs or the micro finance institutions increasingly try to cater to customers who are better off than their original customers, primarily the poor families. Roy Mersland and R. Øystein Strøm in their research on mission drift suggest that this selection bias can come not only through an increase in the average loan size, which allows for financially stronger individuals to get the loans, but also through the MFI's particular lending methodology, main market of operation, or even the gender bias as further mission drift measures. And as it may follow, this selective funding would lead to lower risks and lower costs for the firm.
However, economists Beatriz Armendáriz and Ariane Szafarz suggests that this phenomenon is not driven by cost minimization alone. She suggests that it happens because of the interplay between the company's mission, the cost differential between poor and unbanked wealthier clients and region specific characteristics pertaining the heterogeneity of their clientele. But in either way, this problem of selective funding leads to an ethical tradeoff where on one hand there is an economic reason for the company to restrict its loans to only the individuals who qualify the standards, and on the other hand there is an ethical responsibility to help the poor people get out of poverty through the provision of capital.
Role of foreign donors
The role of donors has also been questioned. CGAP recently commented that: "a large proportion of the money they spend is not effective, either because it gets hung up in unsuccessful and often complicated funding mechanisms (for example, a government apex facility), or it goes to partners that are not held accountable for performance. In some cases, poorly conceived programs have slowed the development of inclusive financial systems by distorting markets and displacing domestic commercial initiatives with cheap or free money."
Working conditions in enterprises affiliated to MFIs
There has also been criticism of microlenders for not taking more responsibility for the working conditions of poor households, particularly when borrowers become quasi-wage labourers, selling crafts or agricultural produce through an organization controlled by the MFI. The desire of MFIs to help their borrower diversify and increase their incomes has sparked this type of relationship in several countries, most notably Bangladesh, where hundreds of thousands of borrowers effectively work as wage labourers for the marketing subsidiaries of Grameen Bank or BRAC. Critics maintain that there are few if any rules or standards in these cases governing working hours, holidays, working conditions, safety or child labour, and few inspection regimes to correct abuses. Some of these concerns have been taken up by unions and socially responsible investment advocates.
Abuse
In Nigeria cases of fraud have been reported. Dubious banks promised their clients outrageous interest rates. These banks were closed shortly after clients had deposited money and their deposits were lost. The officials of Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation (NDIC) have warned customers about so-called "wonder banks". One initiative to prevent people from depositing money to wonder banks is the mini-series "e go better" that warns about the practices of these wonder banks.
See also
Alternative data
Chit fund
Credit union
Crowdfunding
Market Governance Mechanisms
Microcredit
Microcredit for water supply and sanitation
Microfinance in Tanzania
Microfinance organizations
Microgrant
Microinsurance
Opportunity finance
Pawnbroker
Peer-to-peer lending
Rotating savings and credit association (ROSCA)
Savings bank
WWB Colombia
Notes
Further reading
De Mariz, Frederic; Reille, Xavier; Rozas, Daniel (July 2011). Discovering Limits. Global Microfinance Valuation Survey 2011, Washington DC: Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) World Bank.
PDF.
O'Donohoe, Nick; De Mariz, Frederic; Littlefield, Elizabeth; Reille, Xavier; Kneiding, Christoph (February 2009). Shedding Light on Microfinance Equity Valuation: Past and Present, Washington DC: Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP), World Bank.
PDF.
PDF.
See also
Social finance
External links
Microfinance in Asia and the Pacific: 12 Things to Know Asian Development Bank
Accion USA's Website, a microlender for businesses in the United States
USAID Microenterprise Results Reporting (MRR) Portal
Microfinance
Economic development
Poverty
Social economy
Bangladeshi inventions
Pakistani inventions
Sustainability
Sustainable development | [
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249756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20M.%20Fleiss | Paul M. Fleiss | Paul Murray Fleiss (September 8, 1933 – July 19, 2014) was an American pediatrician and author known for his unconventional medical views. Fleiss was a popular and sought-after pediatrician in the Greater Los Angeles area, both among poor and middle-class patients living near his Los Feliz office and among Southern California celebrities. Fleiss was a breastfeeding and anti-circumcision advocate. He recommended but did not insist upon childhood vaccinations, and stated he could be "convinced either way" as to whether HIV causes AIDS. In 1994, he pleaded guilty to conspiracy and bank fraud in relation to his daughter Heidi's prostitution ring.
History
Fleiss initially trained as a pharmacist and osteopath. He relocated from Detroit to California to take advantage of 1962 legislation allowing an osteopath to convert his degree to an MD. He earned his B.S. in pharmacy from Wayne State University, his D.O. from the University of California, Irvine, and his M.P.H. from UCLA.
Fleiss was the father of "Hollywood madam" Heidi Fleiss. In 1995, he pleaded guilty to charges of conspiracy and bank fraud. He helped Heidi launder hundreds of thousands of dollars by lying on her loan application and falsely claiming that she was an employee of his medical practice. He was sentenced to one day in prison, three years' probation, 625 hours of community service and a $50,000 fine. Following the felony convictions, the Medical Board of California placed him on probation for 1 year and publicly reprimanded him for "unprofessional conduct" and "dishonesty".
Heidi Fleiss was the subject of a 1996 made-for-TV movie entitled The Good Doctor: The Paul Fleiss Story, in which Paul Fleiss (played by Michael Gross) was portrayed sympathetically, as the victim of his daughter Heidi's machinations. The New York Times noted that "the sweeping inaccuracies in 'The Good Doctor: The Paul Fleiss Story' evidently didn't hurt its ratings", and the film was subsequently retitled The Making of a Hollywood Madam, and shown on cable television.
Personal life
Fleiss was married to Elissa Ash until their divorce. He had four daughters, Heidi, Amy, Shana, and Kim, and two sons, Jesse and Jason, the latter of whom predeceased his father.
Paul Fleiss died July 19, 2014, aged 80, in Los Angeles, from undisclosed causes.
Medical views and opinions
Fleiss was known for his unconventional medical views. He was a proponent of the "family bed". While he recommended that his patients receive vaccines, he did not insist upon it. He was quoted by the Los Angeles Times as stating that he 'could be "convinced either way" on whether HIV causes AIDS'. Fleiss was a breastfeeding advocate and anti-circumcision activist, or intactivist. He was the author or co-author of three books: Sweet Dreams (2001), Your Premature Baby Comes Home with Juliette M. Alsobrooks (2006), and What Your Doctor May Not Tell You about Circumcision with Frederick M. Hodges (2003).
Pediatric practice
Fleiss was described in the Los Angeles Times as "everyone's favorite baby doctor" and having been "one of Southern California's most sought-after physicians" for thirty years. Sometimes described in the media as a "pediatrician to the stars", he counted numerous celebrities or their children among his patients.
In 2005, Fleiss was investigated for his role in the death, from untreated AIDS, of Eliza Jane Scovill, the daughter of AIDS denialist Christine Maggiore, who was HIV-positive. Against standard medical practice, Scovill was never tested for HIV, and Fleiss was investigated by the Medical Board of California for gross negligence in her care as well as in the care of a second child who was also HIV-positive.
After receiving over 100 letters of support for Fleiss from patients and parents, the medical board reached a settlement in which Fleiss conceded a failure to maintain adequate medical records and agreed to regular review by an outside physician acting as a monitor.
References
External links
1933 births
2014 deaths
20th-century American Jews
American money launderers
American pediatricians
Breastfeeding activists
Genital integrity activists
Physicians from California
Place of birth missing
University of California, Irvine alumni
UCLA School of Public Health alumni
Wayne State University alumni
American health activists
21st-century American Jews | [
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249757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s%20Sister | Shakespeare's Sister | Shakespeare's Sister can refer to:
Shakespears Sister, an alternative pop group featuring Siobhan Fahey
"Shakespeare's Sister" (song), a 1985 song by The Smiths
A section of the essay A Room of One's Own by Virginia Woolf
Joan Shakespeare, the sister of William Shakespeare | [
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249758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maliki | Maliki | The () school is one of the four major madhhabs of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas in the 8th century. The Maliki school of jurisprudence relies on the Quran and hadiths as primary sources. Unlike other Islamic fiqhs, Maliki fiqh also considers the consensus of the people of Medina to be a valid source of Islamic law.
The Maliki madhhab is one of the largest groups of Sunni Muslims, comparable to the Shafi`i madhhab in adherents, but smaller than the Hanafi madhhab. Sharia based on Maliki doctrine is predominantly found in Spain, North Africa (excluding northern and eastern Egypt), West Africa, Chad, Sudan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the Emirate of Dubai (UAE), and in northeastern parts of Saudi Arabia.
In the medieval era, the Maliki school was also found in parts of Europe under Islamic rule, particularly Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily. A major historical center of Maliki teaching, from the 9th to 11th centuries, was in the Mosque of Uqba of Tunisia.
History
Although Malik ibn Anas was himself a native of Medina, his school faced fierce competition for followers in the Muslim east, with the Shafi'i, Hanbali, and Zahiri schools all enjoying more success than Malik's school. It was eventually the Hanafi school, however, that earned official government favor from the Abbasids.
Imam Malik (who was a teacher of Imam Ash-Shafi‘i, who in turn was a teacher of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal) was a student of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (a descendant of the Islamic Nabi (Prophet) Muhammad and 6th Shi'ite Imam), as with Imam Abu Hanifah. Thus all of the four great Imams of Sunni Fiqh are connected to Ja'far, whether directly or indirectly.
The Malikis enjoyed considerably more success in Africa, and for a while in Spain and Sicily. Under the Umayyads and their remnants, the Maliki school was promoted as the official state code of law, and Maliki judges had free rein over religious practices; in return, the Malikis were expected to support and legitimize the government's right to power. This dominance in Spanish Andalus from the Umayyads up to the Almoravids continued, with Islamic law in the region dominated by the opinions of Malik and his students. The Sunnah and Hadith, or prophetic tradition in Islam, played lesser roles as Maliki jurists viewed both with suspicion, and few were well versed in either. The Almoravids eventually gave way to the predominantly-Zahiri Almohads, at which point Malikis were tolerated at times but lost official favor. With the Reconquista, the Iberian Peninsula was lost to the Muslims in totality.
Although Al-Andalus was eventually lost, the Maliki has been able to retain its dominance throughout North and West Africa to this day. Additionally, the school has traditionally been the preferred school in the small Arab States of the Persian Gulf (Bahrain, Kuwait and Qatar). While the majority of the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia follows Hanbali laws, the country's Eastern Province has been known as a Maliki stronghold for centuries.
Initially hostile to mystical practices, Malikis eventually learned to coexist with Sufi customs as the latter became widespread throughout North and West Africa. Many Muslims now adhere to both Maliki law and a Sufi order.
Principles
Maliki school's sources for Sharia are hierarchically prioritized as follows: Quran and then trustworthy Hadiths (sayings, customs and actions of Muhammad); if these sources were ambiguous on an issue, then `Amal (customs and practices of the people of Medina), followed by consensus of the Sahabah (the companions of Muhammad), then individual's opinion from the Sahabah, Qiyas (analogy), Istislah (interest and welfare of Islam and Muslims), and finally Urf (custom of people throughout the Muslim world if it did not contradict the hierarchically higher sources of Sharia).
The Mālikī school primarily derives from the work of Malik ibn Anas, particularly the Muwatta Imam Malik, also known as Al-Muwatta. The Muwaṭṭa relies on Sahih Hadiths, includes Malik ibn Anas' commentary, but it is so complete that it is considered in Maliki school to be a sound hadith in itself. Mālik included the practices of the people of Medina and where the practices are in compliance with or in variance with the hadiths reported. This is because Mālik regarded the practices of Medina (the first three generations) to be a superior proof of the "living" sunnah than isolated, although sound, hadiths. Mālik was particularly scrupulous about authenticating his sources when he did appeal to them, however, and his comparatively small collection of aḥādith, known as al-Muwaṭṭah (or, The Straight Path).
The second source, the Al-Mudawwana, is the collaborator work of Mālik's longtime student, Ibn Qāsim and his mujtahid student, Sahnun. The Mudawwanah consists of the notes of Ibn Qāsim from his sessions of learning with Mālik and answers to legal questions raised by Saḥnūn in which Ibn Qāsim quotes from Mālik, and where no notes existed, his own legal reasoning based upon the principles he learned from Mālik. These two books, i.e. the Muwaṭṭah and Mudawwanah, along with other primary books taken from other prominent students of Mālik, would find their way into the Mukhtaṣar Khalīl, which would form the basis for the later Mālikī madhhab.
Maliki school is most closely related to the Hanafi school, and the difference between them is more of a degree, rather than nature. However, unlike the Hanafi school, the Maliki school does not assign as much weight to analogy, but derives its rulings from pragmatism using the principles of istislah (public interest) wherever the Quran and Sahih Hadiths do not provide explicit guidance.
Notable differences from other schools
The Maliki school differs from the other Sunni schools of law most notably in the sources it uses for derivation of rulings. Like all Sunni schools of Sharia, the Maliki school uses the Qur'an as primary source, followed by the sayings, customs/traditions and practices of Muhammad, transmitted as hadiths. In the Mālikī school, said tradition includes not only what was recorded in hadiths, but also the legal rulings of the four rightly guided caliphs – especially Umar.
Malik bin Anas himself also accepted binding consensus and analogical reasoning along with the majority of Sunni jurists, though with conditions. Consensus was only accepted as a valid source of law if it was drawn from the first generation of Muslims in general, or the first, second or third generations from Medina, while analogy was only accepted as valid as a last resort when an answer was not found in other sources.
Notable Mālikīs
Ibn Abd al-Hakam (d. 829), one of the Egyptian scholars who developed the Maliki school in Egypt
Asbagh ibn al-Faraj (d. 840), Egyptian scholar
Yahya al-Laithi (d. 848), Andalusian scholar, introduced the Maliki school in Al-Andalus
Sahnun (AH 160/776–77 – AH 240/854–55), Sunnī jurist and author of the Mudawwanah, one of the most important works in Mālikī law
Abd al-Malik ibn Habīb (AH 174/790-241/853), a prominent student of the direct students of Imām Mālik. He collected the opinions of Imām Mālik and his students in his al-Wādiḥah, which is one of the most important works in Mālikī law and the main authoritative book on Mālikī law in al-Andalus and the Maghrib.
Ibn Abi Zayd (310/922–386/996), Tunisian Sunnī jurist and author of the Risālah, a standard work in Mālikī law
Yusuf ibn abd al-Barr (978–1071), Andalusian scholar
Ibn Tashfin (1061–1106), one of the prominent leaders of the Almoravid dynasty
Qadi Ayyad (d. 1149), a great Imam and Qadi in Maliki jurisprudence
Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126–1198), philosopher and scholar
Al-Qurtubi (1214–1273)
Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi (1228–1285), Moroccan jurist and author who lived in Egypt
Khalil ibn Ishaq al-Jundi (d. ca. 1365), Egyptian jurist, author of Mukhtasar
Ibn Battuta (February 24, 1304 – 1377), explorer
Ibn Khaldūn (1332/AH 732–1406/AH 808), scholar, historian and author of the Muqaddimah
Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi (d. 1388), a famous Andalusian Maliki jurist
Sidi Boushaki (d. 1453), a famous Algerian Maliki jurist
Sidi Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi (d. 1479), a famous Algerian Maliki jurist
Contemporary Malikis
Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817), founder of the Sokoto Caliphate
El Hadj Umar Tall (1794–1864), founder of the Toucouleur Empire
Emir Abdelkader (1808–1883), Algerian sufi and politician, religious and military leader who led a struggle against the French colonial invasion
Ahmad al-Alawi (1869–1934), Algerian Sufi leader
Omar Mukhtar (1862–1931), Libyan resistance leader
Abdallah bin Bayyah (born 1935), Mauritanian professor of Islamic Legal Methodology at King Abdulaziz University
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi, Moroccan resistance leader
Abu-Abdullah Adelabu
Sherman Jackson
Abdalqadir as-Sufi (1930–2021), Scottish shaykh and founder of the Murabitun World Movement
Hamza Yusuf (born 1958), American scholar and co-founder of Zaytuna College
Suhaib Webb
Abdullahi Aliyu Sumaila
Ahmed Saad Al-Azhari, British Islamic scholar and a graduate of Al-Azhar university. Saad was formerly a Shafi’i before adopting the Maliki
See also
Outline of Islam
Glossary of Islam
List of Islamic scholars
The Seven Fuqaha of Medina
Malikism in Algeria
Adhan
Islamic views on sin
References
Further reading
Cilardo, Agostino (2014), Maliki Fiqh, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO
Chouki El Hamel (2012), Slavery in Maliki School in the Maghreb, in Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam, Cambridge University Press,
Thomas Eich (2009), Induced Miscarriage (Abortion) in Early Maliki and Hanafi Fiqh, Islamic Law & Society, Vol. 16, pp. 302–336
Janina Safran (2003), Rules of purity and confessional boundaries: Maliki debates about the pollution of the Christian, History of religions, Vol. 42 No. 3, pp. 197–212
FH Ruxton (1913), The Convert's Status in Maliki Law, The Muslim World, Vol 3, Issue 1, pp. 37–40,
External links
Partial Translation of Mālik's Al-Muwaṭṭah University of Southern California
Malikiyyah Bulend Shanay, Lancaster University
Biographical summary of Imam Mālik
Al-Risalah of 'Abdullah ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani 10th century Maliki text on Islamic law, Translated by Aisha Bewley
French translations of a variety of important Mālikī source texts
Madhhab
Schools of Sunni jurisprudence
Sunni Islamic branches
Sunni Islam | [
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249761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronius%20%28oil%20platform%29 | Petronius (oil platform) | Petronius is a deepwater compliant tower oil platform built from 1997 to 2000 and operated by Chevron in the Gulf of Mexico, 210 km southeast of New Orleans, United States.
A compliant piled tower design, it is 640 metres (2,100 ft) high to the tip of flare boom from the mudline (sea floor) and was arguably the tallest free-standing structure in the world, until surpassed by the Burj Khalifa in 2010. This claim is disputed since only 75 metres of the platform are above water and it's unknown if the structure could have supported itself if built on land as it is partially supported by buoyancy. The multi-deck topsides are 64 metres by 43 metres by 18.3 metres high and hold 21 well slots. The compliant tower weighs around 43,000 tons with the topside weighing in at an additional 7,500 tons Around 9,600 m3 (60,000 barrels) of oil and 3,000,000 m3 (100 million cubic feet) of natural gas are extracted daily by the platform.
The platform is situated to exploit the Petronius field, discovered in 1995 in Viosca Knoll (block VK 786) and named after Petronius, the Roman writer. The seabed is 535 m (1,754 ft) below the platform. The compliant tower design is more flexible than conventional land structures to cope better with sea forces. It can deflect (sway) in excess of 2% of height. Most buildings are kept to within 0.5% of height in order to have occupants not feel uneasy during periods of movement.
Construction began in 1997 by J Ray McDermott with the seabed mooring system. The contract for the platform was budgeted at $200 million with total costs of around $500 million. The 4000-tonne North Module was installed in November 1998, but the attempt to install the slightly lighter South Module in December of that year ended with the unit on the seabed. A replacement module was built and installed by Saipem 7000 in May 2000.
See also
List of tallest freestanding steel structures
List of tallest oil platforms
List of tallest structures
Offshore oil and gas in the US Gulf of Mexico
References
External links
Texaco press release May 4, 2000)
Petronius on SkyscraperPage.com
Link broken.
Energy infrastructure completed in 2000
Oil platforms off the United States
Petroleum industry in the Gulf of Mexico
Energy infrastructure in Louisiana
Marathon Oil
2000 establishments in Louisiana | [
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249762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura%20Sadler | Laura Sadler | Laura Ruth Sadler (25 December 1980 – 19 June 2003) was an English actress. She played pupil Judi Jeffreys in the children's school drama series Grange Hill, and nurse Sandy Harper in the BBC One hospital drama series Holby City for three years from 2000 until her death in 2003.
Life and career
Sadler was born in Ascot, Berkshire, and grew up in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire. As a young girl she enrolled at the Jackie Palmer Stage School in High Wycombe, before joining the Sylvia Young Theatre School in London. She was spotted as a future talent at the age of six by Dustin Hoffman, who had seen her in a play and asked to meet her. Before joining the cast of Holby City, her best-known role had been as the character Judi Jeffreys in the children's television series Grange Hill from 1997 to 1999. Her Grange Hill character was killed after slipping and falling out of a burning building, tragically paralleling her real-life death four years later. Laura also played the part of Skirty Marm in a BBC1 children's comedy, Belfry Witches. Skirty Marm and her friend Old Noshie (Lucy Davis) were teenage witches banished to Earth from Witch Island, settling in a sleepy village where they caused mischief.
In 1996 she starred in the feature film Intimate Relations alongside Julie Walters, where she played a Lolita-like girl with a crush on her mother's adulterous lover. She joined the cast of Holby City, a spin-off series from the long-running BBC medical drama series Casualty, in the show's third series, playing the nurse Sandy Harper up until her death.
Death
In the early hours of 15 June 2003, Sadler fell 40 feet (12 metres) from the balcony of the Holland Park flat of her boyfriend and Holby City colleague George Calil. She had consumed a large quantity of alcohol and was later found to have had traces of diazepam and cocaine derivatives in her blood. She suffered severe head injuries and never regained consciousness. Her family decided to take her off life support on 18 June 2003 and she died at Charing Cross Hospital a day later. Her funeral was held at St. Mary's and All Saints' Church in Beaconsfield, and she was cremated at Chilterns Crematorium. Calil was questioned by police, but later released on bail and never charged. Sadler's death was ruled as an accident.
Sadler's character Sandy Harper continued to appear in pre-recorded episodes of Holby City for a while after her death. Her mother aided the show's writers in conceiving an exit storyline for the character. In the episode, which was broadcast in September 2003, Sandy was revealed to have won the lottery and subsequently emigrated to Australia.
References
External links
BBC News - Holby actor speaks of shock
1980 births
2003 deaths
Accidental deaths from falls
Accidental deaths in London
English child actresses
English film actresses
English stage actresses
English television actresses
English voice actresses
People from Ascot, Berkshire
Actresses from Berkshire
People from High Wycombe
Actresses from Buckinghamshire
Alumni of the Sylvia Young Theatre School | [
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249765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandragupta%20II | Chandragupta II | Chandragupta II (Gupta script: Cha-ndra-gu-pta, r. ), also known by his title Vikramaditya, was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta Empire in India.
Chandragupta continued the expansionist policy of his father Samudragupta: historical evidence suggests that he defeated the Western Kshatrapas, and extended the Gupta empire from the Indus River in the west to the Bengal region in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Narmada River in the south. His daughter Prabhavatigupta was a queen of the southern Vakataka kingdom, and he may have had influence in the Vakataka territory during her regency.
The Gupta empire reached its zenith during the rule of Chandragupta. Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited India during his reign, suggests that he ruled over a peaceful and prosperous kingdom. The legendary figure of Vikramaditya is probably based on Chandragupta II (among other kings), and the noted Sanskrit poet Kalidasa may have been his court poet.
Names and titles
Chandragupta II was the second ruler of the dynasty to bear the name "Chandragupta", the first being his grandfather Chandragupta I. He was also simply known as "Chandra", as attested by his coins. The Sanchi inscription of his officer Amrakardava states that he was also known as Deva-raja. The records of his daughter Prabhavatigupta, issued as a Vakataka queen, call him Chandragupta as well as Deva-gupta. Deva-shri (IAST: Devaśri) is another variation of this name. The Delhi iron pillar inscription states that king Chandra was also known as "Dhava": if this king Chandra is identified with Chandragupta (see below), it appears that "Dhava" was another name for the king. Another possibility is that "dhava" is a mistake for a common noun "bhava", although this is unlikely, as the rest of the inscription does not contain any errors.
A passage in the Vishnu Purana suggests that major parts of the eastern coast of India - Kosala, Odra, Tamralipta, and Puri - were ruled by the Devarakshitas around the same time as the Guptas. Since it seems unlikely that an obscure dynasty named Devarakshita was powerful enough to control substantial territory during the Gupta period, some scholars, such as Dasharatha Sharma, theorize that "Deva-rakshita" (IAST: Devarakṣita) was another name for Chandragupta II. Others, such as D. K. Ganguly, oppose this theory, arguing that this identification is quite arbitrary, and cannot be explained satisfactorily.
Chandragupta assumed the titles Bhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja, and bore the epithet Apratiratha ("having no equal or antagonist"). The Supiya stone pillar inscription, issued during the reign of his descendant Skandagupta, also calls him "Vikramaditya".
Early life
Chandragupta was a son of Samudragupta and queen Dattadevi, as attested by his own inscriptions. According to the official Gupta genealogy, Chandragupta succeeded his father on the Gupta throne. The Sanskrit play Devichandraguptam, combined with other evidence suggests that he had an elder brother named Ramagupta, who preceded him on the throne. In the play, Ramagupta decides to surrender his queen Dhruvadevi to a Shaka enemy when besieged, but Chandragupta goes to the enemy camp disguised as the queen and kills the enemy. Sometime later, Chandragupta dethrones Ramagupta, and becomes the new king. The historicity of this narrative is debated among modern historians, with some believing it to be based on true historical events, while others dismissing it as a work of fiction.
Period of reign
The Mathura pillar inscription of Chandragupta II (as well as some other Gupta inscriptions) mention two dates: several historians have assumed that one of these dates denotes the king's regnal year, while the other date denotes the year of the Gupta calendar era. However, Indologist Harry Falk in 2004 has theorized that the date understood to be the regnal year by the earlier scholars is actually a date of the kālānuvarttamāna system. According to Falk, the kālānuvarttamāna system is a continuation of the Kushana calendar era established by emperor Kanishka, whose coronation Falk dates to 127 CE. The Kushana era restarts counting after a hundred years (e.g. the year after 100 is 1, not 101).
The date portion of the Mathura inscription reads (in IAST):
candragupta-sya vijarajya-saṃvatsa[re] ... kālānuvarttamāna-saṃvatsare ekaṣaṣṭhe 60 ... [pra]thame śukla-divase paṃcāmyaṃ
The letters before the words kālānuvarttamāna-saṃvatsare are abraded in the inscription, but historian D. R. Bhandarkar (1931-1932) reconstructed them as gupta, and translated the term gupta-kālānuvarttamāna-saṃvatsare as "year following the Gupta era". He translated the entire sentence as:
"In the ... year of ... Chandragupta, ... on the fifth of the bright half of the first (Ashadha) of the year 61 following the Gupta era".
Historian D. C. Sircar (1942) restored the missing letters as "[paṃ]cāme" ("fifth"), and concluded that the inscription was dated to the Chandragupta's fifth regnal year. The missing letters have alternatively been read as "prathame" ("first"). According to these interpretations, the inscription is thus dated in year 61 of the Gupta era, and either the first or the fifth regnal year of Chandragupta. Assuming that the Gupta era starts around 319-320 CE, the beginning of Chandragupta's reign can be dated to either 376-377 CE or 380-381 CE.
Falk agrees that the missing letters denote a numerical year, but dismisses Sircar's reading as "mere imagination", pointing out that the missing letters are "abraded beyond recovery". In support of his Kushana era theory, Falk presents four Gupta inscriptions (in chronological order) that mention the term kālānuvarttamāna-saṃvatsare:
Falk notes that the "dynastic year" in the table above appears to be a year of the Gupta era. The kālānuvarttamāna year cannot be regnal year, because Chandragupta I is not known to have ruled for as long as 61 years. If we assume "61" of the Mathura pillar inscription denotes a year of the Gupta era (as assumed by Bhandarkar, Sircar and other scholars), we must assume that "15" of the Buddhist image pedestal also denotes a year of the Gupta era: this is obviously incorrect, since Kumaragupta I ruled after Chandragupta II. Scholars K.K. Thaplyal and R.C. Sharma, who studied the Buddhist image pedestal inscription, speculated that the scribe had mistakenly interchanged the years 121 and 15, but Falk calls this assumption unnecessary.
According to Falk, the discrepancy can be explained satisfactorily, if we assume that the kālānuvarttamāna era denotes a system that restarts counting after a hundred years. The Yaksha figure inscription is dated to year 112 of the Gupta era (c. 432 CE), which corresponds to the kālānuvarttamāna year 5. Thus, the kālānuvarttamāna era used during Kumaragupta's time must have started in 432-5 = 427 CE. The years mentioned in the Buddhist image pedestal inscription also suggests that the epoch of this era was c. 426-427 CE. Since the kālānuvarttamāna system restarts counting every 100 years, the kālānuvarttamāna era used during the reign of Chandragupta II must have started in 327 CE. Thus, the Mathura inscription can be dated to 327+61 = c. 388 CE. While Falk's theory does not change the Gupta chronology significantly, it implies that the date of the Mathura inscription cannot be used to determine the beginning of Chandragupta's reign.
The Sanchi inscription, dated to 412-413 CE (year 93 of the Gupta era), is the last known dated inscription of Chandragupta. His son Kumaragupta was on the throne by the 415-416 CE (year 96 of the Gupta era), so Chandragupta's reign must have ended sometime during 412-415 CE.
Military career
The Udayagiri inscription of Chandragupta's foreign minister Virasena suggests that the king had a distinguished military career. It states that he "bought the earth", paying for it with his prowess, and reduced the other kings to the status of slaves. His empire seems to have extended from the mouth of the Indus and northern Pakistan in the west to the Bengal region in the east, and from the Himalayan terai region in the north to the Narmada River in the south.
Chandragupta's father Samudragupta and his son Kumaragupta I are known to have performed the Ashvamedha horse sacrifice to proclaim their military prowess. In the 20th century, the discovery of a stone image of a horse found near Varanasi, and the misreading of its inscription as "Chandramgu" (taken to be "Chandragupta"), led to speculation that Chandragupta also performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice. However, there is no actual evidence to support this theory.
Western Kshatrapas
Historical and literary evidence suggests that Chandragupta II achieved military successes against the Western Kshatrapas (also known as Shakas), who ruled in west-central India. The Allahabad Pillar inscription of Chandragupta's father Samudragupta names the "Shaka-Murundas" among the kings who tried to appease him. It may be possible that Samudragupta reduced the Shakas to a state of subordinate alliance, and Chandragupta completely subjugated them.
Virasena's Udayagiri inscription describes him as a resident of Pataliputra, and states that he came to Udayagiri in Central India with the king who sought to "conquer the whole world". This indicates that Chandragupta had reached Udayagiri in central India during a military campaign. The theory that Chandragupta led an army to Central India is also corroborated by the c. 412-413 CE (Gupta year 93) Sanchi inscription of Amrakardava, who is said to have "acquired victory and fame in many battles and whose livelihood was secured by serving Chandragupta." A c. 401-402 CE (Gupta year 82) inscription of Chandragupta's feudatory Maharaja Sanakanika has also been discovered in Central India. The only important power to have ruled in this region during Chandragupta's period were the Western Kshatrapas, whose rule is attested by their distinct coinage. The coins issued by the Western Kshatrapa rulers abruptly come to end in the last decade of the 4th century. The coins of this type reappear in the second decade of the 5th century, and are dated in the Gupta era, which suggests that Chandragupta subjugated the Western Kshatrapas.
The exact date of Chandragupta's victory is not known, but it can be tentatively dated to sometime between 397 and 409 CE. The last of the 4th century Kshatrapa coins - that of Rudrasimha III - can be dated to the Shaka year 310 or 319 (the coin legend is partially lost), that is 388 CE or 397 CE. Chandragupta's coins, dated to 409, are similar to the Kshtrapa coins, with the Shakas' Buddhist vihara symbol replaced by the Gupta symbol of Garuda.
Literary evidence also corroborates Chandragupta's victory over the Western Kshatrapas. The Sanskrit play Devichandraguptam, whose historicity is disputed, narrates that Chandragupta's elder brother Ramagupta agreed to surrender his queen Dhruvadevi to a Shaka chief when besieged, but Chandragupta went to the enemy camp disguised as the queen, and killed the Shaka chief. Chandragupta bore the title Vikramaditya, and several Indian legends talk of king Vikramaditya who defeated the Shakas. Several modern scholars have theorized that these legends may be based on Chandragupta's victory over the Shakas.
As a result of his victory over the Western Kshatrapas, Chandragupta must have extended his empire up to the Arabian Sea coast in present-day Gujarat.
Other military victories
The iron pillar of Delhi contains an inscription of a king called "Chandra". Modern scholars generally identify this king with Chandragupta II, although this cannot be said with complete certainty.
While alternative identifications have been proposed, there is strong evidence for identifying Chandra of the iron pillar inscription as Chandragupta II:
Chandragupta's coins refer to him as "Chandra".
According to the iron pillar inscription, Chandra was a devotee of Vishnu. Chandragupta was also a Vaishnavite, and is described as a Bhagvata (devotee of Vishnu) in the Gupta records.
The iron pillar is said to have been set up by king Chandra in honour of Vishnu, on a hill named Vishnu-pada, but the king seems to have died shortly before the inscription was engraved, as the inscription states that "the king has quit the earth and gone to the other world". A similar Vishnu-dhvaja (flagpole in honour of Vishnu) was set up the Gupta emperor Skandagupta (a grandson of Chandragupta) after the death of his father Kumaragupta I.
According to his Udayagiri inscription, Chandragupta went on a digvijaya ("conquest of all quarters") campaign. He is known to have been a powerful sovereign emperor, and this fits in well with the iron pillar inscription's description of king Chandra as someone who "attained sole supreme sovereignty in the world acquired by his own arm and (enjoyed) for a very long time".
The iron pillar inscription states that the southern ocean is "perfumed by the breezes" of Chandra's prowess. This may be a reference to Chandragupta's extension of the Gupta rule to the Arabian Sea after his conquest of the Western Kshatrapa territory. Arabian Sea was located to the south of the Gupta empire, and thus, the term "southern ocean" is applicable to it in this context.
The iron pillar inscription states that "his name was Chandra and he was holding the glory of a full moon on his face". This is reminiscent of his descendant Skandagupta's Mandasaur inscription, which describes Chandragupta as "a moon in the galaxy of Gupta kings with the famous name Chandragupta".
The iron pillar inscription credits Chandra with the following victories:
Defeated an alliance of enemies in the Vanga country
Crossed the "seven faces" of the river Sindhu (Indus) during a war, and defeated the Vahlikas.
Punjab region
If Chandra is identified with Chandragupta, it appears that Chandragupta marched through the Punjab region, and advanced up to the country of the Vahlikas, that is, Balkh in present-day Afghanistan. Some short Sanskrit inscriptions at the Sacred Rock of Hunza (in present-day Pakistan), written in Gupta script, mention the name Chandra. A few of these inscriptions also mention the name Harishena, and one particular inscription mentions Chandra with the epithet "Vikramaditya". Based on the identification of "Chandra" with Chandragupta, and Harishena with the Gupta courtier Harishena, these inscriptions can be considered as further evidence of a Gupta military campaign in the area. However, this identification is not certain, and Chandra of the Hunza inscriptions could have well been a local ruler.
According to Sten Konow, the term "seven faces", mentioned in the iron pillar inscription, refers to the seven mouths of Indus. Historians R. C. Majumdar and K. P. Jayaswal, on the other hand, believe that the term refers to the tributaries of Indus: the five rivers of Punjab (Jhelum, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas, and Chenab), plus possibly the Kabul and the Kunar rivers.
It is quite possible that Chandragupta passed through the Punjab region during this campaign: his political influence in this region is attested to by the use of the Gupta era in an inscription found at Shorkot, and by some coins bearing the name "Chandragupta". However, there is no evidence that Chandragupta annexed Punjab to the Gupta Empire, which suggests that Chandragupta's victory in this region was not a decisive one. There is little evidence of Gupta influence in Punjab after his reign: numismatic evidence suggests that Punjab was ruled by petty chieftains after his death. These chieftains bore Indian names, but issued coins that imitate the Kidarite coinage: they may have been Hinduized foreigners or Indians continuing the usage of foreign-style coinage.
Bengal region
The identification of Chandra with Chandragupta II also suggests Chandragupta achieved victories in the Vanga area in the present-day Bengal region. According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription of his father Samudragupta, the Samatata kingdom of the Bengal region was a Gupta tributary. The Guptas are known to have been ruling Bengal in the early 6th century CE, although there are no surviving records of the Gupta presence in this region for the intervening period.
It is possible that a large part of the Bengal region was annexed to the Gupta empire by Chandragupta, and that this control continued into the 6th century. The Delhi iron pillar inscription suggests that an alliance of semi-independent chiefs of Bengal unsuccessfully resisted Chandragupta's attempts to extend the Gupta influence in this region.
Personal life and matrimonial alliances
Gupta records mention Dhruvadevi as Chandragupta's queen, and the mother of his successor Kumaragupta I. The Basarh clay seal mentions Dhruva-svamini as a queen of Chandragupta, and the mother of Govindagupta. It is unlikely that Chandragupta had two different queens with similar names: it appears that Dhruvasvamini was most probably another name for Dhruvadevi, and that Govindagupta was a uterine brother of Kumaragupta.
Chandragupta also married Kuvera-naga (alias Kuberanaga), whose name indicates that she was a princess of the Naga dynasty, which held considerable power in central India before Samudragupta subjugated them. This matrimonial alliance may have helped Chandragupta consolidate the Gupta empire, and the Nagas may have helped him in his war against the Western Kshatrapas.
Prabhavati-gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta and Kuvera-naga, married the Vakataka king Rudrasena II, who ruled in the Deccan region to the south of the Gupta empire. After her husband's death in c. 390, Prabhavati-gupta acted as a regent for her minor sons. In the two copper-plate inscriptions issued during her regency, the names of her Gupta ancestors with their imperial titles appear before the name of the Vakataka king with the lesser title Maharaja. This suggests that the Gupta court may have had influence in the Vakataka administration during her regency. Historians Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund believe that the Vakataka kingdom was "practically part of the Gupta empire" during her 20-year long regency. The Vakatakas may have supported Chandragupta during his conflict with the Western Kshatrapas.
The Guptas also appear to have entered into a matrimonial alliance with the Kadamba dynasty, the southern neighbours of the Vakatakas. The Talagunda pillar inscription suggests that the daughters of the Kadamba king Kakusthavarman, married into other royal families, including that of the Guptas. While Kakusthavarman was a contemporary of Chandragupta's son Kumaragupta I, it is noteworthy that some medieval chiefs of present-day Karnataka (where the Kadambas ruled) claimed descent from Chandragupta. According to the Vikramaditya legends, emperor Vikramaditya (a character believed to be based on Chandragupta) sent his court poet Kalidasa as an ambassador to the lord of Kuntala. While the Kuntala king referred to in this legend has been identified by some scholars with a Vakataka king, it is more likely that he was a Kadamba king, because the Vakataka king did not rule over Kuntala, and was never called the lord of Kuntala.
Administration
Several feudatories of Chandragupta are known from historical records:
Maharaja Sanakanika, a feudatory known from the Udayagiri inscription that records his construction of a Vaishnava temple.
Maharaja Trikamala, a feudatory known from a Gaya inscription engraved on a Bodhisattva image
Maharaja Shri Vishvamitra Svami, a feudaotry known from a seal found at Vidisha
Maharaja Svamidasa, the ruler of Valkha, was also probably a Gupta feudatory if we assume that his inscription is dated in the Gupta calendar era; according to another theory, his inscription is dated in the Kalachuri calendar era.
The following ministers and officers of Chandragupta are known from various historical records:
Vira-sena, foreign minister, known from the Udayagiri inscription recording his construction of a Shiva temple
Amrakardava, a military officer, known from the Sanchi inscription recording his donations to the local Buddhist monastery
Shikhara-svami, a minister; according to historian K. P. Jayaswal's theory, he was the author of the political treatise Kamandakiya Niti
Navaratnas
Jyotirvidabharana (22.10), a treatise attributed to Kalidasa, states that nine famous scholars known as the Navaratnas ("nine gems") attended the court of the legendary Vikramaditya. Besides Kalidasa himself, these included Amarasimha, Dhanvantari, Ghatakarapara, Kshapanaka, Shanku, Varahamihira, Vararuchi, and Vetala Bhatta. However, there is no historical evidence to show that these nine scholars were contemporary figures or proteges of the same king. Jyotirvidabharana is considered a literary forgery of a date later than Kalidasa by multiple scholars. There is no mention of such "Navaratnas" in earlier literature, and D. C. Sircar calls this tradition "absolutely worthless for historical purposes".
Nevertheless, multiple scholars believe that one of these Navaratnas – Kalidasa – may have indeed flourished during the reign of Chandragupta II. These scholars include William Jones, A. B. Keith, and Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi among others. It is possible that Kalidasa was a court poet of Chandragupta.
Religion
Many gold and silver coins of Chandragupta, as well the inscriptions issued by him and his successors, describe him as a parama-bhagvata, that is, a devotee of the god Vishnu. One of his gold coins, discovered at Bayana, calls him chakra-vikramah, literally, "[one who is] powerful [due to his possession of the] discus", and shows him receiving a discus from Vishnu.
An Udayagiri inscription records the construction of a Vaishnava cave temple by Chandragupta's feudatory Maharaja Sanakanika, in year 82 of the Gupta era (c. 401-402 CE).
Chandragupta was also tolerant of other faiths. The Udayagiri inscription of Chandragupta's foreign minister Virasena records the construction of a temple dedicated to the god Shambhu (Shiva). An inscription found at Sanchi near Udayagiri records donations to the local Buddhist monastery by his military officer Amrakardava, in year 93 of the Gupta era (c. 412-413 CE).
Faxian's visit
Chinese pilgrim Faxian visited India during the reign of Chandragupta, and spent around six years in the Gupta kingdom. He was mostly interested in Buddhist religious affairs, and did not bother to record the name of the reigning king. His account presents an idealized picture of the Gupta administration, and not everything he states can be taken at face value. However, his description of the kingdom as a peaceful and prosperous one seems to be generally true, attested by the fact that he did not face any brigandage unlike the later Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang.
Faxian describes Madhya-desha ("Middle Kingdom"), the region to the south-east of Mathura, as a populous region with good climate and happy people. He mentions that the citizens were not required to "register their households or attend to any magistrates and their rules". Faxian mentions that wicked repeated rebels had their right hand cut off by the king's administration, but otherwise, there was no corporal punishment for crimes: the criminals were only fined, lightly or heavily, according to the severity of the crime. According to Faxian, the king's bodyguards and attendants all received salaries.
Faxian mentions that other than the untouchable Chandalas, the people did not consume meat, intoxicating drinks, onions or garlic. The Chandalas lived apart from other people, and struck a piece of wood to announce their presence when they entered a city or a marketplace: this would enable other people to avoid contact with them. Only the Chandalas engaged in the fisheries and hunting, and sold meat. In the general markets, there were no butchers' shops or alcohol dealers, and the people did not keep pigs or fowl. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, Faxian's observations about the people's food habits seem to have been based on his contact with the Buddhist religious community, and may not be applicable to the general public.
Faxian mentions that the people used cowries for buying and selling goods.
Faxian mentions the Pataliputra region as the most prosperous part of the Middle Kingdom, describing its people as benevolent and righteous. He describes an annual Buddhist celebration, which involved a procession of 20 grand carts of Buddhas, the Brahmanas's invitation to the Buddhas to enter the city, and music performances. He mentions that in the cities, the Vaishya chiefs had established centers for dispensing charity and medical help to the destitute. These centres attracted the poor, the orphans, the widowers, the childless, the handicapped, and the sick, who were examined by doctors and given food and medicine until they got better.
Inscriptions
The following inscriptions of Chandragupta have been discovered:
Mathura pillar inscription, dated to the year 61 of the Gupta era. The date has been interpreted as c. 380-381 CE by earlier scholars, but Harry Falk (2004) dates it to 388 CE (see Period of reign section above).
Mathura pillar inscription, undated
Udayagiri cave inscription, dated to the year 82 of the Gupta era
Udayagiri cave inscription, undated
Gadhwa stone inscription, dated to the year 88 of the Gupta era
Sanchi stone inscription, dated to the year 93 of the Gupta era
Mehrauli iron pillar inscription, undated
Coinage
Chandragupta continued issuing most of the gold coin types introduced by his father Samudragupta, such as the Sceptre type (rare for Chandragupta II), the Archer type, and the Tiger-Slayer type. However, Chandragupta II also introduced several new types, such as the Horseman type and the Lion-slayer type, both of which were used by his son Kumaragupta I.
Chandragupta's various gold coins depict his martial spirit or peacetime pursuits.
Lion-slayer type
These coins depict Chandragupta slaying a lion, and bear the legend simha-vikrama. Similar coins issued by his father Samudragupta depict the king slaying a tiger, and bear the legend vyaghra-parakramaha. Historian R. C. Majumdar theorizes that Chandragupta's conquest of present-day Gujarat (where the Asiatic lion is found) may have presented him with an opportunity to hunt lions, resulting in the substition of tiger with lion on the imperial coins.
Couch-and-flower type
These coins depict Chandragupta seated on a couch, and holding a flower in his right hand. The legend "rupa-kriti" occurs below the couch. These coins are similar to Samudragupta's coins which depict the king playing a musical instrument.
Rider type
These coins depict the king riding a fully-caparisoned horse.
In addition, Chandragupta II was the first Gupta king to issue silver coins. These coins were intended to replace the silver coinage of the Western Kshatrapas after Chandragupta II defeated them, and were modelled on the Kshatrapa coinage. The main difference was to replace the dynastic symbol of the Kshatrapas (the three-arched hill) by the dynastic symbol of the Guptas (the mythic eagle Garuda). The obverse of these coins depicts a bust of the king, with corrupted Greek legend "OOIHU". The reverse features the Brahmi script legend "Chandragupta Vikramaditya, King of Kings, and a devotee of Vishnu", around Garuda, the mythic eagle and dynastic symbol of the Guptas.
Personality
The Udayagiri inscription of Virasena describes Chandragupta as a "king of kings" as well as an ascetic rajadhirajarshi, and declares that his activities were "beyond comprehension".
Identification with the legendary Vikramaditya
Vikramaditya is a legendary emperor of ancient India, who is characterised as the ideal king, known for his generosity, courage, and patronage to scholars. A number of historians believe that at least some of the Vikramaditya legends are based on Chandragupta II. These historians include D. R. Bhandarkar, V. V. Mirashi and D. C. Sircar among others.
Based on some coins and the Supia pillar inscription, it is believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title "Vikramaditya". The Khambat and Sangli plates of the Rashtrakuta king Govinda IV use the epithet "Sahasanka" for Chandragupta II. The name "Sahasanka" has also been applied to the legendary Vikramaditya.
The legendary Vikramaditya is said to have defeated the Śaka invaders, and was therefore, known as Śakari ("enemy of the Śakas). Chandragupta II conquered Malwa after defeating the Western Kshatrapas (a branch of Śakas); he also expelled the Kushanas from Mathura. His victory over these foreign tribes was probably transposed on upon a fictional character, resulting in the Vikramaditya legends.
According to most legends, Vikramaditya had his capital at Ujjain, although some legends mention him as the king of Pataliputra. The Guptas had their capital at Pataliputra. According to D. C. Sircar, Chandragupta II may have defeated the Shaka invaders of Ujjain, and placed his son Govindagupta as a viceroy there. As a result, Ujjain might have become a second capital of the Gupta empire, and subsequently, legends about him (as Vikramaditya) might have developed. Guttas of Guttavalal, a minor dynasty based in present-day Karnataka, claimed descent from the imperial Guptas. The Caudadanapura inscription of the Guttas alludes to the legendary Vikramaditya ruling from Ujjayni, and several Gutta royals were named "Vikramaditya". According to Vasundhara Filliozat, their reference to the legendary Vikramaditya is simply because they confused him with Chandragupta II. However, D. C. Sircar sees this as further proof that the legendary Vikramaditya was based on Chandragupta II.
Vikram Samvat
Vikrama Samvat, an Indian calendar era beginning in 57 BCE, is associated with the legendary Vikramaditya. However, this association did not exist before 9th century CE. The earlier sources call this era by various names, including Kṛṭa, the era of the Malava tribe, or simply, Samvat. Scholars such as D. C. Sircar and D. R. Bhandarkar believe that the name of the era changed to "Vikram Samvat" after the reign of Chandragupta II, who had adopted the title Vikramaditya.
References
Bibliography
External links
Coins of Chandragupta II
Gupta Empire
4th-century Indian monarchs
5th-century Indian monarchs
Year of birth unknown
410s deaths
History of Malwa | [
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249773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killifish | Killifish | A killifish is any of various oviparous (egg-laying) cyprinodontiform fish (including families Aplocheilidae, Cyprinodontidae, Fundulidae, Profundulidae and Valenciidae). All together, there are 1,270 species of killifish, the biggest family being Rivulidae, containing more than 320 species. As an adaptation to living in ephemeral waters, the eggs of most killifish can survive periods of partial dehydration. Many of the species rely on such a diapause, since the eggs would not survive more than a few weeks if entirely submerged in water. The adults of some species, such as Kryptolebias marmoratus, can additionally survive out of the water for several weeks. Most killies are small fish, from , with the largest species growing to just under .
The word killifish is of uncertain origin, but is likely to have come from the Dutch kil for a kill (small stream). Although killifish is sometimes used as an English equivalent to the taxonomical term Cyprinodontidae, some species belonging to that family have their own common names, such as the pupfish and the mummichog.
Range and habitat
Killifish are found mainly in fresh or brackish waters in the Americas, as far south as Argentina and as far north as southern Ontario. There are also species in southern Europe, in much of Africa as far south as KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, in the Middle East and Asia (as far east as Vietnam), and on several Indian Ocean islands.
The majority of killifish are found in permanent streams, rivers, and lakes, and live between two and three years. Such killifish are common in the Americas (Cyprinodon, Fundulus and Rivulus) as well as in Africa and Asia (including Aphyosemion, Aplocheilus, Epiplatys, Fundulopanchax and Lacustricola) and southern Europe (Aphanius). Some of these habitats can be rather extreme; the only natural habitat of the Devils Hole pupfish (Cyprinodon diabolis) is Devils Hole: a cavern at least deep, branching out from a small opening at the surface, approximately by wide.
Some specialized forms live in temporary ponds and flood plains, and typically have a much shorter lifespan. Such species, known as "annuals", live no longer than nine months, and are used as models for studies on aging. Examples include the African genus Nothobranchius and South American genera ranging from the cold water Austrolebias of Argentina and Uruguay to the more tropical Gnatholebias, Pterolebias, Simpsonichthys and Terranatos.
Territorial behaviour
A small number of species will shoal while most are territorial to varying degrees. Populations can be dense and territories can shift quickly, especially for species of the extreme shallows (a few centimetres of water). Many species exist as passive tribes in small streams where dominant males will defend a territory while allowing females and immature males to pass through the area. In the aquarium, territorial behaviour is different for every grouping, and will even vary by individuals. In a large enough aquarium, most species can live in groups as long as there are more than three males.
Diet
Killifish feed primarily on aquatic arthropods such as insect (mosquito) larvae, aquatic crustaceans and worms. It is reported by the killifish collector Rudolf Koubek that areas in Gabon where the streams lack killifish (due to pollution or other causes) are rife with malaria, which is spread by a mosquito. Some species of Orestias from Lake Titicaca are planktonic filter feeders. Others, such as Cynolebias and Megalebias species and Nothobranchius ocellatus are predatory and feed mainly on other fish. The American Flagfish (Jordanella floridae) feeds heavily on algae and other plant matter as well as aquatic invertebrates. Nothobranchius furzeri needs much food because it grows quickly, so when food supplied is inadequate, bigger fish will eat the smaller fish.
In lifespan research
Some strains have a lifespan as short as several months and can thus serve as a model for biogerontological studies. The African turquoise killifish (Nothobranchius furzeri) is the shortest-living vertebrate that can be bred in captivity, having a lifespan of between three and nine months. Sexual maturation occurs within 3–4 weeks, with fecundity peaking in 8–10 weeks.
Nothobranchius furzeri shows no signs of telomere shortening, reduced telomerase activity, or replicative senescence with age, despite its short lifespan. Nonetheless, lipofuscin accumulates in the brain and liver (associated with age-related neurodegeneration), and there is an increased risk of cancer with age. Calorie restriction reduces these age-related disease conditions. Resveratrol has been shown to increase the mean (56%) and maximum life span (59%) of Nothobranchius furzeri, but resveratrol has not been shown to have this effect in mammals.
Transferring the gut microbiota from young killifish into middle-aged killifish significantly extends the lifespans of the middle-aged killifish.
Transgenic strains have been made, and precise genome editing was achieved in Nothobranchius furzeri using a draft genome and the CRISPR/Cas9 system. By targeting multiple genes, including telomerase, the killifish can now be used as an attractive vertebrate model organism for aging and diseases (such as Dyskeratosis congenita). Sequencing the whole killifish genome indicated modification to the IGF-1 receptor gene.
As pets
Many killifish are lavishly coloured; and most species are easy to keep and breed in an aquarium. Specimens can be obtained from specialist societies and associations. Striped panchax (aka. Golden Wonder Killifish) are commonly found in pet shops, but caution must be exercised when considering tank mates, since the mouth of the Striped panchax is as wide as the head, and much smaller fish will be eaten. Flagfish, native to south Florida, is another species of killifish commonly found in pet stores. They are useful in aquariums for algae control. The Golden topminnow (Fundulus chrysotus) is also native to the United States and often available at auction, but care must be taken with these fish – and the Golden Wonder – to stop them from jumping out of the tank. A firm cover and a layer of floating plants is best when keeping these fish.
Behaviour-altering infection
Normally, killifish avoid near-surface water to reduce the danger of being eaten by predators. However, when infected with a type of fluke the fish swim near the surface, and sometimes even swim upside down, exposing their camouflaged bellies. The fluke completes its lifecycle in the digestive tract of birds.
Evolved resistance to extreme levels of toxicity
Thanks to the genetic diversity of the species, killifish in the Eastern US have evolved within a relatively short period of time (50–60 years) resistance against levels of dioxins, PCBs, mercury, and other industrial chemicals up to 8,000 times higher than the previously estimated lethal dose. Sequencing the genomes of the adapted individuals showed a common set of mutations among the pollution-tolerant fish, many of which help to deactivate or turn off a molecular pathway responsible for a large part of the cellular damage caused by the chemicals.
Killifish were found to fare relatively well in the wake of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.
References
Costa, Wilson J.E.M. (1998). Phylogeny and Classification of the Cyprinodontiformes (Euteleostei: Atherinomorpha): A Reappraisal. In Malabarba, L. et al. (eds), Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical fishes part 6 (Atherinomorpha), Porto Alegre. 603 p.
Huber, J. (2021). Killi-Data online
Parenti, Lynn R. (1981). A phylogenetic and biogeographical analysis of Cyprinodontiform fishes (Telostei, Alethrinimorpha). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 168, article 4.
Fish Lives in Logs, Breathing Air, for Months at a Time- Aalok Mehta, National Geographic News.
External links
the killi net – Database of killifish names, codes and pictures online since 1996
American Killifish Association, the first killi organisation of any sort (AKA)
British Killifish Association, formed in 1965 (BKA)
Itrainsfishes – All about South American Killifishes
Rare Hermaphroditic Fish Survives in Mangrove Swamps – D. Scott Taylor, Ph.D – mangrove.org
In Short-Lived Fish, Secrets to Aging – Carl Zimmer, New York Times
The most extreme fish on earth – Matt Walker, BBC Earth
Cyprinodontidae
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249774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollywood | Dollywood | Dollywood is a theme park jointly owned by entertainer Dolly Parton and Herschend Family Entertainment. It is located in the Knoxville-Smoky Mountains metroplex in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee. Hosting nearly 3 million guests in a typical season from mid-March to the Christmas holidays, Dollywood is the biggest ticketed tourist attraction in Tennessee. It has won many international awards.
In addition to standard amusement park thrill rides, Dollywood features traditional crafts and music of the Smoky Mountain area. The park hosts a number of concerts and musical events each year, including appearances by Dolly Parton and her family as well as other national and local musical acts. It was also the site of the Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame.
The theme park is the anchor of Parton's Dollywood amusement destination, which also includes the sister water park Dollywood's Splash Country, the Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, and the Dolly Parton's Stampede Dinner Attraction.
History
Rebel Railroad
The park opened in early 1961 as a small tourist attraction owned by the Robbins brothers from Blowing Rock, North Carolina. Named "Rebel Railroad," it included a steam train, general store, blacksmith shop, and saloon. With a theme inspired by the centennial anniversary of the Civil War, the train ride let visitors experience "attacks" by Union soldiers, train robbers, and Indians. The train and its riders were protected by Confederates who fought off the attacks. The park was modeled after the Robbins brothers' first successful theme park, Tweetsie Railroad in Blowing Rock.
Goldrush Junction
In 1970, Art Modell – who also owned the Cleveland Browns football team – bought Rebel Railroad and renamed it "Goldrush Junction". The park retained the railroad and added an outdoor theater, a log flume ride, and Robert F. Thomas Church.
Silver Dollar City
In 1976, Jack and Pete Herschend bought Goldrush Junction and renamed it "Goldrush" for the 1976 season. In 1977, they renamed it "Silver Dollar City Tennessee," making it a sister park to their original Silver Dollar City in Branson, Missouri. The Herschends spent about $1 million upgrading the park upon purchase and added other improvements over the years. Also in 1977, the train ride added two new steam locomotives, the #70 and the #71, from the White Pass & Yukon Route Railroad.
Dollywood
In 1986, Dolly Parton, who grew up in the area, bought an interest in Silver Dollar City. As part of the deal, the park reopened for the 1986 season as "Dollywood". In 2010, Parton said she became involved with the operation because she "always thought that if I made it big or got successful at what I had started out to do, that I wanted to come back to my part of the country and do something great, something that would bring a lot of jobs into this area."
Dollywood has approximately 4,000 people on its payroll, making it the largest employer in the community. From 1986 to 2010, the park doubled in size to . On November 16, 2010, Dollywood earned the industry's most prestigious award, the Liseberg Applause Award, which Dolly Parton accepted during a ceremony at IAAPA Attractions Expo 2010 in Orlando.
1980s developments
On May 3, 1986, Silver Dollar City Tennessee reopened as Dollywood. The new Rivertown Junction area included Smoky Mountain River Rampage, a whitewater rafting ride; Back Porch Theater; Aunt Granny's Dixie Fixins' Restaurant; and Dolly's Tennessee Mountain Home, a replica of the cabin that was Parton's childhood home. Also new was "Rags to Riches: The Dolly Parton Story," a museum displaying articles and mementos from Dolly's life and career. "The Butter Churn" (a Trabant ride) was removed at the end of the season. Park attendance doubled to more than a million guests during the first season as Dollywood.
In 1987, the Daydream Ridge area opened and included the Mountain Slidewinder water toboggan ride, Mountain Dan's Burger House, Sweet Dreams Candy Shop, The Rainbow Factory blown glass shop, and Critter Creek Playground. In 1988, the 1,739-seat Celebrity Theater, featuring the "Showcase of Stars" celebrity concert series, was constructed adjacent to the entrance of the park. Five new children's rides were added to the Fun Country area, including a Zamperla Balloon Race. The Dollywood Foundation was established to provide books and schools supplies to the children of Sevier County. Thunder Express, a steel mine train coaster, was built adjacent to Blazing Fury in 1989. The ride was relocated to the park from Six Flags Over Mid-America. The 1989 season was the last for the National Mountain Music Festival, which was a carryover from the Silver Dollar City years.
1990s developments
In 1990, a 1993 antique Dentzel Carousel, originally built for Rocky Springs Park in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, was relocated to the park. Situated near the train depot, it took over the space previously occupied by the Silver Dollar Saloon. The 600-seat Gaslight Theater opened near the carousel. The Smoky Mountain Christmas Festival premiered in November, extending the park's operating season into December. Eagle Mountain Sanctuary, an outdoor aviary, was added in 1991 along with the Wings of America Theater, site of the Birds of Prey show, and the 300-seat Valley Theater.
The Showstreet area was added in 1992 and included the Showstreet Palace Theater, The Butterfly Emporium, The Backstage Restaurant, The Spotlight Bakery, Friendship Gardens, and WDLY-FM, a working radio station. To accommodate the expansion, the park's main entrance moved from Rivertown Junction to Showstreet. The Barnwood Theater was converted into Imagination Station, an interactive children's play area. Dollywood's annual attendance topped 2 million for the first time during the 1992 season.
In 1993, the Fun Country area was renovated and became The Country Fair with three new rides: The Wonder Wheel, a tall Ferris wheel; Twist and Shout, a scrambler ride; and Tennessee Twister, a tilt-a-whirl. The Balloon Race ride was relocated to the Daydream Ridge area to make room for the new attractions. Also new at the park was "Sunset Musicfest," a summer music festival. A year later, in 1994, the Gaslight Theater became the Heartsong Theater, named for the multi-media musical presentation that told the story of Dolly Parton's life. In 1995, the Jukebox Junction 1950's "Main Street " themed area was added and included Rockin' Roadway miniature car ride, The Pines Theater, Red's Diner, and Cas Walker's Music Store. The Sunset Musicfest did not return for the 1995 season.
The Dollywood Boulevard area was added in 1996 and included Thunder Road, a turbo-simulator ride based on the 1958 movie of the same name. Silver Screen Café, a 1950s cinema-themed restaurant, and Centerstage gift shop were also in the area. In 1997, the "U Pick Nick" children's show focused on themes from the Nickelodeon television network and played in Celebrity Theater. The Flooded Mine dark-ride was closed and demolished in October, and Silver Screen Cafe became DJ Platters in the Dollywood Boulevard area. Daredevil Falls, a new shoot the chutes flume ride, opened in the area formerly occupied by the Flooded Mine a year later in 1997. At the time, it was billed as "The Highest and Fastest Waterfall Ride in America" with its drop. Thunder Express was closed in September and sold to Magic Springs Theme Park in Arkansas. The antique carousel was removed at the end of the season and replaced with a new Chance Rides carousel.
In 1999, the Tennessee Tornado, a steel looping coaster, opened in the area formerly occupied by Thunder Express. Also new was the Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame, while the Balloon Race ride was removed.
2000s developments
The Daydream Ridge area was renovated and became Dreamland Forest, a children's mountain-themed interactive play area in 2000. The Festival of Nations international music festival premiered a year later in April 2001. Dolly's Splash Country, a new water park opened adjacent to Dollywood's parking lot.
Dollywood Boulevard was renovated and became a new area, Adventures in Imagination, in 2002. Smoky Mountain Wilderness Adventure, a new simulator film, replaced Thunder Road, and a new Dolly museum called Chasing Rainbows opened in the building formerly occupied by DJ Platters. In 2003, summer children's festival KidsFest premiered, and Imagination Station was converted into Celebration Hall, a special events facility. It was also the final season for the "Showcase of Stars" celebrity concert series.
A new area of the park, Thunderhead Gap, opened with the Thunderhead wooden roller coaster in 2004. The construction of the new area opened up a new valley for park expansion. The Country Fair Falls log flume was demolished in November, and most of the other Country Fair rides, including the Swingamajig, Tennessee Twister, The Convoy, and The Barnstormer, were removed at the end of the season to free up space for newer rides that were added for the 2005 season. The new rides included Dizzy Disk, Amazing Flying Elephants, Lemon Twist, Shooting Star, Sky Rider, VeggieTales Sideshow Spin (children's roller coaster), Waltzing Swinger, Piggy Parade, Busy Bees, and Lucky Ducky. The National Southern Gospel & Harvest Celebration was also new in 2005.
In 2006, the Timber Tower ride, along with Lil' Loggers Landing, Beaver Creek, Beaver Creek Boat Float, and Lumberjack Lifts, opened in a new area adjacent to Thunderhead. The Barbeque & Bluegrass festival also premiered. The 2007 season included the addition of Mystery Mine, a Gerstlauer Eurofighter coaster with two vertical lifts hills and dark ride elements. The ride's climax featured fire effects in front of the riders, a 95-degree drop, a heartline roll, and a dive loop. The $17 million ($ in dollars) ride used an abandoned mine shaft theme. In 2008, River Battle, an interactive water raft ride, was built in a new section of the park called Wilderness Pass that connected the Timber Canyon and Craftsman's Valley areas. "Thunder Road" returned to the motion theater (Imagination Cinema) and replaced Smoky Mountain Wilderness Adventure. Della's Lye Soap shop moved from Craftsman's Valley to the Wilderness Pass area. A new exhibit housing the Wings of America show birds moved to its former location. The Polar Express 4-D Experience was shown in Imagination Cinema during the park's Smoky Mountain Christmas.
In 2009, Dollywood presented two new shows, "Imaginé" by Le Grand Cirque and "Sha-Kon-O-Hey! Land of Blue Smoke," which featured music written by Dolly Parton and told the story of the last family living in the Smoky Mountains at the time it became a national park. "Imaginé" headlined the park's Festival of Nations. "Thunder Road" was renamed "White Lightning" and then changed to a new attraction, Journey to the Center of the Earth: 4-D Adventure, based on the 2008 film. SkyZip (owned by Skyline Eco-Adventures of Maui, Hawaii) expanded to Dollywood and opened the first multi-line zip line tour inside a theme park.
2010s developments
The Adventure Mountain attraction opened at a cost of $5 million in the Wilderness Pass area in 2010. It included three distinct adventure courses, Geyser Gorge, Black Bear Cliff, and Rocky Top, that ranged from easy to expert with 100 different rope features, swinging beams, suspension bridges, flying islands, and floating stairs. Adventure trails ranged from a few inches above the ground to more than in the air. The area also included a scaled-down play area called Camp Teachittoomee for younger children. Also for the 2010 season, Dollywood brought back "Sha-Kon-O-Hey! Land of Blue Smoke" and changed its logo for the 25th anniversary.
In 2011, a new area called Owens Farm with a $5.5 million giant swing called Barnstormer replaced Dreamland Forest. The barnyard-themed area included a play area for younger guests. Christmas on Ice, a new ice skating Christmas show, premiered in DP's Celebrity Theater and headlined Smoky Mountain Christmas. Wild Eagle opened March 24, 2012 and was the first Bolliger & Mabillard Wing Coaster in the United States. It was also the biggest investment in Dollywood history. Dollywood purchased SkyZip from Skyline Eco-Adventures, and Timber Tower was dismantled before opening in 2012 due to a lawsuit with the ride manufacturer. Also in 2012, Dollywood dropped the VeggieTales name from Sideshow Spin and removed any mentions of the series from the ride. In December of the very same year, the park announced that Adventure Mountain would be closed permanently following the 2012 season.
Dollywood dedicated 2013 to encouraging families to spend time together. New shows for the season included Cirque Shanghai, Mystic India, and One World Party as part of Festival of Nations along with more than 50 new international food items. The park also introduced "Great American Summer," a new summer festival that replaced KidsFest. It included the Great American Country Show, Gazillion Bubbles, The Little Engine Playhouse, and Salute to America. Dollywood extended its hours and added a nightly fireworks show. Smoky Mountain Christmas added a new show that was Dolly Parton's version of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol. Dollywood's slogan for the year was "Make Time for Happy!" Imagination Cinema became Dreamsong Theater and played Dolly's My People, a show about Dolly's family.
In 2014, FireChaser Express, a dual-launch family coaster, replaced Adventure Mountain in the Wilderness Pass area of the park. Dollywood's slogan was changed to "Love Every Moment," and Smoky Mountain Christmas added a Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer meet-and-greet called Holly Jolly Junction. Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa opened adjacent to Dollywood's Splash Country in 2015. For the 30th anniversary of the park, the park redesigned the entrance for resort guests and added two new shows to Festival of Nations called "Rhythm of the Dance" and "Timber". Cas Walker's was demolished to make room for a new attraction, and six new shows were added to "Great American Summer" along with the revival of the Showcase of Stars concert series. Also new was Rock the Smokies, a Christian music festival, and Rudolph and friends returned to the Smoky Mountain Christmas festival.
In 2010, Parton said that she would like to open more Dollywood parks in the future. "We definitely want to expand with new things every year, eventually with a resort," she said. "We may eventually have Dollywoods in other parts of the country, where we can kind of be true to whatever's going on in that part of the world." On August 21, 2013, Parton announced Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, which opened on July 27, 2015.
Lightning Rod, a Rocky Mountain Construction wooden coaster, opened on June 13, 2016. It is the world's first launched wooden coaster as well as the fastest wooden coaster in the world. A year later, in 2017, a freefall ride called Drop Line, which replaced Timber Tower, opened along with a junior roller coaster called Whistle Punk Chaser. Two new seasonal events debuted, and Dollywood's Splash Country added the TailSpin Racer mat racer slide complex. Sideshow Spin and River Battle were removed.
In 2018, the former River Battle site was transformed into the Plaza at Wilderness Pass, a new open space with covered seating for relaxing and enjoying seasonal events. With the debut of the Spring Mix three-week music series, the 2018 "Season of Showstoppers" also marked the park's largest investment in entertainment in Dollywood's history. The 2018 Festival of Nations includes three headliners that are new to Dollywood: Flamenco Kings starring Los Vivancos (Pines Theater), National Dance Company of Siberia (Celebrity Theater), and Ladysmith Black Mambazo (Showstreet Palace Theater). The first Summer Celebration event includes various performances and attractions, including DRUMLine Live! in Celebrity Theater, a show that focuses on the musical styles of marching bands from Historically Black Colleges and Universities. It uses technology, including video screens and special effects, to enhance soul, R&B, country, and other types of music. Renovations included upgrades to Aunt Granny's and re-branding and renaming of two shops.
Work began in October 2017 on "Wildwood Grove", adding eleven new experiences to the park. Attractions include a suspended family coaster (Dragonflier), a restaurant (Till & Harvest), an indoor play area (Hidden Hollow), an outdoor splash pad (Wildwood Creek), a swinging boat ride (The Great Tree Swing), and a 50 ft tall tree with a canopy covered in butterflies (The Wildwood Tree). The $37 million 5-acre development, described as "a land built from Dolly Parton's dreams", opened May 10, 2019. It was part of a $300 million 6-year expansion project.
2020s developments
In October 2019, it was announced that the park would add its first new festival in 14 years. Dollywood's Flower & Food Festival will feature 10 to 15 feet tall topiaries based on Dolly's songs like "Coat of Many Colors", colorful photo opportunities, a rainbow sky over Showstreet, and delicious eats. The festival was to have commemorated the park's 35th season and run from 8 May to 14 June 2020, but was deferred to 7 May to 13 June 2021.
Dollywood filed plans in October 2019 for a new resort adjacent to Splash Country and DreamMore Resort. It is planned to feature a 310-room hotel, a 325-seat restaurant, and a conference space. The plans indicate the resort will create 100 jobs. In June 2021, Dollywood announced plans for a $500 million expansion of the complex, including more details about the planned hotel complex announced in 2019. The new resort, with the name revealed to be the HeartSong Lodge & Resort, will have 302 rooms, 5 floors of suites, a 4-story atrium with a large central fireplace, and multiple shopping and culinary experiences. HeartSong Lodge is scheduled to open in 2023, along with campgrounds, three additional resorts, and a "record-breaking" attraction for the theme park.
It was announced on November 3, 2021, that a new section had been approved by the Pigeon Forge Planning Commission. It will be behind the Wildwood Grove section and will contain a new 'family attraction', food area, and other support-related buildings. They are scheduled to open in 2023. The plans include a new roller coaster as well.
Areas
Dollywood is organized into 11 themed areas: Showstreet, Rivertown Junction, Craftsman's Valley, The Village, Country Fair, Timber Canyon, Wilderness Pass, Jukebox Junction, Owens Farm, Adventures in Imagination and Wilwood Grove reflect the historical eras and culture of East Tennessee, while Owens Farm and Adventures in Imagination explore Dolly Parton's life and imagination. Many attractions focus on the history and culture of the Southern Appalachian region.
Showstreet
Attractions include Showstreet Palace Theater, Celebrity Theater, and Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame.
Rivertown Junction
Attractions include Dolly's Tennessee Mountain Home, Back Porch Theater, and Smoky Mountain River Rampage whitewater rafting ride.
Craftsman's Valley
Attractions include Dollywood Grist Mill, Valley Theater, Eagle Mountain Sanctuary, Wings of America Theater, Robert F. Thomas Chapel, Calico Falls Schoolhouse, Tennessee Tornado coaster, Blazing Fury coaster, Daredevil Falls flume ride, and craft exhibits.
The Village
Attractions include the narrow gauge Dollywood Express steam train, Heartsong Theater, Village Carousel, and Costner and Sons Magic Shop.
Country Fair
Rides include Dizzy Disk, The Amazing Flying Elephants, Lemon Twist, Shooting Star, Sky Rider, The Waltzing Swinger, Piggy Parade, Busy Bees, Lucky Ducky, Dolly's Demolition Derby, and The Scrambler.
Timber Canyon
Attractions include the Mystery Mine coaster, the Thunderhead coaster, Drop Line, Whistle Punk Chaser, and Lumberjack Lifts.
Jukebox Junction
Attractions include the Rockin' Roadway car ride and Pines Theater. Also featured is Lightning Rod, which holds the record as the fastest wooden roller coaster in the world.
Owens Farm
Attractions include Barnstormer, a barn and plane styled giant swing attraction. It also includes soft play areas and a splash pad.
Adventures in Imagination
Attractions include Dolly Parton's My People! show at Dreamsong Theater and the Chasing Rainbows Museum.
Wilderness Pass
Attractions include the SkyZip zip line attraction, The Plaza at Wilderness Pass, Wild Eagle – America's first winged coaster – and FireChaser Express, a dual-launch coaster that launches forward and backward.
Wildwood Grove
Opened in 2019; attractions include the Dragonflier,a suspended family coaster, The Mad Mockingbird, a swing ride, The Wildwood Tree, a lighted tree, and Till and Harvest, a Mexican-inspired restaurant.
Festivals and annual events
Dollywood hosts six of the South's largest festivals between the months of March and December:
Running normally from mid-March to mid-April, Festival of Nations offers cultural events by performers from around the world.
From late April until mid-May the Barbeque & Bluegrass presented by Bush Brothers and Company is a bluegrass music and barbecue festival.
Starting in 2021 (originally 2020), and scheduled to run from mid-May and running until early June, is the Flower and Food Festival.
Summer Celebration (formerly Great American Summer) includes Night of Many Colors, a nightly fireworks display set to music; 3D Light and Drone Show, Night Experience, night performances and rides in the dark; and new shows, such as DRUMLine Live! and iLuminate.
Harvest Festival presented by Humana features Southern Gospel music, professional craftsmen, and Great Pumpkin LumiNights.
Smoky Mountain Christmas presented by Humana is a 13 time award winner of Golden Ticket's Best Christmas Event and features seven holiday performances, 5 million Christmas lights, Glacier Ridge (in which part of the park has frozen over), and a nightly parade.
Rankings and awards
In 2017, Dollywood won Golden Ticket awards from Amusement Today for Friendliest Park, Best Christmas Event, Best Food and Best Show.
In 2018, Dollywood received a Golden Ticket award from Amusement Today – a leading trade publication for the amusement park industry – in the Best Food category, marking the park's fourth win in seven years. In addition to three dinner show options, more than 25 vendors serve meals and snacks, ranging from barbecue ribs, pizza, corn dogs, and pork rinds to cinnamon bread, funnel cakes, cotton candy, and banana pudding made using Dolly's recipe. The park also received Golden Tickets for Best Shows, Friendliest Park, and Best Christmas Event and was ranked the third best park in the world.
In the 2018 USA Today 10Best Readers' Choice Awards – awards voted on by the general public – Dollywood was ranked as the sixth Best Amusement Park in the U.S. Additionally, Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa was ranked first in the Best Amusement Park Hotel category, and Aunt Granny's Restaurant was ranked first in the Best Amusement Park Restaurant category. DreamMore focuses on the themes of family and storytelling and has a zero-entry (beach-style) pool, transportation to the park, and a splash pad. Aunt Granny's opened the first year the park operated as Dollywood. It uses an all-you-can-eat buffet format with comfort foods like chicken and dumplings, tacos, and steaks along with a salad bar and health-conscious choices.
Dreamland Drive-In was ranked third in the Best Amusement Park Entertainment category, and Dollywood's Splash Country was ranked sixth in the Best Outdoor Water Park category.
In 2019, Dollywood won Golden Ticket awards for Best Kids' Area, Best Guest Experience, and Best Christmas Event of 2018.
Lightning Rod won the Wooden Coaster of the Decade in 2019.
In 2021, Dollywood's Smokey Mountain Christmas won the Golden Ticket Award for Best Christmas Event for the 13th straight year.
See also
List of Dollywood attractions
List of Dollywood entertainment
List of amusement parks
List of amusement parks in the Americas
References
External links
Herschend Family Entertainment
Themepark Timelines
Dollywood at Pigeon Forge Department of Tourism
Pigeon Forge, Tennessee
1961 establishments in Tennessee
Amusement parks opened in 1961
Music of East Tennessee
Music venues in East Tennessee
Music venues in Tennessee
Amusement parks in Tennessee
Resorts in Tennessee
Tourist attractions in Sevier County, Tennessee
Landmarks in Tennessee
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249778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrosome | Acrosome | The acrosome is an organelle that develops over the anterior (front) half of the head in the spermatozoa (sperm cells) of many animals including humans. It is a cap-like structure derived from the Golgi apparatus. In Eutherian mammals the acrosome contains degradative enzymes (including hyaluronidase and acrosin). These enzymes break down the outer membrane of the ovum, called the zona pellucida, allowing the haploid nucleus in the sperm cell to join with the haploid nucleus in the ovum.
This shedding of the acrosome, or acrosome reaction, can be stimulated in vitro by substances a sperm cell may encounter naturally such as progesterone or follicular fluid, as well as the more commonly used calcium ionophore A23187. This can be done to serve as a positive control when assessing the acrosome reaction of a sperm sample by flow cytometry or fluorescence microscopy. This is usually done after staining with a fluoresceinated lectin such as FITC-PNA, FITC-PSA, FITC-ConA, or fluoresceinated antibody such as FITC-CD46.
In the case of globozoospermia (sperm with round heads), the Golgi apparatus is not transformed into the acrosome, causing male infertility.
See also
Acroplaxome
References
Andrology
Germ cell structures
Secretory vesicles
Animal reproductive system | [
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249779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camberley | Camberley | Camberley is a town in the Borough of Surrey Heath in Surrey, England, approximately southwest of Central London. The town is in the far west of the county, close to the borders of Hampshire and Berkshire. Once part of Windsor Forest, Camberley grew up around the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst and the associated Army Staff College. Known originally as Cambridge Town, it was assigned its current name by the General Post Office in 1877.
Camberley's suburbs include Crawley Hill, York Town, Diamond Ridge, Heatherside, and Old Dean.
The town is immediately north of the M3 motorway, which may be accessed via junction 4. Camberley railway station is on the line between Ascot and Aldershot and train services are run by South Western Railway.
History
Before the 19th century, the area now occupied by Camberley was referred to as Bagshot or Frimley Heath. An Iron Age fort liberally among many examples known as Caesar's Camp was to the north of this area alongside the Roman road The Devil's Highway. The Intenarium Curiosum, published in 1724, describes a collection of Roman pottery around the area, and a further collection was discovered at Frimley Green in the late 20th century. In the Middle Ages, the area was part of Windsor Forest.
In the 17th century, the area along the turnpike road through Bagshot Heath (now the A30) was known as a haunt of highwaymen, such as William Davies – also known as the Golden Farmer – and Claude Duval. The land remained largely undeveloped and uncultivated due to a sandy topsoil making it unsuitable for farming. In A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain, written between 1724 and 1726, Daniel Defoe described the area as barren and sterile; "a mark of the just resentment shew'd by Heaven upon the Englishmen's pride… horrid and frightful to look on, not only good for little, but good for nothing". A brick tower was built on top of The Knoll in the 1770s, by John Norris of Blackwater. It may have been used for communications but there is no firm evidence. The remains are now known as The Obelisk.
19th century
The town as it now stands has its roots in the building of The Royal Military College, which later became the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, in 1812. A settlement known as "New Town" grew in the area around the college which in 1831 was renamed Yorktown, after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. At this time, the population was 702. In 1848, the first parish church of St. Michael, Yorktown was built by Henry Woodyer, in an area formerly part of Frimley, itself only a chapelry of Ash.
Later, the Staff College was established to the east of the Academy, and a property speculator built the nearby Cambridge Hotel. The surrounding area became known as Cambridge Town, but was renamed "Camberley" in January 1877 to avoid confusion by the General Post Office with Cambridge in Cambridgeshire. although the name was actually derived from the "Cam" stream which runs through the town (mainly underground), "Amber" Hill which was marked on John Norden's map of the area in 1607 and "ley" usually meaning a clearing in the woodland. Hugh Edwards, the child actor who played Piggy, attended Camberley Primary School which was demolished in the 1960s to make way for the town centre redevelopment.
During the 19th century, Camberley grew in size. This was given added impetus with the arrival of the branch-line railway and railway station in 1878 and a reputation for healthy air, due to the vast number of pine trees, which were said to be good for those suffering from pulmonary disorders. By the end of the century the population had reached 8,400. Since then, the town has absorbed the original settlement of Yorktown, which is now regarded as part of Camberley.
20th century
The Southern Scott Scramble, the first known motorcycle scrambling event, took place on Camberley Heath on 29 March 1924. The event, won by A.B. Sparks, attracted a crowd in the thousands and is considered to be the first instance of what later developed in the sport of motocross. During the Second World War, the Old Dean common was used as an instruction camp of the Free French Forces. The Kremer prize was conceived in the Cambridge Hotel in Camberley in 1959 after Henry Kremer toured a Microcell factory.
Barossa Golf Club (now defunct) was located on Barossa Common. The club was founded in 1893 and continued until WW2.
The Old Dean housing estate was built in the 1950s on the "Old Dean Common" for residents of heavily bombed Surrey-area's homeless after World War II. Many of the roads on that half of the Old Dean are named after areas of London, with the others named after places on the common.
Camberley falls under the siren test area of Broadmoor Hospital, a secure mental hospital in nearby Crowthorne. The siren was installed following a public outcry at the escape of child-murderer John Thomas Straffen in April 1952. The siren, referred to as "Siren K", was tested every Monday at 10am, but was removed in late 2019.
In 1969 there was an outbreak of rabies when a dog, just released from a sixth month quarantine after returning from Germany, attacked two people on Camberley Common. The scare resulted in restriction orders for dogs and large-scale shoots to carry out the destruction of foxes and other wildlife.
21st century
After debate and delay (plans having been discussed for over half a decade), in 2006, a mixed-use development west of Park Street named The Atrium was built of residential, leisure and retail buildings with wide pedestrianised areas and 683 public parking spaces. Its 217 mid-rise apartments split into courtyards in the Barcelona style. Fourteen new retail units face directly onto Park Street, opposite the Main Square shopping centre. Park Street has been pedestrianised and landscaped as part of the development. Leisure facilities include a nine-screen cinema, a bowling alley, a health and fitness club, cafés and restaurants. Various elements of The Atrium was opened during 2008, with the final elements, the main cinema and bowling alley, opening in October and November 2008, respectively.
In 2009, the town's households were named by Experian as having the highest carbon footprint in the UK, estimated at 28.05 tonnes per household per year (compared to 18.36 tonnes for the lowest, South Shields).
Geography
Camberley is in the far west of Surrey, adjacent to the boundaries of Hampshire's Hart district and Berkshire's Bracknell Forest district. It lies directly between the A30 national route and M3 motorway (junction 4 exit). It is at the northern edge of the Blackwater Valley conurbation, north of Farnborough, south of Bracknell and east of Basingstoke.
The town of Frimley, being so close to Camberley, is often regarded as part of the town, although the two are, for the most part, separated by the M3 motorway. Frimley has its own town centre, a major regional hospital (Frimley Park) and extensive suburban areas. In the 19th century, York Town and Camberley were in the ecclesiastical parish of Frimley.
The exurb Blackwater, to the west is identified by the Government Statistical Service (including its ONS office) as within the Built-up-Area but is in the Hart District of Hampshire and has its own town council (both take in Hawley). The same could be said for Sandhurst which is home of "The Meadows" retail park which is in the Bracknell Forest borough of Berkshire. The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst is located in Camberley, despite the name suggesting otherwise.
Economy
Camberley's town centre is host to The Square shopping centre (previously called The Mall), controversially purchased by Surrey Heath Borough Council for £110 million in 2016. This is a late 1980s development anchored by rent free stores such as Sports Direct subsidiary House of Fraser. The High Street has a number of shops as well as bars and clubs, many of the latter being more recent additions. There are a number of secondary shopping streets including Park Street, Princess Way and parts of London Road, including the "Atrium" development. Camberley’s town centre is suffering a decline in footfall and increases in vacancies as shoppers in affluent areas move their spending online and towards leisure and experience activities as opposed to traditional retail.
Major employers include Siemens, which moved its UK headquarters to the area in 2007 are based in Frimley. Burlington Group who moved into Watchmoor Park in 2009 and Sun Microsystems, until they were taken over by Oracle in 2010, whose UK headquarters was located just across the Hampshire border in Minley next to the M3 motorway at junction 4a. Krispy Kreme UK are based in Albany Park, an industrial estate just outside Camberley in nearby Frimley.
Culture
The town has its own public library, museum, cinema and theatre and is home to the Surrey Heath Borough Council offices. The Vue cinema opened in The Atrium development in late 2008, the year after an older cinema, owned by Robin's Cinemas, and on London Road some distance from the town centre, burned down in 2007 after having closed in 2003.
Camberley and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst are featured in a Doctor Who comic story entitled "The Warkeeper's Crown".
Camberley Theatre
The town's loss making theatre, Camberley Theatre, is owned, subsidised and managed by Surrey Heath Borough Council.
The arts venue/receiving house comprises a 408-seat auditorium, conference rooms, studio theatre and multi-media editing suite. The programme of the theatre comprises music concerts, contemporary and classical drama, comedy evenings, an annual professional pantomime and cinema films. The theatre is also used by local recreational actors, musicians, landscape artists and dance schools, advertising all tickets on its own website for productions.
Landmarks
A familiar landmark in Camberley is the concrete pipe white elephant which is on the A30 approaching The Meadows roundabout. This was created as advertising by a pipe company which rented the premises. When they closed down, the upkeep of the elephant was written into the tenancy contract, so subsequent businesses have continued to look after it.
The Jolly Farmer is a former pub at the junction of the A30 and A325 to the East of Town. It is named after Willam Davies, who was hanged at this location in 1689. The Wheatsheaf is a Grade II listed pub to the southeast of the town, designed in a distinctive ratchet-wheel design.
Transport
Branch line
Camberley railway station is immediately south of the commercial centre on the Ascot to Guildford line, connected to Guildford, Aldershot in the south and Ascot to the north with two trains per hour in each direction.
Between the radial South West Main Line and Waterloo to Reading Line, capacity and stock constraints limit the direct services to and from London Waterloo to peak hours, running via Ascot and increasingly urban towns of Staines upon Thames, Twickenham then Richmond. In non-peak times passengers from Camberley change at Ascot or Ash Vale for London.
Long-distance stations (NE to SW)
A few miles south-west and connected also by bus, Farnborough station provides direct trains to Waterloo, Basingstoke, the medieval city of Winchester, the port of Southampton and on a lower frequency, Portsmouth.
Long-distance stations (NW to SE)
Directly west Blackwater station (close to the A30) on the North Downs Line is operated by Great Western Railway, with trains running to Reading, Guildford, Redhill and Gatwick Airport.
Bus companies operating routes through Camberley include: Thames Valley Buses to Bracknell; Arriva Guildford & West Surrey to Guildford via Woking; Stagecoach South to Aldershot and Farnborough; and White Bus to Ascot and Staines.
Camberley's northern parts such as College Town are astride the old south-west road (A30) and the whole settlement is between Junctions 3 and 4 of the M3 motorway.
There are two small airports nearby: Farnborough Airfield at Farnborough and Blackbushe Airport. Farnborough Airfield is well known for its International Air Show. Heathrow is as the crow flies.
The A30 leaving Camberley to the north for Bagshot has a large junction named the "Jolly Farmer Roundabout" named after the Public House that stood on it. The pub was originally called "The Golden Farmer", after a local farmer and highwayman, William Davis.
Education
There are a number of schools in Camberley. Collingwood College is one of the largest in Surrey with over 2,000 pupils. Kings International College (formerly France Hill School) is also in Camberley. Other schools include Lyndhurst School founded in 1895 and one of only a few day preparatory schools with an unbroken history of over one hundred years, Lyndhurst School Day Nursery, Tomlinscote School and Sixth Form College, Lakeside Primary School, Watchetts Junior School, Camberley Infant School, Crawley Ridge Junior School, Ravenscote Junior School, Bristow First Infants School, Lorraine Infant School and Nursery, Cordwalles Junior School, Heather Ridge Infants School (Heatherside)
The nearest universities are Royal Holloway, University of London which is east of Camberley in Egham, with the University of Surrey (at Guildford) and the University of Reading both being to the southeast and northwest respectively.
Sport
Camberley has an active sporting scene, mainly based around clubs and sports venues such as The Arena, a leisure centre and pool facility close to the town centre.
Camberley and Farnborough Hockey Club plays men's and women's field hockey at Kings International College and draw many players from the region. The Men's 1st XI have recently secured back to back promotions and currently play in the Hampshire/Surrey – Regional Division 2. The Ladies 1st XI play in Surrey Ladies Hockey League Division 6. The Club in total supports 5 men's teams, 2 women's teams, a mixed team and colts teams from Under 10's to Under 18's.
Camberley Town football club currently plays in the Premier division of the Combined Counties League. The home ground is at Krooner Park, Wilton Road. Camberley Rugby Football Club plays in the London 2 South West in English level 7 Rugby Union League. The home ground is at the Watchetts recreation ground, Park Road.
Camberley Cricket Club 1st XI plays in the Surrey Championship Division 1. Formed in 1944 fixtures were initially played at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst before moving to its current ground in Upper Verran Road. The club runs several teams on Saturday and Sundays and has a thriving junior section composed of both boys and girls.
Camberley Midweek Cricket League is an after work cricket league that has been running for over 60 years. Members include cricket teams from local companies, schools and government organisations from Camberley, Frimley and Farnborough.
Camberley Heath Golf Club, recently used as a location in the TV drama Killing Eve was designed by Harry Colt and founded in 1913.
Frimley Lawn Tennis Club offer social and competitive tennis. They play at the Watchetts recreation ground in Camberley. Men's, ladies and mixed teams play all year in the Aldershot and District LTA League.
Both Camberley Chess Club and Camberley Junior Chess Club meet every Tuesday at the Camberley Baptist Church Hall, Frimley Road, Camberley, GU15 3EN. They were 2007–8 Berkshire League champions. They also compete in several divisions of the Surrey Border League and are current holders of the Bell Trophy.
Farnborough & Camberley Cycling Club was formed by an amalgamation of the renowned Camberley Wheelers cycling club and Farnborough Cycling Club in 1969. The Camberley Wheelers had a history that went back to the 1920s or 30s. A current (June 2011) member of the FCCC joined the Camberley Wheelers in 1935. Camberley Kart Club was one of the first kart clubs in the UK started in 196 and behind Blackbushe airport and car auctions. TS Diadem (Camberley Sea Cadets) was founded in 1955 and recently moved to new premises in Gilbert Road, opened by the Earl of Wessex in January 2011.
Demography and housing
The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%. The remaining households not accounted for above were temporary/caravans and shared households.
The proportion of households in the civil parish who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining % is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible % of households living rent-free).
Religion
The 2011 census showed that 63.4% of Surrey Heath residents considered themselves Christian. Camberley has churches of several Christian denominations, mostly Anglican, many of which are members of a Churches Together group. The Catholic parish of Camberley and Bagshot includes St Tarcisius Church, Camberley (a Grade II listed building), St Peter and St John in Old Dean and Christ the King in Bagshot. There is also a Jehovah's Witness Kingdom Hall in the town.
A local Bengali Welfare Association has maintained an Islamic centre in Camberley since 1996. Plans to convert the former school building into a more traditional Mosque were subject to intense debate, resulting in the withdrawal of planning permission in early 2010.
Notable people
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Surrey Heath Council – Camberley's Local Council
Camberley Net - Local information to people who live, work and visit Camberley Surrey
Surrey Heath
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249780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis | Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis | Schwarzwald-Baar is a Landkreis (district) in the south of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Ortenaukreis, Rottweil, Tuttlingen, Constance, the Swiss canton of Schaffhausen, and the districts Waldshut, Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald and Emmendingen.
History
The district was created in 1973, when the two districts Donaueschingen and Villingen were merged.
Geography
The district got its name from the two predominant landscapes in the district. The Black Forest (Schwarzwald), and the Baar, the foothills between the Black Forest and the Swabian Alb. Both the Danube River and the Neckar River have their origins in the Schwarzwald and Baar district.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms is modeled after the two coat of arms of the cities of Villingen and Schwenningen. Villingen had a horizontally divided blue-and-white arms, while Schwenningen had a vertically divided blue-and-white arms. Combining both divisions gives the four fields. The eagle in the top-left quarter is taken from the coat of arms of the city of Villingen, and derives from the Zähringen family who ruled that city in the 13th century.
Cities and towns
References
External links
Official website (German)
Freiburg (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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249783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemun | Zemun | Zemun (, ; ) is a municipality of the city of Belgrade. Zemun was a separate town that was absorbed into Belgrade in 1934. It lies on the right bank of the Danube river, upstream from downtown Belgrade. The development of New Belgrade in the late 20th century expanded the continuous urban area of Belgrade and merged it with Zemun.
The town was conquered by the Kingdom of Hungary in the 12th century and in the 15th century it was given as a personal possession to the Serbian despot Đurađ Branković. After the Serbian Despotate fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1459, Zemun became an important military outpost. Its strategic location near the confluence of the Sava and the Danube placed it in the center of the continued border wars between the Habsburg and the Ottoman empires. The Treaty of Belgrade of 1739 finally placed the town into Habsburg possession, the Military Frontier was organized in the region in 1746, and the town of Zemun was granted the rights of a military commune in 1749. In 1777, Zemun had 6,800 residents, half of which were ethnic Serbs, while another half of population was composed of Germans, Hungarians and Jews. With the abolishment of the Military Frontier in 1881, Zemun and the rest of the eastern Srem was included into Syrmia County of Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, part of Austria-Hungary. Following Austro-Hungarian defeat in World War I, Zemun returned to Serbian control on November 5, 1918 and became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia).
According to the 2011 census results, the municipality of Zemun has a population of 168,170 inhabitants. Apart from the Zemun proper, the municipality includes suburbs of Batajnica, Ugrinovci, Zemun Polje and Nova Galenika to the northwest.
Name
In ancient times, the Celtic and Roman settlement was known as Taurunum. The Frankish chroniclers of the Crusades mentioned it as Mallevila, a toponym from the 9th century. This was also a period when the Slavic name Zemln was recorded for the first time. Believed to be derived from the word zemlja, meaning soil, it was a basis for all other future names of the city: modern Serbian (Cyrillic) or Zemun (Latin), Za·munt (Romanian), Hungarian Zimony and German Semlin, which is mentioned in the Austrian-German folksong Prinz Eugen, der edle Ritter as the place where the army of Prince Eugene of Savoy set up camp before the Siege of Belgrade (1717) that liberated the city from the Ottoman Empire.
History
The area of Zemun has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. Baden culture graves and ceramics like bowls and anthropomorphic urns were found in the town. Bosut culture graves were found in nearby Asfaltna Baza. The first Celtic settlements in Taurunum area originate from the 3rd century BC when the Scordisci occupied several Thracian and Dacian areas of the Danube. The Scordisci founded both Taurunum and Singidunum across the Sava, predecessor of modern Belgrade. The Romans came in the 1st century BC, Taurunum became part of the Roman province of Pannonia around 15 AD. It had a fortress and served as a harbour for the Pannonian (Roman) fleet of Singidunum (Belgrade). The pen of Roman poet Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid) was said to be found in Taurunum. After the Great Migrations the area was under the authority of various peoples and states, including the Byzantine Empire, the Kingdom of the Gepids and the Bulgarian Empire. The town was conquered by the Kingdom of Hungary in the 12th century and in the 15th century it was given as a personal possession to the Serbian despot Đurađ Branković. After the nearby Serbian Despotate fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1459, Zemun became an important military outpost. In 1521, the forces of the Kingdom of Hungary, 500 šajkaši (river flotilla troops) led by Croatian Marko Skoblić, and Serbs fought against the invading Ottoman army of Suleyman the Magnificent. Despite hard resistance, Zemun fell on July 12 and Belgrade soon afterwards. In 1541, Zemun was integrated into the Syrmia sanjak of the Budin pashaluk.
Zemun and the southeastern Syrmia were conquered by the Austrian Habsburgs in 1717, after the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Peterwardein (5 August 1716) and through the Treaty of Požarevac (German: Passarowitz) became a property of the Schönborn family. In 1736, Zemun was the site of a peasant revolt. Its strategic location near the confluence of the Sava and the Danube placed it in the center of the continued border wars between the Habsburg and the Ottoman empires. The Treaty of Belgrade of 1739 finally fixed the border, the Military Frontier was organized in the region in 1746, and the town of Zemun was granted the rights of a military commune in 1749. In 1754, the population of Zemun included 1,900 Eastern Orthodox Christians, 600 Catholics, 76 Jews, and about 100 Romani. In 1777, the population of Zemun numbered 1,130 houses with 6,800 residents, half of which were ethnic Serbs, while another half of population was composed of Catholics, Jews, Armenians and Muslims. Among Catholic population, the largest ethnic group were Germans. From this period originates the increased settlement of Germans and Hungarians in the Zemun.
While during the Ottoman period Zemun was a typical oriental-type small town, with khans, mosques and large number of Turkish population, after becoming part of Austria, the town prospered as an important road intersection and a border city, which boosted trade. The town had a port on the Danube and was a major fishing center. It is recorded that in 1793, a heavy Beluga sturgeon was caught. In 1816 it was greatly expanded by mass resettlement of Germans and Serbs in the new town suburbs of Franzenstal and Gornja Varoš, respectively. In the 19th century, Zemun reached 7,089 residents and 1,310 houses. Zemun also became important in Serbian history as the refuge for Karađorđe in 1813 as well as many other people from the nearby Belgrade and the rest of Karađorđe's Serbia which fell to the Ottoman rule.
During the Revolution of 1848–1849, Zemun was one of the de facto capitals of Serbian Vojvodina, a Serbian autonomous region within Habsburg Empire, but in 1849, it was returned under the administration of the Military Frontier. With the abolishment of the Military Frontier in 1881, Zemun and the rest of the eastern Srem was included into Syrmia County of Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, part of Austria-Hungary. The first railway line that connected it to the west was built in 1883, and the first railway bridge over the Sava followed shortly thereafter in 1884.
The Zemun Fortress was the site of the first shots fired during World War I, when the Austro-Hungarian Army shelled the Serbian capital of Belgrade. Serbian engineers responded by demolishing the Old Railway Bridge over the Sava River, damaging an Austro-Hungarian Navy patrol boat below. During the Serbian campaign at the beginning of World War I, Zemun was briefly occupied by the Royal Serbian Army, and many South Slavs living in the city fled to Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian Balkan Army under Oskar Potiorek quickly retook the city and hanged suspected collaborators. The city returned to Serbian control on November 5, 1918. The town became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Kingdom of Yugoslavia). The inter-war period was marked by political struggle between the city gentry (organized into the Radical Party, Democratic Party and the Croatian Peasant Party) and the more socialist parties supported by the ethnic Germans.
In 1934 two intra-city bus lines were introduced connecting Zemun with the parts of Belgrade, and the general shift of attention towards this issue was supported by the growing Serbian population of Zemun.
The Zemun airbases originally built in 1927 were an important geostrategic objective in the Axis invasion of April 1941. Following the surrender of Yugoslavia that same month, Zemun, along with the rest of Syrmia, was given to the Independent State of Croatia. The city was taken from Axis control in 1944, and since then, it is part of Serbian region known as Central Serbia. The city is now home of the Air force command building, a monumental edifice, situated at 12 Аvijatičarski Square in Zemun, Belgrade.
Geography
The Municipality has an area of . It is located in the eastern Syrmia region, in the central-western section of the Belgrade City area. The urban section of Zemun is both the most northern and the most western section of urban Belgrade. Zemun borders the province of Vojvodina to the west (municipality of Stara Pazova and municipality of Pećinci), and municipalities of Surčin to the south, Novi Beograd to the south-east and Palilula and Stari Grad across the Danube.
The core of the city are the neighborhoods of Donji Grad, Gardoš, Ćukovac and Gornji Grad. To the south, Zemun continues into Novi Beograd with which it makes one continuous urban area (neighborhood of Tošin Bunar). In the west it extends into the neighborhoods of Altina and Plavi Horizonti and to the north-west into Galenika, Zemun Polje and further into Batajnica.
Zemun originally developed on three hills, Gardoš, Ćukovac and Kalvarija, on the right bank of the Danube, where the widening of the Danube begins and the Great War Island is formed at the mouth of the Sava river. Actually, these hills are not natural features. Zemun loess plateau is the former southern shelf of the ancient, now dried, Pannonian Sea. Modern area of Zemun's Donji Grad was regularly flooded by the Danube and the water would carve canals through the loess. Citizens would then build pathways along those canals and so created the passages, carving the hills out of the plateau. After massive 1876 floods, local authorities began the construction of the stony levee along the Danube's bank. Levee, a kilometer long, was finished in 1889. Today it appears that Zemun is built on several hills, with passages between them turned into modern streets, but the hills are actually manmade.
Loess cliff "Zemun" was protected by the city on 29 November 2013. It consists of the very steep right bank of the Danube and is a typical example of the dry land loess. There are four distinguished loess horizons and four horizons of the fossil earth. The horizons developed during the warmer intervals of the glacials.
The Danube bank in the north is mostly marshy, so the settlements are built further from the river (Batajnica) separated from it by hillocks (up to 114 m). The city of Zemun itself was built right on the bank, 100 meters above sea level. These are points of the Zemun loess plateau, an extension of the Syrmia loess plateau, which continues into the crescent-shaped Bežanijska Kosa loess hill on the south-east. The yellow loess is thick up to 40 meters and very fertile, with rich, grass-improved, humus chernozem. The uninhabited river islands of Great War Island and Little War Island on the Danube, also belong to the municipality Zemun, too.
In September 2018, Belgrade's mayor Zoran Radojičić announced that the construction of a dam on the Danube, in the Zemun-New Belgrade area, will start soon. The dam should protect the city during the high water levels. Such project was never mentioned before, nor it was clear how and where it will be constructed, or if it's feasible at all. Radojičić clarified after a while that he was referring to the temporary, mobile flood wall. The wall will be high and long, stretching from the Branko's Bridge across the Sava and the neighborhood of Ušće in New Belgrade, to the Radecki restaurant on the Danube's bank in the Zemun's Gardoš neighborhood. In case of emergency, the panels will be placed on the existing construction. The construction is scheduled to start in 2019 and to finish in 2020.
Lagums
One of the characteristics of the Zemun's topography are the lagums, artificial underground corridors which crisscross below the loess area of Gardoš, Muhar, Ćukovac and Kalvarija. This terrain is one of the most active landslide areas in Belgrade. Being cut into for centuries, the loess in some sections have cliffs vertical up to 90%. The Romans began digging the lagums at least as early as 1,700 years ago, using them mostly as the food storages, but later were also used for supply and eventual hiding and evacuation. In the previous centuries, settlers left many vertical shafts which ventilated the lagums, drying the loess and keeping it compact.
The loess is useful for this: it is strong, durable, and easy to be dug through. However, it turns into sand when mixed with water. The average temperature in the lagums is
Though used by the local population as food storages, during the Ottoman period, the Turkish administration did not commonly use them. After the Austrians acquired Zemun, they used the underground to store ammunition. In this period, the myths of the entire grid of underground corridors connecting Zemun and Belgrade under the Sava river originated. However, historians dispute this as, though the Austrians held Zemun permanently from 1717, they held Belgrade only from 1717 to 1739, which was not enough for such a major engineering enterprise, given the technology of the period. On 31 July 1938, a section of the Zemun's Roman Catholic cemetery collapsed and fell through into the lagum on which it was built, one of the largest in Zemun. As of this time people tended to label any old structures as "Roman", believing that the Romans had built them, they referred to the corridors as the "Roman" ones.
After World War II, as the city rapidly urbanized, the new settlers were unaware of the lagums, especially the largest one, which covered an area of on Ćukovac. As there was no sufficient sewage system at that time, they built septic tanks and collected rainwater, but also as the ventilation shafts in time were covered or filled with garbage, it all made the ground wet in the course of several decades. The lagums retained the moist and began to collapse. Eventually, the walls and houses became unstable to the point of breaking façades and walls. In 1988 city authorities finally intervened as the houses began to sink in three streets. Holes were drilled to connect the surface with the largest lagum. Altogether, 22 drillings were made and of concrete were poured into the lagum, filling it until the ground was stabilized, but the lagum was destroyed in the process. Still, the situation is critical after almost every downpour. On 29 September 2011, while constructing the supporting wall which was to prevent landslide in the section of Kalvarija, the construction workers triggered one which killed four of them. A long lagum, which was explored by 2001, is located right below the place where the tragedy happened. So far, 76 long corridors have been discovered, with many smaller ones. The longest of them is long and the total explored length is . They cover an area of . Many have collapsed during time, as they are not being kept since the 1980s.
Still, it is believed that the majority of them haven't been discovered or explored. The walls of those which have, are being covered with bricks or woods. Some corridors ar dead ends while others are connected. The "Galeb" rowing club uses one of the lagums on the bank of the Danube to store their kayaks.
There are numerous stories about the Zemun's lagums, their distribution and expansion of the grid. The tales of lagums connecting Zemun with the bank of the Danube, neighboring Bežanija, the Roman well in the Belgrade Fortress and the other parts of Belgrade across the Sava, became a commonplace in Zemun's and Belgrade's urban mythology. Older myths even included various monsters dwelling below. Still, there is a historically confirmed story of the house of Živojin Vukojčić, Interbellum industrialist. His son, Dragi Vukojčić, built the underground rooms in 1943 as a shelter, but the local myths claimed that he had an entire factory below. Still, when the agents from the Communist security agency OZNA came to arrest him after the war, Vukojčić asked to let him change his clothes. He fled down the lagum to the Danube, and then via boat and a plane, escaped to Brazil. Latest stories include criminals from the Zemun Clan, who were allegedly hiding in the lagums during the police Operation Sabre, after they assassinated prime minister Zoran Đinđić on 12 March 2003. In the 21st century, the stories of mythical creatures are replaced with those of criminals, smugglers, drug addicts and homeless people.
The lagums remained an important part of the local Zemun identity, preserving the spirit of the town and personal memories. For generations of the local boys, descending into the lagums, wandered through them and stayed below as long as possible, which was of a coming of age ritual. Even the name, Zemun, comes from the words zemlja (earth) or zemunica (dug out).
Neighbourhoods and suburbs
The municipality has only two official settlements: Belgrade (Zemun), which is part of the urban Belgrade city proper (uža teritorija grada; statistically classified as Belgrade-part) and the village of Ugrinovci (which includes the hamlets of Grmovac and Busije). Many of the neighbourhoods developed in the last few decades (Altina, Plavi Horizonti, Kamendin, Grmovac, Busije, etc.).
There are four local communities in the municipality: Batajnica, Ugrinovci, Zemun Polje and Nova Galenika. They were formed in 2009 after the old ones were abolished in 1996.
Urban:
Suburban:
Demographics
As Zemun grew into one of the most populous neighborhoods of Belgrade, population of the municipality had a steady growth since World War II. According to the 2011 census, the urban population of Zemun was 157,363, while the municipality had 168,170 inhabitants.
Ethnic groups
The ethnic structure of the municipality, according to 2011 census:
Administration
The municipality of Zemun became part of the Belgrade City Area (Teritorija grada Beograda) with the division of Yugoslavia into banovinas by king Alexander I on October 3, 1929. On April 1, 1934, the municipality itself was absorbed into the municipality of Belgrade, so the post of the president of the municipality of Zemun was abolished and "Zemun section administrator" was appointed to the Belgrade's city government.
Between 1941 and 1944 it was occupied by the German army as part of the East Syrmia Occupation Zone (Okupationsgebiet Ostsyrmien). Germany technically recognised Zemun and surroundings as part of the Independent State of Croatia puppet regime, but Zemun remained under direct German rule. During this time the Sajmište concentration camp was established, where over 20000 Jews, Romani and opponents of the Nazi regime died.
After 1945 Zemun was administratively divided into the City of Zemun and Zemun district (srez), unlike rest of Belgrade which was divided into raions. In 1955 both City of Zemun and most of the Zemun district were incorporated into Belgrade again. In the 1950s and 1960s, municipalities of Boljevci and Dobanovci were annexed to the municipality of Surčin while Batajnica was annexed to Zemun itself. In 1965 Surčin was annexed to the municipality of Zemun which marked the largest territorial expansion of Zemun (438 km2). However, on November 24, 2003, Belgrade City assembly voted to re-create the municipality of Surčin, but it remained under the administration of Zemun until November 3, 2004, when separate municipal government was established after the local elections. A motion for Batajnica to split from Zemun too was active for a while in the early 2000s (see List of former and proposed municipalities of Belgrade).
Presidents of the municipality:
October 3, 1929 – June 20, 1930: Petar S. Marković
June 20, 1930 – December 8, 1931: Svetislav Popović
December 9, 1931 – March 31, 1934: Miloš Đorić
Administrator of the Zemun section:
1934 – April 12, 1941: Nikola Folger
German mayors:
April 13, 1941 – July 1941: Johannes Moser (d. 1980)
July 1941 – December 1941: Stefan Seifert
December 1941 – October 1944: Johannes Moser (d. 1980)
Partisan military administrator:
October 22, 1944 – October 26, 1944: Milan Žeželj (1917–1995)
Presidents of the municipal assembly:
October 26, 1944 – July 8, 1945: Ljubomir Milovanović
July 8, 1945 – 1947: Dimitrije Anokić
1947–1949: Milenko Jovanović
1949–1950: Božidar Tomić (b. 1914)
1950: Lazar Popov (acting)
1950–1955: Stojan Svilarić (b. 1920)
1955–1958: Branko Pešić (1922–1986)
1958–1962: Aleksandar S. Jovanović
1962–1967: Čedomir Jovićević
1967–1971: Svetozar Papić
1971–1973: Radojko Filipović
1973–1974: Pavle Ilić (acting)
1974–1978: Branko S. Radivojević (b. 1932)
1978–1982: Ilija Kragović
1982–1986: Novak Rodić
1986–1989: Petar Stolica
1989: Dobrivoje Perović
1989–1992: Živko Davidović (b. 1935)
1992 – December 1996: Nenad Ribar
December 1996 – April 1998: Vojislav Šešelj (b. 1954)
April 1998 – October 17, 2000: Stevo Dragišić (b. 1971)
October 17, 2000 – November 4, 2004: Vladan Janićijević (b. 1934)
Presidents of the municipality:
November 4, 2004 – June 4, 2008: Gordana Pop-Lazić (b. 1956)
June 4, 2008 – March 5, 2009: Slavko Jerković (b. 1959)
March 5, 2009 – July 23, 2009: Zdravko Stanković (acting)
July 23, 2009 – July 4, 2013: Branislav Prostran (b. 1976)
July 4, 2013 – September 10, 2020: Dejan Matić (b. 1969)
September 10, 2020 – present: Goran Kovačević (b. 1969)
Economy
Zemun is one of the most developed municipalities of Belgrade, with developed industries in almost every branch. Zemun has two large and still growing industrial zones, one located along the highway and the other one along the road to Batajnica and further to Novi Sad (Galenika, Goveđi Brod, etc.). Industries include: heavy agricultural machines and appliances (Zmaj), precise and optical instruments and automatized appliances (Teleoptik), clocks (INSA), busses and other heavy vehicles (Ikarbus), pharmaceuticals (Galenika), plastics (Grmeč), shoes (Obuća Beograd), textile (TIZ, Zekstra), food, candies and chocolate (Soko Štark), metals (IMPA, Intersilver), wood and furniture (Gaj, Reprek), recycling (INOS metali and INOS papir), beverages (Coca-Cola, Navip), chemicals (Roma), building materials (DIA), electronics, leather, etc. In addition to this dozens of halls, and warehouses are built throughout both industrial zones.
The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):
Transportation
Road
Several important roads of Serbia run through the municipality. The Belgrade-Zagreb highway, the old (Batajnički drum) and new (highway) road Belgrade-Novi Sad, the still in construction starting point (Batajnica-Dobanovci) of the future Belgrade beltway (Batajnica-Bubanj Potok), Belgrade-Novi Sad railway, etc. Until 2014, Zemun had no bridges, apart from the seasonal pontoon bridge which connects the mainland with the Great War Island during summer. The first bridge over the Danube, Pupin Bridge which connected Zemun to Borča, was completed in 2014.
In March 2016, mayor of Belgrade Siniša Mali announced the massive reconstruction of the Old Sava Bridge. However, in May 2017, after the project papers were publicized, it was obvious that the city actually wanted to demolish the bridge completely and build a new one. Citizens protested while the experts rejected the reasons named by the authorities, adding that it is a mere money throwing on the unnecessary project. Mali said that the old bridge will not be demolished but moved, and that citizens will decide where, but he gave an idea to move it to Zemun, as the permanent pedestrian bridge to the Great War Island. In an article "Cloud over the Great War Island", Aleksandar Milenković, member of the Academy of Architecture of Serbia, opposed the motion. He expressed fear that having in mind the "synchronous ad hoc decisions of the administration", the reaction should be prompt as the seemingly benign idea is actually a strategically disastrous enterprise (concerning the protected wildlife on the island). He also suspects that the administration in this case, just as in all previous ones, will neglect the numerous theoretical and empirical guidelines.
River
In 2014 the government set the locality of the former port as the future revitalized port area. In April 2018 it was announced that the pier for the touristic ships and cruisers will be built on the quay, constructed near the Old Port Authority (Stara Kapetanija) where the old Zemun port was located. It is designed to accept ships up to long and wide. It is the second international touristic pier in Belgrade, after the one in Savamala, on the Sava river. Construction ultimately began in June 2019 and the slabs from the previous embankment were discovered so as several submerged vessels. The pier was finished on 6 June 2020.
Railway
Gradual moving of trains from the Belgrade Main railway station to the new, Prokop station began in the early 2016. In December 2017, all but two national trains were dislocated to "Belgrade Center". In the scopes of dislocation, a new, central Belgrade freight station is planned in Zemun. But, the problems arose immediately. The Prokop is still not finished, has no station building and a proper access road and public transportation connections with the rest of the city. Additionally, it has no facilities for loading and unloading cars from the auto trains nor was ever planned top have one and this facility is to be a part of the Zemun freight station. Still, in January 2018 it was announced that the Main station will be completely closed for traffic on 1 July 2018, even though none of the projects needed for a complete dislocation of the railway traffic are finished. The Prokop is incomplete, a projected main freight station in Zemun is not being adapted at all while there is even no project on a Belgrade railway beltway.
A series of temporary solutions will have to be applied. One is a defunct and deteriorated Topčider station, which will be revitalized and adapted for auto trains, until the Zemun station becomes operational. Freight station in Zemun will be located between the already existing stations Zemun and Zemun Polje, on the area of . Revitalization of the existing of tracks and of buildings will be followed by the construction of the of new tracks and additional of edifices. Deadline is also 2 years, but the works will start at the end of 2018. This means that the planned Belgrade railway junction won't be finished before 2021, at best. However, minister for transportation, Zorana Mihajlović, in December 2017 gave conflicting deadlines. For the Zemun station, she said that it should be finished by the end of 2018, even though, as of January 2018, non of the works have started.
Aerial
Batajnica Airbase with a limited civil traffic is also located in the municipality, near the Batajnica settlement.
In 1928, building company "Šumadija" proposed the construction of the cable car, which they called "air tram". The project was planned to connect Zemun to Kalemegdan on Belgrade Fortress, via Great War Island. The interval of the cabins was set at 2 minutes and the entire route was supposed to last 5 minutes. The project was never realized.
Panoramic views
Architecture, culture and education
White Bear Tavern is a former kafana in the neighborhood of Ćukovac. First mentioned in 1658, it is the oldest surviving edifice on the urban territory of modern Belgrade, not counting the Belgrade Fortress. However, Zemun developed completely independently from Belgrade for centuries and for the most part during the history two towns belonged to two different states. Zemun became part of the same administrative unit as Belgrade on 4 October 1929, lost a separate town status to Belgrade in 1934 and made a continuous built-up area with Belgrade only since the 1950s. Hence, the House at 10 Cara Dušana Street in Belgrade's downtown neighborhood of Dorćol is usually named as the oldest house in Belgrade, while the White Bear Tavern is titled as the oldest house in Zemun.
The first professional theatre in Zemun was established on 22 October 1969 in the Main Street (Maršala Tita at the time), as an offshoot of the National Theatre in Belgrade.
The faculty of agriculture of the Belgrade University is located in Zemun, as well as many other important higher schools (Internal affairs, Economics, Technics and machines, Medicine, Zemun gymnasium) and institutes (Institute for agriculture and forestry, Institute for mining, world-famous Institute for corn in Zemun Polje, Institute for livestock, Institute for the implementation of the nuclear energy in agriculture, Institute for physics). Zemun has a Homeland museum and Madlenianum Opera and Theatre.
Two of Belgrade's major hospitals-clinical centers are located in Zemun: KBC Zemun and KBC Bežanijska Kosa, as is the retirement home Bežanijska Kosa, the largest one in Belgrade. Churches include the Gardoš cemetery church and the Hariš chapel, Saint Nicholas, Saint Archangel Gabriel and two Roman Catholic churches.
Zemun is known for many squares, though almost all of them are small in size: Magistratski, Senjski, Veliki, Branka Radičevića, Karađorđev, Masarikov, etc. On one of them, the Zemun open green market is located. The bank of the Danube is turned into Zemunski Kej, a kilometers long promenade, with various entertainment facilities along it, including barges-cafés, amusement park and especially formerly largest hotel in Belgrade, Hotel Jugoslavija.
The remnants of the old town which existed during battles between Kingdom of Hungary and Byzantine Empire in the 12th century are known as Zemunski Grad (Zemun Town). Today visible ruins however are of the medieval fortress (angular towers and parts of the defending wall) of the 1521 Ottoman siege. The Kula Sibinjanin Janka (The tower of Janos Hunyadi) or the Millennium tower was built and officially opened on August 20, 1896, to celebrate a thousand years of Hungarian settlement in the Pannonian plain. The tower was built as a combination of various styles, mostly influenced by the Roman elements. Being a natural lookout, it was used by Zemun's firemen for decades. Today, the tower is better known after the Janos Hunyadi, who actually died in the old fortress four and a half centuries before the tower was built. In general, Gardoš is today the most recognizable symbol of Zemun. For the most part, the neighborhood preserved its old looks, with narrow, still mostly cobblestoned streets unsuitable for modern vehicles, and individual residential houses.
There are five official parks in Zemun, though there are much more green areas in general. The largest and the oldest is the City park (Gradski park, opened in 1886). There are also the Kej Oslobođenja park (on the quay, renovated in November 2007), Kalvarija, Jelovac and Army park. There are also five official forests: three along the highway (Autoput Forest, Belgrade-Zagreb Highway Forests and Nacional Forest), which cover , Bežanijska Kosa Forest, also along the highway (), and Great and Little War Islands ().
Sport
The most popular football club in Zemun is FK Zemun, which plays currently in the Serbian First League, the second tier of Serbian football league system, and Teleoptik Zemun, which plays currently in the Serbian League Belgrade. Teleoptik is nowadays generally considered Partizan Belgrade's farm team, with many of Partizan's youth players playing there to gain experience before being promoted to the first team. The municipality has several smaller stadiums, including those of FK Zemun, the Zemun Stadium. One of Belgrade's major sports halls, the Pinki Hall, which is Named after Boško Palkovljević Pinki, is also located in Zemun.
International relations
Twin towns — Sister cities
Zemun is twinned with:
Notable residents
Judah Alkalai
Dejan Čurović
Ivan Dudić
Aleksandar Karakašević
Saša Kovačević
Mladen Lazarević
Ljubomir Magaš
Goran Milošević
Zoran Modli
Vladica Popović
Jovan Prokopljević
Ivan Pudar
Radovan Radaković
Slavko Radovanović
Boštjan Trilar
Đorđe Simić
Jakov Mrvica
See also
Monastery of St. Archangel Gabriel, Zemun
Subdivisions of Belgrade
List of Belgrade neighbourhoods and suburbs
References
Bibliography
Mala Enciklopedija Prosveta, Third edition (1985); Prosveta;
Jovan Đ. Marković (1990): Enciklopedijski geografski leksikon Jugoslavije; Svjetlost-Sarajevo;
External links
Zemun
Gardoš Zemun 360 Virtual tour
Osnovna škola Gornja Varoš Zemun
Populated places in Syrmia
Syrmia County
Municipalities of Belgrade
Neighborhoods of Belgrade
Populated places on the Danube
Roman towns and cities in Serbia
Roman harbors in Germany
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249785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Rukavina | Tom Rukavina | Thomas Rukavina (August 23, 1950 – January 7, 2019) was an American politician and a Democratic–Farmer–Labor (DFL) member of the Minnesota House of Representatives from 1987 to 2013. In 2010 he was an unsuccessful candidate for Governor of Minnesota, seeking the DFL nomination. He was a St. Louis County commissioner from 2015 to 2018.
Early life
Rukavina was born in Virginia, Minnesota, of Croatian and Italian descent, and graduated from the University of Minnesota Duluth with a Bachelor of Arts degree cum laude in political science. He first held elected office in the 1970s on the Virginia school board and the Pike Town Board. Before becoming a full-time legislator, he worked in various positions, including at the Minntac taconite plant, as a logger and a naturalist at the Ironworld Discovery Center in Chisholm, Minnesota, and as an assistant director at Giants Ridge Ski Area.
Minnesota House of Representatives
Rukavina was a member of the Minnesota House of Representatives for thirteen terms, serving from 1987 to 2013. He represented District 5A, which included the Mesabi Range in St. Louis County in northeastern Minnesota. In 2012, he announced he would not seek reelection, citing his frustration with the partisan atmosphere at the state Capitol.
Rukavina proposed a bill that would ban the sale of foreign-made American flags in Minnesota. The bill later passed into law.
In 2009, Rukavina opposed allowing the University of Minnesota to sell beer and wine only in premium seats at TCF Bank Stadium. He insisted that the University alter its policy to sell alcohol to all legal drinkers throughout the stadium, including its own students.
2010 gubernatorial campaign
On July 23, 2009, Rukavina filed paperwork for an exploratory committee for Governor of Minnesota, making his candidacy official in early September at Bayfront Park in Duluth. He was later endorsed by Congressman Jim Oberstar. At the DFL state convention he dropped out of the race and endorsed Margaret Anderson Kelliher.
Personal life
Rukavina was arrested on July 31, 2004 for fourth-degree drunk driving with a blood alcohol level of 0.15. He pleaded guilty to the charge.
Rukavina was married to Jean and the couple had two children. Rukavina's daughter Ida works for U.S. Senator Amy Klobuchar. He was friends with late U.S. Senator Paul Wellstone, who was flying to attend the funeral of Rukavina's father when his plane fatally crashed in October 2002.
Death
Rukavina died of leukemia on January 7, 2019 at the University of Minnesota Medical Center in Minneapolis, aged 68.
In response to his death, Governor Tim Walz said: "There's folks who put their life into serving Minnesota, and Tom Rukavina was one of those". U.S. Senator Klobuchar said that: "Rukavina understood the dignity of hard work, and was a force for Iron Range workers and their families". Minnesota Attorney General Keith Ellison remembered Rukavina as a "friend, public servant, and a fierce defender of working people" on a statement on Twitter.
Legacy
The Tom Rukavina memorial bridge was named after him after a bill introduced by Dave Tomassoni was passed by the Minnesota legislature. The bridge is located in the Bridgeview Pocket Park on the Mesabi Trail. A public ceremony was held on August 19, 2021 after the bridge was renamed. Guests at the ceremony included U.S. senator Amy Klobuchar.
References
External links
Project Vote Smart - Rep. Tom Rukavina Profile
Follow the Money - Thomas Rukavina Campaign Contributions
Rep. Rukavina Campaign Web Site
Rukavina for Governor, 2010 web site
1950 births
2019 deaths
People from Virginia, Minnesota
University of Minnesota Duluth alumni
American people of Croatian descent
Minnesota Democrats
County commissioners in Minnesota
Minnesota city council members
School board members in Minnesota
Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Minnesota politicians convicted of crimes
21st-century American politicians
Deaths from cancer in Minnesota
Deaths from leukemia
Candidates in the 2010 United States elections | [
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249786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental%20Basketball%20Association | Continental Basketball Association | The Continental Basketball Association (CBA) (also known originally as the Eastern Pennsylvania Basketball League, and later as the Eastern Professional Basketball League and the Eastern Basketball Association) was a men's professional basketball minor league in the United States from 1946 to 2009.
History
The Continental Basketball Association was founded on April 23, 1946 under its previous name, the Eastern Pennsylvania Basketball League. It billed itself as the "World's Oldest Professional Basketball League"; its founding pre-dated the founding of the National Basketball Association by two months. The league fielded six franchises – five in Pennsylvania (Wilkes-Barre, Hazleton, Allentown, Lancaster, and Reading) – with a sixth team in New York (Binghamton, which moved in mid-season to Pottsville, Pennsylvania). In 1948, the league was renamed the Eastern Professional Basketball League. Over the years it would add franchises in several other Pennsylvania cities, including Williamsport, Scranton, and Sunbury, as well as teams in New Jersey (Trenton, Camden, Asbury Park), Connecticut (New Haven, Hartford, Bridgeport), Delaware (Wilmington) and Massachusetts (Springfield).
From the 1940s through the 1960s, many NBA teams had unofficial quotas on the number of black players on their teams. Many players joined other professional leagues, including the Eastern Professional Basketball League. The Eastern Professional Basketball League (1946–78) was fast and physical, often played in tiny, smoke-filled gyms across the Northeast and featuring the best players who just couldn’t make the NBA—many because of the quotas.
Because the 1961–63 American Basketball League used a three-point scoring line, the Eastern League added a three-point line for its 1964–65 season. That year, Brendan McCann of the Allentown Jets led the league with 31 three-pointers. Although three-point shots during the 1960s were few and far between, the Eastern League developed several scorers who used the three-point shot to their advantage.
For the 1970–71 season, the league rebranded itself the Eastern Basketball Association, operating both as a professional Northeastern regional league and as an unofficial feeder system to the NBA and ABA. The CBA's first commissioner was Harry Rudolph (father of NBA referee Mendy Rudolph). Steve A. Kauffman, currently a basketball agent, succeeded Rudolph as Commissioner in 1975. Kauffman executed a plan to bring the Anchorage Northern Knights into the league beginning with the 1977–78 season. Kauffman kept the league name because he felt having a team in the Eastern League from Alaska might get the league additional notice and recognition. The establishment of the Anchorage franchise garnered national media attention, including a feature story in Sports Illustrated. The league was renamed the Continental Basketball Association the following season, eventually leading to expansion across the country. Kauffman served as Commissioner until 1978, when his Deputy Commissioner, Jim Drucker, took the reins. Kauffman remained the League's legal counsel for two years. Drucker (son of Norm Drucker, another top NBA referee) continued his 12-year association with the CBA until 1986 as Commissioner and general counsel. From 1986 to 1989, he supervised the production of CBA telecasts on ESPN as President of CBA Properties.
During Drucker's term, the league expanded from 8 to 14 teams, landed its first national TV contract and saw franchise values increase from $5,000 to $500,000. The league also instituted a series of novel rule changes including sudden-death overtime, a no foul-out rule and a change in the way league standings were determined. Under the "7-Point System", seven points were awarded each game: three points for winning a game and one point for every quarter a team won. As a result, a winning team would wind up with four to seven points in the standings, while a losing team could collect from zero to three points. This made for at least some fan interest even in the late stages of games that were otherwise blowouts; the trailing team could still get a standings point by winning the final quarter, especially if the team that was leading chose to rest some or all of its starters. The league used this method to calculate division standings from its implementation in 1983 until the league's end in 2009.
After Darryl Dawkins shattered two basketball backboards during his 1979–80 NBA season, the CBA implemented a collapsible hinged rim. The design was chosen from 10 prototypes that were set up in a New York City high school gymnasium in the summer of 1980. Unidentified college basketball players were asked to try to break the rims and the three strongest designs were chosen for a trial run in the CBA. All three rims broke away from the backboard and snapped back in place. The NBA announced they would adopt a similar model before the 1981–82 season.
Before the 1984–85 season, Ducker announced that the CBA had signed a cable television contract with Black Entertainment Television (BET).
Also during this time, the CBA created a series of halftime promotions. The most successful was the "1 Million Dollar CBA Supershot". In an era where the typical basketball halftime promotion, even in NCAA Division I and the NBA, would feature a winning prize worth less than $100, the CBA's Supershot (created in 1983) offered a grand prize of $1 million if a randomly selected fan could hit one shot from the far foul line, . No one won the (insured) prize, but the shot attracted national media coverage for the league in Sports Illustrated, The New York Times and The Sporting News. In 1985, the CBA followed with the "Ton-of-Money Free Throw", which featured a prize of of pennies ($5,000) if a randomly selected fan could make one free throw. Two of fourteen contestants were successful. The next year, the league featured the "Easy Street Shootout". In that contest, 14 contestants were selected (one from each city), and the person making the longest shot was awarded a $1,000,000 zero-coupon bond. The winner was Don Mattingly (no relation to the New York Yankee baseball player), representing the Evansville (Indiana) Thunder. After the league's 1985 All-Star Game in Casper, Wyoming, the CBA invited fans to make a paper airplane from the centerfold of their game program (each identified with a unique serial number) and attempt to throw the paper airplane through the moon roof of a new Ford Thunderbird parked mid-court. Four fans were successful and a tie-breaker determined the winner, who drove home with the new $17,000 personal luxury car.
In 1984, the league created the "CBA Sportscaster Contest" to select a color commentator for its weekly game of the week televised on BET. With tryouts in cities nationwide, the promotion gained the league national attention on the NBC Nightly News, Entertainment Tonight, in Sports Illustrated and other media. The contest was won by a NJ high school basketball coach, Bill Lange, who won the Philadelphia regional contest and then went on to win the national tryout. In an interesting twist, Lange went on to coach the Philadelphia Spirit in the USBL.
In August 1999, the CBA's teams were purchased by an investment group led by former NBA star Isiah Thomas. The group bought all of the individually owned franchises of the CBA, in a $10 million acquisition. Over the course of the next 18 months, Thomas was faced with a plethora of business troubles, losing the league’s partnership with the NBA and ultimately abandoning the league into a blind trust that left teams unable to meet payroll or pay bills. The combined-ownership plan was unsuccessful and, by 2001, the CBA had declared bankruptcy and ceased operations; it folded on February 8, 2001 without managing to complete the 2000–01 season.
Before the 2000–01 season, the CBA signed a television contract with BET to broadcast up to 18 games, including the CBA All-Star Game, although the CBA folded midway through the season. Several of its teams briefly joined the now-defunct International Basketball League.
Below is a timeline of Thomas's ownership of the CBA:
August 3, 1999: Former NBA star Isiah Thomas purchases the CBA (the entire league including all the teams and its marketing entity, CBA Properties) for $10 million. He says that the league will now operate as a single-owner entity, and the CBA will continue to be the official developmental league of the NBA.
October 7, 1999: Sale of the CBA to Thomas is finalized. Thomas pays $5 million up front, agreeing to make four additional payments to the CBA's former team owners for the remainder of the debt.
October 24, 1999: He announces salary cuts in the CBA. The average salary of $1,500 per week will be reduced to $1,100, with rookies getting $800. Thomas' reasoning is that by reducing the number of veterans in the league, there will be more young players available for NBA teams.
March 2000: The NBA offers Thomas $11 million plus a percentage of the profits for the CBA. Thomas chooses not to sell.
June 28, 2000: Thomas is offered the head coaching job of the NBA's Indiana Pacers. Since NBA rules forbid a coach from owning his own league (as it would be a conflict of interest), Thomas is obliged to sell the CBA. On this day, Thomas signs a letter of intent to sell the CBA to the NBA Players' Association.
Summer 2000: After 20 years of using the CBA as its developmental league, the NBA announces it will form its own minor-league feeder system, creating the National Basketball Development League (later the NBA Development League). The CBA will no longer be the NBA's official developmental league following the end of the 2001 season.
October 2, 2000: Thomas places the league into a blind trust and becomes head coach of the Pacers.
February 8, 2001: The CBA suspends play midway through the 2000–2001 season. The blind trust that had hoped to find a new owner for the league abandons its efforts, and the league has over $2 million in debts. The teams are offered back to their original owners for a $1 simple consideration, and several owners accept the offer. Many more refuse, and their clubs go under.
February 24, 2001: The CBA declares bankruptcy. Five former CBA team owners repurchase their franchises and join the rival International Basketball League (IBL) to finish the season. Other owners choose to allow their franchises to fail, rather than cover debts that were not theirs originally.
Summer 2001: The IBL folds.
November 2001: The CBA reorganizes for the 2001–02 season as former CBA franchises in Rockford, Gary, Grand Rapids and Sioux Falls merge with the smaller International Basketball Association (IBA), which has franchises in Bismarck (Dakota Wizards), Fargo (Fargo-Moorhead Beez) and Saskatoon (Saskatchewan Hawks). The Flint (Michigan) Fuze join as an expansion team.
November 16, 2001: The first game in the history of the National Basketball Developmental League is played.
In fall 2001, CBA and IBL teams merged with the International Basketball Association and purchased the assets of the defunct CBA (including its name, logo and records) from the bankruptcy trustee and resumed operations as the CBA, assuming the former league's identity and history. The league obtained eight new franchises (for a total of ten) for the 2006 season. The Atlanta Krunk Wolverines and Vancouver Dragons deferred their participation until the 2007–2008 season and the Utah Eagles folded on January 25, 2007. The CBA's 2007–08 season began with 10 franchises, the greatest number of teams to start a CBA season since the 2000–01 season. In addition to six returning franchises the CBA added three expansion teams – the Oklahoma Cavalry, the Rio Grande Valley Silverados and East Kentucky Miners; the Atlanta Krunk joined the league after sitting out the 2006–07 season.
The 2008–2009 season began with only four teams, instead of the expected five. The Pittsburgh Xplosion folded under unclear circumstances, and the league scheduled games against American Basketball Association (ABA) teams for the first month of the season in an attempt to stay solvent. The maneuver was not enough. On February 2, 2009, the league announced a halt to operations, turning a scheduled series between the Albany Patroons and Lawton-Fort Sill Cavalry into the league-championship series.
The league has stayed defunct.
Integration
During the 1946–47 Eastern League season, the Hazleton Mountaineers had three African-American players on their roster during the season – Bill Brown, Zack Clayton and John Isaacs. Isaacs previously played with an all-black touring squad (the Washington Bears), while Brown and Clayton were alumni of the Harlem Globetrotters. During the 1955–56 season, the Hazleton Hawks Eastern League team was the first integrated professional league franchise with an all-black starting lineup: Tom Hemans, Jesse Arnelle, Fletcher Johnson, Sherman White and Floyd Lane. The all-black Dayton Rens competed in the 1948–49 National Basketball League.
CBA–NBA relationship
During the early years of the CBA (when it was known as the EPBL), the league's relationship with the NBA was frosty at best. The NBA would send several players to the Eastern League for extra playing time, and for several seasons two Eastern League teams would play the opening game of a New Year's Eve doubleheader at Madison Square Garden (with the NBA playing the nightcap game). Although the NBA played exhibition games with the Eastern League during the late 1940s and early 1950s the exhibition games ceased in 1954, when the Eastern League signed several college basketball players involved in point-shaving gambling scandals during their college years (including Jack Molinas, Sherman White, Floyd Layne and Al Roth). The Eastern League also signed 7-foot center Bill Spivey, the former University of Kentucky standout who was accused of point-shaving (although Spivey was acquitted of all charges, the NBA still banned him from the league for life).
After a few seasons, however, the NBA and EPBL resumed exhibition games in the 1950s (including a 1956 matchup in which the NBA's Syracuse Nationals lost to the EPBL's Wilkes-Barre Barons at Wilkes-Barre's home court). Other EPBL-NBA exhibition matchups include an October 1959 contest in which the New York Knicks defeated the Allentown Jets 131–102 at Allentown; and a contest in April 1961, in which the Boston Celtics also played an exhibition contest against Allentown (defeating the Eastern Leaguers soundly). The Eastern League became a haven for players who wanted to play professionally, but were barred from the NBA because of academic restrictions. Even though Ray Scott had left the University of Portland two months after his matriculation, the NBA could not sign Scott to a contract until Scott's class graduated. The EPBL, however, could sign him and Scott played 77 games for the Allentown Jets before later joining the NBA's Detroit Pistons.
By the 1967–68 season, the Eastern League lost many of its players when the upstart American Basketball Association formed. Players such as Lavern "Jelly" Tart, Willie Somerset, Art Heyman and Walt Simon (all of whom were all-stars in the Eastern League a year before) were now in ABA uniforms. The ABA continued to siphon off NBA and Eastern League players, leaving the Eastern League with only six teams in 1972 and four teams in 1975. Only the ABA-NBA merger in June 1976 kept the Eastern League alive, as an influx of players from defunct ABA teams joined the league.
In 1979, the NBA signed four players from the newly renamed CBA. The CBA, receiving no compensation from the NBA for these signings, filed a lawsuit against the NBA. The suit was settled and in exchange for the right to sign any player at any time, the NBA paid the CBA $115,000; it also paid the CBA $80,000 to help develop NBA referees at CBA games. NBA/CBA relations grew tense again in 1982, when the CBA added the Detroit Spirits franchise to their league roster. Since the Spirits played in the same city as the NBA's Pistons, the NBA did not renew its year-to-year agreement with the CBA. The CBA then began binding individual NBA teams to a form contract, permitting those teams to sign CBA players to 10-day contracts. Under the 10-day-contract rule, a player was signed at the pro rata league minimum salary (as stipulated in the NBA's collective bargaining agreement) for 10 days. If the NBA team liked the player, the team could re-sign him to a second 10-day contract. After the second 10-day contract expired, the team had to either return the player to his CBA team or sign him for the balance of the NBA regular season. The CBA teams, in turn, would receive compensation for each 10-day contract.
In 1980, the CBA became the official development league of the NBA.
During the 1980s and 1990s, the NBA's relationship with the CBA grew to the point where dozens of former CBA stars found their way onto NBA rosters, including Tim Legler (Omaha Racers), Mario Elie (Albany Patroons), and John Starks (Cedar Rapids Silver Bullets). The CBA also sent qualified coaches to the NBA, including Phil Jackson (Albany Patroons), Bill Musselman (Tampa Bay Thrillers), Eric Musselman (Rapid City Thrillers), Flip Saunders (LaCrosse Catbirds) and George Karl (Montana Golden Nuggets). In 2001, the NBA formed its own minor league, the National Basketball Development League (the NBDL or "D-League"). At the end of the 2005–2006 season, three current and one expansion CBA franchise jumped to the NBDL. During the 2006–07 season no players were called up from the CBA to the NBA, ending a streak of over 30 seasons of at least one call-up per year. That would soon lead to the beginning of the end for the CBA.
In 1987 the CBA announced that they would allow teams to sign players banned for drug use by the NBA. Mitchell Wiggins, who was suspended by the NBA for cocaine use, was one of the first players signed in the CBA under the new rule that was implemented in conjunction with the NBA and NBA Players Association.
Rules and innovations
The CBA followed largely the same basketball rules as does the NBA and most other professional leagues. Sometimes rules adopted by the CBA on an experimental basis later became permanent in that league and were adopted by other levels of basketball as well; others remained unique to the CBA. From 1978 through 1986, CBA commissioner Jim Drucker created several new rules to raise fan interest, which were then adopted by the league:
Season standings were changed from a win-loss percentage, to the "7 Point System". During each game, seven points were awarded—three for winning the game, and one point for each quarter in which a team outscored their opponent. (If each team scored the same number of points in a quarter, the point for that quarter was halved.) Team standings were determined by the number of points, rather than win-loss percentage.
A player could not foul out of the game; after a player's sixth personal foul, the opposing team receives an automatic free throw.
During the 1982–83 and 1983–84 seasons, overtime games were decided by the team that scored the first three points in overtime. During the 1984–85 season, that rule was modified so that victory went to the first team to lead by three points in overtime. By the 1987–88 season, that rule was superseded by a standard five-minute overtime period to determine the winner.
During the 1981–82 season, the CBA created a "no call box"—an area in front of the baskets in which any contact in the box between offensive and defensive players was to be an automatic defensive foul. This rule (which was designed to encourage drives to the hoop) caused more confusion than scoring, and was quickly abandoned. A variation of this rule (using an arc rather than a box) would be adopted by the NBA in 2002, however, and later adopted by the NCAA as well.
For a few years in the early 1980s the CBA offered a money-back guarantee—returning a patron's money if, before the start of the second quarter, the fan left the game. There was also a "national season ticket", allowing fans to attend any CBA game within a 100-mile radius of his hometown.
May 1984: At a league meeting in Louisville, Kentucky three rules were changed; fouling a shooter on a three-point shot would result in three shots as opposed to two (later adopted by all levels of basketball), a win in overtime could only be determined when a team led by three points and a clear path foul was implemented.
Drucker also created a series of high-profile, big-money promotions that attracted increased attendance, league sponsorship and media interest. From 1984 to 1986, "The 1 Million Dollar CBA Supershot" offered a $1,000,000 annuity prize for a fan selected at random at halftime who made a 3/4-court shot. Although no fan won that one, in 1986 one fan did win a $1 million zero-coupon bond. The winner, Don Mattingly (no relation to the New York Yankee player with the same name), won the bond in the "CBA Easy Street Shootout" at the 1986 CBA All-Star Game in Tampa, Florida. Other promotions included the "Ton of Money Free Throw", which consisted of 2,000 pounds of pennies ($5,000) for making a foul shot, and "The Fly-In, Drive-Away" Contest where each fan received a paper airplane with a distinct serial number. At halftime a new car, with the sunroof opened, was driven to mid-court and the fan who threw his airplane into the sun roof won the car. A Ford Thunderbird was won by a fan at the CBA All-Star Game in Casper, Wyoming in 1984.
October 1985: A contest was held by the CBA to find a fan to be a color commentator on the "CBA Game of the Week" broadcast. The requirements for the contest was that the applicant had no prior broadcasting experience. The league set up a 24-hour phone number (212-828-8686) and a post office box where applicants could send their auditions.
October 21, 1985: The CBA announced they would keep statistics on slam dunks. The CBA rosters were increased from nine spots to ten. A rule change was implemented calling for a jump ball at the beginning of every quarter. A ball similar to the red white and blue basketball popularized in the American Basketball Association was used for the 1985–86 season.
June 1987: The CBA Board of Directors voted unanimously to extend the season to 54 games. The salary cap was adjusted to reflect the increased games. A five-minute overtime period was approved, scrapping the previous overtime rule that required a team to lead by three points to win.
CBA draft
The CBA established a draft in 1985, following the reduction operated that year by the NBA to its draft which brought it from 10 rounds to 7. This allowed the CBA teams to have a wider selection of players: the selection criteria were the same as the NBA draft. As for the NBA draft, players had to renounce their college eligibility if they wanted to declare early. While initially the draft was limited to players who were not drafted in the NBA, this later changed, and on several occasions players were drafted by both the NBA and the CBA. Some examples include Nick Van Exel (1993, Los Angeles Lakers of the NBA and Rapid City Thrillers of the CBA), Dontonio Wingfield (1994, Seattle SuperSonics and Rapid City Thrillers), Stephen Jackson (1997, Phoenix Suns and La Crosse Bobcats), Jason Hart (2000, Milwaukee Bucks and Idaho Stampede); and several others.
CBA franchises usually selected players who had the higher chance to sign for them instead of signing overseas or in the NBA, even though some teams used their picks in the later rounds to select players who were likely to be drafted in the NBA, in the event these players were cut in the preseason. Some teams also used their picks for publicity: for example, Cheryl Miller, a female player who played for USC in college, was selected by the Rockford Lightning with the 57 pick in the 1986 CBA draft; in the 1994 CBA draft Mexican soccer player Jorge Campos was drafted by the Mexico Aztecas, despite his ineligibility. In 1997, Lamar Odom, then a highly recruited high school prospect, was given the opportunity to enter the CBA draft and choose the team he wanted to play for, reversing the traditional drafting process; Odom, however, decided not to hire an agent and opted to play in college.
Team timelines
Italics denote a team that was re-located or re-branded. Bold denotes a team that played in the last full CBA season.
Albany Patroons (1982–1992) → Capital Region Pontiacs (1992–93) → Hartford Hellcats (1993–94) → Connecticut Pride (1994–2000)
Albany Patroons (2005–09)
Alberta Dusters (1980–82) → Las Vegas Silvers (1982) → Albuquerque Silvers (1982–85)
Allentown Jets (1978–79) → Lehigh Valley Jets (1979–1981)
Anchorage Northern Knights (1978–1983)
Atlanta Krunk (2007–08)
Baltimore Metros (1978–79) → Mohawk Valley Thunderbirds (1979) → Utica Olympics (1979–1980) → Atlantic City Hi-Rollers (1980–83)
Butte Daredevils (2006–08)
Dakota Wizards (2001–06)
Detroit Spirits (1982–86) → Savannah Spirits (1986–88) → Tulsa Fast Breakers (1988–1991) → Tulsa Zone (1991–92) → Fargo-Moorhead Fever (1992–94) → Mexico City Aztecas (1994–95) → San Diego Wildcards (1995)
East Kentucky Miners (2007–09)
Evansville Thunder (1984–86)
Fargo-Moorhead Beez (2001–02)
Flint Fuze (2001–02) → Great Lakes Storm (2002–05)
Flint Pros (1972–1974)
Fort Wayne Fury (1991–2001)
Gary Steelheads (2000–06)
Grand Rapids Hoops (1989–1994) → Grand Rapids Mackers (1994–96) → Grand Rapids Hoops (1996–2003)
Great Falls Explorers (2006–08)
Hawaii Volcanos (1979–1980) → Billings Volcanos (1980–84)
Idaho Stampede (1997–2006)
Indiana Alley Cats (2006–07)
Jersey Shore Bullets (1978–79)
Kansas City Sizzlers (1985–86) → Topeka Sizzlers (1986–1990) → Yakima Sun Kings (1990–2008)
Lancaster Red Roses (1978–1980) → Philadelphia Kings (1980–81) → Lancaster Lightning (1981–85) → Baltimore Lightning (1985–86) → Rockford Lightning (1986–2006)
Louisville Catbirds (1983–85) → La Crosse Catbirds (1985–1994) → Pittsburgh Piranhas (1994–95)
Maine Lumberjacks (1978–1983) → Bay State Bombardiers (1983–86) → Pensacola Tornados (1986–91) → Birmingham Bandits (1991–92) → Rochester Renegade (1992–94) → Harrisburg Hammerheads (1994–95)
Michigan Mayhem (2004–06)
Minot SkyRockets (2006–2009)
Montana Golden Nuggets (1980–83) → Puerto Rico Coquis (1983–85) → Maine Windjammers (1985–86)
Ohio Mixers (1982–84) → Cincinnati Slammers (1984–87) → Cedar Rapids Silver Bullets (1988–1991) → Tri-City Chinook (1991–95)
Oklahoma Cavalry (2007–08) → Lawton-Fort Sill Cavalry (2008–09)
Oklahoma City Cavalry (1990–97)
Pittsburgh Xplosion (2006–08)
Quad City Thunder (1987–2001)
Reno Bighorns (1982–83)
Rio Grande Valley Silverados (2007–08)
Rochester Zeniths (1978–1984)
Rockford Lightning (2007–09)
San Jose Jammers (1989–1991) → Bakersfield Jammers (1991–92)
Santa Barbara Islanders (1989–1990)
Sarasota Stingers (1983–85) → Florida Stingers (1985–86) → Charleston Gunners (1986–89) → Columbus Horizon (1989–1994) → Shreveport Crawdads (1994–95) → Shreveport Storm (1995–96)
Sioux Falls Sky Force (1989–2000, 2001–06)
Saskatchewan Hawks (2001–02)
Tampa Bay Thrillers (1984–86) → Rapid City Thrillers (1986–1995) → Florida Beachdogs (1995–97)
Toronto Tornados (1983–85) → Pensacola Tornados (1985–86) → Jacksonville Jets (1986) → Mississippi Jets (1986–87) → Wichita Falls Texans (1988–1994) → Chicago Rockers (1994–96) → La Crosse Bobcats (1996–2001)
Utah Eagles (2006–07)
Wilkes-Barre Barons (1978–79) → Pennsylvania Barons (1979–1980) → Scranton Aces (1980–81)
Wisconsin Flyers (1982–87) → Rochester Flyers (1987–89) → Omaha Racers (1989–1998)
Wyoming Wildcatters (1982–88)
Commissioners
The commissioners of the CBA were:
EPBL
William Morgan (1946–55)
Harry Rudolph (1955–70)
EBA
William Montzman (1970–75)
Steve A. Kauffman (1975–78)
CBA
Jim Drucker (1978–86)
Carl Scheer (1986–87)
Mike Storen (1987–88)
Jay Ramsdell (1988–89)
Jerry Schemmel (1989–90)
Irv Kaze (1990–91)
Terdema Ussery (1991–93)
Mark Lamping (1993–94)
Tom Valdiserri (1994–96)
Steve Patterson (1996–98)
Gary Hunter (1998–99)
Isiah Thomas (1999–00)
Don Welsh (2000–01)
Gary Hunter (2001–06)
Jim Coyne (2007)
Dennis Truax (2007–09)
See also
Continental Basketball Association statistical leaders
List of Continental Basketball Association All-Star Games
List of Continental Basketball Association award winners and successful alumni
List of Continental Basketball Association champions
List of developmental and minor sports leagues
References
External links
Continental Basketball Association on FunWhileItLasted.net
The CBA Museum
CBA bankruptcy
Defunct professional sports leagues in the United States
Sports leagues established in 1946
Organizations disestablished in 2001
Sports leagues established in 2001
Organizations disestablished in 2009
Basketball leagues in the United States | [
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249787 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen%20no%20Riky%C5%AB | Sen no Rikyū | , also known simply as Rikyū, is considered the historical figure with the most profound influence on chanoyu, the Japanese "Way of Tea", particularly the tradition of wabi-cha. He was also the first to emphasize several key aspects of the ceremony, including rustic simplicity, directness of approach and honesty of self. Originating from the Sengoku period and the Azuchi–Momoyama period, these aspects of the tea ceremony persist. Rikyū is known by many names; for consistency, he will be referred to as Rikyū in this article.
There are three iemoto (sōke), or 'head houses' of the Japanese Way of Tea, that are directly descended from Rikyū: the Omotesenke, Urasenke, and Mushakōjisenke, all three of which are dedicated to passing forward the teachings of their mutual family founder, Rikyū.
Early life
Rikyū was born in Sakai in present-day Osaka Prefecture. His father was a warehouse owner named , who later in life also used the family name Sen, and his mother was . His childhood name was . Another major event of Hideyoshi's that Rikyū played a central role in was the Grand Kitano Tea Ceremony, held by Hideyoshi at the Kitano Tenman-gū in 1587.
It was during his later years that Rikyū began to use very tiny, rustic tea rooms referred as ('grass hermitage'), such as the two-tatami mat tea room named Tai-an, which can be seen today at Myōki-an temple in Yamazaki, a suburb of Kyoto, and which is credited to his design. This tea room has been designated as a National Treasure. He also developed many implements for tea ceremony, including flower containers, teascoops, and lid rests made of bamboo, and also used everyday objects for tea ceremony, often in novel ways.
Raku teabowls were originated through his collaboration with a tile-maker named Raku Chōjirō. Rikyū had a preference for simple, rustic items made in Japan, rather than the expensive Chinese-made items that were fashionable at the time. Though not the inventor of the philosophy of wabi-sabi, which finds beauty in the very simple, Rikyū is among those most responsible for popularizing it, developing it, and incorporating it into tea ceremony. He created a new form of tea ceremony using very simple instruments and surroundings. This and his other beliefs and teachings came to be known as (the grass-thatched hermitage style of ), or more generally, . This line of that his descendants and followers carried on was recognized as the .
A writer and poet, the tea master referred to the ware and its relationship with the tea ceremony, saying, "Though you wipe your hands and brush off the dust and dirt from the vessels, what is the use of all this fuss if the heart is still impure?"
Two of his primary disciples were Nanbō Sōkei (; dates unknown), a somewhat legendary Zen priest; and Yamanoue Sōji (1544–90), a townsman of Sakai. Another was Furuta Oribe (1544-1615), who became a celebrated tea master after Rikyū's death. Nanbō is credited as the original author of the Nanpō roku, a record of Rikyū's teachings. There is, however, some debate as to whether Nanbō even existed, and some scholars theorize that his writings were actually by samurai litterateur Tachibana Jitsuzan (1655-1708), who claimed to have found and transcribed these texts. Yamanoue's chronicle, the (), gives commentary about Rikyū's teachings and the state of at the time of its writing.
Rikyū had a number of children, including a son known in history as Sen Dōan, and daughter known as Okame. This daughter became the bride of Rikyū's second wife's son by a previous marriage, known in history as Sen Shōan. Due to many complex circumstances, Sen Shōan, rather than Rikyū's legitimate heir, Dōan, became the person counted as the 2nd generation in the Sen-family's tradition of (see at schools of Japanese tea ceremony).
Rikyū also wrote poetry, and practiced ikebana.flowers for chanoyu are not called ikebana; need verification about him practicing ikebana
One of his favourite gardens was said to be at Chishaku-in in Kyoto.
Death
Although Rikyū had been one of Hideyoshi's closest confidants, because of crucial differences of opinion and because he was too independent, Hideyoshi ordered him to commit ritual suicide. One year earlier after the Siege of Odawara (1590), his famous disciple Yamanoue Sōji was tortured and decapitated on Hideyoshi's orders. While Hideyoshi's reason may never be known for certain, it is known that Rikyū committed seppuku at his residence within Hideyoshi's Jurakudai villa in Kyoto in 1591 on the 28th day of the 2nd month (of the traditional Japanese lunar calendar; or April 21 when calculated according to the modern Gregorian calendar), at the age of seventy.
According to Okakura Kakuzō in The Book of Tea, Rikyū's last act was to hold an exquisite tea ceremony. After serving all his guests, he presented each piece of the tea-equipage for their inspection, along with an exquisite kakemono, which Okakura described as "a wonderful writing by an ancient monk dealing with the evanescence of all things". Rikyū presented each of his guests with a piece of the equipment as a souvenir, with the exception of the bowl, which he shattered, as he uttered the words: "Never again shall this cup, polluted by the lips of misfortune, be used by man." As the guests departed, one remained to serve as witness to Rikyū's death. Rikyū's last words, which he wrote down as a death poem, were in verse, addressed to the dagger with which he took his own life:
When Hideyoshi was building his lavish residence at Fushimi the following year, he remarked that he wished its construction and decoration to be pleasing to Rikyū. Hideyoshi was known for his temper, and is said to have expressed regret at his treatment of Rikyū.
Rikyū's grave is located at Jukōin temple in the Daitoku-ji compound in Kyoto; his posthumous Buddhist name is Fushin'an Rikyū Sōeki Koji.
Memorials for Rikyū are observed annually by many schools of Japanese tea ceremony. The Omotesenke school's annual memorial takes place at the family's headquarters each year on March 27, and the Urasenke school's takes place at its own family's headquarters each year on March 28. The three Sen families (Omotesenke, Urasenke, Mushakōjisenke) take turns holding a memorial service on the 28th of every month, at their mutual family temple, the subsidiary temple Jukōin at Daitoku-ji temple.
Rikyū's Seven High-Status Disciples
The () ('Seven Foremost Disciples', 'Seven Luminaries') is a set of seven high-ranking daimyō or generals who were also direct disciples of Sen no Rikyū: Maeda Toshinaga, Gamō Ujisato, Hosokawa Tadaoki, Furuta Oribe, Makimura Toshisada, Dom Justo Takayama, and Shimayama Munetsuna. The seven-member set was first mentioned by Rikyū's grandson Sen no Sōtan. In a 1663 list given by Sōtan's son (and fourth-generation head of the Sen Sōsa lineage of tea masters), Maeda Toshinaga is replaced by Seta Masatada.
In popular culture
Rikyu (, , 1989) is Hiroshi Teshigahara's film about the master. The film focuses on the late stages of life of Rikyū, during the highly turbulent Sengoku period of feudal Japan. The film won a number of awards.
Death of a Tea Master (, , also known as : Honkakubo's Student Writings) is a 1989 biographical drama film directed by Kei Kumai with Toshiro Mifune as the lead character. It is based on the events surrounding his ritual suicide. It was entered into the main competition at the 43rd Venice International Film Festival, in which it won the Silver Lion.
Hyouge Mono () is a manga written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Yamada. is a fictional retelling of the era in which Sen no Rikyū lived, and how close tea culture was to the world of politics. It won several comic awards and was adapted into an anime series in 2011.
was made in 2013 by Mitsutoshi Tanaka, starring kabuki actor Ichikawa Ebizō XI, Rei Dan, Akira Emoto, and Seiji Fukushi. It is based on a novel by Kenichi Yamamoto.
Sen no Rikyū is a character in the Sengoku Basara franchise, introduced in the 2015 game Sengoku Basara 4. Rikyū is portrayed with a two split personalities - the peaceful, elegant Wabisuke, and the irreverent and aggressive Sabisuke – in reference to the philosophy of wabi-sabi that the actual Rikyū popularized. In the game, Rikyū is a former tea master to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and he is on the run after Hideyoshi ordered him to commit ritual suicide.
Sen no Rikyū is one of the main characters in Flower and Sword (), a 2017 tragicomical movie by Tetsuo Shinohara. The role of Rikyū is performed by Kōichi Satō.
See also
Sen Shōan
Sen Sōtan
Schools of Japanese tea ceremony
Notes
References
Bodart-Bailey, Beatrice. (1977). Tea and counsel, the political rele of Sen Rikyū. OCLC 469293854
Sansom, George Bailey. (1961). A History of Japan: 1334-1615. London: Cresset Press. OCLC 216583509
Further reading
Tanaka, Seno, Tanaka, Sendo, Reischauer, Edwin O. “The Tea Ceremony”, Kodansha International; Revised edition, May 1, 2000. , .
External links
Momoyama, Japanese Art in the Age of Grandeur, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Sen no Rikyū
Turning point : Oribe and the arts of sixteenth-century Japan, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Sen no Rikyū
1522 births
1591 deaths
Chadō
Japanese tea masters
Suicides by seppuku
People from Sakai, Osaka
Forced suicides
16th-century suicides | [
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249798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quirks%20%26%20Quarks | Quirks & Quarks | Quirks & Quarks is a Canadian science news program, heard over CBC Radio One of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC).
Created by CBC Producer Diana Filer and airing since October 8, 1975, Quirks & Quarks is consistently rated among the most popular CBC programs, attracting over 800,000 listeners each Saturday from 12:06 to 13:00. The show is also heard on Sirius Satellite Radio and some American public radio stations. The show consists of several segments each week, most of which involve the host interviewing a scientist about a recent discovery or publication, combined with in-depth documentaries; however, from time to time the show does a special "Question Show" episode, during which the format consists of scientists answering questions submitted by listeners.
Quirks & Quarks has offered listeners Internet audio streams and MP3 downloads on its web page since 1993. The MP3 audio files have been archived on the program web site, going back to Sept. 2006. In 2005, Quirks became the first major CBC show available as a podcast. Since the program began, it has won more than 80 national and international journalism awards, including the prestigious Walter Sullivan Award (twice) and the Science Writing Award from the American Institute of Physics (twice).
In the mid-2000s, the CBC began repackaging episodes of Quirks & Quarks into podcast segments. On November 28, 2006, the Quirks & Quarks podcast was one of the top 10 downloads on the iTunes podcast chart.
Hosts
1975–1979: David Suzuki
1979–1991: Jay Ingram
1992: David Mowbray
1992–present: Bob McDonald
Suzuki went on to host CBC Television's The Nature of Things. Ingram left to become founding host of Discovery Channel Canada's nightly science-news program @discovery.ca. Mowbray hosted for four months and then left to make documentary films about science in international development. McDonald came to Quirks from having hosted CBC Television's children's science program Wonderstruck.
References
External links
Quirks and Quarks - Canadian Communication Foundation
Science radio programmes
Audio podcasts
Canadian podcasters
CBC Radio One programs
Science and technology in Canada
Science podcasts
Canadian talk radio programs | [
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249800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20James%20Furnivall | Frederick James Furnivall | Frederick James Furnivall (4 February 1825 – 2 July 1910) was an English philologist, best known as one of the co-creators of the New English Dictionary. He founded a number of learned societies on early English literature and made pioneering and massive editorial contributions to the subject, of which the most notable was his parallel text edition of The Canterbury Tales. He was one of the founders of and teachers at the London Working Men's College and a lifelong campaigner against injustice.
Life
Frederick James Furnivall was born on 4 February 1825 in Egham, Surrey, the son of a surgeon who had made his fortune from running the Great Fosters lunatic asylum. He was educated at University College, London, and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he took an undistinguished mathematics degree. He was called to the bar from Lincoln's Inn in 1849 and practised desultorily until 1870.
In 1862 Furnivall married Eleanor Nickel Dalziel ( – 1937). Some authors describe her as a lady's maid, which would have been a socially unusual match at the time, although her social status is disputed.
Some time before 1866, Furnivall lost a child, Eena, whom he described as "my sweet, bright, only child". He lost his inheritance in a financial crash in 1867. When he was 58, he separated from Eleanor and their one surviving son to continue a relationship with a 21-year-old female editor named Teena Rochfort-Smith. Two months after his formal separation from Eleanor, in 1883, Rochfort-Smith suffered serious burns while burning correspondence in Goole and died.
Furnivall was a non-smoker and teetotaller all his life. He took interest in physical fitness and was a vegetarian for twenty-five years.
Furnivall died on 2 July 1910.
Oxford English Dictionary
Furnivall was one of the three founders and, from 1861 to 1870, the second editor of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). Despite his scholarship and enthusiasm, his stint as editor of the OED nearly ended the project. For a dictionary maker he had an unfortunate lack of patience, discipline and accuracy. After having lost the sub-editors for A, I, J, N, O, P, and W through his irascibility or caprice, he finally resigned. He continued, however, to provide thousands of quotations for the dictionary until his death. OED editor James Murray said of Furnivall: "He has been by far the most voluminous of our 'readers', and the slips in his handwriting and the clippings by him from printed books, and from newspapers and magazines, form a very large fraction of the millions in the Scriptorium."
Furnivall joined the Philological Society in 1847 and was its Secretary from 1853 almost until his death in 1910 at the age of 85.
He received an honorary Doctor of Letters degree from the University of Oxford and an honorary Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Berlin. In April 1902 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
Literary societies
Furnivall indefatigably promoted the study of early English literature. He founded a series of literary and philological societies: the Early English Text Society (1864), the Chaucer Society (1868), the Ballad Society (1868), the New Shakspere Society (1873), the Browning Society (1881, with Emily Hickey), the Wyclif Society (1882), and the Shelley Society (1885). Some of these, notably the Early English Text Society, were very successful; all were characterised by extreme controversy. The most acrimonious of all was the New Shakspere Society, scene of a bitter dispute between Furnivall and Algernon Charles Swinburne.
These societies were primarily textual publishing ventures. Furnivall edited texts for the Early English Text Society, for the Roxburghe Club and the Rolls Series; but his most important work was on Geoffrey Chaucer. His "Six-Text" edition of the Canterbury Tales was a new conception. It has been described as containing full and accurate transcriptions, though some modern scholars disagree about his merits as an editor. His work, and that of the amateurs he recruited, was often slapdash, but it was substantial, and it laid the foundation for all subsequent editions. He was one of a small group of Victorian scholars who have been credited with establishing the academic study of English literature.
Working Men's College
In the 1850s Furnivall became involved in various Christian socialist schemes and his circle included Charles Kingsley and John Ruskin. It was through this group that he became one of the founders of the Working Men's College, and although he later became agnostic he always retained a connection with the college. He conceived of the college as a classless, democratic community of learning. One biographer wrote that he formed there a conviction that "scholarship could be pursued by quite ordinary people in a spirit of good-humoured enthusiasm" that was to be the key to his later life.
Rowing
Furnivall was always an enthusiastic oarsman, and kept up his interest in rowing till the end of his life. With John Beesley in 1845, he introduced the new type of narrow sculling boat, and in 1886 started races on the Thames for sculling fours and sculling eights. In 1896 Furnivall founded the Hammersmith Sculling Club (now called Furnivall Sculling Club), initially for working-class girls, and he "entered into its activities with his usual boyish enthusiasm, for it brought together two of his favourite activities: vigorous outdoor exercise and enjoyment of the company of young women".
Furnivall the sculler may have been the original of his acquaintance Kenneth Grahame's character Ratty in The Wind in the Willows and it has also been suggested that he inspired the portrayal of the god Pan in the same work.
References
Sources
External links
1825 births
1910 deaths
Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
Anglican socialists
Chaucer scholars
Chief editors of the Oxford English Dictionary
English agnostics
English Anglicans
English book and manuscript collectors
English Christian socialists
English lexicographers
English philologists
Fellows of the British Academy
Former Anglicans
People from Egham | [
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249801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Lake%20Erie | Battle of Lake Erie | The Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes called the Battle of Put-in-Bay, was fought on 10 September 1813, on Lake Erie off the coast of Ohio during the War of 1812. Nine vessels of the United States Navy defeated and captured six vessels of the British Royal Navy. This ensured American control of the lake for the rest of the war, which in turn allowed the Americans to recover Detroit and win the Battle of the Thames to break the Indian confederation of Tecumseh. It was one of the biggest naval battles of the War of 1812.
Background
2000
When the war broke out, the British immediately seized control of Lake Erie. They already had a small force of warships there: the sloop-of-war and the brig General Hunter. The schooner was under construction and was put into service a few weeks after the outbreak of war. These vessels were controlled by the Provincial Marine, which was a military transport service and not a naval service. Nevertheless, the Americans lacked any counter to the British armed vessels. The only American warship on Lake Erie, the brig Adams, was not ready for service at the start of the war, and when the American army of Brigadier General William Hull abandoned its invasion of Canada, Adams was pinned down in Detroit by the British batteries at Sandwich on the Canadian side of the Detroit River. The British Major-General Isaac Brock used his control of the lake to defeat Hull's army at the Siege of Detroit, by cutting the American supply lines and rapidly transferring himself and some reinforcements to Amherstburg from where they launched a successful landing on the American side of the Detroit River.
The British took Adams when Detroit was surrendered, renaming her . Together with the brig , which had been commandeered from the Canadian North West Company, she was boarded and captured near Fort Erie on 9 October, by American sailors and soldiers led by Lieutenant Jesse Elliot. Detroit ran aground on an island in the middle of the Niagara River and was set on fire to prevent her being recaptured. Caledonia was taken to the navy yard at Black Rock and commissioned into the United States Navy. Also present at Black Rock were the schooners and and the sloop-rigged , which had all been purchased by the United States Navy and were being converted into gunboats. While the British held Fort Erie and the nearby batteries which dominated the Niagara River, all these vessels were pinned down and unable to leave Black Rock.
Late in 1812, Paul Hamilton, the United States Secretary of the Navy had received long-time American lake mariner Daniel Dobbins, who had escaped capture at Detroit and brought information on the British forces on Lake Erie. Dobbins recommended the bay of Presque Isle in Erie, Pennsylvania as a naval base on the lake. ("Presqu'isle" is French for "peninsula", literally "almost an island"). Dobbins was dispatched to build four gunboats there, although Lieutenant Elliot objected to the lack of facilities. Another problem was that a sand bar extended across the entrance to the harbor at Presque Isle, which would prove to make it very difficult to get newly-constructed U.S. ships out to open water. In September, Dobbins began directing the cutting of trees. By November, Ebenezer Crosby, a master shipwright, was hired by Dobbins to start work on the four wooden ships. Commodore Isaac Chauncey had been appointed to the command of the United States naval forces on the Great Lakes in September 1812. He made one brief visit to Erie on 1 January 1813 where he approved Dobbins's actions and recommended collecting materials for a larger vessel, but then returned to Lake Ontario where he afterwards concentrated his energies.
1813
In January 1813, William Jones (who had replaced Hamilton as the United States Secretary of the Navy) ordered the construction of two brig-rigged corvettes at Presque Isle, and transferred shipwright Noah Brown there from Sackets Harbor on Lake Ontario to take charge of construction. Other than their rig and crude construction (such as using wooden pegs instead of nails because of shortages of the latter), the two brigs were close copies of the contemporary . The heaviest armament for the ships came from foundries on Chesapeake Bay, and were moved to Presque Isle only with great difficulty. (The Americans were fortunate in that some of their largest cannon had been dispatched shortly before raiding parties under Rear-Admiral George Cockburn destroyed a foundry at Frenchtown on the eastern seaboard.) However, the Americans could get other materials and fittings from Pittsburgh, which was expanding as a manufacturing center, and smaller guns were borrowed from the Army.
Master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry had earlier been appointed to command on Lake Erie, through lobbying by Jeremiah B. Howell, the Senior Senator from Rhode Island, supplanting Lieutenant Elliot. He arrived at Presque Isle to take command at the end of March. Having arranged for the defense of Presque Isle, he proceeded to Lake Ontario to obtain reinforcements of seamen from Commodore Isaac Chauncey. After commanding the American schooners and gunboats at the Battle of Fort George, he then went to Black Rock where the American vessels had been released when the British abandoned Fort Erie at the end of May. Perry had them towed by draft oxen up the Niagara, an operation which took six days, and sailed with them along the shore to Presque Isle.
Meanwhile, Commander Robert Heriot Barclay was appointed to command the British squadron on Lake Erie. Another British officer had already endangered his career by refusing the appointment as success appeared unlikely. Barclay missed a rendezvous with Queen Charlotte at Point Abino and was forced to make the tedious journey to Amherstburg overland, arriving on 10 June. He brought with him only a handful of officers and seamen. When he took command of his squadron, the crews of his vessels numbered only seven British seamen, 108 officers and men of the Provincial Marine (whose quality Barclay disparaged), 54 men of the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles and 106 soldiers, effectively landsmen, from the 41st Foot. Nevertheless, he immediately set out in Queen Charlotte and Lady Prevost. He first reconnoitred Perry's base at Presque Isle and determined that it was defended by 2,000 Pennsylvania militia, with batteries and redoubts. He then cruised the eastern end of Lake Erie, hoping to intercept the American vessels from Black Rock. The weather was hazy, and he missed them.
During July and August, Barclay received two small vessels, the schooner and the sloop , which had been reconstructed at Chatham on the Thames River and attempted to complete the ship-rigged corvette at Amherstburg. Because the Americans controlled Lake Ontario and occupied the Niagara Peninsula in early 1813, supplies for Barclay had to be carried overland from York. The American victory earlier in the year at the Battle of York resulted in the guns (24-pounder carronades) intended for Detroit falling into American hands. Detroit had to be completed with a miscellany of guns from the fortifications of Amherstburg. Barclay claimed at his court martial that these guns lacked flintlock firing mechanisms and matches, and that they could be fired only by snapping flintlock pistols over powder piled in the vent holes.
Barclay repeatedly requested men and supplies from Commodore James Lucas Yeo, commanding on Lake Ontario, but received very little. The commander of the British troops on the Detroit frontier, Major-General Henry Procter, was similarly starved of soldiers and munitions by his superiors. He declined to make an attack on Presque Isle unless he was reinforced, and instead he incurred heavy losses in an unsuccessful attack on Fort Stephenson, which he mounted at the urgings of some of his Indian warriors.
Blockades of Presque Isle and Amherstburg
By mid-July, the American squadron was almost complete, although not yet fully manned (Perry claimed to have only 120 men fit for duty). The British squadron maintained a blockade of Presque Isle for ten days from 20 to 29 July. The harbour had a sandbar across its mouth, with only of water over it, which prevented Barclay sailing in to attack the American ships (although Barclay briefly skirmished with the defending batteries on 21 July), but also prevented the Americans leaving in fighting order. Barclay had to lift the blockade on 29 July because of shortage of supplies and bad weather. It has also been suggested that Barclay left to attend a banquet in his honour, or that he wished the Americans to cross the bar and hoped to find them in disarray when he returned. Perry immediately began to move his vessels across the sandbar. This was an exhausting task. The guns had to be removed from all the boats, and the largest of them had to be raised between "camels" (barges or lighters which were then emptied of ballast). When Barclay returned four days later, he found that Perry had nearly completed the task. Perry's two largest brigs were not ready for action, but the gunboats and smaller brigs formed a line so confidently that Barclay withdrew to await the completion of Detroit.
Chauncey had dispatched 130 extra sailors under Lieutenant Jesse Elliot to Presque Isle. Although Perry described some of them as "wretched", at least 50 of them were experienced sailors drafted from , then undergoing a refit in Boston. Perry also had a few volunteers from the Pennsylvania militia.
His vessels first proceeded to Sandusky, where they received further contingents of volunteers from Major General William Henry Harrison's Army of the Northwest. After twice appearing off Amherstburg, Perry established an anchorage at Put-in-Bay, Ohio. For the next five weeks, Barclay was effectively blockaded and unable to move supplies to Amherstburg. His sailors, Procter's troops, and the very large numbers of Indian warriors and their families there quickly ran out of supplies. After receiving a last-minute reinforcement of two naval officers, three warrant officers and 36 sailors transferred from a transport temporarily laid up in Quebec under Lieutenant George Bignall, Barclay had no choice but to put out again and seek battle with Perry.
In the days preceding the battle, Perry told his friend, Purser Samuel Hambleton, that he wanted a signal flag, or battle flag, to signal to his fleet when to engage the enemy. Hambleton suggested using the dying words of Perry's friend Captain James Lawrence of the frigate , "Don't Give up the Ship". Hambleton had the flag sewn by women of Erie, and presented it to Perry the day before the battle. The flag would become an icon in American naval history.
Battle
On the morning of 10 September, the Americans saw Barclay's vessels heading for them, and got under way from their anchorage at Put-in-Bay. The wind was light. Barclay initially held the weather gauge, but the wind shifted and allowed Perry to close and attack. Both squadrons were in line of battle, with their heaviest vessels near the centre of the line.
The first shot was fired, from Detroit, at 11:45. Perry hoped to get his two largest brigs, his flagship and , into carronade range quickly, but in the light wind his vessels were making very little speed and Lawrence was battered by the assortment of long guns mounted in Detroit for at least 20 minutes before being able to reply effectively. When Lawrence was finally within carronade range at 12:45, her fire was not as effective as Perry hoped, her gunners apparently having overloaded the carronades with shot.
Astern of Lawrence, Niagara, under Elliot, was slow to come into action and remained far out of effective carronade range. It is possible that Elliott was under orders to engage his opposite number, Queen Charlotte, and that Niagara was obstructed by the unhandy Caledonia, but Elliot's actions would become a matter of dispute between him and Perry for many years. Aboard Queen Charlotte, the British ship opposed to Niagara, the commander (Robert Finnis) and First Lieutenant were both killed. The next most senior officer, Lieutenant Irvine of the Provincial Marine, found that both Niagara and the American gunboats were far out of range, and passed the brig General Hunter to engage Lawrence at close range.
Although the American gunboats at the rear of the American line of battle steadily pounded the British ships in the centre of the action with raking shots from their long guns from a distance, Lawrence was reduced by the two British ships to a wreck. Four-fifths of Lawrences crew were killed or wounded. Both of the fleet's surgeons were sick with "lake fever", (malaria), so the wounded were taken care of by the assistant, Usher Parsons. When the last gun on Lawrence became unusable, Perry decided to transfer his flag. He was rowed a half-mile (1 km) through heavy gunfire to Niagara while Lawrence was surrendered. It is said his personal servant, African American sailor Cyrus Tiffany, accompanied and protected Perry during this journey.
It was later alleged that Perry left Lawrence after the surrender, but he had actually taken down only his personal pennant, in blue bearing the motto, "Don't give up the ship".
When Lawrence surrendered, firing died away briefly. Detroit collided with Queen Charlotte, both ships being almost unmanageable with damaged rigging and almost every officer killed or severely wounded. Barclay was severely wounded and his first lieutenant was killed, leaving Lieutenant Inglis in command. Most of the smaller British vessels were also disabled and drifting to leeward. The British nevertheless expected Niagara to lead the American schooners away in retreat. Instead, once aboard Niagara, Perry dispatched Elliot to bring the schooners into closer action, while he steered Niagara at Barclay's damaged ships, helped by the strengthening wind.
Niagara broke through the British line ahead of Detroit and Queen Charlotte and luffed up to fire raking broadsides from ahead of them, while Caledonia and the American gunboats fired from astern. Although the crews of Detroit and Queen Charlotte managed to untangle the two ships they could no longer offer any effective resistance. Both ships surrendered at about 3:00 pm. The smaller British vessels tried to flee but were overtaken and also surrendered.
Although Perry won the battle on Niagara, he received the British surrender on the deck of the Lawrence.
Casualties
The British lost 41 killed and 94 wounded. The surviving crews, including the wounded, numbered 306. Captain Barclay, who had previously lost his left arm in 1809, lost a leg and part of his thigh in the action while his remaining arm was rendered "permanently motionless". The Americans lost 27 killed and 96 wounded, of whom 2 later died. The heaviest American casualties were suffered aboard Lawrence, which had 2 officers and 20 men killed, and 6 officers and 55 men wounded.
Of the vessels involved, the three most battered (the American brig Lawrence and the British ships Detroit and Queen Charlotte) were converted into hospital ships. A gale swept the lake on 13 September and dismasted Detroit and Queen Charlotte, further shattering the already battered ships. Once the wounded had been ferried to Erie, Lawrence was restored to service for 1814, but the two British ships were effectively reduced to hulks.
Aftermath
Perry's vessels and prizes were anchored and hasty repairs were underway near West Sister Island when Perry composed his now famous message to Harrison. Scrawled in pencil on the back of an old envelope, Perry wrote:
Perry next sent the following message to the Secretary of the Navy, William Jones:
Once his usable vessels and prizes were patched up, Perry ferried 2,500 American soldiers to Amherstburg, which was captured without opposition on 27 September. Meanwhile, 1,000 mounted troops led by Richard Mentor Johnson moved by land to Detroit, which also was recaptured without fighting on or about the same day. The British army under Procter had made preparations to abandon its positions even before Procter knew the result of the battle. In spite of exhortations from Tecumseh, who led the confederation of Indian tribes allied to Britain, Procter had already abandoned Amherstburg and Detroit and began to retreat up the Thames River on 27 September. Lacking supplies, Tecumseh's Indians had no option but to accompany him. Harrison caught up with Procter's retreating force and defeated them on 5 October at the Battle of the Thames, where Tecumseh was killed, as was his second-in command and most experienced warrior, Wyandot Chief Roundhead.
The victory on Lake Erie had disproportionate strategic import. The Americans controlled Lake Erie for the remainder of the war. This accounted for much of the Americans' successes on the Niagara peninsula in 1814 and also removed the threat of a British attack on Ohio, Pennsylvania, or Western New York.
However, an expedition in 1814 to recover Mackinac Island on Lake Huron failed, and the Americans lost eight of their smaller vessels and prizes. (Four were destroyed when the British captured Black Rock, where they were laid up, following the Battle of Buffalo at the end of 1813, and four were boarded and captured in separate incidents on Lake Erie and Lake Huron.)
After the war, there was a bitter quarrel between Perry and Elliot over their respective parts in the action, mostly fought at second hand in the press. On the British side, Barclay was exonerated of any blame by a court-martial but was too badly injured to see service again for several years.
Reconstructions and memorials
In 1820 Lawrence and Niagara were intentionally sunk near Misery Bay in Lake Erie, as they had "went to rot." In 1875, Lawrence was raised and moved to Philadelphia, where she was displayed at the 1876 Centennial Exposition. Later that year, the ship burned when the pavilion that housed it caught fire. Although Niagara was raised and restored in 1913, she subsequently fell into disrepair. She was eventually disassembled, and portions of her were used in a reconstructed Niagara, which is now on view in Erie, Pennsylvania.
The high Perry Monument within Perry's Victory and International Peace Memorial now stands at Put-in-Bay, commemorating the men who fought in the battle.
Another high Perry Monument is located at the eastern end of Presque Isle in Erie, Pennsylvania. It stands next to Presque Isle Bay, where Niagara and Lawrence were built, stationed along with the rest of the American Squadron, and then scuttled after the war.
Reasons for American victory
Most historians attribute the American victory to what Theodore Roosevelt described as "superior heavy metal," citing the greater numbers of American ships and heavy cannon. Perry's leadership, particularly in the latter stages of the action, is also mentioned as a factor. The British historian C.S. Forester commented that "it was as fortunate for the Americans that the Lawrence still possessed a boat that would float, as it was that Perry was not hit."
On the British side, William Bell served as constructor and built Detroit, which was the best-built ship on the lake. However, Detroit was built slowly, in part because of Bell's perfectionism, and indeed, it was the only purpose-built British warship constructed on Lake Erie during the war. The guns intended for Detroit were seized by the Americans at the time of their raid on Fort York the year before. That building imbalance, given the fact that six American ships were built in the same time frame, was another important cause of the American victory (although it might be argued that even if Barclay had possessed more hulls, he would have been unable to obtain armament and crews for them).
The court-martial of Captain Barclay and his surviving officers determined that the captain and his officers and men had "conducted themselves in the most gallant manner" and found that the defeat was the result of American numerical superiority, an insufficient number of able seamen, and the early fall of superior officers in the action.
Order of battle
Listed in order of sailing:
Footnotes
Notes
References
"The Dobbins Papers." Severance, Frank H. ed. Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society v. 3 (Buffalo, New York: Buffalo Historical Society, 1905)
; Forester was a famous novelist but this is his history book
Mahan, Alfred Thayer (1840–1914)(1905) Sea Power in Its Relation to the War of 1812 (2 vols.) (Boston: Little Brown) American Library Association.
Further reading
Axelrod, Alen; Phillips, Charles. The MacMillan Dictionary of Military Biography (New York: MacMillan, 1998.) p. 343.]
Bancroft, George, 1800–1891;Dyer, Oliver, 1824–1907. (1891) History of the battle of Lake Erie: and miscellaneous papers (New York : R. Bonner's sons) 292 pp. at American Library Association.
Barnes, James, 1866–1936 (1898) The hero of Erie (Oliver Hazard Perry) (microform) (1898) New York: D. Appleton and here for other formats.
Burges, Tristam (1770–1853) (1839) Battle of Lake Erie, with notices of Commodore Elliot's conduct in that engagement (Providence, Brown & Cady) at Internet Archive.
Conners, William James, 1857–; Emerson, George Douglas. (1916) The Perrys victory centenary. Report of the Perry’s victory centennial commission, state of New York (Albany, J. B. Lyon Company, Printers).
Cooper, James Fenimore (1846) Lives of Distinguished American Naval Officers Google Books and here for American Library Association.
Jesse D. Elliot, Address of Com. Jesse D. Elliot, U.S.N., Delivered in Washington County, Maryland, to His Early Companions at Their Request, on 24 November 1843 (Philadelphia: G. B. Zeiber & co., 1844).
Galbreath, Charles Burleigh (1858-1934): The Battle of Lake Erie in Ballad and History, Ohio Archæological and Historical Society Publications: Volume 20 [1911], pp. 415–456.
Hickey, Donald R. (1990) The War of 1812: The Forgotten Conflict Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. National Historical Society Book Prize and American Military Institute Best Book Award. ; .
Hickey, Donald R. (2006) Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press) .
Downloadable resources regarding Oliver Hazard Perry, American Library Association.
Knoll, Denys W. (USN ret.) (1979) "Battle of Lake Erie: Building the Ships in the Wilderness". Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Foundation
Mackenzie, Alexander Slidell, 1803–1848. (1915) Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry : famous American naval hero, victor of the battle of Lake Erie, his life and achievements (Akron, Ohio: Superior Printing Co.)
Mackenzie, Alexander Slidell, 1803–1848 (1840) The life of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry. (New York, Harper) Volume 1, Volume 2.
Niles, John Milton (Bedford, Mass.: Applewood Books, 1830) The Life of Oliver Hazard Perry.
Reid, George. (1913) Perry at Erie:how Captain Dobbins, Benjamin Fleming and others assisted him. (Erie, Pennsylvania: Journal publishing company).
Skaggs, David Curtis. (October 2006) Oliver Hazard Perry: honor, courage, and patriotism in the early U.S. Navy. Annapolis, Maryland:Naval Institute Press, 302 pp. ; .
Skaggs, David Curtis. Perry Triumphant (April 2009 Volume 23, Number 2) Naval History Magazine United States Naval Institute.
James T. White (1895) p. 288. National Cyclopaedia of American Biography.
External links
"Log of the Battle of Lake Erie" by Sailing Master William Taylor
US Brig Niagara
Barclay's court martial records and correspondence
Battle of Lake Erie Historical Sources
Animated history of the Battle of Lake Erie
Conflicts in 1813
Battle of Lake Erie
Battle of Lake Erie
Naval battles of the War of 1812
Battle of Lake Erie
1813 in Ohio
September 1813 events
Orders of battle
Lake Erie
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249806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hr%C3%B3lfr%20Kraki | Hrólfr Kraki | Hrólfr Kraki (Old Norse: ), Hroðulf, Rolfo, Roluo, Rolf Krage (early 6th century) was a semi-legendary Danish king who appears in both Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian tradition.
Both traditions describe him as a Danish Scylding, the nephew of Hroðgar and the grandson of Healfdene. The consensus view is that Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian traditions describe the same people. Whereas the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf and Widsith do not go further than treating his relationship with Hroðgar and their animosity with Froda and Ingeld, the Scandinavian sources expand on his life as the king at Lejre and on his relationship with Halga, Hroðgar's brother. In Beowulf and Widsith, it is never explained how Hroðgar and Hroðulf are uncle and nephew.
Beowulf
The poem Beowulf introduces Hroðulf as kinsman. Later, the text explains that Hroðulf is Hroðgar's nephew and that "each was true to the other". Hroðgar is given three siblings, brothers Heorogar and Halga and an unnamed sister, all the children of Healfdene and belonging to the royal clan known as the Scyldings. The poem does not indicate which of Hroðgar's siblings is Hroðulf's parent, but later Scandinavian tradition establishes this as Halga.
Hroðgar and queen Wealhþeow had two young sons, Hreðric and Hroðmund, and Hroðulf would be their guardian in case Hroðgar dies. In a deliberately ironic passage it appears that the queen trusts Hroðulf, not suspecting that he will murder her sons to claim the throne for himself:
No existence of any Hreðric or Hroðmund, sons of Hroðgar, has survived in Scandinavian sources (although Hreðric has been suggested to be the same person as Hroerekr/Roricus, a Danish king generally described as a son or successor of Ingjald). This Hroerekr is sometimes said to have been killed by Hrólfr, vindicating the foreshadowing in Beowulf.
The Scyldings were in conflict with another clan or tribe named the Heaðobards led by their king Froda and his son Ingeld. It is in relation to this war that Hroðulf is mentioned in the other Anglo-Saxon poem where he appears, Widsith.
Hrólf and Hroðulf
A common identification is that Hrólf Kraki is the same as the character Hroðulf (Hroðgar's nephew) in Beowulf. There seems to be some foreshadowing in Beowulf that Hroðulf will attempt to usurp the throne from Hroðgar's sons Hreðric and Hroðmund, a deed that also seems to be referred to in Saxo Grammaticus's Gesta Danorum (Book 2), where we find: "... our king, who laid low Rorik, the son of Bok the covetous, and wrapped the coward in death." Rorik is the form we would expect Hreðric to take in Danish and we find personages named Rorik or Hrok or similar in most version of the Hrólf Kraki tradition, but differently accounted for, seemingly indicating that Scandinavian tradition had forgotten who exactly Hreðric/Rorik/Hrok was and various story tellers subsequently invented details to explain references to this personage in older poems. The future slaying of Hreðric may be the occasion of the future burning of the hall of Heorot in the beginning of the poem – though some take it instead to refer to the legendary death of Hrólf Kraki, who in Icelandic sources is said to have died in the burning of his hall by his brother-in-law Hjörvard.
Beowulf and Bjarki
The standard view is that, if Beowulf himself has a 'cognate' character in Rolf Kraki's story, it is Bödvar Bjarki (Bodvar Biarke), who also has a younger companion, Hjalti (Hialte) – perhaps matching the Beowulf character Wiglaf. Beowulf comes from Geatland (= Götaland) and one of Bödvar Bjarki's elder brothers, Thorir, becomes a king of Götaland. Moreover, like Beowulf, Bödvar Bjarki arrives in Denmark from Götaland (Geatland), and upon arriving in Denmark he kills a beast that has been ravaging the Danish court for two years. The monster in Hrólf Krakis saga, however, is quite unlike the Grendel of Beowulf; but it does have characteristics of a more typical dragon, a creature which appears later in Beowulf.
Just as Beowulf and Wiglaf slay a dragon at the end of Beowulf, Bödvar Bjarki and Hjalti help each other slay the creature in Denmark.
Proponents of this theory, like J. R. R. Tolkien, argue that both the names Beowulf (lit. "bee-wolf", a kenning for "bear") and Bjarki are associated with bears. Bodvar Bjarki is constantly associated with bears, his father actually being one.
In some of the Hrólf Kraki material, Bödvar Bjarki aids Adils in defeating Adils' uncle Áli, in the Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern. In Beowulf, the hero Beowulf aids Eadgils in Eadgils' war against Onela. As far as this Swedish adventure is concerned, Beowulf and Bödvar Bjarki are one and the same. This match supports the hypothesis that the adventure with the dragon is also originally derived from the same story.
Hrothgar and Hróar
As for the king of the Danes, Hroðgar, he is identical to Hróar or Ro, the uncle of Hrólf Kraki who in other sources outside of Beowulf rules as a co-king with his brother Helgi. But in those sources it is Hróar/Hroðgar who dies before his brother or who departs to Northumberland to rule his wife's kingdom leaving Helgi/Halga the sole rule of Denmark. In Beowulf Halga/Helgi has died and Hroðgar is the primary ruler with Hroðulf son of Halga as a junior co-ruler.
Furthermore, the Swedish kings referenced in Beowulf are adequately matched with the 5th and 6th century Swedish kings in Uppsala (see also Swedish semi-legendary kings):
This has obviously nothing to do with a common origin of the Beowulf and Hrólf Kraki legends in particular but simply reflects a shared genealogical tradition.
Widsith
The poem Widsith also mentions Hroðgar and Hroðulf, but indicates that the feud with Ingeld did not end until the latter was defeated at Heorot:
This piece suggests that the conflict between the Scyldings Hroðgar and Hroðulf on one side, and the Heaðobards Froda and Ingeld on the other, was well known in Anglo-Saxon England. This conflict also appears in Scandinavian sources, but in the Norse tradition the Heaðobards had apparently been forgotten and the conflict is instead rendered as a family feud (see Hrólf Kraki's saga and Skjöldunga saga).
Chronicon Lethrense and Annales Lundenses
The Chronicon Lethrense and the included Annales Lundenses tell that Haldan (Healfdene) had two sons, Helghe (Halga) and Ro (Hroðgar). When Haldan died of old age, Helghe and Ro divided the kingdom so that Ro ruled the land, and Helghe the sea. One day, Helghe arrived in Halland/Lolland and slept with Thore, the daughter of one of Ro's farmers. This resulted in a daughter named Yrse. Much later, he met Yrse, and without knowing that she was his daughter, he made her pregnant with Rolf. Eventually, Helghe found out that Yrse was his own daughter and, out of shame, went east and killed himself.
Both Helghe and Ro being dead, a Swedish king, called Hakon in the Chronicon Lethrense proper, and Athisl in the Annales – corresponding to Eadgils – forced the Danes to accept a dog as king. The dog king was succeeded by Rolf Krage.
Rolf Krage was a big man in body and soul and was so generous that no one asked him for anything twice. His sister Skulda was married against Rolf's will to Hartwar or Hiarwarth (Heoroweard), a German earl of Skåne, but reputedly Rolf had given Skulda to him together with Sweden.
This Hartwar arrived in Zealand with a large army and said that he wanted to give his tribute to Rolf, but killed Rolf together with all his men. Only one survived, Wigg, who played along until he was to do homage to Hartwar. Then, he pierced Hartwar with a sword, and so Hartwar was king for only one morning.
Gesta Danorum
The Book 2 of the Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus contains roughly the same information as the Chronicon Lethrense and the Annales Lundenses, i.e. that Ro (Hroðgar) and Helgo (Halga) were the son of Haldanus (Healfdene). When Haldanus died of old age, Ro took the land and Helgo the water. One day during his sea roving, Helgo arrived at Thurø, where he found and raped the young girl Thora, which resulted in Urse (Yrsa). When Helgo after many years returned to Thurø, Thora avenged her lost virginity by sending Urse to Helgo who, unknowingly raped his own daughter. This resulted in Roluo, who was a gifted man, both physically and intellectually and as brave as he was tall. After some time Helgo repelled a Swedish invasion, avenged Ro by killing the Swedish king Hothbrodd, and made the Swedes pay tribute. However, he committed suicide due to shame for his incestuous relationship with Urse. Roluo succeeded him.
The new king of Sweden, Athislus (Eadgils), thought that the tribute to the Daner might be smaller if he married the Danish king's mother and so took Urse for a queen. However, after some time, Urse was so upset with the Swedish king's greed that she thought out a ruse to run away from the king and at the same time liberate him of his wealth. She incited Athislus to rebel against Roluo, and arranged so that Roluo would be invited and promised a wealth in gifts.
At the banquet Roluo was at first not recognised by his mother, but when their fondness was commented on by Athisl, the Swedish king and Roluo made a wager where Roluo would prove his endurance. Roluo was placed in front of a fire that exposed him to such heat that finally a maiden could suffer the sight no more and extinguished the fire. Roluo was greatly recompensed by Athisl for his endurance.
When the banquet had lasted for three days, Urse and Roluo escaped from Uppsala, early in the morning in carriages where they had put all the Swedish king's treasure. In order to lessen their burden, and to occupy any pursuing warriors they spread gold in their path (later in the work, this is referred to as "sowing the Fyrisvellir"), although there was a rumour that she only spread gilded copper. When Athislus, who was pursuing the escapers saw that a precious ring was lying on the ground, he bent down to pick it up. Roluo was pleased to see the king of Sweden bent down, and escaped in the ships with his mother.
A young man named Wigg was impressed with Roluo's bodily size and gave him the cognomen Krage, which meant a tall tree trunk used as a ladder. Roluo liked this name and rewarded Wigg with a heavy bracelet. Wigg, then, swore to Roluo to avenge him, if he was killed.
Roluo later defeated Athislus and gave Sweden to young man named Hiartuar (Heoroweard), who also married Roluo's sister Skulde. Skulde, however, did not like the fact that her husband had to pay taxes to Roluo and so incited Hiartuar to rebel against him. They so went to Lejre (a town which Roluo had built) with arms hidden in the ships, under the pretense that they wanted to pay tribute.
They were well-received, but after the banquet, when most people were drunk asleep, the Swedes and the Goths (i.e. the Geats) proceeded to kill everyone at Roluo's residence. After a long battle, involving Roluo's champion Bjarki, who fought in the shape of a spirit bear until he was awakened by his comrade Hjalti, the Geats won and Roluo was killed.
Hiartuar asked Wigg if he wanted to fight for him, and Wigg said yes. Hiartuar wanted to give Wigg a sword, but he insisted on receiving it by taking the hilt. Having the hilt in his hand, Wigg pierced Hiartuar with the sword and so avenged Roluo. Swedes and Geats then rushed forward and killed Wigg. The Swedish king Høtherus (based on the god Höðr), the brother of Athislus, succeeded Roluo and became the king of a combined Sweden and Denmark.
Hrólfr Kraki's saga
In Hrólfr Kraki's saga, Halfdan (Healfdene) had three children, the sons Helgi (Halga) and Hróarr (Hroðgar) and the daughter Signý. The sister was the eldest and married to Sævil Jarl, with whom she had the son Hrókr. Halfdan was murdered by his own brother Fróði (Froda) and the two brothers had to seek refuge with a man called Vivil on an island, until they could avenge their father and kill Fróði.
Whereas Hróarr moved to Northumbria and married the king's daughter, Helgi (i.e. Halga) went to the Saxons wanting to woo their warlike queen Oluf. She was, however, not interested and humiliated Helgi by shaving his head and covering him with tar, while he was asleep, and sending him back to his ship. Some time later, Helgi returned and through a ruse, he kidnapped the queen for a while during which time he made her pregnant.
Having returned to her kingdom, the queen bore a child, a girl which she named Yrsa after her dog. Yrsa was set to live as a shepherd, until she was 12 years old, when she met her father Helgi who fell in love with her, not knowing it was his daughter. Oluf kept quiet about the parentage and saw it as her revenge that Helgi would wed his own daughter. Helgi and Yrsa had the son Hrólfr.
Learning that Helgi and Yrsa lived happily together, queen Oluf travelled to Denmark to tell her daughter the truth. Yrsa was shocked and although Helgi wanted their relationship to remain as it was, Yrsa insisted on leaving him to live alone. She was later taken by the Swedish king Aðils (Eadgils) as his queen, which made Helgi even more unhappy. Helgi went to Uppsala to fetch her, but was killed by Aðils in battle. In Lejre, he was succeeded by his son Hrólfr.
Hrólfr soon assembled twelve great berserkers named Hrómundr harði, Hrólfr skjóthendi, Svipdagr, Beigaðr, Hvítserkr inn hvati, Haklangr, Harðrefill, Haki inn frækni, Vöttr inn mikilaflaði, Starólfr, Hjalti inn hugprúði and Bödvar Bjarki.
After some time, Bödvar Bjarki encouraged Hrólfr to go Uppsala to claim the gold that Aðils had taken from Helgi after the battle. Hrólfr departed with 120 men and his twelve berserkers and during a rest they were tested by a farmer called Hrani (Odin in disguise) who advised Hrólfr to send back all his troops but his twelve berserkers, as numbers would not help him against Aðils.
They were at first well received, but in his hall, Aðils did his best to stop Hrólfr with pit traps and hidden warriors who attacked the Danes. Finally Aðils entertained them but put them to a test where they had to endure immense heat by a fire. Hrólfr and his berserkers finally had enough and threw the courtiers, who were feeding the fire, into the fire and leapt at Aðils. The Swedish king disappeared through a hollow tree trunk that stood in his hall.
Yrsa admonished Aðils for wanting to kill her son, and went to meet the Danes. She gave them a man named Vöggr to entertain them. This Vöggr remarked that Hrólfr had the thin face of a pole ladder, a Kraki. Happy with his new cognomen Hrólfr gave Vöggr a golden ring, and Vöggr swore to avenge Hrólfr if anyone should kill him. Hrólfr and his company were then attacked by a troll in the shape of a boar in the service of Aðils, but Hrólfr's dog Gram killed it.
They then found out that Aðils had set the hall on fire, and so they broke out of the hall, only to find themselves surrounded by heavily armed warriors in the street. After a fight, king Aðils retreated to summon reinforcements.
Yrsa then provided her son with a silver drinking horn filled with gold and jewels and a famous ring, Svíagris. Then she gave Hrólf and his men twelve of the Swedish king's best horses, and all the armour and provisions they needed.
Hrólfr took a fond farewell of his mother and departed over the Fyrisvellir. When they saw Aðils and his warriors in pursuit, they spread the gold behind themselves. Aðils saw his precious Svíagris on the ground and stooped to pick it up with his spear, whereupon Hrólf cut his back with his sword and screamed in triumph that he had bent the back of the most powerful man in Sweden.
Hrólfr lived in peace for some time. However, his half-elven half-sister Skuld was married to Hjörvarðr (Heoroweard) one of Hrólfr's subkings, and she began to turn her husband against Hrólfr. Under the pretext that they would wait three years before paying the accumulated tribute at one time, Skuld assembled a large army which included strong warriors, criminals, elves and norns. She used seiðr (witchcraft) to hide the great muster from Hrólfr and his champions.
They then arrived at Lejre one yule for the midwinter celebrations, with all the weapons hidden in wagons. A fight started and like in the account found in Gesta Danorum, Bödvar Bjarki fought in the shape of a spirit bear until he was awakened by Hjalti. Skuld used her witchcraft to resuscitate her fallen warriors and after a long fight Hrólfr and all his berserkers fell.
Skuld became the ruler of Denmark but did not rule well. Bödvar Bjarki's brothers Elk-Froði and Þorir Houndsfoot went to Denmark to avenge their brother. The Swedish queen Yrsa gave them a large Swedish army headed by Vöggr. They captured Skuld before she could use her magic and tortured her to death. Then they raised a mound for Hrólfr Kraki where he was buried together with his sword Skofnung.
Skjöldunga saga
The Skjöldunga sagaNerman (1925:150) relates that Helgo (Halga) was the king of Denmark together with his brother Roas (Hroðgar). Helgo raped Olava, the queen of the Saxons, and she bore a daughter named Yrsa. The girl later married king Adillus (Eadgils), the king of Sweden, with whom she had the daughter Scullda.
Some years later, Helgo attacked Sweden and captured Yrsa, not knowing that she was his own daughter. He raped her and took her back to Denmark, where she bore the son Rolfo. After a few years, Yrsa's mother, queen Olava, came to visit her and told her that Helgo was her own father. In horror, Yrsa returned to Adillus, leaving her son behind. Helgo died when Rolfo was eight years old, and Rolfo succeeded him, and ruled together with his uncle Roas. Not much later, Roas was killed by his half-brothers Rærecus and Frodo, whereupon Rolfo became the sole king of Denmark.
In Sweden, Yrsa and Adillus married Scullda to the king of Öland, Hiørvardus (also called Hiorvardus and Hevardus, and who corresponds to Heoroweard in Beowulf). As her half-brother Rolfo was not consulted about this marriage, he was infuriated and he attacked Öland and made Hiørvardus and his kingdom tributary to Denmark.
After some time Adillus requested Rolfo's aid against king Ale (Onela) of Oppland, and Rolfo sent him his berserkers. Adillus then won the war, but refused to pay the expected tribute for the help and so Rolfo came to Uppsala to claim his recompense. After surviving some traps, Rolfo fled with Adillus' gold, helped by his mother Yrsa, and "sowed" it on the Fyrisvellir.
Hiørvardus and his queen Skullda rebelled against Rolfo and killed him. However, Hiørvardus did not live long after this and was killed. Rolfo was succeeded by his father's cousin Rörek, who, however, had to leave Skåne to Valdar and could only keep Zealand.
Skáldskaparmál
In the Skáldskaparmál by Snorri Sturluson, the story of Hrólfr Kraki is presented in order to explain why gold was known by the kenning Kraki's seed.
Snorri relates that Hrólfr was the most renowned king in Denmark for valour, generosity and graciousness. One day a poor boy called Vöggr arrived and expressed his surprise that such a great king would look like a little pole (kraki). Hrólfr said that Vöggr had given him a name and gave Vöggr a golden ring in recompense. In gratitude Vöggr swore to Hrólfr to avenge him, should he be killed.
A second tale was when the king of Sweden, Aðils (Eadgils), was in war with a Norwegian king named Áli (Onela), and they fought in the Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern. Aðils was married to Yrsa, the mother of Hrólfr and so sent an embassy to Hrólfr asking him for help against Áli. He would receive three valuable gifts in recompense. Hrólfr was involved in a war against the Saxons and could not come in person but sent his twelve berserkers. Áli died in the war, and Aðils took Áli's helmet Battle-boar and his horse Raven. The berserkers demanded three pounds of gold each in pay, and they demanded to choose the gifts that Aðils had promised Hrólfr, that is the two pieces of armour that nothing could pierce: the helmet battle-boar and the mailcoat Finn's heritage. They also wanted the famous ring Svíagris. Aðils considered the pay outrageous and refused.
When Hrólfr heard that Aðils refused to pay, he set off to Uppsala. They brought the ships to the river Fyris and rode directly to the Swedish king's hall at Uppsala with his twelve berserkers. Yrsa welcomed them and led them to their lodgings. Fires were prepared for them and they were given drinks. However, so much wood was heaped on the fires that the clothes started to burn away from their bodies. Hrólfr and his men had enough and threw the courtiers on the fire. Yrsa arrived and gave them a horn full of gold, the ring Svíagris and asked them to flee. As they rode over the Fyrisvellir, they saw Aðils and his men pursuing them. The fleeing men threw their gold on the plain so that the pursuers would stop to collect the gold. Aðils, however, continued the chase on his horse Slöngvir. Hrólfr then threw Svíagris and saw how Aðils stooped down to pick up the ring with his spear. Hrólfr exclaimed that he had seen the mightiest man in Sweden bend his back.
Ynglinga saga
The Skjöldunga saga was used by Snorri Sturluson as a source when he told the story of Aðils (Eadgils) and Yrsa, in his Ynglinga saga, a part of the Heimskringla. What remains of the Skjöldunga saga is a Latin summary by Arngrímur Jónsson, and so the two versions are basically the same, the main difference being that Arngrímur's version is more terse.
Snorri relates that Aðils betook himself to pillage the Saxons, whose king was Geirþjófr and queen Alof the Great. The king and consort were not at home, and so Aðils and his men plundered their residence at ease driving cattle and captives down to the ships. One of the captives was a remarkably beautiful girl named Yrsa, and Snorri writes that everyone was soon impressed with the well-mannered, pretty and intelligent girl. Most impressed was Aðils who made her his queen.
Some years later, Helgi (Halga), who ruled in Lejre, attacked Sweden and captured Yrsa. He raped Yrsa, his own daughter, and took her back to Lejre, where she bore him the son Hrólfr. When the boy was three years of age, Yrsa's mother, queen Alof of Saxony, came to visit her and told her that her husband Helgi was her own father. Horrified, Yrsa returned to Aðils, leaving her son behind, and stayed in Sweden for the rest of her life. When Hrólfr was eight years old, Helgi died during a war expedition and Hrólf was proclaimed king.
Snorri finishes his account by briefly mentioning that the Skjöldunga saga contained an extensive account of how Hrólf came to Uppsala and sowed gold on the Fyrisvellir.
Gróttasöngr
The Gróttasöngr contains a stanza (nr 22) sung by the giantesses Fenja and Menja. It only names Yrsa and the situation that her son and brother (i.e. Hroðulf) will avenge Fródi (Froda):
This piece cannot refer to Hrólfr Kraki's saga where Froda was the half-brother of Healfdene because this Froda was killed by Hroðgar (and therefore they avenged him). It can, however, be interpreted through the Skjöldunga saga in which Hroðulf's uncle Hroðgar was murdered by his half-brother Froda.
Either Frodi's death is the one they want to avenge, or they seek vengeance for Hroðgar, killed by his half brother. The Danish equivalent of hefna is at hævne, meaning revenge (or avenging), in this case for Fródi's murder, indicating no relation to Hroðgars death, but to Frodi's. 'Kin' and 'kinsmen' share a certain reference to blood relation, yet 'brother' can also have the meaning of either: 'one of us' and 'our tribesmen', or simply 'son and brother'. After being recognized for his deeds, Yrsa will see Hroðulf as her son once more.
Gautreks saga
Hrólfr Kraki is mentioned briefly in Gautreks saga, written around 1300, when the adventurer Ref comes to him with a gift consisting of two dogs. In return for this gift Hrólfr gives him a helmet and a chainmail, both made of red gold.
Modern references
Danish playwright Johannes Ewald wrote a play about Rolf Krage (1770), based on Saxo's version of the story in Gesta Danorum. Danish poet Adam Oehlenschläger wrote a poem, Helge: et Digt (1814).
The American writer Poul Anderson used this story in his novel Hrolf Kraki's Saga (1973). Anderson's story begins in earlier generations and more or less follows the version in Hrolfr Kraki's Saga described above. The book was well received by many fantasy fans.
"Sellic Spell', a fictionalized treatment of the story by J. R. R. Tolkien, was published in Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary on May 22, 2014, Tolkien himself explaining that his was "a limited...attempt to reconstruct the Anglo-Saxon tale that lies behind the folk-tale element in Beowulf".
The Danish Navy's first ironclad warship was named Rolf Krake.
Notes
Bibliography and external links
English translations of the Old Norse Hrólfs saga kraka ok kappa hans :
The Saga of Hrolf Kraki and his Champions. Trans. Peter Tunstall (2003). Available at Norse saga: The Saga of Hrolf Kraki and Northvegr: The Saga of Hrolf Kraki.
The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki. Trans. Jesse L. Byock (1998). London: Penguin. . Selection from this translation are available at The Viking Site: Excerpts from The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki.
"King Hrolf and his champions" included in Eirik the Red: And Other Icelandic Sagas. Trans. Gwyn Jones (1961). Oxford: Oxford World's Classics, Oxford University Press. .
Original texts''':
Hrólfs saga kraka ok kappa hans in Old Norse from heimskringla.no
Hrólfs saga kraka ok kappa hans in Old Norse from heimskringla.no
University of Oregon: Norse: Fornaldarsögur norðurlanda: Hrólfs saga kraka ok kappa hans
Sagnanet: Hrólfs saga kraka
Anderson, Poul (1973). Hrolf Kraki's Saga. New York: Ballantine Books. . New York: Del Rey Books. . Reprinted 1988 by Baen Books, .
Literary Encyclopedia entry
Birger Nerman, 1925, Det svenska rikets uppkomst (in Swedish)Beowulf:
Beowulf read aloud in Old English
Modern English translation by Francis Barton Gummere
Modern English translation by John Lesslie Hall
Ringler, Dick. Beowulf: A New Translation For Oral Delivery, May 2005. Searchable text with full audio available, from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries.
Several different Modern English translationsChronicon Lethrense and Annales Lundense:
Chronicon Lethrense and Annales Lundense in translation by Peter Tunstall
The same translation at Northvegr
Book 2 of Gesta Danorum at the Online and Medieval & Classical library
The Relation of the Hrolfs Saga Kraka and the Bjarkarimur to Beowulf by Olson, 1916, at Project Gutenberg
the Ynglinga saga in translation by Samuel Laing, 1844, at Northvegr
The Gróttasöngr in Thorpe's translation
Skáldskaparmál:
Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda in the original language
CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology: Prose Edda - Skáldskaparmál (English)
CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology: Prose Edda - Skáldskaparmál (Old Norse)
Malone, Kemp. Studies in Heroic Legend and in Current Speech. S. Einarsson & N.E. Eliason, eds. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde & Bagger, 1959.
Lukman, Niels Clausen. Skjoldunge und Skilfinge. Hunnen- und Heruler-könige in Ostnordischer Überlieferung. Classica et Mediaevalia, dissertationes III. Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel Nordisk Forlag, 1943.
Hemmingsen, Lars. By Word of Mouth: the origins of Danish legendary history - studies in European learned and popular traditions of Dacians and Danes before A.D. 1200. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Copenhagen (Dept. of Folklore), 1995.
Anderson, Carl Edlund. Formation and Resolution of Ideological Contrast in the Early History of Scandinavia''. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse & Celtic (Faculty of English).
Overing, Gillian R., and Marijane Osborn. 'Landscape of Desire: Partial Stories of the Medieval Scandinavian World.' Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994: 1-37. (possible sailing times and the account of a "Beowulfian" voyage on the Cattegat)
6th-century monarchs in Europe
English heroic legends
Characters in Beowulf
Heroes in Norse myths and legends
People whose existence is disputed
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249809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek%20Bentley%20case | Derek Bentley case | Derek William Bentley (30 June 1933 – 28 January 1953) was a British man who was hanged for the murder of a policeman during a burglary attempt. Christopher Craig, then aged 16, a friend and accomplice of Bentley, was accused of the murder. Bentley was convicted as a party to the crime, by the English law principle of common purpose, "joint enterprise", as the burglary had been committed in mutual understanding. The trial was controversial.
The jury at the trial found Bentley guilty based on the prosecution's interpretation of the ambiguous phrase "Let him have it" (Bentley's alleged exhortation to Craig), after the judge, Lord Chief Justice Goddard, had described Bentley as "mentally aiding the murder of Sidney Miles". Goddard sentenced Bentley to be hanged, despite a recommendation for mercy by the jury: under the Judgment of Death Act 1823, no other sentence was possible (although the Homicide Act 1957, which introduced stronger diminished responsibility safeguards, was almost certainly influenced by the Bentley trial).
The Bentley case became a cause célèbre, and led to a 45-year-long campaign to win Derek Bentley a posthumous pardon, which was granted in 1993, and then a further campaign for the quashing of his murder conviction, which occurred in 1998. His case is thus considered a case of miscarriage of justice alongside that of Timothy Evans, and pivotal in the successful campaign to abolish capital punishment in the United Kingdom.
Early life
Derek Bentley entered Norbury Manor Secondary Modern School in 1944, after failing the eleven-plus examination. Just before leaving, in March 1948 Bentley and another boy were arrested for theft. Six months later, he was sentenced to serve three years at Kingswood Approved School, near Bristol. Christopher Craig also attended the same Secondary Modern school.
Health and mental development
Derek Bentley had a series of health and developmental problems. His parents reported that in a childhood accident he had broken his nose and since then he had three fits, including one in which they said he nearly died of choking. The family also said they were bombed out three times during World War II, and in one of these incidents, the house in which he lived collapsed around him, but a court did not find any indication that he was physically injured in the incident.
Bentley was sent to Kingswood Training School, Bristol on 27 October 1948. They administered diagnostic tests on him during the time of his detention there. In December 1948 (when he was 15½ years old), his mental age was estimated at 10 years, 4 months, when he scored 66 on an IQ test. Kingswood staff reported him to be "lazy, indifferent, voluble and of the 'wise guy' type", whilst a court described him as "indifferent, smug, self-satisfied and ready to tell tales". After his arrest in November 1952, further IQ tests were administered to him at Brixton Prison. He was described there as "borderline feeble-minded", with a verbal score of 71, a performance IQ of 87 and a full scale IQ of 77.
He was discovered to still be "quite illiterate" at the time of his arrest in November 1952. The prison medical officer said he "cannot even recognise or write down all the letters of the alphabet".
Bentley was examined twice by EEG: a reading on 16 November 1949 indicated he was an epileptic and a reading on 9 February 1950 was "abnormal". Both were taken at the Burden Neurological Institute in Bristol.
Release from Kingswood
Bentley was released from Kingswood school on 28 July 1950, a year early, though he remained under the care of Kingswood until 29 September 1954, by which time he was dead. He was a recluse for the rest of 1950, rarely venturing out of the house, breaking his isolation in January 1951. In March 1951, he was employed by a furniture removal firm but was forced to leave the job after injuring his back in March 1952. In May 1952, Bentley was taken on by the Croydon Corporation as a dustbin man; one month later, in June 1952 he was demoted to street sweeping for unsatisfactory performance. One month after that, he was sacked by the corporation. He was still unemployed at the time of his arrest in November 1952.
Crime
On the night of Sunday 2 November 1952 Bentley and a 16-year-old companion, Christopher Craig, attempted to burgle the warehouse of the Barlow & Parker confectionery company at 27–29 Tamworth Road, Croydon. Craig armed himself with a Colt New Service .455 Webley calibre revolver, the barrel of which he had shortened so that it could be carried easily in his pocket. He also carried a number of undersized rounds for the revolver, some of which he had modified by hand to fit the gun. Bentley carried a knuckle-duster, which he had been given by Craig, who had been fined the previous year for possessing a firearm without a certificate.
At around 9:15pm, neighbours called police after spotting Craig and Bentley climbing over the gate and up a drainpipe to the roof of the warehouse.
When police arrived, Craig and Bentley hid behind the lift-housing. Craig taunted the police. One of the officers, Detective Sergeant Frederick Fairfax, climbed the drainpipe to the roof and grabbed hold of Bentley, but Bentley broke free. What happened then is uncertain: police witnesses later claimed that Fairfax ordered Craig to "Hand over the gun, lad" and Bentley shouted, "Let him have it, Chris". Craig fired, striking Fairfax in the shoulder. Fairfax was nonetheless again able to restrain Bentley, who told Fairfax that Craig had further ammunition for the gun. Bentley had not used either of the weapons in his pockets.
A group of uniformed police officers arrived and were sent onto the roof. The first to reach the roof was Police Constable Sidney Miles, who was immediately killed by a shot to the head. After exhausting his ammunition and being cornered, Craig jumped 30 feet (10 metres) from the roof onto a greenhouse, fracturing his spine and left wrist, and had to remain in hospital.
Trial
Both Craig and Bentley were charged with the murder of PC Miles on the following day, 3 November 1952. They were tried by jury before the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, Lord Goddard, at the Old Bailey in London between 9 December and 11 December 1952. Christmas Humphreys, Senior Treasury Counsel, led for the prosecution.
At the time of the burglary attempt and Miles's death, murder was a capital offence in England and Wales. Minors under 18 were not sentenced to death: consequently, of the two defendants, despite Craig having fired the fatal shot, only Bentley faced the death penalty if convicted. The doctrine of felony murder or "constructive malice" meant that a charge of manslaughter was not an option, as the "malicious intent" of the armed robbery was transferred to the shooting. Bentley's best defence was that he was effectively under arrest when Miles was killed. There were three principal points of contention at trial:
Firstly, the defence claimed there was ambiguity in the evidence as to how many shots were fired and by whom. A later forensic ballistics expert cast doubt on whether Craig could have hit Miles if he had shot at him deliberately: The fatal bullet was not found. Craig had used bullets of different undersized calibres, and the sawn-off barrel made it inaccurate to a degree of six feet at the range from which he fired.
Secondly, there was controversy over the existence and meaning of Bentley's alleged instruction to Craig, "let him have it, Chris". Craig and Bentley denied that Bentley had said the words while the police officers testified that he had said them. Further, Bentley's counsel argued that even if he had said the words, it could not be proven that Bentley had intended the words to mean the informal meaning of "shoot him, Chris" instead of the literal meaning of "give him the gun, Chris".
Thirdly, there was disagreement over whether Bentley was fit to stand trial in light of his mental capacity. The Principal Medical Officer responsible was Dr Matheson and he referred Bentley to Dr. Hill, a psychiatrist at the Maudsley Hospital. Hill's report stated that Bentley was illiterate and of low intelligence, almost borderline retarded. However, Matheson was of the opinion that whilst agreeing that Bentley was of low intelligence, he was not suffering from epilepsy at the time of the alleged offence and he was not a "feeble-minded person" under the Mental Deficiency Acts. Matheson said that he was sane and fit to plead and stand trial. English law at the time did not recognise the concept of diminished responsibility due to retarded development, though it existed in Scottish law (it was introduced to England by the Homicide Act 1957). Criminal insanity – where the accused is unable to distinguish right from wrong – was then the only medical defence to murder. Bentley, while suffering severe debilitation, was not insane.
The jury took 75 minutes to decide that both Craig and Bentley were guilty of Miles's murder, with a plea for mercy for Bentley. Bentley was sentenced to death whilst Craig was ordered to be detained at Her Majesty's Pleasure. He was eventually released in May 1963 after serving 10 years' imprisonment, married two years later and subsequently became a plumber.
Bentley was originally scheduled to be hanged on 30 December 1952 but this was postponed to allow for an appeal. Bentley's lawyers filed appeals highlighting the ambiguities of the ballistic evidence, Bentley's mental age and the fact that he did not fire the fatal shot. Bentley's appeal was heard on 13 January 1953 and was unsuccessful.
Decision not to reprieve Bentley
When his appeal was turned down, Bentley's life was placed in the hands of the Home Secretary, David Maxwell Fyfe, who had to decide whether to recommend that the Queen exercise the royal prerogative of mercy to commute his death sentence to life imprisonment. Lord Goddard forwarded the jury's recommendation of mercy, but added that he himself "could find no mitigating circumstances". His later statements to author David Yallop, which convinced Yallop that Goddard had wanted a reprieve, appear to have been incorrectly quoted.
Maxwell Fyfe's autobiography, published in 1964, refers to the factors which he took into consideration: "the evidence of the trial, medical reports, family or other private circumstances ... and police reports, ... the available precedents, and ... public opinion". He went on to say that Bentley's case also involved the issue of the police force, since it was a police officer who was killed. Maxwell Fyfe then stresses that a reprieve would mean the Home Secretary is "intervening in the due process of the law". Maxwell Fyfe, in the words of the letter sent out, failed to discover any sufficient ground to justify him in advising Her Majesty to interfere in the due course of the law.
There was much political pressure to commute Bentley's sentence, including a memorandum signed by over 200 members of Parliament. Despite several attempts, Parliament was given no opportunity to debate the issue until the sentence had been carried out. The Home Office also refused Dr Hill permission to make his report public.
At 9am on 28 January 1953, Bentley was hanged at Wandsworth Prison, London, by Albert Pierrepoint, with Harry Allen assisting. There were protests outside the prison and two people were arrested and fined for damage to property.
In March 1966, Bentley's remains were removed from Wandsworth and re-interred in Croydon Cemetery.
To Encourage the Others
In his 1971 book To Encourage the Others (the title is an acknowledged allusion to Voltaire's Candide), David Yallop documented Bentley's psychiatric problems, as well as what he believed were inconsistencies in the police and forensic evidence and the conduct of the trial. Despite Craig's gun being the only one on the roof at the moment that Miles was shot, he proposed the theory that Miles was actually killed by a bullet from a gun other than Craig's sawn-off .455 revolver. Yallop drew this conclusion from an interview in March 1971 with David Haler, the pathologist who carried out the autopsy on Miles, who Yallop reports estimated the head wound was inflicted by a bullet of between .32 and .38 calibre fired from between six and nine feet away. Craig had been firing from a distance of just under 40 feet and had used a variety of undersized .41, and .45 calibre rounds in his revolver; Yallop asserted it would have been impossible for him to use a bullet of .38 or smaller calibre. Haler did not offer in his trial evidence any estimate of the size of the bullet that had killed Miles. In July 1970, during an interview with Yallop, Craig accepted that the bullet that killed Miles came from his gun, but maintained that all of his shots were fired over the rear garden of a house adjacent to the warehouse, approximately 20 degrees to the right of Miles's location from where Craig had been firing.
The standard Metropolitan Police pistol at the time was the .32-calibre Webley automatic, a number of which were issued on the night. In his book The Scientific Investigation of Crime, the prosecution's ballistics expert Lewis Nickolls stated that he recovered four bullets from the roof, two of .45, one of .41 and one of .32 calibre. The last was not entered as an exhibit in the trial, nor mentioned in Nickolls' evidence to the court.
When Yallop telephoned Haler the day after the initial interview, he reportedly confirmed his estimate of the bullet size. Shortly before the publication of Yallop's book, Haler was provided with a transcript of the interview, and Yallop says Haler again confirmed as accurate. After the subsequent broadcast of the BBC Play for Today adaptation of To Encourage the Others, directed by Alan Clarke and starring Charles Bolton, Haler sought to deny that he had given any specific estimate of the size of the bullet that killed Miles beyond being "of large calibre". The .32 ACP bullet is not considered to be of large calibre.
Contrary to Yallop's claims, none of the police officers present was armed at the moment when PC Miles was shot. Det Con (later Det Sgt) Fairfax, after Miles was shot and after taking Bentley to street level and putting him into a police car, returned to the roof armed with a Webley & Scott .32 and fired two shots at Craig, both of which missed. Since a .32 round could not be loaded into Craig's revolver and Craig was the only armed person in the vicinity at the time of the murder, the spent .32 round could only be one of Fairfax's, fired some time subsequently. As the Court of Appeal found, 'Once the appellant [Bentley] had been taken down, D.C. Fairfax returned with a firearm, with which he had been issued, and went back up to the roof. He fired twice at Craig but missed, Craig having fired at him. Craig's revolver was by now empty and he jumped or dived off the roof, suffering a fractured spine, breast bone and left forearm. Notwithstanding this, he was able to tell the first police officer who reached him that he wished he had "killed the fucking lot". He later made a number of statements to police officers sitting with him in hospital, displaying a hatred of the police and a total lack of remorse at what he had done.'
Posthumous pardon
Following the execution there was a public sense of unease about the decision, resulting in a long campaign to secure a posthumous pardon. The campaign was initially led by Bentley's parents until their deaths in the 1970s, after which the drive to clear Bentley's name was led by his sister Iris. In March 1966 his remains were removed from Wandsworth Prison and reburied in a family grave. In August 1970, Lord Goddard told Yallop that he thought Bentley was going to be reprieved, said he should have been, and attacked David Maxwell Fyfe for allowing the execution to go ahead.
On 29 July 1993, Bentley was granted a royal pardon in respect of the sentence of death passed upon him and carried out. However, in English law this did not quash his conviction for murder.
Eventually, on 30 July 1998, the Court of Appeal quashed Bentley's conviction for murder. However, Bentley's sister Iris had died of cancer the year before. Her daughter, Maria Bentley-Dingwall, who was born 10 years after Derek Bentley's execution, continued the campaign after her mother's death.
Christopher Craig, by then aged 62 (born May 1936), issued a statement welcoming the pardon for Bentley, stating that "his innocence has now been proved". He also apologised to the families of both PC Miles and Bentley for his actions, as well as his own family for the press intrusion they had suffered over the years.
Though Bentley had never been accused of attacking any of the police officers, who were shot at by Craig, for him to be convicted of murder as an accessory in a joint enterprise it was necessary for the prosecution to prove that he knew that Craig had a deadly weapon when they began the break-in. The Lord Chief Justice, Lord Bingham of Cornhill, ruled that Lord Goddard had not made it clear to the jury that the prosecution was required to have proved Bentley had known that Craig was armed. He further ruled that Lord Goddard had failed to raise the question of Bentley's withdrawal from their joint enterprise. This would require the prosecution to prove the absence of any attempt by Bentley to signal to Craig that he wanted Craig to surrender his weapons to the police. Lord Bingham ruled that Bentley's trial had been unfair because the judge had misdirected the jury and, in his summing-up, had put unfair pressure on the jury to convict. It is possible that Lord Goddard may have been under pressure while summing up since much of the evidence was not directly relevant to Bentley's defence. Lord Bingham did not rule that Bentley was innocent, merely that there had been fundamental defects in the trial process.
Another factor in the posthumous defence was that a "confession" recorded by Bentley, which was claimed by the prosecution to be a "verbatim record of dictated monologue", was shown by forensic linguistics methods to have been largely edited by policemen. Linguist Malcolm Coulthard showed that certain patterns, such as the frequency of the word "then" and the grammatical use of "then" after the grammatical subject ("I then" rather than "then I"), were not consistent with Bentley's use of language (his idiolect), as evidenced in court testimony. These patterns fit better the recorded testimony of the policemen involved. This is one of the earliest uses of forensic linguistics on record.
In a case with similarities to the Bentley case, a House of Lords judgment of 17 July 1997 cleared Philip English of murdering Sergeant Bill Forth in March 1993, the reasons being given by Lord Hutton. English had been handcuffed before his companion Paul Weddle killed Sgt Forth with a concealed knife. The existing joint enterprise law allowed the conviction of English for murder because they had both been attacking Sgt Forth with wooden staves, making English an accessory to any murder committed by Weddle as part of that assault. Lord Hutton made the 'fine distinction' that a concealed knife was a far more deadly weapon than a wooden stave, so that proof of English's knowledge of it was necessary for conviction. The appeal may have influenced the allowing of a posthumous referral of the Bentley case.
Lord Mustill had asked for new laws on homicide when setting out his reasons at the time of Lord Hutton's ruling on English's appeal. However, Lord Bingham's ruling blamed Lord Goddard for a miscarriage of justice without making further alteration to the law on joint enterprise. The English judgement, delivered just over two months after the Labour government took office, remained the most recent precedent in joint enterprise law, though the Bentley verdict attracted far more media attention.
In popular culture
A play "Example", starring Harry Miller as Bentley, was devised by the Coventry Bellgrade TIE Team for fifth and sixth form students and toured from 1975. The play, with an introduction by Miller, was included in a 1980 book Theatre in Education - Four Secondary School Programmes.
The 1990 book Let Him Have It, Chris written by M J Trow explores the inconsistencies in the police version of events.
The 1991 feature film Let Him Have It, starring Christopher Eccleston as Bentley and Paul Reynolds as Craig, relates the story, as do the songs "Derek Bentley" by Karl Dallas (in which the lyrics imply that Bentley was guilty but sympathise with him), "Let Him Dangle" by Elvis Costello, "Let Him Have It" by The Bureau, and "Bentley and Craig" by Ralph McTell, whose mother was a friend of the Bentley family, also covered by June Tabor (on Aleyn, TSCD490, 1997).
In the 2013 novel The Late Scholar, Peter Wimsey notes that the Bentley case has reduced the support for capital punishment.
See also
Ruth Ellis
R v Betts and Ridley
List of British police officers killed in the line of duty
References
Cited works and further reading
External links
Derek Bentley Page by Simon Reap
Judgement of England and Wales Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) in R v. Derek William Bentley (Deceased) [1998] EWCA Crim 2516, 1998
Opinions of the Lords of Appeal for Judgment in the Cause R v English
1933 births
1953 deaths
1952 murders in the United Kingdom
1950s crimes in London
British people convicted of murdering police officers
Murder in Surrey
Executed people from London
History of the London Borough of Croydon
Murder trials
Overturned convictions in the United Kingdom
20th-century executions by England and Wales
People executed for murdering police officers
People executed by the United Kingdom by hanging
People from Croydon
Recipients of British royal pardons
Trials in London
Wrongful executions
People executed for murder | [
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249823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideas%20%28radio%20show%29 | Ideas (radio show) | Ideas is a long-running scholarly radio documentary series on CBC Radio One. it has been hosted by Nahlah Ayed and is broadcast between 8:05 and 9:00 p.m. weekday evenings; one episode each week is repeated on Monday afternoons under the title Ideas in the Afternoon. The CBC Ideas podcast series initiative began in 2005.
Background
Co-created by Phyllis Webb and William A. Young, the premiere broadcast of the hour-long daily program, The Best Ideas You'll Hear Tonight, aired on CBC Radio on October 25, 1965, and featured a "series on Darwin's theory of evolution by Dr. June Clare, a British biochemist". The Best Ideas was a "series of talks, discussions and commentaries for 'people who just enjoy thinking.'" Two programs, The Learning Stage and University of the Air had merged because of budget cuts to create the Best Ideas first series.
A 1988 Toronto Star article said that the show described itself as a radio program on contemporary thought. The subject matter of the shows varies, but music, philosophy, science, religion, and history were common topics. By 1988, the show had won many plaudits for its quality and depth.
According to a 1989, Calgary Herald article, the series was notable at that time, for soliciting programming proposals from people who are not professional broadcasters, and having the successful applicants write and host their own documentaries (aided in production by CBC staff producers). In the 1990s, the series was sometimes temporarily replaced in the summer season by Ideas in the Summer, a companion series by the same producers which specifically explored cultural and entertainment topics such as music, literature and art.
Many Ideas programs are multi-part, with two, three, four, or more fifty-five-minute programs devoted to a single topic. Transcripts and audio recordings of many programs are made available, and sold directly by the CBC.
In 2013, notable CBC staff producers who have been associated with the program included Bernie Lucht, Geraldine Sherman, Damiano Pietropaolo, Phyllis Webb, and David Cayley. Individual programs are produced at CBC Radio One facilities across Canada. Documentarian William Whitehead also wrote or cowrote a number of shows for Ideas.
A television version for CBC News Network, Ideas on TV, was short-lived. The book Ideas: Brilliant Thinkers Speak Their Minds, edited by Bernie Lucht, commemorated the series' 40th anniversary.
The show broadcasts Canada's annual Massey Lectures, Lafontaine-Baldwin Lecture, and the Munk Debates. Since 2006, they have included the Henry G. Friesen lectures. Audio downloads of many episodes are available from the CBC website, as well as via the CBC
On June 24, 2019 it was announced that Nahlah Ayed would be the new host of Ideas, taking over from the retiring Paul Kennedy in September. The CBC's 2019 fall schedule also moved the program an hour earlier from its longtime 9 p.m. slot, and it will now be heard from 8 to 9 p.m. nightly.
Podcast
Ideas podcast, which was, by popular demand, one of the first to be included in the network's large podcasting initiative begun in 2005.
Hosts
1965–mid-1970s: Ken Haslam
Mid-1970s–1983: Russ Germain
1983–1999: Lister Sinclair
1999–2019: Paul Kennedy
2019–present: Nahlah Ayed
Notes
References
External links
CBC Radio One programs
Canadian talk radio programs
Audio podcasts
Canadian documentary radio programs
Educational broadcasting in Canada
1965 radio programme debuts
2005 podcast debuts
Educational podcasts | [
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249827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witten | Witten | Witten () is a university city in the Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis (district) in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is the home of the Witten/Herdecke University, the first private university in Germany.
Geography
Witten is situated in the Ruhr valley, in the southern Ruhr area.
Bordering municipalities
Bochum
Dortmund
Herdecke
Wetter (Ruhr)
Sprockhövel
Hattingen
Boroughs
Witten is divided into eight boroughs and each borough is further divided into two or more city-districts. Every district has its own district-number:
Witten-Mitte: 11 Innenstadt, 12 Oberdorf-Helenenberg, 13 Industriegebiet-West, 14 Krone, 15 Crengeldanz, 16 Hauptfriedhof, 17 Stadion, 18 Industriegebiet-Nord, 19 Hohenstein
Düren: 21 Düren-Nord, 22 Düren-Sued
Stockum: 31 Stockum-Mitte, 32 Dorney, 33 Stockumer Bruch, 34 Wilhelmshöhe
Annen: 41 Tiefendorf, 42 Wullen, 43 Annen-Mitte-Nord, 44 Annen-Mitte-Süd, 45 Kohlensiepen, 46 Wartenberg, 47 Gedern
Rüdinghausen: 51 Industriegebiet-Ost, 52 Rüdinghausen-Mitte, 53 Buchholz, 54 Schnee
Bommern: 61 Steinhausen, 62 Bommerbank, 63 Bommerfeld, 64 Wettberg, 65 Buschey, 66 Bommeregge
Heven: 71 Papenholz, 72 Hellweg, 73 Wannen, 74 Heven-Dorf, 75 Lake
Herbede: 81 Herbede-Ort, 82 Vormholz, 83 Bommerholz-Muttental, 84 Durchholz, 85 Buchholz-Kaempen
Population 1739–2016
History
Witten was first mentioned in historic sources in 1214, however the borough Herbede (which was incorporated into the city in 1975) dates back to 851. The city was a mining town from 1578. In 1946, it was included in North Rhine-Westphalia on its establishment. In 1975 Witten was included in the administrative district Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis and it is now its biggest city. 1975 was also the year Witten was first counted to have more than 100,000 inhabitants, the threshold to be considered a large city ("Großstadt") in Germany.
Roburit Explosion
In the late 19th century Witten was known for the Roburit dynamite. This dynamite was once used by coal mines around the world. In 1906 an explosion occurred, resulting in the deaths of 41 people.
Politics
The Council of Witten
The local council of Witten has 64 seats. In the local elections of 2004 the German Social Democratic Party, SPD, gained 24 seats and form the largest party represented on the council. It is followed by the Christian Democratic Party, CDU with 18 and the Greens with 7 seats. They are followed by the WBG (a conservative list) with 4, FDP 4, FLW (also a conservative list) 3, NPD 2, PDS/WAL (socialists) 1 and AUF Witten (a left wing list) also 1.
From 2004 to 2020 for the first time in its history the council is led by a female mayor: Sonja Leidemann, SPD. In the election of 2020 she lost her mandate to Lars König (CDU).
Members of Parliament
Landtag
2005–today: Thomas Stotko, MdL (SPD)
German Bundestag
1998–today: Dr. Ralf Brauksiepe, MdB (CDU)
1998–today: Christel Humme, MdB (SPD)
2005–today: Irmingard Schewe-Gerigk, (B´ 90/Die Grünen)
2005–2009: Konrad Schily, (FDP)
Transport
Witten is connected to the Autobahn network by the A 43 and A 44 motorways. It has a central station, connecting the city to the regional-train-network of Deutsche Bahn with direct connections to Hagen, Bochum, Essen, Siegen, Wuppertal, Düsseldorf, Aachen or Dortmund.
Local service is carried out by the BOGESTRA, a joint venture between the cities of Bochum and Gelsenkirchen, to which most of the bus lines in Witten belong. There is a tram line connecting to Bochum. From mid-december on, there will be two tram lines, which will run in Witten (lines 309 and 310). When the new track to Langendreer is completed (September 2020), the tram lines will ride to the station of Bochum-Langendreer (309) or to Wattenscheid-Höntrop via Bochum main station (310). Public transport in the city is carried out according to the fare system of the VRR transport association.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms of Witten with its two lions once belong to the Everhards von Witten-Steinhausen and was first mentioned in 1283. The family of Witten-Steinhausen belongs to the founders of the town of Witten. Their slogan was: "Sigillum Hermanni de Wittene". Because of its long history this Coat of arms was the only one in the Ruhr area, that was not forbidden by the Allies in May 1945, after the End of the Second World War.
Culture
Hebezeug-Museum – a museum dedicated to cranes and hoist founded by J. D. Neuhaus and is located on the Route der Industriekultur.
Wittener Tage für neue Kammermusik, festival for contemporary chamber music, held annually at the end of April
Twin towns – sister cities
Witten is twinned with:
Beauvais, France (1975)
Barking and Dagenham, England, United Kingdom (1979)
Mallnitz, Austria (1979)
Lev HaSharon, Israel (1979)
Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Germany (1990)
Kursk, Russia (1990)
Tczew, Poland (1990)
San Carlos, Nicaragua (1990)
Mekelle, Ethiopia (2016)
Religions
Roman Catholic
When Witten was first mentioned in historical documents, it was part of the Archdiocese of Cologne. Since 1821 it has been a part of the Diocese of Paderborn; however, the borough of Herbede belongs to the Diocese of Essen. In the 19th century the Ruhr area drew up to 500,000 Poles from East Prussia and Silesia, most of whom were Catholic. Hundreds settled in Witten, leading to a growth in the Catholic community. Today, between 30 and 40 per cent of the population is Catholic.
Protestant
In the 16th century Witten was influenced by Martin Luther's Reformation, and until the late 19th century, Witten was a predominantly Protestant town with just a few Catholic inhabitants. Between 30 and 40 per cent of the population is Protestant today.
Muslims
There are four mosques in Witten, Annen and Herbede today, founded by immigrants from Turkey who arrived in the 1970s and 1980s. Between five and eight per cent of the population is Muslim.
Jews
In 1815 the first Jewish community was mentioned in Witten. In 1938 the synagogue was destroyed during the so-called "Reichspogromnacht" (also known as Kristallnacht) of 9–10 November 1938. Today, only about a dozen Jews live in Witten. They belong to the Jewish community in Dortmund.
Since 1994 the place of the former synagogue is marked with a memorial.
Notable people
Ingeborg Danz (born 1961), concert singer
Theodor Detmers (1902–1976), officer
Felix Dornebusch (born 1994), football player
Mirko Englich (born 1978), wrestler
Dennis Eilhoff (born 1982), football player
Robert Graf (1923–1966), actor
Martin Geck (1936–2019), musicologist
Ralf Kapschack (born 1954), politician (SPD)
Carsten Keuler (born 1971), football player
Jochen Nickel (born 1959), actor
Sorina Nwachukwu (born 1987), sprinter
Paul Pleiger (1899–1985), state adviser and corporate general director
Alexandra Popp (born 1991), football player
Andreas Reckwitz (born 1970), sociologist
Stephan Remmler (born 1949), singer
Moritz Römling (born 2001), football player
Otto Schlüter (1872–1959), geographer
Joseph Schmidt-Görg (1897–1981), musicologist and composer
Otto Schott (1851–1935), chemist
Erich Schöppner (1932–2005), boxer
Michael Schulz (born 1961), football player
Josef Sieber (1900–1962), film actor
Wilhelm Utermann (1912–1991), writer and journalist
Willi Veller (1896–1941), politician (NSDAP)
Tanja Wedhorn (born 1971), actress
Charles Paul Wilp (1932–2005), artist and photographer
Rosi Wolfstein (1888–1987), politician (KPD)
References
Province of Westphalia
Holocaust locations in Germany | [
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249828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecco | Lecco | Lecco (, , ; ) is a city of 48,131 inhabitants in Lombardy, northern Italy, north of Milan. It lies at the end of the south-eastern branch of Lake Como (the branch is named Lake of Lecco / Lago di Lecco). The Bergamo Alps rise to the north and east, cut through by the Valsassina of which Lecco marks the southern end.
The lake narrows to form the river Adda, so bridges were built to improve road communications with Como and Milan. There are four bridges crossing the river Adda in Lecco: the Azzone Visconti Bridge (1336–1338), the Kennedy Bridge (1956), the Alessandro Manzoni Bridge (1985), and a railroad bridge.
Lecco was also Alpine Town of the Year in 2013.
Elevated to province by decree of the President of the Republic of March 6, 1992, Lecco obtained the title of city on June 22, 1848.
Known for being the place where the writer Alessandro Manzoni set "The Betrothed", the city is located in one of the vertexes of the Larian Triangle. It overlooks the eastern branch of Lake Como and is included in the Orobic Prealps, between the Grigne mountain chain and the Resegone.
As strategic crossroads for Valtellina, Lecco assumed increasing importance during the Middle Ages when it was annexed to the Duchy of Milan following the Peace of Constance. During the second half of the 19th century, under the Austrian dominion, the city went through a particularly flourishing period during which palaces and arcades in neoclassical style were constructed. After the Unity of Italy, Lecco established itself as one of the most important industrial centers of the nation thanks to the development of the steel industries, already active in the 12th century. For this reason, Lecco is also called "the Iron city".
Lecco has a population of 48131 inhabitants.
Etymology
The origin of the toponym Lecco is not certain: it probably has a Celtic origin (Lech or Loch) words that mean lake. Shortly before the year 1000 B.C., some populations of Gauls and Celts migrated to the territory of Lecco for trades. Leucos was the name given by the Gauls who inhabited these areas until Romans transformed the denomination into Leucum under Julius Caesar’s domination around 200 B.C.; so the hypothesis put forward by historians who have identified in Lecco the Roman city founded in 95 b.C. by Licinius Crassus in the Larian area with the name of Leucera was excluded.
Other theories, perhaps legendary, trace etymology back to the Greek therm leukos (white), probably because of the white limestone rocks that can be found in Lecco; from the Latin lucus (forest) and/or lacus (lake). Other theories report a derivation from the Old Indian lokas (country) or Lithuanian laukas (open field). However, the existence of the city was first documented in 845 named Leuco.
History
Celtic and Roman periods
In 1988 excavations of the Civic Museums of Lecco led to the discovery of a village of the Culture of Golasecca (first Iron Age) at the Rocca di Chiuso. The settlement of the Golasecchiani Celts in the area precedes the arrival of the Celts by more than 4 centuries.
In 2005 other excavations of the Civic Museums of Lecco and the University of Bergamo unearthed the oldest metallurgical production site in the entire Alpine arc (2nd century B.C. – 1st century B.C.) at piani d'Erna.
The Middle Ages
As the nodal point of several streets that put Lombardy in communication with the territories of Oltralpe, the region becomes the scene of clashes and decisive battles. The fortified system of Lecco (Castrum Leuci) became the seat, with the Carolingian, of an important Committee entrusted to the Attonid family. In 960 Lecco was submitted to the lordship of the Archbishop of Milan.
Throughout the Middle Ages and the Modern Age, the name of Lecco did not indicate an inhabited center but included the whole area between the lake and Valsassina. Lecco was a polycentric settlement, in which the various districts were closely interdependent, each with functional and economic specialization.
The Municipal and Viscount period
In 1117 a ten-year war broke out pitting many villages of the lakes of Como and Lugano against Milan, of which Lecco was an ally. The inhabitants of Lecco took part in the battle and in March 1125 Como had to capitulate and the victors set it on fire.
Later Lecco became involved in the struggles between the powerful Milanese families Visconti and Torriani (the owners of the Valsassina territories). In 1296 the struggles led Matthew I Visconti to destroy the village giving orders that it would never rise again. Despite the destruction, Lecco was rebuilt and reconquered by Azzone Visconti. Throughout the period the community of Lecco, which included the entire current municipal territory, evolved as a free municipality with its statutes and, until 1757, was de facto a small autonomous state (with its own civil and criminal law), but inserted in the largest Duchy of Milan.
Spanish domination
With the fall of the Duchy of Milan, Lecco passed to Spanish dominium and, under Charles V, was transformed into a military stronghold. In this period, it suffered, as all Milanese territory, from plagues and famines, which Manzoni admirably described in The Betrothed. In 1714 Lombardy passed to the control of Habsburgs of Austria.
Austrian domination
In 1784 Joseph II of Austria visited the city and decided to destroy the walls. With the descent of Napoleon and the birth of the Cisalpine Republic in 1797, the Riviera di Lecco is part of the ephemeral Mountain Department. In 1814, after the final defeat of Napoleon, the Austrian army regains possession of the region and permanently brings Lecco back to the province of Como in 1816 (from which it will become independent only in 1995) and definitively divides the city into many small municipalities that will be re-established in 1923, during the Fascist 20th anniversary.
In the period of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Veneto, Lecco experienced positive effects: numerous interventions of modernization and development of the territory, such as the introduction of an efficient bureaucracy, the increase of the cadastre and industrial development that led to widespread well-being.
From Risorgimento to the post-war periods
In the 19th century Lecco became one of the beating hearts of Italian culture: the Scapigliati, a famous group of Milanese writers made Maggianico one of their favorite meeting places. The cultural ferment of the period was also associated with political ferment, and Lecco and its inhabitants played a very important role in the Lombard Risorgimento.
When the Milanese insurrection against Austria started in March 1848, a priest, Don Antonio Mascari, incited rebellion from the pulpit, but the insurrection that took place on the night between 18th and March 19 was unsuccessful. By decree of June 22, 1848, the provisional government of Lombardy (the Austrian government had lapsed following the Five Days of Milan insurrection) promoted Lecco to the rank of City, thanks to the contribution that the city was making to the Cause of Risorgimento. However, Lecco was again downgraded to Borgo in 1859.
In 1859, with the Second War of Independence, Lecco and Lombardy were conquered by the Kingdom of Sardinia and, in the same year, it re-entered the title of City.
In 1923 the municipal territory, which has now become insufficient to contain urban expansion, was greatly expanded with the aggregation of the neighboring municipalities of Acquate, Castello Sopra Lecco, Germanedo, Laorca, Rancio di Lecco and San Giovanni alla Castagna, as well as part of the municipal territory of Maggianico; in 1928 the remaining part of Maggianico was also aggregated.
Climate
Lecco is the northernmost city (urban area) in Italy with a humid subtropical climate (Cfa defined by Köppen), only slightly softer than Milan. Despite being in a parallel dominated by Dfb / Dwb climates. The territory is well sheltered from the mountain ranges, and from the climatic point of view, enjoys the beneficial influences of the lake's waters and the breath of the Tivano that blows from the Valtellina from the northeast all year round in the early hours of the morning. Its absence indicates bad weather. Breva is another wind that runs towards the lake, from the south to the north and indicator of good weather.
Geography
«That branch of the Lake of Como, which turns toward the south between two unbroken chains of mountains, presenting to the eye a succession of bays and gulfs, formed by their jutting and retiring ridges, suddenly contracts itself between a headland to the right and an extended sloping bank on the left, and assumes the flow and appearance of a river.»
The municipal territory covers an area of about 45.93 km². It is located in a wide valley bordered by the Prealps to the east and Lake Lario to the west, at the point where Lake Lario ends and the Adda river resumes its course and then re-expands into Lake Garlate. The territory is crossed by three main streams the Gerenzone, the Calderone and the Bione. The mountains that surround the natural wide- valley are: to the north mount Coltignone and San Martino, to the east mount Due Mani, Pizzo d'Erna and Resegone, to the south the Magnodeno, to the west, on the right bank of the Adda River, is Mount Barro. On the Adda river, near the Azzone Visconti bridge, there is the small Viscontea Island.
The territory has a very variable altimeter distribution: it ranges from 198 meters above sea level in the lake area to the maximum altitude of 1875 meters above the sea level of Mount Resegone and this condition offers the city three different areas characterized by different morphologic and climatic characteristics.
The hydrography consists mainly of the stretch of the Adda river leaving the eastern branch of Lake Como and a series of streams, with their tributaries, which originates in the mountain range.
Lecco is delimited to the north rises the Massif of Monte Coltignone, mainly of limestone and dolomia of Esino, directly overlooking the lower peaks, such as Mount San Martino, Monte Melma, and Monte Albano. To the east the Resegone group, which, with its 1875 meters above the level of the sea, dominates the city characterizing the Lombard landscape up to Milan. Resegone is so named because of its multiple rocky teeth that, seen from the town, make it resemble a saw of gigantic size; Monte Serada, which dominates imposingly with its offshoots, which are the Piani d'Erna and the Pian Serada. To the southeast, beyond Maggianico, the greatest elevation is represented by the Magnodeno. To the west, there are the hills of north-eastern Brianza, among which stands out Mount Barro in which a regional park was established to protect local flora and fauna.
Architecture
Religious architecture
Minor Basilica of San Nicolò
Santa Marta, Lecco
San Giovanni Battista
Santi Materno e Lucia
San Francesco d'Assisi
Santi Gervasio e Protasio
Chiesa di Castello
San Giuseppe
Madonna della Rovinata
Santuario di Nostra Signora della Vittoria
Santa Maria Gloriosa
Secular architecture
Palazzo delle Paure
Ponte Azzone Visconti (noto semplicemente come Ponte Vecchio)
Villa Manzoni
Memoriale ai Caduti
Statua del Manzoni
Monuments to Mario Cermenati and to Giuseppe Garibaldi
Traditions and folklore
Traditional dresses
The traditional women's dress in Lecco was linked to the image of Lucia of The Betrothed and is characterized by the ray of silver pins, called "guazze", which crowns the head.
Manzoni procession
Although discontinuously organized, the tradition of the parade of floats inspired by the episodes of the novel is well-rooted in the territory.
The first edition took place in 1923, on the fiftieth anniversary of Manzoni's death. The procession was re-proposed in 1933, 1955, 1965, 2004, and October 2005 during the celebrations of the Festa di Lecco with 11 stage performances curated by 150 actors of the Teatro tascabile in Bergamo along the old town center.
Carnevalone of Lecco
In February, since 1884 (edition n° 136 in 2020), on the occasion of the "Carnevalone di Lecco" there is the usual coronation of King Resegone and Regina Grigna, where the Mayor hands them the keys to the city to initiate the carnival folklore, that reaches its peak, according to the Ambrosian rite the city follows, with the Fat Saturday day and the traditional procession of floats.
ResegUp
It is a trail running that usually takes place on the first Saturday of June. Established in 2010, it aims to retrace the ancient paths that lead from the historic center to the summit of Resegone erased over the years due to the urbanization of the city.
Batej Regatta
It is the traditional regatta that takes place on the banks of the Adda river in July (variable date) on the occasion of the Palio delle contrade in Pescarenico. The boats are eight, each of them in different colors to represent the districts. The regatta is preceded by the regatta of the "Lucie", the boats typical of the lake, and different representations of historical uses and customs typical of the area.
Scigamatt Race
Born in the district of Acquate during the event of the Scigalott d'Or (the name derives from the Lecco dialects Cicala d'oro), the race was held during the odd years on an obstacle course of 4 km in a mixed asphalt and dirt road. The event is in remembrance of June 6, 1859, when the inhabitants of the district went to Lecco to cheer General Giuseppe Garibaldi, accompanying him during the march with songs similar to the cicadas.
Manzoni's places
Manzoni's places are the places, or what remains of them, that served as an inspiration to the writer and mentioned in the novel The Betrothed. A historical-literary-tourist itinerary among the few old parts of the city spared from the urban expansion linked to industrial development was created. Some places are historical, such as the monastery of Fra Cristoforo in Pescarenico or the Azzone Visconti bridge, others indicated by tradition, such as the alleged house of Lucia Mondella in the district of Olate, the tabernacle of the Bravi, the Palazzotto of Don Rodrigo, the house of the tailor in Chiuso, the Innominato's stronghold and Villa Manzoni in the Caleotto district (today Manzonian Civic Museum), the residence of Manzoni's family in which he lived his childhood, adolescence, and early youth as he wrote in the introduction of the novel "Fermo and Lucia".
Convent of Fra Cristoforo
Situated in the district of Pescarenico, this church is now dedicated to Saints Lucia and Materno. In The Betrothed (Manzoni novel), Manzoni cites this place as the conventual seat of Fra Cristoforo.
Alleged Lucia Mondella's house
The alleged house of Lucia is located in Via Caldone 19 in the district of Olate (which at the time it was separated from Lecco); designated by various scholars of manzonian topography as the village of the spouses, is a typical example of spontaneous architecture of Lecco. Through a portal decorated with a sixteenth-century Annunciation, you pass in the rustic courtyard, overlooked by an old tower, although it is not open to visitors as the house appears to be a private residence. The popular tradition points out another house of Lucia in Via Resegone, in the hamlet of Acquate, where there is an old inn, from whose courtyard you can clearly see the hill of Don Rodrigo's Palace.
Tabernacolo dei Bravi
It is a small chapel located on the side of the pedestrian Via Tonio and Gervaso, described by the literary tradition of Manzoni as the place of the famous stakeout of Don Abbondio by the Bravi to tell him the message of their lord Don Rodrigo.
Villa Manzoni
The paternal residence of Alessandro Manzoni has a neoclassical style and it is located in the Caleotto district; it houses the Civic Museum of Manzoni and the Municipal Art Gallery. The building is considered the symbol of the link between Manzoni and the city of Lecco. The incipit of The Betrothed (Manzoni novel) comes from the meticulous visual memories of the landscape that the writer saw from this villa.
Government
Transport
Buses
Until 2017, bus services in Lecco were provided mainly by Servizi Automobilistici Lecchesi until 2017, when the company merged into SAB Bergamo, creating Arriva Italia. Bus services to Como are provided by ASF Autolinee, while Flixbus caters for longer distance bus relations.
The urban bus services in Lecco, managed by Linee Lecco, are the following:
1 Calolzio FS/Vercurago/Chiuso-Maggianico-Laorca
2 Ospedale-Parco Eremo (clockwise circular)
3 Parco Eremo-Ospedale (anticlockwise circular)
4 Gaggio-Parco Eremo-Ospedale-Cereda
5 Funivia-Parco Eremo-Ospedale-Via Montello/Villa Brick
6 Rivabella-Belledo
7 Calolzio FS-Vecurago-Chiuso-Maggianico-Ospedale-Parco Eremo-Laorca/Ballabio/Resinelli
8 Rancio-Germanedo
9 Lecco FS-Valmadrera
10 Lecco-Melgone-Onno-Vassena-Limonta-Visgnola-Bellagio
11 Calolzio FS-Lorentino-Evre
12 Calolzio FS/Carenno-Sopracornola
13 Calolzio FS-Marenzo-Torre de Busi-Sogno-Colle di Sogno
Interurban services departing from Lecco include:
C46 Como-Erba-Lecco (ASF Autolinee)
D20 Lecco-Mandello (Arriva Italia)
D35 Lecco-Ballabio-Cremeno-Barzio-Taceno (Arriva Italia)
D40 Vecurago-Calolzio FS-Bisone-Cisana (Arriva Italia)
D50 Lecco-Pescate-Olginate-Calolzio-Olginate-Valgreghentino-Airuno FS-Brivio-Arlate-Imbersago-Merate/Cernusco/Lomagna (Arriva Italia)
D55 Lecco-Pescate-Galbiate-Ello-Ravellino-Oggiono-Annione Brianza (Arriva Italia)
D60 Lecco-Oggiono-Castello (Brianza)-Barzanò-Missaglia-Casatenovo-Carate Brianza-Seregno (Arriva Italia)
E03 Celana-Caprino Bergamasco-Cisano FS-Brivio-Olgiate FS (Arriva Italia)
Rail
The municipality has two railway station Lecco, which is the town's main station; and Lecco Maggianico, which is the second main railway station and has a freight terminal in its premises. On both stations, the main operator is Trenord.
Navigation
Whilst in the past there was a much more frequent navigation service around Lake Como departing from Lecco, in the recent year the town's pier was mainly used for seasonal services, pleasure boat rides and charter services.
Former modes of transport
Between 1927 and 1953, Lecco had its own urban tramway network, which was connected to the Como-Erba-Lecco interurban tramway, which operated between 1928 and 1955.
Cable Car
An aerial cable car operates between Versasio and Piani d'Erna, and was inaugurated in 1965.
Sport
The town's football team Calcio Lecco 1912 currently play in Serie C. Their traditional rivalry with the team of the city of Como is marked by the so-called Derby del Lario, often surrounded by violence between fans, created by the local ultras group Cani Sciolti.
The main sports facility of the city is the Rigamonti-Ceppi Stadium, where the football team trains and plays. It was built in 1922 in honor of the football player Mario Rigamonti and the ex-president of the team Mario Ceppi. It can contain almost 5000 people.
Lecco has been on multiple occasions the finish place of the Giro di Lombardia cycling classic.
Notable people
Alessandro Manzoni (1785–1873), poet and novelist, author of I promessi sposi, belonged to an old family of Lecco.
Antonio Stoppani (1824–1891), geologist and palaeontologist.
Antonio Ghislanzoni (1824–1893), journalist, poet, and novelist; he wrote many librettos for Verdi, including La forza del destino and Aida.
Carlo Mauri (1930–1982), climber and explorer.
Antonio Rossi (born 1968), a canoeist and five-time Olympic medalist in kayak flatwater canoeing.
Manuel Locatelli (born 1998), a footballer who plays for Juventus and Italy.
Cultural references
Alessandro Manzoni set the events in the first half of The Betrothed in Lecco, a town he knew deeply since he had spent part of his childhood there.
International relations
Twin towns – Sister cities
Lecco is twinned with:
Mâcon, France since 1973
Overijse, Belgium since 1981
Igualada, Spain since 1990
Szombathely, Hungary since 1995
Mytishchi, Russia since 2005
Gallery
See also
Lecco railway station
Alpine Town of the Year 2013
References
Bibliography
Cattaneo Editore, Mariagrazia Furlani Marchi, Aroldo Benini, Massimiliano Bartesaghi, G. Scotti, Luoghi manzoniani a Lecco, 1991, .
Mondadori Electa, G. Luigi Daccò, Itinerari manzoniani a Lecco, 1997, .
Mondadori Electa, G. Luigi Daccò, Manzoni a Lecco. Luoghi e memorie, 2009, .
External links
Home (comune.lecco.it)
Informazione e accoglienza turistica – Provincia di Lecco
Pictures of Lecco railway bridge
Infopoint Lecco (in-lombardia.it)
alessandro manzoni itinerary – alessandro manzoni – cultural tourism lombardy – in-lombardia (in-lombardia.it)
https://www.eccolecco.it/en/manzonian-places-lecco/
Cities and towns in Lombardy
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249838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound%20%281996%20film%29 | Bound (1996 film) | Bound is a 1996 American neo-noir crime thriller film written and directed by the Wachowskis in their feature film directorial debut. Violet (Jennifer Tilly), who longs to escape her relationship with her mafioso boyfriend Caesar (Joe Pantoliano), enters into a clandestine affair with alluring ex-con Corky (Gina Gershon), and the two women hatch a scheme to steal $2 million of Mafia money.
Bound was the first film directed by the Wachowskis, and they took inspiration from Billy Wilder to tell a noir story filled with sex and violence. Financed by Dino De Laurentiis, the film was made on a tight budget with the help of frugal crew members including cinematographer Bill Pope. The directors initially struggled to cast the lesbian characters of Violet and Corky before securing Tilly and Gershon. To choreograph the sex scenes, the directors employed sex educator Susie Bright, who also made a cameo appearance in the film.
Bound received positive reviews from film critics who praised the humor and style of the directors as well as the realistic portrayal of a lesbian relationship in a mainstream film. Detractors of the film found its plot superficial and criticized the violence as excessive. The film won several festival awards.
Plot
Corky, a lesbian ex-con, is hired as a painter and plumber at an apartment building. She encounters Violet and Caesar, the couple who live next-door to the apartment she is renovating. While Caesar is gone, Violet deliberately drops an earring down the sink; the building owner sends Corky to retrieve it. Violet admits she dropped the earring on purpose and starts to seduce Corky. They are interrupted by Caesar's arrival and Corky returns to work. When she leaves for the day, Violet follows her to her truck. They go to Corky's apartment and have sex. The next morning, Violet tells Corky that Caesar is a money launderer for the Mafia and they have been together for five years.
Later, Violet overhears Caesar and his mob associates beating and torturing Shelly, a man who has been skimming money from the business. Upset by the violence, Violet seeks solace from Corky. She tells Corky that she wants to make a new life for herself, but that she needs her help. Knowing that Caesar will bring the nearly $2 million that Shelly embezzled back to the apartment, the two women hatch a scheme to steal the money. After Shelly is shot and killed by Johnnie, the son of Mafia boss Gino Marzzone, Caesar returns to the apartment with a bag of bloody money. Angry at Johnnie for killing Shelly in a fit of rage and splattering blood everywhere, Caesar proceeds to wash, iron and hang the money to dry.
Violet explains to Corky that Caesar and Johnnie hate each other, and that Gino and Johnnie will be coming to pick up the money from Caesar. Corky devises a plan: when Caesar has finished counting the money, he will shower to unwind. While he does, Violet will purposely drop a bottle of Glenlivet scotch that Gino prefers and tell Caesar that she is going to buy more. As she leaves the apartment, Corky will enter, steal the money from a briefcase, and leave. Violet will then return with the scotch and tell Caesar that she just saw Johnnie leave. Suspicious, Caesar will check the briefcase, find the money gone, and assume Johnnie has taken it. Corky and Violet think Caesar will be forced to flee because Gino will assume he has been robbed by Caesar, not his son Johnnie.
When Caesar finds the money gone, he realizes Gino will think he stole it if he runs and decides to get the money back from Johnnie. Panicking, Violet threatens to leave, but Caesar forces her to stay, suspecting she and Johnnie may have stolen the money and framed him. Corky waits next-door with the money while Gino and Johnnie arrive. After Johnnie flirts with Violet and taunts him, Caesar pulls out a gun and tells Gino that his son stole the money. He kills Gino, Johnnie and Roy, Gino's bodyguard. Caesar tells Violet that they must find the money, dispose of the bodies, and pretend Gino and Johnnie never arrived lest their mob pals discover the men are missing. Unable to find the money at Johnnie's apartment, Caesar telephones Mickey, a mob buddy, telling him that Gino has yet to arrive.
After discovering Corky and Violet stole the money, Caesar ties them up, threatens to torture them, and demands to know where it is. When Mickey arrives at the apartment, Caesar makes a deal with Violet to help him stall. Violet calls their landline from Johnnie's cell phone and convinces Caesar to feign a conversation with Gino explaining that he and Johnnie are in the hospital after a car accident. The ruse fools Mickey, who leaves for the hospital. Corky tells Caesar she has hidden the money in the next-door apartment and he goes to retrieve it. Violet escapes and calls Mickey, telling him that Caesar stole the money and forced her to keep quiet. Corky tries to stop Caesar from taking the money, but he beats her violently. Violet arrives and holds Caesar at gunpoint; she informs him Mickey is on his way and that he should run while he can. When Caesar refuses, Violet kills him.
Later, Mickey, who believes Violet's story, tells her that he will find Caesar. Mickey wants Violet to be his girlfriend, but she tells him that she needs a clean break—which she makes by driving off hand-in-hand with Corky.
Cast
Gina Gershon as Corky
Jennifer Tilly as Violet
Joe Pantoliano as Caesar
Mary Mara as Bartender
Susie Bright as Jesse
Margaret Smith as Woman Cop
Barry Kivel as Sheldon 'Shelly'
Christopher Meloni as Johnnie Marzzone
John Ryan as Mickey Malnato
Peter Spellos as Lou
Ivan Kane as Cop #1
Kevin M. Richardson as Cop #2
Richard C. Sarafian as Gino Marzzone
Gene Borkan as Roy
Background and production
Conception
Film producer Joel Silver has said that after working as scriptwriters on Assassins, the Wachowskis made Bound as an "audition piece" to prove that they knew what to do on a movie set. Conversely, Lana Wachowski has said Joel "made that up." The Wachowskis themselves claim they "decided simply to focus on making their own directorial debut." They had the idea to write a story about how one might see a woman on the street and make assumptions about her sexuality, but how those assumptions might be wrong. They wanted to play with stereotypes and make an entertaining film that contained sex and violence, because those are the kinds of films that they like to watch. Seeing film noir as a genre within which they could tell a contained story and twist conventions, they described Billy Wilder as a big influence.
When executives at some studios read the script, they told the Wachowskis that if they changed the character of Corky to that of a man, they would be interested. The siblings declined, saying "that movie's been made a million times, so we're really not interested in it." Dino De Laurentiis, the executive producer on Assassins, offered to finance Bound and his company produced it, giving them "free rein" with regard to the story. The film's budget was $6 million.
Casting
The Wachowskis struggled to cast the roles of Violet and Corky, seemingly because of the lesbian content of the film. Few actresses were interested. The part of Violet was expected to go to Linda Hamilton, and Jennifer Tilly read for the part of Corky. She loved the role and was looking forward to playing a character very different from previous parts in her career. When the part of Violet became available, and Gina Gershon came in to read for Corky, Tilly agreed that Gershon would make a better Corky. She realized that she identified with the character of Violet, a woman "underestimated by all the men around her" who has to "play the game". She describes it as the best role she had ever had. Gina Gershon suggested Joe Pantoliano to the Wachowskis for the part of Caesar. It was his first lead role in a film, and he describes it as his favorite.
Filming
Bound was filmed over a thirty-eight day period, in Santa Monica, California. The Wachowskis' original director of photography resigned, claiming that he could not film with the limited budget available, nor did he know anyone else who would be willing to work so cheaply. Subsequently, cinematographer Bill Pope was hired, who knew "a bunch of cheap guys" who would be willing to work within the budget. Pope was heavily involved in creating the visual noir style of the film. He and the Wachowskis drew inspiration from their love of comics and were particularly influenced by Frank Miller's neo-noir Sin City series. Pope's sound counterpart was sound director Dane Davis. In the scene where Corky and Violet plan the theft, he chose to give Corky a cat-like quality, by supplying a "swishing" sound each time she walked past the camera.
The Wachowskis asked Joe Pantoliano to watch John Huston's The Treasure of the Sierra Madre and to focus on Humphrey Bogart's character in order to portray Caesar's paranoia. Gershon's role was influenced by James Dean, Marlon Brando and Clint Eastwood. Both Gershon and Tilly were nervous about the sex scenes, and prepared for filming by drinking tequila.
Very little improvisation took place during the filming due to the directors' extensive planning and clear vision for the film. Despite their planning, the physical exchanges in the script caused some injuries. Barry Kivel was injured, when his head was banged against a toilet, in the scene where Shelly was violently beaten in Caesar's bathroom. Gina Gershon was also injured. In a scene between Corky and Caesar, near the end of the film, Gershon struck a gun from Joe Pantoliano's hand so violently, that she required stitches.
Sex scenes
The sex scenes were choreographed by feminist writer and sex educator Susie Bright. The Wachowskis were fans of Bright and sent her a copy of the script with a letter asking her to be an extra in the film. Bright loved the script, particularly as it was about women unapologetically having and enjoying sex. Disappointed by the lack of description in the sex scenes, she offered to be a sex consultant for the film, and they accepted. The main sex scene, set in Corky's apartment, was filmed in one long shot. The Wachowskis believed that the continuous shot would be more realistic than several shots edited together. Although it was intended to be a closed set, there were actually many people present, moving the walls of the set in order to allow full movement of the camera around the actors.
Bright appeared as Jesse, the woman Corky tries to talk to in the bar. Comedian Margaret Smith played Jesse's girlfriend and the extras in the bar scene were Bright's friends—"real life San Francisco dykes".
Themes
The Wachowskis describe several themes present in Bound. They say that the film is about "the boxes people make of their lives", that it is not only gay people who "live in closets". They wanted to define all of Bound'''s characters by the "sort of trap that they were making out of their lives". Violet is trapped in her life with Caesar, and in the first scene, Corky is literally inside Violet's closet, bound and gagged by Caesar. This scene is echoed later in the film when Violet says "I had this image of you inside of me..." This theme of being trapped is exacerbated by the claustrophobic feeling created by the fact that most of the film takes place in Violet and Casear's apartment, or the apartment next door where Corky is working.
Susie Bright described some of the specifically lesbian themes of the film. One is the concept of the hand as a sex organ, highlighted by lingering camera shots of Corky and Violet's hands. Another is the repeated use of water as a symbolic motif to represent women, present for example when Corky is retrieving Violet's earring from the sink. Bright describes it as a movie that is "wet" (feminine) as opposed to "hard" (masculine). She says the scene where Corky and Violet have their first conversation is full of "lesbian signs". She highlights the fact that Violet, away from Caesar, is wearing jeans and able to be less overtly feminine. Jennifer Tilly says that whenever Violet is talking to men, her voice becomes high-pitched and "girly"—making her seem vulnerable and ensuring she is taken care of. Joe Pantoliano agrees, saying that the result is that "everyone in the film wants to be with Violet". When she is with Corky, Violet can drop the act and talk at a more natural pitch. According to Bright, the more subtle lesbian themes of the film were noticed and appreciated at the LGBT film festival screenings.
Release
RatingBound was rated by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) as R for "strong sexuality, violence and language." To achieve that rating, the directors had to cut part of the first sex scene between Corky and Violet. The MPAA were most concerned with the images of what Lana Wachowski called "hand-sex". It was rated R in Australia, R18 in New Zealand and 18 in the United Kingdom. In Canada it was rated as R in Manitoba and Ontario, 18 in Nova Scotia and 16+ in Quebec.
Distribution
The film premiered on August 31, 1996, at the Venice Film Festival and in September went on to play at the Toronto International Film Festival. It opened in U.S. theaters on October 4, 1996 distributed by Gramercy Pictures, showing in 261 theaters. It closed after three weeks. It opened in the United Kingdom on February 28, 1997.
Box officeBound grossed $3,802,260 in the United States and $3,209,057 from other territories, for a worldwide total of $7,011,317. In its opening weekend, showing at 261 theaters, it earned $900,902, which was 23.7% of its total gross. According to Box Office Mojo, it ranked at 161 for all films released in the United States in 1996, and at 74 for R-rated films released that year. , its all-time ranking for LGBT-related films is 59.
Critical response
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave it a positive rating of 90% based on 48 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.9/10. The site's consensus reads: "Bounds more titillating elements attracted attention, but it's the stylish direction, solid performances, and entertaining neo-noir caper plot that make it worth a watch". Metacritic gave it a score of 61/100 based on 19 reviews. The Wachowskis' direction was praised, being described as clever, sophisticated and stylish. Roger Ebert said that their skillful film making showed virtuosity and confidence. Marjorie Baumgarten writing for The Austin Chronicle called it an impressive debut saying that the Wachowskis have "style to burn". James Kendrick called it a darkly comical and stunning film, saying it signalled the arrival of the Wachowskis on the film scene. Detractors of the film included Todd McCarthy for Variety, who said that the directors had no sense of humor and lacked depth, that the film was pretentious, superficial and heavy-handed.
On the release of Bound, the Wachowskis were compared by many to the Coen Brothers. Rita Kempley for The Washington Post went so far as to call them "Coen Brothers clones". In particular, similarities were drawn between Bound and the Coen Brothers' first film, 1984 neo-noir Blood Simple. Bryant Frazer for Deep Focus called it an "obvious precursor". Critics noted resemblances to the films of Quentin Tarantino and Alfred Hitchcock.
Janet Maslin for The New York Times said that the grisly violence in Bound would likely limit its audience and Ebert said that its shocking violence would offend some audiences. Some critics said that the violent behavior of the characters had no moral justification. Rita Kempley for The Washington Post called it "well-nigh unwatchable cruelty for its own sake". McCarthy, who called the central relationship between the two women unbelievable and unsympathetic, said "just because Violet and Corky fall for each other doesn't mean they somehow fall into a privileged state of grace in which vile behavior can be forgiven." Other critics were less concerned, calling the violence "comically excessive" and "Tarantino-like".Bound was praised for being perhaps the first mainstream film to have a lesbian relationship at its heart without homosexuality being central to the plot. Despite the presence of "unapologetically gay" lead character Corky, it is not commonly considered a "lesbian movie". Emanuel Levy said that this is a weakness, that mainstream films with broadening storylines "do not necessarily represent a positive development in the making of gay and lesbian films" and that Bound has "little, if anything, to do with lesbian cinema". Jonathan Rosenbaum for the Chicago Reader called it a "welcome change" to have a lesbian couple as the main characters in a mainstream film. Sarah Warn for AfterEllen.com called Corky "the closest thing to a realistic and sympathetic butch lesbian we've seen in a mainstream movie". Barry Walters for the San Francisco Chronicle praised the film for showing gay characters that have an active sex life. The sex scenes, described as explicit and steamy, were admired for being tasteful, discreet and realistic. Warn called them "some of the best lesbian sex scenes to date in a mainstream movie".
The three lead actors were complimented for their performances. Ebert said that Gershon and Tilly were electric together, and Frazer said that he would have liked to have seen more of their love story. Some critics described their onscreen relationship as unbelievable and unsympathetic. Gershon was seen to have made a comeback after her role in the less well received 1995 film Showgirls. Tilly's performance was compared to her Academy Award-nominated part in Bullets Over Broadway. Pantoliano was described as "a lot of fun" and having the "trickiest scenes in the movie".
AccoladesBound won the Grand Jury Award—Honorable Mention at the 1996 L.A. Outfest, and in the same year won an Honorable Mention at the Stockholm International Film Festival. At the 1997 Fantasporto festival in Portugal, the Wachowskis were awarded the International Fantasy Film Award for best film, and Jennifer Tilly picked up the award for best actress. Bound won the 1997 GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding (wide-release) Film. The film was nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics.
Home mediaBound'' was released on Region 1 DVD on November 12, 1997 by Republic Pictures. It featured the original theatrical trailer and an audio commentary by the directors and stars. It was released on Region 2 DVD on August 25, 2003, by Pathé featuring original theatrical trailers, audio commentary by the directors and stars, cast and crew biographies and a production featurette. Its Region 4 DVD release, distributed by Reel and featuring an audio commentary, came on August 14, 2006.
Music
The score, composed by Don Davis, was given a promotional release on November 25, 1997 by Super Tracks Music Group, but has never been released commercially. Having her character Corky play a jaw harp was Gina Gershon's idea. The directors' budget for songs was small; they had wanted to use "The Girl from Ipanema" and Frank Sinatra songs, but could not afford to. The four songs used in the film were not included on the score release.
"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)" (Ronny Shannon) performed by Aretha Franklin
"Hallelujah I Love Her So" (Ray Charles) performed by Ray Charles
"Hopeless Faith" performed by The Hail Marys
"She's a Lady" (Paul Anka) performed by Tom Jones
See also
List of LGBT films directed by women
Notes
References
External links
1996 films
1996 crime thriller films
1990s erotic thriller films
1990s heist films
1990s feminist films
1996 independent films
1996 LGBT-related films
1990s romantic thriller films
American crime thriller films
American films
American heist films
American independent films
American LGBT-related films
American romantic thriller films
Female bisexuality in film
1990s English-language films
American erotic thriller films
Films scored by Don Davis (composer)
Films about murderers
Films about organized crime in the United States
Films directed by The Wachowskis
Films set in apartment buildings
Films shot in Los Angeles County, California
Lesbian-related films
LGBT-related thriller films
LGBT-related romance films
American neo-noir films
Films with screenplays by The Wachowskis
Summit Entertainment films
Gramercy Pictures films
Spelling Films films
1996 directorial debut films | [
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] |
249844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Slovenian%20mathematicians | List of Slovenian mathematicians | This is a list of Slovenian mathematicians.
A
Anton Ambschel (1749–1821)
B
Iztok Banič
Vladimir Batagelj (1948–)
Andrej Blejec (1953–)
Marijan Blejec (1919–1992)
Marko Boben (1973–)
Ludvik Bogataj (1949–2009)
Zvonimir Bohte (1935–)
Janko Bračič
Franc Breckerfeld (1681–1744)
Matevž Bren (1954–)
Boštjan Brešar
Matej Brešar (1963–)
Silvo Breskvar (1902–1969)
Andrej Brodnik (1961–)
C
Anton Cedilnik
Matija Cencelj
Andrej Cergol (1595–1645)
Miran Černe
Jaka Cimprič
Karin Cvetko Vah
D
France Dacar
Mirko Dobovišek
Tanja Dravec
Barbara Drinovec Drnovšek
Roman Drnovšek
F
Joannes Disma Floriantschitsch de Grienfeld (1691–1757)
Franc Forstnerič (1958–)
G
Franc Galič (1929–1982)
Josip Globevnik (1945–)
Darja Govekar
Josip Grasselli (1924–2016)
Janko Gravner
H
Izidor Hafner
Ferdinand Augustin Hallerstein (1703–1774)
Herman of Carinthia (c. 1100–c. 1160)
Milan Hladnik
Franc Hočevar (1853–1919)
Bojan Hvala
Dušan Hvalica
I
Stane Indihar
J
Rajko Jamnik (1924–1983)
Fran Jeran (1881–1954)
Martin Juvan
K
Milan Kac (1924–?)
Sara Kališnik
Sandi Klavžar (1962–)
Igor Klep
Marjeta Knez
Andrej Kobav (1593–1654)
Tomaž Košir
Joahim Košutnik (1714–1789)
Jernej Kozak (1946–)
Edvard Kramar
Marjeta Kramar Fijavž
Josip Križan (1841–1921)
France Križanič (1928–2002)
Bogdan Krušič
Igor Kukavica
Klemen Kukec (?–1541)
Karel Kunc (1879–1950)
Ivan Kuščer (1918–2000)
Klavdija Kutnar (1980–)
L
Ivo Lah (1896–1979)
Vito Lampret
Boris Lavrič
Franc Lebedinec
Peter Legiša (1950–)
Gorazd Lešnjak
M
Bojan Magajna
Joze Malešič
Aleksander Malnič (1954–)
Dragan Marušič (1953–)
Miklavž Mastinšek
Blaž Matek (1855–1910)
Josip Mazi
Uroš Milutinović
Pavlina Mizori–Oblak
Štefan Močilnik (1928–)
Franc Močnik (1814–1892)
Bojan Mohar
Ivan Molinaro (1903–1988)
Nežka Mramor–Kosta
Janez Mrčun
O
Polona Oblak
Matjaz Omladič (1950–)
Bojan Orel
P
Dušan Pagon (1955–)
Bernard Pergerl (1440–1501)
Andrej Perlah (1490–1551)
Peter Petek (1944–)
Iztok Peterin (1974–)
Marko Petkovšek(1955–)
Tomaž Pisanski (1949–)
Josip Plemelj (1873–1967)
Bor Plestenjak
Primož Potočnik (1971–)
Jože Povšič (1907–1985)
Jasna Prezelj
Andreja Prijatelj (1953–2002)
Niko Prijatelj (1922–2003)
Ivan Pucelj
R
Janez Rakovec
Marko Razpet
Dušan Repovš (1954–)
Viljem Rupnik
S
Mateja Sajna
Oton Sajovic (1907–1996)
Pavle Saksida (1960–)
Janez Krstnik Schoettl (1724–1777)
Peter Šemrl
Marjeta Škapin-Rugelj
Tomislav Skubic (1930–1996)
Marko Sodnig (1729–1800)
Ivan Štalec (1910–1994)
Jožef Stefan (1835–1893)
Boštjan Steiner (1680–1748)
Rok Strašek (1972–)
Anton Suhadolc
Irene Swanson
T
Karl Tirnberger (1731–1780)
Gabrijel Tomšič
Zvonko Trontelj
Aleksej Turnšek
V
Alojzij Vadnal (1910–1987)
Anton Vakselj (1899–1987)
Aleš Vavpetič
Jurij Vega (1754–1802)
Aleksander Vesel
Ivan Vidav (1918–2015)
Jože Vrabec (1940–)
Joso Vukman
Z
Emil Žagar
Egon Zakrajšek (1941–2002)
Borut Zalar
Aleš Založnik
Matjaz Željko
Janez Žerovnik
Boris Zgrablič
Milan Ziegler
Petra Žigert
Arjana Žitnik
Rihard Zupančič (1878–1949)
See also
Mathematician
Geometer
List of Slovenians
Mathematicians
Slovenian mathematicians
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] |
249846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Slovene-language%20poets | List of Slovene-language poets | Poets who wrote or write much of their poetry in Slovene.
See also
List of Slovenian writers
Slovenian literature
List of Slovenian writers and poets in Hungary
List of Slovenes
List of poets
Slovene
Poets | [
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249847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maracaibo | Maracaibo | Maracaibo ( , ; ), historically known as Neu-Nuremberg, is a city and municipality in northwestern Venezuela, on the western shore of the strait that connects Lake Maracaibo to the Gulf of Venezuela. It is the second-largest city in Venezuela, after the national capital, Caracas, and the capital of the state of Zulia. The population of the city is approximately 2,658,355 with the metropolitan area estimated at 5,278,448 .
Maracaibo is nicknamed "The Beloved Land of the Sun" ().
Maracaibo is considered the economic center of the western part of Venezuela, owing to the petroleum industry that developed in the shores of Lake Maracaibo. It is sometimes known as "The First City of Venezuela", for being the first city in Venezuela to adopt various types of public services, including electricity, as well as for being located adjacent to shores of Lake Maracaibo, where the name of Venezuela allegedly originates.
Early indigenous settlements around the area were of Arawak and Carib origin. Maracaibo’s founding date is disputed. There were failed attempts to found the city—in 1529, by Captain Ambrosio Ehinger, and in 1569, by Captain Alonso Pacheco. Founded in 1574 as Nueva Zamora de la Laguna de Maracaibo by Captain Pedro Maldonado, the city became a transshipment point for inland settlements after Gibraltar, at the head of the lake, had been destroyed by pirates in 1669. It was not until the first decades of the 17th century that the first town was settled. Petroleum was discovered in 1917, leading to a large increase in population from migration.
Maracaibo is served by La Chinita International Airport. The General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge connects Maracaibo with the rest of the country. The La Chiquinquirá Church catholic church is within the city.
Etymology
The name Maracaibo is said to come from the brave cacique (Indian chief) Mara, a young native who valiantly resisted the Spaniards and died fighting them. Legend says that when Mara fell, the Indians shouted "Mara kayó!" (Mara fell!), thus originating the city name—although it would be strange for them to shout in Spanish. Other historians say that the first name of this land in the local language was "Maara-iwo" meaning "Place where serpents abound".
History
Foundation
The first indigenous settlements were of Arawak and Carib origin. Around the main group were the Añu tribe who built rows of stilt houses all over the northern riviera of the Lake Maracaibo. The first Europeans arrived in 1499.
The city was founded three times: the first time was during the Klein-Venedig period (1528–1546), when the Welser bankers of Augsburg received a concession over Venezuela Province from Charles I of Spain. In August 1529, the German Ambrosius Ehinger made his first expedition to Lake Maracaibo, which was bitterly opposed by the indigenous Coquivacoa. After winning a series of bloody battles, he founded the settlement on 8 September 1529. Ehinger named the settlement New Nuremberg () and the lake after the valiant chieftain Mara of the Coquivacoa, who had died in the fighting. The city was renamed Maracaibo after the Spanish took possession. The lack of activity in the zone made Nikolaus Federmann evacuate the village in 1535 and move its population to Santa Marta near the then capital of Venezuela Province, Santa Ana de Coro.
A second attempt by Captain Alonso Pacheco in 1569 suffered a brief setback when the city had to be evacuated in 1573 due to ferocious attacks by native local tribes. The European settlement returned a short while later, in 1574, however, for which it was re-founded by Captain Pedro Maldonado under Governor Diego de Mazariegos's command and assuming the name of Nueva Zamora de Maracaibo. "Nueva Zamora" comes from Mazariego's place of birth, Zamora, in Spain. Since its definite foundation, the town began to develop as a whole. It is based on the western side of Lake Maracaibo, the dominant feature of the oil-rich Maracaibo Basin. Favored by prevailing winds and a protected harbour, the city is located on the shores of the lake where the narrows, which eventually lead to the Gulf of Venezuela, first become pronounced.
Pirate attacks
The Dutch corsair Henrik de Gerard plundered Maracaibo in 1614, and in 1642 the city was attacked by the British pirate William Jackson. In 1667, l'Olonnais with a fleet of eight ships and a crew of six hundred pirates sacked Maracaibo and Gibraltar. En route, l'Olonnais crossed paths with a Spanish treasure ship, which he captured, along with its rich cargo of cacao, gemstones and more than 260,000 pieces of eight.
In March 1669, Henry Morgan sacked Maracaibo, which emptied when his fleet was first spied, and moved on to the Spanish settlement of Gibraltar on the inside of Lake Maracaibo in search of more treasure. A few weeks later, when he attempted to sail out of the lake, Morgan found an occupied fort blocking the inlet to the Caribbean, along with three Spanish ships. These were the Magdalena, the San Luis, and the Soledad. He destroyed the Magdalena and burned the San Luis by sending a dummy ship full of gunpowder to explode near them, after which the crew of the Soledad surrendered. By faking a landward attack on the fort, thereby convincing the Spanish governor to shift his cannon, he eluded their guns and escaped.
In June 1678, Michel de Grammont, the French commander of six ships and 700 men, captured Maracaibo then followed the plundering of several smaller towns as Gibraltar, penetrating as far inland as Trujillo.
Venezuelan independence
In 1810, the province of Maracaibo did not join the First Republic of Venezuela and remained loyal to the Spanish crown. Maracaibo then held the seat of the Captaincy General of Venezuela.
In 1821, uprisings in favor of independence began to lead to warfare and hostility. The royalists, led by Francisco Tomás Morales, fought with the patriots, led by Rafael Urdaneta, to take back control over the province in the Juana de Ávila Battle, and Morales brought back Spanish rule in 1822 until he was defeated at the Battle of Lake Maracaibo on 24 July 1823, culminating Venezuela's struggle for independence.
Isolation period
For about 380 years, Maracaibo remained isolated and separated from the rest of the country. Transportation was only possible across the lake by ferry or other marine transport.
Cars, buses, and lorries, with their constant flow of manufactured goods and agricultural product, depended on the ferry system between the city and the eastern shore with their roads to connect to the country's motorway system. Maracaibo and the Lake Maracaibo region's economy was more linked to Colombia than to eastern Venezuela due to the natural route available through Lake Maracaibo then leading to the sea.
This isolation was both a challenge and an advantage. The very nature of the city's location made for a population known for their independent thought and character. The history of this region is rife with stories about the creation of an independent and sovereign nation apart from Venezuela, a nation called , 'the Independent Republic of Zulia', but this has never come to be.
In January 1903, as the naval blockade of Venezuela continued during the negotiations with presidente Cipriano Castro, the German warship SMS Panther attempted to enter Lake Maracaibo, which was a center of German commercial activity. On 17 January, it exchanged fire with the settlement of Fort San Carlos, but withdrew after half an hour, as shallow waters prevented it getting close enough to the fort to be effective. The Venezuelans claimed this as a victory, and in response the German commander sent the SMS Vineta, with heavier weapons, to set an example. On 21 January, the Vineta bombarded the fort, setting fire to it and destroying it, with the death of 25 civilians in the nearby town.
In 1908, the Friesland, Gelderland and Jacob van Heemskerck
were sent to patrol the Venezuelan coast during the second Castro crisis. Friesland guarded the entry way to Maracaibo.
Building of the bridge
The dictatorial regime of General Marcos Pérez Jiménez in the 1950s set as a goal the construction of a bridge connecting the two lake shores. Various bridge projects for the spanning of the Lake Maracaibo narrows near the city were in the works. The general's government had decided that this "city of independent thought" should be more "connected" to the rest of the country.
Proposals for a bridge design that included rail transport and tourist facilities were seriously considered. The fall of the Pérez Jiménez government on 23 January 1958, quickly led to a less elaborate design project that was approved and funded by a democratic and more conservative government.
The building of ('General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge over Lake Maracaibo') named after the distinguished General hero of the War of Independence was opened to public traffic in 1962. The project was completed on schedule in 40 months.
This bridge construction project was a remarkable feat. Built under very difficult conditions, when completed, it became the longest prestressed concrete bridge in the world. The structure is in constant use and remains today as the most important link between Maracaibo, along with much of the state of Zulia, and the rest of Venezuela.
Modern times
Maracaibo has become a large metropolitan city, comprising two municipalities: the municipality of Maracaibo proper, and the municipality of San Francisco, established in 1995, to the south. In recent years, due to political/economic and cultural reasons, many have moved to Maracaibo from rural areas and other cities (including Caracas).
In the political arena, the citizens of Maracaibo (and most other cities and municipalities in Zulia state) have in recent years voted for a competitive political system in where the governor is from a certain political party and the mayor or mayors are from the opposite political party.
Maracaibo also boasts one of the best universities in the country, the state university. La Universidad del Zulia (LUZ) is well renowned for its excellent law, medical and engineering schools as many other disciplines. Other universities and schools include Universidad Dr. Rafael Belloso Chacín (URBE) and Universidad Rafael Urdaneta, with one of the country's leading psychology schools.
The Diocese of Maracaibo (23 July 1965) was elevated to Archdiocese on 30 April 1966 by Pope Paulus VI. Maracaibo was visited by Pope John Paul II in 1985. Since November 2000, its Archbishop has been Ubaldo Ramón Santana Sequera.
Perspective
François de Pons, an agent to the French government in Caracas, provides some historical insight into the people of Maracaibo in his travel journal . The following excerpts describe the local population of Maracaibo:
"They perform coasting, or long voyages, with equal facility; and when all trade is suspended by the operations of war, they enter privateers. Bred up in the neighbourhood of the lake, they are mostly all expert swimmers and excellent divers. Their reputation stands equally high as soldiers. Those who do not enter into the sea service, form plantations, or assist in cultivating those that belong to their fathers. Nothing proves better their aptitude for this kind of occupation, than the immense flocks of cattle with which the savannas of Maracaybo are covered."
He also notes the appreciation of literature, the arts, education, and culture among the people of Maracaibo:
"But what confers the greatest honour on the inhabitants of Maracaibo, is their application to literature; in which, notwithstanding the wretched state of public education, they make considerable progress....They likewise acquired the art of elocution, and of writing their mother tongue with the greatest purity; in a word, they possessed all the qualities that characterise men of letters."
Economy
Zulia's main income comes from oil extraction and refining, agriculture (coffee, rice, maize, cassava, cocoa, sugar cane),
livestock production, and mining (clay, limestone, coal and sand).
Geography
Location
The municipality of Maracaibo is divided into 18 parishes as follows:
Climate
Maracaibo is one of the hottest cities of Venezuela and all of South America as well. The rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta gives the city a semiarid climate (Köppen: BSh) attenuated only by the moderating influence of the lake; Maracaibo’s average historical temperature is . In the past, the climate of the city, indeed all along the coast of Lake Maracaibo, was unhealthy due to the combination of high temperatures with high humidity. Today, control of plagues and the effects of urban development has largely eradicated these health problems. The registered high temperature of the city is , and the lowest is .
Education
Colleges and universities
Several universities are based in the city:
Universidad del Zulia - (LUZ)
Universidad Nacional Experimental de la Fuerza Armada UNEFA
Universidad Rafael Belloso Chacín - (URBE)
Universidad Rafael Urdaneta
Universidad Católica Cecilio Acosta
Universidad Dr. José Gregorio Hernández
Universidad Bolivariano de Venezuela sede Zulia
Universidad Nacional Abierta (UNA) Centro Local Zulia
International schools
Escuela Bella Vista (American school)
Colegio Alemán de Maracaibo, formerly Colegio Alemán del Zulia (German school)
Sports
Due to the regionalistic nature of Marabinos, they strongly support their native teams. Maracaibo, and the rest of Zulia, are represented in baseball by the Águilas del Zulia, a Venezuelan winter league team that plays in the Liga Venezolana de Béisbol Profesional, and is based in the Estadio Luis Aparicio El Grande. The city's basketball team is Gaiteros del Zulia, which plays in the Liga Profesional de Baloncesto de Venezuela. Its home is the 5.000-people Pedro Elías Belisario Aponte stadium. Other teams include the Unión Atlético Maracaibo and the Zulia FC in football, the Maracaibo Rugby Football Club and the Zulianos Rugby Club.
In the 2000 Little League World Series, the Sierrra Maestra Little League of Maracaibo, Venezuela defeated Bellaire Little League of Bellaire, Texas in the championship game of the 54th Little League World Series. The Coquivocoa Little League team from Maracaibo placed third in the 1974 Little League World Series.
Rugby in Venezuela was first played in Maracaibo, thanks to the influence of the English community based on the Zulia State
Team:
Baseball: Águilas del Zulia BBC.
Basketball: Gaiteros del Zulia
Soccer: Unión Atlético Maracaibo, Zulia FC
Rugby: Maracaibo Rugby Football Club "Oil Blacks", Zulianos Rugby Club
Culture
Culture in Maracaibo is very indigenous and unique, is recognized in every state and city in Venezuela, and is very influential with its gaitas, desserts, style, living, and customs. Most major houses of advertising in Venezuela acknowledge how opposite the culture of Maracaibo is from that of Caracas. Studies of both prove, for example, that Caracas' leading soft drink brand is Coke, while in Maracaibo it is Pepsi. This has made many brands create special localized advertising of their products (including several Pepsi commercials spoken by local celebrities).
Marabinos are extremely proud of their city, their culture, and all of Zulia. They usually claim that Venezuela wouldn't be the country it actually is without Zulia. Rivalry with inhabitants of other regions is common, specially with Gochos (people of the Trujillo, Mérida and Táchira state) and Caraqueños (people of the city of Caracas).
The Gaita is a style of Venezuelan folk music from Maracaibo. According to Joan Corominas, it may come from gaits, the Gothic word for "goat", which is the skin generally used for the membrane of the furro instrument. Other instruments used in gaita include maracas, cuatro, charrasca and tambora (Venezuelan drum). Song themes range from humorous and love songs to protest songs.The style became popular throughout Venezuela in the 1960s, and it fused with other styles such as salsa and merengue in the 1970s. Famous gaita groups include Maracaibo 15, Gran Coquivacoa, Barrio Obrero, Cardenales del Éxito, Koquimba, Melody Gaita, Guaco, Estrellas del Zulia, Saladillo, and many others.
Museums, cultural centers and theaters
Museo de Arte Contemporáneo del estado Zulia (MACZUL)
Museo General Rafael Urdaneta
Museo Municipal de Artes Gráficas "Balmiro León"
Centro de Bellas Artes de Maracaibo
Centro de Arte de Maracaibo "Lía Bermúdez"
Teatro Baralt
Museo de la Gaita
Libraries
Biblioteca Publica del Zulia
Biblioteca Pública "Arturo Uslar Pietri"
Biblioteca "Dr. Pedro Alciro Barboza de la Torre"
Biblioteca Pública "Simón Palmar"
Biblioteca Pública "Luís Guillermo Pineda Belloso" (De carácter público, bilingüe y circulante)
Biblioteca Pública Especializada "Pedagógica"
Biblioteca Pública Especializada "SEDINI"
Biblioteca Privada "Dr. Nectario Andrade Labarca"
Notable natives
Teolindo Acosta - baseball player
Gustavo Aguado - musician, singer and leader of Guaco music band
Ricardo Aguirre - composer and singer
Daniel Alvarado - singer and actor
Wilson Álvarez - Major League Baseball left-handed pitcher
Ernesto Aparicio - Major League Baseball Hall of Fame
Luis Aparicio - former shortstop in Major League Baseball
Rafael Maria Baralt - diplomat, writer, philologist, historian
Huascar Barradas - flutist
José Bracho - baseball pitcher
Antonio Briñez - first manager to win a National Amateur Baseball championship to Venezuela
María Calcaño - poet
José Antonio Casanova - baseball player and team manager
Abel Castellano Jr. - jockey
Javier Castellano - jockey Eclipse Award 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016. Hall of Fame
Gustavo Chacín - Major League Baseball pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays
Johana Clavel - cook and entrepreneur
Gilberto Correa - TV host
David Cubillan - basketball player, Marquette University
Oscar D'Empaire - trader
Chiquinquirá Delgado - actress and TV host
Xabier Elorriaga- actor
Heraclio Fernández - pianist and composer
Lupita Ferrer - actress
Juan Fuenmayor - soccer player
Betulio González - boxer
Carlos González - Major League Baseball outfielder for the Colorado Rockies
Geremi González - Major League Baseball player for several teams
Inés González Árraga - chemist and former political prisoner
Mariana González Parra - fencer
Ulises Hadjis- singer-songwriter and multi instrumentalist
Alejandro Hernández - Internet comedian
Jonathan Herrera - second baseman for the Colorado Rockies
Wilmer Herrison - painter
Ender Inciarte - center fielder for the Atlanta Braves
Ninibeth Leal - Miss Venezuela World 1991, Miss World 1991
Sandy León - baseball player
Carlos López Bustamante - journalist, known for his opposition to Juan Vicente Gómez
Eduardo López Bustamante - journalist, lawyer, and poet
Teresa López Bustamante - journalist, founder of the Catholic Venezuelan newspaper
Eduardo López Rivas - editor and journalist
Tulio Enrique León - blind organist, composer, and arranger
Sandy Leon- Major League Baseball catcher for the Boston Red Sox
Betty Cecilia Lugo - Philanthropist
Michael McKinley - ambassador of USA
Julio Machado - Major League Baseball pitcher
Carlos Ramírez MacGregor - journalist, politician and writer
Domingo Marcucci - shipbuilder and shipowner in San Francisco, California
Ernesto Mayz Vallenilla - philosopher, rector of Simón Bolívar University (Venezuela)
Armando Molero - songwriter
Carlos Molina Tamayo - navy militar
Ricardo Montaner - Venezuelan Musician
Carmen Maria Montiel - Miss Venezuela 1984, Miss Universe 1984 2nd runner up
Carlos Caridad-Montero - film producer
Humberto Fernández Morán - research scientist, founded the Venezuelan scientific research institute
Lila Morillo - actress and singer
Francisco Ochoa - first President of the Universidad del Zulia
Rougned Odor - second baseman for the Texas Rangers (baseball)
Gastón Parra Luzardo- Economist president of PDVSA in 2002
Gerardo Parra- Baseball outfielder player of MLB
Nestor Perez Luzardo- lawyer and singer
Felipe Pirela- singer
Nick Pocock - former cricketer, ex-captain of Hampshire County Cricket Club
Oswaldo Álvarez Paz - First elected Governor
L. Rafael Reif - electrical engineer and the 17th President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Graciela Rincón Calcaño - poet
Rafael Romero Sandrea - track and field athlete
Daniel Sarcos - Telemundo TV host
Monica Spear - Miss Venezuela 2004, Miss Universe 2005 4th runner up
Orlando Urdaneta - actor
Rafael Urdaneta - hero of the Latin American war for independence
Vivian Urdaneta - Miss Venezuela International 2000, Miss International 2000
Patricia Van Dalen - painter
Patricia Velásquez - actress and international top model
Leonardo Villalobos - actor and television personality
Districts
International relations
Twin towns – Sister cities
Maracaibo is twinned with:
Skyline
References
Further reading
External links
Panorama Digital -Largest Maracaibo based newspaper
La Verdad - Maracaibo-based newspaper.
Cities in Zulia
Municipalities of Zulia
Lake Maracaibo
Port cities in the Caribbean
Port cities in Venezuela
Populated places established in 1529
Ports and harbours of Venezuela | [
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249852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20developmental%20and%20minor%20sports%20leagues | List of developmental and minor sports leagues | This is a list of developmental and minor sports leagues, two concepts which are largely restricted to North American sports. Note that this does not include teams in leagues that include promotion and relegation.
North America
Baseball
Minor League Baseball
Triple-A East (Class AAA)
Triple-A West (Class AAA)
Double-A Central (Class AA)
Double-A Northeast (Class AA)
Double-A South (Class AA)
High-A Central (Class A+)
High-A East (Class A+)
High-A West (Class A+)
Low-A East (Class A)
Low-A Southeast (Class A)
Low-A West (Class A)
Arizona League (Rookie)
Gulf Coast League (Rookie)
Dominican Summer League (Rookie)
Off-season leagues
Arizona Fall League (off-season)
Colombian Professional Baseball League (off-season)
Dominican Winter Baseball League (off-season)
Mexican Pacific League (off-season)
Puerto Rico Baseball League (off-season)
Venezuelan Professional Baseball League (off-season)
Independent baseball leagues
American Association
Atlantic League
Empire League
Frontier League
Mexican League
Pacific Association
Pecos League
Pioneer League
United Shore League
MLB Partner Leagues
Basketball
Affiliated:
NBA G League
Independent:
American Basketball Association (ABA)
Canadian Elite Basketball League (CEBL)
Central Basketball Association (CBA)
East Coast Basketball League (ECBL)
Elite Basketball League (EBL)
Florida Basketball Association (FBA)
Maximum Basketball League (MBL)
National Basketball League of Canada (NBL Canada)
North American Basketball League (NABL)
The Basketball League (TBL)
United Basketball League (UBL)
Universal Basketball Association (UBA)
American football
Indoor:
American Arena League
American West Football Conference
Champions Indoor Football
Indoor Football League
National Arena League
Ice hockey
Professional:
American Hockey League (high-level)
ECHL (formerly East Coast Hockey League) (mid-level)
Federal Prospects Hockey League (low-level)
Ligue Nord-Américaine de Hockey (low-level)
Southern Professional Hockey League (low-level)
Juniors:
Canadian Hockey League (CHL; an umbrella organization)
Ontario Hockey League (Major junior)
Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (Major junior)
Western Hockey League (Major junior)
United States Hockey League (Tier I)
Association football (soccer)
United Soccer League
USL Championship (men's Division II)
USL Super League (FIFA women's Division II, planned to start in 2023)
USL League One (men's Division III)
MLS Next Pro (Division III)
National Independent Soccer Association (Division III)
United Women's Soccer (FIFA women's Division II)
Women's Premier Soccer League (FIFA women's Division II)
Indoor soccer
Major Arena Soccer League 2 (M2)
Auto racing
ARCA Menards Series
American Speed Association
CRA
Indy Lights
Pro Mazda Championship
NASCAR Pinty's Series (Canada)
NASCAR Peak Mexico Series (Mexico)
NASCAR Whelen Euro Series (Europe)
NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour
NASCAR Whelen Southern Modified Tour
NASCAR K&N Pro Series East
NASCAR K&N Pro Series West
Michelin Pilot Challenge
GT4 America
Cricket
Minor League Cricket
Africa
Rugby union
Vodacom Cup (South Africa; now defunct. During the competition's existence, teams from Argentina and Namibia were occasionally included.)
Rugby Challenge (South Africa; successor to the Vodacom Cup. Includes the same Namibian team that occasionally featured in the Vodacom Cup.)
Asia
Baseball
Baseball Challenge League (Japan)
Eastern League (Japan)
Kansai Independent Baseball League (Japan)
Shikoku-Kyūshū Island League (Japan)
Western League (Japan)
Basketball
National Basketball League (China)
Philippine Basketball League (Philippines, 1983-2011)
Liga Pilipinas (Philippines, 2008-2011)
PBA Developmental League (Philippines, 2011–present)
Filsports Basketball Association (Philippines, 2015-2016)
Pilipinas Commercial Basketball League (Philippines, 2015-2016)
Community Basketball Association (Philippines, 2019–present)
Association football
Manila Football League (Philippines, 1930-1967)
Manila Premier Football League (Philippines, 1997)
National Football League (Philippines, 1977-1991)
PFA Major Soccer Series (Philippines, 1967-1972)
Filipino Premier League (Philippines, 2008)
United Football League (Philippines), (2009-2016)
Europe
Motorsports
European Le Mans
GT4 European Series
GT4 France Cup
Oceania
Association football (soccer)
National Premier Leagues (Australia)
Australian rules football
TAC Cup (Victoria)
South Australian National Football League (South Australia)
Victorian Football League (Victoria)
West Australian Football League (Western Australia)
North East Australian Football League (New South Wales, Queensland, Northern Territory & Australian Capital Territory)
Baseball
Darwin Baseball League (Northern Territory)
Greater Brisbane League (Queensland)
Illawarra Baseball League (New South Wales)
New South Wales Major League (New South Wales)
Basketball
Big V (Victoria)
NBL1 (Australia)
NBL1 Central (South Australia)
NBL1 East (New South Wales and Australian Capital Territory)
NBL1 North (Queensland and Northern Territory)
NBL1 South (Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia)
NBL1 West (Western Australia)
Ice hockey
East Coast Super League (New South Wales)
Rugby league
Melbourne Rugby League (Victoria)
New South Wales Cup (New South Wales)
Queensland Cup (Queensland)
S. G. Ball Cup (Australia)
Motorsports
Super2 Series
Super3 Series
See also
List of top level minor league sports teams in the United States by city
List of American and Canadian cities by number of major professional sports franchises
List of professional sports teams in the United States and Canada
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249853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie%20River | Mackenzie River | The Mackenzie River (Slavey: [tèh tʃʰò], literally big river; Inuvialuktun: [kuːkpɑk] literally great river; French: ) is a river in the Canadian boreal forest. It forms, along with the Slave, Peace, and Finlay, the longest river system in Canada, and includes the second largest drainage basin of any North American river after the Mississippi.
The Mackenzie River flows through a vast, thinly populated region of forest and tundra entirely within the Northwest Territories in Canada, although its many tributaries reach into five other Canadian provinces and territories. The river's main stem is long, flowing north-northwest from Great Slave Lake into the Arctic Ocean, where it forms a large delta at its mouth. Its extensive watershed drains about 20 percent of Canada. It is the largest river flowing into the Arctic from North America, and including its tributaries has a total length of , making it the thirteenth longest river system in the world.
The ultimate source of the Mackenzie River is Thutade Lake, in the Northern Interior of British Columbia. The Mackenzie valley is believed to have been the path taken by prehistoric peoples during the initial human migration from Asia to North America over 10,000 years ago, despite sparse evidence. The Inuvialuit, Gwich'in and other indigenous peoples lived along the river for thousands of years. The river provided the major route into Canada's northern interior for early European explorers.
Economic development remains limited along the river. During the 19th century, fur trading became a lucrative business, but this was affected by harsh weather conditions. The discovery of oil at Norman Wells in the 1920s began a period of industrialization in the Mackenzie valley. Metallic minerals have been found along the eastern and southern edges of the basin; these include uranium, gold, lead, and zinc. Agriculture remains prevalent along the south, particularly in the Peace River area. Various tributaries and headwaters of the river have been developed for hydroelectricity production, flood control and irrigation.
Geography
Headwaters
Through its many tributaries, the Mackenzie River basin covers portions of five Canadian provinces and territories – British Columbia (BC), Alberta, Saskatchewan, Yukon, and Northwest Territories. Thutade Lake, in the Northern Interior of BC, is the ultimate source of the Mackenzie River via the Finlay–Peace River system, which stretches through BC and Alberta. The Athabasca River originates further south, in Jasper National Park in southwest Alberta. Together, the Peace and Athabasca rivers drain a significant portion of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains and the central Alberta prairie. The Peace contributes the majority of the water, about 66 km3 (54 million acre-feet) per year, and the Athabasca contributes 25 km3 (20 million acre-feet).
The Peace and Athabasca meet at the Peace-Athabasca Delta, a vast inland delta at the western end of Lake Athabasca, which also takes runoff from the northern third of Saskatchewan. The Slave River is formed by the confluence of the two rivers and flows due north into Great Slave Lake, at Fort Resolution, Northwest Territories. The Slave is by far the largest river flowing into the lake, with an annual flow of 108 km3 (87 million acre-feet). It contributes about 77% of the overall inflow, and forms a large delta where it enters the lake. Other rivers entering Great Slave Lake are the Taltson, Lockhart and Hay Rivers, the latter of which also extends into Alberta and BC.
Main stem
The Mackenzie River issues from the western end of Great Slave Lake about south-west of Yellowknife. The channel is initially several kilometres wide but narrows to about at Fort Providence, which was historically an important ferry crossing in the summer, and used as an ice bridge in the winter for traffic along the Yellowknife Highway. In 2012 the Deh Cho Bridge was completed at a point about upstream, providing a safer permanent crossing. It is the only bridge across the main stem of the Mackenzie. West of Fort Providence the Mackenzie widens considerably, resembling a shallow, swampy lake more than a river; one large widening here is known as Mills Lake.
After heading west for about the Mackenzie narrows and turns northwest through a long stretch of fast water and rapids, past the village of Jean Marie River. At Fort Simpson it is joined by the Liard River, its biggest direct tributary, from the west. The Liard drains a large area in the southern Yukon and northern BC and carries a large amount of sediment during the summer melt – which does not fully mix with the clear water in the Mackenzie for almost downstream, with the resulting phenomenon of a clear current on the east bank and muddy water on the west bank.
The river continues west-northwest until its confluence with the North Nahanni River, where it turns north towards the Arctic. It flows through open taiga with its wide valley bounded, on the west, by the Mackenzie Mountains and to the east by low hills of the Canadian Shield. This mostly uninhabited area is called the Mackenzie Lowlands; although partly forested, it is mostly covered by large areas of muskeg, swamps and many small lakes. A number of major tributaries join from the west, including the Root River, Redstone River and Keele River. Below the Keele River, the Mackenzie River flows north along the western base of the Franklin Mountains before turning northwest, and receives the Great Bear River, the outflow of Great Bear Lake at Tulita.
The Mackenzie widens considerably to about at Norman Wells, a major center of oil production. There is a narrows at the Mountain River confluence called the Sans Sault Rapids, where the Mackenzie falls about . Below the Mountain River the Mackenzie flows due north until reaching The Ramparts, a limestone gorge barely wide and up to deep. Below The Ramparts is the village of Fort Good Hope, where the Mackenzie turns northwest again, soon crossing the Arctic Circle. The Mackenzie here flows slightly lower in elevation than the surrounding tundra, as a braided river between low bluffs about apart. It receives the Arctic Red River from the southwest at Tsiigehtchic, where traffic on the Dempster Highway crosses via ferry/ice bridge.
About northwest of Tsiigehtchic is Point Separation, the head of the vast Mackenzie River Delta, whose branching channels, ponds and wetlands spread across more than of the coastal plain. The delta is nearly from north to south, and ranges in width from . It is the second biggest Arctic delta in the world, after the Lena River delta in Russia. Most land in the Mackenzie delta consists of permafrost, with great depths to bedrock. A characteristic feature of the delta is its numerous pingos, or hills of earth-covered-ice – some 1,400 of them. The Peel River, carrying much of the runoff from the northern Yukon, joins in the delta at a point northeast of Fort McPherson. Below there, the Mackenzie diverges into several large channels with the largest heading north-northeast, emptying into the Beaufort Sea west of Tuktoyaktuk.
Drainage basin
At , the Mackenzie River drainage basin encompasses nearly 20 percent of Canada. About , or 54 percent of the basin, lies above Great Slave Lake. Permafrost underlies about three-quarters of the watershed, reaching up to deep in the Mackenzie Delta. As a whole, the Mackenzie basin receives only meager to moderate rainfall, averaging over the entire basin, though mountain areas experience much higher precipitation, and areas near and north of the Arctic Circle receive much lower precipitation.
The Mackenzie drainage basin is bordered by multiple major North American watersheds. Much of the western edge of the Mackenzie basin runs along the Continental Divide. The divide separates the Mackenzie watershed from that of the Yukon River, which flows to the Bering Strait; and the Fraser River and Columbia River systems, both of which empty into the Pacific Ocean. Lowland divides in the north separate the Mackenzie basin from the Arctic Ocean watersheds of the Anderson, Horton, Coppermine and Back Rivers. In the east, the Mackenzie borders on the Hudson Bay watersheds of the Thelon and Churchill Rivers, and to the south it is bordered by the Saskatchewan–Nelson River system, which also empties into Hudson Bay. The Mackenzie system is hydrologically connected to the Hudson Bay watershed via Wollaston Lake, which is not only the source of the Fond du Lac tributary of Lake Athabasca, but also of the Cochrane River, which flows east into the Churchill River.
The eastern portion of the Mackenzie basin is dominated by vast reaches of lake-studded boreal forest and includes many of the largest lakes in North America. By both volume and surface area, Great Bear Lake is the biggest in the watershed and third largest on the continent, with a surface area of and a volume of . Great Slave Lake is slightly smaller, with an area of and containing of water, although it is significantly deeper than Great Bear. The third major lake, Athabasca, is less than a third that size with an area of . Six other lakes in the watershed cover more than , including the Williston Lake reservoir, the second-largest artificial lake in North America, on the Peace River.
Flow characteristics
The river discharges more than of water each year, accounting for roughly 11% of the total river flow into the Arctic Ocean. The river is frozen for most of the year, with the ice typically breaking up by early to mid-May in the south, and late May-early June in the north. Ice breaks up earlier on the tributaries, sometimes causing ice jams and flooding where they meet the Mackenzie. In the middle of the larger lakes, such as Great Slave, ice can persist as late as mid-June. The river typically freezes by late October or November, starting in the north. Year round, the Mackenzie's outflow has a major stabilizing effect in the local climate above the Arctic Ocean with large amounts of warmer fresh water mixing with the cold seawater.
The average flow rate at the mouth is , the second largest in Canada after the St Lawrence, and the fourteenth largest in the world. About 60 percent of the water comes from the western half of the basin, which includes the Rocky, Selwyn, and Mackenzie mountain ranges out of which spring major tributaries such as the Peace and Liard Rivers, which contribute 23 and 27 percent of the total flow, respectively. In contrast the eastern half, despite being dominated by marshland and large lakes, provides only about 25 percent of the Mackenzie's discharge.
During peak flow in the spring, the difference in discharge between the two halves of the watershed becomes even more marked. While large amounts of snow and glacial melt dramatically drive up water levels in the Mackenzie's western tributaries, large lakes to the east retard springtime discharges. Spring floods from the Peace-Athabasca system are significantly slowed by the delta area at the western end of Lake Athabasca causing the lake to rise, and the excess water can only flow out after the rivers have receded. The same phenomenon occurs at Great Slave Lake, which naturally regulates the flow from the Slave River into the Mackenzie.
There are river gauges at several upstream points along the Mackenzie River. The average flow rate at the outlet of Great Slave Lake is . At Fort Simpson, below the Liard River, it is . At Norman Wells it is , and at the Arctic Red confluence it is .
Mackenzie monthly mean discharge at Arctic Red River (m3/s)
Geology
As recently as the last glacial maximum about 30,000 years ago, the majority of northern Canada was buried under the enormous continental Laurentide Ice Sheet. The tremendous erosive powers of the Laurentide and its predecessors, at maximum extent, completely buried what is now the Mackenzie watershed under thousands of metres of ice and flattened the eastern portions of the watershed. When the ice sheet receded for the last time, it left a long postglacial lake, Lake McConnell, of which Great Bear, Great Slave and Athabasca Lakes are remnants.
Today's Mackenzie River is very young in geologic terms – its channel formed over a period of no more than several thousand years as the ice sheet retreated. Prior to the ice ages, only the Peel River tributary flowed through what is now the Mackenzie Delta into the Arctic Ocean. The other tributaries of the Mackenzie combined into the "Bell River" which flowed east into Hudson Bay. During glaciation the weight of the ice sheet depressed northern Canada's terrain to such an extent that when the ice retreated, the Mackenzie system was captured to lower elevations in the northwest, establishing the present flow direction to the Arctic.
Fluvial deposits and other erosional evidence indicate that around the end of the Pleistocene, about 13,000 years ago, the Mackenzie channel was scoured by one or more massive glacial lake outburst floods unleashed from Lake Agassiz, formed by melting ice west of the present-day Great Lakes. At its peak, Agassiz had a greater volume than all present-day freshwater lakes combined. This is believed to have disrupted currents in the Arctic Ocean and led to an abrupt 1,300-year-long cold temperature shift called the Younger Dryas.
The Mackenzie carries a very large sediment load, transporting about 128 million tonnes each year to its delta. The Liard River alone accounts for 32 percent of the total, and the Peel River about 20 percent. Essentially all of the sediment is contributed by areas downstream of Fort Providence, since upstream sediment is trapped in Great Slave Lake.
Ecology
The Mackenzie River's watershed is considered one of the largest and most intact ecosystems in North America, especially the northern half. Approximately 63% of the drainage basin, or , is forested (mostly boreal forest). Wetlands comprise about 18%, or about , of the basin. More than 93% of forested areas are virgin old-growth forest. However, human activities such as oil extraction have threatened water quality in the headwaters of the Mackenzie River. In addition, a warming climate in northern parts of the watershed is melting permafrost and destabilizing soil through erosion.
Most of the taiga consists of black spruce, aspen and poplar forest. In the north, the river's shores are lined with sparse vegetation like dwarf birch and willows, as well as extensive areas of muskeg and peat bogs. South of Great Slave Lake, there are much larger reaches of temperate and alpine forest, prairie, and fertile floodplain and riparian habitat.
There are 53 fish species in the basin, none of them endemic. The Mackenzie River has a similar range of fish fauna to the Mississippi River system. It is believed that the two river systems were connected during the Ice Ages by meltwater lakes and channels, allowing fish in the two rivers to interbreed. Fish in the Mackenzie River proper include the northern pike, several minnow species, and lake whitefish. Fish in the southern half of the watershed are genetically isolated from those of the northern half due to large rapids on the Slave River preventing fish from swimming upstream.
Migratory birds use the three major deltas in the Mackenzie River basin – the Mackenzie Delta and the inland Slave and Peace-Athabasca Deltas – as resting and breeding areas. The latter is located at the convergence of four major North American migratory routes, or flyways. As recently as the mid-twentieth century, more than 400,000 birds passed through during the spring and up to a million in autumn. Some 215 bird species in total have been catalogued in the delta, including species such as the whooping crane, peregrine falcon and bald eagle. The construction of the W.A.C. Bennett Dam on the Peace River has reduced the seasonal variations of water levels in the delta, causing damage to its ecosystem. Bird populations have seen a steady decline since the 1960s.
Water mammals such as beavers and muskrats are extremely common in the Mackenzie Delta and surrounding areas of muskeg. The Mackenzie estuary is also a calving area for beluga whales.
History
The Mackenzie valley is believed to have been the path taken by prehistoric peoples during the initial human migration from Asia to North America more than 10,000 years ago. However, archaeological evidence of human habitation along the Mackenzie is scant, despite the efforts of many researchers. Many archaeological sites have probably been destroyed by flooding, freeze-thaw and erosion. The Inuvialuit, Gwich'in and other indigenous peoples have lived along the river for thousands of years; however, the oldest evidence of continuous occupation stretches back only about 1300–1400 years, at the Gwich'in community of Tsiigehtchic.
The Mackenzie provided the major route into Canada's northern interior for European explorers as early as the late 18th century. Scottish explorer Alexander Mackenzie travelled the river in the hope it would lead to the Pacific Ocean, but instead reached its mouth on the Arctic Ocean on 14 July 1789. There is a story, likely apocryphal, that he named it "Disappointment River", but eventually it was named after him. No European reached its mouth again until Sir John Franklin on 16 August 1825 during the 1825–1827 Mackenzie River expedition. The following year he traced the coast west until blocked by ice while John Richardson followed the coast east to the Coppermine River. In 1849 William Pullen reached the Mackenzie from the Bering Strait.
In the following decades the North West Company established forts on the river, the precursors of present-day settlements such as Fort Simpson (formerly Fort of the Forks). A lucrative fur trade was carried out, as the Mackenzie basin teemed with beaver and muskrat. However, the short summer and harsh winter conditions limited trappers' activities. During the late 19th century Fort Simpson was regional headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company. The first fur trappers were native, but starting in the 1920s increasing numbers of European trappers entered the region. Beaver and muskrat populations were heavily depleted, especially in areas around and south of Great Slave Lake.
Catholic missionary Henri Grollier founded missions at Fort Simpson, Fort Norman and Fort Good Hope between 1858–59.
During the late 19th century and early 20th century epidemics of introduced European diseases swept through indigenous communities along the river, and thousands of native people lost their lives. One particularly severe influenza in 1928 killed as many as one in ten native people along the Mackenzie River. Fort Providence lost 20 percent of its population, and some smaller villages and camps were completely wiped out.
Steamboat service on the Mackenzie River began in the 1880s, and the number of vessels surged in the early 1900s as the Klondike Gold Rush brought a wave of prospectors to the Yukon. The Mackenzie River was one of the main routes into the northern interior, with sternwheelers transporting passengers, domestic supplies and industrial goods from as far upstream as the Athabasca River all the way to the delta, though with several areas such as the huge rapids on the Slave River requiring portages. The route taken by gold seekers started in Edmonton and followed the Athabasca, Slave and Mackenzie Rivers as far as the Peel River, then up the Peel and its tributary the Rat River to the headwaters of the Porcupine River, which flows to the Yukon River. Many who attempted the journey died along the way or turned back before reaching the Yukon.
Oil was discovered at Norman Wells in the 1920s, beginning a period of industrialization in the Mackenzie valley. Oil was initially shipped out by steamboats, supplying mines and towns across the NWT. This demand grew when gold was discovered on the northern shore of Great Slave Lake, leading to the settlement of Yellowknife and the opening of several mines in the area. By the 1940s steamboats had been replaced by modern gas and diesel-powered craft, which continue to serve the river today. During World War II oil pumped in Norman Wells was shipped to Fairbanks, Alaska via the Canol pipeline. The pipeline was considered a "fiasco", going five times over budget and losing as much as 20 percent of the oil due to poor construction. It only operated for thirteen months, shutting down in 1945. Much abandoned equipment remains along the corridor today; part of the pipeline route has been designated the Canol Heritage Trail. In 1964 the Mackenzie Northern Railway (now a subsidiary of CN) reached the shore of Great Slave Lake, to serve the new Pine Point zinc mine near Hay River. Although the mine shut down in 1988, the railroad remains an important transportation link between the Mackenzie River waterway and the rest of Canada.
In the 1950s the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers proposed the North American Water and Power Alliance (NAWAPA), a vast series of dams, tunnels and reservoirs designed to move of water from northern Canada to southern Canada, the western United States and Mexico. The system would involve building massive dams on the Liard, Mackenzie, Peace, Columbia, and Fraser river systems and pumping water into a long reservoir in the Rocky Mountain Trench. The water would then flow by gravity to irrigate more than in the three countries and generate more than 50,000 MW of surplus energy. The projects were never built due to the massive cost and environmental impact.
The Royal Canadian Mint honoured the 200th anniversary of the naming of the Mackenzie River with the issue of a silver commemorative dollar in 1989.
In 1997, a cultural landscape along the section of the Mackenzie River at Tsiigehtchic was designated the Nagwichoonjik (Mackenzie River) National Historic Site of Canada due to its cultural, social and spiritual significance to the Gwichya Gwich'in.
In 2008, Canadian and Japanese researchers extracted a constant stream of natural gas from a test project at the Mallik methane hydrate field in the Mackenzie Delta. This was the second such drilling at Mallik: the first took place in 2002 and used heat to release methane. In the 2008 experiment, researchers were able to extract gas by lowering the pressure, without heating, requiring significantly less energy. The Mallik gas hydrate field was first discovered by Imperial Oil in 1971–1972.
Human use
As of 2001, approximately 400,000 people lived in the Mackenzie River basin – representing only one percent of Canada's population. Ninety percent of the population lived in the Peace and Athabasca River basins, mostly in Alberta. The cold northern permafrost regions beyond the Arctic Circle are very sparsely populated, mainly by indigenous peoples. Most of the Mackenzie watershed is unbroken wilderness and human activities have little influence on the overall water quality, although there are some localized impacts.
Natural resources
Some parts of the Mackenzie basin are rich in natural resources – oil and gas in the Northwest Territories and in central Alberta, lumber in the Peace River headwaters, uranium in Saskatchewan, gold and zinc in the Great Slave Lake area and tungsten in the Yukon. As of 2003 there were two operational gold mines in Yellowknife, and many more abandoned mines dot the region. Communities along the Mackenzie River depend on subsistence fishing, although there is also some commercial fishing on the river.
Agriculture in the Mackenzie River basin is mainly concentrated in the Peace and Athabasca valleys to the south. The valley of the former river is considered to be some of the best northern farmland in Canada, due to the high concentration of minerals found in the soil. These conditions are expected to be improved even more by trends in climate change, such as warmer temperatures and a longer growing season. According to the British Columbia Environmental Network, "there is enough agricultural capability in the Peace River Valley to provide vegetables to all of northern Canada".
The only functioning oil pipeline in the Mackenzie basin connects Norman Wells with Zama City, Alberta. Norman Wells was the main oil-producing area on the Mackenzie River until the 1970s, when new oil fields were discovered further north in the Mackenzie delta and the surrounding coastline. As of 2016, there were an estimated 166 billion barrels of oil reserves in this region. There is a proposal for a Mackenzie Valley Pipeline, which has not been built due to environmental concerns and falling oil and gas prices.
Transportation
During the ice-free season, the Mackenzie is a major transportation link through the vast wilderness of northern Canada, linking the many isolated communities along its course. Wide, calm sections of the river are frequently used to land seaplanes in the ice-free season. Canada's northernmost major railhead is located at the town of Hay River, on the south shore of Great Slave Lake. Goods shipped there by train and truck are loaded onto barges of the Inuit-owned Northern Transportation Company. In 2016, Northern Transportation Company went bankrupt, and its assets were bought by the government of Northwest Territories.
Barge traffic travels the entire length of the Mackenzie in long "trains" of up to fifteen shallow-draft vessels pulled by tugboats. Goods are shipped as far as the port of Tuktoyaktuk on the eastern end of the Mackenzie Delta, where they are transferred to oceangoing vessels and delivered to communities along Canada's Arctic coast and the numerous islands to the north. In winter, the frozen channel of the Mackenzie River, especially in the delta region, is used as an ice road, firm enough to support large trucks, although travel between northern communities is mostly by dog sleds and snowmobiles.
Although the Mackenzie River is wide and deep, navigation is "notoriously difficult" due to the locations of sandbars and shallows changing from year to year. In some narrower parts of the river, barges must be uncoupled and towed one by one through hazardous stretches, despite attempts to widen and deepening the channel by blasting.
Hydroelectricity
Although there are no dams along the main stem of the Mackenzie, many of its tributaries and headwaters have been developed for hydroelectricity production, flood control and irrigation. The W.A.C. Bennett and Peace Canyon hydroelectric dams on the upper Peace River were completed in 1968 and 1980 by BC Hydro. They have a combined capacity of more than 3,600 megawatts (MW). The reservoir of W.A.C. Bennett, Williston Lake, is the largest body of fresh water in BC and the ninth largest man-made lake in the world, with a volume of . Other smaller hydroelectric plants are located along the Snare and Taltson River tributaries, providing power to mines in the Great Slave Lake region.
By acting as a massive stabilizer on the water flow of the Peace River, Williston Lake reduces flood crests on the Peace, Slave and Mackenzie rivers as far downstream as Fort Good Hope. This has made the Peace Valley more suitable for farming, but has had significant impacts on downstream wildlife and riparian communities. The more stable annual flow slows down the spread of essential nutrients which builds up in the form of sediments, thus causing the river to become more polluted.
There have been many proposals to dam the tributaries of the Mackenzie River which would lead to further impacts on water quality and seasonal flow patterns. A potential US$1 billion, 1350 MW hydro plant on the Slave River was canceled in 2010 after an agreement could not be reached with First Nations people in the area to be flooded by the reservoir. The Site C Dam on the Peace River, which would generate enough power for about 460,000 households, has been controversial since the 1970s. As of April 2019, despite multiple legal challenges by First Nations and environmental groups the dam was under construction, with a completion date scheduled for 2024.
Tributaries
Largest
Full list
See also
List of rivers of Canada
List of rivers of the Northwest Territories
Peace River Country
Steamboats of the Mackenzie River
Peel Watershed
Works cited
References
External links
Information and a map of the Mackenzie's watershed
Canadian Council for Geographic Education page with a series of articles on the history of the Mackenzie River.
Atlas of Canada's page devoted to Arctic rivers of Canada.
MAGS: Daily Discharge Measurements.
Rivers of the Northwest Territories
Physiographic provinces
Physiographic sections
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249854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampex | Ampex | Ampex is an American electronics company founded in 1944 by Alexander M. Poniatoff as a spin-off of Dalmo-Victor. The name AMPEX is a portmanteau, created by its founder, which stands for Alexander M. Poniatoff Excellence. Today, Ampex operates as Ampex Data Systems Corporation, a subsidiary of Delta Information Systems, and consists of two business units. The Silicon Valley unit, known internally as Ampex Data Systems (ADS), manufactures digital data storage systems capable of functioning in harsh environments. The Colorado Springs, Colorado unit, referred to as Ampex Intelligent Systems (AIS), serves as a laboratory and hub for the company's line of industrial control systems, cyber security products and services and its artificial intelligence/machine learning technology.
Ampex's first great success was a line of reel-to-reel tape recorders developed from the German wartime Magnetophon system at the behest of Bing Crosby. Ampex quickly became a leader in audio tape technology, developing many of the analog recording formats for both music and movies that remained in use into the 1990s. Starting in the 1950s, the company began developing video tape recorders, and later introduced the helical scan concept that make home video players possible. They also introduced multi-track recording, slow-motion and instant playback television, and a host of other advances. Ampex's tape business was rendered obsolete during the 1990s, and the company turned to digital storage products.
Ampex moved into digital storage for DoD Flight Test Instrumentation (FTI) with the introduction of the first, true all digital flight test recorder. Ampex supports numerous major DoD programs with the US Air Force, US Army, US Marines, US Navy and other government entities (NASA, DHS and national labs). Ampex also works with all major DoD primes and integrators including Boeing, General Atomics, Lockheed, Northrop, Raytheon and many others.
Currently, Ampex is attempting to do more with the data stored on its network attached storage (NAS) devices. This includes adding encryption for secure data storage; algorithms focused on control system cyber security for infrastructure and aerospace platforms; and artificial intelligence/machine learning for automated entity identification and data analytics.
Origin
Russian-American inventor Alexander Matthew Poniatoff established the company in San Carlos, California, in 1944 as the Ampex Electric and Manufacturing Company. The company name came from his initials plus "ex" to avoid using the name AMP already in use (by Aircraft and Marine Products). During World War II, Ampex was a subcontractor to Dalmo-Victor, manufacturing high quality electric motors and generators for radars that used alnico 5 magnets from General Electric. Ampex was initially set up in an abandoned loft-space above the Dalmo-Victor plant; eventually they would have offices at 1313 Laurel Street, San Carlos, California (at the intersection of Howard Avenue and Laurel Street).
Near the end of the war, while serving in the U.S. Army Signal Corps, Major Jack Mullin was assigned to investigate German radio and electronics experiments. He discovered the Magnetophons with AC biasing on a trip to Radio Frankfurt. The device produced much better fidelity than shellac records. The technological processes in tape recording and equipment developed by German companies before and during the 1939-45 War had copyrights which were effectively voided after Germany's 1945 surrender and defeat. Mullin acquired two Magnetophon recorders and 50 reels of BASF Type L tape, and brought them to America, where he produced modified versions. He demonstrated them to the Institute of Radio Engineers in San Francisco on May 16, 1946.
Bing Crosby, a big star on radio at the time, was receptive to the idea of pre-recording his radio programs. He disliked the regimentation of live broadcasts, and much preferred the relaxed atmosphere of the recording studio. He had already asked the NBC network to let him pre-record his 1944–45 series on transcription discs, but the network refused; so Crosby had withdrawn from live radio for a year and returned (this time to the recently created ABC) for the 1946–47 season, only reluctantly.
In June 1947, Mullin, who was pitching the technology to the major Hollywood movie studios, got the chance to demonstrate his modified tape recorders to Crosby. When Crosby heard a demonstration of Mullin's tape recorders, he immediately saw the potential of the new technology and commissioned Mullin to prepare a test recording of his radio show. Ampex was finishing its prototype of the Model 200 tape recorder, and Mullin used the first two models as soon as they were built. After a successful test broadcast, ABC agreed to allow Crosby to pre-record his shows on tape. Crosby immediately appointed Mullin as his chief engineer and placed an order for $50,000 worth of the new recorders so that Ampex (then a small six-man concern) could develop a commercial production model from the prototypes.
Crosby Enterprises was Ampex's West Coast representative until 1957.
Early tape recorders
The company's first tape recorder, the Ampex Model 200, was first shipped in April 1948. The first two units, serial numbers 1 and 2, were used to record Bing Crosby's show. The American Broadcasting Company used these recorders along with 3M Scotch 111 gamma ferric oxide coated acetate tape for the first-ever U.S. delayed radio broadcast of Bing Crosby's Philco Radio Time. Ampex tape recorders revolutionized the radio and recording industries because of their superior audio quality and ease of operation over audio disk cutting lathes.
During the early 1950s, Ampex began marketing one- and two-track machines using tape. The line soon expanded into three- and four-track models using tape. In the early 1950s, Ampex moved to Redwood City, California. Ampex acquired Orradio Industries in 1959, which became the Ampex Magnetic Tape Division, headquartered in Opelika, Alabama. This made Ampex a manufacturer of both recorders and tape. By the end of that decade Ampex products were much in demand by top recording studios worldwide.
In 1952, movie producer Mike Todd asked Ampex to develop a high fidelity movie sound system using sound magnetically recorded on the film itself, as contrasted with the technology of the time, which used magnetic tracks on a separate celluloid base film (later commonly known as mag stock). The result of this development was the CinemaScope/Todd-AO motion picture sound system, which was first used in movies such as The Robe (1953) in 35mm and Oklahoma (1955) in 70mm (and also in 35mm). In 1960, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded Ampex an Oscar for technical achievement as a result of this development.
Les Paul, a friend of Crosby and a regular guest on his shows, had already been experimenting with overdubbed recordings on disc. He received an early portable Ampex Model 200A from Crosby. Using this machine, Les Paul invented "Sound on Sound" recording technology. He placed an additional playback head, located before the conventional erase/record/playback heads. This allowed Paul to play along with a previously recorded track, both of which were mixed together on to a new track. This was a destructive process because the original recording was recorded over.
Professional 8-track recorders
Ampex built a handful of multitrack machines during the late 1950s that could record as many as eight tracks on tape. The project was overseen by Ross Snyder, Ampex manager of special products. To make the multitrack recorder work, Snyder invented the Sel-Sync process, which used some tracks on the head for playback and other tracks on the head for recording. This made the newly recorded material be in sync with the existing recorded tracks. The first of these machines cost $10,000 and was installed in Les Paul's home recording studio by David Sarser.
In 1967, Ampex responded to demand by stepping up production of their 8-track machines with the production model MM 1000. Like earlier 8-track machines of this era, it used 1 inch tape.
16 and 24-track recorders
In 1966, Ampex built their first 16-track recorder, the model AG-1000, at the request of Mirasound Studios in New York City. In 1967, Ampex introduced a 16-track version of the MM 1000 which was the world's first 16-track professional tape recorder put into mass-production. Both used a tape transport design adapted from the video recording division. The 16-track MM-1000 quickly became legendary for its tremendous flexibility, reliability and outstanding sound quality. This brought about the "golden age" of large format analog multitrack recorders which would last into the mid-1990s. MCI built the first 24-track recorder (using 2 inch tape) in 1968 which was installed at TTG Studios in Los Angeles. Later machines built by Ampex starting in 1969 would have as many as 24 tracks on 2 inch tape. In addition to this, the introduction of SMPTE time code allowed studios to run multiple machines in perfect synchronization, making the number of available tracks virtually unlimited.
By the 1970s, Ampex faced tough competition from the Swiss company Studer and Japanese manufacturers such as Otari and Sony (who also purchased the MCI brand in 1982). In 1979, Ampex introduced their most advanced 24-track recorder, the model ATR-124. The ATR-124 was ruggedly constructed and had audio specifications that nearly rivaled the first digital recording machines. However, sales of the ATR-124 were slow due to the machine's high price tag. Ampex sold only about 50 or 60 ATR-124 machines, and withdrew from the professional audio tape recorder market entirely in 1983.
The 1990s
By the 1990s, Ampex focused more on video recorders, instrumentation recorders, and data recorders. In 1991, Ampex sold their professional audio recorder line to Sprague Magnetics. The Ampex Recording Media Corporation spun off in 1995 as Quantegy Inc.; that company has ceased producing recording tape.
Video technology
Video Processing
While AMPEX are well recognised for their contribution to magnetic tape recording, they also had a huge impact on developments the whole video signal chain.
They did rebadge some specialist low-volume OEM products to complete the package, but their in-house teams developed industry leading products in the following categories...
Digital Optics
ADO - Ampex Digital Optics provided comprehensive frame manipulation in 2 and 3 dimensions. Adjusting the aspect, size, and rotation of the image was performed continuously in real-time. An optional digital ‘combiner’ was available to perform the foreground layering and priority switching - to reduce the burden on the vision mixer with multi-channel effects.
Video Switching & Effects
AVC - The AVC range of vision mixers ranged from small, single buss devices up to the high-end Century Series, with multiple Mix/Effect busses, infinite re-entry and powerful keying and control software.
Editing controllers
The product line evolved quickly from manual editing on the actual VTRs themselves to incorporate SMPTE timecode providing advanced timeline control.
The RA-4000 and EDM-1 were fully functional early products, but soon evolved to the extremely powerful ACE family to compete with CMX and other edit controller brands .
Quadruplex Two-Inch tape
Starting in the early 1950s, RCA, Bing Crosby and others tried to record analog video on very fast-moving magnetic tape. As early as 1952, Ampex developed prototype video tape recorders that used a spinning head and relatively slow-moving tape. In early 1956, a team produced the first videotape recorder. A young, 19-year-old engineer Ray Dolby was also part of the team. Ampex demonstrated the VR-1000, which was the first of Ampex's line of 2 inch Quadruplex videotape recorders on April 14, 1956, at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters in Chicago. The first magnetically recorded time-delayed television network program using the new Ampex Quadruplex recording system was CBS's Douglas Edwards and the News on November 30, 1956.
The "Quad" head assembly rotates at 14,400 rpm (NTSC). The four head pieces (quad) are switched successively so that recorded stripes cross the video portion (most of the tape middle, audio is on one edge, control track is on the other) so that head to tape write speed is well in excess of the physical motion. They wrote the video vertically across the width of a tape that was wide and ran at per second. This allowed hour-long television programs to be recorded on one reel of tape. In 1956, one reel of tape cost $300; and Ampex advertised the cost of the recorder as $45,000. A version was released later, and this required a new, narrower headwheel. This vertical writing facilitated mechanical editing, once the control track was developed to display the pulse that indicates where a frame ends and the next one begins. Later, Ampex developed electronic editing.
The National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences awarded Ampex its first Emmy in 1957 for this development. Ampex received a total of 12 Emmys for its technical video achievements.
In 1959, Richard Nixon, then Vice President, and Nikita Khrushchev held discussions at the Moscow Trade Fair, which became known as the "Kitchen Debate" because they were mostly held in the kitchen of a suburban model house. These discussions were recorded on an Ampex color videotape recorder, and during the debate Nixon pointed this out as one of the many American technological advances.
In 1967, Ampex introduced the Ampex VR-3000 portable broadcast video recorder, which revolutionized the recording of broadcast quality television in the field without the need for long cables and large support vehicles. Broadcast quality images could now be shot anywhere, including from airplanes, helicopters and boats.
The Quadruplex format dominated the broadcast industry for a quarter of a century. The format was licensed to RCA for use in their "television tape recorders." Ampex's invention revolutionized the television production industry by eliminating the kinescope process of time-shifting television programs, which required the use of motion picture film. For archival purposes, the kinescope method continued to be used for some years; film was still preferred by archivists. The Ampex broadcast video tape recorder facilitated time-zone broadcast delay so that networks could air programming at the same hour in various time zones. Ampex had trademarked the name "video tape", so competitor RCA called the medium "TV tape" or "television tape". The terms eventually became genericized, and "videotape" is commonly used today.
While the quadruplex recording system per se is no longer in use, the principle evolved into the helical scanning technique used in virtually all video tape machines, such as those using the consumer formats of VHS, Sony Betamax and Video 2000. Sony Betacam was successful as a professional format, but operated with a different recording system and faster tape speed than Betamax.
One of the key engineers in the development of the Quadruplex video recorder for Ampex was Ray Dolby, who worked under Charlie Ginsburg and went on to form Dolby Laboratories, a pioneer in audio noise reduction systems. Dolby's contribution to the videotape system was limited to the mathematics behind the reactance tube FM modulator, as videotape then used FM modulation for the video portion. Another contributor designed the FM modulator itself. Dolby left Ampex to seek a PhD in physics in England, which is where Dolby Labs was later founded, before moving back to San Francisco. Dolby's brother Dale was also an engineer at Ampex.
VR-5000 and VR-8000
In 1961, Ampex introduced the first One-Inch helical scan video recorders, the Ampex 2 inch helical VTRs, which recorded video using helical scan recording technology on tape.
Ampex 2 inch helical VTR
Ampex 2 inch helical VTRs were manufactured from 1963 to 1970. Model VR-1500 for home. The VR-660 for Broadcast television systems, industrial companies, educational institutions, and a few for In-flight entertainment. The VR-1500 and VR-660 found service at educational institutions especially due to their relatively low cost vs. quadruplex VTRs. These machines were simple to operate, reliable, small in size and produced, for their time, very good video without the complexity of the larger and much more complex 2" Quad machines.
HS-100 & HS-200 "slo-mo" disc recorder
In March 1967, Ampex introduced the HS-100 video disc recorder. The system was developed by Ampex at the request of the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) for a variety of sports broadcast uses. It was first demonstrated on the air on March 18, 1967, when ABC's Wide World of Sports televised the "World Series of Skiing" from Vail, Colorado. The video was recorded on analog magnetic disc. The disc weighed and rotated at 60rps, 3600rpm (50rps in PAL). One NTSC unit could record 30 seconds of video, PAL units 36 seconds. The video could then be played back in slow motion, stop action to freeze frame.
A more deluxe version, the HS-200, was introduced in April 1968, and provided a large control console with variable speed playback. This made it ideal for instant replay for sports events and precise timing control in post production service. CBS-TV was the first to use the technique during live sportscasts, though it was quickly adopted by all American TV networks. The HS-200, which was an HS-100 connected to a control console when combined called the HS-200, had greater precise frame and timing control capability, lending itself to post-production applications like special effects and titles. The HS-200 had a frame accurate timing computer that enabled frame-accurate cuts and dissolve transitions by way of a two-input video switcher. Slow-motion sequences could likewise be programmed and could be "triggered" to begin via an external control pulse such as might come from an external VTR editor like the Ampex VR-2000 VTR with Editec. The HS-200 was the first system capable of single-frame video animation recording, using magnetic discs as opposed to videotape. The HS-200 also provided a readout with specific frame numbers showing from the 900 frames available (NTSC version.) Sequences could be triggered to start from any of these 900 frames with frame-accurate repeatability for creative fine tuning of sequence start and end points.
Type A
1 inch type A videotape (designated Type A by the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, SMPTE) was an open-reel helical scan videotape format developed by Ampex in 1965, one of the first standardized open-reel videotape formats in the width; most others of that size at that time were proprietary.
Type C
1 inch type C videotape (designated Type C by SMPTE) was a professional open-reel videotape format co-developed and introduced by Ampex and Sony in 1976. It became the replacement in the professional video and television broadcast industries for the then-incumbent Quadruplex.
D2
D2 is a digital video tape format created by Ampex and other manufacturers (through a standards group of SMPTE) and introduced at the 1988 NAB (National Association of Broadcasters) convention as a lower-cost alternative to the D-1 format. Like D-1, D-2 video is uncompressed; however, it saves bandwidth and other costs by sampling a fully encoded NTSC or PAL composite video signal, and storing it directly to magnetic tape, rather than sampling component video. This is known as digital composite.
DCT & DST
Digital Component Technology (DCT) and Data Storage Technology (DST) are VTR and data storage devices respectively, created by Ampex in 1992. Both were similar to the D1 and D2 VTR formats, using a width, with the DCT format using DCT (discrete cosine transform) video compression, also its namesake.
The DCT and DST formats yielded relatively high capacity and speed for data and video. Double-density DST data storage was introduced in 1996. The final generation of these products were quad density, introduced in 2000, resulting in a large cartridge holding 660GB of data.
Milestones
In 1948, the first tape-delayed U.S. radio program was broadcast by using an Ampex Model 200 tape recorder.
In May 1949 Model 300 introduced improvements in audio head, tape drive and tape path.
In 1950, Model 400 introduced lower cost professional quality audio recorder, soon to be replaced by the Model 400A, which was the logical precursor of the Model 350.
In 1950, Ampex introduced the first "dedicated" instrumentation recorder, Model 500, built for the U.S. Navy.
In April 1953 Model 350 introduced audio recorder to replace the Model 400/Model 400A. The Model 350 had more simplicity and durability. Ampex released the 35mm four-track CinemaScope stereo reproduction system.
In May 1954 Model 600 introduced mastering quality audio portable recorder. Models 3200-3300 high-speed duplicators also introduced.
In 1954, in a recording studio equipped with an Ampex reel-to-reel audio tape recording machine, an unknown truck driver named Elvis Presley recorded his historic first single, "That's All Right" at Sun Studios in Memphis. Also that year, Ampex introduced the first multi-track audio recorder derived from multi-track data recording technology.
In 1955, Ampex released the 70mm/35mm six-track/four-track Todd-AO system, and an improved 35mm four-track system.
On March 14, 1956, The Ampex VRX-1000 (later renamed the Mark IV) videotape recorder is introduced at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters in Chicago. This is the first practical videotape recorder and is hailed as a major technological breakthrough. CBS goes on air with the first videotape delayed broadcast, Douglas Edwards and The News, on November 30, 1956, from Los Angeles, California, using the Ampex Mark IV.
In March 1957, Ampex won an Emmy award for the invention of the Video Tape Recorder (VTR).
In 1958, NASA selected Ampex data recorders and magnetic tape. It has been used for virtually all U.S. space missions since.
In 1959, the Nixon-Khrushchev Kitchen Debate was recorded on Ampex videotape. The fact that the debate was being videotaped was mentioned by Nixon as an example of American technological development.
In 1960, The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented Ampex with an Oscar for technical achievement.
January 1961 Helical scan recording was invented by Ampex. The technology behind the worldwide consumer video revolution; it is used in all home Video Tape Recorders today.
In 1963, Ampex technology was used to show replays of the live assassination of Lee Harvey Oswald.
In 1963, Ampex introduced EDITEC, electronic video editing, allowing broadcast television editors frame-by-frame recording control, simplifying tape editing and the ability to make animation effects possible. This was the basis for all subsequent editing systems.
On December 7, 1963 – Instant Replay is used for the first time during the live transmission of the Army Navy Game by its inventor, director, Tony Verna.
In April 1964, Ampex introduced the VR-2000 high band videotape recorder, the first ever to be capable of color fidelity required for high quality color broadcasting.
February 1965 introduced VR-303\VR-7000 closed-circuit video tape recorder.
May 1965 introduced AG-350 first all-transistorized audio recorder.
July 1965 introduced VR-660B VTR advanced version of VR-660; replaces VR-660/1500.
November 1965 introduced VR-7000 compact portable closed circuit video tape recorder.
During 1966–1967, Ampex FR-900 data drives were used to record the first images of the Earth from the Moon, as part of the Lunar Orbiter program. Two drives were refurbished to recover the images as part of the Lunar Orbiter Image Recovery Project (LOIRP).
In 1967, ABC used the Ampex HS-100 disk recorder for slow-motion playback of downhill skiing on the program World Series of Skiing in Vail, Colorado. This was the first use of slow-motion instant replay in sporting events.
In 1968, the introduction of the Ampex VR-3000 revolutionizes video recording: the first truly portable VTR. It is used at the '68 Summer Olympics in Mexico City to follow the world's cross-country runners for the first time in Broadcast history.
In 1969, Ampex introduced Videofile, still in use today at Scotland Yard for the electronic storage and retrieval of fingerprints.
In 1972, Ampex introduced the ACR-25, the first automated robotic library system for the recording and playback of television commercials. Each commercial was recorded on an individual cartridge. These cartridges were then loaded into a large rotating carousel. Using sophisticated mechanics and vacuum pneumatics, the "carts" were loaded into and extracted from the machine with an 8-second cycle time for spots under 61 seconds. This freed TV stations from loading individual machines with spots in real time, or preparing spot reels in advance of a broadcast. The TV newsroom also began to use the ACR-25 to run news stories because of its random access capability. The ACR-25 used AVR-1 signal, servo, and timebase systems, and a machine-programming control bay designed by Ampex engineer E. Stanley Busby. Both machines had a lockup time of 200 milliseconds, as distinct from the industry standard 5 second pre-roll. This was accomplished with optical-vacuum reel servos providing the vacuum capstan negligible inertial mass to control, and predictive digital servos that could re-frame vertically at horizontal rate, as well as timebase correction with a window exceeding 64 microseconds (compared to the VR-2000's window of less than 5 microseconds).
Also in 1970, Ampex started its own record label, Ampex Records. Its biggest hit was "We Gotta Get You A Woman" by Todd Rundgren (as "Runt"), reaching #20 on the charts in 1970.
In 1978, the Ampex Video Art (AVA) video graphics system is used by artist LeRoy Neiman on air during Super Bowl XII. AVA, the first video paint system, allows the graphic artist, using an electronic pen, to illustrate in a new medium, video. This innovation paved the way for today's high quality electronic graphics, such as those used in video games.
In 1983, Ampex introduced the DCRS digital cassette recorder, offering compact cassette storage with the equivalent of 16 digital or 8 DDR instrumentation reels on one cassette. Also, Partial Response Maximum Likelihood (PRML) data decoding technology has its first use in Ampex's DCRsi recorders. This technology is now commonly used in high performance computer disk drives and other high density magnetic data storage devices.
In 1982, Ampex introduced DST (high-performance computer mass storage products able to store half the Library of Congress in of floor space) and DCT, the first digital component post production system using image compression technology to produce high quality images.
In 1985, Ampex introduced the DIS 120i and DIS 160i dual port, data/instrumentation recorders. These made it possible for the first time to capture real time instrumentation data and then utilize the same recorder to process the data in a computer environment through its second port using SCSI-2 protocol.
In 2005, Ampex received its 12th Emmy award for its invention of slow-motion color recording and playback. Also honored with Lifetime Achievement Awards were the members of the engineering team that created the videotape recorder when they worked for Ampex: Charles Andersen, Ray Dolby, Shelby Henderson, Fred Pfost, and the late Charles Ginsburg and Alex Maxey.
Sticky-shed syndrome
Some master tapes and other recordings predominantly from the 1970s and 1980s have degraded due to the so-called sticky-shed syndrome. When sticky-shed syndrome occurs, the binding agent deteriorates, resulting in the magnetic coating coming off the base and either sticking to the backing of the tape layer wound on top of it (resulting in dropout), or being scraped off and deposited on the tape heads while lifting the head off the tape, degrading the treble.
The problem has been reported on a number of makes of tape (usually back-coated tapes), including Ampex tapes.
Ampex filed for a baking process ("A typical temperature used is and a typical time is 16 hours") to attempt to recover such tapes, allowing them to be played once more and the recordings transferred to new media. The problems have been reported on tapes of type 406/407, 456/457, 2020/373.
Branding
In 1959, Ampex acquired Orradio Industries and it became the Ampex Magnetic Tape Division.
In 1995, Ampex divested this division, then called the Ampex Recording Media Corporation. This became Quantegy, Inc., which later changed its name to the current Quantegy Recording Solutions.
In January 2005, having previously filed for bankruptcy protection, Quantegy closed its manufacturing facility in Opelika.
In October 2014, Ampex Data Systems Corporation was sold to Delta Information Systems, but retains the rights to the Ampex name.
In 2017, Ampex established a second business unit, Ampex Intelligent Systems (AIS), in Colorado Springs Colorado, and branded its Silicon Valley business unit Ampex Data Systems (ADS).
Record labels
Ampex Records started in 1970. Its biggest hit was "We Gotta Get You A Woman" by Todd Rundgren (as "Runt"), reaching #20 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts in 1970. Ampex also originated three subsidiary labels: Bearsville, Big Tree, and Lizard. Ampex Records ceased around 1973 and Bearsville and Big Tree switched distribution to Warner Bros. Records and Bell Records, respectively with Lizard becoming an independent entity. Later on, Big Tree was picked up by Atlantic Records.
Legal history
In 2005, iNEXTV, a wholly owned subsidiary of respondent Ampex Corporation, brought a defamation lawsuit against a poster on an Internet message board who posted messages critical of them (Ampex Corp. v. Cargle (2005), Cal.App.4th ). The poster, a former employee, responded with an anti-SLAPP suit and eventually recovered his attorney fees. The case was unique in that it involved the legality of speech in an electronic public forum.
Current situation
After being sold to Delta Information Systems in 2014, two former subsidiaries of Ampex Corporation continue business as part of the Ampex legacy. Ampex Data Systems Corporation (ADSC) headquartered in Silicon Valley, and Ampex Japan Ltd. These are the only two Ampex businesses that still exist as more than "in name only" entities. ADSC has two business units. The Silicon Valley unit, Ampex Data Systems (ADS), continues the Ampex tradition in the storage industry by manufacturing ruggedized, high-capacity, high-performance digital data storage systems. The Colorado Springs, Colorado unit, Ampex Intelligent Systems (AIS), is the center for company's line of industrial control system cyber security products and services and its artificial intelligence/machine learning technology which is available in all of the products.
The Ampex video system is now obsolete, but many thousands of quadruplex videotape recordings remain. Machines that survive are used to transfer archival recordings to modern digital video formats.
Ampex Corporation supported the Ampex Museum of Magnetic Recording, started by Peter Hammar in 1982.
The contents of that museum were donated to Stanford in 2001. A project is now underway to curate Ampex artifacts in physical and digital form. This project will find a permanent home in Redwood City for the Ampex Museum and digital artifacts will be curated at AmpexMuseum.org This project is being funded by contributions from former Ampex employees.
Photo gallery
See also
Ampex Golden Reel Award
Erhard Kietz
References
Further reading
Ampex Corporation Records, ca. 1944–1999 (c.577 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries
FindLaw Ampex Corp v. Cargle (2005)
External links
Video storage
Companies based in Hayward, California
Electronics companies of the United States
Defunct record labels of the United States
Electronics companies established in 1944
American companies established in 1944
1944 establishments in California
Record labels established in 1970
Record labels disestablished in 1973
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2008
Video equipment manufacturers
2014 mergers and acquisitions | [
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249855 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treap | Treap | In computer science, the treap and the randomized binary search tree are two closely related forms of binary search tree data structures that maintain a dynamic set of ordered keys and allow binary searches among the keys. After any sequence of insertions and deletions of keys, the shape of the tree is a random variable with the same probability distribution as a random binary tree; in particular, with high probability its height is proportional to the logarithm of the number of keys, so that each search, insertion, or deletion operation takes logarithmic time to perform.
Description
The treap was first described by Raimund Seidel and Cecilia R. Aragon in 1989; its name is a portmanteau of tree and heap.
It is a Cartesian tree in which each key is given a (randomly chosen) numeric priority. As with any binary search tree, the inorder traversal order of the nodes is the same as the sorted order of the keys. The structure of the tree is determined by the requirement that it be heap-ordered: that is, the priority number for any non-leaf node must be greater than or equal to the priority of its children. Thus, as with Cartesian trees more generally, the root node is the maximum-priority node, and its left and right subtrees are formed in the same manner from the subsequences of the sorted order to the left and right of that node.
An equivalent way of describing the treap is that it could be formed by inserting the nodes highest-priority-first into a binary search tree without doing any rebalancing. Therefore, if the priorities are independent random numbers (from a distribution over a large enough space of possible priorities to ensure that two nodes are very unlikely to have the same priority) then the shape of a treap has the same probability distribution as the shape of a random binary search tree, a search tree formed by inserting the nodes without rebalancing in a randomly chosen insertion order. Because random binary search trees are known to have logarithmic height with high probability, the same is true for treaps. This mirrors the binary search tree argument that quicksort runs in expected time. If binary search trees are solutions to the dynamic problem version of sorting, then Treaps correspond specifically to dynamic quicksort where priorities guide pivot choices.
Aragon and Seidel also suggest assigning higher priorities to frequently accessed nodes, for instance by a process that, on each access, chooses a random number and replaces the priority of the node with that number if it is higher than the previous priority. This modification would cause the tree to lose its random shape; instead, frequently accessed nodes would be more likely to be near the root of the tree, causing searches for them to be faster.
Naor and Nissim describe an application in maintaining authorization certificates in public-key cryptosystems.
Operations
Basic operations
Treaps support the following basic operations:
To search for a given key value, apply a standard binary search algorithm in a binary search tree, ignoring the priorities.
To insert a new key x into the treap, generate a random priority y for x. Binary search for x in the tree, and create a new node at the leaf position where the binary search determines a node for x should exist. Then, as long as x is not the root of the tree and has a larger priority number than its parent z, perform a tree rotation that reverses the parent-child relation between x and z.
To delete a node x from the treap, if x is a leaf of the tree, simply remove it. If x has a single child z, remove x from the tree and make z be the child of the parent of x (or make z the root of the tree if x had no parent). Finally, if x has two children, swap its position in the tree with the position of its immediate successor z in the sorted order, resulting in one of the previous cases. In this final case, the swap may violate the heap-ordering property for z, so additional rotations may need to be performed to restore this property.
Building a treap
To build a treap we can simply insert n values in the treap where each takes time. Therefore a treap can be built in time from a list values.
Bulk operations
In addition to the single-element insert, delete and lookup operations, several fast "bulk" operations have been defined on treaps: union, intersection and set difference. These rely on two helper operations, split and join.
To split a treap into two smaller treaps, those smaller than key x, and those larger than key x, insert x into the treap with maximum priority—larger than the priority of any node in the treap. After this insertion, x will be the root node of the treap, all values less than x will be found in the left subtreap, and all values greater than x will be found in the right subtreap. This costs as much as a single insertion into the treap.
Joining two treaps that are the product of a former split, one can safely assume that the greatest value in the first treap is less than the smallest value in the second treap. Create a new node with value x, such that x is larger than this max-value in the first treap, and smaller than the min-value in the second treap, assign it the minimum priority, then set its left child to the first heap and its right child to the second heap. Rotate as necessary to fix the heap order. After that it will be a leaf node, and can easily be deleted. The result is one treap merged from the two original treaps. This is effectively "undoing" a split, and costs the same. More generally, the join operation can work on two treaps and a key with arbitrary priority (i.e., not necessary to be the highest).
The join algorithm is as follows:
function join(L, k, R)
if prior(k, k(L)) and prior(k, k(R)) return Node(L, k, R)
if prior(k(L), k(R)) return Node(left(L), k(L), join(right(L), k, R))
return Node(join(L, k, left(R)), k(R), right(R))
The split algorithm is as follows:
function split(T, k)
if (T = nil) return (nil, false, nil)
(L, (m, c), R) = expose(T)
if (k = m) return (L, true, R)
if (k < m)
(L', b, R') = split(L, k)
return (L', b, join(R', m, R))
if (k > m)
(L', b, R') = split(R, k)
return (join(L, m, L'), b, R))
The union of two treaps and , representing sets and is a treap that represents . The following recursive algorithm computes the union:
function union(t1, t2):
if t1 = nil:
return t2
if t2 = nil:
return t1
if priority(t1) < priority(t2):
swap t1 and t2
t<, t> ← split t2 on key(t1)
return join(union(left(t1), t<), key(t1),
union(right(t1), t>))
Here, split is presumed to return two trees: one holding the keys less than its input key, one holding the greater keys. (The algorithm is non-destructive, but an in-place destructive version exists as well.)
The algorithm for intersection is similar, but requires the join helper routine. The complexity of each of union, intersection and difference is for treaps of sizes and , with . Moreover, since the recursive calls to union are independent of each other, they can be executed in parallel.
Split and Union call Join but do not deal with the balancing criteria of treaps directly, such an implementation is usually called the "join-based" implementation.
Note that if hash values of keys are used as priorities and structurally equal nodes are merged already at construction, then each merged node will be a unique representation of a set of keys. Provided that there can only be one simultaneous root node representing a given set of keys, two sets can be tested for equality by pointer comparison, which is constant in time.
This technique can be used to enhance the merge algorithms to perform fast also when the difference between two sets is small. If input sets are equal, the union and intersection functions could break immediately returning one of the input sets as result, while the difference function should return the empty set.
Let be the size of the symmetric difference. The modified merge algorithms will then also be bounded by .
Randomized binary search tree
The randomized binary search tree, introduced by Martínez and Roura subsequently to the work of Aragon and Seidel on treaps, stores the same nodes with the same random distribution of tree shape, but maintains different information within the nodes of the tree in order to maintain its randomized structure.
Rather than storing random priorities on each node, the randomized binary search tree stores a small integer at each node, the number of its descendants (counting itself as one); these numbers may be maintained during tree rotation operations at only a constant additional amount of time per rotation. When a key x is to be inserted into a tree that already has n nodes, the insertion algorithm chooses with probability 1/(n + 1) to place x as the new root of the tree, and otherwise it calls the insertion procedure recursively to insert x within the left or right subtree (depending on whether its key is less than or greater than the root). The numbers of descendants are used by the algorithm to calculate the necessary probabilities for the random choices at each step. Placing x at the root of a subtree may be performed either as in the treap by inserting it at a leaf and then rotating it upwards, or by an alternative algorithm described by Martínez and Roura that splits the subtree into two pieces to be used as the left and right children of the new node.
The deletion procedure for a randomized binary search tree uses the same information per node as the insertion procedure, but unlike the insertion procedure it only needs on average O(1) random decisions to join the two subtrees descending from the left and right children of the deleted node into a single tree. That is because the subtrees to be joined are on average at depth Θ(log n); joining two trees of size n and m needs Θ(log(n+m)) random choices on average. If the left or right subtree of the node to be deleted is empty, the join operation is trivial; otherwise, the left or right child of the deleted node is selected as the new subtree root with probability proportional to its number of descendants, and the join proceeds recursively.
Comparison
The information stored per node in the randomized binary tree is simpler than in a treap (a small integer rather than a high-precision random number), but it makes a greater number of calls to the random number generator (O(log n) calls per insertion or deletion rather than one call per insertion) and the insertion procedure is slightly more complicated due to the need to update the numbers of descendants per node. A minor technical difference is that, in a treap, there is a small probability of a collision (two keys getting the same priority), and in both cases there will be statistical differences between a true random number generator and the pseudo-random number generator typically used on digital computers. However, in any case the differences between the theoretical model of perfect random choices used to design the algorithm and the capabilities of actual random number generators are vanishingly small.
Although the treap and the randomized binary search tree both have the same random distribution of tree shapes after each update, the history of modifications to the trees performed by these two data structures over a sequence of insertion and deletion operations may be different. For instance, in a treap, if the three numbers 1, 2, and 3 are inserted in the order 1, 3, 2, and then the number 2 is deleted, the remaining two nodes will have the same parent-child relationship that they did prior to the insertion of the middle number. In a randomized binary search tree, the tree after the deletion is equally likely to be either of the two possible trees on its two nodes, independently of what the tree looked like prior to the insertion of the middle number.
Implicit treap
An implicit treap is a simple variation of an ordinary treap which can be viewed as a dynamic array that supports the following operations in :
Inserting an element in any position
Removing an element from any position
Finding sum, minimum or maximum element in a given range.
Addition, painting in a given range
Reversing elements in a given range
The idea behind an implicit treap is to store the indices of the array elements in the treap. The actual values of elements will not be explicitly stored in the treap otherwise an update (insertion/deletion) would result changes of the key in nodes of the tree and this is very slow.
The key value (implicit key) of a node T is the number of nodes less than that node plus one. Note that such nodes can be present not only in its left subtree but also in left subtrees of its ancestors P, if T is in the right subtree of P.
Therefore we can quickly calculate the implicit key of the current node as we perform an operation by accumulating the sum of all nodes as we descend the tree. Note that this sum does not change when we visit the left subtree but it will increase by when we visit the right subtree.
The join algorithm for an implicit treap is as follows:void join (pitem & t, pitem l, pitem r) {
if (!l || !r)
t = l ? l : r;
else if (l->prior > r->prior)
join (l->r, l->r, r), t = l;
else
join (r->l, l, r->l), t = r;
upd_cnt (t);
}
The split algorithm for an implicit treap is as follows:void split (pitem t, pitem & l, pitem & r, int key, int add = 0) {
if (!t)
return void( l = r = 0 );
int cur_key = add + cnt(t->l); //implicit key
if (key <= cur_key)
split (t->l, l, t->l, key, add), r = t;
else
split (t->r, t->r, r, key, add + 1 + cnt(t->l)), l = t;
upd_cnt (t);
}
Operations
Insert element
To insert an element at position pos we divide the array into two subsections [0...pos-1] and [pos..sz] by calling the split function and we get two trees and . Then we merge with the new node by calling the join function. Finally we call the join function to merge and .
Delete element
We find the element to be deleted and perform a join on its children L and R. We then replace the element to be deleted with the tree that resulted from the join operation.
Find sum, minimum or maximum in a given range
To perform this calculation we will proceed as follows:
First we will create an additional field F to store the value of the target function for the range represented by that node. we will a create a function which calculates the value F based on the values of the L and R children of the node. We will call this target function at then end of all functions that modify the tree, i.e., split and join.
Second we need to process a query for a given range [A..B]: We will call the split function twice and split the treap into which contains , which contains , and which contains . After the query is answered we will call the join function twice to restore the original treap.
Addition/painting in a given range
To perform this operation we will proceed as follows:
We will create an extra field D which will contain the added value for the subtree. We will create a function push which will be used to propagate this change from a node to its children. We will call this function at the beginning of all functions which modify the tree, i.e., split and join so that after any changes made to the tree the information will not be lost.
Reverse in a given range
To show that the subtree of a given node needs to be reversed for each node we will create an extra boolean field R and set its value to true. To propagate this change we will swap the children of the node and set R to true for all of them.
See also
Finger search
References
External links
Collection of treap references and info by Cecilia Aragon
Open Data Structures - Section 7.2 - Treap: A Randomized Binary Search Tree, Pat Morin
Animated treap
Randomized binary search trees. Lecture notes from a course by Jeff Erickson at UIUC. Despite the title, this is primarily about treaps and skip lists; randomized binary search trees are mentioned only briefly.
A high performance key-value store based on treap by Junyi Sun
VB6 implementation of treaps. Visual basic 6 implementation of treaps as a COM object.
ActionScript3 implementation of a treap
Pure Python and Cython in-memory treap and duptreap
Treaps in C#. By Roy Clemmons
Pure Go in-memory, immutable treaps
Pure Go persistent treap key-value storage library
Heaps (data structures)
Binary trees
Probabilistic data structures
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249858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tying%20%28commerce%29 | Tying (commerce) | Tying (informally, product tying) is the practice of selling one product or service as a mandatory addition to the purchase of a different product or service. In legal terms, a tying sale makes the sale of one good (the tying good) to the de facto customer (or de jure customer) conditional on the purchase of a second distinctive good (the tied good). Tying is often illegal when the products are not naturally related. It is related to but distinct from freebie marketing, a common (and legal) method of giving away (or selling at a substantial discount) one item to ensure a continual flow of sales of another related item.
Some kinds of tying, especially by contract, have historically been regarded as anti-competitive practices. The basic idea is that consumers are harmed by being forced to buy an undesired good (the tied good) in order to purchase a good they actually want (the tying good), and so would prefer that the goods be sold separately. The company doing this bundling may have a significantly large market share so that it may impose the tie on consumers, despite the forces of market competition. The tie may also harm other companies in the market for the tied good, or who sell only single components.
One effect of tying can be that low quality products achieve a higher market share than would otherwise be the case.
Tying may also be a form of price discrimination: people who use more razor blades, for example, pay more than those who just need a one-time shave. Though this may improve overall welfare, by giving more consumers access to the market, such price discrimination can also transfer consumer surpluses to the producer. Tying may also be used with or in place of patents or copyrights to help protect entry into a market, discouraging innovation.
Tying is often used when the supplier makes one product that is critical to many customers. By threatening to withhold that key product unless others are also purchased, the supplier can increase sales of less necessary products.
In the United States, most states have laws against tying, which are enforced by state governments. In addition, the U.S. Department of Justice enforces federal laws against tying through its Antitrust Division.
Types
Horizontal tying is the practice of requiring consumers to pay for an unrelated product or service together with the desired one. A hypothetical example would be for Bic to sell its pens only with Bic lighters. (However, a company may offer a limited free item with another purchase as a promotion.)
Vertical tying is the practice of requiring customers to purchase related products or services together, from the same company. For example, a company might mandate that its automobiles could only be serviced by its own dealers. In an effort to curb this, many jurisdictions require that warranties not be voided by outside servicing; for example, see the Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act in the United States.
In United States law
Certain tying arrangements are illegal in the United States under both the Sherman Antitrust Act, and Section 3 of the Clayton Act. A tying arrangement is defined as "an agreement by a party to sell one product but only on the condition that the buyer also purchases a different (or tied) product, or at least agrees he will not purchase the product from any other supplier." Tying may be the action of several companies as well as the work of just one firm. Success on a tying claim typically requires proof of four elements: (1) two separate products or services are involved; (2) the purchase of the tying product is conditioned on the additional purchase of the tied product; (3) the seller has sufficient market power in the market for the tying product; (4) a not insubstantial amount of interstate commerce in the tied product market is affected.
For at least three decades, the Supreme Court defined the required "economic power" to include just about any departure from perfect competition, going so far as to hold that possession of a copyright or even the existence of a tie itself gave rise to a presumption of economic power. The Supreme Court has since held that a plaintiff must establish the sort of market power necessary for other antitrust violations in order to prove sufficient "economic power" necessary to establish a per se tie. More recently, the Court has eliminated any presumption of market power based solely on the fact that the tying product is patented or copyrighted.
In recent years, changing business practices surrounding new technologies have put the legality of tying arrangements to the test. Although the Supreme Court still considers some tying arrangements as per se illegal, the Court actually uses a rule-of-reason analysis, requiring an analysis of foreclosure effects and an affirmative defense of efficiency justifications.
Apple products
The tying of Apple products is an example of commercial tying that has caused recent controversy. When Apple initially released the iPhone on June 29, 2007, it was sold exclusively with AT&T (formerly Cingular) contracts in the United States. To enforce this exclusivity, Apple employed a type of software lock that ensured the phone would not work on any network besides AT&T's. Related to the concept of bricking, any user who tried to unlock or otherwise tamper with the locking software ran the risk of rendering their iPhone permanently inoperable.
This caused complaints among many consumers, as they were forced to pay an additional early termination fee of $175 if they wanted to unlock the device safely for use on a different carrier. Other companies such as Google complained that tying encourages a more closed-access-based wireless service. Many questioned the legality of the arrangement, and in October 2007 a class-action lawsuit was filed against Apple, claiming that its exclusive agreement with AT&T violates California antitrust law. The suit was filed by the Law Office of Damian R. Fernandez on behalf of California resident Timothy P. Smith, and ultimately sought to have an injunction issued against Apple to prevent it from selling iPhones with any kind of software lock.
In July 2010, federal regulators clarified the issue when they determined it was lawful to unlock (or in other terms, "jail break") the iPhone, declaring that there was no basis for copyright law to assist Apple in protecting its restrictive business model.
Jail breaking is removing operating system or hardware restrictions imposed on an iPhone (or other device). If done successfully, this allows one to run any application on the phone they choose, including applications not authorized by Apple. Apple told regulators that modifying the iPhone operating system leads to the creation of an infringing derivative work that is protected by copyright law. This means that the license on the operating system forbids software modification. However, regulators agreed that modifying an iPhone's firmware/operating system to enable it to run an application that Apple has not approved fits comfortably within the four corners of fair use.
Microsoft products
Another prominent case involving a tying claim was United States v. Microsoft. By some accounts, Microsoft ties together Microsoft Windows, Internet Explorer, Windows Media Player, Outlook Express and Microsoft Office. The United States claimed that the bundling of Internet Explorer (IE) to sales of Windows 98, making IE difficult to remove from Windows 98 (e.g., not putting it on the "Remove Programs" list), and designing Windows 98 to work "unpleasantly" with Netscape Navigator constituted an illegal tying of Windows 98 and IE. Microsoft's counterargument was that a web browser and a mail reader are simply part of an operating system, included with other personal computer operating systems, and the integration of the products was technologically justified. Just as the definition of a car has changed to include things that used to be separate products, such as speedometers and radios, Microsoft claimed the definition of an operating system has changed to include their formerly separate products. The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit rejected Microsoft's claim that Internet Explorer was simply one facet of its operating system, but the court held that the tie between Windows and Internet Explorer should be analyzed deferentially under the Rule of Reason. The U.S. government claim settled before reaching final resolution.
As to the tying of Office, parallel cases against Microsoft brought by State Attorneys General included a claim for harm in the market for office productivity applications. The Attorneys General abandoned this claim when filing an amended complaint. The claim was revived by Novell where they alleged that manufacturers of computers ("OEMs") were charged less for their Windows bulk purchases if they agreed to bundle Office with every PC sold than if they gave computer purchasers the choice whether or not to buy Office along with their machines — making their computer prices less competitive in the market. The Novell litigation has since settled.
Microsoft has also tied its software to the third-party Android mobile operating system, by requiring manufacturers that license patents it claims covers the OS and smartphones to ship Microsoft Office Mobile and Skype applications on the devices.
Anti-tying provision of the Bank Holding Company Act
In 1970, Congress enacted section 106 of the Bank Holding Company Act Amendments of 1970 (BHCA), the anti-tying provision, which is codified at 12 U.S.C. § 1972. The statute was designed to prevent banks, whether large or small, state or federal, from imposing anticompetitive conditions on their customers. Tying is an antitrust violation, but the Sherman and Clayton Acts did not adequately protect borrowers from being required to accept conditions to loans issued by banks, and section 106 was specifically designed to apply to and remedy such bank misconduct.
Banks are allowed to take measures to protect their loans and to safeguard the value of their investments, such as requiring security or guaranties from borrowers. The statute exempts so-called “traditional banking practices” from its per se illegality, and thus its purpose is not so much to limit banks' lending practices, as it is to ensure that the practices used are fair and competitive. A majority of claims brought under the BHCA are denied. Banks still have quite a bit of leeway in fashioning loan agreements, but when a bank clearly steps over the bounds of propriety, the plaintiff is compensated with treble damages.
At least four regulatory agencies including the Federal Reserve Board oversee the activities of banks, their holding companies, and other related depository institutions. While each type of depository institution has a “primary regulator”, the nation's “dual banking” system allows concurrent jurisdiction among the different regulatory agencies. With respect to the anti-tying provision, the Fed takes the preeminent role in relation to the other financial institution regulatory agencies, which reflects that it was considered the least biased (in favor of banks) of the regulatory agencies when section 106 was enacted.
In European Law
Tying is the "practice of a supplier of one product, the tying product, requiring a buyer also to buy a second product, the tied product". The tying of a product can take various forms, that of contractual tying where a contract binds the buyer to purchase both products together, refusal to supply until the buyer agrees to purchase both products, withdrawal or withholding of a guarantee where the dominant seller will not provide the benefit of guarantee until the seller accepts to purchase that party's product, technical tying occurs when the products of the dominant party are physically integrated and making impossible to buy the one without the other and bundling where two products are sold in the same package with one price. This practises are prohibited under Article 101(1)(e) and Article 102(2)(d) and may amount to an infringement of the statute if other conditions are satisfied. However, it is noteworthy that the Court is willing to find an infringement beyond those listed in Article 102(2)(d), see Tetra Pak v Commission.
Enforcement under European Law
The Guidance on Article 102 Enforcement Priorities sets out in which circumstances it will be appropriate taking actions against tying practises. First, it must be established whether the accused undertaking has a dominant position in the tying or tied product market. Subsequently, the next step is to determine whether the dominant undertaking tied two distinct products. This is important as two identical products cannot be considered tied under Article 102(2)(d) formulation that states products will be considered tied if they have no connects ‘by their nature or commercial usage’. This arises problems in the legal definition of what will amount to tying in scenarios of selling cars with tires or selling a car with a radio. Hence, the Commission provides guidance on this issue by citing the judgement in Microsoft and states that "two products are distinct if, in the absence of tying or bundling, a substantial number of customers would purchase or would have purchased the tying product without also buying the tied product from the same supplier, thereby allowing stand-alone production for both the tying and the tied product". Next issue is whether the customer was coerced to purchase both the tying and the tied products as Article 102(2)(d) suggests: ‘making the conclusion of contracts subject to acceptance by the other parties of supplementary obligations’. In situations of contractual stipulation, it is clear that the test will be satisfied; for an example of a non-contractual tying see Microsoft. Furthermore, for an undertaking to be deemed anti-competitive is whether the tie is capable of having foreclosure effect. Some examples of tying practises having an anti-competitive foreclosure effect in case law are the IBM, Eurofix-Bauco v Hilti, Telemarketing v CLT, British Sugar and Microsoft. Subsequently, the defence available for the dominant undertaking is that it can provide that tying is objectively justified or enhances efficiency and the commission is willing to consider claims that are tying may result in economic efficiency in production or distribution that will bring benefit to the consumers.
See also
Complementary good
Iunctim
Loss leader
The OSx86 Project or 'Hackintosh', breaking the tie Apple holds between its hardware and Mac OS X to run the operating system on non-Apple hardware.
Product bundling
Product churning
Vendor lock-in
Digital rights management
Tying of the iPhone to AT&T
References
Bibliography
Donald Turner, Tying Arrangements Under the Antitrust Laws, 72 Harv. L. Rev. 50 (1958);
George J. Stigler, A Note On Block Booking, 1963 Supreme Court Review 152;
Kenneth Dam, Fortner Enterprises v. United States Steel: Neither a Borrower Nor A Lender Be, 1969 S. Ct. Rev. 1;
Timothy D. Naegele, Are All Bank Tie-Ins Illegal?, 154 Bankers Magazine 46 (1971);
Richard A. Posner, Antitrust: An Economic Perspective, 171-84 (1976);
Joseph Bauer, A Simplified Approach to Tying Arrangements: A Legal and Economic Analysis, 33 Vanderbilt Law Review 283 (1980);
Richard Craswell, Tying Requirements in Competitive Markets: The Consumer Protection Rationale, 62 Boston University L. Rev. 661 (1982);
Roy Kenney and Benjamin Klein, The Economics of Block Booking, 26 J. Law & Economics 497 (1983);
Timothy D. Naegele, The Anti-Tying Provision: Its Potential Is Still There, 100 Banking Law Journal 138 (1983);
Victor Kramer, The Supreme Court and Tying Arrangements: Antitrust As History, 69 Minnesota L. Rev. 1013 (1985);
Benjamin Klein and Lester Saft, The Law and Economics of Franchise Tying Contracts, 28 J. Law and Economics 245 (1985);
Alan Meese, Tying Meets The New Institutional Economics: Farewell to the Chimera of Forcing, 146 U. Penn. L. Rev. 1 (1997);
Christopher Leslie, Unilaterally Imposed Tying Arrangements and Antitrust's Concerted Action Requirement, 60 Ohio St. L.J. 1773 (1999);
John Lopatka and William Page, The Dubious Search For Integration in the Microsoft Trial, 31 Conn. L. Rev. 1251 (1999);
Alan Meese, Monopoly Bundling in Cyberspace: How Many Products Does Microsoft Sell?, 44 Antitrust Bull. 65 (1999);
Keith N. Hylton and Michael Salinger, Tying Law and Policy: A Decision-Theoretic Approach, 69 Antitrust L. J. 469 (2001);
Michael D. Whinston, Exclusivity and Tying in U.S. v. Microsoft: What We Know, and Don't Know, 15 Journal of Economic Perspectives, 63-80 (2001);
Christopher Leslie, Cutting Through Tying Theory with Occam's Razor: A Simple Explanation of Tying Arrangements, 78 Tul. L. Rev. 727 (2004); and
Timothy D. Naegele, The Bank Holding Company Act's Anti-Tying Provision: 35 Years Later, 122 Banking Law Journal 195 (2005).
Anti-competitive practices
Competition law
Business models
Bundled products or services | [
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249859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Basketball%20League | United States Basketball League | The United States Basketball League (USBL) was a professional men's spring basketball league. The league was formed in 1985 and ceased operations in 2008. The USBL started in 1985 as one of the first basketball leagues to play a late-spring to early-summer schedule. The league quickly became known as a development league for players, with many players moving up to the NBA and many more playing in Europe after stints here. In 1996, the league made a stock offering, a rarity among sports leagues. However, in later years, the league declined as rival leagues appeared and USBL had a tougher time replacing teams that folded. In the last two seasons, the league was mainly a midwestern league, with teams mainly in Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma.
After speculation that the USBL might fold after the 2007 season, the league announced that it would sit out the 2008 season and consider its options for the future. In January 2010, the league expressed hopes to resume play in April 2010. However, no further news has surfaced from the league. The final champions are the Kansas Cagerz, who won the title game on July 1, 2007.
History
The United States Basketball League was founded in December 1984 by Daniel T. Meisenheimer, a stockbroker from Connecticut. The league management initially planned to schedule about 40 games during the summer, and started to look for new teams to join the newly formed USBL. Former NBA referee Richie Powers was named the league's vice president and director of operations, while Earl Monroe was the commissioner. Meisenheimer introduced a salary cap of $250,000 per team. The teams for the first season were the Connecticut Colonials from New Haven, Connecticut; the New Jersey Jammers from Jersey City, New Jersey; the Long Island Knights from Long Island, New York (owned by Meisenheimer himself); the Rhode Island Gulls from Warwick, Rhode Island; the Springfield Fame from Springfield, Massachusetts; the Westchester Golden Apples from Westchester, New York; and the Wildwood Aces from Wildwood, New Jersey. Several players with NBA experience joined the USBL: among them Ken Bannister, Jim Bostic, Tracy Jackson, Lowes Moore, Eddie Lee Wilkins and Sam Worthen. Other players who played in the 1985 USBL season would later play in the NBA, such as Michael Adams, Manute Bol, Ron Crevier, Spud Webb and John "Hot Rod" Williams. After the regular season ended after each team played 25 games, the league management decided not to organize postseason games, since many players were going to join other teams for the start of the regular season of other leagues such as the NBA or the CBA. The first USBL champions were the Springfield Fame, that had ended the regular season leading the league with a 19–6 record. Hot Rod Williams and Tracy Jackson were named co-MVPs, while Manute Bol led the league both in rebounds per game (14.2) and blocks per game (11.2).
In 1986 two teams, the Long Island Knights and the Rhode Island Gulls, left the league, and three new franchises joined the USBL: the Gold Coast Stingrays from West Palm Beach, Florida, the Staten Island Stallions from Staten Island, New York and the Tampa Bay Flash from Tampa, Florida. In the same year Nancy Lieberman joined the Springfield Fame and became the first female player to play in a professional league with men. Lieberman debuted in June 1986 in a game against the Staten Island Stallions, playing 3 minutes during which she did not score. In 1987 another woman joined the USBL: Lynette Richardson, who had played college basketball at Florida International, signed for the Miami Tropics. On June 13, 1987 Richardson and Lieberman played against each other during a game between the Miami Tropics and the Long Island Knights: Richardson scored 3 points while Lieberman scored 2.
The top teams of the regular season advanced to the USBL Postseason Festival, a playoffs system that saw teams play single elimination games in order to advance to the final game. On three occasions (1985, 1986 and 1990) no postseason was held, and the team with the best regular season record won the championship. In 1989 the USBL ceased operations temporarily in order to improve its organization, and resumed the following season, in 1990.
Complete team list
USBL Champions
Teams played a single championship game at the end of the playoffs to name the league champions
1985 Springfield Fame (19–6) won regular season, no playoffs
1986 Tampa Bay Flash (22–8) won regular season, no playoffs
1987 Miami Tropics 103 Rhode Island Gulls 99
1988 New Haven Skyhawks 134 Palm Beach Stingrays 126
1989 USBL suspended operations
1990 Jacksonville Hooters (15–1) won regular season, no playoffs
1991 Philadelphia Spirit 110 Miami Tropics 108
1992 Miami Tropics 116 Philadelphia Spirit 114
1993 Miami Tropics 139 Westchester Stallions 127
1994 Jacksonville Hooters 117 Atlanta Trojans 109
1995 Florida Sharks 109 Atlanta Trojans 104
1996 Florida Sharks 118 Atlantic City Seagulls 115
1997 Atlantic City Seagulls 114 Long Island Surf 112
1998 Atlantic City Seagulls 100 Long Island Surf 96
1999 Atlantic City Seagulls 83 Connecticut Skyhawks 77
2000 Dodge City Legend 89 Oklahoma Storm 86
2001 Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs 100 Dodge City Legend 91
2002 Oklahoma Storm 122 Kansas Cagerz 109
2003 Dodge City Legend 97 Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs 96
2004 Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs 118 Brooklyn Kings 116
2005 Dodge City Legend 97 Kansas Cagerz 84
2006 Nebraska Cranes 100 Dodge City Legend 92
2007 Kansas Cagerz 95 Brooklyn Kings 92
2008 USBL suspended operations
League awards
Player of the Year
1985: John "Hot Rod" Williams, Rhode Island Gulls & Tracy Jackson, Springfield Fame
1986: Don Collins, Tampa Bay Flash
1987: Don Collins (2), Tampa Bay Stars
1988: Lewis Lloyd, Philadelphia Aces
1990: Jerry Johnson, Jacksonville Hooters
1991: Michael Anderson, Philadelphia Spirit
1992: Roy Tarpley, Miami Tropics
1993: Ken Bannister, Miami Tropics
1994: Stan Rose, Atlanta Trojans
1995: Charles Smith, Florida Sharks
1996: Brent Scott, Portland Mountain Cats
1997: Dennis Edwards, Florida Sharks
1998: Curt Smith, Washington Congressionals
1999: Adrian Griffin, Atlantic City Seagulls
2000: Sean Colson, Dodge City Legend
2001: Aubrey Reese, Oklahoma Storm
2002: Kwan Johnson, Brevard Blue Ducks
2003: Albert Mouring, Oklahoma Storm
2004: Chudney Gray, Brooklyn Kings
2005: Nate Johnson, Kansas Cagerz
2006: Quannas White, Oklahoma Storm
2007: Anthony Richardson, Kansas Cagerz
Postseason MVP
1987: World B. Free, Miami Tropics
1988: Bobby Parks, New Haven Skyhawks
1991: Paul Graham, Philadelphia Spirit
1992: Duane Washington, Miami Tropics
1993: Ken Bannister, Miami Tropics
1994: Fred Lewis, Jacksonville Hooters
1995: Charles Smith, Florida Sharks
1996: Charles Smith (2), Florida Sharks
1997: Mark Baker, Atlantic City Seagulls & Brent Scott, Atlantic City Seagulls
1998: Adrian Griffin, Atlantic City Seagulls
1999: Adrian Griffin (2), Atlantic City Seagulls
2001: Frantz Pierre-Louis, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs & Ace Custis, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs
2002: Joe Ira Clark, Oklahoma Storm
2003: Darrin Hancock, Dodge City Legend
2004: Marcus Fleming, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs
2005: Jermaine Boyette, Dodge City Legend
2006: Alex Sanders, Nebraska Cranes
2007: Nate Johnson, Kansas Cagerz
Rookie of the Year
1985: John "Hot Rod" Williams, Rhode Island Gulls
1986: Marty Embry, Jersey Jammers
1987: Muggsy Bogues, Rhode Island Gulls
1988: Ricky Grace, Jersey Shore Bucs
1990: Randy Henry, Jacksonville Hooters
1991: Greg Sutton, Empire State Stallions
1992: Fred Lewis, Jacksonville Hooters
1993: Khari Jaxon, Palm Beach Stingrays
1994: Randy Carter, Memphis Fire
1995: Roger Crawford, Memphis Fire
1996: Mike Lloyd, Atlantic City Seagulls
1997: Mikki Moore, Atlanta Trojans
1998: Kerry Thompson, Tampa Bay Windjammers
1999: Adrian Pledger, New Hampshire Thunder Loons
2000: Chudney Gray, Long Island Surf
2001: George Evans, Maryland Mustangs
2002: Devin Brown, Kansas Cagerz & Corsley Edwards, Adirondack Wildcats
2003: Lenny Cooke, Brooklyn Kings
2004: Tony Bland, Brevard Blue Ducks
2005: Badou Gaye, Westchester Wildfire & John Allen, New Jersey Flyers
2006: Tristan Smith, Long Island PrimeTime
2007: Adam Schaper, Gary Steelheads
Coach of the Year
1985: Gerald Oliver, Springfield Fame
1986: Henry Bibby, Springfield Fame
1987: Gordon Gibbons, Tampa Bay Stars
1988: Dave Ervin, Philadelphia Aces
1990: Rex Morgan, Jacksonville Hooters
1991: Bill Lange, Philadelphia Spirit
1992: Al Outlaw, Atlanta Eagles
1993: John Lucas II, Miami Tropics
1994: Al Outlaw (2), Atlanta Trojans
1995: Mike Mashak, Jersey Turnpikes
1996: Eric Musselman, Florida Sharks
1997: Kevin Mackey, Atlantic City Seagulls
1998: Ray Hodge, Connecticut Skyhawks
1999: Darryl Dawkins, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs & Kevin Mackey (2), Atlantic City Seagulls
2000: Kent Davidson, Dodge City Legend
2001: Robert Parish, Maryland Mustangs
2002: Francis Flax, Kansas Cagerz & Harvey Grant, Brevard Blue Ducks
2003: Cliff Levingston, Dodge City Legend
2004: Dale Osbourne, Dodge City Legend
2005: Ken Charles, Brooklyn Kings
2006: Bryan Gates, Oklahoma Storm
2007: Dale Osbourne (2), Dodge City Legend
Defensive Player of the Year
2002: Johnny Jackson, Kansas Cagerz
2003: Kevin Freeman, Westchester Wildfire
2004: Immanuel McElroy, Dodge City Legend
2005: Eric Coley, Oklahoma Storm
2006: Anthony Johnson, Kansas Cagerz
2007: Ronald Ross, Albany Patroons
Man of the Year
1986: Jim Bostic, Westchester Golden Apples
1987: World B. Free, Miami Tropics
1988: Michael Brooks, Philadelphia Aces
1992: John Lucas II, Miami Tropics
1993: Al Outlaw, Atlanta Eagles
1996: Roy Jones Jr., Jacksonville Barracudas
Statistical leaders
Scoring leaders
Rebounding leaders
Assists leaders
Notable past players
Source
Michael Adams – (Springfield Fame)
Bong Alvarez - (Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs)
Michael Anderson – (Philadelphia Aces, Philadelphia Spirit)
Nate Archibald – (Jersey Shore Bucs)
Darrell Armstrong – (Atlanta Trojans)
Raja Bell – (Tampa Bay Windjammers)
Henry Bibby - (Springfield Fame)
Mark Blount – (Atlantic City Seagulls, New Jersey Shorecats)
Tyrone "Muggsy" Bogues – (Rhode Island Gulls)
Manute Bol – (Rhode Island Gulls)
Devin Brown – (Kansas Cagerz)
Chris Childs – (Miami Tropics)
Lloyd Daniels – (Miami Tropics)
Yinka Dare – (New Jersey Shorecats)
Mark Davis – (Long Island Knights)
Waliyy Dixon – (Atlantic City Seagulls)
Richard Dumas – (Miami Tropics)
Mario Elie – (Miami Tropics)
LeRon Ellis – (Connecticut Skyhawks)
World B. Free – (Miami Tropics)
Doug Gottlieb – (Oklahoma Storm)
Darrin Hancock – (New Jersey Shore Cats, Dodge City Legend, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs, Kansas Cagerz)
Antonio Harvey – (Atlanta Eagles)
Vince Hizon – (Pennsylvania Valleydawgs)
Craig Hodges – (Washington Congressionals)
Anderson Hunt – (Miami Tropics)
Mike James – (Long Island Surf)
Keith Jennings – (Jacksonville Hooters)
Avery Johnson – (Palm Beach Stingrays)
Anthony Jones – (Palm Beach Stingrays)
Roy Jones, Jr. – (Brevard Blue Ducks)
Eddie Jordan – (Jersey Jammers)
R. Kelly – (Atlantic City Seagulls)
Shawn Kemp - Oklahoma Storm
Rusty LaRue – (Carolina Cardinals)
Nancy Lieberman – (Springfield Fame)
Anthony Mason – (Long Island Surf)
Cheryl Miller – (Staten Island Stallions)
Jamario Moon – (Dodge City Legend), (Gary Steelheads)
Marcelo Nicola – (Long Island Surf)
Moochie Norris – (Washington Congressionals)
Kevin Ollie – (Connecticut Skyhawks)
Terrell Owens – (Adirondack Wildcats)
Victor Page – (Washington Congressionals)
Simeon Rice – (Philadelphia Power)
Lynette Richardson – (Miami Tropics)
Micheal "Sugar" Ray Richardson – (Long Island Knights)
Cliff Robinson – (Miami Tropics)
LaMont "ShowBoat" Robinson - (Long Island Knights)
Jim Rowinski - (Long Island Surf)
Shawnelle Scott – (Long Island Surf)
Charles Smith – (Florida Sharks)
Curt Smith – (Washington Congressionals)
Mark Strickland – (Philadelphia Spirit, Atlanta Trojans, Atlantic City Seagulls)
Derek Strong – (Miami Tropics)
Roy Tarpley – (Miami Tropics)
Kelvin Upshaw – (Palmbeach Stingrays)
Chris Washburn – (Miami Tropics, Westchester Stallions)
Anthony "Spud" Webb – (Rhode Island Gulls)
Freeman Williams – (Miami Tropics)
John "Hot Rod" Williams – (Rhode Island Gulls)
Lorenzo Williams – (Palmbeach Stingrays)
See also
List of developmental and minor sports leagues
References
External links
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES BASKETBALL LEAGUE on apbr.org
USBL logos
Press Releases from USBasket
Defunct basketball leagues in the United States
Defunct professional sports leagues in the United States
Publicly traded sports companies
Sports leagues established in 1985
Organizations disestablished in 2008
1985 establishments in the United States | [
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249863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumping%20%28pricing%20policy%29 | Dumping (pricing policy) | Dumping, in economics, is a kind of injuring pricing, especially in the context of international trade. It occurs when manufacturers export a product to another country at a price below the normal price with an injuring effect. The objective of dumping is to increase market share in a foreign market by driving out competition and thereby create a monopoly situation where the exporter will be able to unilaterally dictate price and quality of the product.
Overview
A standard technical definition of dumping is the act of charging a lower price for the like product in a foreign market than the normal value of the product, for example the price of the same product in a domestic market of the exporter or in a third country market. This is often referred to as selling at less than "normal value" on the same level of trade in the ordinary course of trade. Under the World Trade Organization's Antidumping Agreement, full name Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994, dumping is not prohibited unless it causes or threatens to cause material injury to a domestic industry in the importing country. Dumping is also prohibited when it causes "material retardation" in the establishment of an industry in the domestic market.
The term has a negative connotation, as advocates of competitive markets see "dumping" as a form of unfair competition. Furthermore, advocates for workers and laborers believe that safeguarding businesses against such practices, such as dumping, help alleviate some of the harsher consequences of such practices between economies at different stages of development (see protectionism). The Bolkestein directive, for example, was accused in Europe of being a form of "social dumping", as it favored competition between workers, as exemplified by the Polish Plumber stereotype. While there are few examples of a national scale dumping that succeeded in producing a national-level monopoly, there are several examples of local 'dumping' that produced a monopoly in regional markets for certain industries. Ron Chernow points to the example of regional oil monopolies in Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. where lining an approved strategy where oil in one market, Cincinnati, would be sold at or below cost to drive competition's profits down and force them to exit the market. In another area where other independent businesses were already driven out, namely in Chicago, prices would be increased by a quarter.
Anti-dumping actions
Legal issues
If a company exports a product at a price that is lower than the price it normally charges in its own home market, or sells at a price that does not meet its full cost of production, it is said to be "dumping" the product. It is a sub part of the various forms of price discrimination and is classified as third-degree price discrimination. Opinions differ as to whether or not such practice constitutes unfair competition, but many governments take action against dumping to protect domestic industry. The WTO agreement does not pass judgment. Its focus is on how governments can or cannot react to dumping—it disciplines anti-dumping actions, and it is often called the "anti-dumping agreement". (This focus only on the reaction to dumping contrasts with the approach of the subsidies and countervailing measures agreement.)
The legal definitions are more precise, but broadly speaking, the WTO agreement allows governments to act against dumping where there is genuine ("material") injury to the competing domestic industry. To do so, the government has to show that dumping is taking place, calculate the extent of dumping (how much lower the export price is compared to the exporter's home market price), and show that the dumping is causing injury or threatening to cause injury.
Definitions and extent
While permitted by the WTO, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) (Article VI) allows countries the option of taking action against dumping. The Anti-Dumping Agreement clarifies and expands Article VI, and the two operate together. They allow countries to act in a way that would normally break the GATT principles of binding a tariff and not discriminating between trading partners—typically anti-dumping action means charging extra import duty on the particular product from the particular exporting country in order to bring its price closer to the "normal value" or to remove the injury to domestic industry in the importing country.
There are many different ways of calculating whether a particular product is being dumped heavily or only lightly. The agreement narrows down the range of possible options. It provides three methods to calculate a product's "normal value". The main one is based on the price in the exporter's domestic market. When this cannot be used, two alternatives are available—the price charged by the exporter in another country, or a calculation based on the combination of the exporter's production costs, other expenses and normal profit margins. And the agreement also specifies how a fair comparison can be made between the export price and what would be a normal price.
Five-percent rule
According to footnote 2 of the Anti-Dumping Agreement, domestic sales of the like product are sufficient to base normal value on if they account for 5 percent or more of the sales of the product under consideration to the importing country market. This is often called the five-percent or home-market-viability test. This test is applied globally by comparing the quantity sold of a like product on the domestic market with the quantity sold to the importing market.
Normal value cannot be based on the price in the exporter's domestic market when there are no domestic sales. For example, if the products are only sold on the foreign market, the normal value will have to be determined on another basis. Additionally, some products may be sold on both markets but the quantity sold on the domestic market may be small compared to quantity sold on foreign market. This situation happens often in countries with small domestic markets like Hong Kong and Singapore, though similar circumstances may also happen in larger markets. This is because of differences in factors like consumer taste and maintenance.
Calculating the extent of dumping on a product is not enough. Anti-dumping measures can only be applied if the act of dumping is hurting the industry in the importing country. Therefore, a detailed investigation must first be conducted according to specified rules. The investigation must evaluate all relevant economic factors that have a bearing on the state of the industry in question; if it is revealed that dumping is taking place and hurting domestic industry, the exporting company can raise its price to an agreed level in order to avoid anti-dumping import duties.
Procedures in investigation and litigation
Detailed procedures are set out on how anti-dumping cases are to be initiated, how the investigations are to be conducted, and the conditions for ensuring that all interested parties are given an opportunity to present evidence. Anti-dumping measures must expire five years after the date of imposition, unless a review shows that ending the measure would lead to injury.
Generally speaking, an anti-dumping investigation usually develops along the following steps: domestic producers make a request to the relevant authority to initiate an anti-dumping investigation. Then investigation to the foreign producer is conducted to determine if the allegation is valid. It uses questionnaires completed by the interested parties to compare the foreign producer's (or producers') export price to the normal value (the price in the exporter's domestic market, the price charged by the exporter in another country, or a calculation based on the combination of the exporter's production costs, other expenses and normal profit margins). If the foreign producer's export price is lower than the normal price and the investigating body proves a causal link between the alleged dumping and the injury suffered by the domestic industry, it comes to a conclusion that the foreign producer is dumping its products. According to Article VI of GATT, dumping investigations shall, except in special circumstances, be concluded within one year, and in no case more than 18 months after initiation. Anti-dumping measures must expire five years after the date of imposition, unless a review shows that ending the measure would lead to injury.
Anti-dumping investigations are to end immediately in cases where the authorities determine that the margin of dumping is, de minimis, or insignificantly small (defined as less than 2% of the export price of the product). Other conditions are also set. For example, the investigations also have to end if the volume of dumped imports is negligible (i.e., if the volume from one country is less than 3% of total imports of that product—although investigations can proceed if several countries, each supplying less than 3% of the imports, together account for 7% or more of total imports).
The agreement says member countries must inform the Committee on Anti-Dumping Practices about all preliminary and final anti-dumping actions, promptly and in detail. They must also report on all investigations twice a year. When differences arise, members are encouraged to consult each other. They can also use the WTO's dispute settlement procedure.
Actions in the United States
In the United States, domestic firms can file an anti-dumping petition under the regulations determined by the U.S. Department of Commerce, which determines "less than fair value" and the International Trade Commission, which determines "injury". These proceedings operate on a timetable governed by U.S. law. The Department of Commerce has regularly found that products have been sold at less than fair value in U.S. markets. If the domestic industry is able to establish that it is being injured by the dumping, then anti-dumping duties are imposed on goods imported from the dumpers' country at a percentage rate calculated to counteract the dumping margin.
Related to anti-dumping duties are "countervailing duties". The difference is that countervailing duties seek to offset injurious subsidization while anti-dumping duties offset injurious dumping.
Some commentators have noted that domestic protectionism, and lack of knowledge regarding foreign cost of production, lead to the unpredictable institutional process surrounding investigation. Members of the WTO can file complaints against anti-dumping measures.
Because of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, October 27, 1997 mini-crash, and 1998 Russian financial crisis, the United States steel producers were severely harmed by a record surge of more than 40 million tons of cheap steel imports, resulting in the loss of more than 10,000 steel production jobs in 1998, and was the imminent cause of three bankruptcies by medium-sized steel companies (Acme Steel, Laclede Steel, and Geneva Steel), reduced volume, lower prices, and affecting the willingness of private banks and investment institutions to make loans to the U.S. steel producers. As a result, Congress passed the Emergency Steel Loan Guarantee and Emergency Oil and Gas Guaranteed Loan Act of 1999, also known as the Emergency Steel Loan Guarantee Act of 1999.
Third country dumping
Third country dumping is a situation in which exports of a product from one country are being injured or threatened with injury because of exports of a product from a second country into a third country at less than fair value. Section 1318 of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 (PL 100-418) establishes procedures for US industries to petition the US Trade Representative to request a foreign government that is a signatory to the GATT Anti-Dumping Code to initiate an antidumping investigation on behalf of a US industry that claims it is being injured by dumping in that country's market.
Actions in the European Union
European Union anti-dumping is under the purview of the European Commission. It is governed by Council Regulation (EC) No 384/96 of 22 December 1995 on protection against dumped imports from countries not members of the European Community and the Council Regulation (EC) No 1225/2009 of 30 November 2009 on protection against dumped imports from countries not members of the European Community. However, implementation of anti-dumping actions (trade defence actions) is taken after voting by various committees with member state representation.
Regulation (EC) No 384/96 is repealed by Regulation (EC) No 1225/2009, however, the repeal of Regulation (EC) No 384/96 shall not prejudice the validity of proceedings initiated thereunder.
The bureaucratic entity responsible for advising member states on anti-dumping actions is the Directorate General Trade (DG Trade) in Brussels. Community industry can apply to have an anti-dumping investigation begin. DG Trade first investigates the standing of the complainants. If they are found to represent at least 25% of community industry, the investigation will probably begin. The process is guided by quite specific guidance in the regulations. The DG Trade will make a recommendation to a committee known as the Anti-Dumping Advisory Committee, on which each member state has one vote. Member states abstaining will be treated as if they voted in favour of industrial protection, a voting system which has come under considerable criticism.
As is implied by the criterion for beginning an investigation, EU anti-dumping actions are primarily considered part of a "trade defence" portfolio. Consumer interests and non-industry related interests ("community interests") are not emphasized during an investigation. An investigation typically looks for damage caused by dumping to community producers, and the level of tariff set is based on the damage done to community producers by dumping.
If consensus is not found, the decision goes to the European Council.
If imposed, duties last for five years theoretically. In practice they last at least a year longer, because expiry reviews are usually initiated at the end of the five years, and during the review process the status quo is maintained.
An example of an anti-dumping duty action taken by the European Union is that of the duty imposed upon bicycle imports from China into the EU, which has recently be continued at a rate of 48.5%. The tax has also been extended to imports from Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Tunisia. However, some companies are excluded or have a reduced rate.
Chinese economic situation
The dumping investigation essentially compares domestic prices of the accused dumping nation with prices of the imported product on the European market. However, several rules are applied to the data before the dumping margin is calculated. Most contentious is the concept of "analogue market". Some exporting nations are not granted "market economy status" by the EU: China is a prime example because its market status is considered "state-sponsored capitalism". In such cases, the DG Trade is prevented from using domestic prices as the fair measure of the domestic price. A particular export industry may also lose market status if the DG Trade concludes that this industry receives government assistance. Other tests applied include the application of international accounting standards and bankruptcy laws.
The consequences of not being granted market economy status have a big impact on the investigation. For example, if China is accused of dumping widgets, the basic approach is to consider the price of widgets in China against the price of Chinese widgets in Europe. But China does not have market economy status, so Chinese domestic prices can not be used as the reference. Instead, the DG Trade must decide upon an analogue market: a market which does have market economy status, and which is similar enough to China. Brazil and Mexico have been used, but the United States is a popular analogue market. In this case, the price of widgets in the United States is regarded as the substitute for the price of widgets in China. This process of choosing an analogue market is subject to the influence of the complainant, which has led to some criticism that it is an inherent bias in the process.
Critics have argued that it is quite unreasonable to compare China's goods price to the United States as analogue. China is now developing to a more free and open market, unlike its planned-economy in the early 1960s, the market in China is more willing to embrace the global competition. It is thus required to improve its market regulations and conquer the free trade barriers to improve the situation and produce a properly judged pricing level to assess the "dumping" behaviour.
Actions in India
The current set of anti-dumping laws in India is defined by Section 9A and 9B of Customs and Tariffs Act, 1975 (Amended 1995) and The Anti-dumping rules such as (Identification, Assessment and Collection of Anti-dumping Duty on Dumped Articles and for Determination of Injury) Rules of 1995, Section 9A of customs and tariffs Act 1975 states that "If any article is exported from any country or territory to India at less than its normal value, then, upon the importation of such article into India, the central government may by notification in the official gazette, impose an anti-dumping duty not exceeding the margin of dumping in relation to such article."
As of November 28, 2016, 353 anti-dumping cases has been initiated by Directorate General of Anti-Dumping and Allied Duties (DGAD) out of which in one hundred and thirty cases, anti-dumping measures are in force.
In January 2017, the Indian government imposed anti-dumping duty on colour coated steel products imported from the European Union and China for 6 months.
Though, the move was applauded by Essar Steel India Commercial Director, H Shivram Krishnan but, importers expressed their concern regarding protective measures like minimum import price and anti-dumping duty especially when domestic is narrowing and imports are falling.
On July, 2015, the government imposed anti-dumping duty on fibreboard imported from Indonesia and Vietnam. This came after CEO and joint-Managing Director of Greenply Industries, Shobhan Mittal filed an application for anti-dumping probe initiation. The primary reason behind the probe was that the price differential between domestic and imported MDF stood at 5–6 percent and net MDF imports was at around 30–35 percent, majority of which came from Indonesia and Vietnam.
On 8 March 2017, government of India imposed anti-dumping duty ranging from US$6.30 to US$351.72 per tonne on imports of jute and its products from Bangladesh and Nepal. Later the government of India withdrew the anti-dumping duty in case of Nepal.
On 26 October 2017, India imposes anti-dumping duty on stainless steel from US, EU and China.
India has imposed anti-dumping duty on certain stainless steel products from the European Union and other nations including China and Korea, in order to protect the domestic industry from cheap imports.
The duty was imposed by the Revenue department following the recommendation by the Directorate General of Anti-Dumping and Allied Duties (DGAD).
The levied duty will range between 4.58 per cent and 57.39 per cent of the landed value of cold-rolled flat products of stainless steel.
The anti-dumping duty will be in effect until 10 December 2020.
The direction however, exempts certain grades of stainless steel from the duty.
The duty will be levied on the imports of stainless steel products from China, Taiwan, South Korea, South Africa, Thailand, the United States and the European Union.
Abuse of anti-dumping measures
Although the anti-dumping measure has been provided as a vital rule in preventing protectionism and promote free trade, many instances of anti-dumping practices suggest that anti-dumping measures have been used as a tool of protectionism. India and China have been alleged to have used Anti-dumping Duty (ADD) as a form of "safety valves" – to ease competitive pressure in domestic market. Anti-dumping measures have also been used as a form of "retaliation" against products of countries that impose ADDs against the products of the host country. The USA has been consistently alleged to have abused anti-dumping measures with its practice of Zeroing. Similarly, in only around 2% cases the EU has been found to have imposed ADDs to offset dumping. In the remaining 98% cases of anti-dumping have been used for purposes other than offsetting dumping.
Common Agricultural Policy
The Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union has often been accused of dumping despite significant reforms, as part of the Agreement on Agriculture at the Uruguay round of GATT negotiations in 1992 and in subsequent incremental reforms, notably the Luxembourg Agreement in 2003. Initially, the CAP sought to increase European agricultural production and provide support to European farmers through a process of market intervention whereby a special fund, the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund, would buy up surplus agricultural produce if the price fell below the centrally-determined intervention level.
European farmers were given a "guaranteed" price for their produce when it was sold in the European Community, and a system of export reimbursements ensured that European exports would sell at or below world prices, at no detriment to the European producer. The policy was heavily criticised as distorting world trade, and since 1992, the policy has moved away from market intervention and towards direct payments to farmers regardless of production, called "decoupling". Furthermore, the payments are generally dependent on farmers fulfilling certain environmental or animal welfare requirements to encourage responsible, sustainable farming in what is termed "multifunctional" agricultural subsidies. Social, environmental and other benefits of subsidies would no longer not include a simple increase in production.
See also
Countervailing duties
Flooding the market
Import tariff
Loss-leading
Safeguard
World Trade Organization
Predatory pricing
References
External links
WTO
Bown, Chad P. "Global Antidumping Database." The World Bank, June 2016.
European Commission Anti-Dumping page Official page concerning the use of anti-dumping measures by the European Union.
"Dumping (International trade)" from the Global Legal Information Network Subject Term Index
Anti-competitive practices
Commercial policy
Pricing
Protectionism | [
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249872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redhead%20%28bird%29 | Redhead (bird) | The redhead (Aythya americana) is a medium-sized diving duck. The scientific name is derived from Greek aithuia, an unidentified seabird mentioned by authors including Hesychius and Aristotle, and Latin americana, of America. The redhead is long with an wingspan. Redhead weight ranges from 2.0 to 2.5 lbs (907-1134 g), with males weighing an average of 2.4 lbs (1089 g) and females weighing an average of 2.1 lbs (953 g). It belongs to the genus Aythya, together with 11 other described species. The redhead and the common pochard form a sister group which together is sister to the canvasback.
The redhead goes by many names, including the red-headed duck and the red-headed pochard. This waterfowl is easily distinguished from other ducks by the male's copper coloured head and bright blue bill during the breeding season.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
Taxonomy
The redhead is in the family Anatidae (ducks, swans, geese) and genus Aythya (diving ducks). There are currently no described subspecies of the redhead.
The two syntype specimens of Fuligula americana Eyton (Monogr. Anat., 1838, p.155) are held in the vertebrate zoology collections of National Museums Liverpool at World Museum, with accession numbers NML-VZ D829 (male immature) and NML-VZ D829a (female adult). The specimens were collected in North America and came to the Liverpool national collection via Thomas Campbell Eyton’s collection and the 13th Earl of Derby’s collection which was bequeathed to the city of Liverpool.
Phylogeny
The redhead and the common pochard form a sister group which itself is sister to the canvasback. This group is then sister to the monophyletic group consisting of the white-eyes (hardhead, Madagascar pochard, and the sister species ferruginous duck and baer's pochard) and scaups (New Zealand scaup, ring-necked duck, tufted duck, greater scaup, lesser scaup).
Description
The redhead is a pochard, a diving duck specially adapted to foraging underwater. Their legs are placed farther back on the body, which makes walking on land difficult, the webbing on their feet is larger than dabbling ducks and their bills are broader, to facilitate underwater foraging. In addition, pochards have a lobed hind toe. No pochard has a metallic coloured speculum, something that is characteristic of other ducks.
Males
During breeding season, adult males have a copper head and neck, with a black breast. The back and sides are grey, the belly is white and the rump and tail are a light black. Male bills are pale blue with a black tip and a thin ring separating the two colours. Non breeding males lose the copper colour and instead have brown heads.
Females
Adult females, however, have a yellow to brown head and neck. The breast is brown, the belly is white and the rest of the body is a grey to brown. The female bills are slate with a dark tip that is separated by a blue ring. Females remain the same colour year round.
Distribution
During breeding season, redheads are found across a wide range of North America, from as far north as Northern Canada to the Caribbean. Their preferred areas include the intermontane regions of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and the Dakotas with some small localities in Ontario, Quebec and southern United States. These pochards then migrate south to winter in warmer climates. These areas include southern United States where breeding does not occur and extends to Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba, and the Bahamas. In either season, redheads use wetlands as their main habitat.
Habitat
Small, semi-permanent wetlands in non-forested country where the water is deep enough to provide dense emergent vegetation is considered ideal breeding habitat for redheads. When wintering, redheads switch to large areas of water near the coast that are protected from wave action but can also be found in reservoirs, lakes, playa wetlands, freshwater river deltas, coastal marshes, estuaries and bays.
Predators
Redheads do not have many predators and are most likely to die of disease or indirect human impact. These ducks are considered less desirable as table fare than their puddle duck cousins like the mallard; however, their beautiful plumage makes them a targeted species for waterfowl hunters looking to focus on diving ducks. Adults can be preyed upon by northern river otters, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, bald eagles, golden eagles and to a greater extent, minks. Most predation comes in the form of duckling predation and egg foraging. Northern pike and snapping turtles are known to eat ducklings whereas skunks, minks, crows and magpies will steal and eat redhead eggs.
Population status
The North American Waterfowl Management Plan for redheads is 760,000 North American birds. The population size has increased in the past few decades to well over 1.4 million birds. Redheads make up 2% of North America's duck population and only 1% of its harvested ducks. Populations may be stable because of restrictive bag limits for the species. In addition, the species uses semi-permanent and permanent wetlands to breed and these habitats are less likely to be affected by drought. For future management of the species, organizations are looking into wetland conservation.
Behaviour
Migration
Spring
Redheads leave their winter range in late January and February with all birds migrating by mid-March. In western North America, migrants begin arriving in Oregon, British Columbia] and Colorado in February. In central North America, migrants arrive as soon as temperatures open wetlands and lakes, which can range from late February (Nebraska) to early May (Alberta, Manitoba and Iowa). In the Great Lakes region and north-eastern North America, migrants will also arrive as soon as bodies of water open up.
Fall
Western birds migrate through Great Basin to the Pacific Coast. In British Columbia, fall migration begins in September and continues through October. The Great Salt Lake region is of particular importance to migrants in western United States. Central North American redheads will begin migrating earlier, around August/September and go through the Great Plains to the Texas coast. Eastern populations will migrate through the Great Lakes region to the Atlantic Coast or Florida from October to November. Most redheads winter along the Gulf of Mexico (offshore Louisiana, Florida and Mexico) however eastern populations will winter in South Carolina.
Reproduction
Mating
Redheads flock together on lakes and other bodies of water but will migrate in pairs, which are formed in December or January through elaborate courtship rituals. Unpaired redheads will migrate together in a ‘courting party’ that can be up to 25 individuals strong and hopefully find a mate within the group. The pair bonds are established yearly through a long courtship process. Males begin this process through neck-kinking and head throwing displays while emitting a cat-like call. The male will continue by initiating a neck-stretching display while producing a cough like call, a display and vocalization in which the females reciprocates. If interested, the female will herself produce inciting calls towards the male while performing alternate lateral and chin lifting movements. The male then swims ahead of her and turns the back of his head towards the female. Once courtship is finished, the two birds are paired for the year. Eventually, the male initiates copulation by alternating bill dipping and preening dorsally towards the female, an action in which the female might return to the male.
Nesting
Once copulation is completed, female redheads begin forming nests. They are built with thick and strong plant material in emergent vegetation, such as hard stem bulrush, cattails and sedges, over or near standing water. Redheads do not defend their territory or home range and are actually very social while in their breeding ground. This is thought to occur because some younger, inexperienced redhead females parasitize other pochards. Some redheads lay their eggs in other pochards’ nests, including the canvasback, ring-necked duck and greater and lesser scaups and this social parasitism by redheads reduces the hatching success of other pochards’ eggs, especially those of the canvasback. In contrast, because of the parasitic relationship between the redhead and other pochards, redhead hybrids with the ring-necked duck, canvasback and the greater and lesser scaups have been found. Canvasback x redhead hybrids can be fertile. Brood sizes range from 5-7 young, with the mother abandoning the chicks at 8 weeks old, before they are capable of flying. They remain flightless for another 2–4 weeks.
Vocalizations
There is little information on redhead vocalizations outside of breeding calls. Males will emit calls when courting the female. When the neck is fully extended in the neck-stretching display, males will emit a distinct wheee-oww, which sounds catlike. Males may also produce a soft coughing call, although this call is less frequent. Females will emit a soft errrr note when she is inciting a male.
Feeding habits
All pochards have similar diets that include both plant and animal materials. Redheads undergo a niche switch when breeding and when wintering. During the breeding season, redheads will eat as much animal matter as possible, including gastropods, mollusks and insect larvae. They will eat the occasional grass and other emergent vegetation. However, once they fly south, redheads will change their diet to include mostly plant material, including pondweeds, wild rice, wild celery, wigeon grass, bulrushes, muskgrass and shoal grass.
Gastropods known as food of Aythya americana include: Acteocina canaliculata, Acteon punctostriatus, Anachis avara, Anachis obesa, Caecum nitidum, Calliostoma sp., Cerithidea pliculosa, Cerithium lutosum, Crepidula convexa, Diastoma varium, Melanella sp., Mitrella lunata, Nassarius acutus, Nassarius vibex, Natica sp., Neritina virginea, Odostomia trifida, Olivella minuta, Olivella watermani, Polinices sp., Pyramidellidae, Pyrgocythara plicosa, Rissoina catesbyana, Sayella livida, Turbonilla sp., Turbonilla interrupta and Vitrinella sp.
References
External links
Redhead Species Account - Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Redhead - Aythya americana - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Sound, Sound metadata Macaulay Library, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Aythya
Birds of North America
Birds of Mexico
Birds of the Greater Antilles
Birds of the Bahamas
Birds of Canada
Birds of the Turks and Caicos Islands
Birds of Bermuda
Birds described in 1838
Taxa named by Thomas Campbell Eyton | [
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249875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Award%20for%20Best%20Musical | Tony Award for Best Musical | The Tony Award for Best Musical is given annually to the best new Broadway musical, as determined by Tony Award voters. The award is one of the ceremony's longest-standing awards, having been presented each year since 1949. The award goes to the producers of the winning musical. A musical is eligible for consideration in a given year if it has not previously been produced on Broadway and is not "determined... to be a 'classic' or in the historical or popular repertoire", otherwise it may be considered for Best Revival of a Musical.
Best Musical is the final award presented at the Tony Awards ceremony. Excerpts from the musicals that are nominated for this award are usually performed during the ceremony before this award is presented.
This is a list of winners and nominations for the Tony Award for Best Musical.
Winners and nominees
1940s
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Records
Accumulated records as of 2019:
The Producers has won the most Tonys, winning in 12 categories, including Best Musical.
Hamilton is the most-nominated production in Tony history, with 16 nominations.
The Sound of Music and Fiorello! are the only two musicals to date to have ever tied for the Best Musical award (in 1960).
Passion is the shortest-running winner, with 280 performances.
The Phantom of the Opera is the longest-running Best Musical winner, with 16 previews and 13,370 performances before performances were temporarily suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Hallelujah, Baby! is the only show thus far to have won the Tony Award for Best Musical after closing.
Fun Home is the first musical written entirely by a team of women to win the Tony Award for Best Musical.
Kiss Me, Kate and Titanic are the only two shows to win the Tony Award for Best Musical without any Tony nominations in the acting categories. (In Kiss Me, Kate'''s case, only winners were announced that year, and only in the lead performance categories.)
What is now the Richard Rodgers Theatre has housed more Best Musical winners than any other theater on Broadway: Guys and Dolls (1951), Damn Yankees (1956), Redhead (1959), How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1962), 1776 (1969), Raisin (1974), A Chorus Line (1976), Nine (1982), In the Heights (2008), and Hamilton (2016).The Mystery of Edwin Drood was the first winner of the Tony Award for Best Musical to be entirely written by one man, Rupert Holmes. Rent (by Jonathan Larson) and Hamilton (by Lin-Manuel Miranda) also achieved this feat. Hadestown'' is the first musical entirely written by one woman, Anaïs Mitchell, to win this award.
The 74th Tony Awards (2020) is the first ceremony in which only jukebox musicals were nominated.
See also
Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical
Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical
Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical
List of Tony Award and Olivier Award winning musicals
References
External links
Tony Awards Official site
Tony Awards at Internet Broadway database Listing
Internet Broadway Database, See Awards
Tony Awards at broadwayworld.com
Tony Awards
Musical theatre awards
Awards established in 1949
1949 establishments in the United States | [
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249876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bend%20It%20Like%20Beckham | Bend It Like Beckham | Bend It Like Beckham (also known as Kick It Like Beckham) is a 2002 romantic comedy sports film produced, written and directed by Gurinder Chadha, and starring Parminder Nagra, Keira Knightley, Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Anupam Kher, Juliet Stevenson, Shaznay Lewis and Archie Panjabi.
The film's title refers to the English footballer David Beckham, and his skill at scoring from free kicks by curling the ball past a wall of defenders. It follows the 18-year-old daughter of British Indian Sikhs in London. She is infatuated with football but her parents have forbidden her to play because she is a girl. She joins a local women's team, which makes its way to the top of the league.
Bend It Like Beckham was released theatrically on 12 April 2002 by Redbus Film Distribution, and on DVD and VHS on 18 November 2002 by Warner Home Video. The film was a surprise critical and commercial success. With a gross of $76.6 million at the box office, it is the highest-grossing sports film to focus on association football. A stage musical version opened at London's Phoenix Theatre on 24 June 2015.
Plot
Jesminder "Jess" Bhamra is the daughter of British Indian Sikhs living in Hounslow, London. Jess is infatuated with football, but her parents do not support her interest. However, she sometimes plays in the park with boys, including her best friend, Tony, a closeted gay man. Her family is occupied with planning for Jess's sister Pinky's imminent wedding.
Jules Paxton, a member of the Hounslow Harriers, a local women's amateur football team, notices Jess's football skills, befriends her, and invites her to try out for the team. The coach, Joe—a young Irish former player whose own career was derailed by injuries—accepts her onto the team. Although Jess's parents forbid her to join the team, she plays behind their backs, claiming to have a part-time job when she is actually at football practice. When he learns that Jess is on the team without her parents' permission, Joe pleads with Mr. Bhamra to allow Jess to play, but he refuses, revealing that he does not want Jess to suffer the way he did when he was excluded from a cricket club because of anti-Indian sentiment.
With Pinky covering for her, Jess travels with the team to play a match in Germany; the Harriers lose the match after Jess fails to score on a penalty kick. When they go out clubbing in Hamburg after the match, Jules catches Joe and Jess about to kiss. This sours the two girls' friendship, as Jules also is attracted to Joe. Furthermore, Jess's parents find out she is still on the team by seeing a newspaper article about the Hamburg match. After returning, Jess goes to Jules's house to try to patch up their friendship, but Jules's mother, confused by overhearing only parts of an argument, thinks they are hiding a lesbian relationship.
Jess's father secretly attends one of her games, and sees Jess mocked with a racial slur by an opposing player, and Joe hugging her afterward to comfort her. The Harriers qualify for the finals of the league tournament, but the championship match—with an American talent scout in attendance—is to be held on the same day as Pinky's wedding, so Jess resigns herself to missing the game. At Pinky's wedding Jess is visibly miserable; her father tells her to go to the game so she can be happy on her sister's wedding day. The Harriers are behind 1–0 when Jess arrives, but they rally, and eventually Jess wins the game with a free kick. The scout offers Jess and Jules sports scholarships at Santa Clara University in California. Jules and Jess share a hug and kiss to celebrate, furthering Jules's mother's suspicions. Jess returns to the wedding, now able to celebrate. Jules's mother gives Jules a ride to the wedding as well, but when they arrive, Mrs. Paxton accuses Jess of being a hypocrite and a lesbian. Jules drags her mother away, angrily clarifying her relationship with Jess.
Later that day, Jess has still not told her parents about the scholarship; she is afraid they might not allow her to go to the United States on her own. Tony, out of friendship for Jess, decides to lie to the family and tell them he is engaged to Jess as long as she gets to go to any college she wants. The Bhamras happily accept, but Jess immediately confesses the truth. Jess's father announces he doesn't want Jess to suffer as he did, and accepts her desire to play football. Jess runs to the football field to tell Joe of her parents' decision. The two almost kiss, but Jess pulls away, saying her parents would object, and that although they had come far enough to let her go to America to play, she doesn't think they would be able to handle another cultural rebellion from her.
On the day of Jess and Jules's flight to America, the two are about to board the plane when Joe arrives and confesses his love for Jess. The two kiss and Jess agrees to sort out their relationship (and her parents) when she returns for Christmas. While at the airport, they see David Beckham with his wife Victoria, which Jules takes as a sign.
While Jess and Jules are away, Pinky becomes pregnant, Mr and Mrs. Paxton patch up their relationship, and Mr. Bhamra gets back into playing cricket with Joe.
Cast
Production
Gurinder Chadha co-wrote the script with Guljit Bindra and screenwriting partner Paul Mayeda Berges. Nayar and Chadha actively pursued financing for the film at Sundance Film Festival. Having previously worked with Road Movies, a German production company on several other projects, Nayar approached them and they came on board, followed by British Screen and The Film Council.
Helkon SK, formerly known as Redbus, picked up the script. Fox Searchlight Pictures picked up the rights for distribution in the United States at the Cannes Film Festival in 2002.
Filming
Principal photography began on 18 June 2001. A variety of locations around London and Shepperton Studios, Surrey were used for the nine-week shoot, with the semi-final taking place over a three-day period in Hamburg, Germany.
Casting
Chadha, who played an active role in casting, chose Parminder Nagra and Keira Knightley, who would play the two lead roles in the film, while Archie Panjabi and Jonathan Rhys Meyers were in early talks to join the cast. Shaznay Lewis and Anupam Kher were also in final talks. Juliet Stevenson and Frank Harper joined as Paula Paxton and Alan Paxton, mother and father of Jules.
For the role of Jess's mother, Mrs Bhamra, Chadha turned to Shaheen Khan, whom she had previously cast in Bhaji on the Beach. Anupam Kher, a Bollywood actor, was cast as Mr Bhamra, Jess's father. Chadha worked with The Football Association and ended up casting actual players from a variety of school teams.
Release
Theatrical
Bend It Like Beckham was released theatrically on 12 April 2002 by Redbus Film Distribution. The film then received a limited theatrical release in the United States on 12 March 2003 by Fox Searchlight Pictures. When originally released in the United Kingdom, it topped the country's box office for the next three weekends, before being overtaken by About a Boy.
Home media
The film was released on DVD and VHS on 18 November 2002 by Warner Home Video, and re-released on DVD and VHS on 30 September 2003 in the United States by 20th Century Studios Home Entertainment. Among the DVD bonus features, there are several scenes that did not make the final release. Some include dialogue from Pinky's friends and from Jules, as well as her mother meeting Kevin and his friends outside a shop, which would have been helpful, as Kevin is mentioned three times but is never seen.
On the North American Billboard video charts, the film entered the top ten of the Top DVD Sales and Top DVD Rentals charts, at number six on Top VHS Sales, and number seven on Top VHS Rentals.
Reception
Critical response
Bend It Like Beckham surprised critics and met with mostly positive reviews. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 85% based on 154 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10. The consensus states, "Inspiring, compassionate, and with a sly undercurrent of social commentary, Bend It Like Beckham is a lively feel-good movie that genuinely charms." Metacritic gave the movie a score of 66 based 32 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times noted that the film "was really full of easy humor, an impeccable sense of milieu that is the result of knowing the culture intimately enough to poke fun at it while understanding its underlying integrity."
The Times of India noted the film's social context, saying, "[it] is really about the bending of rules, social paradigms and lives – all to finally curl that ball, bending it like Beckham, through the goalpost of ambition.... The creeping divide shows that Britain is changing, but hasn't quite changed yet. The stiff upper lip has travelled miles from the time Chadha's father was denied a pint at some pubs at Southall, but like dollops of coagulated spice in badly stirred curry, discrimination crops up to spoil the taste, every now and then, in multi-racial Britain."
Planet Bollywood gave the film a mark of 9 out of 10: the "screenplay not only explores the development of Jess as a person, but also the changing values and culture of NRI teens: Jess's urge to break the social norm of the Indian home-maker, her sister's (Archie Punjabi) sexually active relationship, and the gay Indian [Tony, played by Ameet Chana]."
The Hindu argued, "If ever there is a film that is positive, realistic and yet delightful, then it has to be Dream Production's latest venture directed by Gurinder Chadha... Light-hearted, without taking away the considerable substance in terms of values, attitudes and the love for sport, the film just goes to prove that there are ways to be convincing and honest."
Jamie Russell at the BBC gave it 4 out of 5 stars, and argued that "Mr Beckham ought to be proud to have his name on such a great film." The British film was distributed by iDream Productions in India, and went on to set the record in India for most tickets sold during a single weekend for a foreign movie.
Box office
In the United Kingdom, the film grossed over £11million, making it one of the highest-grossing Black/Asian-themed British films. With in US box office revenue, Bend It Like Beckham became the highest-grossing Indian-themed film in the United States since Gandhi (1982). At the time of its release, Bend It Like Beckham became the highest-grossing association football themed sports film in the United States; it remains the third highest-grossing film there in this genre (behind Kicking & Screaming and She's the Man). The film grossed worldwide.
Accolades
Wins
2004 Pyongyang Film Festival: Music Prize
2002 Bordeaux International Feminine Film Festival: Best actress, Special Jury Prize, Audience Award
2002 British Comedy Awards: Best comedy film
2003 ESPY Awards: Best Sports Movie ESPY Award
2004 GLAAD Media Awards: Outstanding Film – Wide Release
Nominations
2006 Billie Award – Entertainment (Best film)
2004 Writers Guild of America Award – Best Screenplay
2003 British Academy of Film and Television Arts – Best Film
2003 Golden Globe for Best Film – Musical or Comedy
2002 Locarno International Film Festival: Audience Award – Gurinder Chadha
2002 London Film Critics Circle Awards: British Newcomer of the Year – Keira Knightley
2002 International Film Festival of Marrakech: Special Jury Award – Gurinder Chadha
2003 National Board of Review of Motion Pictures: Special Recognition
2002 Sydney Film Festival: PRIX UIP – Gurinder Chadha
2003 The Comedy Festival: Film Discovery Jury Award – Gurinder Ch
Soundtrack
The release of the soundtrack in the United Kingdom features bhangra music, and songs by the Spice Girls' Victoria Beckham and Melanie C and rock band Texas. It also features "Baddest Ruffest" by Backyard Dog, the aria Nessun Dorma, from Puccini's Turandot and excerpts from dance band Basement Jaxx. The USA release rearranges the tracks and excludes some material. "Dream the Dream" appears in the movie but did not make the final cut on the soundtrack.
Release (United Kingdom)
Craig Pruess & Bally Sagoo Feat. Gunjan – "Titles"
Blondie – "Atomic"
Backyard Dog – "Baddest Ruffest"
B21 – "Darshan"
(Movie Dialogue) – "It's Beckham's Corner"
Victoria Beckham – "I Wish"
(Movie Dialogue) – "Learn To Cook Dahl"
Malkit Singh – "Jind Mahi"
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan – "Tere Bin Nahin Lagda"
Bally Sagoo Feat Gunjan – "Noorie"
(Movie Dialogue) – "Juicy Juicy Mangoes"
Basement Jaxx – "Do Your Thing"
(Movie Dialogue) – "Eyes Down"
Texas – "Inner Smile"
Melanie C – "Independence Day"
(Movie Dialogue) – "Can't Make Round Chapattis"
Hans Raj Hans – "Punjabiyan Di Shaan"
Gunjan – "Kinna Sohna"
Tito Beltrán – "Nessun Dorma"
(Movie Dialogue) – "The Offside Rule Is"
Bina Mistry – "Hot Hot Hot"
Craig Pruess & Bally Sagoo Feat. Gunjan – "Hai Raba!"
Curtis Mayfield – "Move on Up"
Release (United States)
Craig Pruess & Bally Sagoo Feat. Gunjan – "Titles"
(Movie Dialogue) – "It's Beckham's Corner"
Texas – "Inner Smile"
Malkit Singh – "Jind Mahi"
Bally Sagoo Feat Gunjan – "Noorie"
(Movie Dialogue) – "Learn To Cook Dahl"
Victoria Beckham – "I Wish"
(Movie Dialogue) – "Juicy Juicy Mangoes"
Gunjan – "Kinna Sohna"
Partners in Rhyme (featuring Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan) – "Tere Bin Nahin Lagda"
(Movie Dialogue) – "Can't Make Round Chapattis"
Melanie C – "Independence Day"
B21 – "Darshan"
(Movie Dialogue) – "Eyes Down"
Bina Mistry – "Hot Hot Hot"
Blondie – "Atomic"
Craig Pruess & Bally Sagoo Feat. Gunjan – "Hai Raba!"
Tito Beltrán – "Nessun Dorma"
North Korean broadcast
To mark the tenth anniversary of North Korea's relations with the United Kingdom, an edited version of Bend It Like Beckham was broadcast on North Korean state television on 26 December 2010, Boxing Day. The British Ambassador to South Korea, Martin Uden, said it was the "first ever Western-made film to air on television" in North Korea.
Stage musical
A stage musical version of the film opened at London's Phoenix Theatre in June 2015.
On 7 May 2019 it was announced that the stage production, which debuted in London's West End, would have its North American premiere in Toronto, with a limited run at the St. Lawrence Centre for the Arts' Bluma Appel Theatre beginning in December 2019.
References
External links
2002 films
2002 comedy-drama films
2002 in women's association football
2002 independent films
2002 LGBT-related films
2000s buddy comedy films
2000s coming-of-age comedy-drama films
2000s female buddy films
2002 romantic comedy-drama films
2000s sports comedy-drama films
2000s teen comedy-drama films
2000s teen romance films
American association football films
American buddy comedy-drama films
American coming-of-age comedy-drama films
American female buddy films
American films
American independent films
American romantic comedy-drama films
American sports comedy-drama films
American teen comedy-drama films
American teen LGBT-related films
American LGBT-related films
American teen romance films
British association football films
British coming-of-age comedy-drama films
British female buddy films
British films
British independent films
British Indian films
British romantic comedy-drama films
British sports comedy-drama films
British teen comedy-drama films
British teen LGBT-related films
British teen romance films
Coming-of-age romance films
Cultural depictions of David Beckham
2000s English-language films
English-language German films
Films about immigration
Films about Indian weddings
Films about Sikhism
Films about women in the Indian diaspora
Films directed by Gurinder Chadha
Films set in London
Films shot in London
Films with screenplays by Gurinder Chadha
Films with screenplays by Paul Mayeda Berges
Fox Searchlight Pictures films
German association football films
German coming-of-age comedy-drama films
German films
German independent films
German LGBT-related films
German romantic comedy-drama films
German sports comedy-drama films
German teen comedy-drama films
LGBT-related romantic comedy-drama films
LGBT-related sports comedy-drama films
Women's association football films
Teen sports films | [
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249880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canvasback | Canvasback | The canvasback (Aythya valisineria) is a species of diving duck, the largest found in North America.
Taxonomy
Scottish-American naturalist Alexander Wilson described the canvasback in 1814. The genus name is derived from Greek aithuia, an unidentified seabird mentioned by authors, including Hesychius and Aristotle.
The species name valisineria comes from the wild celery Vallisneria americana, whose winter buds and rhizomes are the canvasback's preferred food during the nonbreeding period. The celery genus is itself named for seventeenth century Italian botanist Antonio Vallisneri.
The duck's common name is based on early European inhabitants of North America's assertion that its back was a canvas-like color. In other languages it is just a white-backed duck; for example in French, morillon à dos blanc, or Spanish, pato lomo blanco. In Mexico it is called pato coacoxtle.
Description
It ranges from in length and weighs , with a wingspan of . It is the largest species in the genus Aythya, being similar in size to a mallard but with a heavier and more compact build than it. 191 males wintering in western New York averaged and 54 females there averaged . The canvasback has a distinctive wedge-shaped head and long graceful neck. The adult male (drake) has a black bill, a chestnut red head and neck, a black breast, a grayish back, black rump, and a blackish brown tail. The drake's sides, back, and belly are white with fine vermiculation resembling the weave of a canvas, which gave rise to the bird's common name. The bill is blackish and the legs and feet are bluish-gray. The iris is bright red in the spring, but duller in the winter. The adult female (hen) also has a black bill, a light brown head and neck, grading into a darker brown chest and foreback. The sides, flanks, and back are grayish brown. The bill is blackish and the legs and feet are bluish-gray. Its sloping profile distinguishes it from other ducks.
Breeding
The breeding habitat of the canvasback is in North American prairie potholes. The bulky nest is built from vegetation in a marsh and lined with down. Loss of nesting habitat has caused populations to decline. The canvasback usually takes a new mate each year, pairing in late winter on ocean bays. It prefers to nest over water on permanent prairie marshes surrounded by emergent vegetation, such as cattails and bulrushes, which provide protective cover. Other important breeding areas are the subarctic river deltas in Saskatchewan and the interior of Alaska.
It has a clutch size of approximately 5–11 eggs, which are greenish drab. The chicks are covered in down at hatching and able to leave the nest soon after. The canvasback sometimes lays its eggs in other canvasback nests and redheads often parasitize canvasback nests.
Migration
The canvasback migrates through the Mississippi Flyway to wintering grounds in the mid-Atlantic United States and the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley (LMAV), or the Pacific Flyway to wintering grounds along the coast of California. Historically, the Chesapeake Bay wintered the majority of canvasbacks, but with the recent loss of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) in the bay, their range has shifted south towards the LMAV. Brackish estuarine bays and marshes with abundant submergent vegetation and invertebrates are ideal wintering habitat for canvasbacks. A small number of birds are also known to have crossed the Atlantic, with several sightings being recorded in the United Kingdom. In December 1996, a canvasback was observed in a quarry in Kent, which was followed by an additional sighting in Norfolk in January 1997. At least five more sightings have since been confirmed in England.
Diet
The canvasback feeds mainly by diving, sometimes dabbling, mostly eating seeds, buds, leaves, tubers, roots, snails, and insect larvae. Besides its namesake, wild celery, the canvasback shows a preference for the tubers of sago pondweed, which can make up 100% of its diet at times. The canvasback has large webbed feet adapted for diving and its bill helps it dig tubers from the substrate. In the late 1930s, studies showed that four-fifths of the food eaten by canvasbacks was plant material.
In the early 1950s it was estimated that there were 225,000 canvasbacks wintering in the Chesapeake Bay; this represented one-half of the entire North American population. By 1985, there were only 50,000 ducks wintering there, or one-tenth of the population. Canvasbacks were extensively hunted around the start of the 20th century, but federal hunting regulations now restrict their harvest, so hunting is ruled out as a cause for the decline. Scientists have now concluded that the decline in duck populations was due to the decline in SAV acreage. Today the population has stabilized and is even increasing slightly, although it is nowhere near previous levels. Studies have now shown that by the 1970s four-fifths of the ducks' diet was made up of Baltic Clams, which are very common in the Chesapeake Bay: the ducks have been able to adapt to the decline in SAV by changing their diet. Redheads, which also feed on SAV tubers, have not been able to adapt, and their population remains low. Canvasbacks are omnivores, eating everything from seeds to plant tubers and from mussels to insects. During the breeding season they eat both plant and animal foods, but during migration and winter they primarily eat rhizomes and tubers from aquatic plants. Canvasbacks dive straight down to depths of around 7 feet to extract pieces of aquatic plants with their bill. Other food is taken from or just below the surface of the water.
Cuisine
Canvasback ducks were a particularly prestigious game dish in mid-19th-century America. They were rarely found on everyday menus, and often featured at banquets. They were generally sourced from Maryland and Chesapeake Bay, and their flavor was attributed to their diet of wild celery. By the end of the century, though, they had become "scarce, expensive, or unobtainable".
Edith Wharton refers to canvasback with blackcurrant sauce as an especially luxurious dinner served in New York City in the 1870s. Canvasback duck was a canonical element, along with Terrapin à la Maryland, of the elegant "Maryland Feast" menu, an "elite standard... that lasted for decades".
Conservation
Populations have fluctuated widely. Low levels in the 1980s put the canvasback on lists of special concern, but numbers increased greatly in the 1990s. The canvasback is particularly vulnerable to drought and wetland drainage on the prairies of North America.
Many species of ducks, including the canvasback, are highly migratory, but are effectively conserved by protecting the places where they nest, even though they may be hunted away from their breeding grounds. Protecting key feeding and breeding grounds is key for conserving many types of migratory birds.
References
External links
Canvasback - Aythya valisineria - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Aythya
Native birds of Alaska
Native birds of Western Canada
Native birds of the Canadian Prairies
Native birds of the Northwestern United States
Birds described in 1814
Taxa named by Alexander Wilson (ornithologist)
Extant Pleistocene first appearances | [
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249885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranquility%20Bay | Tranquility Bay | Tranquility Bay was a residential treatment facility affiliated with World Wide Association of Specialty Programs and Schools (WWASPS), located in Calabash Bay, Saint Elizabeth Parish, Jamaica. The facility operated from 1997 to 2009 and received notoriety for its harsh and often abusive treatment of its students, eventually shutting down in 2009 after allegations of child abuse came to light through lawsuits and highly publicized student testimonies.
History
The director was Jay Kay, a college dropout with no training in child development who ran a mini-mart in San Diego, and who is son of WWASPS president Ken Kay. The cost for one child ranged from $25,000 to $40,000 a year. Tranquility Bay was generally acknowledged as the toughest of the WWASPS schools. As with other WWASPS facilities, Tranquility Bay has been the subject of much controversy, including allegations of torture, unsanitary living conditions, unqualified employees, and denial of medical care; these claims have been the subject of multiple lawsuits from former Tranquility Bay residents.
Tranquility Bay stated that it was dedicated to helping parents who are having difficulty with their children, whether they are doing drugs, breaking the law, or being disobedient or disrespectful. In 2003, Kay said "if I have kids, and they start giving me a problem, well, they are going straight in the program. If I had to, I'd pull the trigger without hesitation"; however, in 1999, Kay (who at that time was not working for WWASPS) said that the Tranquility Bay staff were "untrained", without "credentials of any kind", and that Tranquility Bay "could be leading these kids to long-term problems that we don't have a clue about because we're not going about it in the proper way".
Children as young as 12 were admitted to Tranquility Bay, for reasons ranging from drug use to conflicts with a new stepmother. From 2002 to 2005 the Government of the Cayman Islands sent some delinquent youth to Tranquility Bay; the government funded the students as they were located in Tranquility Bay.
Tranquility Bay was shut down in January 2009, after the case of Isaac Hersh gained national media and political attention and years of alleged abuse and torture came to light. Many politicians, including Hillary Clinton, were involved in Isaac's release.
In popular culture
The "Cassie" episode of the A&E program Intervention, first shown in January 2011, features a young woman addicted to prescription painkillers who had been sent to Tranquility Bay as a child and blamed her father for not rescuing her. In the episode, Cassie alleged that her fellow residents consumed "chemicals" so they would be sent to the hospital and would be able to talk to their parents regarding the abuse they were enduring. However, she alleged that when they vomited in response to the poison, rather than being sent to a hospital, they were restrained by staff face down in their own vomit.
References
Further reading
Art, Cindy. 2012. Trapped in Paradise, A Memoir. . An account of an attendee's time at Tranquility Bay.
External links
Tranquility Bay website -
Buildings and structures in Saint Elizabeth Parish
Educational institutions established in 1997
Educational institutions disestablished in 2009
Behavior modification
Boarding schools in Jamaica
Youth rights
Therapeutic boarding schools
Schools in Jamaica
1997 establishments in Jamaica
World Wide Association of Specialty Programs and Schools | [
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249886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard%20Adleman | Leonard Adleman | Leonard Adleman (born December 31, 1945) is an American computer scientist. He is one of the creators of the RSA encryption algorithm, for which he received the 2002 Turing Award, often called the Nobel prize of Computer science. He is also known for the creation of the field of DNA computing.
Biography
Leonard M. Adleman was born to a Jewish family in California. His family had originally immigrated to the United States from modern-day Belarus, from the Minsk area. He grew up in San Francisco and attended the University of California, Berkeley, where he received his B.A. degree in mathematics in 1968 and his Ph.D. degree in EECS in 1976. He was also the mathematical consultant on the movie Sneakers. In 1996, he became a member of the National Academy of Engineering for contributions to the theory of computation and cryptography. He is also a member of the National Academy of Sciences.
Adleman is also an amateur boxer and has sparred with James Toney.
Discovery
In 1994, his paper Molecular Computation of Solutions To Combinatorial Problems described the experimental use of DNA as a computational system. In it, he solved a seven-node instance of the Hamiltonian Graph problem, an NP-complete problem similar to the travelling salesman problem. While the solution to a seven-node instance is trivial, this paper is the first known instance of the successful use of DNA to compute an algorithm. DNA computing has been shown to have potential as a means to solve several other large-scale combinatorial search problems. Adleman is widely referred to as the Father of DNA Computing.
In 2002, he and his research group managed to solve a 'nontrivial' problem using DNA computation. Specifically, they solved a 20-variable SAT problem having more than 1 million potential solutions. They did it in a manner similar to the one Adleman used in his seminal 1994 paper. First, a mixture of DNA strands logically representative of the problem's solution space was synthesized. This mixture was then operated upon algorithmically using biochemical techniques to winnow out the 'incorrect' strands, leaving behind only those strands that 'satisfied' the problem. Analysis of the nucleotide sequence of these remaining strands revealed 'correct' solutions to the original problem.
He is one of the original discoverers of the Adleman–Pomerance–Rumely primality test.
Fred Cohen, in his 1984 paper, Experiments with Computer Viruses credited Adleman with coining the term "computer virus".
As of 2017, Adleman is working on the mathematical theory of Strata. He is a Computer Science professor at the University of Southern California.
Awards
For his contribution to the invention of the RSA cryptosystem, Adleman, along with Ron Rivest and Adi Shamir, has been a recipient of the 1996 Paris Kanellakis Theory and Practice Award and the 2002 Turing Award, often called the Nobel Prize of Computer Science. Adleman was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2006 and a 2021 ACM Fellow.
See also
List of famous programmers
Important publications in cryptography
References
External links
Adleman's homepage
Turing Award Citation
Mathematical consultant for movie Sneakers
American computer programmers
American science writers
People of Belarusian-Jewish descent
1945 births
Living people
Modern cryptographers
Public-key cryptographers
Scientists from the San Francisco Bay Area
Turing Award laureates
University of Southern California faculty
Writers from San Francisco
Jewish scientists
Jewish biologists
UC Berkeley College of Engineering alumni
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
20th-century American scientists
21st-century American scientists
Computer security academics
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni | [
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249888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Radar%20Establishment | Royal Radar Establishment | The Royal Radar Establishment was a research centre in Malvern, Worcestershire in the United Kingdom. It was formed in 1953 as the Radar Research Establishment by the merger of the Air Ministry's Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) and the British Army's Radar Research and Development Establishment (RRDE). It was given its new name after a visit by Queen Elizabeth II in 1957. Both names were abbreviated to RRE. In 1976 the Signals Research and Development Establishment (SRDE), involved in communications research, joined the RRE to form the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment (RSRE).
The two groups had been closely associated since before the opening of World War II, when the predecessor to RRDE was formed as a small group within the Air Ministry's research centre in Bawdsey Manor in Suffolk. Forced to leave Bawdsey due to its exposed location on the east coast of England, both groups moved several times before finally settling in separate locations in Malvern beginning in May 1942. The merger in 1953 that formed the RRE renamed these as the North Site (RRDE), at , and the South Site (TRE), at . In 1991 they were partially privatized as part of the Defence Research Agency, which became Defence Evaluation and Research Agency in 1996. The North Site was closed in 2003 and the work was consolidated at the South Site, while the former North Site was sold off for housing developments. The RSRE is now part of Qinetiq.
The earlier research and development work of TRE and RRDE on radar was expanded into solid state physics, electronics, and computer hardware and software. The RRE's overall scope was extended to include cryogenics and other topics. Infrared detection for guided missiles and heat sensing devices was a major defence application. The SRDE brought satellite communications and fibre optics knowledge.
Administrative history
The earliest concerted effort to develop radar in the UK dates to 1935, and Robert Watt replied to an Air Ministry question about radio-based death rays by stating they were impossible, but using radio as a detection means was possible. After a simple practical demonstration, a prototype system was built at Orfordness on the east coast of England. While on a Sunday drive in the area, Watt noticed the large and unused Bawdsey Manor, and this was leased by the Air Ministry to become first radar research centre in the country. Soon after taking over Bawdsey in 1936, the British Army heard of their efforts and formed a group to work with them to develop ground-based applications. The first project of this "Army Cell" was a ranging system for anti-aircraft artillery, but they soon added the Coast Defence radars and began work on the proximity fuse.
At the outbreak of the war in 1939, the location of Bawdsey, right on the east coast, was considered far too exposed to attack. The Air Ministry team quickly moved to Dundee in Scotland, where the former Air Ministry Experimental Station became the Air Ministry Research Establishment (AMRE). The Army group moved to Christchurch, outside Bournemouth, becoming the Air Defence Experimental Establishment (ADEE). The facilities in Dundee proved far too small and isolated, and in May 1940 they moved again, this time to Worth Matravers on the south coast of England, also a short distance from Bournemouth. This was accompanied by yet another renaming, now becoming the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE).
Ultimately they began to worry that this location was also too exposed, and when they heard a German paratroop unit had moved to France directly across the English Channel, they decided to move once again. The ADEE, by this time once again renamed to the Air Defence Research and Development (ADRDE), moved to underutilized Air Ministry buildings on the north side of Malvern in May 1942. This, of course, resulted in yet another name change to the RRDE. The TRE followed shortly thereafter, taking up residence in buildings across from Malvern College on the south side of town.
TRE was part of the Ministry of Supply and, when it was formed, so was RRE. In 1959, control passed to the Ministry of Aviation. When this was abolished in 1967, control passed to the Ministry of Technology, then to the Ministry of Aviation Supply, in 1970, and to the Ministry of Defence in 1971. In 1976 RRE merged with the Signals Research and Development Establishment (SRDE) to form the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment (RSRE), which became part of the Defence Research Agency (DRA) in 1991. Later (1995), DRA was absorbed into DERA, the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency. DERA split on 2 June 2001 into two parts, a government body called Dstl (Defence Science and Technology Laboratory) and a company destined for privatisation, which became QinetiQ.
The technical departments of RRE were grouped, initially, into six Divisions: airborne radar, ground radar, guided weapons, basic techniques, physics, and engineering. The organization and personnel are described further, in a collection of linked web sites.
W. J. Richards, CBE, was Director of TRE at the time of the merger and continued as Director of RRE. William Henry (Bill) Penley, Head of Guided Missiles, took over for a year in 1961. Then George Macfarlane (after postings outside RRE) became Director in 1962.
The Physics Division – some of the staff and their work
At the time of the name change to Radar Research Establishment in 1953, the senior staff included:
Robert Allan Smith (known as R.A. and as Robin). He was Head of the Physics Division, with a staff of about 150. Having worked previously on aspects of radio and radar, his attention had become focused on solid state physics, because of the importance of semiconductors in the development of electronics and infra-red detectors. His early books had dealt with radionavigation, aerials for short wave radio, and thermodynamics. After the name change to RRE, his "most significant book, in historical terms", on the detection of infra-red radiation, was coauthored with F. E. Jones and R. P. Chasmar and published in 1968. The book "for which [he] is best known" is on semiconductors. His other books dealt with wave mechanics of crystalline solids, and, as editor, very high resolution spectroscopy. He left RRE to become Professor of Physics at the University of Sheffield in 1961, came to MIT as Director of the Center for Materials Science and Engineering a year later, and became Vice-Chancellor of Heriot-Watt University in 1968, retiring in 1974. He was an FRS, an FRSE, and received an OBE.
George G. Macfarlane. He held a special appointment as Superintendent of the Physics Department, having been assigned to direct the work in theoretical physics. He had been trained as an electrical engineer, and had worked on theoretical aspects of radar prior to the name change of the establishment. One of the designers of the Royal Radar Establishment Automatic Computer. Later, he became Deputy Director of the National Physical Laboratory, then Director of RRE, then Controller of Research at the Ministry of Technology and then Defence. He was knighted for his work.
R. P. Chasmar, Head of the infra-red group and co-author of the book mentioned above.
Tom Elliott (Charles Thomas Elliott), physicist, at RRE from the late 1960s through transition to DERA. He invented the SPRITE detector, and contributed to the development of indium antimonide as an industrial semiconductor. The "Tom Elliott Conference Centre" at the site is named in his honour. He was made an FRS and CBE, received a Rank medal, and joined Heriot-Watt University.
Alan F. Gibson. Head of Transistor Group at RRE, then the first Professor of Physics at the University of Essex in 1963, and later Head of Laser Division of Rutherford Laboratory (1975–1983). He was named Fellow of the Royal Society in 1978.
Cyril Hilsum, physicist. Work in industrial and government laboratories and in academe includes theoretical solid state physics and development of liquid crystals. Elected Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering and Fellow of the Royal Society, recipient of Max Born Prize and Faraday medal.
Edward G. S. Paige. Worked on semiconductors, with Denis Maines turned to Surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices, led team that received Wolfe Medal of MOD and earned RRE a Queen's Award, later Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Oxford, awarded Rayleigh Medal and Duddell Medal.
Leo Pincherle. Head of the theoretical solid state physics group, and authority on band structure theory. His monograph on this topic was published in 1971. He also published a standard text on heat and thermodynamics, during his later appointment as Professor of Physics at Bedford College, London.
Albert M. Uttley, mathematician, computer scientist and experimental psychologist. Designed AI trainer, the TREAC digital computer, and contributed to early discussions of cybernetics. Continued human factors work at National Physical Laboratory and then as Research Professor in the Experimental Psychology Laboratory of the University of Sussex.
Philip Woodward had pioneered the application of probability theory to the filtering of radar signals, and wrote a monograph on the topic. His results included the Woodward Ambiguity Function, "the standard tool for waveform and matched filter analysis". He continued to direct theoretical work on radar after the establishment changed its name. Later, he led the group that developed the Coral 66 computer programming language. He was, at different times, Honorary Professor in Electrical Engineering at the University of Birmingham and Visiting Professor in Cybernetics at the University of Reading. In 2000, the Woodward Building named in his honour was opened on the site that had then become DERA by Sir John Chisholm. In 2005, he received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Royal Academy of Engineering. In 2009, he received the Dennis J. Picard Medal of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), for Radar Technologies and Applications.
Other members of the Physics Division who made significant contributions to several fields of endeavour include:
William Bardsley, physicist. His work at Malvern on growing crystals was published in a series of papers that have been referenced over 200 times through the time of writing (2010), in work on semiconductor devices and, in one instance, space science.
Michael P. Barnett, (1929–2012). At Malvern he worked on theory of semiconductors, including organic materials. Later, he taught at MIT, the University of London, Columbia University and City University of New York. His earlier publications on several topics has been followed by more recent work on computational chemistry and symbolic calculation.
Paul N. Butcher, theoretical solid state physics. After working at Malvern, he was appointed to a chair at the University of Warwick, and has published four books.
Geoffrey V. Chester, theoretical physicist. At Malvern (1953–54), he worked on mathematical problems of radar. Later, at Cornell University, he was Director of the Laboratory of Atomic and Solid State Physics (1968–74) and Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences (1986–91).
J. B. Gunn, solid state physicist. At Malvern he worked on the physics of electronic devices. Later, at the IBM Research Laboratories in the U.S., he discovered the Gunn effect used in the Gunn diode.
William D. Lawson, co-recipient of Rank Prize for Optoelectronics in 1976,
Trevor Simpson Moss, solid state physicist, author of definitive monographs Photoconductivity of the elements and Optical Properties of semiconductors, and series editor of Handbook on Semiconductors of the North-Holland Publishing Company.
S. Nielson, co-recipient of Rank Prize for Optoelectronics in 1976,
Michael J. Radcliffe, theoretical physicist. Later, he turned to academe in the Carnegie Institute of Technology in the U.S., and he was listed as coauthor in a revised edition of Born's Atomic Physics.
Dennis Sciama, later cosmologist and FRS. At RRE he coauthored work on band structure calculations.
A.S. Young, co-recipient of Rank Prize for Optoelectronics in 1976.
Several staff members under the supervision of Cyril Hilsum, in conjunction with George Gray and Ken Harrison of the University of Hull, developed new, stable liquid crystals in 1972, which were an immediate success as the basis of display devices in the electronics and consumer products industries. This received the Queen's Award for Technological Achievement in 1979. Patents from this development yielded royalties over £100 million, the largest of any MOD patent.
In 1956, R.A. Smith presented a comprehensive account of the contributions of RRE to physics to the Royal Society.
Radar, Guided weapons and Engineering Divisions
Although less conspicuous among academic scientists, these divisions were major players in the defence community, both in policy decision making and as an interface with industry. Development and production contracts brought staff of several companies on site, and extramural contracts strengthened ties with industry still further. "in radar alone: Plessey and Decca for aerials and waveguides, Plessey, Hilger & Watts, Clarke Chapman and Curran for millimetre-wave radar, and Mullard for precision bombing and radar reconnaissance". On returning to RRE as Director in 1962, George Macfarlane reorganized the technical departments into: Military and Civil Systems (comprising Ground Radar and Air Traffic Control, Guided Weapons and Airborne Radar groups), Physics and Electronics (comprising Physics and Electronic Groups) and Engineering. "Despite the policy shift away from fighters ... to guided weapons for UK air defence, ... RRE continued to argue for strike aircraft and kept up the necessary radar research programs."
In December 1968, the report on the programming language ALGOL 68 was published. On 20–24 July 1970, a working conference was arranged by the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) to discuss the problems of implementing the language. A small team from RRE attended to present their compiler, written by I. F. Currie, Susan G. Bond, and J. D. Morrison. ALGOL 68 was complex: implementing it was estimated to need up to 100 man-years, using multi-pass compilers with up to seven passes. The RRE team described how they had already implemented a one-pass compiler, which was already in production for engineering and scientific uses. It was the first working version of ALGOL 68.
Senior staff, of the divisions at various times included
G.W.A (Geoffrey) Dummer, electronics engineer. His early work is described in the TRE article. His oversight of the large contingent of electronics contractors continued, and he was appointed Superintendent of Applied Physics. In 1964 he sponsored a symposium on Electronic Beam Techniques for Microelectronics at R.R.E. He published over 30 books, was responsible for much further publishing on electronics. He was awarded an MBE, the American Medal of Freedom, the Wakefield Gold Medal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, and the Cledo Brunetti Award of the Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers
W. H. (Bill) Penley, physicist. Head of Guided Weapons at time of name change. Later Director of RRE, then Controller of Establishments and Research – responsible for the whole Defence research programme.
John Robert Mills joined TRE in 1939 as a post grad physicist, working initially on radar development and later, as a member of the (Offensive) Airborne Radar Division, the development of infra-red and radar targeting and reconnaissance systems. He left RRE in 1960 and spent about a year at the Ministry of Defence (MOD), London followed by five years as head of Radio Department at the Royal Aircraft Establishment in Farnborough before becoming Director of Signal Research and Development Establishment in Christchurch. He returned to RRE, which became the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment (RSRE), in 1976 as Deputy Director until his retirement in 1977.
More than 50 books were written by members of the establishment under its successive names. Details are included in the list of references below, and in the TRE article. Many more were in series that members of the staff edited.
In 1968, the Minister of Supply assured a member of parliament that the results of research at RRE on infra-red detectors would be made available to British industry.
A former member of the RRE, Martin Woodhouse, later became better known as a novelist.
References
External links
20th-century military history of the United Kingdom
History of electronic engineering
History of telecommunications in the United Kingdom
Malvern, Worcestershire
Military history of Worcestershire
Military research establishments of the United Kingdom
Radar
Research institutes in Worcestershire
1953 establishments in the United Kingdom | [
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249893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamir | Shamir | Shamir may refer to:
People
Shamir (musician), American singer-songwriter Shamir, aka Shamir Bailey
Yitzhak Shamir, former Israeli Prime Minister
Adi Shamir (born 1952), Israeli cryptographer
Dan Shamir (born 1975), Israeli professional basketball coach
Gabriel and Maxim Shamir, Israeli graphic designers
Israel Shamir, Russian-Israeli-Swedish writer
Other
Shamir's Secret Sharing, an algorithm in cryptography created by Adi Shamir.
Solomon's shamir, a worm described in the Talmud and Midrash as being capable of cutting through or disintegrating stone, used in the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem
Shamir, Israel, an Israeli kibbutz | [
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249894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%20Moved%20My%20Cheese%3F | Who Moved My Cheese? | Who Moved My Cheese? An Amazing Way to Deal with Change in Your Work and in Your Life, published on September 8, 1998, is a bestselling seminal work and motivational business fable by Spencer Johnson. The text describes the way one reacts to major change in one's work and life, and four typical reactions to those changes by two mice and two "Littlepeople", during their hunt for "cheese". A New York Times business bestseller upon release, Who Moved My Cheese? remained on the list for almost five years and spent over 200 weeks on Publishers Weeklys hardcover nonfiction list. As of 2018, it has sold almost 30 million copies worldwide in 37 languages and remains one of the best-selling business books.
Story
Allegorically, Who Moved My Cheese? features four characters: two mice, "Sniff" and "Scurry," and two Littlepeople, human metaphor, "Hem" and "Haw." (The names of the Littlepeople are taken from the phrase "hem and haw," a term for indecisiveness.) They live in a maze, a representation of one's environment, and look for cheese, representative of happiness and success. Initially without cheese, each group, the mice and humans, paired off and traveled the lengthy corridors searching for cheese. One day both groups happen upon a cheese-filled corridor at "Cheese Station C." Content with their find, the humans establish routines around their daily intake of cheese, slowly becoming arrogant in the process.
One day Sniff and Scurry arrive at "Cheese Station C" to find no cheese left, but they are not surprised. Noticing the cheese supply dwindling, they have mentally prepared beforehand for the arduous but inevitable task of finding more cheese. Leaving "Cheese Station C" behind, they begin their hunt for new cheese together. Later that day, Hem and Haw arrive at Cheese Station C only to find the same thing, no cheese. Angered and annoyed, Hem demands, "Who moved my cheese?" The humans have counted on the cheese supply to be constant, and so are unprepared for this eventuality. After deciding that the cheese is indeed gone they get angry at the unfairness of the situation. Haw suggests a search for new cheese, but Hem is dead-set in his disappointment and dismisses the proposal.
Meanwhile, Sniff and Scurry have found "Cheese Station N," and new cheese. But back at Cheese Station C, Hem and Haw are affected by their lack of cheese and blame each other for their problem. Hoping to change, Haw again proposes a search for new cheese. However, Hem is comforted by his old routine and is frightened about the unknown. He knocks the idea again. After a while of being in denial, the humans remain without cheese. One day, having discovered his debilitating fears, Haw begins to chuckle at the situation and stops taking himself so seriously. Realizing he should simply move on, Haw enters the maze, but not before chiseling "If You Do Not Change, You Can Become Extinct" on the wall of Cheese Station C for his friend to ponder.
Still fearful of his trek, Haw jots "What Would You Do If You Weren't Afraid?" on the wall and, after thinking about that, he begins his venture. Still plagued with worry (perhaps he has waited too long to begin his search...), Haw finds some bits of cheese that nourish him and he is able to continue his search. Haw realizes that the cheese has not suddenly vanished, but has dwindled from continual eating. After a stop at an empty cheese station, Haw begins worrying about the unknown again. Brushing aside his fears, Haw's new mindset allows him to again enjoy life. He has even begun to smile again! He is realizing that "When you move beyond your fear, you feel free." After another empty cheese station, Haw decides to go back for Hem with the few bits of new cheese he has managed to find.
Uncompromising, Hem refuses the new cheese, to his friend's disappointment. With knowledge learned along the way, Haw heads back into the maze. Getting deeper into the maze, inspired by bits of new cheese here and there, Haw leaves a trail of writings on the wall ("The Handwriting On the Wall"). These clarify his own thinking and give him hope that his friend will find aid in them during his search for new cheese. Still traveling, Haw one day comes across Cheese Station N, abundant with cheese, including some varieties that are strange to him, and he realizes he has found what he was looking for. After eating, Haw reflects on his experience. He ponders a return to see his old friend. But Haw decides to let Hem find his own way. Finding the largest wall in Cheese Station N, he writes:
Cautious from past experience, Haw now inspects Cheese Station N daily and explores different parts of the maze regularly to prevent any complacency from setting in. After hearing movement in the maze one day, Haw realizes someone is approaching the station. Unsure, Haw hopes that it is his friend Hem who has found the way.
Who Moved My Cheese Inc.
In 1999, Who Moved My Cheese Inc was founded to handle the Who Moved My Cheese? book order demands from businesses. In 2005, the company was reorganized as Spencer Johnson Partners with the idea of bringing in partners and additional content from Dr. Spencer Johnson, the author. Spencer Johnson Partners focused on creating additional programs and services that would continue to help clients navigate change, including Gaining Change Skills. Then, in 2009, the company was purchased and renamed Red Tree Leadership.
Reception
In the corporate environment, management has been known to distribute this book to employees during times of "structural reorganization", or during cost-cutting measures, in an attempt to portray unfavorable or unfair changes in an optimistic or opportunistic way. This has been characterized by Barbara Ehrenreich in her book Bright-sided: How the Relentless Promotion of Positive Thinking Has Undermined America as an attempt by organizational management to make employees quickly and unconditionally assimilate management ideals, even if they may prove detrimental to them professionally. Ehrenreich called the book "the classic of downsizing propaganda" and summarizes its message as "the dangerous human tendencies to 'overanalyze' and complain must be overcome for a more rodentlike approach to life. When you lose a job, just shut up and scamper along to the next one."
Dilbert cartoonist Scott Adams said that patronizing parables are one of the top 10 complaints he receives in his emails. Adams' retort to the message in the parable is that it is a "patronizing message for the proletariat to acquiesce".
Parodies
There are multiple parody works called Who Cut the Cheese?.
Andy Borowitz published a parody, Who Moved My Soap?: The CEO's Guide to Surviving Prison, Simon & Schuster, c2003.
Darrel Bristow-Bovey published a parody, I Moved Your Cheese, Penguin Random House South Africa, Apr 13, 2012.
The webcomic Abstruse Goose has a strip which is a parody of the book.
Comedian/TV host/motivational speaker Ross Shafer wrote Nobody Moved Your Cheese!
References
External links
Who Moved My Cheese?
A light-hearted look at some real-life cheese rules.
Who Moved My Cheese? The Movie
1998 non-fiction books
Business books
Business fables
G. P. Putnam's Sons books
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249895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adleman | Adleman | Adleman is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Leonard Adleman (born 1945), American theoretical computer scientist and professor of computer science and molecular biology
Robert H. Adleman (1919–1995), American novelist and historian
Tim Adleman (born 1987), American baseball player
See also
Adelman
Edelmann
References
Jewish surnames
Yiddish-language surnames | [
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249896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steyr%20AUG | Steyr AUG | The Steyr AUG () is an Austrian bullpup assault rifle chambered for the 5.56×45mm NATO intermediate cartridge, designed in the 1960s by Steyr-Daimler-Puch, and now manufactured by Steyr Mannlicher GmbH & Co KG.
It was adopted by the Austrian Army in 1978 as the StG 77 (Sturmgewehr 77), where it replaced the 7.62×51mm NATO StG 58 automatic rifle (a licence-built FN FAL). In production since 1978, it is the standard small arm of the Bundesheer and various Austrian federal police units, and its variants have also been adopted by the armed forces of dozens of countries, with some using it as a standard-issue service rifle.
Steyr AUG importation into the United States began in the 1980s as the AUG/SA (SA denoting semiautomatic). President George H.W. Bush banned the AUG via an executive order under the 1989 Assault Weapon Import Ban. Six years into the ban, AUG buyers gained a reprieve as cosmetic changes to the carbine’s design allowed importation once again. Changes included the pistol grip being changed into a thumbhole stock, and the gun barrel left unthreaded to prevent attachment of flash hiders and suppressors. The ban sunsetted in 2004, and in 2008 Steyr Arms worked with Sabre Defense to produce parts legally in the U.S.
Design details
The Steyr AUG is a selective-fire, bullpup weapon with a conventional gas-piston-operated action that fires from a closed bolt. It is designed as a Modular Weapon System that could be quickly configured as a rifle, a carbine, a sniper rifle, a sub-machine gun and even an open-bolt squad automatic weapon. The AUG employs a very high level of advanced firearms technology and is made with the extensive use of polymers and aluminium components. It is chambered in 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge and has the standard 1:9 rifling twist that will stabilise both SS109/M855 and M193 rounds.
Some nations including Australia, Ireland and New Zealand use a version with a 1:7 twist optimised for the SS109 NATO round. The submachine gun variants are chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum. The AUG consists of six interchangeable assemblies: the barrel, receiver with integrated telescopic sight or Picatinny rail, bolt carrier assembly, trigger mechanism, stock and magazine.
Operating mechanism
The AUG has a rotating bolt that features 7 radial locking lugs and is unlocked by means of a pin on the bolt body and a recessed camming guide machined into the bolt carrier. The bolt carrier itself is guided by two guide rods brazed to it and these rods run inside steel bearings in the receiver. The guide rods are hollow and contain the return springs. The bolt also contains a claw extractor that forms the eighth locking lug and a spring-loaded "bump"-type casing ejector.
The gas cylinder is offset to the right side of the barrel and works with one of the two guide rods. The AUG uses a short-stroke piston system where the right guide rod serves as the action rod, transmitting the rearward motion of the gas-driven piston to the bolt carrier. The left-hand rod provides retracting handle pressure when connected by the forward assist and can also be utilised as a reamer to remove fouling in the gas cylinder. The firearm uses a 3-position gas valve. The first setting, marked with a small dot, is used for normal operation. The second setting, illustrated with a large dot, indicates fouled conditions. The third, "GR" closed position is used to launch rifle grenades (of the non-bullet trap type).
The AUG is hammer-fired and the firing mechanism is contained in the rear of the stock, near the butt, covered by a synthetic rubber shoulder plate. The hammer group is made entirely of plastics except for the springs and pins and is contained in an open-topped plastic box which lies between the magazine and the buttplate. During firing the recoiling bolt group travels over the top of it, resetting the hammer. Since the trigger is located some distance away, it transmits its energy through a sear lever which passes by the side of the magazine. The firing pin is operated by a plastic hammer under pressure from a coil spring.
Features
The AUG comes standard with four magazines, a muzzle cap, spare bolt for left-handed shooters, blank-firing adaptor, cleaning kit, sling and either an American M7 or German KCB-77 M1 bayonet.
Muzzle devices and barrel lengths
A three-pronged, open-type flash suppressors were used on the , and length barrels, whereas the light machine gun barrel received a closed-type ported muzzle device (combination flash suppressor and compensator) and an integral, lightweight folding bipod. The flash suppressors are screwed to the muzzle and internally threaded to take a blank-firing attachment.
Trigger
The AUG features an Spz-kr type progressive trigger (pulling the trigger halfway produces semi-automatic fire, pulling the trigger all the way to the rear produces fully automatic fire) and a safety mechanism (cross-bolt, button type), located immediately above the hand grip. In its "safe" position (white dot) the trigger is mechanically disabled; pressing the safety button to the left exposes a red dot and indicates the weapon is ready to fire. Some versions have an ALO or "automatic lockout", a small projection at the base of the trigger. This was first included on the Irish Defence Forces variant of the rifle, and soon after, the Australian Defence Forces variant. In the exposed position the ALO stops the trigger being squeezed past the semi-automatic position. If needed, the ALO can be pushed up to permit automatic fire.
Ammunition feeding
The AUG is fed from a translucent, double-column box magazines (molded from a high-strength polymer) with a 30-round capacity and an empty weight of . The light machine gun variant of the AUG uses an extended 42-round magazine. An Argentine variant of the FN FAL chambered in 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge and known as the FALMP III Type 2 also uses the same magazine.
Sights
The AUG has a 1.5× telescopic sight that is integrated with the receiver casting and is made by Swarovski Optik. It contains a simple black ring reticle ("donut of death") with a basic rangefinder that is designed so that at a 180 cm (5 ft 11in) tall man-size target will completely fill it, giving the shooter an accurate method of estimating range. The sight cannot be set to a specific range but can be adjusted for windage and elevation for an initial zero and is designed to be calibrated for 300 m. So when it is set, aiming at the centre of a target will produce a hit at all ranges out to 300 m. It also has a backup iron sight with a rear notch and front blade, cast into the top of the aluminium optical sight housing, used in case of failure or damage to the primary optical sight. The sight is also equipped with a set of three illuminated dots (one on the front blade and two at the rear) for use in low-level lighting conditions. In order to mount a wide range of optics and accessories, a receiver with a NATO-standard Picatinny rail and detachable carrying handle was also developed and introduced in December 1997.
Engineering
The quick-change barrel used in the AUG is cold hammer-forged by GFM-GmbH of Steyr Austria for increased precision and durability, its bore, chamber and certain components of the gas system are chrome-plated (currently nitrided on US market rifles). The standard rifle-length barrel features 6 right-hand grooves and a rifling twist rate of 228 mm (1:9 in). An external sleeve is shrunk on to the barrel and carries the gas port and cylinder, gas valve and forward grip hinge jaw. There is a short cylinder which contains a piston and its associated return spring. The barrel locks into a steel insert inside the receiver through a system of eight lugs arranged around the chamber end and is equipped with a folding, vertical grip that helps to pivot and withdraw the barrel during barrel changes. The most compact of the barrels has a fixed vertical grip.
The receiver housing is a steel-reinforced aluminium extrusion finished with a baked enamel coating. It holds the steel bearings for the barrel lugs and the guide rods. The non-reciprocating plastic cocking handle works in a slot on the left side of the receiver and is connected to the bolt carrier's left guide rod. The cocking handle has a forward assist feature—alternatively called a "silent cocking device"—used for pushing the bolt shut without recocking the rifle. A bolt hold-open device locks the bolt carrier assembly back after the last round has been fired. The newer AUG A3s possess a bolt release button, prior to this development all AUGs and the USR required the cocking handle being retracted to release the bolt group after a new magazine has been inserted. Older versions of the AUG can be upgraded to use the newer A3 stock and hammer pack.
The rifle's stock is made from fibreglass-reinforced polyamide 66. At the forward end is the pistol grip with an enlarged forward trigger guard completely enclosing the firing hand that allows the rifle to be operated with winter gloves. The trigger is hung permanently on the pistol grip, together with its two operating rods which run in guides past the magazine housing. Behind that is the locking catch for the stock group. Pressing this to the right will separate the receiver and stock. The magazine catch is behind the housing, on the underside of the stock. Above the housing are the two ejector openings, one of which is always covered by a removable strip of plastic. The rear of the stock forms the actual shoulder rest which contains the hammer unit and the end of the bolt path. The butt is closed by an endplate which is held in place by the rear sling swivel. This swivel is attached to a pin which pushes in across the butt and secures the plate. There is a cavity under the buttplate that holds a cleaning kit.
Modularity
Stock
While the AUG is not fully ambidextrous, it can still be configured to be use for left- or right-handed operators by changing the bolt with one that has the extractor and ejector on the appropriate side, and moving the blanking plate to cover the ejection port not in use. However, there exists also a right-hand-only stock that allows for the use of M16 type STANAG magazines.
Receivers
The AUG's receiver may also be changed from the standard model with a carrying handle and built-in 1.5× optical sight, to the "T" model receiver which has a universal scope mount to allow for the use of a variety of scopes and sights. The rifle also has several different types of receivers with Picatinny rails.
Firing mechanism
The AUG's firing mechanism may also be changed at will, into a variety of configurations, including semi-auto and full-auto, semi-auto and three-round-burst, semi-auto-only, or any other combination that the user may desire. It may also be converted into an open-bolt full-auto-only mode of fire, which allows for improved cooling and eliminates cook off problems when the AUG is used as a light machine gun or squad automatic weapon.
Barrels
All AUGs are equipped with quick detachable barrels; including compact barrels, carbine barrels, standard rifle-length barrels and light machine gun barrels. Rifles equipped with pattern barrels produced for military purposes are also equipped with bayonet lugs. The and barrels are capable of launching NATO STANAG type 22 mm rifle grenades from their integral flash hiders without the use of an adapter. AUG barrels can also mount 40 mm M203 or AG36 grenade launchers. Steyr also offers barrel configurations fitted with a fixed, post front-sight used on the standard rifle version with aperture iron sights.
Military adoption
Australian military
The Australian Army adopted the Steyr AUG A1 and designated it as the F88 Austeyr. It has a cyclic rate of fire of around 680–850 rounds per minute.
The Australian F88 Austeyr was tested with a new grenade launcher specifically designed for it called the ML40AUS GLA (Grenade Launcher Assembly), one of the lightest underbarrel grenade launchers at less than due to steel, aluminium, and synthetic parts. The GLA is mounted on the rifle's bottom accessory rail with the trigger moving through a removable plug in the trigger guard that allows for operation of the launcher inside of it, moving it further back than other launchers to maintain centre of balance and improve handling. The ML40AUS differs from the M203 by having a side-opening breech to allow for longer grenade rounds, a cross-bolt safety, and a new quadrant sight that mounts to the top rail alongside the rifle's optics. On 21 January 2014 however, Thales announced they had instead selected the Steyr SL40 grenade launcher due to "significant" engineering concerns with the ML40AUS. The SL40 is a derivative of the Steyr GL40 launcher designed specifically for the EF88. It weighs and has a long barrel. Though marginally heavier than the ML40AUS, it has the same attachment, firing mechanism, and control layout.
DSTO Advanced Individual Combat Weapon was an experimental weapon combining the barrel, action and magazine of an F88 Austeyr with an enlarged receiver and stock/body that also incorporates a multiple-shot 40 mm grenade launcher.
The F88 Austeyr is the standard individual weapon of the Australia Defence Force. It is manufactured under licence from Steyr Mannlicher AG at the Thales Lithgow Small Arms Factory, which is now owned by Thales Australia. It is issued and supplied to the armed forces of Australia and New Zealand and incorporate a crosshair doughnut sight, it is also in service in 30 different countries. There are changes and differences between the original Steyr AUG and the F88 Austeyr. The changes includes a bayonet lug, a 1:7 in rifling pitch as found in the M16A2 assault rifle, optimised for the heavier 62-grain NATO-standard SS109/M855 round and an "automatic lockout" trigger that can physically disable the fully automatic position of the two-stage trigger mechanism found on the standard AUG. It won a competition against the prototype of what would become the Bushmaster M17S. Australian Defence Force Cadets also use this firearm for drill and training exercises.
The F88C Austeyr is a carbine variant of the F88 Austeyr that features a shorter barrel. It is generally used as a personal defensive weapon where manoeuvrability is an issue, such as in armoured vehicles.
The F88SA1 Austeyr is a variant of the F88 Austeyr with an integrated Picatinny rail in place of the standard optical sight that allows the attachment of various other sighting devices (night vision scopes, magnified and non-magnified optics such as the ELCAN C79, Trijicon ACOG or Aimpoint).
The F88SA1C Austeyr is a compact variant of the F88 Austeyr fitted with a Picatinny rail. The rifle has a barrel. Typically issued to front-line combat infantry units with room and weight constraints such as cavalry, Military Police, reconnaissance, light horse, paratroopers and airfield defence guards (RAAF).
The F88 GLA Austeyr is a variant is for the Australian Army with an M203 grenade launcher. It features an Inter-bar (armourer attached) interface, an RM Equipment M203PI grenade launcher, and a Knight's Armament quadrant sight assembly to which a Firepoint red dot sight is attached. The bayonet lug and forward vertical grip are not present in this model.
The F88T is a training rifle that is chambered in .22 Long Rifle cartridge developed by ADI, to be used by the Australian Army, Australian Army Cadets, Australian Air Force Cadets and Australian Navy Cadets. The rifle provides an economical training alternative, with very low ammunition cost, which can be used in environmentally sensitive training areas and ranges where "overshooting" is an issue, and there is a lower risk of injuring instructors and other persons.
The F88SA2 Austeyr is an evolutionary upgrade of the current rifle to fulfil an operational capability gap. Deliveries of several thousand were completed in late-2009 to selected units for overseas service. (Afghanistan) Technical improvements in the F88S-A2 include: Modified gas system for increased reliability and increased interoperability with U.S ammo. An enlarged ejection port. A longer Picatinny Rail on top of the weapon, a modified sight housing, a side rail mount for a torch and Night Aiming Device (NAD). The colour of the barrel, sight and barrel assembly has been changed to khaki to reduce the recognition signature.
Lithgow F90
The Lithgow F90 was officially adopted by the Australian Defence Force in 2015, it was then designated as the Enhanced F88 (EF88) Austeyr. Its nominal cyclic rate of fire is 740 rounds per minute. The EF88 is part of the LAND 125 Soldier Combat System project and is a significant upgrade to the F88SA2. It was developed and produced at the Australian Defence Industries factory in Lithgow Small Arms Factory, which is now owned by Thales Australia to fulfil current and near future requirements for the Australian Defence Force. It was first displayed to the public in the middle of 2012 and the initial production was scheduled for 2013, its final design and testing ended later on that year. Internally and externally the EF88 is still similar to the Steyr AUG, although it has received many distinctive upgrades and changes. Upgrades include the following:
1. Length of pull has been shortened by 15 mm. (The distance between the stock backplate and the grip; too long and it becomes difficult to handle on close quarters)
2. Longer top rail and a modular lower forend with side and bottom rails.
3. Floating barrel which increases accuracy.
4. Fluted barrel which dissipates heat from automatic fire.
5. Folding charging handle.
6. Improved butt design which has increased strength and a recessed ejection port cover to improve reliability.
7. Bolt-together butt for easier disassembly.
8. Provision for electronic architecture to allow centralised control and power management of ancillary devices.
9. Primarily uses the side-loading grenade launcher (Steyr-Mannlicher SL40) which can fire all currently available 40 mm low velocity grenades.
10. Improved grenade launcher mount which improves the balance of the weapon.
11. Improved grenade launcher safety, the new KORD RIC (Rifle Input Control) electronic control system made by Thales will also be integrated into the rifle.
In June 2012, Thales debuted the F90 at the Eurosatory military exhibition in Paris. Key additions include a bottom rail and a detachable side rail, optional compatibility with STANAG magazines (F90MBR), weight savings over the F88SA2 with a base weight of and the large trigger guard has been reshaped to serve as a vertical foregrip. Thales in partnership with Steyr-Mannlicher are pursuing small arms procurement programs such as the planned replacement of FAMAS used by the French military. Low Rate Initial Production of the F90 began in September 2014. Dasan Manufacturing was granted the rights to manufacture them in 2017 in an effort to bid them to the South Korean military for future replacements of the Daewoo K2. At the Defexpo 2018 convention, MKU has Indian licensing rights to manufacture the F90 for Indian contracts. In April 2019, the F90CQB variant was planned to be submitted in conjunction with the Kalyani Group for Indian Army requirements on a 5.56 mm NATO carbine. As of April 2020, Bharat Forge is Thales' partner to manufacture the F90.
Lithgow Arms offers the F90 in three different barrel lengths: , , and . The rifle can also be fitted with the SL40 underbarrel grenade launcher.
F90 ATRAX is a planned semi-automatic only variant of the F90 intended for the American civilian market. It was announced by Thales that plans to release the rifle will be discontinued for "ethical reasons."
Austrian military
The Austrian Army adopted the Steyr AUG in 1978 and designated it as the Sturmgewehr 77 (StG 77).
The StG 77 is the Austrian Army's designation for the Steyr AUG.
The StG 77 A2 is the Austrian Army's designation for the Steyr AUG A3 SF. It was adopted by the Austrian Special Forces (Jagdkommando) in late 2007.
The StG 77 KPE is the Austrian Army's designation for an upgraded StG 77. Where the A1 housing group was replaced with the A3 SF housing and was adopted in 2017.
The StG 77 A1 MP is the Austrian Army designation for the StG 77 used by military police. The rifles differ from the standard StG 77 by having a Picatinny rail for an Aimpoint Micro T1 Red Dot Sight and magnifier, a flash hider from Ase-Utra, and Rheinmetall Vario Ray laser and light module mounted on the right side. Adopted in 2018.
Irish military
The Steyr AUG Mod 14 is an AUG A1 upgraded by the Irish Army, which was possible due to the modularity of the rifle. It allowed the Irish Army to make modernisation upgrades. They replaced the original A1 housing/receiver group (with 1.5× optical sight) with an A3 housing/receiver group (with MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny rail on top and right side) allowing a modern optical sight to be fitted. The Trijicon ACOG 4× sight was selected as the new optical sight of the rifle. The rifle features the ALO "automatic lockout" trigger, which can also be found in the Australian and New Zealand versions. In 2014, they began issuing the rifle to its operational units.
New Zealand military
The New Zealand Defence Force had adopted the F88 Austeyr and designated it as the IW Steyr (Individual Weapon Steyr). However the New Zealand Defence Force has since adopted the Lewis Machine and Tool, Mars-L 5.56mm rifle and phased out the IW Steyr.
New Zealand variants of the Steyr were equipped with a single-stage trigger and a two-position safety. The sight added a crosshair to the circle reticule. New Zealand issued both factory and locally-modified carbines alongside the full-length rifle variant.
Variants
AUG
The Steyr AUG is a bullpup assault rifle chambered in 5.56×45mm NATO. It was introduced in 1978 and was adopted by the Austrian Army and was designated as the StG 77 in 1978, then it was later adopted by several military agencies around the world.
The Steyr AUG A1 is an improved variant of the AUG and was introduced in 1982. It is available with a choice of olive or black furniture.
The Steyr AUG M203 is an AUG A1 fitted with the M203 grenade launcher.
The Steyr AUG AG-C is an AUG A1 fitted with the AG-C grenade launcher.
The Steyr AUG A2 features a redesigned charging handle and a detachable telescopic sight which can be replaced with a MIL-STD-1913 rail. Due to its modularity, a 24-inch barrel can be used and a Picatinny rail section can be fitted instead of the folding grip, where a bipod can be installed. The rifle was introduced in December 1997.
The Steyr AUG A3 features a MIL-STD-1913 rail on top of the receiver and an external bolt release.
The Steyr AUG A3 SF features an MIL-STD-1913 rails mounted on the telescopic sight and on the right side of the receiver, and includes an external bolt release. The integrated telescopic sight is offered in 1.5× or 3× magnification.
The Steyr AUG A3-CQC was a prototype development of the AUG A3 and was first displayed by Steyr at the SHOT Show 2006. It differs in having a railed handguard attached ahead of the receiver. Due to the need to remove this extra railed section in order to strip the rifle for cleaning, it featured a quick detach lever mounted on the left side to remove the rail. Due to the concerns over the extra cost and weight, along with potential issues with the reliability and consistency of the detachable handguard, the prototypes received little interest and were last seen promoted by Steyr in 2008 and likely has been cancelled. In total only 5 prototypes were made, four with standard 18-inch barrels, and one with a longer heavy marksman barrel and a 20-round magazine. In 2012 the American company PJA obtained the 5 original prototypes from Steyr and reverse engineered them in order to produce a US-made AUG A3-CQC and conversion kits.
AUG HBAR
The Steyr AUG HBAR (Heavy Barreled Automatic Rifle) is a longer heavier-barreled variant of the standard AUG for use as a light machine gun or squad automatic weapon. Its telescoping sight has a 4× magnification rather than the 1.5× magnification of the standard AUG. It can be modified to fire from an open bolt to allow sustained fire. To accomplish this, a modified bolt carrier, striker and trigger mechanism with sear are used.
The Steyr AUG HBAR-T (Heavy Barreled Automatic Rifle-Telescope) is a designated marksman configuration of the HBAR that features a special receiver fitted with a Kahles ZF69 6×42 optical sight.
AUG Para
The Steyr AUG Para also known as the AUG SMG or AUG 9mm, is a submachine gun variant of the AUG chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge and has been produced since 1988. It differs from the rifle variants by having a different barrel, bolt and magazine. It is an automatic, blowback-operated model that fires from a closed bolt, and does not use of the rifle's gas system. Unlike the rifle variants, it has a unique barrel with six right-hand grooves at a 250 mm (1:9.8 in) rifling twist rate, with a recoil compensator, a slightly different charging handle and a magazine well adapter enabling the use of standard 25-round box magazines from the Steyr MPi 69 and TMP submachine guns. A conversion kit used to transform any assault rifle configuration into the submachine gun configuration is also available. The conversion kit consists of a barrel, bolt, adapter insert and magazine.
The Steyr AUG A3 Para XS is a 9mm variant of the AUG A3. It features a barrel and a Picatinny rail system.
The Steyr AUG 40 is a .40 S&W variant of the AUG Para that uses Glock compatible double stack .40 S&W magazines.
Civilian variants
The Steyr AUG P is a semi-automatic only variant of the AUG A1, available to the civilian and law enforcement markets. It features a shorter, barrel and a modified bolt, carrier and trigger assembly that will only allow semi-automatic fire. The rifle also has a slightly different optical sight that features a reticule with a fine dot in the centre of the aiming circle, allowing for more precise aiming.
The Steyr AUG P Special Receiver is similar to the AUG P but features a MIL-STD-1913 rail on top of the receiver.
The Steyr AUG SA is a semi-automatic only variant of the AUG A1; built for civilian use and import to the US before being banned from importation in 1989.
The Steyr AUG Z is a semi-automatic only variant in compliance with Austrian weapon laws, somewhat similar to the AUG A2 but lacking the quick detachable barrels and is unable to accept the trigger group from the assault rifles. It is intended primarily for civilian use.
The Steyr AUG Z Sport is a semi-automatic only variant, somewhat similar to the AUG Z for use in sport shooting approved by the BKA in Germany. This variant has a special handguard without the typical front grip.
The Steyr AUG Z A3 is a semi-automatic only variant of the AUG Z similar to the AUG A3, and was introduced in 2010.
The Steyr AUG Z A3 9mm is a semi-automatic only 9×19mm Parabellum variant of the AUG Z A3.
The Steyr AUG Z A3 SE is a semi-automatic only variant of the AUG Z similar to the AUG A3 SF.
The Steyr USR is an AUG A2 modified to meet the former Federal Assault Weapons Ban (AWB) (or Public Safety and Recreational Firearms Use Protection Act) regulations. The primary difference is the omission of the flash hider.
The Steyr AUG A3 SA USA is a semi-automatic only variant of the AUG A3 with a barrel, made available for the U.S. civilian market in April 2009.
The Steyr AUG A3 SA NATO: Similar to the AUG A3 SA USA but uses a right-hand-only, NATO STANAG magazine stock assembly.
The Steyr AUG A3 M1 is a semi-automatic only variant of the AUG A3 SF with a detachable optical sight which can be replaced with MIL-STD-1913 rails, manufactured in the US by Steyr Arms since October 2014.
The Steyr AUG SPR is a straight pull only configuration, somewhat similar to the AUG A2 and is intended primarily for civilian use.
AUG clones
The STG-556 was introduced at the 2007 SHOT Show, the MSAR STG-556 was manufactured by Microtech Small Arms Research Inc. (a subsidiary of Microtech Knives) an AUG A1 clone significantly re-engineered in its working system and principle as it features a bolt hold-open device as seen on the M16 rifle; otherwise the MSAR STG-556 retains the original AUG features, such as feeding from proprietary translucent plastic magazines and having the quick-change barrel option. The STG-556 can be converted from either having a telescopic sight or a MIL-STD-1913 rail. It is available in either civilian (semi-automatic only) configuration, and military and law enforcement (selective fire) configuration.
The AXR was revealed at the 2007 SHOT Show, the TPD USA AXR was manufactured by Tactical Products Design Inc. as an AUG A2 clone capable of semi-automatic only fire, aimed for both the civilian and law enforcement markets, and fed by STANAG magazines; the manufacturer sells clear plastic magazines which are STANAG 4179 compliant and will readily fit in any rifle with a compatible magazine catch. The rifle does not have the integral scope, allowing users to use any kind of scopes or laser sights on the Picatinny railing.
The Type 68 is a Taiwanese copy of the AUG with notable differences including a smaller trigger guard and the use of iron sights instead of the original's telescopic sight (although optical sights can still be optionally mounted on the carrying handle). Developed as a potential alternative to the T65 assault rifle and (in the form of a heavy-barrel variant) replacement to the Type 57A squad automatic rifle (licence-built selective fire M14A1), it ultimately did not enter service after the ROC military decided to adopt light machineguns (Minimi and T75) as their future squad automatic weapons.
Conflicts
The Steyr AUG has been used in the following conflicts:
Gulf War
Somali Civil War (by Unified Task Force, 1993)
1999 and 2006 East Timorese crises
Syrian Civil War
Users
Military
: Special Intervention Detachment
: Argentine Armed Forces.
: A variant, the Austeyr F88, is the standard rifle of the Australian Defence Force. It is manufactured, under licence from Steyr-Mannlicher, by Thales Australia. The Austeyr entered service in January 1989, replacing both the M16A1 and the L1A1 Self Loading Rifle used by the Australian Army. The first regular unit to be issued with the Austeyr was 6 RAR, which received them in January 1989.
: Standard weapon of the Bundesheer, serving as the StG 77 in official army nomenclature.
: Used by the Croatian Special Forces.
: Used by Komando Pasukan Katak (Kopaska) tactical diver group and Komando Pasukan Khusus (Kopassus) special forces group.
: Standard service rifle of the Irish Defence Forces. The Army Ranger Wing special forces uses the Steyr AUG A2 and A3.
: Carabinieri Special Forces: Gruppo di Intervento Speciale and 1st "Tuscania" Regiment
: Standard infantry rifle of the Luxembourg Army. The HBAR variant is also employed as the section support weapon.
: Made under license from Steyr by SME Ordnance. Local production of the AUG rifle series started in 1991 with a joint production with Steyr that started in 2004. Lawsuits from Steyr emerged when Malaysia decided to withdraw from joint production.
: Used from 1988 until 2019. The first 5,000 weapons delivered were manufactured in Austria by Steyr Daimler Puch. Latter versions were the Australian ADI-made Austeyr F88 variant, locally designated IW Steyr (Individual Weapon Steyr.) From August 2015 the Lewis Machine Tools 5.56 mm MARS-L started to replaced the Steyr AUG.
: F88 variant.
: Used by the Scout Rangers.
: JW Grom special forces group.
: 72nd Reconnaissance-Commando Battalion.
Type 68 copy
: The Steyr AUG has been the primary weapon of the Tunisian Army since 1978. The first regular unit to be issued with the AUG A1 was the GTS. Subsequently the leadership began arming the National Guard with Sturmgewehr 58 (FN FAL) and the army with the AUG A1/A2/A3 variants, including the Army's Special Forces.
: Maroon Berets.
: AUG H-BAR is used by the Sokil Special Forces.
: Falkland Islands Defence Force. Being replaced by the L85A2.
: Received 15,000 Steyr AUG A2UR bullpup assault rifles (with the 1.5× telescopic sight) to be used by the Uruguayan infantry battalions.
Law-enforcement
: Formerly used by the Victoria Police Special Operations Group, replaced by the M4 Carbine in the 2000s.
: Used by EKO Cobra.
: Steyr AUG Para is used by the Federal Police.
: In use by Agência Brasileira de Inteligência since November 2011.
: SOBT (counter-terrorist unit) only.
: Steyr AUG Carbine in 9×19mm Parabellum used by several Czech police units (as of 2011).
: Bavarian SEK.
: Used by the Mobile Brigade Corps (Brimob) special forces group of the Indonesian National Police, including Detasemen Khusus 88 counter-terrorist unit.
: The Unité Spéciale de la Police intervention unit of the Grand Ducal Police employs the AUG A2 variant.
: Used by 69 Commando of Pasukan Gerakan Khas counter-terrorist unit of the Royal Malaysia Police.
: National Police of East Timor
: Police Special Operations Department.
: U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, replaced by the Colt M4.
: Used by SEBIN.
Non-state
: used by the Military of IS.
: Origin unclear; serial numbers removed. Used by Syrian Opposition special forces.
See also
List of bullpup firearms
List of assault rifles
SAR 21
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Steyr Mannlicher—military and law enforcement
Steyr AUG A3
Steyr AUG 9mm
Operators manual – Steyr-Mannlicher
REMTEK
Steyr-AUG.com
Buddy Hinton Collection
Modern Firearms – Steyr AUG
The Steyr AUG in the Austrian Army
"Australia ready to sign EF88 Austeyr rifle contract" by Julian Kerr, IHS Jane's Defence Weekly''
Modern Firearms – EF88/F90
MSAR STG-556 Pictorial
.300 BLK firearms
5.56×45mm NATO assault rifles
Bullpup rifles
Designated marksman rifles
Light machine guns
Machine guns of Austria
Assault rifles of Austria
Steyr
Submachine guns of Austria
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1978
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249897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keira%20Knightley | Keira Knightley | Keira Christina Righton (; née Knightley, born 26 March 1985) is an English actress. She has starred in both independent films and big-budget blockbusters, and is particularly noted for her roles in period dramas. Her accolades include two Empire Awards and nominations for two Academy Awards, three British Academy Film Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, one Screen Actors Guild Award and one Laurence Olivier Award. Knightley was appointed an OBE in the 2018 Birthday Honours for services to drama and charity.
Born in London to actors Will Knightley and Sharman Macdonald, Knightley obtained an agent at age six, and initially worked commercials and television films. She appeared as Sabé, Padmé Amidala's handmaiden, in science fiction blockbuster Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999). Knightley had a break-through role portraying a tomboy footballer in the sports film Bend It Like Beckham (2002). She achieved global stardom with her portrayal of Elizabeth Swann in fantasy swashbuckler series Pirates of the Caribbean. In the same year, she appeared in the Christmas romantic comedy Love Actually (2003) and was labelled a promising teen star.
For her portrayal of Elizabeth Bennet in the period romance Pride & Prejudice (2005), Knightley was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. At age 20, she became the third-youngest Best Actress nominee at the time. Knightley starred in a series of further period pieces, portraying a complex love interest in Atonement (2007), tastemaker Georgiana Cavendish in The Duchess (2008), and the titular socialite in Anna Karenina (2012). She then forayed into contemporary dramas, appearing as an aspiring musician in Begin Again (2013) and a medical student in Jack Ryan: Shadow Recruit (2014). Knightley returned to historical films by playing cryptoanalyst Joan Clarke in The Imitation Game (2014), earning her a second round of Academy Award and BAFTA nominations, and starred as the eponymous belle époque writer in Colette (2018) to critical acclaim.
On stage, Knightley has appeared in two West End productions: The Misanthrope in 2009, which earned her an Olivier Award nomination, and The Children's Hour in 2011. She also starred as the eponymous heroine in the 2015 Broadway production of Thérèse Raquin. Knightley is known for her outspoken stance on social issues, and has worked extensively with Amnesty International, Oxfam, and Comic Relief. She is married to musician James Righton, with whom she has two daughters.
Early life and education
Keira Christina Knightley was born on 26 March 1985 in the Teddington suburb of London, to stage actors Will Knightley and Sharman Macdonald. She was meant to be named "Kiera", the anglicised form of "Kira", after Kira Ivanova, whom her father admired; however, Macdonald misspelled the name when she registered her daughter's birth certificate, writing the e before the i. Her father is English and her mother is of Scottish and Welsh descent. Knightley has an older brother, Caleb. Macdonald worked as a playwright after her acting career came to an end. Knightley's parents encountered substantial financial difficulties following the birth of her brother; her father, a "middling" actor, agreed to a second child only if her mother sold a script first. However, her parents' varying degrees of success did not deter Knightley's curiosity about the profession. Macdonald introduced her own children to theatre and ballet very early. This inspired Knightley's interest in acting.
Knightley attended Teddington School. She was diagnosed with dyslexia at age six, but by the time she was eleven, with her parents' support, she says, "they deemed me to have got over it sufficiently." She is still a slow reader and cannot read out loud. Knightley has said she was "single-minded about acting". At age three, she requested to get an agent like her parents and got one at six. This led to her taking a number of small parts in television dramas. She acted in a number of local amateur productions, which included After Juliet, written by her mother, and United States, written by her drama teacher. Knightley focused on art, history, and English literature while studying at Esher College, but left after a year to pursue an acting career. Her mother's friends encouraged her to go to drama school, which she declined for financial and professional reasons.
Career
1993–2002: Career beginnings and breakthrough
After getting an agent at age six, Knightley began working in commercials and small television roles. Her first onscreen appearance was in the 1993 Screen One television episode titled "Royal Celebration". She then played Natasha Jordan, a young girl whose mother is involved in an extramarital affair, in the romantic drama A Village Affair (1995). After appearing in a spate of television films through the mid-to-late 1990s, including Innocent Lies (1995), The Treasure Seekers (1996), Coming Home (1998), and Oliver Twist (1999), Knightley landed the role of Sabé, Padmé Amidala's handmaiden and decoy, in the 1999 science fiction blockbuster Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. Her dialogue was dubbed over by Natalie Portman, who played Padmé. Knightley was cast in the role because of her close resemblance to Portman; even the two actresses' mothers had difficulty telling their daughters apart when they were in full make-up.
In her first major role, the 2001 Walt Disney Productions feature film Princess of Thieves, Knightley played the daughter of Robin Hood. In preparation for the film, she trained for several weeks in archery, fencing, and horse riding. Concurrently, she appeared in The Hole, a thriller that received a direct-to-video release in the US. The film's director Nick Hamm described her as "a young version of Julie Christie". Knightley also took on the role of Lara Antipova in the 2002 miniseries adaptation of Doctor Zhivago, to positive reviews and high ratings. In the same year, Knightley starred as a pregnant drug addict in Gillies MacKinnon's drama film Pure. Co-starring Molly Parker and Harry Eden, the film had its world premiere at the 2002 Toronto International Film Festival. In a retrospect review for AboutFilm.com, Carlo Cavagna noted Knightley's screen presence and wrote that "[although Knightley] doesn't have half of Parker's ability [...] she has spunk and grit [and] shines brightly in Pure".
Knightley landed a breakthrough role when she starred in Gurinder Chadha's sports comedy film Bend It Like Beckham, which was a box office hit in the U.K and U.S. Knightley portrayed Jules, a tomboy football player struggling against social norms who convinces her friend to pursue the sport. The film surprised critics who were laudatory of its "charming" and "inspiring" nature, social context and the cast's performances. Knightley and her co-star Parminder Nagra attracted international attention for their performances; critic James Berardinelli, who was largely laudatory of the film and the "energetic and likable" cast, noted that Knightley and Nagra brought "a lot of spirit to their instantly likable characters". To prepare for their roles, they underwent three months of extensive football training under the English football coach Simon Clifford. Knightley was initially skeptical of the project: in an interview with Tracy Smith she said, "I remember telling friends I was doing this girls' soccer movie [...] And nobody thought that it was gonna be any good."
2003–2007: Pirates of the Caribbean and worldwide recognition
Knightley portrayed the role of Elizabeth Swann, in the 2003 American fantasy swashbuckler film Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl. The film, based on the Disney theme park attraction, revolves around infamous buccaneer Jack Sparrow and blacksmith Will Turner rescuing Swann, in possession of a cursed golden medallion, from 18th-century pirates. Producers Jerry Bruckheimer and Gore Verbinski chose Knightley for her "indescribable quality [...] reminiscent of motion picture stars from Hollywood's heyday." Knightley underestimated the stunt work required and believed she'd primarily be sitting in carriages; at one point during filming, she stood for two days on a plank and rejected a stunt double's offer to jump off the platform for the scene. Despite boasting the names of stars like Johnny Depp and Orlando Bloom and a $135 million budget, Pirates was expected to fail at the box office. Knightley herself was not optimistic about its prospects. The film opened at number one on the box office, and became one of the highest-grossing releases of the year, with worldwide revenues of $654 million. Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times compared Knightley's "strident and confident" physical assurance to Nicole Kidman, while Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club branded her and Bloom as appealing leads.
Also in 2003, Knightley appeared in Richard Curtis's Christmas-themed romantic comedy Love Actually, featuring an ensemble cast, which included her childhood idol Emma Thompson. Knightley portrays Juliet, a woman whose fiancée's best man is secretly in love with her. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone criticised the waste of Knightley's talent in a "nothing" role, while Megan Conner of The Guardian remarked that the film turned Knightley into a household name. Love Actually has been referred to as a modern-day Christmas classic. Knightley believes the film's trajectory to be "extraordinary", given that its popularity resurfaced a few years after the film's release. Knightley's only release of 2004 was the historical film King Arthur, where she played Guinevere, a warrior queen and the wife of the titular character. The role required her to learn boxing, archery, and horse riding. Critic A. O. Scott praised Knightley for "throw[ing] herself bodily into every scene". Although the film received unfavourable reviews, Knightley's stature as a performer grew; she was voted by the readers of Hello magazine as the industry's most promising teen star, and featured in Time magazine's article, which stated that she seemed dedicated to develop herself as a serious actor rather than a film star.
Knightley appeared in three films in 2005, the first of which was the psychological thriller The Jacket, co-starring Adrien Brody. In a mixed review for Empire, Kim Newman wrote that the role was unlike the ones she had previously taken up : "getting out of period gear and talking American, tries to broaden her range and is arguably well-cast". Knightley next played the titular character in Tony Scott's French-American action film Domino, based on the life of Domino Harvey. The film's release was delayed on several occasions and, on its eventual release in November, it received negative reviews and performed poorly at the box office.
Knightley's most successful release of the year was Pride & Prejudice, a period drama based on Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice. Joe Wright selected Knightley for her tomboyish nature combined with a "lively mind" and sense of humour. Knightley, who had admired the book from a young age, said of her character, "The beauty of Elizabeth is that every woman who ever reads the book seems to recognise herself, with all her faults and imperfections." On release, the film became a huge commercial success, with total collections of around US$120million worldwide, and received positive reviews from critics. Writing for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw labeled her performance of "beauty, delicacy, spirit and wit; in her growing lustre and confidence" and Derek Elley of Variety regarded "luminous strength" to be reminiscent of a young Audrey Hepburn. Knightley earned "Best Actress in a Leading Role" nominations at the Golden Globes and the Academy Awards for her performance at age 20, becoming the third-youngest nominee for the latter. Knightley's consecutive successes came with increased media scrutiny, and she later admitted to having struggled with her mental health during this period.
Knightley was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, among other artists in 2006. Later that year, she reprised her role as Elizabeth Swann in the second and third productions of the Pirates of the Caribbean series. The two sequels were conceived in 2004, with the writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio developing a story arc that would span both films. The plot of the films see Swann buck convention to seek adventure and become fierce pirate and fighter to match the skills of Sparrow and her love interest, Turner. The sequel installments allowed Knightley to train in swordfighting, which she had sought to do since the first film. Filming for the projects took place in 2005; the Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest, released in July 2006. With the worldwide collections of $1.066 billion, it became the biggest financial hit in Knightley's career. The third instalment in the series, Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, was released in May, the following year. A.O Scott labeled Knightley's performance as "a vision of imperial British pluckiness, with an intriguing dash of romantic recklessness that surfaces toward the end".
Knightley's continued association with period dramas yielded varying results, as seen with two of her 2007 releases, François Girard's Silk, and Joe Wright's Atonement, the feature film adaptations of the novels by Alessandro Baricco and Ian McEwan respectively. The former project failed at the box office, while the latter became a critical and commercial success. Knightley portrayed Cecilia Tallis, the elder of the two Tallis sisters, who struggles with a wartime romance with her love interest, played by James McAvoy. She admitted that the pacing on the smaller, more intimate film was an adjustment compared to the Pirates franchise. In preparing for the film, Knightley studied the novel as well as the "naturalism" of the performance as seen in the films from 1930s and 1940s, such as In Which We Serve (1942) and Brief Encounter (1945). She admired the multi-layered and "fascinating" nature of her character's behavior. Knightley's performance won the Empire Award for Best Actress, and earned her nominations for the BAFTA and the Golden Globes awards, also in the leading actress categories. Critic Richard Roeper, who thought the lead duo were "superb" in their respective roles, was puzzled by their failure to receive Academy Award nominations. The green dress worn by Knightley during the film's climactic scene garnered substantive press attention, and was subsequently regarded as one of the greatest costumes in film history.
2008–2013: Independent films and stage work
Knightley appeared alongside Sienna Miller, Cillian Murphy, and Matthew Rhys in John Maybury's 2008 wartime drama The Edge of Love. The film had her play the role of Vera Phillips, a childhood friend of Welsh poet Dylan Thomas and his wife Caitlin Macnamara. Knightley wrote the script with her mother, Sharman Macdonald, with Macnamara in mind. After Knightley signed on, her character's role was increased with the film focusing on her romance with a British soldier. Knightley connected to Vera's quietness, and described her as "tragic and beautiful". She based her performance on Marlene Dietrich, and was to mime to her prerecorded voice, before being told by Maybury to sing live. Knightley initially felt embarrassed to do so, saying she "[shook] like a leaf" but eventually went through with the plan. Upon release, the film became a moderate critical and commercial success. Knightley's performance and singing abilities were praised;The Independent noted that Knightley "gives Vera an independence and complexity that's aeons ahead", while the Los Angeles Times wrote "the film belongs to the women, with Knightley going from strength to strength (and showing she can sing!)".
Knightley then starred as the 18th-century English aristocrat Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire in Saul Dibb's period drama The Duchess (2008), based on the best-selling biographical novel, Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire by Amanda Foreman. The film tells the story of Georgiana's rise in society as a sociopolitical tastemaker after her marriage disintegrates. The script Knightley was sent was covered in "huge white ostrich feathers" and a gold ribbon. Gabrielle Tana, the film's producer, stated Knightley "brought an instinctive understanding" of such aspects of Georgiana's life as a celebrity from her own experiences. Knightley was attracted to her character's strength and status as a political influence and fashion prowess, while being inwardly vulnerable and isolated. Simon Crooke of Empire described her performance as "an enigmatic, free-spirited turn and a role she'll be remembered for, probably her best role to date in a film not directed by Joe Wright." The following year, she was nominated for a British Independent Film Award for Best Actress. A film adaptation of William Shakespeare's tragedy King Lear set to star Knightley and Anthony Hopkins was cancelled due to recession.
Knightley made her West End debut with Martin Crimp's version of Molière's comedy The Misanthrope. Starring Knightley, Damian Lewis, Tara Fitzgerald, and Dominic Rowan, the play was staged at the Comedy Theatre in December 2009. She portrayed Jennifer, a shallow, amorous, and vulnerable American film star who is courted by an analytical and veracious playwright. Knightley chose the role as she felt that "if I don't do theatre right now, I think I'm going to start being too terrified to do it" and described the production as an "extraordinary and incredibly fulfilling" experience, she was sceptical of her performance. Paul Taylor of The Independent remarked that Knightley was "not only strikingly convincing, but, at times, rather thrilling in its satiric aplomb". However, The Guardians Michael Billington noted that due to the nature of the role, "one could say that she is not unduly stretched". In recognition of her theatre debut, Knightley was nominated for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and an Evening Standard Award.
Knightley began the new decade with three films; she remarked that her work during this period helped her "empathise with people or with situations that I don't necessarily find it easy to empathise with". Two of the productions, Massy Tadjedin's romantic drama Last Night and William Monahan's crime noir film London Boulevard opened to mixed responses from critics and rank among the lowest-grossing films in Knightley's career. Knightley's other release, Never Let Me Go, an adaptation of Kazuo Ishiguro's novel of the same name fared better at the box office and received positive reviews. Knightley described the script as unique, one that made the reader think. Co-starring Andrew Garfield and Carey Mulligan, Knightley played Ruth, one of three graduates of an autocratic boarding school that discovers their fates in a dystopia. She appeared in a video installation by artist Stuart Pearson Wright titled Maze.
Knightley starred in a 2011 revival of The Children's Hour by Lillian Hellman at the Comedy Theatre in London. She portrayed Karen Wright, an engaged schoolteacher accused of lesbianism in 1934. Ben Brantley of the New York Times commented that her performance showed an "intensity" and "credible fierceness" within the outdated material. Knightley's only film of 2011 was David Cronenberg's historical drama A Dangerous Method, co-starring Viggo Mortensen, Michael Fassbender, and Vincent Cassel. Based on writer Christopher Hampton's 2002 stage play The Talking Cure and set on the eve of World War I, the film depicts the turbulent relationships between fledgling psychiatrist Carl Jung, his mentor Sigmund Freud and Sabina Spielrein. Knightley portrayed Spielrein, the troubled but beautiful young psychoanalyst who comes between Jung and Freud. Knightley spent four months reading and discussing her character's behavior with psychologists to prepare for the role. She appreciated the depth and variety of her character arc, which she viewed as rare for female roles. The film premiered at the 68th Venice International Film Festival to a positive reception, while Knightley earned generally favourable reviews by critics, with Andrew O'Hehir of Salon hailing her "the real star of this film".
Knightley co-starred with Steve Carell in the 2012 comedy drama Seeking a Friend for the End of the World, which was critically panned." Later that year, she reunited with director Joe Wright to film their third production, Anna Karenina, in which she starred as the title character. She deemed this collaboration the most important of her career. Knightley viewed that her character's complex "moral culpability" was in question, but attracted compassion. Knightley received positive reviews for her performance, prompting early Oscar buzz. Batsy Sharky of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Knightley "puts hearts and anguish on the line in trying to bring an emotional reality". The 2013 Toronto International Film Festival saw the premiere of Knightley's first musical film Begin Again with Mark Ruffalo. Directed by John Carney, the film had its theatrical release in 2014. The Guardian found Knightley and Ruffalo to be "nicely natural as the increasingly idealistic musos". Carney later repeatedly criticised Knightley's performance in the film, saying she was not convincing enough in portraying a singer-songwriter and derogatorily referred to her as a "model". He later apologised to her via Twitter for his comments. Knightley later remarked that music "never sinks in" for her, and she is more interested in books and drama. Later that year, she appeared in Karl Lagerfeld's short period film Once Upon a Time...
2014–present: Biographical and political roles
In July 2014, Knightley expressed that she had reached the end of the first stage of her career, express the desire to depart from previous "neurotic" roles." 2014 began for Knightley with the spy thriller Jack Ryan: Shadow Recruit, the fifth installment in the film series, alongside Chris Pine. She portrays Dr. Cathy Muller, Ryan's eventual wife. Knightley sought to do a lighter film than her previous work, looked forward to working with director Kenneth Branagh. The film received mixed critical reviews nonetheless strong box-office response. Knightley's next film Laggies, premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival. A romantic comedy also starring Chloë Grace Moretz and Sam Rockwell, the film follows the life of Megan, played by Knightley, a 28-year-old overeducated underachiever going through a quarter-life crisis. Knightley empathized with her character's delayed maturity and appreciated the film's telling from a female perspective. Laggies opened to mostly positive reviews from critics, with Knightley's performance praised by critics. Inkoo Kaang of TheWrap referred to her as a "loose-limbed revelation" and lauded her "delightfully uncouth" performance.
The film was followed by her appearance in Morten Tyldum's historical drama The Imitation Game, a film based on the life of British mathematician Alan Turing, played by Benedict Cumberbatch. Knightley portrayed cryptanalyst and numismatist Joan Clarke, who decrypted German intelligence codes for the British government during World War II with Turing. Knightley researched interviews with Clarke, and sought to keep her "upper-class quality", drawing on the depth of her emotions and protectiveness of Turing from the script. The Imitation Game became a critical and commercial success grossing over $233.6 million. For her performance, Knightley received her second Academy Award and BAFTA Award nominations, and third Golden Globe Award nomination, all for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. Conversely, Lady Jean Forde, who worked with Clarke and Turing, felt Knightley was "nothing like" Clarke and was "too beautiful" to play her.
Knightley's sole release in 2015 was as part of the ensemble cast in the biographical disaster film Everest. The film was based on the 1996 Mount Everest disaster with Knightley portraying mountaineer Rob Hall's wife. Everest opened to generally positive reviews from critics. Variety wrote that Knightley gave a "deeply felt performance" as a woman "haunted by the possibility" of losing her spouse. In October 2015, Knightley made her Broadway debut playing the title role in Helen Edmundson's adaptation of Émile Zola's Thérèse Raquin at Studio 54. Knightly took the role after declining the project twice, as she thought herself incapable of playing the part. She found interest in her character's "caged" circumstance, as well as her dark, active role in the play, as she sought to depart from passive supporting roles. Of her performance, Alexandra Villarreal of The Huffington Post wrote, "She fumes, and rages, and withdraws, and you can watch her psychological evolution from stifled wife to impassioned mistress to haunted murderer".
In 2016, it emerged Knightley was set to star in a feature biopic about the 18th-century Russian empress Catherine the Great, directed by Barbra Streisand, which hasn't come into fruition. Knightley appeared in the ensemble drama Collateral Beauty (2016), alongside Will Smith, Edward Norton, Kate Winslet, and Helen Mirren. The film was critically panned, and earned the cast a Razzie nomination. Despite previously stating on a number of occasions that she would never return to the Pirates of the Caribbean series, Knightley reprised the role of Elizabeth Swann with a cameo appearance in 2017's Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales, after test audiences repeatedly inquired about her character.
Knightley starred in the biographical drama Colette as the titular French author. The film see's Colette's social ascent in belle époque society through her provocative novels, but is exploited by her husband, who plagiarizes her work. Knightley believed the film connected strongly to modern-day feminism, and depicted cultural change in gender politics. To prepare for the part, Knightley read Colette's novels, among them The Vagabond and Chéri, and initially planned to visit her birthplace of Burgundy, France. She found the author "inspiring", and admired her imperfections as well as her courage. The film, released at the Sundance Film Festival, was critically successful, with Knightley's performance receiving acclaim. Manohla Dargis for the New York Times praised her vibrance and "expressive physicality", and Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian wrote that the film saw Knightley in "top form: luminous, clever, sexy and sympathetic." Knightley was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2018 Birthday Honours for services to drama and charity.
The same year, she played the Sugar Plum Fairy in Disney's adaptation of The Nutcracker, titled The Nutcracker and the Four Realms, which was critically panned. In 2019, Knightley co-starred in The Aftermath, a film adaption of the novel by Rhidian Brook, alongside Alexander Skarsgård. Knightley plays Rachel, a "cold and complex" British army wife traumatised by her son's death by a German bomb. The film sees her and her husband move to Germany while dealing with grief. The film received mixed reviews. The Boston Globes Ty Burr praised Knightley for adding "conviction, grace, heart, and nerve" to the film, while Katie Walsh of the Los Angeles Times felt Knightley and Skarsgård were too reserved. Knightley portrayed whistleblower Katharine Gun in Official Secrets (2019), which was premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on 28 January 2019 to positive reviews. Knightley believed the film's depiction of Iraq War and government accountability connected with modern politics. Writing for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw praised Knightley's "focused, plausible and sympathetic performance". Gun also expressed her contentment with the film.
Knightley's first role of the decade was feminist activist Sally Alexander in Misbehaviour (2020), a film about the crowning of the first black contestant at the 1970 Miss World competition. The film discusses the nuances of intersectionality in second wave feminism; Knightley was drawn to the political aspects of the project. Misbehaviour was received positively, with Variety'''s Guy Lodge dubbing Knightly "likable as ever" but admitted she portrays "the least intriguing figure". Knightley was due to produce and star in The Essex Serpent, an Apple TV+ adaptation of Sarah Perry's novel, but dropped out over concerns about access to childcare during the lockdown period of the COVID-19 pandemic. She starred in the 2021 holiday comedy Silent Night.
Upcoming projects
Knightley will star in an adaptation of Ann Leckie's sci-fi novel Ancillary Justice, as well as reporter Loretta McLaughlin in the drama film Boston Strangler based on the infamous true story of Boston Strangler murders, written and directed by Matt Ruskin.
Public image
Off-screen, Geoffrey Macnab of The Independent describes Knightley as "sensible and self-deprecating" and Elizabeth Day of Harper's Bazaar says of Knightley's persona: "She is extremely nice, swears more than you might think and – yes – [...] effortlessly beautiful". Writing for The New York Times, Jesse McKinley stated that Knightley is "known for her ability to sparkle and charm in several accents", while her Thérèse Raquin co-star, Judith Light, praised her "down-to-earth demeanor, intelligence and sense of humor".
Knightley has been described as "famously open with media", though she has asserted the contrary. During the 2000s, Knightley faced an "extraordinary amount of vitriol" from the press. The Guardian wrote that "if she is not too pretty to be worthy of her success, she is too posh, too thin. if there is a more valid reason why [...] they often struggle to articulate it." Despite multiple successful films and award nominations, the criticism affected her, and Knightley felt that she "didn't know [her] trade." Media scrutiny decreased as her career progressed, and she spaces out her public appearances to maintain attention on her films. Beginning in the 2010s, Knightley regained confidence in her abilities, and by the release of Colette (2018), she felt she had learnt her craft and mentally occupied a "good place where I feel pretty confident about what I can do".
Knightley has been widely recognised for her extensive repertoire of period dramas throughout her career. She identifies with "break[ing] out of that image of femininity" and appreciates period films' "overt cage" to demonstrate such. Writer Anne Helen Petersen states that the varying personalities of her historical roles are united in the "larger idea" Knightley represents: "that of women ostensibly performing a version of proper womanhood — all while quietly negotiating, or cracking under, the weight of doing so." She has criticised contemporary-set films, finding their depiction of sexual violence against women excessive. Knightley is reputed for her signature "strong female lead" roles and she has been compared to actresses Katharine Hepburn, Greta Garbo, Audrey Hepburn, and Nicole Kidman.
In a 2004 BBC poll, she was named among the most influential people in British culture. Knightley has often been ascribed to the "English rose" archetype. Knightley has been included several times on FHMs "100 Sexiest Women in the World" list, making her first appearance in 2004 and topping the list in 2006; she was included in every subsequent issue until 2009. She was part of the American editions of the list from 2004 to 2006, and was also placed ninth on the Maxim Hot 100 list in 2006.
Other ventures
Advocacy and philanthropy
Knightley received media attention for her perspectives on feminism, voiced in an interview with Harper's Bazaar UK published in the February 2014 edition. She explained that women face greater hurdles in the film industry compared to their male counterparts, and also revealed that she was perplexed by the use of "feminist" in a derogatory sense. Knightley posed topless on the cover of the September 2014 issue of Interview magazine, on the condition that the image not be digitally altered, to draw attention to how "women's bodies are a battleground and photography is partly to blame." For International Women's Day 2014, Knightley was one of the artist signatories of Amnesty International's letter to British Prime Minister David Cameron, in which the organisation campaigned for women's rights in Afghanistan. After the birth of her first daughter, she penned an essay about childbirth, entitled "The Weaker Sex", featured in the collection Feminists Don't Wear Pink and Other Lies. Knightley does not shoot nude scenes for her films, unless directed by a female filmmaker.
Knightley is the face of an Amnesty International campaign to support human rights, marking the 60th anniversary of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In 2004, she travelled to Ethiopia alongside Richard Curtis, Sanjeev Bhaskar and Julian Metcalfe on behalf of the Comic Relief charity. She posed for photos for WaterAid in 2005 and also for the American Library Association's "Read" campaign (a promotional poster of Pride & Prejudice). The dress she wore to the 2006 Academy Awards was donated to the charity Oxfam, where it raised £4,300. In April 2009, Knightley appeared in a video to raise awareness of domestic abuse entitled Cut shot for Women's Aid. The video created controversy, with some sources calling it too graphic, while other groups support the video for showing a realistic depiction of domestic violence. In November 2010, Knightley became patron of the SMA Trust, a British charity that funds medical research into the disease spinal muscular atrophy. In July 2014 Knightley travelled to South Sudan on behalf of Oxfam to meet refugees of the South Sudanese Civil War and raise awareness of the conflict.
In May 2016, Knightley signed a letter imploring Britain to vote "remain" in the UK EU referendum. The letter was also signed by John le Carré, Benedict Cumberbatch and Danny Boyle among others. Later, she appeared in a video aimed at encouraging younger people to vote in the referendum. On 12 September 2016, Knightley, as well as Cate Blanchett, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Peter Capaldi, Douglas Booth, Neil Gaiman, Jesse Eisenberg, Juliet Stevenson, Kit Harington and Stanley Tucci, appeared in a video from the United Nations' refugee agency UNHCR to help raise awareness of the global refugee crisis. The video, titled "What They Took With Them", has the actors reading a poem, written by Jenifer Toksvig and inspired by primary accounts of refugees, and is part of UNHCR's #WithRefugees campaign, of which also includes a petition to governments to expand asylum to provide further shelter, integrating job opportunities, and education. In September 2016, Knightley co-hosted A Night to Remember, part of the Green Carpet Challenge, a charity event highlighting sustainability within the fashion industry.
In September 2017, Knightley traded stocks on behalf of the spinal muscular atrophy charity SMA Trust as part of the BGC Charity Day, which was set up to commemorate the stockbrokers who were killed during the September 11 attacks. In April 2020, Knightley participated in a World Health Day livestream to raise money for charity during the COVID-19 pandemic. In June 2020, she and other celebrities designed a range of pin badges for the #PinYourThanks campaign, dedicated to thanking essential workers. All profits went to NHS Charities Together and Volunteering Matters. In October 2020, she backed Made By Dyslexia, a global campaign to help teachers address “dyslexic strengths”. It has trained a quarter of a million teachers and started an online program. Knightley participated in a skit entitled 2020 The Movie, commemorating Red Nose Day 2021.
Fashion endorsements
Knightley was the celebrity face for the luxury goods brands Asprey and Shiatzy Chen as well as Lux haircare products in Japanese television commercials. In April 2006, she was confirmed as the new celebrity face of Chanel's perfume Coco Mademoiselle, though the first photo from the campaign was not released until May 2007. Knightley has appeared in television commercials for Chanel directed by Joe Wright since 2007, and has endorsed Chanel Fine Jewellery's collection Coco Crush. In 2008, Knightley was the highest-earning British Hollywood star according to the Forbes Celebrity 100 list and was named amongst the most bankable actors in 2009.
Personal life
Knightley previously dated actors Del Synnott, Jamie Dornan, and Rupert Friend. She began a relationship with musician James Righton in February 2011. They married on 4 May 2013 in Mazan, France. Knightley wore a Chanel knee-length grey tulle bustier dress for the ceremony, with accessories designed by Karl Lagerfeld. The couple had a second wedding ceremony for close friends, during which Knightley wore a lace Valentino gown with pink floral embroidery. They have two daughters together, born in 2015 and 2019. The family reside in Canonbury, Islington, London. Knightley advocates for equal paternity leave and has spoken about the expense of childcare in England. She remarked in 2016 on "how lucky I've been to be able to afford really good childcare, because otherwise it would be at least four years out of my career." She has no social media profiles in an effort to preserve her family's privacy.
In 2007, Knightley won a libel case against the British tabloid Daily Mail after it falsely claimed that she suffered from an eating disorder. She was awarded £3,000 in damages; she added to the sum and donated a total of £6,000 to Beat, a charity for those suffering from mental illness and eating disorders. In February 2010, a 41-year-old man was charged with harassment after trying to contact Knightley on several occasions outside the Comedy Theatre in London, where she starred in the play The Misanthrope. The subsequent trial folded after she was unavailable to testify in court. Another man was sentenced to eight weeks in prison after harassing Knightley outside her home and stalking her in December 2016.
Knightley took a break from working in 2006, suggesting that she wanted to take some time off acting to travel and focus on her personal life. In 2018, Knightley revealed that she had a mental breakdown at age 22 and had been later diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), since she struggled to adjust to her sudden rise to stardom. She recounted how she did not leave her home for three months up until early 2008, and needed to have hypnotherapy to prevent panic attacks so she could be able to attend that year's BAFTA Awards, where she was nominated for her performance in Atonement.
Acting credits and awards
According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, Knightley's most critically successful films are Bend It Like Beckham (2002), Love Actually, (2003), Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003), Pride & Prejudice (2005), Atonement (2007), The Duchess (2008), Never Let Me Go (2010), A Dangerous Method (2011), The Imitation Game, (2014), Everest (2015), Colette (2018), Official Secrets (2019), and Misbehaviour (2020). Her television appearances include Oliver Twist (1999), Princess of Thieves (2001), and Doctor Zhivago (2002). On stage, Knightley has starred in The Misanthrope and The Children's Hour at the Harold Pinter Theatre, as well as in Thérèse Raquin at the Roundabout Theatre Company.
Knightley has received two Academy Award nominations: Best Actress for Pride & Prejudice (2005) and Best Supporting Actress for The Imitation Game (2014). She has been nominated at the Golden Globe Awards for the Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical, Best Actress - Motion Picture Drama, Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture categories, for her performances in Pride & Prejudice (2005) Atonement (2007) and The Imitation Game, (2014), respectively. Knightley has twice been nominated at the British Academy Film Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role for Atonement (2007), and Best Actress in a Supporting Role and for The Imitation Game (2014). She also received nomination for a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Play for The Misanthrope. She won the Empire Award for Best Actress for her performance in Atonement'' (2007) after five nominations.
Further reading
See also
List of British Actors
List of British Academy Award nominees and winners
List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees – Youngest nominees for Best Actress in a Leading Role
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories
References
External links
1985 births
20th-century atheists
20th-century English actresses
21st-century English actresses
21st-century atheists
Actresses from London
Audiobook narrators
English atheists
English child actresses
English film actresses
British people of English descent
English people of Scottish descent
English people of Welsh descent
People with post-traumatic stress disorder
English people with disabilities
English radio actresses
English stage actresses
English television actresses
English video game actresses
English voice actresses
Living people
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Teddington School
People with dyslexia
People from Teddington
People named in the Paradise Papers | [
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249901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector-Louis%20Langevin | Hector-Louis Langevin | Sir Hector-Louis Langevin, (August 25, 1826 – June 11, 1906) was a Canadian lawyer, politician, and one of the Fathers of Confederation.
Early life and education
Langevin was born in Quebec City in 1826. He studied law and was called to the bar in 1850.
Political career
In 1856, he was elected to the municipal council of Quebec City and was mayor from 1858 to 1861. In 1857, he was elected Member of Parliament for Dorchester in the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada as a member of the Conservative Party. He held various positions in Cabinet, including Solicitor General (1864–66), Postmaster General (1866–67), Secretary of State for Canada (1867–69), Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs (1868–69), Minister of Public Works (1869–73) and acting Minister of Militia and Defence (1873). Langevin also attended all three conferences leading up to Confederation. He left politics in 1873 due to his role in the Pacific Scandal.
In 1871 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec in the provincial electoral district of Québec-Centre. At the time, dual mandates were still allowed. He served one term, until 1874.
In 1876, he was re-elected in the riding of Charlevoix. His opponent contested the election and it was declared invalid, but he won the subsequent by-election in 1877. He was defeated in Rimouski in 1878 but elected by acclamation in the riding of Trois-Rivières in the same year. Langevin became Minister of Public Works again in 1879. He lobbied behind the scenes against the hanging of Louis Riel in 1885 and was one of the few Conservatives Members of Parliament to survive the resulting backlash in the province of Quebec in 1887.
He was promised the post of Lieutenant Governor of Quebec by the new Conservative Prime Minister John Abbott if he resigned as Minister of Public Works. Langevin stepped down in 1891 but Abbott appointed Joseph-Adolphe Chapleau instead. That year, Langevin was implicated with Thomas McGreevy in what became known as the "McGreevy-Langevin scandal" over kickbacks to McGreevy associated with federal contracts granted to him by the department of public works overseen by Langevin. He retired to the backbenches and then left politics in 1896.
Outside politics he was previously a newspaper editor.
View on Indigenous Canadians
In 1883 he stated in Parliament "In order to educate the (‘Indian’) children properly we must separate them from their families. Some people may say that this is hard but if we want to civilize them we must do that." "The fact is that if you wish to educate the children you must separate them from their parents during the time they are being taught. If you leave them in the family they may know how to read and write, but they will remain savages, whereas by separating them in the way proposed, they acquire the habits and tastes…of civilized people."
Posthumous recognition
The Langevin Block office building on Parliament Hill and the Langevin Bridge in Calgary were formerly named in his honour. Langevin's group of honours insignia was sold at auction in Ottawa on May 18, 2010 for $8000.00
On January 23, 2017, Calgary City Council voted to rename the Langevin Bridge to the Reconciliation Bridge. In June 2017 it was announced the Langevin Block would be renamed to the Office of the Prime Minister and Privy Council building due to Langevin's involvement in the Canadian Indian residential school system. in June of 2021 a Calgary Board of Education public school was renamed Riverside School, after being Langevin school from 1936 until 2021.
Personal life
His brother, Jean Langevin was a Roman Catholic bishop.
Archives
There is a Hector-Louis Langevin fonds at Library and Archives Canada and a family Hector Langevin fonds at Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec.
Electoral history
References
External links
National Library of Canada biography
1826 births
1906 deaths
Canadian Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Conservative Party of Quebec MNAs
Fathers of Confederation
French Quebecers
Lawyers in Quebec
Mayors of Quebec City
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from Canada East
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Postmasters General of Canada
Quebec lieutenants | [
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249903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsibility%20assumption | Responsibility assumption | In existential psychotherapy, responsibility assumption is the doctrine, practiced by therapists such as Irvin D. Yalom where an individual taking responsibility for the events and circumstances in their lives is seen as a necessary basis for their making any genuine change.
From the therapist's viewpoint, the goal is to identify these events and circumstances, always operating, in Yalom's words, "within the frame of reference that the patient has created his[/her] own distress".
Then the therapist must "find ways to communicate this insight to the patient".
The problem that Yalom seeks to address is that of seemingly passive patients, with therapists shouldering the entire burden of the therapy because they think that that is what they must do.
A "sluggish" patient can be "galvaniz[ed] into action" by asking the simple question: "Why do you come?". Other techniques including scenarios where other people assume responsibility, and drawing a parallel between those scenarios and the patient's own.
In detail, techniques involve:
Highlighting ways in which the client avoids responsibility, such as by using "cannot" for situations where "will not" is the case, and generates defences against the assumption of responsibility. This also involves confronting a client with the client's own behaviours. A client that, for example, complains of loneliness is reminded of this—"Is it any wonder that you are lonely?"—whenever the client belittles other people.
Highlighting responsibility avoidance even in the therapist-client relationship itself, by observing any transfer of responsibility from the client to the therapist ("Tell me what to do!") and behaviours of the client towards the therapist that reflect responsibility avoidance in the client's life.
Encouraging the assumption of responsibility for how the client deals with adverse external circumstances, such as serious illness and the client assuming responsibility for behaviour towards doctors.
Encouraging the conversion of guilt about lack of self-actualization into assuming more responsibility for that lack.
Confronting low affect, and encouraging the client to have desires and wishes for change, which become the seeds for a will to change, the mere wish to change being the first step towards that.
Ungluing decision making processes stuck through fear, encouraging empowerment and the exercise of choice.
Assumption of responsibility does not by itself motivate behavioural change. It must be accompanied by a will to change.
See also
List of counseling topics
References
Citations
Reference bibliography
Further reading
Existential therapy
Psychotherapy | [
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249904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-valued%20logic | Three-valued logic | In logic, a three-valued logic (also trinary logic, trivalent, ternary, or trilean, sometimes abbreviated 3VL) is any of several many-valued logic systems in which there are three truth values indicating true, false and some indeterminate third value. This is contrasted with the more commonly known bivalent logics (such as classical sentential or Boolean logic) which provide only for true and false.
Emil Leon Post is credited with first introducing additional logical truth degrees in his 1921 theory of elementary propositions. The conceptual form and basic ideas of three-valued logic were initially published by Jan Łukasiewicz and Clarence Irving Lewis. These were then re-formulated by Grigore Constantin Moisil in an axiomatic algebraic form, and also extended to n-valued logics in 1945.
Pre-discovery
Around 1910, Charles Sanders Peirce defined a many-valued logic system. He never published it. In fact, he did not even number the three pages of notes where he defined his three-valued operators. Peirce soundly rejected the idea all propositions must be either true or false; boundary-propositions, he writes, are "at the limit between P and not P." However, as confident as he was that "Triadic Logic is universally true," he also jotted down that "All this is mighty close to nonsense." Only in 1966, when Max Fisch and Atwell Turquette began publishing what they rediscovered in his unpublished manuscripts, did Peirce's triadic ideas become widely known.
Representation of values
As with bivalent logic, truth values in ternary logic may be represented numerically using various representations of the ternary numeral system. A few of the more common examples are:
in balanced ternary, each digit has one of 3 values: −1, 0, or +1; these values may also be simplified to −, 0, +, respectively;
in the redundant binary representation, each digit can have a value of −1, 0, 0/1 (the value 0/1 has two different representations);
in the ternary numeral system, each digit is a trit (trinary digit) having a value of: 0, 1, or 2;
in the skew binary number system, only the least-significant non-zero digit can have a value of 2, and the remaining digits have a value of 0 or 1;
1 for true, 2 for false, and 0 for unknown, unknowable/undecidable, irrelevant, or both;
0 for false, 1 for true, and a third non-integer "maybe" symbol such as ?, #, ½, or xy.
Inside a ternary computer, ternary values are represented by ternary signals.
This article mainly illustrates a system of ternary propositional logic using the truth values {false, unknown, true}, and extends conventional Boolean connectives to a trivalent context. Ternary predicate logics exist as well; these may have readings of the quantifier different from classical (binary) predicate logic and may include alternative quantifiers as well.
Logics
Where Boolean logic has 22 = 4 unary operators, the addition of a third value in ternary logic leads to a total of 33 = 27 distinct operators on a single input value. Similarly, where Boolean logic has 22×2 = 16 distinct binary operators (operators with 2 inputs), ternary logic has 33×3 = 19,683 such operators. Where we can easily name a significant fraction of the Boolean operators (NOT, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR, XNOR, equivalence, implication), it is unreasonable to attempt to name all but a small fraction of the possible ternary operators.
Kleene and Priest logics
Below is a set of truth tables showing the logic operations for Stephen Cole Kleene's "strong logic of indeterminacy" and Graham Priest's "logic of paradox".
In these truth tables, the unknown state can be thought of as neither true nor false in Kleene logic, or thought of as both true and false in Priest logic. The difference lies in the definition of tautologies. Where Kleene logic's only designated truth value is T, Priest logic's designated truth values are both T and U. In Kleene logic, the knowledge of whether any particular unknown state secretly represents true or false at any moment in time is not available. However, certain logical operations can yield an unambiguous result, even if they involve at least one unknown operand. For example, because true OR true equals true, and true OR false also equals true, one can infer that true OR unknown equals true, as well. In this example, because either bivalent state could be underlying the unknown state, but either state also yields the same result, a definitive true results in all three cases.
If numeric values, e.g. balanced ternary values, are assigned to false, unknown and true such that false is less than unknown and unknown is less than true, then A AND B AND C... = MIN(A, B, C ...) and A OR B OR C ... = MAX(A, B, C...).
Material implication for Kleene logic can be defined as:
, and its truth table is
which differs from that for Łukasiewicz logic (described below).
Kleene logic has no tautologies (valid formulas) because whenever all of the atomic components of a well-formed formula are assigned the value Unknown, the formula itself must also have the value Unknown. (And the only designated truth value for Kleene logic is True.) However, the lack of valid formulas does not mean that it lacks valid arguments and/or inference rules. An argument is semantically valid in Kleene logic if, whenever (for any interpretation/model) all of its premises are True, the conclusion must also be True. (Note that the Logic of Paradox (LP) has the same truth tables as Kleene logic, but it has two designated truth values instead of one; these are: True and Both (the analogue of Unknown), so that LP does have tautologies but it has fewer valid inference rules).
Łukasiewicz logic
The Łukasiewicz Ł3 has the same tables for AND, OR, and NOT as the Kleene logic given above, but differs in its definition of implication in that "unknown implies unknown" is true. This section follows the presentation from Malinowski's chapter of the Handbook of the History of Logic, vol 8.
Material implication for Łukasiewicz logic truth table is
In fact, using Łukasiewicz's implication and negation, the other usual connectives may be derived as:
It is also possible to derive a few other useful unary operators (first derived by Tarski in 1921):
They have the following truth tables:
M is read as "it is not false that..." or in the (unsuccessful) Tarski–Łukasiewicz attempt to axiomatize modal logic using a three-valued logic, "it is possible that..." L is read "it is true that..." or "it is necessary that..." Finally I is read "it is unknown that..." or "it is contingent that..."
In Łukasiewicz's Ł3 the designated value is True, meaning that only a proposition having this value everywhere is considered a tautology. For example, and are tautologies in Ł3 and also in classical logic. Not all tautologies of classical logic lift to Ł3 "as is". For example, the law of excluded middle, , and the law of non-contradiction, are not tautologies in Ł3. However, using the operator defined above, it is possible to state tautologies that are their analogues:
(law of excluded fourth)
(extended contradiction principle).
Bochvar logic
Ternary Post logic
not(a) = (a + 1) mod 3, or
not(a) = (a + 1) mod (n), where (n) is the value of a logic
Modular algebras
Some 3VL modular algebras have been introduced more recently, motivated by circuit problems rather than philosophical issues:
Cohn algebra
Pradhan algebra
Dubrova and Muzio algebra
Applications
SQL
The database structural query language SQL implements ternary logic as a means of handling comparisons with NULL field content. NULL was originally intended to be used as a sentinel value in SQL to represent missing data in a database, i.e. the assumption that an actual value exists, but that the value is not currently recorded in the database. SQL uses a common fragment of the Kleene K3 logic, restricted to AND, OR, and NOT tables.
In SQL, the intermediate value is intended to be interpreted as UNKNOWN. Explicit comparisons with NULL, including that of another NULL yields UNKNOWN. However this choice of semantics is abandoned for some set operations, e.g. UNION or INTERSECT, where NULLs are treated as equal with each other. Critics assert that this inconsistency deprives SQL of intuitive semantics in its treatment of NULLs. The SQL standard defines an optional feature called F571, which adds some unary operators, among which is IS UNKNOWN corresponding to the Łukasiewicz I in this article. The addition of IS UNKNOWN to the other operators of SQL's three-valued logic makes the SQL three-valued logic functionally complete, meaning its logical operators can express (in combination) any conceivable three-valued logical function.
See also
Binary logic (disambiguation)
Boolean algebra (structure)
Boolean function
Digital circuit
Four-valued logic
Setun – an experimental Russian computer which was based on ternary logic
Ternary numeral system (and Balanced ternary)
Three-state logic (tri-state buffer)
References
Further reading
, chapters 5-9
Mundici, D. The C*-Algebras of Three-Valued Logic. Logic Colloquium ’88, Proceedings of the Colloquium held in Padova 61–77 (1989).
Reichenbach, Hans (1944). Philosophic Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. University of California Press. Dover 1998:
External links
Introduction to Many-Valued Logics by Bertram Fronhöfer. Handout from a 2011 summer class at Technische Universität Dresden. (Despite the title, this is almost entirely about three-valued logics.)
Many-valued logic
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] |
249906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setun | Setun | Setun () was a computer developed in 1958 at Moscow State University. It was built under the leadership of Sergei Sobolev and Nikolay Brusentsov. It was the most modern ternary computer, using the balanced ternary numeral system and three-valued ternary logic instead of the two-valued binary logic prevalent in other computers.
Overview
The computer was built to fulfill the needs of Moscow State University. It was manufactured at the Kazan Mathematical plant. Fifty computers were built from 1959 until 1965, when production was halted. The characteristic operating memory consisted of 81 words of memory, each word composed of 18 trits (ternary digits) with additional 1944 words on magnetic drum (total of about 7 KB). Between 1965 and 1970, a regular binary computer was used at Moscow State University to replace it. Although this replacement binary computer performed equally well, it was 2.5 times the cost of the Setun.
In 1970, a new ternary computer architecture, the Setun-70, was developed. Edsger W. Dijkstra's ideas of structured programming were implemented in the hardware of this computer. The short instructions set was developed and implemented by Nikolay Brusentsov independently from RISC architecture principles.
The Setun-70 hardware architecture was transformed into the Dialogue System of Structured Programming (DSSP). DSSP emulates the "Setun 70" architecture on binary computers, thus it fulfills the advantages of structured programming invented by Edsger W. Dijkstra. DSSP programming language has similar syntax to the Forth programming language but has a different sequence of base instructions, especially conditional jump instructions. DSSP was developed by Nikolay Brusentsov and doctoral students in the 1980s at Moscow State University. A 32-bit version was implemented in 1989.
References
Early computers
Soviet computer systems
Soviet inventions | [
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249909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haruspex | Haruspex | In the religion of ancient Rome, a haruspex (plural haruspices; also called aruspex) was a person trained to practise a form of divination called haruspicy (haruspicina), the inspection of the entrails (exta—hence also extispicy (extispicium)) of sacrificed animals, especially the livers of sacrificed sheep and poultry.
The reading of omens specifically from the liver is also known by the Greek term hepatoscopy (also hepatomancy).
The Roman concept is directly derived from Etruscan religion, as one of the three branches of the disciplina Etrusca. Such methods continued to be used well into the Middle Ages, especially among Christian apostates and pagans.
The Latin terms haruspex and haruspicina are from an archaic word, haru = "entrails, intestines" (cognate with hernia = "protruding viscera" and hira = "empty gut"; PIE *ǵʰer-) and from the root spec- = "to watch, observe". The Greek ἡπατοσκοπία hēpatoskōpia is from hēpar = "liver" and skop- = "to examine".
Ancient Near East
The Babylonians were famous for hepatoscopy. This practice is mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel 21:21:
The Nineveh library texts name more than a dozen liver-related terms. The liver was considered the source of the blood and hence the basis of life itself. From this belief, the Babylonians thought they could discover the will of the gods by examining the livers of carefully selected sheep. A priest known as a bārû was specially trained to interpret the "signs" of the liver, and Babylonian scholars assembled a monumental compendium of omens called the Bārûtu. The liver was divided into sections, with each section representing a particular deity.
One Babylonian clay model of a sheep's liver, dated between 1900 and 1600 BC, is conserved in the British Museum. The model was used for divination, which was important to Mesopotamian medicine. This practice was conducted by priests and seers who looked for signs in the stars, or in the organs of sacrificed animals, to tell them things about a patient's illness. Wooden pegs were placed in the holes of the clay tablet to record features found in a sacrificed animal's liver. The seer then used these features to predict the course of a patient's illness.
Haruspicy was part of a larger study of organs for the sake of divination, called extispicy, paying particular attention to the positioning of the organs and their shape. There are many records of different peoples using the liver and spleen of various domestic and wild animals to forecast weather. There are hundreds of ancient architectural objects, labyrinths composed of cobblestones in the northern countries that are considered to be a model of the intestines of the sacrificial animal, i.e. the colon of ruminants.
The Assyro-Babylonian tradition was also adopted in Hittite religion. At least thirty-six liver-models have been excavated at Hattusa. Of these, the majority are inscribed in Akkadian, but a few examples also have inscriptions in the native Hittite language, indicating the adoption of haruspicy as part of the native, vernacular cult.
Haruspicy in Ancient Greece
Divination called haruspicy was also practiced in ancient Greece. Several Greek vases show images of liver divination.
Haruspicy in Ancient Italy
Roman haruspicy was a form of communication with the gods. Rather than strictly predicting future events, this form of Roman divination allowed humans to discern the attitudes of the gods and react in a way that would maintain harmony between the human and divine worlds (pax deorum). Before taking important actions, especially in battle, Romans conducted animal sacrifices to discover the will of the gods according to the information gathered through reading the animals' entrails. The entrails (most importantly the liver, but also the lungs and heart) contained a large number of signs that indicated the gods' approval or disapproval. These signs could be interpreted according to the appearance of the organs, for example, if the liver was "smooth, shiny and full" or "rough and shrunken". The Etruscans looked for the caput iocineris, or "head of the liver". It was considered a bad omen if this part was missing from the animal's liver. The haruspex would then study the flat visceral side of the liver after examining the caput iocinerisHaruspicy in Ancient Italy originated with the Etruscans. Textual evidence for Etruscan divination comes from an Etruscan inscription: the priest Laris Pulenas' (250–200 BCE) epitaph mentions a book he wrote on haruspicy. A collection of sacred texts called the Etrusca disciplina, written in Etruscan, were essentially guides on different forms of divination, including haruspicy and augury. In addition, a number of archeological artifacts depict Etruscan haruspicy. These include a bronze mirror with an image of a haruspex dressed in Etruscan priest's clothing, holding a liver while a crowd gathers near him. Another significant artifact relating to haruspicy in Ancient Italy is the Piacenza Liver. This bronze model of a sheep's liver was found by chance by a farmer in 1877. Names of gods are etched into the surface and organized into different sections. Artifacts depicting haruspicy exist from the ancient Roman world as well, such as stone relief carvings located in Trajan's Forum.
See also
Anthropomancy
Augur
Auspice
References
Bibliography
Walter Burkert, 1992. The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age (Thames and Hudson), pp 46–51.
Derek Collins, "Mapping the Entrails: The Practice of Greek Hepatoscopy" American Journal of Philology 129 [2008]: 319-345
Marie-Laurence Haack, Les haruspices dans le monde romain (Bordeaux : Ausonius, 2003).
Hans Gustav Güterbock, 'Hittite liver models' in: Language, Literature and History (FS Reiner) (1987), 147–153, reprinted in Hoffner (ed.) Selected Writings'', Assyriological Studies no. 26 (1997).
External links
This source suggests that Greek and Roman haruspices used the entrails of human corpses; the victim should be "without spot or blemish".
Haruspices, article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
Figurine of Haruspex, 4th Cent. B.C. Vatican Museums Online, Gregorian Etruscan Museum, Room III
Ancient Roman augury
Divination
Etruscan religion
Middle Eastern mythology
Ancient Roman occupations | [
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249914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonotactics | Phonotactics | Phonotactics (from Ancient Greek "voice, sound" and "having to do with arranging") is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters and vowel sequences by means of phonotactic constraints.
Phonotactic constraints are highly language-specific. For example, in Japanese, consonant clusters like do not occur. Similarly, the clusters and are not permitted at the beginning of a word in Modern English but are in German and Dutch (in which the latter appears as ) and were permitted in Old and Middle English. In contrast, in some Slavic languages and are used alongside vowels as syllable nuclei.
Syllables have the following internal segmental structure:
Onset (optional)
Rhyme (obligatory, comprises nucleus and coda):
Nucleus (obligatory)
Coda (optional)
Both onset and coda may be empty, forming a vowel-only syllable, or alternatively, the nucleus can be occupied by a syllabic consonant. Phonotactics is known to affect second language vocabulary acquisition.
English phonotactics
The English syllable (and word) twelfths is divided into the onset , the nucleus and the coda ; thus, it can be described as CCVCCCC (C = consonant, V = vowel). On this basis it is possible to form rules for which representations of phoneme classes may fill the cluster. For instance, English allows at most three consonants in an onset, but among native words under standard accents (and excluding a few obscure loanwords such as sphragistics), phonemes in a three-consonantal onset are limited to the following scheme:
+ stop + approximant:
+ +
stream
+ + (not in most accents of American English)
stew
+ +
sputum
sprawl
splat
+ +
skew
scream
sclerosis
squirrel
This constraint can be observed in the pronunciation of the word blue: originally, the vowel of blue was identical to the vowel of cue, approximately . In most dialects of English, shifted to . Theoretically, this would produce . The cluster , however, infringes the constraint for three-consonantal onsets in English. Therefore, the pronunciation has been reduced to by elision of the in what is known as yod-dropping.
Not all languages have this constraint; compare Spanish or French .
Constraints on English phonotactics include:
All syllables have a nucleus
No geminate consonants
No onset
No in the syllable coda (except in Hiberno-English)
No affricates or in complex onsets
The first consonant in a complex onset must be an obstruent (e.g. stop; combinations such as *ntat or *rkoop, with a sonorant, are not allowed)
The second consonant in a complex onset must not be a voiced obstruent (e.g. *zdop does not occur)
If the first consonant in a complex onset is not , the second must be a liquid or a glide
Every subsequence contained within a sequence of consonants must obey all the relevant phonotactic rules (the substring principle rule)
No glides in syllable codas (excluding the s of diphthongs)
The second consonant in a complex coda must not be , , , or (compare asthma, typically pronounced or , but rarely )
If the second consonant in a complex coda is voiced, so is the first
An obstruent following or in a coda must be homorganic with the nasal
Two obstruents in the same coda must share voicing (compare kids with kits )
Sonority Sequencing Principle
Segments of a syllable are universally distributed following the Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP), which states that, in any syllable, the nucleus has maximal sonority and that sonority decreases as you move away from the nucleus. Sonority is a measure of the amplitude of a speech sound. The particular ranking of each speech sound by sonority, called the sonority hierarchy, is language-specific, but, in its broad lines, hardly varies from a language to another, which means all languages form their syllables in approximately the same way with regards to sonority.
To illustrate the SSP, the voiceless alveolar fricative is lower on the sonority hierarchy than the alveolar lateral approximant , so the combination is permitted in onsets and is permitted in codas, but is not allowed in onsets and is not allowed in codas. Hence slips and pulse are possible English words while *lsips and *pusl are not.
The SSP expresses a very strong cross-linguistic tendency, however, it does not account for the patterns of all complex syllable margins. It may be violated in two ways: the first occurs when two segments in a margin have the same sonority, which is known as a sonority plateau. Such margins are found in a few languages, including English, as in the words sphinx and fact (though note that phsinx and fatc both violate English phonotactics).
The second instance of violation of the SSP is when a peripheral segment of a margin has a higher sonority than a segment closer to the nucleus. These margins are known as reversals and occur in some languages including English (steal , bets ) or French ( but originally , ).
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bailey, Todd M. & Hahn, Ulrike. 2001. Determinants of wordlikeness: Phonotactics or lexical neighborhoods? Journal of Memory and Language 44: 568–591.
Coleman, John S. & Pierrehumbert, Janet. 1997. Stochastic phonological grammars and acceptability. Computational Phonology 3: 49–56.
Frisch, S.; Large, N. R.; & Pisoni, D. B. 2000. Perception of wordlikeness: Effects of segment probability and length on processing non-words. Journal of Memory and Language 42: 481–496.
Gathercole, Susan E. & Martin, Amanda J. 1996. Interactive processes in phonological memory. In Cognitive models of memory, edited by Susan E. Gathercole. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
Hammond, Michael. 2004. Gradience, phonotactics, and the lexicon in English phonology. International Journal of English Studies 4: 1–24.
Gaygen, Daniel E. 1997. Effects of probabilistic phonotactics on the segmentation of continuous speech. Doctoral dissertation, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY.
Greenberg, Joseph H. & Jenkins, James J. 1964. Studies in the psychological correlates of the sound system of American English. Word 20: 157–177.
Luce, Paul A. & Pisoni, Daniel B. 1998. Recognizing spoken words: The neighborhood activation model. Ear and Hearing 19: 1–36.
Newman, Rochelle S.; Sawusch, James R.; & Luce, Paul A. 1996. Lexical neighborhood effects in phonetic processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 23: 873–889.
Ohala, John J. & Ohala, M. 1986. Testing hypotheses regarding the psychological manifestation of morpheme structure constraints. In Experimental phonology, edited by John J. Ohala & Jeri J. Jaeger, 239–252. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Orzechowska, Paula; Wiese, Richard. 2015; Preferences and variation in word-initial phonotactics: a multi-dimensional evaluation of German and Polish. Folia Linguistica 49: 439-486.
Pitt, Mark A. & McQueen, James M. 1998. Is compensation for coarticulation mediated by the lexicon? Journal of Memory and Language 39: 347–370.
Storkel, Holly L. 2001. Learning new words: Phonotactic probability in language development. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 44: 1321–1337.
Storkel, Holly L. 2003. Learning new words II: Phonotactic probability in verb learning. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 46: 1312–1323.
Vitevitch, Michael S. & Luce, Paul A. 1998. When words compete: Levels of processing in perception of spoken words. Psychological Science 9: 325–329.
Vitevitch, Michael S. & Luce, Paul A. 1999. Probabilistic phonotactics and neighborhood activation in spoken word recognition. Journal of Memory and Language 40: 374–408.
Vitevitch, Michael S.; Luce, Paul A.; Charles-Luce, Jan; & Kemmerer, David. 1997. Phonotactics and syllable stress: Implications for the processing of spoken nonsense words. Language and Speech 40: 47–62.
Vitevitch, Michael S.; Luce, Paul A.; Pisoni, David B.; & Auer, Edward T. 1999. Phonotactics, neighborhood activation, and lexical access for spoken words. Brain and Language 68: 306–311.
External links
The Irvine Phonotactic Online Dictionary (IPhOD)
World Phonotactics Database
Phonology | [
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249917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Dupleix | Joseph François Dupleix | Joseph Marquis Dupleix (1st January 1697 – 10 November 1763) was Governor-General of French India and rival of Robert Clive.
Biography
Dupleix was born in Landrecies, on January 23, 1697. His father, François Dupleix, a wealthy fermier général, wished to bring him up as a merchant, and, in order to distract him from his taste for science, sent him on a voyage to India in 1715 on one of the French East India Company's vessels. He made several voyages to the Americas and India, and in 1720 was named a member of the superior council at Bengal. He displayed great business aptitude, and in addition to his official duties made large ventures on his own account, acquiring a fortune.
In 1730 he was made superintendent of French affairs in Chandernagore. In 1741, he married Jeanne Albert, widow of one of the councillors of the company. Albert was known to the Hindus as Joanna Begum and proved of great help to her husband in his negotiations with the native princes.
His reputation procured him in 1742 the appointment of governor general of all French establishments in India. Dupleix saw in the constant succession disputes among the Princes of India an opportunity to advance the interests of the French in India, and for this purpose he entered into relations with the native princes, and adopted a style of oriental splendour in his dress and surroundings. He built an army of native troops, called sepoys, who were trained as infantry men in his service and also included the famous Hyder Ali of Mysore.
The British were alarmed by this, but the danger to their settlements and power was partly averted by the bitter mutual jealousy which existed between Dupleix and Bertrand François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, French governor of the Isle of Bourbon (today's La Réunion).
When the city of Madras capitulated to the French following the Battle of Madras in 1746, Dupleix opposed that the town be returned under British rule, thus violating the treaty signed by La Bourdonnais. He then sent an expedition against Fort St David (1747), which won over the Nawab of Arcot, ally of the British. Dupleix again attempted the capture of Fort St David, and this time succeeded.
In 1748 Kolkata was besieged by the French, but in the course of the operations news arrived of the peace concluded between the French and the British at Aix-la-Chapelle. Dupleix next entered into negotiations about the subjugation of southern India. He sent a large body of troops to the aid of the two claimants of the sovereignty of the Carnatic and the Deccan. The British sided with their rivals to prevent the plans of Dupleix from materializing.
In 1750 the Subadar of Deccan gifted the Alamparai Fort to the French. This was a token of his appreciation of the services of Dupleix and the French forces to his services.
From 1751, Dupleix tried to expand French influence in Burma by sending the envoy Sieur de Bruno, and by providing military assistance the Mon in their conflict with the Burmese. Bruno proved remarkably successful in this effort, resulting in closer ties between the French and the Mon. However, the advent of the Seven Years' War meant that as French attentions were elsewhere this relationship came to nothing.
Commemoration
A number of things were named in his honour:
A square, road and metro station in the 15th arrondissement of Paris are named after him.
Four French warships have borne his name (beside two commercial ships):
The steam corvette Dupleix (1861–1887), famous for her involvement in the Japanese revolution
A 7700-tonne armoured cruiser (1897–1919)
A 10,000 tonne cruiser (1929–1942), scuttled in Toulon
The F70 type frigate Dupleix, currently in commission.
A road in New Delhi near the Indian parliament named after him.
Rue Dupleix (Dupleix Street) was the former name of Nehru Street in Pondicherry.
Statue of Joseph Francois Dupleix at Puducherry Beach
Dupleix left Puducherry in 1754, French recognition of his contribution came only in 1870, with the commissioning of two statues – one in Puducherry and the other in France. The former statue is now situated in Goubert Avenue at the end of Rock Beach. It was first installed on 16 July 1870. In 1979 the statue was moved from its previous location in the middle of the current Bharathy park to the current location at the beach.
Dupleix is represented as a man of commanding stature. In the large nose and massive under jaw, some resemblance may be traced to Oliver Cromwell as commonly represented in his portraits. In the statue, Dupleix wears Court dress with bag wig and long riding boots; in his right hand is a plan of Puducherry, his left reposing on the hilt of his sword.
Restoration of the Dupleix statue was undertaken by the Public Works Department (PWD) of the government of Puducherry in 2014.
See also
French colonial empires
Carnatic Wars
France in the Seven Years' War
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
genealogy on geneanet samlap's site
References
Sources
Further reading
Duplieix by Colonel John Biddulph, 1910
External links
1697 births
1763 deaths
People from Landrecies
French colonial governors and administrators
Governors of French India
History of Puducherry
Yanam | [
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249918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic%20neuropathy | Autonomic neuropathy | Autonomic neuropathy (AN or AAN) is a form of polyneuropathy that affects the non-voluntary, non-sensory nervous system (i.e., the autonomic nervous system), affecting mostly the internal organs such as the bladder muscles, the cardiovascular system, the digestive tract, and the genital organs. These nerves are not under a person's conscious control and function automatically. Autonomic nerve fibers form large collections in the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis outside the spinal cord. They have connections with the spinal cord and ultimately the brain, however. Most commonly autonomic neuropathy is seen in persons with long-standing diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2. In most—but not all—cases, autonomic neuropathy occurs alongside other forms of neuropathy, such as sensory neuropathy.
Autonomic neuropathy is one cause of malfunction of the autonomic nervous system (referred to as dysautonomia), but not the only one; some conditions affecting the brain or spinal cord also may cause autonomic dysfunction, such as multiple system atrophy, and therefore, may cause similar symptoms to autonomic neuropathy.
Signs and symptoms
The signs and symptoms of autonomic neuropathy include the following:
Urinary bladder conditions: urinary incontinence or urinary retention which happens due to the uncoordinated contraction of the bladder. Neurogenic bladder is a broad term used to describe this dysfunction.
Gastrointestinal tract: dysphagia, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, malabsorption, fecal incontinence, gastroparesis, diarrhea, constipation
Cardiovascular system: disturbances of heart rate (tachycardia, bradycardia), orthostatic hypotension, inadequate increase of heart rate on exertion
Respiratory system: impairments in the signals associated with regulation of breathing and gas exchange (central sleep apnea, hypopnea, bradypnea).
Nervous system: pupillary defect, exaggerated hippus, dizziness or lightheadedness.
Other areas: hypoglycemia unawareness, genital impotence, sweat disturbances, sicca (dryness).
Absence of signs of cerebellar dysfunction or parkinsonian symptoms as the presence of either would indicate the more serious disease of multiple system atrophy.
Causes
Many health conditions can cause autonomic neuropathy. Some common causes of autonomic neuropathy include:
Diabetes, which is the most common cause of autonomic neuropathy, can gradually cause nerve damage throughout the body.
Injury to nerves caused by surgery or radiation to the neck.
Treatment with certain medications, including some drugs used in cancer chemotherapy.
Abnormal protein buildup in organs (amyloidosis), which affects the organs and the nervous system.
Neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease and “Parkinson’s Plus diseases” including multiple system atrophy and Lewy body dementia, and multiple sclerosis
Autonomic neuropathy may also be caused by an abnormal attack by the immune system (autoimmune autonomic ganglionopathy), sometimes as part of a paraneoplastic syndrome which can occur even when cancer has not yet been diagnosed.
Certain infectious diseases. Some viruses and bacteria, such as botulism, Lyme disease and HIV, can cause autonomic neuropathy.
Inherited disorders. Certain hereditary disorders can cause autonomic neuropathy.
Autoimmune diseases, in which the immune system attacks and damages parts of the body, including the nerves. Examples include Sjögren syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and celiac disease. Guillain–Barré syndrome is an autoimmune disease that happens rapidly and can affect autonomic nerves.
Diagnosis
Treatment
Neurogenic Bladder
Depending on the symptoms and severity of the dysfunction, the doctor might suggest one of the following treatments
Behavioral changes: such as reducing water intake, kegel exercises, biofeedback training
Clean intermittent catheterization: insertion of a foley catheter to remove the urine every few hours and prevent retention, done in a sterile manner.
Pharmacological therapy, which includes anticholinergic drugs which reduce the contraction of the bladder
Botox injections into the bladder
Surgical treatment: Urinary diversion, Artificial Urinary Sphincter, Urethral sling, or insertion of electrical devices adjacent to the bladder to stimulate its contraction.
References
External links
Peripheral nervous system disorders | [
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249919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal%20rate | Basal rate | Basal rate, in biology, is the rate of continuous supply of some chemical or process. In the case of diabetes mellitus, it is a low rate of continuous insulin supply needed for such purposes as controlling cellular glucose and amino acid uptake.
Together with a bolus of insulin, the basal insulin completes the total insulin needs of an insulin-dependent person.
An insulin pump and wristop controller is one way to arrange for a closely controlled basal insulin rate. The slow-release insulins (e.g., Lantus and Levemir) can provide a similar effect.
In healthy individuals, basal rate is monitored by the pancreas, which provides a regular amount of insulin at all times. The body requires this flow of insulin to enable the body to utilize glucose in the blood stream, so the energy in glucose can be used to carry out bodily functions. Basal rate requirements can differ for individuals depending on the activities they will carry out on that particular day. For example, if one is not highly active on a certain day, they will have a decreased basal rate because they are not using a lot of energy. On the other hand, basal rate increases dramatically when an individual is highly active.
Basal rates often even vary from hour to hour throughout the day. For example, one's insulin needs vary from activity to activity. Activities, such as sports, housework, shopping, gardening, tidying the house, and consuming alcohol all require a lowering in basal rate. These activities all require energy and, thus, use glucose; basal rate must decrease in order to keep glucose levels high enough to be used as fuel for the body. On the other hand, fevers, having a cold, taking a nap, taking cortisone-containing medication, and moments of excitement call for different basal rate needs. In these instances, the body has an overwhelming supply of glucose, and glucose levels need to decrease. To induce this decrease, basal rate needs to increase to increase insulin release to absorb some of the excess glucose from the blood stream.
Those with diabetes mellitus must be aware of their basal rates and regulate them accordingly. Basal rate can be raised and lowered through various methods. For example, individuals with diabetes mellitus often use an insulin pump to supply an increased amount of insulin into the blood stream. Those with diabetes also may eat carbohydrates or sugars to account for low blood sugar. However one monitors and regulates their blood sugar levels and basal rates, it is important to make changes gradually. An initial lowering in basal rate should be no more than 10% of the original. After the initial lowering point, one must note the factor by which one's blood sugar changes. If blood sugar levels decreased, one should lower their basal rate by 20% next time. If their blood sugar levels increased, a lowering of 10% was too great, and one should not lower their basal rate at all next time. If blood sugar levels remained relatively constant, a drop in basal rate of 10% was sufficient.
Just as the action to change basal rate should be gradual in nature, the actual response from changing basal rate does not happen instantly. A change in basal rate is felt around two hours after the action is done. This is especially important for those with diabetes to note, as it affects when they should act to monitor their basal rates. For example, if there is a particular time in the day when one notices a problem with blood glucose levels, they should act to change their basal rate accordingly two hours prior to when the problem was previously experienced.
Causes of Basal Rate
The liver is the primary contributing organ which produces glucose continuously even when nothing is being eaten. The liver will supply glucose either from fats or from previously eaten foods. Therefore, the basal rate can be thought of as a sort of "second bolus" after the initial bolus intake of insulin.
Modelling the Basal Rate
Most adult diabetics (over the age of 21) will have a fairly constant ratio of bolus:basal of 60%:40%, where 60% of all insulin intake in a single 24-hour period will be attributed to meals (bolus) and 40% should then be attributed to the basal rate. This ratio will fluctuate from person to person depending on their size, activity level, and caloric intake as well but is a good baseline for determining the correct basal rate for an adult diabetic. Thus, the basal rate could theoretically be set based on an averaged bolus insulin intake of several days. Averaging the total bolus, and then dividing this number by 36 would then give the required hourly basal rate intake for any individual with a 60:40 ratio established.
References
External links
Insulin Pump Terminology: Basal Rates
Information on the varying basal rate needs throughout the day
General guidelines on changing basal rate
Further guidelines in changing basal rate
Diabetes
Insulin therapies
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249920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dupleix | Dupleix | Dupleix could refer to one of the following:
People:
Joseph François Dupleix, governor general of the French establishment in India in the 18th century
Naval ships:
French corvette Dupleix (1861) (1856–1887) famous for her involvement in the Japanese revolution
French ship Dupleix, a 7700 tonne armoured cruiser (1897–1919): built in Rochefort and launched on 28 April 1900
French cruiser Dupleix, French heavy cruiser of the Suffren class, launched 9 October 1930
Dupleix (D 641), the latest Dupleixis a F70 typ anti-submarine frigate
Commercial ships:
a steamship built at La Ciotat in 1862, which between 1883 and 1888 operated between Sydney and Nouméa, was sold, refurbished and subsequently operated between Australia and New Zealand.
a three-masted barque (1901–1917) sunk by the German commerce raider Seeadler on 5 March 1917
a cargo ship (1914–1942) sunk in the Pacific by a Japanese submarine.
In transport:
Dupleix (Paris Métro), a station in the 15th arrondissement of Paris | [
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249921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunion | Bunion | A bunion, also known as hallux valgus, is a deformity of the joint connecting the big toe to the foot. The big toe often bends towards the other toes and the joint becomes red and painful. The onset of bunions is typically gradual. Complications may include bursitis or arthritis.
The exact cause is unclear. Proposed factors include wearing overly tight shoes, high-heeled shoes, family history, and rheumatoid arthritis. Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and supported by X-rays. A similar condition of the little toe is referred to as a bunionette.
Treatment may include proper shoes, orthotics, or NSAIDs. If this is not effective for improving symptoms, surgery may be performed. It affects about 23% of adults. Females are affected more often than males. Usual age of onset is between 20 and 50 years old. The condition also becomes more common with age. It was first clearly described in 1870. Archaeologists have found a high incidence of bunions in skeletons from 14th- and 15th-century England, coinciding with a fashion for pointy shoes.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms may include irritation of the skin around the bunion, and blisters may form more easily at the site. Pain may be worse when walking.
Bunions can lead to difficulties finding properly fitting footwear and may force a person to buy a larger size shoe to accommodate the width of the bunion. If the bunion deformity becomes severe enough, the foot can hurt in different places even without the constriction of shoes. It is then considered as being a mechanical function problem of the forefoot.
Cause
The exact cause is unclear. It may be due to a combination of internal and external causes. Proposed factors include wearing overly tight shoes, high-heeled shoes, family history and rheumatoid arthritis. The American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons states that footwear only worsens a problem caused by genetics.
Excessive pronation of the foot causes increased pressure on the inside of the big toe that can result in a deformation of the medial capsular structures of the joint, subsequently increasing the risk of developing bunions.
Pathophysiology
The bump itself is partly due to the swollen bursal sac or an osseous (bony) anomaly on the metatarsophalangeal joint. The larger part of the bump is a normal part of the head of the first metatarsal bone that has tilted sideways to stick out at its distal (far) end.
Bunions are commonly associated with a deviated position of the big toe toward the second toe, and the deviation in the angle between the first and second metatarsal bones of the foot. The small sesamoid bones found beneath the first metatarsal (which help the flexor tendon bend the big toe downwards) may also become deviated over time as the first metatarsal bone drifts away from its normal position. Osteoarthritis of the first metatarsophalangeal joint, diminished and/or altered range of motion, and discomfort with pressure applied to the bump or with motion of the joint, may all accompany bunion development. Atop of the first metatarsal head either medially or dorso-medially, there can also arise a bursa that when inflamed (bursitis), can be the most painful aspect of the process.
Diagnosis
Bunion can be diagnosed and analyzed with a simple x-ray, which should be taken with the weight on the foot. The hallux valgus angle (HVA) is the angle between the long axes of the proximal phalanx and the first metatarsal bone of the big toe. It is considered abnormal if greater than 15–18°. The following HV angles can also be used to grade the severity of hallux valgus:
Mild: 15–20°
Moderate: 21–39°
Severe: ≥ 40°
The intermetatarsal angle (IMA) is the angle between the longitudinal axes of the first and second metatarsal bones, and is normally less than 9°. The IM angle can also grade the severity of hallux valgus as:
Mild: 9–11°
Moderate: 12–17°
Severe: ≥ 18°
Treatment
Conservative treatment for bunions include changes in footwear, the use of orthotics (accommodative padding and shielding), rest, ice, and pain medications such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. These treatments address symptoms but do not correct the actual deformity. If the discomfort persists and is severe or when aesthetic correction of the deformity is desired, surgical correction by an orthopedic surgeon or a podiatric surgeon may be necessary.
Orthotics
Orthotics are splints or regulators while conservative measures include various footwear like toe spacers, valgus splints, and bunion shields. Toe spacers seem to be effective in reducing pain, but there is not evidence that any of these techniques reduces the physical deformity. There are a variety of available orthotics including off-the-shelf commercial products and custom-molded orthotics, which may be prescribed medical devices.
Surgery
Procedures are designed and chosen to correct a variety of pathologies that may be associated with the bunion. For instance, procedures may address some combination of:
removing the abnormal bony enlargement of the first metatarsal,
realigning the first metatarsal bone relative to the adjacent metatarsal bone,
straightening the great toe relative to the first metatarsal and adjacent toes,
realigning the cartilaginous surfaces of the great toe joint,
addressing arthritic changes associated with the great toe joint,
repositioning the sesamoid bones beneath the first metatarsal bone,
shortening, lengthening, raising, or lowering the first metatarsal bone,
correcting any abnormal bowing or misalignment within the great toe,
connecting two parallel long bones side by side by syndesmosis procedure
At present there are many different bunion surgeries for different effects. The age, health, lifestyle and activity level of the patient may also play a role in the choice of procedure.
Traditional bunion surgery can be performed under local, spinal or general anesthetic. A person who has undergone bunion surgery can expect a 6- to 8-week recovery period during which crutches are usually required to aid mobility. An orthopedic cast is much less common today as newer, more stable procedures and better forms of fixation (stabilizing the bone with screws and other hardware) are used. Hardware may even include absorbable pins that perform their function and are then broken down by the body over the course of months. After recovery long term stiffness or limited range of motion may occur in some patients. Visible or limited scarring may also occur for patients.
References
External links
Textbook of Hallux Valgus and Forefoot Surgery, links to complete text in PDF files
Foot diseases
Skeletal disorders
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249922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callus | Callus | A callus is an area of thickened and sometimes hardened skin that forms as a response to repeated friction, pressure, or other irritation. Since repeated contact is required, calluses are most often found on the feet and hands, but they may occur anywhere on the skin. Some degree of callus, such as on the bottom of the foot, is normal.
Calluses are generally not harmful and help prevent blisters, as well as offering protection. However, excessive formation may sometimes lead to other problems, such as a skin ulceration or infection, or cause the sufferer to try to offload the affected painful area, which can place excessive stress on the asymptomatic side.
Rubbing that is too frequent or forceful will cause blisters, as opposed to calluses, to form.
Cause
Normally, a callus will form on any part of the skin exposed to excess friction over a long period of time. For example, people often develop calluses on the middle finger or ring finger of their dominant hand due to writing with a pen or pencil. Another cause is from playing string instruments like the guitar or the violin; calluses will develop on the four fingers of the hand used in holding the strings down to the fingerboard, and sometimes on the fingers of the hand used for pizzicato or strumming. Weightlifters commonly experience callus on the upper-palm area due to repeated friction. Calluses are also very common on the fingers of rock climbers on almost all of their fingers. There are many activities that can result in the formation of a callus, which may even be viewed as a badge of experience and commitment to the activity.
Activities that are known for causing calluses include (but are not limited to) construction work, many sports, wood carving, playing musical instruments, use of a chef's knife, rock climbing, hiking, martial arts, weight training, rowing, BMXing, dancing (especially ballet), chopping wood, monkey bars and wearing high heels. Tenpin bowlers will often develop calluses on their thumbs and occasionally their middle fingers from frequent bowling. Calluses have also been known to develop on the forehead from the frequent prostrations required in Muslim prayer; known as a prayer bump or zebiba, such calluses are considered marks of piety in some Muslim countries, and people have been known to take special steps, such as praying on straw mats, to encourage the callus to develop.
Although calluses can occur anywhere on the body as a reaction to moderate, constant "grinding" pressure, they are most often found on the foot (where the most pressure and friction are applied). On the feet, arguably the source of the most problematic calluses, they typically form on the metatarsal-phalangeal joint area ("balls of the foot"), heels and small toes due to the compression applied by tightly fitting shoes.
Biologically, calluses are formed by the accumulation of terminally differentiated keratinocytes in the outermost layer of skin. Though the cells of calluses are dead, they are quite resistant to mechanical and chemical damage due to extensive networks of cross-linked proteins and hydrophobic keratin intermediate filaments containing many disulfide bonds. It is the natural reaction of the palmar or plantar skin. Too much friction occurring too fast for the skin to develop a protective callus will cause a blister or abrasion instead.
Sometimes a callus occurs where there is no rubbing or pressure. These hyperkeratoses can have a variety of causes. Some toxic materials, such as arsenic, can cause thick palms and soles. Some diseases, such as syphilis, can cause thickening of the palms and soles as well as pinpoint hyperkeratoses. There is a benign condition called keratosis palmaris et plantaris, which produces corns in the creases of the fingers and non-weight bearing spaces of the feet. Some of this may be caused by actinic keratosis, which occurs due to overexposure to sun or with age and hormonal shifts.
Corns
A corn (or clavus, plural clavi) is a cone-shaped callus that penetrates into the dermis, usually on the feet or hands. Corns may form due to chronic pressure or rubbing at a pressure point (in this skin over a bone), or due to scar tissue from a healing wound creating pressure in a weight-bearing area such as the sole of the foot. If there is constant stimulation of the tissue producing the corns, even after the corn is surgically removed, the skin may continue to grow as a corn.
The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a funnel with a broad raised top and a pointed bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. The scientific name for a corn is heloma (plural helomata). A hard corn is called a heloma durum, while a soft corn is called a heloma molle.
The location of the soft corns tends to differ from that of hard corns. Hard corns occur on dry, flat surfaces of skin. Soft corns (frequently found between adjacent toes) stay moist, keeping the surrounding skin soft. The corn's center is not soft however, but indurated.
The specific diagnostic workup and treatments for corns may differ substantially from other forms of calluses.
Prevention
Corns and calluses are easier to prevent than to treat. When it is undesirable to form a callus, minimizing rubbing and pressure will prevent callus formation. Footwear should be properly fitted, gloves may be worn, and protective pads, rings or skin dressings may be used. People with poor circulation or sensation should check their skin often for signs of rubbing and irritation so they can minimize any damage.
Treatment
Calluses and corns may heal by themselves eventually, once the irritation is consistently avoided. They may also be dissolved with keratolytic agents containing salicylic acid, sanded down with a pumice stone or silicon carbide sandpaper or filed down with a callus shaver, or pared down by a professional such as a podiatrist.
Diabetes
People with diabetes face special skin challenges. Because diabetes affects the capillaries, the small blood vessels which feed the skin, thickening of the skin with callus increases the difficulty of supplying nutrients to the skin. Callus formation is seen in high numbers of patients with diabetes, and together with absent foot pulses and formation of hammer toe, this may be an early sign of individuals at an increased risk for foot ulcers.
The stiffness of a callus or corn, coupled with the shear and pressure that caused it, may tear the capillaries or adjoining tissue, causing bleeding within the callus or corn. Often, bleeding within a callus is an early sign of diabetes, even before elevated blood sugars may be noticed. Although the bleeding can be small, sometimes small pools of blood or hematoma are formed. The blood itself is an irritant, a foreign body within the callus that makes the area burn or itch. If the pool of blood is exposed to the outside, infection may follow. Infection may also lead to ulceration. This process can be prevented at several places. Diabetic foot infections are the leading cause of diabetic limb amputation.
See also
Hyperkeratosis
Callosity
Catagmatic
Notes
References
Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, 15th Edition, CL Thomas, M.D., M.P.H., editor, F.A. Davis Company, Philadelphia, PA, 1985.
The Merck Manual of Medical Information, Home Edition, R Berkow, M.D., et al., editors, Merck Research Laboratories, Whitehouse Station, NJ, 1997.
External links
Foot diseases
Skin conditions resulting from physical factors
es:Callo
fr:Cal (médecine)
ko:티눈
io:Kalo
it:Callo
pl:Modzel
pt:Calo
tr:Nasır | [
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249924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrovascular%20disease | Cerebrovascular disease | Cerebrovascular disease includes a variety of medical conditions that affect the blood vessels of the brain and the cerebral circulation. Arteries supplying oxygen and nutrients to the brain are often damaged or deformed in these disorders. The most common presentation of cerebrovascular disease is an ischemic stroke or mini-stroke and sometimes a hemorrhagic stroke. Hypertension (high blood pressure) is the most important contributing risk factor for stroke and cerebrovascular diseases as it can change the structure of blood vessels and result in atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis narrows blood vessels in the brain, resulting in decreased cerebral perfusion. Other risk factors that contribute to stroke include smoking and diabetes. Narrowed cerebral arteries can lead to ischemic stroke, but continually elevated blood pressure can also cause tearing of vessels, leading to a hemorrhagic stroke.
A stroke usually presents with an abrupt onset of a neurologic deficit – such as hemiplegia (one-sided weakness), numbness, aphasia (language impairment), or ataxia (loss of coordination) – attributable to a focal vascular lesion. The neurologic symptoms manifest within seconds because neurons need a continual supply of nutrients, including glucose and oxygen, that are provided by the blood. Therefore if blood supply to the brain is impeded, injury and energy failure is rapid.
Besides hypertension, there are also many less common causes of cerebrovascular disease, including those that are congenital or idiopathic and include CADASIL, aneurysms, amyloid angiopathy, arteriovenous malformations, fistulas, and arterial dissections. Many of these diseases can be asymptomatic until an acute event, such as a stroke, occurs. Cerebrovascular diseases can also present less commonly with headache or seizures. Any of these diseases can result in vascular dementia due to ischemic damage to the brain.
Signs and symptoms
The most common presentation of cerebrovascular diseases is an acute stroke, which occurs when blood supply to the brain is compromised. Symptoms of stroke are usually rapid in onset, and may include weakness of one side of the face or body, numbness on one side of the face or body, inability to produce or understand speech, vision changes, and balance difficulties. Hemorrhagic strokes can present with a very severe, sudden headache associated with vomiting, neck stiffness, and decreased consciousness. Symptoms vary depending on the location and the size of the area of involvement of the stroke. Edema, or swelling, of the brain may occur which increases intracranial pressure and may result in brain herniation. A stroke may result in coma or death if it involves key areas of the brain.
Other symptoms of cerebrovascular disease include migraines, seizures, epilepsy, or cognitive decline. However, cerebrovascular disease may go undetected for years until an acute stroke occurs. In addition, patients with some rare congenital cerebrovascular diseases may begin to have these symptoms in childhood.
Causes
Congenital
Congenital diseases are medical conditions that are present at birth that may be associated with or inherited through genes. Examples of congenital cerebrovascular diseases include arteriovenous malformations, germinal matrix hemorrhage, and CADASIL (cerebral autosomal-dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy). Arteriovenous malformations are abnormal tangles of blood vessels. Usually, a capillary bed separates arteries from veins, which protects the veins from the higher blood pressures that occur in arteries. In arteriovenous malformations, arteries are directly connected to veins, which increases the risk of venous rupture and hemorrhage. Arteriovenous malformations in the brain have a 2–4% chance of rupture each year. However, many arteriovenous malformations go unnoticed and are asymptomatic throughout a person's lifetime.
A germinal matrix hemorrhage is bleeding into the brain of premature infants caused by the rupture of fragile blood vessels within the germinal matrix of premature babies. The germinal matrix is a highly vascularized area within an unborn infant's brain from which brain cells, including neurons and glial cells, originate. Infants are at most risk to germinal matrix hemorrhages when they are born prematurely, before 32 weeks. The stresses exposed after birth, along with the fragile blood vessels, increase risk of hemorrhage. Signs and symptoms include flaccid weakness, seizures, abnormal posturing, or irregular respiration.
CADASIL is an inherited disorder caused by mutations in the Notch 3 gene located on chromosome 19. The Notch 3 gene codes for a transmembrane protein whose function is not well-known. However, the mutation causes accumulation of this protein within small to medium-sized blood vessels. This disease often presents in early adulthood with migraines, stroke, mood disturbances, and cognitive deterioration. MRI shows white matter changes in the brain and also signs of repeated strokes. The diagnosis can be confirmed by gene testing.
Acquired
Acquired cerebrovascular diseases are those that are obtained throughout a person's life that may be preventable by controlling risk factors. The incidence of cerebrovascular disease increases as an individual ages. Causes of acquired cerebrovascular disease include atherosclerosis, embolism, aneurysms, and arterial dissections. Atherosclerosis leads to narrowing of blood vessels and less perfusion to the brain, and it also increases the risk of thrombosis, or a blockage of an artery, within the brain. Major modifiable risk factors for atherosclerosis include:
Controlling these risk factors can reduce the incidence of atherosclerosis and stroke. Atrial fibrillation is also a major risk factor for strokes. Atrial fibrillation causes blood clots to form within the heart, which may travel to the arteries within the brain and cause an embolism. The embolism prevents blood flow to the brain, which leads to a stroke.
An aneurysm is an abnormal bulging of small sections of arteries, which increases the risk of artery rupture. Intracranial aneurysms are a leading cause of subarachnoid hemorrhage, or bleeding around the brain within the subarachnoid space. There are various hereditary disorders associated with intracranial aneurysms, such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease, and familial hyperaldosteronism type I. However, individuals without these disorders may also obtain aneurysms. The American Heart Association and American Stroke Association recommend controlling modifiable risk factors including smoking and hypertension.
Arterial dissections are tears of the internal lining of arteries, often associated with trauma. Dissections within the carotid arteries or vertebral arteries may compromise blood flow to the brain due to thrombosis, and dissections increase the risk of vessel rupture.
Idiopathic
Idiopathic diseases are those that occur spontaneously without a known cause. Moyamoya is an example of an idiopathic cerebrovascular disorder that results in narrowing and occlusion of intracranial blood vessels. The most common presentation is stroke or transient ischemic attack, but cognitive decline within children may also be a presenting symptom. The disease may begin to show symptoms beginning in adolescence, but some may not have symptoms until adulthood.
Pathophysiology
Mechanism of brain cell death
When a reduction in blood flow lasting seconds occurs, the brain tissue suffers ischemia, or inadequate blood supply. If the interruption of blood flow is not restored in minutes, the tissue suffers infarction followed by tissue death. When the low cerebral blood flow persists for a longer duration, this may develop into an infarction in the border zones (areas of poor blood flow between the major cerebral artery distributions). In more severe instances, global hypoxia-ischemia causes widespread brain injury leading to a severe cognitive sequelae called hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy.
An ischemic cascade occurs where an energetic molecular problem arises due to lack of oxygen and nutrients. The cascade results in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is a high-energy molecule needed for cells in the brain to function. Consumption of ATP continues in spite of insufficient production, this causes total levels of ATP to decrease and lactate acidosis to become established (ionic homeostasis in neurons is lost). The downstream mechanisms of the ischemic cascade thus begins. Ion pumps no longer transport Ca2+ out of cell, this triggers release of glutamate, which in turn allows calcium into cell walls. In the end the apoptosis pathway is initiated and cell death occurs.
There are several arteries that supply oxygen to different areas of the brain, and damage or occlusion of any of them can result in stroke. The carotid arteries cover the majority of the cerebrum. The common carotid artery divides into the internal and the external carotid arteries. The internal carotid artery becomes the anterior cerebral artery and the middle central artery. The ACA transmits blood to the frontal parietal. From the basilar artery are two posterior cerebral arteries. Branches of the basilar and PCA supply the occipital lobe, brain stem, and the cerebellum. Ischemia is the loss of blood flow to the focal region of the brain. This produces heterogeneous areas of ischemia at the affected vascular region, furthermore, blood flow is limited to a residual flow. Regions with blood flow of less than 10 mL/100 g of tissue/min are core regions (cells here die within minutes of a stroke). The ischemic penumbra with a blood flow of <25 ml/100g tissue/min, remain usable for more time (hours).
Types of stroke
There are two main divisions of strokes: ischemic and hemorrhagic. Ischemic stroke involves decreased blood supply to regions of the brain, while hemorrhagic stroke is bleeding into or around the brain.
Ischemic
Ischemic stroke, the most common is caused by a blockage of a blood vessel in the brain, usually caused by thrombosis or emboli from a proximal arterial source or the heart, that leads to the brain being starved of oxygen. The neurologic signs and symptoms must last longer than 24 hours or the brain infarction is demonstrated, mainly by imaging techniques.
Transient ischemic attack (TIA) also called a mini-stroke. This is a condition in which the blood flow to a region of the brain is blocked, but blood flow is quickly restored and the brain tissue can fully recover. The symptoms are only transient, leaving no sequelae, or long-term deficits. In order to diagnose this entity, all neurologic signs and symptoms must have been resolved within 24 hrs without evidence of brain infarction on brain imaging.
Hemorrhagic
Subarachnoid haemorrhage occurs when blood leaks out of damaged vessels into the cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space around the brain. The most common cause of a subarachnoid hemorrhage is an aneurysm rupture due to the weakened blood vessel walls and increased wall stress. The neurologic symptoms are produced by the blood mass effect on neural structures, from the toxic effects of blood on the brain tissue, or by the increasing of intracranial pressure.
Intracerebral haemorrhage is bleeding directly into the brain rather than around the brain. Causes and risk factors include hypertension, blood thinning medications, trauma, and arteriovenous malformations.
Diagnosis
Diagnoses of cerebrovascular disease may include:
medical history
physical exam
neurological examination.
acute stroke imaging is generally performed in significant symptoms of new onset.
It is important to differentiate the symptoms caused by a stroke from those caused by syncope (fainting) which is also a reduction in cerebral blood flow, almost always generalized, but they are usually caused by systemic hypotension of various origins: cardiac arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, hemorrhagic shock, among others.
Treatment
Treatment for cerebrovascular disease may include medication, lifestyle changes, and surgery, depending on the cause.
Examples of medications are:
antiplatelets (aspirin, clopidogrel)
blood thinners (heparin, warfarin)
antihypertensives:
ACE inhibitors
beta blockers
calcium channel blockers - in particular Nimodipine reduces the incidence and severity of ischemic deficits in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH)
anti-diabetic medications.
Surgical procedures include:
endovascular surgery and vascular surgery (for future stroke prevention).
Prognosis
Prognostics factors:
Lower Glasgow Coma Scale score, higher pulse rate, higher respiratory rate and lower arterial oxygen saturation level is prognostic features of in-hospital mortality rate in acute ischemic stroke.
Epidemiology
Worldwide, it is estimated there are 31 million stroke survivors, though about 6 million deaths were due to cerebrovascular disease (2nd most common cause of death in the world and 6th most common cause of disability).
Cerebrovascular disease primarily occurs with advanced age; the risk for developing it goes up significantly after 65 years of age. CVD tends to occur earlier than Alzheimer's Disease (which is rare before the age of 80). In some countries such as Japan, CVD is more common than AD.
In 2012 6.4 million US individuals (adults) had a stroke, which corresponds to 2.7% in the U.S. With approximately 129,000 deaths in 2013 (U.S.)
Geographically, a "stroke belt" in the US has long been known, similar to the "diabetes belt" which includes all of Mississippi and parts of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia.
References
Further reading
External links | [
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249930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart%20failure | Heart failure | Heart failure (HF), also known as congestive heart failure (CHF) and (congestive) cardiac failure (CCF), is a set of manifestations caused by the failure of the heart's function as a pump supporting the blood flow through the body; its signs and symptoms result from a structural and/or functional abnormality of the heart, that disrupts its filling with blood or its ejecting of it during each heart beat. Signs and symptoms of heart failure commonly include shortness of breath, excessive tiredness, and leg swelling. The shortness of breath is usually worse with exercise or while lying down, and may wake the person at night. A limited ability to exercise is also a common feature. Chest pain, including angina, does not typically occur due to heart failure.
Common causes of heart failure include coronary artery disease, including a previous myocardial infarction (heart attack), high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, valvular heart disease, excess alcohol use, infection, and cardiomyopathy of an unknown cause. These cause heart failure by changing either the structure or the function of the heart. The two types of left ventricular heart failure – heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF or systolic heart failure), and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF or diastolic heart failure) – are based on whether the ability of the left ventricle to contract, or to relax, is affected. The severity of the heart failure is graded by the severity of symptoms with exercise.
Heart failure is not the same as heart attack (in which part of the heart muscle dies due to a clot in the arteries supplying the heart) or cardiac arrest (in which blood flow stops altogether due to failure of the heart to pump effectively). Other diseases that may have symptoms similar to heart failure include obesity, kidney failure, liver problems, anemia, and thyroid disease. Diagnosis is based on symptoms, physical findings, and echocardiography. Blood tests, electrocardiography, and chest radiography may be useful to determine the underlying cause.
Treatment depends on the severity and cause of the disease. In people with chronic stable mild heart failure, treatment commonly consists of lifestyle modifications such as stopping smoking, physical exercise, and dietary changes, as well as medications. In those with heart failure due to left ventricular dysfunction, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, or valsartan/sacubitril along with beta blockers are recommended. For those with severe disease, aldosterone antagonists, or hydralazine with a nitrate may be used. Diuretics are useful for preventing fluid retention and the resulting shortness of breath. Sometimes, depending on the cause, an implanted device such as a pacemaker or an implantable cardiac defibrillator may be recommended. In some moderate or severe cases, cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) or cardiac contractility modulation may be of benefit. A ventricular assist device (for the left, right, or both ventricles), or occasionally a heart transplant may be recommended in those with severe disease that persists despite all other measures.
Heart failure is a common, costly, and potentially fatal condition, and it is the leading cause of both hospitalization and readmission amongst older adults. In 2015, it affected about 40 million people globally. Overall around 2% of adults have heart failure and in those over the age of 65, this increases to 6–10%. Rates are predicted to increase. The risk of death is about 35% the first year after diagnosis, while by the second year the risk of death is less than 10% for those who remain alive. This degree of risk of death is similar to some cancers. In the United Kingdom, the disease is the reason for 5% of emergency hospital admissions. Heart failure has been known since ancient times, with the Ebers papyrus commenting on it around 1550 BCE.
Classification
Heart failure is not a disease but a syndrome, a cluster of signs and symptoms caused by the impairment of the heart's function as a pump to support the circulatory system, at rest or during exercise. It develops when the heart fails to properly fill up with blood during diastole leading to an increase in intracardiac pressures or in ejecting it during systole, thereby reducing cardiac output to the rest of the body. Filling dysfunction and high intracardiac pressure may result in the buildup of fluid in the veins and tissues. This manifests as water retention and swelling due to the buildup of liquid (edema), collectively referred to as congestion. Impaired ejection can cause inadequate perfusion of the body tissues with blood leading to ischemia.
Signs and symptoms
Heart failure is a pathophysiological state in which cardiac output is insufficient to meet the needs of the body and lungs. The term "congestive heart failure" is often used, as one of the common symptoms is congestion, or build-up of fluid in a person's tissues and veins in the lungs or other parts of the body. Specifically, congestion takes the form of water retention and swelling (edema), both as peripheral edema (causing swollen limbs and feet) and as pulmonary edema (causing breathing difficulty), as well as ascites (swollen abdomen).
Heart failure symptoms are traditionally divided into left- and right-sided, recognizing that the left and right ventricles of the heart supply different portions of the circulation, but people commonly have both sets of signs and symptoms.
Left-sided failure
The left side of the heart receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it forward to the systemic circulation (the rest of the body except for the pulmonary circulation). Failure of the left side of the heart causes blood to back up (be congested) into the lungs, causing respiratory symptoms and fatigue due to an insufficient supply of oxygenated blood. Common respiratory signs are increased rate of breathing and increased work of breathing (nonspecific signs of respiratory distress). Rales or crackles, heard initially in the lung bases, and when severe, throughout the lung fields suggest the development of pulmonary edema (fluid in the alveoli). Cyanosis, which suggests severe low blood oxygen, is a late sign of extremely severe pulmonary edema.
Additional signs indicating left ventricular failure include a laterally displaced apex beat (which occurs if the heart is enlarged) and a gallop rhythm (additional heart sounds) may be heard as a marker of increased blood flow or increased intracardiac pressure. Heart murmurs may indicate the presence of valvular heart disease, either as a cause (e.g. aortic stenosis) or as a result (e.g. mitral regurgitation) of heart failure.
Backward failure of the left ventricle causes congestion of the lungs' blood vessels, so the symptoms are predominantly respiratory in nature. Backward failure can be subdivided into the failure of the left atrium, the left ventricle, or both within the left circuit. The person will have dyspnea (shortness of breath) on exertion and in severe cases, dyspnea at rest. Increasing breathlessness on lying flat, called orthopnea, occurs. It is often measured in the number of pillows required to lie comfortably, and in orthopnea, the person may resort to sleeping while sitting up. Another symptom of heart failure is paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea: a sudden night-time attack of severe breathlessness, usually several hours after going to sleep. Easy fatigability and exercise intolerance are also common complaints related to respiratory compromise.
"Cardiac asthma" or wheezing may occur.Compromise of left ventricular forward function may result in symptoms of poor systemic circulation such as dizziness, confusion, and cool extremities at rest.
Right-sided failure
Right-sided heart failure is often caused by pulmonary heart disease (cor pulmonale), which is typically caused by difficulties of the pulmonary circulation, such as pulmonary hypertension or pulmonic stenosis. Physical examination may reveal pitting peripheral edema, ascites, liver enlargement, and spleen enlargement. Jugular venous pressure is frequently assessed as a marker of fluid status, which can be accentuated by eliciting hepatojugular reflux. If the right ventricular pressure is increased, a parasternal heave may be present, signifying the compensatory increase in contraction strength.
Backward failure of the right ventricle leads to congestion of systemic capillaries. This generates excess fluid accumulation in the body. This causes swelling under the skin (termed peripheral edema or anasarca) and usually affects the dependent parts of the body first (causing foot and ankle swelling in people who are standing up, and sacral edema in people who are predominantly lying down). Nocturia (frequent night-time urination) may occur when fluid from the legs is returned to the bloodstream while lying down at night. In progressively severe cases, ascites (fluid accumulation in the abdominal cavity causing swelling) and liver enlargement may develop. Significant liver congestion may result in impaired liver function (congestive hepatopathy), and jaundice and even coagulopathy (problems of decreased or increased blood clotting) may occur.
Biventricular failure
Dullness of the lung fields to finger percussion and reduced breath sounds at the bases of the lung may suggest the development of a pleural effusion (fluid collection between the lung and the chest wall). Though it can occur in isolated left- or right-sided heart failure, it is more common in biventricular failure because pleural veins drain into both the systemic and pulmonary venous systems. When unilateral, effusions are often right-sided.
If a person with a failure of one ventricle lives long enough, it will tend to progress to failure of both ventricles. For example, left ventricular failure allows pulmonary edema and pulmonary hypertension to occur, which increase stress on the right ventricle. Right ventricular failure is not as deleterious to the other side, but neither is it harmless.
Causes
It is important to note that heart failure is not a disease itself, it is a syndrome caused by other disease, thus establishing the underlying cause of the heart's failure is vital to diagnosis and treatment. The heart muscle is either too weak to pump efficiently or not elastic enough.
Heart failure is the potential end stage of all diseases of the heart. Common causes of heart failure include coronary artery disease, including a previous myocardial infarction (heart attack), high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, valvular heart disease, excess alcohol use, infection, and cardiomyopathy of an unknown cause. In addition, viral infections of the heart can lead to inflammation of the muscular layer of the heart and subsequently contribute to the development of heart failure. Genetic predisposition plays an important role. If more than one cause is present, progression is more likely and prognosis is worse. Heart damage can predispose a person to develop heart failure later in life and has many causes including systemic viral infections (e.g., HIV), chemotherapeutic agents such as daunorubicin, cyclophosphamide, trastuzumab and substance use disorders of substances such as alcohol, cocaine, and methamphetamine. An uncommon cause is exposure to certain toxins such as lead and cobalt. Additionally, infiltrative disorders such as amyloidosis and connective tissue diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus have similar consequences. Obstructive sleep apnea (a condition of sleep wherein disordered breathing overlaps with obesity, hypertension, and/or diabetes) is regarded as an independent cause of heart failure. Recent reports from clinical trials have also linked variation in blood pressure to heart failure and cardiac changes that may give rise to heart failure.
High-output heart failure
Heart failure may also occur in situations of "high output" (termed "high-output heart failure"), where the amount of blood pumped is more than typical and the heart is unable to keep up. This can occur in overload situations (e.g., blood or serum infusions), kidney diseases, chronic severe anemia, beriberi (vitamin B1/thiamine deficiency), hyperthyroidism, cirrhosis, Paget's disease, multiple myeloma, arteriovenous fistulae, or arteriovenous malformations.
Acute decompensation
Chronic stable heart failure may easily decompensate. This most commonly results from a concurrent illness (such as myocardial infarction (a heart attack) or pneumonia), abnormal heart rhythms, uncontrolled hypertension, or a person's failure to maintain a fluid restriction, diet, or medication. Other factors that may worsen CHF include: anemia, hyperthyroidism, excessive fluid or salt intake, and medication such as NSAIDs and thiazolidinediones. NSAIDs increase the risk twofold.
Medications
A number of medications may cause or worsen the disease. This includes NSAIDS, COX-2 inhibitors, a number of anesthetic agents such as ketamine, thiazolidinediones, some cancer medications, several antiarrhythmic medications, pregabalin, alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists, minoxidil, itraconazole, cilostazol, anagrelide, stimulants (e.g., methylphenidate), tricyclic antidepressants, lithium, antipsychotics, dopamine agonists, TNF inhibitors, calcium channel blockers (especially verapamil and diltiazem), salbutamol, and tamsulosin.
By inhibiting the formation of prostaglandins, NSAIDs may exacerbate heart failure through several mechanisms, including promotion of fluid retention, increasing blood pressure, and decreasing a person's response to diuretic medications. Similarly, the ACC/AHA recommends against the use of COX-2 inhibitor medications in people with heart failure. Thiazolidinediones have been strongly linked to new cases of heart failure and worsening of pre-existing congestive heart failure due to their association with weight gain and fluid retention. Certain calcium channel blockers, such as diltiazem and verapamil, are known to decrease the force with which the heart ejects blood, thus are not recommended in people with heart failure with a reduced ejection fraction.
Supplements
Certain alternative medicines carry a risk of exacerbating existing heart failure, and are not recommended. This includes aconite, ginseng, gossypol, gynura, licorice, lily of the valley, tetrandrine, and yohimbine. Aconite can cause abnormally slow heart rates and abnormal heart rhythms such as ventricular tachycardia. Ginseng can cause abnormally low or high blood pressure, and may interfere with the effects of diuretic medications. Gossypol can increase the effects of diuretics, leading to toxicity. Gynura can cause low blood pressure. Licorice can worsen heart failure by increasing blood pressure and promoting fluid retention. Lily of the valley can cause abnormally slow heart rates with mechanisms similar to those of digoxin. Tetrandrine can lead to low blood pressure through inhibition of L-type calcium channels. Yohimbine can exacerbate heart failure by increasing blood pressure through alpha-2 adrenergic receptor antagonism.
Pathophysiology
Heart failure is caused by any condition that reduces the efficiency of the heart muscle, through damage or overloading. Over time, these increases in workload, which are mediated by long-term activation of neurohormonal systems such as the renin–angiotensin system, lead to fibrosis, dilation, and structural changes in the shape of the left ventricle from elliptical to spherical.
The heart of a person with heart failure may have a reduced force of contraction due to overloading of the ventricle. In a normal heart, increased filling of the ventricle results in increased contraction force by the Frank–Starling law of the heart, and thus a rise in cardiac output. In heart failure, this mechanism fails, as the ventricle is loaded with blood to the point where heart muscle contraction becomes less efficient. This is due to reduced ability to cross-link actin and myosin filaments in over-stretched heart muscle.
Diagnosis
No diagnostic criteria have been agreed on as the gold standard for heart failure. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends measuring brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) followed by an ultrasound of the heart if positive. This is recommended in those with shortness of breath. In those with worsening heart failure, both a BNP and a troponin are recommended to help determine likely outcomes.
Classification
One historical method of categorizing heart failure is by the side of the heart involved (left heart failure versus right heart failure). Right heart failure was thought to compromise blood flow to the lungs compared to left heart failure compromising blood flow to the aorta and consequently to the brain and the remainder of the body's systemic circulation. However, mixed presentations are common and left heart failure is a common cause of right heart failure.
More accurate classification of heart failure type is made by measuring ejection fraction, or the proportion of blood pumped out of the heart during a single contraction. Ejection fraction is given as a percentage with the normal range being between 50 and 75%. The two types are:
1) Heart failure due to reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF): Synonyms no longer recommended are "heart failure due to left ventricular systolic dysfunction" and "systolic heart failure". HFrEF is associated with an ejection fraction less than 40%.
2) Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF): Synonyms no longer recommended include "diastolic heart failure" and "heart failure with normal ejection fraction." HFpEF occurs when the left ventricle contracts normally during systole, but the ventricle is stiff and does not relax normally during diastole, which impairs filling.
Heart failure may also be classified as acute or chronic. Chronic heart failure is a long-term condition, usually kept stable by the treatment of symptoms. Acute decompensated heart failure is a worsening of chronic heart failure symptoms, which can result in acute respiratory distress. High-output heart failure can occur when there is increased cardiac demand that results in increased left ventricular diastolic pressure which can develop into pulmonary congestion (pulmonary edema).
Several terms are closely related to heart failure and may be the cause of heart failure, but should not be confused with it. Cardiac arrest and asystole refer to situations in which no cardiac output occurs at all. Without urgent treatment, these result in sudden death. Myocardial infarction ("Heart attack") refers to heart muscle damage due to insufficient blood supply, usually as a result of a blocked coronary artery. Cardiomyopathy refers specifically to problems within the heart muscle, and these problems can result in heart failure. Ischemic cardiomyopathy implies that the cause of muscle damage is coronary artery disease. Dilated cardiomyopathy implies that the muscle damage has resulted in enlargement of the heart. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy involves enlargement and thickening of the heart muscle.
Ultrasound
Echocardiography is commonly used to support a clinical diagnosis of heart failure. This modality uses ultrasound to determine the stroke volume (SV, the amount of blood in the heart that exits the ventricles with each beat), the end-diastolic volume (EDV, the total amount of blood at the end of diastole), and the SV in proportion to the EDV, a value known as the ejection fraction (EF). In pediatrics, the shortening fraction is the preferred measure of systolic function. Normally, the EF should be between 50 and 70%; in systolic heart failure, it drops below 40%. Echocardiography can also identify valvular heart disease and assess the state of the pericardium (the connective tissue sac surrounding the heart). Echocardiography may also aid in deciding what treatments will help the person, such as medication, insertion of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator, or cardiac resynchronization therapy. Echocardiography can also help determine if acute myocardial ischemia is the precipitating cause, and may manifest as regional wall motion abnormalities on echo.
Chest X-ray
Chest X-rays are frequently used to aid in the diagnosis of CHF. In a person who is compensated, this may show cardiomegaly (visible enlargement of the heart), quantified as the cardiothoracic ratio (proportion of the heart size to the chest). In left ventricular failure, evidence may exist of vascular redistribution (upper lobe blood diversion or cephalization), Kerley lines, cuffing of the areas around the bronchi, and interstitial edema. Ultrasound of the lung may also be able to detect Kerley lines.
Electrophysiology
An electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG) may be used to identify arrhythmias, ischemic heart disease, right and left ventricular hypertrophy, and presence of conduction delay or abnormalities (e.g. left bundle branch block). Although these findings are not specific to the diagnosis of heart failure, a normal ECG virtually excludes left ventricular systolic dysfunction.
Blood tests
Blood tests routinely performed include electrolytes (sodium, potassium), measures of kidney function, liver function tests, thyroid function tests, a complete blood count, and often C-reactive protein if infection is suspected. An elevated brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) is a specific test indicative of heart failure. Additionally, BNP can be used to differentiate between causes of dyspnea due to heart failure from other causes of dyspnea. If myocardial infarction is suspected, various cardiac markers may be used.
BNP is a better indicator than N-terminal pro-BNP for the diagnosis of symptomatic heart failure and left ventricular systolic dysfunction. In symptomatic people, BNP had a sensitivity of 85% and specificity of 84% in detecting heart failure; performance declined with increasing age.
Hyponatremia (low serum sodium concentration) is common in heart failure. Vasopressin levels are usually increased, along with renin, angiotensin II, and catecholamines to compensate for reduced circulating volume due to inadequate cardiac output. This leads to increased fluid and sodium retention in the body; the rate of fluid retention is higher than the rate of sodium retention in the body, this phenomenon causes hypervolemic hyponatremia (low sodium concentration due to high body fluid retention). This phenomenon is more common in older women with low body mass. Severe hyponatremia can result in accumulation of fluid in the brain, causing cerebral edema and intracranial hemorrhage.
Angiography
Angiography is the X-ray imaging of blood vessels, which is done by injecting contrast agents into the bloodstream through a thin plastic tube (catheter), which is placed directly in the blood vessel. X-ray images are called angiograms. Heart failure may be the result of coronary artery disease, and its prognosis depends in part on the ability of the coronary arteries to supply blood to the myocardium (heart muscle). As a result, coronary catheterization may be used to identify possibilities for revascularisation through percutaneous coronary intervention or bypass surgery.
Algorithms
Various algorithms are used for the diagnosis of heart failure. For example, the algorithm used by the Framingham Heart Study adds together criteria mainly from physical examination. In contrast, the more extensive algorithm by the European Society of Cardiology weights the difference between supporting and opposing parameters from the medical history, physical examination, further medical tests, and response to therapy.
Framingham criteria
By the Framingham criteria, diagnosis of congestive heart failure (heart failure with impaired pumping capability) requires the simultaneous presence of at least two of the following major criteria or one major criterion in conjunction with two of the minor criteria. Major criteria include an enlarged heart on a chest X-ray, an S3 gallop (a third heart sound), acute pulmonary edema, episodes of waking up from sleep gasping for air, crackles on lung auscultation, central venous pressure more than 16 cm at the right atrium, jugular vein distension, positive abdominojugular test, and weight loss more than 4.5 kg in 5 days in response to treatment (sometimes classified as a minor criterion). Minor criteria include an abnormally fast heart rate more than 120 beats per minute, nocturnal cough, difficulty breathing with physical activity, pleural effusion, a decrease in the vital capacity by one-third from maximum recorded, liver enlargement, and bilateral ankle edema.
Minor criteria are acceptable only if they can not be attributed to another medical condition such as pulmonary hypertension, chronic lung disease, cirrhosis, ascites, or the nephrotic syndrome. The Framingham Heart Study criteria are 100% sensitive and 78% specific for identifying persons with definite congestive heart failure.
ESC algorithm
The ESC algorithm weights these parameters in establishing the diagnosis of heart failure:
Staging
Heart failure is commonly stratified by the degree of functional impairment conferred by the severity of the heart failure (as reflected in the New York Heart Association (NYHA) Functional Classification.) The NYHA functional classes (I–IV) begin with class I, which is defined as a person who experiences no limitation in any activities and has no symptoms from ordinary activities. People with NYHA class II heart failure have slight, mild limitations with everyday activities; the person is comfortable at rest or with mild exertion. With NYHA class III heart failure, a marked limitation occurs with any activity; the person is comfortable only at rest. A person with NYHA class IV heart failure is symptomatic at rest and becomes quite uncomfortable with any physical activity.
This score documents the severity of symptoms and can be used to assess response to treatment. While its use is widespread, the NYHA score is not very reproducible and does not reliably predict the walking distance or exercise tolerance on formal testing.
In its 2001 guidelines, the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association working group introduced four stages of heart failure:
Stage A: People at high risk for developing HF in the future, but no functional or structural heart disorder
Stage B: A structural heart disorder, but no symptoms at any stage
Stage C: Previous or current symptoms of heart failure in the context of an underlying structural heart problem, but managed with medical treatment
Stage D: Advanced disease requiring hospital-based support, a heart transplant, or palliative care
The ACC staging system is useful since stage A encompasses "pre-heart failure" – a stage where intervention with treatment can presumably prevent progression to overt symptoms. ACC stage A does not have a corresponding NYHA class. ACC stage B would correspond to NYHA class I. ACC stage C corresponds to NYHA class II and III, while ACC stage D overlaps with NYHA class IV.
The degree of coexisting illness: i.e. heart failure/systemic hypertension, heart failure/pulmonary hypertension, heart failure/diabetes, heart failure/kidney failure, etc.
Whether the problem is primarily increased venous back pressure (preload), or failure to supply adequate arterial perfusion (afterload)
Whether the abnormality is due to low cardiac output with high systemic vascular resistance or high cardiac output with low vascular resistance (low-output heart failure vs. high-output heart failure)
Histopathology
Histopathology can diagnose heart failure in autopsies. The presence of siderophages indicates chronic left-sided heart failure, but is not specific for it. It is also indicated by congestion of the pulmonary circulation.
Prevention
A person's risk of developing heart failure is inversely related to level of physical activity. Those who achieved at least 500 MET-minutes/week (the recommended minimum by U.S. guidelines) had lower heart failure risk than individuals who did not report exercising during their free time; the reduction in heart failure risk was even greater in those who engaged in higher levels of physical activity than the recommended minimum.
Heart failure can also be prevented by lowering high blood pressure and high blood cholesterol, and by controlling diabetes. Maintaining a healthy weight, and decreasing sodium, alcohol, and sugar intake, may help. Additionally, avoiding tobacco use has been shown to lower the risk of heart failure.
Diabetes is a major risk factor for heart failure. For women with Coronary Heart disease (CHD), diabetes was the strongest risk factor for heart failure. Diabetic women with depressed creatinine clearance or elevated BMI were at the highest risk of heart failure. While the annual incidence rate of heart failure for non-diabetic women with no risk factors is 0.4%, the annual incidence rate for diabetic women with elevated body mass index (BMI) and depressed creatinine clearance was 7% and 13%, respectively.
Management
Treatment focuses on improving the symptoms and preventing the progression of the disease. Reversible causes of heart failure also need to be addressed (e.g. infection, alcohol ingestion, anemia, thyrotoxicosis, arrhythmia, and hypertension). Treatments include lifestyle and pharmacological modalities, and occasionally various forms of device therapy. Rarely, cardiac transplantation is used as an effective treatment when heart failure has reached the end stage.
Acute decompensation
In acute decompensated heart failure, the immediate goal is to re-establish adequate perfusion and oxygen delivery to end organs. This entails ensuring that airway, breathing, and circulation are adequate. Immediate treatments usually involve some combination of vasodilators such as nitroglycerin, diuretics such as furosemide, and possibly noninvasive positive pressure ventilation. Supplemental oxygen is indicated in those with oxygen saturation levels below 90%, but is not recommended in those with normal oxygen levels in normal atmosphere.
Chronic management
The goals of treatment for people with chronic heart failure are the prolongation of life, prevention of acute decompensation, and reduction of symptoms, allowing for greater activity.
Heart failure can result from a variety of conditions. In considering therapeutic options, excluding reversible causes is of primary importance, including thyroid disease, anemia, chronic tachycardia, alcohol use disorder, hypertension, and dysfunction of one or more heart valves. Treatment of the underlying cause is usually the first approach to treating heart failure. In the majority of cases, though, either no primary cause is found or treatment of the primary cause does not restore normal heart function. In these cases, behavioral, medical and device treatment strategies exist that can provide a significant improvement in outcomes, including the relief of symptoms, exercise tolerance, and a decrease in the likelihood of hospitalization or death. Breathlessness rehabilitation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and heart failure has been proposed with exercise training as a core component. Rehabilitation should also include other interventions to address shortness of breath including psychological and educational needs of people and needs of carers. Iron supplementation appears useful in those with iron deficiency anemia and heart failure.
Advance care planning
The latest evidence indicates that advance care planning (ACP) may help to increase documentation by medical staff regarding discussions with participants, and improve an individual's depression. This involves discussing an individual's future care plan in consideration of the individual's preferences and values. The findings are however, based on low-quality evidence.
Monitoring
The various measures often used to assess the progress of people being treated for heart failure include fluid balance (calculation of fluid intake and excretion) and monitoring body weight (which in the shorter term reflects fluid shifts). Remote monitoring can be effective to reduce complications for people with heart failure.
Lifestyle
Behavior modification is a primary consideration in chronic heart failure management program, with dietary guidelines regarding fluid and salt intake. Fluid restriction is important to reduce fluid retention in the body and to correct the hyponatremic status of the body. The evidence of benefit of reducing salt, however, is poor as of 2018.
Exercise and physical activity
Exercise should be encouraged and tailored to suit individual capabilities. A meta-analysis found that centre-based group interventions delivered by a physiotherapist are helpful in promoting physical activity in HF. There is a need for additional training for physiotherapists in delivering behaviour change intervention alongside an exercise programme. An intervention is expected to be more efficacious in encouraging physical activity than the usual care if it includes Prompts and cues to walk or exercise, like a phone call or a text message. It is extremely helpful if a trusted clinician provides explicit advice to engage in physical activity (Credible source). Another highly effective strategy is to place objects that will serve as a cue to engage in physical activity in the everyday environment of the patient (Adding object to the environment; e.g., exercise step or treadmill). Encouragement to walk or exercise in various settings beyond CR (e.g., home, neighbourhood, parks) is also promising (Generalisation of target behaviour). Additional promising strategies are Graded tasks (e.g., gradual increase in intensity and duration of exercise training), Self-monitoring, Monitoring of physical activity by others without feedback, Action planning, and Goal-setting. The inclusion of regular physical conditioning as part of a cardiac rehabilitation program can significantly improve quality of life and reduce the risk of hospital admission for worsening symptoms, but no evidence shows a reduction in mortality rates as a result of exercise. Furthermore, whether this evidence can be extended to people with HFpEF or to those whose exercise regimen takes place entirely at home is unclear.
Home visits and regular monitoring at heart-failure clinics reduce the need for hospitalization and improve life expectancy.
Medication
First-line therapy for people with heart failure due to reduced systolic function should include angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (ACE-I), or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) if the person develops a long-term cough as a side effect of the ACE-I. Use of medicines from these classes is associated with improved survival, fewer hospitalizations for heart failure exacerbations, and improved quality of life in people with heart failure.
Beta-adrenergic blocking agents (beta blockers) also form part of the first line of treatment, adding to the improvement in symptoms and mortality provided by ACE-I/ARB. The mortality benefits of beta blockers in people with systolic dysfunction who also have atrial fibrillation is more limited than in those who do not have it. If the ejection fraction is not diminished (HFpEF), the benefits of beta blockers are more modest; a decrease in mortality has been observed, but reduction in hospital admission for uncontrolled symptoms has not been observed.
In people who are intolerant of ACE-I and ARBs or who have significant kidney dysfunction, the use of combined hydralazine and a long-acting nitrate, such as isosorbide dinitrate, is an effective alternate strategy. This regimen has been shown to reduce mortality in people with moderate heart failure. It is especially beneficial in the black population.
In people with symptomatic heart failure with markedly reduced ejection fraction (anyone with an ejection fraction of 35% or lower or less than 40% if following a heart attack), the use of an mineralocorticoid antagonist, such as spironolactone or eplerenone, in addition to beta blockers and ACE-I (once titrated to the target dose or maximum tolerated dose), can improve symptoms and reduce mortality. Sacubitril/valsartan should be used in those who still have symptoms while on an ACE-I or ARB, beta blocker, and a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist as it reduces the risks of cardiovascular mortality and hospitalisation for heart failure by a further 4.7% (absolute risk reduction). However, the use of this combination agent requires the cessation of ACE-i or ARB therapy 48 hours before its initiation.
Second-line medications for CHF do not confer a mortality benefit. Digoxin is one such medication. Its narrow therapeutic window, a high degree of toxicity, and the failure of multiple trials to show a mortality benefit have reduced its role in clinical practice. It is now used in only a small number of people with refractory symptoms, who are in atrial fibrillation, and/or who have chronic hypotension.
Diuretics have been a mainstay of treatment against symptoms of fluid accumulation, and include diuretics classes such as loop diuretics, thiazide-like diuretics, and potassium-sparing diuretics. Although widely used, evidence on their efficacy and safety is limited, with the exception of mineralocorticoid antagonists such as spironolactone. Mineralocorticoid antagonists in those under 75 years old appear to decrease the risk of death.
Anemia is an independent factor in mortality in people with chronic heart failure. Treatment of anemia significantly improves quality of life for those with heart failure, often with a reduction in severity of the NYHA classification, and also improves mortality rates. The European Society of Cardiology guideline in 2016 recommend screening for iron-deficiency anemia and treating with intravenous iron if deficiency is found.
The decision to anticoagulate people with HF, typically with left ventricular ejection fractions <35% is debated, but generally, people with coexisting atrial fibrillation, a prior embolic event, or conditions that increase the risk of an embolic event such as amyloidosis, left ventricular noncompaction, familial dilated cardiomyopathy, or a thromboembolic event in a first-degree relative.
Vasopressin receptor antagonists can also be used to treat heart failure. Conivaptan is the first medication approved by US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of euvolemic hyponatremia in those with heart failure. In rare cases hypertonic 3% saline together with diuretics may be used to correct hyponatremia.
Ivabradine is recommended for people with symptomatic heart failure with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction who are receiving optimized guideline-directed therapy (as above) including the maximum tolerated dose of beta-blocker, have a normal heart rhythm and continue to have a resting heart rate above 70 beats per minute. Ivabradine has been found to reduce the risk of hospitalization for heart failure exacerbations in this subgroup of people with heart failure.
Implanted devices
In people with severe cardiomyopathy (left ventricular ejection fraction below 35%), or in those with recurrent VT or malignant arrhythmias, treatment with an automatic implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (AICD) is indicated to reduce the risk of severe life-threatening arrhythmias. The AICD does not improve symptoms or reduce the incidence of malignant arrhythmias but does reduce mortality from those arrhythmias, often in conjunction with antiarrhythmic medications. In people with left ventricular ejection (LVEF) below 35%, the incidence of ventricular tachycardia or sudden cardiac death is high enough to warrant AICD placement. Its use is therefore recommended in AHA/ACC guidelines.
Cardiac contractility modulation (CCM) is a treatment for people with moderate to severe left ventricular systolic heart failure (NYHA class II–IV), which enhances both the strength of ventricular contraction and the heart's pumping capacity. The CCM mechanism is based on stimulation of the cardiac muscle by nonexcitatory electrical signals, which are delivered by a pacemaker-like device. CCM is particularly suitable for the treatment of heart failure with normal QRS complex duration (120 ms or less) and has been demonstrated to improve the symptoms, quality of life, and exercise tolerance. CCM is approved for use in Europe, but not currently in North America.
About one-third of people with LVEF below 35% have markedly altered conduction to the ventricles, resulting in dyssynchronous depolarization of the right and left ventricles. This is especially problematic in people with left bundle branch block (blockage of one of the two primary conducting fiber bundles that originate at the base of the heart and carry depolarizing impulses to the left ventricle). Using a special pacing algorithm, biventricular cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) can initiate a normal sequence of ventricular depolarization. In people with LVEF below 35% and prolonged QRS duration on ECG (LBBB or QRS of 150 ms or more), an improvement in symptoms and mortality occurs when CRT is added to standard medical therapy. However, in the two-thirds of people without prolonged QRS duration, CRT may actually be harmful.
Surgical therapies
People with the most severe heart failure may be candidates for ventricular assist devices, which have commonly been used as a bridge to heart transplantation, but have been used more recently as a destination treatment for advanced heart failure.
In select cases, heart transplantation can be considered. While this may resolve the problems associated with heart failure, the person must generally remain on an immunosuppressive regimen to prevent rejection, which has its own significant downsides. A major limitation of this treatment option is the scarcity of hearts available for transplantation.
Palliative care
People with heart failure often have significant symptoms, such as shortness of breath and chest pain. Palliative care should be initiated early in the HF trajectory, and should not be an option of last resort. Palliative care can not only provide symptom management, but also assist with advanced care planning, goals of care in the case of a significant decline, and making sure the person has a medical power of attorney and discussed his or her wishes with this individual. A 2016 and 2017 review found that palliative care is associated with improved outcomes, such as quality of life, symptom burden, and satisfaction with care.
Without transplantation, heart failure may not be reversible and heart function typically deteriorates with time. The growing number of people with stage IV heart failure (intractable symptoms of fatigue, shortness of breath, or chest pain at rest despite optimal medical therapy) should be considered for palliative care or hospice, according to American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines.
Prognosis
Prognosis in heart failure can be assessed in multiple ways, including clinical prediction rules and cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Clinical prediction rules use a composite of clinical factors such as laboratory tests and blood pressure to estimate prognosis. Among several clinical prediction rules for prognosticating acute heart failure, the 'EFFECT rule' slightly outperformed other rules in stratifying people and identifying those at low risk of death during hospitalization or within 30 days. Easy methods for identifying people that are low-risk are:
ADHERE Tree rule indicates that people with blood urea nitrogen < 43 mg/dl and systolic blood pressure at least 115 mm Hg have less than 10% chance of inpatient death or complications.
BWH rule indicates that people with systolic blood pressure over 90 mm Hg, respiratory rate of 30 or fewer breaths per minute, serum sodium over 135 mmol/l, and no new ST–T wave changes have less than 10% chance of inpatient death or complications.
A very important method for assessing prognosis in people with advanced heart failure is cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPX testing). CPX testing is usually required prior to heart transplantation as an indicator of prognosis. CPX testing involves measurement of exhaled oxygen and carbon dioxide during exercise. The peak oxygen consumption (VO2 max) is used as an indicator of prognosis. As a general rule, a VO2 max less than 12–14 cc/kg/min indicates poor survival and suggests that the person may be a candidate for a heart transplant. People with a VO2 max <10 cc/kg/min have a clearly poorer prognosis. The most recent International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation guidelines also suggest two other parameters that can be used for evaluation of prognosis in advanced heart failure, the heart failure survival score and the use of a criterion of VE/VCO2 slope > 35 from the CPX test. The heart failure survival score is calculated using a combination of clinical predictors and the VO2 max from the CPX test.
Heart failure is associated with significantly reduced physical and mental health, resulting in a markedly decreased quality of life. With the exception of heart failure caused by reversible conditions, the condition usually worsens with time. Although some people survive many years, progressive disease is associated with an overall annual mortality rate of 10%.
Around 18 of every 1000 persons will experience an ischemic stroke during the first year after diagnosis of HF. As the duration of follow-up increases, the stroke rate rises to nearly 50 strokes per 1000 cases of HF by 5 years.
Epidemiology
In 2015, heart failure affected about 40 million people globally. Overall, around 2% of adults have heart failure and in those over the age of 65, this increases to 6–10%. Above 75 years old, rates are greater than 10%.
Rates are predicted to increase. Increasing rates are mostly because of increasing lifespan, but also because of increased risk factors (hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and obesity) and improved survival rates from other types of cardiovascular disease (myocardial infarction, valvular disease, and arrhythmias). Heart failure is the leading cause of hospitalization in people older than 65.
United States
In the United States, heart failure affects 5.8 million people, and each year 550,000 new cases are diagnosed. In 2011, heart failure was the most common reason for hospitalization for adults aged 85 years and older, and the second-most common for adults aged 65–84 years. An estimated one in five adults at age 40 will develop heart failure during their remaining lifetimes and about half of people who develop heart failure die within 5 years of diagnosis. Heart failure is much higher in African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, and recent immigrants from the Eastern Bloc countries such as Russia. This high prevalence in these ethnic minority populations has been linked to high incidence of diabetes and hypertension. In many new immigrants to the U.S., the high prevalence of heart failure has largely been attributed to lack of preventive health care or substandard treatment. Nearly one of every four people (24.7%) hospitalized in the U.S. with congestive heart failure are readmitted within 30 days. Additionally, more than 50% of people seek readmission within 6 months after treatment and the average duration of hospital stay is 6 days.
Heart failure is a leading cause of hospital readmissions in the U.S. People aged 65 and older were readmitted at a rate of 24.5 per 100 admissions in 2011. In the same year, people under Medicaid were readmitted at a rate of 30.4 per 100 admissions, and uninsured people were readmitted at a rate of 16.8 per 100 admissions. These are the highest readmission rates for both categories. Notably, heart failure was not among the top-10 conditions with the most 30-day readmissions among the privately insured.
United Kingdom
In the UK, despite moderate improvements in prevention, heart failure rates have increased due to population growth and ageing. Overall heart failure rates are similar to the four most common causes of cancer (breast, lung, prostate, and colon) combined. People from deprived backgrounds are more likely to be diagnosed with heart failure and at a younger age.
Developing world
In tropical countries, the most common cause of HF is valvular heart disease or some type of cardiomyopathy. As underdeveloped countries have become more affluent, the incidences of diabetes, hypertension, and obesity have increased, which have in turn raised the incidence of heart failure.
Sex
Men have a higher incidence of heart failure, but the overall prevalence rate is similar in both sexes since women survive longer after the onset of heart failure. Women tend to be older when diagnosed with heart failure (after menopause), they are more likely than men to have diastolic dysfunction, and seem to experience a lower overall quality of life than men after diagnosis.
Ethnicity
Some sources state that people of Asian descent are at a higher risk of heart failure than other ethnic groups. Other sources however have found that rates of heart failure are similar to rates found in other ethnic groups.
History
For centuries, the disease entity which would include many cases of what today would be called heart failure was dropsy; the term denotes generalized edema, a major manifestation of a failing heart, though also caused by other diseases. Writings of ancient civilizations include evidence of their acquaintance with dropsy and heart failure: Egyptians were the first to use bloodletting to relieve fluid accumulation and shortage of breath, and provided what may have been the first documented observations on heart failure in the Ebers papurus (around 1500 BCE); Greeks described cases of dyspnea, fluid retention and fatigue compatible with heart failure; Romans used the flowering plant Drimia maritima (sea squill), which contains cardiac glycosides, for the treatment of dropsy; descriptions pertaining to heart failure are also known in the civilizations of ancient India and China. However, the manifestations of failing heart were understood in the context of these peoples' medical theories – including ancient Egyptian religion, Hippocratic theory of humours, or ancient Indian and Chinese medicine, and the current concept of heart failure had not developed yet. Although shortage of breath had been connected to heart disease by Avicenna round 1000 CE, decisive for modern understanding of the nature of the condition were the description of pulmonary circulation by Ibn al-Nafis in the 13th century, and of systemic circulation by William Harvey in 1628. The role of the heart in fluid retention began to be better appreciated, as dropsy of the chest (fluid accumulation in and round the lungs causing shortage of breath) became more familiar and the current concept of heart failure, which brings together swelling and shortage of breath due to fluid retention, began to be accepted, in the 17th and especially in the 18th century: Richard Lower linked dyspnea and foot swelling in 1679, and Giovanni Maria Lancisi connected jugular vein distention with right venticular failure in 1728. Dropsy attributable to other causes, e.g. kidney failure, was differentiated in the 19th century. The stethoscope, invented by René Laennec in 1819, x-rays, discovered by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895, and electrocardiography, described by Willem Einthoven in 1903, facilitated the investigation of heart failure. 19th century also saw experimental and conceptual advances in the physiology of heart contraction, which led to the formulation of the Frank-Starling law of the heart (named after physiologists Otto Frank and Ernest Starling, a remarkable advance in understanding mechanisms of heart failure.
One of the earliest treatments of heart failure, relief of swelling by bloodletting with various methods, including leeches, continued through the centuries. Along with bloodletting, Jean-Baptiste de Sénac in 1749 recommended opiates for acute shortage of breath due to heart failure. In 1785, William Withering described the therapeutic uses of the foxglove genus of plants in the treatment of edema; their extract contains cardiac glycosides, including digoxin, still used today in the treatment of heart failure. The diuretic effects of inorganic mercury salts, which were used to treat syphilis, had already been noted in the 16th century by Paracelsus; in the 19th century they were used by noted physicians like John Blackall and William Stokes. In the meantime, cannulae (tubes) invented by English physician Reginald Southey in 1877 was another method of removing excess fluid by directly inserting into swollen limbs. Use of organic mercury compounds as diuretics, beyond their role in syphilis treatment, started in 1920, though it was limited by their parenteral route of administration and their side-effects. Oral mercurial diuretics were introduced in the 1950s; so were thiazide diuretics, which caused less toxicity, and are still used today. Around the same time, invention of echocardiography by Inge Edler and Hellmuth Hertz in 1954 marked a new era in the evaluation of heart failure. In the 1960s, loop diuretics were added to available treatments of fluid retention, while a patient with heart failure received the first heart transplant by Christiaan Barnard. Over the following decades, new drug classes found their place in heart failure therapeutics, including vasodilators like hydralazine; renin-angiotensin system inhibitors; and beta-blockers.
Economics
In 2011, nonhypertensive heart failure was one of the 10 most expensive conditions seen during inpatient hospitalizations in the U.S., with aggregate inpatient hospital costs more than $10.5 billion.
Heart failure is associated with a high health expenditure, mostly because of the cost of hospitalizations; costs have been estimated to amount to 2% of the total budget of the National Health Service in the United Kingdom, and more than $35 billion in the United States.
Research directions
Some low-quality evidence indicates that stem cell therapy may help. Although this evidence positively indicated benefit, the evidence was of lower quality than other evidence that does not indicate benefit. There is tentative evidence of longer life expectancy and improved left ventricular ejection fraction in persons treated with bone marrow-derived stem cells.
Notes
References
External links
Heart failure, American Heart Association – information and resources for treating and living with heart failure
Heart Failure Matters – patient information website of the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology
2021 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure
Heart failure in children by Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, UK
Heart Failure Congestive Heart Failure Life Expectancy
Aging-associated diseases
Heart diseases
Organ failure
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate
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249931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed%20platform | Closed platform | A closed platform, walled garden, or closed ecosystem is a software system wherein the carrier or service provider has control over applications, content, and/or media, and restricts convenient access to non-approved applicants or content. This is in contrast to an open platform, wherein consumers generally have unrestricted access to applications and content.
Overview
For example, in telecommunications, the services and applications accessible on a cell phone on any given wireless device were formerly tightly controlled by the mobile operators. The operators limited the applications and developers that were available on users' home portals and home pages. Thus, a service provider might restrict user access to users whose account exhausted the pre-paid money on their account. This has long been a central issue constraining the telecommunications sector, as developers face huge hurdles in making their applications available to end-users.
In a more extreme example, the regulated 1970s American telephone system, Bell, owned all the hardware (including all phones) and had indirect control over the information sent through their infrastructure. It was an open government-sanctioned natural monopoly regulated by the Communications Act of 1934. However, in the landmark case Hush-A-Phone v. United States, Bell unsuccessfully sued a company producing plastic telephone attachments.
More generally, a walled garden can refer to a closed or exclusive set of information services provided for users. Similar to a real walled garden, a user is unable to escape this closed environment except through the designated entry/exit points or if the walls are removed.
Aspects
A 2008 Harvard Business School working paper, entitled "Opening Platforms: How, When and Why?", differentiated a platform's openness/closedness by four aspects and gave example platforms:
Examples
Some examples of walled gardens include:
In the 1990s, AOL developed what later was called its "walled garden" model of service. The idea was to preferentially offer sponsored content to users when possible. During this period, CBS paid to provide sports content, ABC paid to provide news, and 1-800-Flowers paid to be the default florist for anyone seeking one. This strategy became AOL's first good method for selling advertisements. In its time, this method was highly profitable to AOL.
Amazon's Kindle line of eReaders. As an October 2011 Business Insider article, entitled "How Amazon Makes Money From The Kindle" observes: "Amazon's Kindle is no longer just a product: It's a whole ecosystem." Moreover, as Business Insider noted "The Kindle ecosystem is also Amazon's fastest-growing product and could account for more than 10% of the company's revenue next year."
Apple iOS and other mobile devices, which are restricted to running pre-approved applications from a digital distribution service.
Barnes & Noble's Nook devices. In late December 2011, B&N began pushing the automatic, over-the-air firmware update 1.4.1 to Nook Tablets that removed users' ability to gain root access to the device and the ability to sideload applications from sources other than the official Barnes and Noble NOOK Store (without modding). Nook HD devices were similarly "closed", until May 2013, when BN opened its ecosystem somewhat by permitting users to install the Google Play Store and the various Android apps offered there, including those of rivals, such as Audible.com, ComiXology, Kindle, Kobo, and Google itself.
The Encrypted Media Extensions specification provides APIs to control playback of encrypted content. This is part of the World Wide Web Consortium's web standards and was authored by members working from Google, Microsoft and Netflix.
Kwangmyong, the national intranet service that operates in North Korea. It operates as a "walled garden" network, as no information is permitted to enter the network without government approval.
Verizon Wireless' CDMA network and policies effectively prohibiting activation of non-Verizon sanctioned devices on their network. Verizon Wireless is frequently noted (and often criticized) for this practice.
Permissioned blockchains have been called the “walled gardens” of 2017.
Video game consoles have a long history of walled gardens, with developers needing to purchase licences to develop for the platform, and, in some cases, needing editorial approval from the console manufacturer prior to publishing games.
See also
Data portability
Vendor lock-in
Business ecosystem
Damaged good
Dark web
Defective by Design
Digital rights management
Gated community
Hardware restriction
Open source
Software protection dongle
User registration
References
Application programming interfaces
Computing platforms
Hardware restrictions | [
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249935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coxsackie%20B4%20virus | Coxsackie B4 virus | Coxsackie B4 virus are enteroviruses that belong to the Picornaviridae family. These viruses can be found worldwide. They are positive-sense, single-stranded, non-enveloped RNA viruses with icosahedral geometry. Coxsackieviruses have two groups, A and B, each associated with different diseases. Coxsackievirus group A is known for causing hand-foot-and-mouth diseases while Group B, which contains six serotypes, can cause a varying range of symptoms like gastrointestinal distress myocarditis. Coxsackievirus B4 has a cell tropism for natural killer cells and pancreatic islet cells. Infection can lead to beta cell apoptosis which increases the risk of insulitis.
Viral structure and genome
Coxsackievirus B4 is one of the six serotypes found in Group B and is a positive sense, single-stranded, non-enveloped RNA virus. Its genome is linear and is 7,293 nucleotides in length with both a 5’ and 3’ untranslated region and encodes its own 3’ poly-A tail. The 5’ untranslated region contains an internal ribosomal entry site (Type I IRES). Covalently bonded to the 5’ UTR is the viral protein VPg which aids in viral entry and replication. 2A and 3C are viral proteinases which aid in the cleavage of the polyprotein encoded for by the genome. 3D is the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP). 2B, 2C, and 3A are core viral proteins. The genome also codes for 4 capsid proteins, VP4, VP1, VP2, and VP3 that form an icosahedral capsid for the viral particles that is about 30 nm. VP1-VP3 are responsible for the outer surface of the virion, while VP4 is imbedded within the capsid.
Altogether, the polyprotein encoded for by the coxsackievirus genome is almost 2,200 amino acids in length, and is eventually cleaved by the 2A and 3C proteinases as well as by host cell proteinases.
As Coxsackievirus B4, and all other members of the picornavirus family, are non-enveloped, they are notably resilient to disinfectants, solvents, low pH levels (i.e. stomach acid), low temperatures, and 70% alcohol.
Viral replication
Attachment, entry and uncoating
The capsid of Coxsackie viruses have a distinguishable depression around the fivefold axis, termed the “canyon.” The canyon is thought to help with viral attachment through the interaction with cell surface molecules. (Riabi, 2014) When VP1 binds to the Coxsackie-Adenovirus receptor (CAR), which can be found on heart muscle cells as well as epithelial and endothelial cells, a conformational change causes the host cell receptors to form a pore in the plasma membrane through which the VPg-linked viral genome could enter the cell. Uncoating is unnecessary as it leaves the capsid at the plasma membrane and the genome is simply injected into the cytoplasm.
Replication
For positive sense, single-stranded RNA viruses, translation occurs before transcription. Upon entry of the genome into the cytoplasm of the host cell, the IRES in the 5’ UTR recruits ribosomal subunits (cap-independent mechanism) which starts the translation process. Once the polypeptide is completely translated, viral proteinases 2A and 3C, as well as cellular proteinases, cleave the polyprotein into individual proteins that will help continue the viral replication process.
As soon as viral proteins have been translated and cleaved, negative sense transcripts of the viral genome are made to serve as a template for more positive-sense viral genome transcripts (which also serves as mRNA which can also be translated into more viral proteins). The viral genome encodes for a poly-A tail, which can be recognized by cellular initiation factors and ribosomal subunits which kick starts the transcription process to make the negative-sense strand, forming a double-stranded RNA intermediate
Upon transcription of the negative sense RNA, it needs to get primed in order to start making more positive sense RNA genome. The VPg protein that is covalently linked to the 5’ end of the RNA genome has 2 U’s attached to it. The purpose of these U’s is to modify the VPg protein which serves as a protein primer which the viral RdRP can recognize and start forming more genome from the negative-sense.
The viral protein 2C brings positive sense RNA genomes to the endoplasmic reticulum where assembly and maturation will occur.
While all of this is occurring, viral proteinases are working to turn off host cell protein synthesis by cleaving the eIF-4 initiation factor. This process accomplishes the inhibition of ribosomes binding to host cell mRNAs. This effectively shuts down cap-dependent translation in the host cell.
Assembly, maturation and egress
Once viral genome and viral proteins reach high enough concentrations within the host cell, structural proteins must assemble. The final step in maturation of the virus is when VP0, a precursor protein, is cleaved into VP2 and VP4. Viral capsid proteins come together to form pentamers, 12 of which come together to form an empty capsid, or procapsid (Expasy, Hunt, 2010).
As mentioned before, the viral protein 2C brings CB4 viral genome to the endoplasmic reticulum where vesicle formation begins. The ER membrane moves to surround the genome and proteins, at which point the procapsid attaches to the exterior of the vesicle and encapsidates the genome and proteins. It is at this point that VP0 gets cleaved by a cellular proteinase and the virus finally becomes fully mature and infectious. Since CB4 is a non-enveloped virus, it accomplishes egress through cytolysis, breaking through the plasma membrane in order to move on to infect other cells in the host (Hunt, 2010)
Symptoms
Coxsackie B 1–4 viruses are typically the most severe and fatal neonatal diseases. Common symptoms can include myocarditis, meningoencephalitis, and hepatitis. Other less severe symptoms can include pneumonia, Gastrointestinal symptoms, pancreatitis, and seizures. Patients with Coxsackie B4 virus have seemed to have herpangina, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis.
CB4 virus has caused transplacental infections in mice. Infection in the first couple weeks of gestation has been shown to be harmful for dams as well as the fetus, causing reduced litter sizes, abortion, or stillbirth. Pups that were born from dams infected on days 4 and 17 of gestation had significantly (p < 0.05) greater pancreatic abnormalities leading to symptoms similar to diabetes.
Coxsackie B4 virus and type 1 diabetes
One theory proposes that type 1 diabetes is a virus-triggered autoimmune response in which the immune system attacks virus-infected cells along with the beta cells in the pancreas, but to date there is no stringent evidence to support this hypothesis in humans.
A 2004 systematic review analyzing a possible association between coxsackievirus B infection and type 1 diabetes was inconclusive. A 2011 systematic review and meta-analysis showed an association between enterovirus infections and type 1 diabetes, but in contrast, other studies have shown that rather than triggering an autoimmune process, enterovirus infections, as coxsackievirus B, could protect against onset and development of type 1 diabetes.
Transmission to neonates
Enteroviruses commonly infect neonates and infants younger than 12 months. Coxsackie b viruses are usually spread to infants through perinatal transmission. However, more severe cases of coxsackie B viruses are spread through transplacental transmission. Common symptoms of neonatal coxsackie B virus infection in children include meningitis and/or encephalitis. Coxsackie B4 virus is able to infect the brain and spinal cord and cause inflammation.
Diagnosis
Infection due to Coxsackie B viruses can be determined by measuring the amount of neutralizing antibodies in the blood, PCR, and through microscopic detection. It is difficult to diagnose CBV based on the symptoms.
See also
Coxsackie B virus
References
External links
"Conquering Diabetes: A Strategic Plan for the 21st Century". National Institutes of Health.
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249936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclamate | Cyclamate | Cyclamate is an artificial sweetener. It is 30–50 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar), making it the least potent of the commercially used artificial sweeteners. It is often used with other artificial sweeteners, especially saccharin; the mixture of 10 parts cyclamate to 1 part saccharin is common and masks the off-tastes of both sweeteners. It is less expensive than most sweeteners, including sucralose, and is stable under heating. Safety concerns led to it being banned in a few countries, though the European Union considers it safe.
Chemistry
Cyclamate is the sodium or calcium salt of cyclamic acid (cyclohexanesulfamic acid), which itself is prepared by reacting freebase cyclohexylamine with either sulfamic acid or sulfur trioxide.
Prior to 1973, Abbott Laboratories produced sodium cyclamate (Sucaryl) by a mixture of ingredients including the addition of pure sodium (flakes or rods suspended in kerosene) with cyclohexylamine, chilled and filtered through a high speed centrifugal separator, dried, granulated and micro-pulverised for powder or tablet usage.
History
Cyclamate was discovered in 1937 at the University of Illinois by graduate student Michael Sveda. Sveda was working in the lab on the synthesis of an antipyretic drug. He put his cigarette down on the lab bench, and when he put it back in his mouth, he discovered the sweet taste of cyclamate.
The patent for cyclamate was purchased by DuPont but later sold to Abbott Laboratories, which undertook the necessary studies and submitted a New Drug Application in 1950. Abbott intended to use cyclamate to mask the bitterness of certain drugs such as antibiotics and pentobarbital. In 1958, it was designated GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Cyclamate was marketed in tablet form for use by diabetics as an alternative tabletop sweetener, as well as in a liquid form. As cyclamate is stable to heat, it was and is marketed as suitable for use in cooking and baking.
In 1966, a study reported that some intestinal bacteria could desulfonate cyclamate to produce cyclohexylamine, a compound suspected to have some chronic toxicity in animals. Further research resulted in a 1969 study that found the common 10:1 cyclamate–saccharin mixture increased the incidence of bladder cancer in rats. The released study was showing that eight out of 240 rats fed a mixture of saccharin and cyclamates, at levels equivalent to humans ingesting 550 cans of diet soda per day, developed bladder tumors.
Sales continued to expand, and in 1969, annual sales of cyclamate had reached $1 billion, which increased pressure from public safety watchdogs to restrict the usage of cyclamate. In October 1969, Department of Health, Education & Welfare Secretary Robert Finch, bypassing Food and Drug Administration Commissioner Herbert L. Ley, Jr., removed the GRAS designation from cyclamate and banned its use in general-purpose foods, though it remained available for restricted use in dietary products with additional labeling; in October 1970, the FDA, under a new commissioner, banned cyclamate completely from all food and drug products in the United States.
Abbott Laboratories claimed that its own studies were unable to reproduce the 1969 study's results, and, in 1973, Abbott petitioned the FDA to lift the ban on cyclamate. This petition was eventually denied in 1980 by FDA Commissioner Jere Goyan. Abbott Labs, together with the Calorie Control Council (a political lobby representing the diet foods industry), filed a second petition in 1982. Although the FDA has stated that a review of all available evidence does not implicate cyclamate as a carcinogen in mice or rats, cyclamate remains banned from food products in the United States. The petition is now held in abeyance, though not actively considered. It is unclear whether this is at the request of Abbott Labs or because the petition is considered to be insufficient by the FDA.
In 2000, a paper was published describing the results of a 24-year-long experiment in which 16 monkeys were fed a normal diet and 21 monkeys were fed either 100 or 500 mg/kg cyclamate per day; the higher dose corresponds to about 30 cans of a diet beverage. Two of the high-dosed monkeys and one of the lower-dosed monkeys were found to have malignant cancer, each with a different kind of cancer, and three benign tumors were found. The authors concluded that the study failed to demonstrate that cyclamate was carcinogenic because the cancers were all different and there was no way to link cyclamate to each of them. The substance did not show any DNA-damaging properties in DNA repair assays.
Legal status
Cyclamate is approved as a sweetener in at least 130 countries. In the late 1960s cyclamate was banned in the United Kingdom but was approved after being re-evaluated by the European Union in 1996.
In the Philippines, cyclamate was banned until the Philippine Food and Drug Administration lifted the ban in 2013, declaring it safe for consumption. Cyclamate remains banned in the United States and South Korea.
Brands
Sweeteners produced by Sweet'n Low and Sugar Twin for Canada contain cyclamate, though not those produced for the United States.
Assugrin (Switzerland, Brazil)
Cap Cangkir (Indonesia)
Chuker (Argentina) – Merisant Company 2, SARL
Cologran
Huxol (Germany) in liquid form
Novasweet (Russia)
Rio (Produced under license and authority of SweetLife AG Switzerland by SweetLife Ltd, China)
Sucaryl
Sugar Twin (Canada)
Suitli (Bulgaria)
Sweet'n Low (Canada)
Sugromax (New Zealand)
Notes and references
External links
European Commission Revised Opinion On Cyclamic Acid
FDA Commissioner's Decision on Cyclamate, 45 FR 61474
Abbott Laboratories
Sulfamates
Sugar substitutes
Cyclamate
Cyclohexyl compounds
Suspected carcinogens
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249937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desensitization | Desensitization | Desensitization can refer to:
Desensitization (telecommunications)
Desensitization (medicine)
Desensitization (psychology)
Desensitization of explosives, see Phlegmatized
Desensitization, Allergen immunotherapy
Desensitization, another name for Exposure therapy | [
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249948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Caney | El Caney | El Caney (also Caney) is a small village six kilometers (four miles) to the northeast of Santiago, Cuba. "Caney" means longhouse in Taíno.
Overview
It was known in centuries past as the site where Hernán Cortés received a vision supposedly ordering him to Christianize Mexico. The settlement was host to the Battle of El Caney on 1 July 1898.
Notable people
Manuel Fernández (1871–1921), Spanish general
Lorenzo Hierrezuelo (1907– 1993), Cuban trova musician
See also
San Juan Hill
Siboney
Daiquirí
El Cobre
References
Populated places in Santiago de Cuba Province
Santiago de Cuba | [
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249952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Juan%20Hill | San Juan Hill | San Juan Hill is a series of hills to the east of Santiago, Cuba, running north to south. The area is known as the San Juan Heights or in Spanish Alturas de San Juan before Spanish–American War of 1898, and are now part of Lomas de San Juan.
Overview
This area was the site of the Battle of San Juan Hill during the Spanish–American War. The Americans named the lesser heights "Kettle Hill" and the higher southern hill "San Juan Hill" after the battle of July 2, 1898. The two high points or hills are connected by a draw or saddle on a north–south axis.
The fight for the San Juan Heights or Hills became known as the Battle of San Juan Hill due to a reporter's telegraphy error in which the plural "s" was dropped. American Army reports also referred to the heights as "hills".
On January 12, 1959, in this place, 72 prisoners accused of crimes during the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista were shot by order of the commander of the Cuban Revolution Raúl Castro. The defendants did not have a trial with guarantees, and before this, they had been sentenced to death. They were buried in a 40-meter-long mass grave at the site. This event is known as the San Juan Hill Massacre.
See also
El Caney
References
Hills of Cuba
Santiago de Cuba
Geography of Santiago de Cuba Province | [
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249953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon | Glucagon | Glucagon is a peptide hormone, produced by alpha cells of the pancreas. It raises concentration of glucose and fatty acids in the bloodstream, and is considered to be the main catabolic hormone of the body. It is also used as a medication to treat a number of health conditions. Its effect is opposite to that of insulin, which lowers extracellular glucose. It is produced from proglucagon, encoded by the GCG gene.
The pancreas releases glucagon when the amount of glucose in the bloodstream is too low. Glucagon causes the liver to engage in glycogenolysis: converting stored glycogen into glucose, which is released into the bloodstream. High blood-glucose levels, on the other hand, stimulate the release of insulin. Insulin allows glucose to be taken up and used by insulin-dependent tissues. Thus, glucagon and insulin are part of a feedback system that keeps blood glucose levels stable. Glucagon increases energy expenditure and is elevated under conditions of stress. Glucagon belongs to the secretin family of hormones.
Function
Glucagon generally elevates the concentration of glucose in the blood by promoting gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. Glucagon also decreases fatty acid synthesis in adipose tissue and the liver, as well as promoting lipolysis in these tissues, which causes them to release fatty acids into circulation where they can be catabolised to generate energy in tissues such as skeletal muscle when required.
Glucose is stored in the liver in the form of the polysaccharide glycogen, which is a glucan (a polymer made up of glucose molecules). Liver cells (hepatocytes) have glucagon receptors. When glucagon binds to the glucagon receptors, the liver cells convert the glycogen into individual glucose molecules and release them into the bloodstream, in a process known as glycogenolysis. As these stores become depleted, glucagon then encourages the liver and kidney to synthesize additional glucose by gluconeogenesis. Glucagon turns off glycolysis in the liver, causing glycolytic intermediates to be shuttled to gluconeogenesis.
Glucagon also regulates the rate of glucose production through lipolysis. Glucagon induces lipolysis in humans under conditions of insulin suppression (such as diabetes mellitus type 1).
Glucagon production appears to be dependent on the central nervous system through pathways yet to be defined. In invertebrate animals, eyestalk removal has been reported to affect glucagon production. Excising the eyestalk in young crayfish produces glucagon-induced hyperglycemia.
Mechanism of action
Glucagon binds to the glucagon receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor, located in the plasma membrane of the cell. The conformation change in the receptor activates G proteins, a heterotrimeric protein with α, β, and γ subunits. When the G protein interacts with the receptor, it undergoes a conformational change that results in the replacement of the GDP molecule that was bound to the α subunit with a GTP molecule. This substitution results in the releasing of the α subunit from the β and γ subunits. The alpha subunit specifically activates the next enzyme in the cascade, adenylate cyclase.
Adenylate cyclase manufactures cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP), which activates protein kinase A (cAMP-dependent protein kinase). This enzyme, in turn, activates phosphorylase kinase, which then phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase b (PYG b), converting it into the active form called phosphorylase a (PYG a). Phosphorylase a is the enzyme responsible for the release of glucose 1-phosphate from glycogen polymers.
An example of the pathway would be when glucagon binds to a transmembrane protein. The transmembrane proteins interacts with Gɑβ𝛾. Gɑ separates from Gβ𝛾 and interacts with the transmembrane protein adenylyl cyclase. Adenylyl cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP. cAMP binds to protein kinase A, and the complex phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase. Phosphorylated phosphorylase kinase phosphorylates phosphorylase. Phosphorylated phosphorylase clips glucose units from glycogen as glucose 1-phosphate.
Additionally, the coordinated control of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver is adjusted by the phosphorylation state of the enzymes that catalyze the formation of a potent activator of glycolysis called fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. The enzyme protein kinase A (PKA) that was stimulated by the cascade initiated by glucagon will also phosphorylate a single serine residue of the bifunctional polypeptide chain containing both the enzymes fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase and phosphofructokinase-2. This covalent phosphorylation initiated by glucagon activates the former and inhibits the latter. This regulates the reaction catalyzing fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (a potent activator of phosphofructokinase-1, the enzyme that is the primary regulatory step of glycolysis) by slowing the rate of its formation, thereby inhibiting the flux of the glycolysis pathway and allowing gluconeogenesis to predominate. This process is reversible in the absence of glucagon (and thus, the presence of insulin).
Glucagon stimulation of PKA also inactivates the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase in hepatocytes.
Physiology
Production
The hormone is synthesized and secreted from alpha cells (α-cells) of the islets of Langerhans, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas. Production, which is otherwise freerunning, is suppressed/regulated by amylin, a peptide hormone co-secreted with insulin from the pancreatic β cells. As plasma glucose levels recede, the subsequent reduction in amylin secretion alleviates its suppression of the α cells, allowing for glucagon secretion.
In rodents, the alpha cells are located in the outer rim of the islet. Human islet structure is much less segregated, and alpha cells are distributed throughout the islet in close proximity to beta cells. Glucagon is also produced by alpha cells in the stomach.
Recent research has demonstrated that glucagon production may also take place outside the pancreas, with the gut being the most likely site of extrapancreatic glucagon synthesis.
Regulation
Secretion of glucagon is stimulated by:
Hypoglycemia
Epinephrine (via β2, α2, and α1 adrenergic receptors)
Arginine
Alanine (often from muscle-derived pyruvate/glutamate transamination (see alanine transaminase reaction).
Acetylcholine
Cholecystokinin
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide
Secretion of glucagon is inhibited by:
Somatostatin
Amylin
Insulin (via GABA)
PPARγ/retinoid X receptor heterodimer.
Increased free fatty acids and keto acids into the blood.
Increased urea production
Glucagon-like peptide-1
Structure
Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide. Its primary structure in humans is: NH2-His-Ser-Gln-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Tyr-Ser-Lys-Tyr-Leu-Asp-Ser-Arg-Arg-Ala-Gln-Asp-Phe-Val-Gln-Trp-Leu-Met-Asn-Thr-COOH (HSQGTFTSDYSKYLDSRRAQDFVQWLMNT).
The polypeptide has a molecular mass of 3485 daltons. Glucagon is a peptide (nonsteroid) hormone.
Glucagon is generated from the cleavage of proglucagon by proprotein convertase 2 in pancreatic islet α cells. In intestinal L cells, proglucagon is cleaved to the alternate products glicentin, GLP-1 (an incretin), IP-2, and GLP-2 (promotes intestinal growth).
Pathology
Abnormally elevated levels of glucagon may be caused by pancreatic tumors, such as glucagonoma, symptoms of which include necrolytic migratory erythema, reduced amino acids, and hyperglycemia. It may occur alone or in the context of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1.
Elevated glucagon is the main contributor to hyperglycemic ketoacidosis in undiagnosed or poorly treated type 1 diabetes. As the beta cells cease to function, insulin and pancreatic GABA are no longer present to suppress the freerunning output of glucagon. As a result, glucagon is released from the alpha cells at a maximum, causing a rapid breakdown of glycogen to glucose and fast ketogenesis. It was found that a subset of adults with type 1 diabetes took 4 times longer on average to approach ketoacidosis when given somatostatin (inhibits glucagon production) with no insulin. Inhibiting glucagon has been a popular idea of diabetes treatment, however, some have warned that doing so will give rise to brittle diabetes in patients with adequately stable blood glucose.
The absence of alpha cells (and hence glucagon) is thought to be one of the main influences in the extreme volatility of blood glucose in the setting of a total pancreatectomy.
History
In the early 1920s, several groups noted that pancreatic extracts injected into diabetic animals would result in a brief increase in blood sugar prior to the insulin-driven decrease in blood sugar. In 1922, C. Kimball and John R. Murlin identified a component of pancreatic extracts responsible for this blood sugar increase, terming it "glucagon", a portmanteau of "glucose agonist". In the 1950s, scientists at Eli Lilly isolated pure glucagon, crystallized it, and determined its amino acid sequence. This led to the development of the first radioimmunoassay for detecting glucagon, described by Roger Unger's group in 1959.
A more complete understanding of its role in physiology and disease was not established until the 1970s, when a specific radioimmunoassay was developed.
See also
Cortisol
Diabetes mellitus
Glucagon-like peptide-1
Glucagon-like peptide-2
Insulin
Islets of Langerhans
Pancreas
Proglucagon
Tyrosine kinase
References
External links
PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Human Glucagon
Animal products
Hormones of glucose metabolism
Human hormones
Pancreatic hormones
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249956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbit-Proof%20Fence | Rabbit-Proof Fence | Rabbit-Proof Fence is a 2002 Australian drama film directed and produced by Phillip Noyce based on the 1996 book Follow the Rabbit-Proof Fence by Doris Pilkington Garimara. It is loosely based on a true story concerning the author's mother Molly, as well as two other Aboriginal girls, Daisy Kadibil and Gracie, who escape from the Moore River Native Settlement, north of Perth, Western Australia, to return to their Aboriginal families, after being placed there in 1931. The film follows the Aboriginal girls as they walk for nine weeks along of the Australian rabbit-proof fence to return to their community at Jigalong, while being pursued by white law enforcement authorities and an Aboriginal tracker. The film illustrates the official child removal policy that existed in Australia between approximately 1905 and 1967. Its victims now are called the "Stolen Generations".
The soundtrack to the film, called Long Walk Home: Music from the Rabbit-Proof Fence, is by Peter Gabriel. British producer Jeremy Thomas, who has a long connection with Australia, was executive producer of the film, selling it internationally through his sales arm, HanWay Films. In 2005 the British Film Institute included it in the BFI list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14.
Plot
In 1931, two sisters14-year-old Molly and 8-year-old Daisyand their 10-year-old cousin Gracie live in the Western Australian town of Jigalong. The town lies along the northern part of one of the fences making up Australia's rabbit-proof fence (called Number One Fence), which runs for over one thousand miles.
Over a thousand miles away in Perth, the official Protector of Western Australian Aborigines, A. O. Neville (called Mr. Devil by them), signs an order to relocate the three girls to the Moore River Native Settlement. The children are referred to by Neville as "half-castes", because they have one white and one Aboriginal parent. Neville's reasoning is portrayed as: the Aboriginal people of Australia are a danger to themselves, and the "half-castes" must be bred out of existence. He plans to place the girls in a camp where they, along with all half-castes of that age range, both boys and girls, will grow up. They will then presumably become labourers and servants to white families, regarded as a "good" situation for them in life. Eventually if they marry, it will be to white people and thus the Aboriginal "blood" will diminish. As such, the three girls are forcibly taken from their families at Jigalong by a local constable, Riggs, and sent to the camp at the Moore River Native Settlement, in the south west, about 90 km (55 miles) north of Perth.
Neville spreads word that Gracie's mother is waiting for her in the town of Wiluna. The information finds its way to an Aboriginal traveller who "helps" the girls. He tells Gracie about her mother and says they can get to Wiluna by train, causing her to leave the other two girls in an attempt to catch a train to Wiluna. Molly and Daisy soon walk after her and find her at a train station. They are not reunited, however, as Riggs appears and Gracie is recaptured. The betrayal is revealed by Riggs, who tells the man he will receive a shilling for his help. Knowing they are powerless to aid her, Molly and Daisy continue their journey. In the end, after a nine-week journey through the harsh Australian outback, having walked the 2,400 km (1,500 miles) route along the fence, the two sisters return home and go into hiding in the desert with their mother and grandmother. Meanwhile, Neville realizes he can no longer afford the search for Molly and Daisy and decides to end it.
Epilogue
The film's epilogue shows recent footage of Molly and Daisy. Molly explains that Gracie has died and she never returned to Jigalong. Molly also tells us of her own two daughters; she and they were taken from Jigalong back to Moore River. She managed to escape with one daughter, Annabelle, and once again, she walked the length of the fence back home. However, when Annabelle was three years old, she was taken away once more, and Molly never saw her again. In closing, Molly says that she and Daisy "... are never going back to that place".
Cast
(Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander readers are advised this article contains the name of Aboriginal people who have died.)
Everlyn Sampi as Molly Craig
Tianna Sansbury as Daisy Craig Kadibil
Laura Monaghan as Gracie Fields
David Gulpilil as Moodoo the Tracker
Jason Clarke as Constable Riggs
Kenneth Branagh as A. O. Neville
Ningali Lawford as Maude, Molly's mother
Myarn Lawford as Molly's grandmother
Deborah Mailman as Mavis
Garry McDonald as Mr. Neal
Roberta Lynch as The Teacher
Roy Billing as Police Inspector
Natasha Wanganeen as Nina, Dormitory Boss
Production
The film is adapted from the book Follow the Rabbit-Proof Fence, by Doris Pilkington Garimara, which is the second book of her trilogy documenting her family's stories. The other two books are Caprice: A Stockman’s Daughter (1991) and Under the Wintamarra Tree (2002)
Reception
Public reception
The film stirred controversy in Australia relating to the government's historical policy of removing part-Aboriginal children, who became known as the Stolen Generations, from Aboriginal communities and placing them in state institutions. Eric Abetz, a government official, announced the publishing of a leaflet criticising the film's portrayal of the treatment of indigenous Australians, and demanded an apology from the filmmakers. Director Phillip Noyce suggested instead that the government apologize to the indigenous people affected by the removal policy.
Conservative commentators such as Andrew Bolt also attacked the historical accuracy of the film. Bolt criticized the numerous disparities between the film and Pilkington Garimara's novel, a fact that angered Pilkington Garimara, who said that Bolt had misquoted her. The academic Robert Manne in turn accused Bolt of historical denialism, and scriptwriter Christine Olsen wrote a detailed response to Bolt's claims.
Olsen attributed the angry response among some of the public to the fact that it was based in events that were "demonstrably true" and well-documented. However, the filmmaker said that the film was meant primarily as a drama rather than a political or historical statement. Noyce stated, "If drama comes from conflict, there's no greater conflict in Australian history than the conflict between indigenous Australians and white settlers."
The historian Keith Windschuttle also disputed the film's depiction of events, stating in his work The Fabrication of Aboriginal History that Molly and the two other girls had been removed for their own welfare, and that the two older girls had been sexually involved with white men. Noyce and Olsen rejected these criticisms, stating that Windschuttle's research was incomplete. Pilkington Garimara denied Windschuttle's claims of sexual activity between her mother and local whites, stating that the claims were a distortion of history.
Critical response
The film received positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave it a rating of 87% based on 142 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The site's consensus states, "Visually beautiful and well-acted, Rabbit-Proof Fence tells a compelling true-life story." On Metacritic the film has a score of 80 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
David Stratton of SBS awarded the film four stars out of five, commenting that Rabbit-Proof Fence is a "bold and timely film about the stolen generations."
Box office
Rabbit-Proof Fence grossed $16.2 million worldwide, including $3.8 million in Australia.
Accolades
Wins
2001 – Queensland Premier's Literary Awards.
Film Script—the Pacific Film and Television Commission Award (Christine Olsen)
2002 – Australian Film Institute Awards
Best Film (Phillip Noyce, Christine Olsen, John Winter)
Best Original Music Score (Peter Gabriel)
Best Sound (Bronwyn Murphy, Craig Carter, Ricky Edwards, John Penders)
2002 – Film Critics Circle of Australia Awards
Best Director (Phillip Noyce)
Best Screenplay—Adapted (Christine Olsen)
2002 – Inside Film Awards
Best Actress (Everlyn Sampi)
Best Production Design (Roger Ford)
2002 – New South Wales Premier's History Awards
shortlisted for The Premier's Young People's History Prize (Christine Olsen and Phillip Noyce)
2002 (United States) – Aspen Filmfest
Audience Award, Audience Favourite Feature (Phillip Noyce)
2002 (Switzerland) – Castellinaria International Festival of Young Cinema,
ASPI Award (Phillip Noyce)
Golden Castle (Phillip Noyce)
2002 (United States) – The 2002 Starz Encore Denver International Film Festival
People's Choice Award: Best Feature-Length Fiction Film (Phillip Noyce)
2002 (South Africa) – Durban International Film Festival
Audience Award (Phillip Noyce)
2002 (United Kingdom) – Edinburgh International Film Festival
Audience Award (Phillip Noyce)
2002 (United Kingdom) – Leeds International Film Festival
Audience Award (Phillip Noyce)
2002 (United States) – National Board of Review Awards 2002
Freedom of Expression Award
Best Director (Phillip Noyce)
2002 (United States) – San Francisco Film Critics Circle
Special Citation (Phillip Noyce, also for The Quiet American (2002))
Audience Award: Best Foreign Film (Phillip Noyce)
2002 (Spain) – Valladolid International Film Festival
Audience Award: Feature Film (Phillip Noyce)
2003 (United Kingdom) – London Critics Circle Film Awards (ALFS)
Director of the Year (Phillip Noyce, also for The Quiet American (2002))
2003 (Brazil) – São Paulo International Film Festival
Audience Award: Best Foreign Film (Phillip Noyce)
Nominations
2002 (Australia) Australian Film Institute Nominations
Best Actor in a Supporting Role (David Gulpilil)
Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle)
Best Costume Design (Roger Ford)
Best Direction (Phillip Noyce)
Best Editing (Veronika Jenet, John Scott)
Best Production Design (Roger Ford)
Best Screenplay Adapted from Another Source (Christine Olsen)
2002 (Australia) Film Critics Circle of Australia Nominations Australia
Best Actor—Female (Everlyn Sampi)
Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle)
Best Film
Best Music Score (Peter Gabriel)
2002 (Poland) Camerimage—2002 International Film Festival of the Art of Cinematography
Golden Frog (Christopher Doyle)
2002 (United States) Golden Trailer Award Nominations
Golden Trailer: Best Independent
2003 (United States) Golden Globe Nominations
Golden Globe: Best Original Score—Motion Picture (Peter Gabriel)
2003 (United States) Motion Picture Sound Editors Nomination
Golden Reel Award: Best Sound Editing in Foreign Features (Juhn Penders, Craig Carter, Steve Burgess, Ricky Edwards, Andrew Plain)
2003 (United States) Political Film Society Awards
Exposé
Human Rights
2003 (United States) Young Artist Awards
Best Performance in a Feature Film—Supporting Young Actress (Everlyn Sampi)
Best Performance in a Feature Film—Young Actress Age Ten or Under (Tianna Sansbury)
See also
Cinema of Australia
Survival film, about the film genre, with a list of related films
References
Further reading
External links
Phillip Noyce's shooting diary
Phillip Noyce interview—Phillip Noyce on Rabbit-Proof Fence
Rabbit Proof Fence at Oz Movies
2000s adventure drama films
2000s historical films
2002 films
Films about Aboriginal Australians
Australian adventure drama films
Australian historical films
Australian films
English-language films
Films scored by Peter Gabriel
Films about racism
Films about runaways
Films based on non-fiction books
Films directed by Phillip Noyce
Films set in 1931
Films set in Western Australia
Films shot in Adelaide
Films shot in Flinders Ranges
Australian independent films
Indigenous Australian mass media
Stolen Generations
Films set in the Outback
2002 drama films | [
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249957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassaman | Kassaman | "Kassaman" or "Qassaman" (, "we pledge"; "the oath" or "we swear") is the national anthem of Algeria. Moufdi Zakaria authored the lyrics, while the music was composed by Egyptian composer Mohamed Fawzi. The song was adopted as the national anthem in 1962, when the country gained independence from France.
History
The French invaded Ottoman Algeria in 1830 and made it an integral part of Metropolitan France within its colonial empire. For the next century, the native population were given very few political rights. Consequently, a nationalist movement began in the 1920s and gained traction after World War II, when a commitment by the government to grant French Algeria autonomy failed to materialize. A prominent member of this movement was Moufdi Zakaria, a Mozabite Berber poet affiliated with the Algerian People's Party (PPA). He was jailed and tortured on several occasions between the 1920s and 1962. It was during one of these experiences, in April 1955, that he penned the words to "Kassaman". Since he did not have access to paper or writing instruments while incarcerated in Barberousse Prison, Zakaria reportedly wrote the lyrics with his own blood on the walls of his jail cell. The musical portion of the anthem was subsequently composed by Mohamed Fawzi, who was asked to undertake this effort after two earlier submissions by other composers – one of which was by Mohamed Triki – were rejected.
Both the lyrics and music were officially adopted in 1962; in that same year the Évian Accords were signed paving the way for a referendum in which Algerians overwhelmingly voted in favour of independence, which was duly granted. Although "Kassaman" was only intended to be a provisional national anthem, it has endured to this day.
Context of lyrics
The lyrics of "Kassaman" are reflective of a war song. This is because it promotes nationalistic ideals and principles on the front line, glorifies the actions of the National Liberation Front (FLN), as well as espousing armed uprising and how it is the sole route to attaining independence. It is also noteworthy in that it alludes to another country – France – specifically concerning the violent struggle against them for independence. The song foreshadows how "the day of reckoning" will befall Algeria's former colonial ruler.
Lyrics
Legal protection
Even though "Kassaman" was adopted in 1962, it was not until November 2008 that an amendment to Article 5 of the Constitution of Algeria was made declaring it as "immutable", given its association with the country's revolution. It also confirmed that the national anthem comprises all of the song's verses, thus ending the deliberation over whether it was still appropriate to include the unfavourable reference to France in the present day.
References
External links
Streaming Audio, Lyrics and Info
The Musical Score, with Text in Arabic and French, on the Presidency's Website
The Algerian Anthem, with Arabic Lyrics and War Pictures
The People's National Army's Republican Guards Singing the Algerian Anthem
Algerian patriotic songs
Arabic-language songs
National symbols of Algeria
Political party songs
Anthems of Algeria
1955 songs
National anthem compositions in B-flat major | [
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249958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppressive%20drug | Immunosuppressive drug | Immunosuppressive drugs, also known as immunosuppressive agents, immunosuppressants and antirejection medications, are drugs that inhibit or prevent activity of the immune system.
Classification
Immunosuppressive drugs can be classified into five groups:
glucocorticoids
cytostatics
antibodies
drugs acting on immunophilins
other drugs
Glucocorticoids
In pharmacologic (supraphysiologic) doses, glucocorticoids, such as prednisone, dexamethasone, and hydrocortisone are used to suppress various allergic, inflammatory, and autoimmune disorders. They are also administered as posttransplantory immunosuppressants to prevent the acute transplant rejection and graft-versus-host disease. Nevertheless, they do not prevent an infection and also inhibit later reparative processes.
Immunosuppressive mechanism
Glucocorticoids suppress cell-mediated immunity. They act by inhibiting genes that code for the cytokines Interleukin 1 (IL-1), IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-alpha, the most important of which is IL-2. Smaller cytokine production reduces T cell proliferation.
Glucocorticoids also suppress the humoral immunity, causing B cells to express smaller amounts of IL-2 and IL-2 receptors. This diminishes both B cell clone expansion and antibody synthesis.
Anti-inflammatory effects
Glucocorticoids influence all types of inflammatory events, no matter their cause. They induce the lipocortin-1 (annexin-1) synthesis, which then binds to cell membranes preventing the phospholipase A2 from coming into contact with its substrate arachidonic acid. This leads to diminished eicosanoid production. The cyclooxygenase (both COX-1 and COX-2) expression is also suppressed, potentiating the effect.
Glucocorticoids also stimulate the lipocortin-1 escaping to the extracellular space, where it binds to the leukocyte membrane receptors and inhibits various inflammatory events: epithelial adhesion, emigration, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, respiratory burst, and the release of various inflammatory mediators (lysosomal enzymes, cytokines, tissue plasminogen activator, chemokines, etc.) from neutrophils, macrophages, and mastocytes.
Cytostatics
Cytostatics inhibit cell division. In immunotherapy, they are used in smaller doses than in the treatment of malignant diseases. They affect the proliferation of both T cells and B cells. Due to their highest effectiveness, purine analogs are most frequently administered.
Alkylating agents
The alkylating agents used in immunotherapy are nitrogen mustards (cyclophosphamide), nitrosoureas, platinum compounds, and others. Cyclophosphamide (Baxter's Cytoxan) is probably the most potent immunosuppressive compound. In small doses, it is very efficient in the therapy of systemic lupus erythematosus, autoimmune hemolytic anemias, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, and other immune diseases. High doses cause pancytopenia and hemorrhagic cystitis.
Antimetabolites
Antimetabolites interfere with the synthesis of nucleic acids. These include:
folic acid analogues, such as methotrexate
purine analogues, such as azathioprine and mercaptopurine
pyrimidine analogues, such as fluorouracil
protein synthesis inhibitors.
Methotrexate
Methotrexate is a folic acid analogue. It binds dihydrofolate reductase and prevents synthesis of tetrahydrofolate. It is used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases (for example rheumatoid arthritis or Behcet's Disease) and in transplantations.
Azathioprine and mercaptopurine
Azathioprine (Prometheus' Imuran), is the main immunosuppressive cytotoxic substance. It is extensively used to control transplant rejection reactions. It is nonenzymatically cleaved to mercaptopurine, that acts as a purine analogue and an inhibitor of DNA synthesis. Mercaptopurine itself can also be administered directly.
By preventing the clonal expansion of lymphocytes in the induction phase of the immune response, it affects both the cell and the humoral immunity. It is also efficient in the treatment of autoimmune diseases.
Cytotoxic antibiotics
Among these, dactinomycin is the most important. It is used in kidney transplantations. Other cytotoxic antibiotics are anthracyclines, mitomycin C, bleomycin, mithramycin.
Antibodies
Antibodies are sometimes used as a quick and potent immunosuppressive therapy to prevent the acute rejection reactions as well as a targeted treatment of lymphoproliferative or autoimmune disorders (e.g., anti-CD20 monoclonals).
Polyclonal antibodies
Heterologous polyclonal antibodies are obtained from the serum of animals (e.g., rabbit, horse), and injected with the patient's thymocytes or lymphocytes. The antilymphocyte (ALG) and antithymocyte antigens (ATG) are being used. They are part of the steroid-resistant acute rejection reaction and grave aplastic anemia treatment. However, they are added primarily to other immunosuppressives to diminish their dosage and toxicity. They also allow transition to cyclosporin therapy.
Polyclonal antibodies inhibit T lymphocytes and cause their lysis, which is both complement-mediated cytolysis and cell-mediated opsonization followed by removal of reticuloendothelial cells from the circulation in the spleen and liver. In this way, polyclonal antibodies inhibit cell-mediated immune reactions, including graft rejection, delayed hypersensitivity (i.e., tuberculin skin reaction), and the graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), but influence thymus-dependent antibody production.
As of March 2005, there are two preparations available to the market: Atgam, obtained from horse serum, and Thymoglobuline, obtained from rabbit serum. Polyclonal antibodies affect all lymphocytes and cause general immunosuppression, possibly leading to post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD) or serious infections, especially by cytomegalovirus. To reduce these risks, treatment is provided in a hospital, where adequate isolation from infection is available. They are usually administered for five days intravenously in the appropriate quantity. Patients stay in the hospital as long as three weeks to give the immune system time to recover to a point where there is no longer a risk of serum sickness.
Because of a high immunogenicity of polyclonal antibodies, almost all patients have an acute reaction to the treatment. It is characterized by fever, rigor episodes, and even anaphylaxis. Later during the treatment, some patients develop serum sickness or immune complex glomerulonephritis. Serum sickness arises seven to fourteen days after the therapy has begun. The patient suffers from fever, joint pain, and erythema that can be soothed with the use of steroids and analgesics. Urticaria (hives) can also be present. It is possible to diminish their toxicity by using highly purified serum fractions and intravenous administration in the combination with other immunosuppressants, for example, calcineurin inhibitors, cytostatics, and corticosteroids. The most frequent combination is to use antibodies and ciclosporin simultaneously in order to prevent patients from gradually developing a strong immune response to these drugs, reducing or eliminating their effectiveness.
Monoclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are directed towards exactly defined antigens. Therefore, they cause fewer side-effects. Especially significant are the IL-2 receptor- (CD25-) and CD3-directed antibodies. They are used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs, but also to track changes in the lymphocyte subpopulations. It is reasonable to expect similar new drugs in the future.
T-cell receptor directed antibodies
Muromonab-CD3 is a murine anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody of the IgG2a type that was previously used to prevent T-cell activation and proliferation by binding the T-cell receptor complex present on all differentiated T cells. As such it was one of the first potent immunosuppressive substances and was administered to control the steroid- and/or polyclonal antibodies-resistant acute rejection episodes. As it acts more specifically than polyclonal antibodies it was also used prophylactically in transplantations. However, muromonab-CD3 is no longer produced, and this mouse monoclonal antibody has been replaced in the clinic with chimeric, humanized, or human monoclonal antibodies.
The muromonab's mechanism of action is only partially understood. It is known that the molecule binds TCR/CD3 receptor complex. In the first few administrations this binding non-specifically activates T-cells, leading to a serious syndrome 30 to 60 minutes later. It is characterized by fever, myalgia, headache, and arthralgia. Sometimes it develops in a life-threatening reaction of the cardiovascular system and the central nervous system, requiring a lengthy therapy. Past this period CD3 blocks the TCR-antigen binding and causes conformational change or the removal of the entire TCR3/CD3 complex from the T-cell surface. This lowers the number of available T-cells, perhaps by sensitizing them for the uptake by the epithelial reticular cells. The cross-binding of CD3 molecules as well activates an intracellular signal causing the T cell anergy or apoptosis, unless the cells receive another signal through a co-stimulatory molecule. CD3 antibodies shift the balance from Th1 to Th2 cells as CD3 stimulates Th1 activation.
The patient may develop neutralizing antibodies reducing the effectiveness of muromonab-CD3.
Muromonab-CD3 can cause excessive immunosuppression. Although CD3 antibodies act more specifically than polyclonal antibodies, they lower the cell-mediated immunity significantly, predisposing the patient to opportunistic infections and malignancies.
IL-2 receptor directed antibodies
Interleukin-2 is an important immune system regulator necessary for the clone expansion and survival of activated lymphocytes T. Its effects are mediated by the trimer cell surface receptor IL-2a, consisting of the α, β, and γ chains. The IL-2a (CD25, T-cell activation antigen, TAC) is expressed only by the already-activated T lymphocytes. Therefore, it is of special significance to the selective immunosuppressive treatment, and research has been focused on the development of effective and safe anti-IL-2 antibodies. By the use of recombinant gene technology, the mouse anti-Tac antibodies have been modified, leading to the presentation of two chimeric mouse/human anti-Tac antibodies in the year 1998: basiliximab (Simulect) and daclizumab (Zenapax). These drugs act by binding the IL-2a receptor's α chain, preventing the IL-2 induced clonal expansion of activated lymphocytes and shortening their survival. They are used in the prophylaxis of the acute organ rejection after bilateral kidney transplantation, both being similarly effective and with only few side-effects.
Drugs acting on immunophilins
Ciclosporin
Like tacrolimus, ciclosporin (Novartis' Sandimmune) is a calcineurin inhibitor (CNI). It has been in use since 1983 and is one of the most widely used immunosuppressive drugs. It is a cyclic fungal peptide, composed of 11 amino acids.
Ciclosporin is thought to bind to the cytosolic protein cyclophilin (an immunophilin) of immunocompetent lymphocytes, especially T-lymphocytes. This complex of ciclosporin and cyclophilin inhibits the phosphatase calcineurin, which under normal circumstances induces the transcription of interleukin-2. The drug also inhibits lymphokine production and interleukin release, leading to a reduced function of effector T-cells.
Ciclosporin is used in the treatment of acute rejection reactions, but has been increasingly substituted with newer, and less nephrotoxic, immunosuppressants.
Calcineurin inhibitors and azathioprine have been linked with post-transplant malignancies and skin cancers in organ transplant recipients. Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) after kidney transplantation is common and can result in significant morbidity and mortality. The results of several studies suggest that calcineurin inhibitors have oncogenic properties mainly linked to the production of cytokines that promote tumor growth, metastasis and angiogenesis.
This drug has been reported to reduce the frequency of regulatory T cells (T-Reg) and after converting from a CNI monotherapy to a mycophenolate monotherapy, patients were found to have increased graft success and T-Reg frequency.
Tacrolimus
Tacrolimus (trade names Prograf, Astagraf XL, Envarsus XR) is a product of the bacterium Streptomyces tsukubaensis. It is a macrolide lactone and acts by inhibiting calcineurin.
The drug is used primarily in liver and kidney transplantations, although in some clinics it is used in heart, lung, and heart/lung transplantations. It binds to the immunophilin FKBP1A, followed by the binding of the complex to calcineurin and the inhibition of its phosphatase activity. In this way, it prevents the cell from transitioning from the G0 into G1 phase of the cell cycle. Tacrolimus is more potent than ciclosporin and has less pronounced side-effects.
Sirolimus
Sirolimus (rapamycin, trade name Rapamune) is a macrolide lactone, produced by the actinomycete bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus. It is used to prevent rejection reactions. Although it is a structural analogue of tacrolimus, it acts somewhat differently and has different side-effects.
Contrary to ciclosporin and tacrolimus, drugs that affect the first phase of T lymphocyte activation, sirolimus affects the second phase, namely signal transduction and lymphocyte clonal proliferation. It binds to FKBP1A like tacrolimus, however the complex does not inhibit calcineurin but another protein, mTOR. Therefore, sirolimus acts synergistically with ciclosporin and, in combination with other immunosuppressants, has few side effects. Also, it indirectly inhibits several T lymphocyte-specific kinases and phosphatases, hence preventing their transition from G1 to S phase of the cell cycle. In a similar manner, Sirolimus prevents B cell differentiation into plasma cells, reducing production of IgM, IgG, and IgA antibodies.
It is also active against tumors that are PI3K/AKT/mTOR-dependent.
Everolimus
Everolimus is an analog of sirolimus and also is an mTOR inhibitor.
Zotarolimus
Zotarolimus is a semi-synthetic derivative of sirolimus used in drug-eluting stents.
Other drugs
Interferons
IFN-β suppresses the production of Th1 cytokines and the activation of monocytes. It is used to slow down the progression of multiple sclerosis. IFN-γ is able to trigger lymphocytic apoptosis.
Opioids
Prolonged use of opioids may cause immunosuppression of both innate and adaptive immunity. Decrease in proliferation as well as immune function has been observed in macrophages, as well as lymphocytes. It is thought that these effects are mediated by opioid receptors expressed on the surface of these immune cells.
TNF binding proteins
A TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-alpha) binding protein is a monoclonal antibody or a circulating receptor such as infliximab (Remicade), etanercept (Enbrel), or adalimumab (Humira) that binds to TNF-α, preventing it from inducing the synthesis of IL-1 and IL-6 and the adhesion of lymphocyte-activating molecules. They are used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn's disease, and psoriasis.
These drugs may raise the risk of contracting tuberculosis or inducing a latent infection to become active. Infliximab and adalimumab have label warnings stating that patients should be evaluated for latent TB infection and treatment should be initiated prior to starting therapy with them.
TNF or the effects of TNF are also suppressed by various natural compounds, including curcumin (an ingredient in turmeric) and catechins (in green tea).
Mycophenolate
Mycophenolic acid acts as a non-competitive, selective, and reversible inhibitor of Inosine-5′-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH), which is a key enzyme in the de novo guanosine nucleotide synthesis. In contrast to other human cell types, lymphocytes B and T are very dependent on this process. Mycophenolate mofetil is used in combination with ciclosporin or tacrolimus in transplant patients.
Small biological agents
Fingolimod is a new synthetic immunosuppressant, currently in phase 3 of clinical trials. It increases the expression or changes the function of certain adhesion molecules (α4/β7 integrin) in lymphocytes, so they accumulate in the lymphatic tissue (lymphatic nodes) and their number in the circulation is diminished. In this respect, it differs from all other known immunosuppressants.
Myriocin has been reported being 10 to 100 times more potent than Ciclosporin.
Therapy
Immunosuppressive drugs are used in immunosuppressive therapy to:
Prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and tissues (e.g., bone marrow, heart, kidney, liver)
Treat autoimmune diseases or diseases that are most likely of autoimmune origin (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, psoriasis, vitiligo, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, systemic sclerosis /scleroderma, sarcoidosis, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, Crohn's disease, Behcet's Disease, pemphigus, ankylosing spondylitis, and ulcerative colitis).
Treat some other non-autoimmune inflammatory diseases (e.g., long term allergic asthma control).
Side effects
A common side-effect of many immunosuppressive drugs is immunodeficiency, because the majority of them act non-selectively, resulting in increased susceptibility to infections and decreased cancer immunosurveillance. There are also other side-effects, such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, peptic ulcers, lipodystrophy, moon face, liver and kidney injury. The immunosuppressive drugs also interact with other medicines and affect their metabolism and action. Actual or suspected immunosuppressive agents can be evaluated in terms of their effects on lymphocyte subpopulations in tissues using immunohistochemistry.
See also
Immunosuppression
BK virus
Behcet's Disease
Discovery and development of mTOR inhibitors
Treatment methods for preventing organ rejection
References
External links
Pancreas-Kidney Transplantation: Drugs, a brief history of immunosuppressive drugs. Accessed on 21 August 2005.
WSAVA 2001 – Immunosuppressive drug therapy, from the veterinary point of view. By Mark Papich. Accessed on 21 August 2005.
Newer Immunosuppressive Drugs;A Review -Gummert et al. – J Am Soc Nephrol 10:1366–1380, 1999. Free full text at JASN. Accessed on 21 August 2005.
Principles and Practice of Monitoring Immunosuppressive Drugs. W.V.Armstrong, J Lab Med, 2002, 26 (1/2): 27–36. PDF. Accessed on 21 August 2005.
Are Immunosuppressive Drugs a Useful Adjuvant to Treatment of HIV with Antiretrovirals?. Hivandhepatitis.com. Accessed on 21 August 2005.
Immunosuppression. By Randy P Prescilla, MD; accessed on Emedicine.com on 21 August 2005
National Kidney Foundation: A to Z Health Guide, answers to some frequently asked questions about immunosuppression in renal transplantation for a layman. Accessed on 21 August 2005.
Immunosuppressants, Pharmacologic profile. Drugguide.com. Accessed on 15 March 2016
Immunosuppressants, a collection of links at About.com. Accessed ob 21 August 2005.
Transplantation medicine
Organ transplantation | [
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249960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection | Injection | Injection or injected may refer to:
Science and technology
Injection (medicine), insertion of liquid into the body with a syringe
Injection, in broadcasting, the level at which a subcarrier is sent by the transmitter, expressed as a percent of total modulation
Injection quill, used in the petrochemical industry to insert chemicals, typically inhibitors, for proper mixture within a base chemical
Fuel injection, a means of metering fuel into an internal combustion engine
Orbit injection, changing a stable orbit into a transfer orbit
Injective function, a mathematical function mapping distinct arguments to distinct values
Injection, in construction, insertion of consolidation materials (i.e., cement grout mixtures, gravel) by means of dry type rotary shortcrete high pressure pumps
Injection moulding, a technique for making parts from plastic material
Computing
Code injection, a security violation technique using unexpected program modification
Dependency injection, a programming design pattern, also referred to as inversion of control
Email injection, a security violation technique using web email forms
Fault injection, a software testing technique
Network injection, an attack on access points that are exposed to non-filtered network traffic
SQL injection, a security violation technique using database commands
Arts, entertainment and media
Injected (album), a 1995 album by Phunk Junkeez
Injected (band), a rock band from Atlanta, Georgia
Injection (comics), an Image Comics science fiction series by Warren Ellis and Declan Shalvey
Drug injection of recreational drugs
Other uses
Injection (economics), a financial boost to an economy
See also
Injunction
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249961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic%20acidosis | Lactic acidosis | Lactic acidosis is a medical condition characterized by the buildup of lactate (especially L-lactate) in the body, with formation of an excessively low pH in the bloodstream. It is a form of metabolic acidosis, in which excessive acid accumulates due to a problem with the body's oxidative metabolism.
Lactic acidosis is typically the result of an underlying acute or chronic medical condition, medication, or poisoning. The symptoms are generally attributable to these underlying causes, but may include nausea, vomiting, Kussmaul breathing (laboured and deep), and generalised weakness.
The diagnosis is made on biochemical analysis of blood (often initially on arterial blood gas samples), and once confirmed, generally prompts an investigation to establish the underlying cause to treat the acidosis. In some situations, hemofiltration (purification of the blood) is temporarily required. In rare chronic forms of lactic acidosis caused by mitochondrial disease, a specific diet or dichloroacetate may be used. The prognosis of lactic acidosis depends largely on the underlying cause; in some situations (such as severe infections), it indicates an increased risk of death.
Classification
The Cohen–Woods classification categorizes causes of lactic acidosis as:
Type A: Decreased tissue oxygenation (e.g., from decreased blood flow)
Type B
B1: Underlying diseases (sometimes causing type A)
B2: Medication or intoxication
B3: Inborn error of metabolism
Signs and symptoms
Lactic acidosis is commonly found in people who are unwell, such as those with severe heart and/or lung disease, a severe infection with sepsis, the systemic inflammatory response syndrome due to another cause, severe physical trauma, or severe depletion of body fluids. Symptoms in humans include all those of typical metabolic acidosis (nausea, vomiting, generalized muscle weakness, and laboured and deep breathing).
Causes
The several different causes of lactic acidosis include:
Genetic conditions
Biotinidase deficiency, multiple carboxylase deficiency, or nongenetic deficiencies of biotin
Diabetes mellitus and deafness
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase deficiency
Glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency
GRACILE syndrome
Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes
Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency
Pyruvate carboxylase deficiency
Leigh syndrome
Drugs
Linezolid
Paracetamol/acetaminophen poisoning
Metformin: this risk is low (less than 10 cases for 100,000 patient years), but the risk of metformin-induced lactic acidosis (MALA) increases in certain situations where both the plasma levels of metformin are increased and lactate clearance is impaired. The older related and now withdrawn drug phenformin carried a much higher risk of lactic acidosis.
Isoniazid toxicity
Propofol
Epinephrine
Propylene glycol (D-lactic acidosis)
Nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors
Abacavir/dolutegravir/lamivudine
Emtricitabine/tenofovir
Potassium cyanide (cyanide poisoning)
Fialuridine
Other
Thiamine deficiency (especially during TPN)
Impaired delivery of oxygen to cells in the tissues (e.g., from impaired blood flow (hypoperfusion))
Bleeding
Polymyositis
Ethanol toxicity
Sepsis
Shock
Advanced liver disease
Diabetic ketoacidosis
Excessive exercise (overtraining)
Regional hypoperfusion (e.g., bowel ischemia or marked cellulitis)
Cancers such as Non-Hodgkin's and Burkitt lymphomas
Pheochromocytoma
Tumor lysis syndrome
D-lactic acidosis due to intestinal bacterial flora production in short gut syndrome
Pathophysiology
Glucose metabolism begins with glycolysis, in which the molecule is broken down into pyruvate in ten enzymatic steps. A significant proportion of pyruvate is converted into lactate (usually 10:1). The human metabolism produces about 20 mmol/kg of lactic acid every 24 hours. This happens predominantly in tissues (especially muscle) that have high levels of the "A" isoform of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDHA), which predominantly converts pyruvate into lactate. The lactate is carried by the bloodstream to other tissues where it is converted at the expense of ATP back to pyruvate by the "B" isoform of LDH (LDHB). Firstly there is gluconeogenesis in the liver (as well as the kidney and some other tissues), where pyruvate is converted into glucose; this is known as the Cori cycle. In addition, lactate moved to other tissues enters the citric acid cycle and eventually oxidative phosphorylation, a process that yields ATP.
Elevations in lactate are either a consequence of increased production or of decreased metabolism. With regards to metabolism, this predominantly takes place in the liver (70%), which explains that lactate levels may be elevated in the setting of liver disease.
In "type A" lactic acidosis, the production of lactate is attributable to insufficient oxygen for aerobic metabolism. If there is no oxygen available for the parts of the glucose metabolism that require oxygen (citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation), excess pyruvate will be converted in excess lactate. In "type B" lactic acidosis the lactate accumulates because there is a mismatch between glycolysis activity and the remainder of glucose metabolism. Examples are situations where the sympathetic nervous system is highly active (e.g. severe asthma). There is controversy as to whether elevated lactate in acute illness can be attributed to tissue hypoxia; there is limited empirical support for this theoretical notion.
Diagnosis
Acid-base disturbances such as lactic acidosis are typically first assessed using arterial blood gas tests. Testing of venous blood is also available as an alternative as they are effectively interchangeable. Normally resulting lactate concentrations are in the range indicated below:
Lactic acidosis is classically defined as an elevated lactate together with pH < 7.35 and bicarbonate below 20 mmol/l, but this is not required as lactic acidosis may exist together with other acid-base abnormalities that may affect these two parameters.
Treatment
If elevated lactate is present in acute illness, supporting the oxygen supply and blood flow are key initial steps. Some vasopressors (drugs that augment the blood pressure) are less effective when lactate levels are high, and some agents that stimulate the beta-2 adrenergic receptor can elevate the lactate further.
Direct removal of lactate from the body (e.g. with hemofiltration or dialysis) is difficult, with limited evidence for benefit; it may not be possible to keep up with the lactate production.
Limited evidence supports the use of sodium bicarbonate solutions to improve the pH (which is associated with increased carbon dioxide generation and may reduce the calcium levels).
Lactic acidosis caused by inherited mitochondrial disorders (type B3) may be treated with a ketogenic diet and possibly with dichloroacetate (DCA), although this may be complicated by peripheral neuropathy and has a weak evidence base.
Prognosis
Mild and transient elevations in lactate have limited impact on mortality, whereas sustained and severe lactate elevations are associated with a high mortality.
The mortality of lactic acidosis in people taking metformin was previously reported to be 50%, but in more recent reports this was closer to 25%.
Other animals
Reptiles
Reptiles, which rely primarily on anaerobic energy metabolism (glycolysis) for intense movements, can be particularly susceptible to lactic acidosis. In particular, during the capture of large crocodiles, the animals' use of their glycolytic muscles often alter the blood's pH to a point where they are unable to respond to stimuli or move. Cases are recorded in which particularly large crocodiles which put up extreme resistance to capture later died of the resulting pH imbalance.
Certain turtle species have been found to be capable of tolerating high levels of lactic acid without suffering the effects of lactic acidosis. Painted turtles hibernate buried in mud or underwater and do not resurface for the entire winter. As a result, they rely on anaerobic respiration to provide the majority of their energy needs. Adaptations in particular in the turtle's blood composition and shell allow it to tolerate high levels of lactic acid accumulation. In the anoxic conditions where anaerobic respiration is dominant, calcium levels in the blood plasma increase. This calcium serves as a buffer, reacting with the excess lactate to form the precipitate calcium lactate. This precipitate is suggested to be reabsorbed by the shell and skeleton, thereby removing it from the bloodstream; studies examining turtles that have been subjected to prolonged anoxic conditions have up to 45% of their lactate stored within their skeletal structure.
Ruminants
In ruminant livestock, the cause of clinically serious lactic acidosis is different from the causes described above.
In domesticated ruminants, lactic acidosis may occur as a consequence of ingesting large amounts of grain, especially when the rumen population is poorly adapted to deal with grain. Activity of various rumen organisms results in accumulation of various volatile fatty acids (normally, mostly acetic, propionic, and butyric acids), which are partially dissociated. Although some lactate is normally produced in the rumen, it is normally metabolized by such organisms as Megasphaera elsdenii and, to a lesser extent, Selenomonas ruminantium and some other organisms. With high grain consumption, the concentration of dissociated organic acids can become quite high, resulting in rumen pH dropping below 6. Within this lower pH range, Lactobacillus spp. (producing lactate and hydrogen ions) are favored, and M. elsdenii and S. ruminantium are inhibited, tending to result in a considerable rise of lactate and hydrogen ion concentrations in the rumen fluid. The pKa of lactic acid is low, about 3.9, versus, for example, 4.8 for acetic acid; this contributes to the considerable drop in rumen pH which can occur.
Because of the high solute concentration of the rumen fluid under such conditions, considerable water is translocated from the blood to the rumen along the osmotic potential gradient, resulting in dehydration which cannot be relieved by drinking, and which can ultimately lead to hypovolemic shock. As more lactate accumulates and rumen pH drops, the ruminal concentration of undissociated lactic acid increases. Undissociated lactic acid can cross the rumen wall to the blood, where it dissociates, lowering blood pH. Both L and D isomers of lactic acid are produced in the rumen; these isomers are metabolized by different metabolic pathways, and activity of the principal enzyme involved in metabolism of the D isomer declines greatly with lower pH, tending to result in an increased ratio of D:L isomers as acidosis progresses.
Measures for preventing lactic acidosis in ruminants include avoidance of excessive amounts of grain in the diet, and gradual introduction of grain over a period of several days, to develop a rumen population capable of safely dealing with a relatively high grain intake. Administration of lasalocid or monensin in feed can reduce risk of lactic acidosis in ruminants, inhibiting most of the lactate-producing bacterial species without inhibiting the major lactate fermenters. Also, using a higher feeding frequency to provide the daily grain ration can allow higher grain intake without reducing the pH of the rumen fluid.
Treatment of lactic acidosis in ruminants may involve intravenous administration of dilute sodium bicarbonate, oral administration of magnesium hydroxide, and/or repeated removal of rumen fluids and replacement with water (followed by reinoculation with rumen organisms, if necessary).
References
External links
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249962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipodystrophy | Lipodystrophy | Lipodystrophy syndromes are a group of genetic or acquired disorders in which the body is unable to produce and maintain healthy fat tissue. The medical condition is characterized by abnormal or degenerative conditions of the body's adipose tissue. ("Lipo" is Greek for "fat", and "dystrophy" is Greek for "abnormal or degenerative condition".) A more specific term, lipoatrophy, is used when describing the loss of fat from one area (usually the face). This condition is also characterized by a lack of circulating leptin which may lead to osteosclerosis. The absence of fat tissue is associated with insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and metabolic syndrome.
Types
Lipodystrophy can be divided into the following types:
Congenital lipodystrophy syndromes
Congenital generalized lipodystrophy (Beradinelli-Seip syndrome)
Familial partial lipodystrophy
Marfanoid–progeroid–lipodystrophy syndrome
Chronic atypical neutrophilic dermatosis with lipodystrophy and elevated temperature syndrome
Acquired lipodystrophy syndromes
Acquired partial lipodystrophy (Barraquer-Simons syndrome)
Acquired generalized lipodystrophy
Centrifugal abdominal lipodystrophy (Lipodystrophia centrifugalis abdominalis infantilis)
Lipoatrophia annularis (Ferreira-Marques lipoatrophia)
Localized lipodystrophy
HIV-associated lipodystrophy
Epidemiology
Congenital lipodystrophy (due to inherited genetic defect) is estimated to be extremely rare, possibly affecting only one per million persons. Acquired lipodystophy is much more common, especially affecting persons with HIV infection.
Pathogenesis
Due to an insufficient capacity of subcutaneous adipose tissue to store fat, fat is deposited in non-adipose tissue (lipotoxicity), leading to insulin resistance. Patients display hypertriglyceridemia, severe fatty liver disease and little or no adipose tissue. Average patient lifespan is approximately 30 years before death, with liver failure being the usual cause of death. In contrast to the high levels seen in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease associated with obesity, leptin levels are very low in lipodystropy.
Insulin injections
A lipodystrophy can be a lump or small dent in the skin that forms when a person performs injections repeatedly in the same spot. These types of lipodystrophies are harmless and can be avoided by changing (rotating) the locations of injections. For those with diabetes, using purified insulins may also help.
One of the side-effects of lipodystrophy is the rejection of the injected medication, the slowing down of the absorption of the medication, or trauma that can cause bleeding that, in turn, will reject the medication. In any of these scenarios, the dosage of the medication, such as insulin for diabetics, becomes impossible to gauge correctly and the treatment of the disease for which the medication is administered is impaired, thereby allowing the medical condition to worsen.
In some cases, rotation of the injection sites may not be enough to prevent lipodystrophy.
Antiretroviral drugs
Lipodystrophy can be a possible side effect of antiretroviral drugs. Other lipodystrophies manifest as lipid redistribution, with excess, or lack of, fat in various regions of the body. These include, but are not limited to, having sunken cheeks and/or "humps" on the back or back of the neck (also referred to as buffalo hump) which also exhibits due to excess cortisol. Lipoatrophy is most commonly seen in patients treated with thymidine analogue nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors like zidovudine (AZT) and stavudine (d4T).
Diagnosis
The diagnosis is a clinical diagnosis, established by an experienced endocrinologist. A genetic confirmation may be possible depending on the subtype. In up to ~40% of partial lipodystrophy patients, a causative gene has not been identified. Using a skinfold caliper to measure skinfold thickness in various parts of the body may or a total body composition scan using Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry may help identify the subtype. Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry may be useful by providing both regional %fat measurements, and direct visualization of fat distribution by means of a "fat shadow".
Treatment
Leptin replacement therapy with human recombinant leptin metreleptin has been shown to be an effective therapy to alleviate the metabolic complications associated with lipodystrophy, and has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of generalized lipodystrophy syndromes. In Europe based on EMA, metreleptin should be used in addition to diet to treat lipodystrophy, where patients have loss of fatty tissue under the skin and build-up of fat elsewhere in the body such as in the liver and muscles. The medicine is used in: adults and children above the age of two years with generalised lipodystrophy (Berardinelli-Seip syndrome and Lawrence syndrome) and in adults and children above the age of 12 years with partial lipodystrophy (including Barraquer-Simons syndrome), when standard treatments have failed.
Volanesorsen is an Apo-CIII inhibitor that is currently being investigated as a potential therapeutic to reduce hypertriglycerides in Familial Partial Lipodystrophy patients in the BROADEN study.
Society and culture
Lipodystrophy United is an American organization founded and run by lipodystrophy patients to support each other and raise awareness about lipodystrophy syndromes.
Lipodystrophy UK is a dedicated UK charity set up to support people affected by Lipodystrophy.
March 31 is observed as the World Lipodystrophy Day.
See also
Keppen–Lubinsky syndrome
Lipoedema
References
External links
Conditions of the subcutaneous fat | [
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249963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrovascular%20disease | Macrovascular disease | Macrovascular disease is a disease of any large (macro) blood vessels in the body. It is a disease of the large blood vessels, including the coronary arteries, the aorta, and the sizable arteries in the brain and in the limbs.
This sometimes occurs when a person has had diabetes for an extended period of time. Fat and blood clots build up in the large blood vessels and stick to the vessel walls.
Three common macrovascular diseases are coronary disease (in the heart), cerebrovascular disease (in the brain), and peripheral vascular disease (in the limbs)
Macrovascular disease (macroangiopathy) refers to atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a form of arteriosclerosis (thickening and hardening of arterial walls), characterized by plaque deposits of lipids, fibrous connective tissue, calcium, and other blood substances. Atherosclerosis, by definition, affects only medium and large arteries (excluding arterioles).
Macrovascular disease is associated with the development of coronary artery disease, peripheral vascular disease, brain attack (stroke), and increased risk of infection. Type 2 diabetes is more closely associated with macrovascular diseases than type 1 diabetes. Peripheral vascular disease and increased risk of infection have important implications in the care of the acutely ill patient.
References
Vascular diseases | [
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249964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microangiopathy | Microangiopathy | Microangiopathy (microvascular disease, small vessel disease (SVD) or microvascular dysfunction, is a disease of the microvessels, small blood vessels in the microcirculation. It can be contrasted to coronary heart disease, an angiopathy that affects the larger vessels.
Cerebral small vessel disease refers to a group of diseases that affect the small arteries, arterioles, venules, and capillaries of the brain. Age-related and hypertension-related small vessel diseases and cerebral amyloid angiopathy are the most common forms.
Coronary small vessel disease is a type of coronary heart disease that affects the arterioles and capillaries of the heart. Coronary small vessel disease is also known as microvascular angina, microvascular dysfunction, non-obstructive coronary disease, or previously cardiac syndrome X.
Pathophysiology
One cause of microangiopathy is long-term diabetes mellitus. In this case, high blood glucose levels cause the endothelial cells lining the blood vessels to take in more glucose than normal (these cells do not depend on insulin). They then form more glycoproteins on their surface than normal, and also cause the basement membrane in the vessel wall to grow abnormally thicker and weaker. Therefore they bleed, leak protein, and slow the flow of blood through the body. As a result, some organs and tissues do not get enough blood (carrying oxygen & nutrients) and are damaged, for example, the retina (diabetic retinopathy) or kidney (diabetic nephropathy). Nerves and neurons, if not sufficiently supplied with blood, are also damaged, which leads to loss of function (diabetic neuropathy, especially peripheral neuropathy).
Massive microangiopathy may cause microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (MAHA).
Therapy
See therapy of arteriosclerosis.
Laser therapy of diabetic retinopathy.
A number of medicines, such as calcium dobesilate, are being marketed for the specific treatment of microangiopathy. The efficacy of calcium dobesilate has been described e.g. in patients with diabetic retinopathy or diabetic nephropathy.
References
External links
Histopathology | [
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249969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas%20transplantation | Pancreas transplantation | A pancreas transplant is an organ transplant that involves implanting a healthy pancreas (one that can produce insulin) into a person who usually has diabetes.
Overview
Because the pancreas is a vital organ, performing functions necessary in the digestion process, the recipient's native pancreas is left in place, and the donated pancreas is attached in a different location. In the event of rejection of the new pancreas, which would quickly cause life-threatening diabetes, there would be a significant chance the recipient would not survive very well for long without the native pancreas, however dysfunctional, still in place. The healthy pancreas comes from a donor who has just died or it may be a partial pancreas from a living donor. At present, pancreas transplants are usually performed in persons with insulin-dependent diabetes, who can develop severe complications. Patients with the most common, and deadliest, form of pancreatic cancer (pancreatic adenomas, which are usually malignant, with a poor prognosis and high risk for metastasis, as opposed to more treatable pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors or pancreatic insulinomas) are usually not eligible for valuable pancreatic transplantations, since the condition usually has a very high mortality rate and the disease, which is usually highly malignant and detected too late to treat, could and probably would soon return. Better surgical method can be chosen to minimize the surgical complications with enteric or bladder drainage. Advancement in immunosuppression has improved quality of life after transplantation.
Medical uses
In most cases, pancreas transplantation is performed on individuals with type 1 diabetes with end-stage renal disease, brittle diabetes, and hypoglycaemic unawareness. However, selected type 2 diabetics can also benefit from a pancreas transplant. The indications for a type 2 diabetic are a BMI < 30 kg/m2 and low overall insulin requirement (< 1 U/kg/day). The majority of pancreas transplantations (> 90%) are simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplantations.
Complications
Complications immediately after surgery include clotting of the arteries or veins of the new pancreas (thrombosis), inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis), infection, bleeding and rejection. Rejection may occur immediately or at any time during the patient's life. This is because the transplanted pancreas comes from another organism, thus the recipient's immune system will consider it as an aggression and try to combat it. Organ rejection is a serious condition and ought to be treated immediately. In order to prevent it, patients must take a regimen of immunosuppressive drugs. Drugs are taken in combination consisting normally of ciclosporin, azathioprine and corticosteroids. But as episodes of rejection may reoccur throughout a patient's life, the exact choices and dosages of immunosuppressants may have to be modified over time. Sometimes tacrolimus is given instead of ciclosporin and mycophenolate mofetil instead of azathioprine.
Types
There are four main types of pancreas transplantation:
Pancreas transplant alone, for the patient with type 1 diabetes who usually has severe, frequent hypoglycemia, but adequate kidney function. This pancreas transplant known as PTA has as of recently been showing up with good results. This is the least performed method of pancreas transplantation and requires that only the pancreas of a donor is given to the recipient.
Simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplant (SPK), when the pancreas and kidney are transplanted simultaneously from the same deceased donor. This is the most commonly performed pancreas transplant operation. Indications for an SPK are End Stage Renal Disease with type 1 diabetes (with other diabetic complications like neuropathy, gastroparesis etc.) This is the most common type of pancreas transplantation. The basic reason for this is that patients are mostly already on immunosuppressive drugs and the addition of the kidneys simultaneously reduces the risk in surgical procedure.
Pancreas-after-kidney transplant (PAK), when a cadaveric, or deceased, donor pancreas transplant is performed after a previous, and different, living or deceased donor kidney transplant. This method is usually recommended for diabetic patients after having a successful kidney transplant. The downside of this procedure is that patients are required to go through surgical risk twice.
Simultaneous deceased donor pancreas and live donor kidney (SPLK) has the benefit of lower rate of delayed graft function than SPK and significantly reduced waiting times, resulting in improved outcomes.
Preservation until implantation
Standard practice is to replace the donor's blood in the pancreatic tissue with an ice-cold organ storage in the solution, such as UW (Viaspan) or HTK until the allograft pancreatic tissue is implanted.
Prognosis
The prognosis after pancreas transplantation is very good. Over the recent years, long-term success has improved and risks have decreased. One year after transplantation more than 95% of all patients are still alive and 80–85% of all pancreases are still functional. After transplantation patients need lifelong immunosuppression. Immunosuppression increases the risk for a number of different kinds of infection and cancer.
It is unclear if steroids, which are often used as immunosuppressant, can be replaced with something else.
History
As described by a pioneer in the field, D.E. Sutherland, whole pancreas transplantation began as a part of multi-organ transplants, in the mid-to-late 1960s, at the University of Minnesota:
The first pancreas transplantation, performed in a multi-organ transplant with kidney and duodenum, was into a 28-year-old woman; her death three month post-surgery did not obscure the apparent success of the pancreatic replacement. It was performed in 1966 by the team of W.D. Kelly, R.C. Lillehei, F.K. Merkel, Y. Idezuki, F.C. Goetz and coworkers at the University Hospitals, University of Minnesota, three years after the first kidney transplantation. The first living-related partial pancreas transplantation was done in 1979.
In the successive 1980's period, there was significant improvements in immunosuppressive drugs, surgical techniques, and the preservation of organs. The prognosis is very good with 95% of patients still alive after one year post-surgery and 80-85% of all pancreases still functional.
In 2010 Ugo Boggi practices state-of-the-art robotic surgery having performed the first world robotic pancreas transplant and the first world robotic distal selective spleno-renal shunt for the treatment of severe portal hypertension.
References
Further reading
Full text
External links
VIDEO - Last 10 years of pancreas transplantation, by Dixon Kaufman, MD, PhD. University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, 2011.
Diabetes Institute for Immunology and Transplantation
International Pancreas and Islet Transplant Association
Pancreas transplantation at the University of Illinois at Chicago
Organ transplantation
Accessory digestive gland surgery | [
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249971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proinsulin | Proinsulin | Proinsulin is the prohormone precursor to insulin made in the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans, specialized regions of the pancreas. In humans, proinsulin is encoded by the INS gene. The islets of Langerhans only secrete between 1% and 3% of proinsulin intact. However, because proinsulin has a longer half life than insulin, it can account for anywhere from 5–30% of the insulin-like structures circulating in the blood. There are higher concentrations of proinsulin after meals and lower levels when a person is fasting. Additionally, while proinsulin and insulin have structural differences, proinsulin does demonstrate some affinity for the insulin receptor. Due to the relative similarities in structure, proinsulin can produce between 5% and 10% of the metabolic activity similarly induced by insulin.
Proinsulin is the final single chain protein structure secreted by cells before cleavage into mature insulin. Proinsulin was discovered by Professor Donald F. Steiner of the University of Chicago in 1967.
Structure
Proinsulin is made up of 86 residues in humans (81 in cows), and formed by three distinct chains. The A chain, B chain, and the area connecting the two named the C peptide. The correct structure of proinsulin is crucial for the correct folding of mature insulin, as the placement of the C peptide sets the molecule up to create correctly positioned disulfide bonds in and between the A and B chains. There are three disulfide bonds that are necessary for mature insulin to be the correct structure. Two of these disulfide bonds are between the A and B chains, and one is an intra-A chain bond. The disulfide bonds occur between the seventh residues of the A and B chain, the 20th residue of the A chain and the 19th residue of the B chain, and the 6th and 11th residues of the A chain.
The C peptide is between the A and B chains of proinsulin. The connection between the A chain and C peptide is much more stable than the junction between the C peptide and B chain, with alpha helical features being exhibited near the C peptide-A chain connection. The C peptide-A chain junction occurs between residues 64 and 65 of proinsulin. These are lysine and arginine molecules, respectively. The C peptide-B chain connection is between two arginine residues at positions 31 and 32 of proinsulin.
There is conservation of much of the structure of proinsulin among mammalian species, with much of the residue changes seen from one species to another present in the C peptide. That said, the residues of the C peptide that are conserved across species interact with similarly conserved residues on the A and B chains. Thus, it is hypothesized that these conserved residues are important for the functionality of mature insulin.
Synthesis and Post-translational Modification
Proinsulin is synthesized on membrane associated ribosomes found on the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where it is folded and its disulfide bonds are oxidized. It is then transported to the Golgi apparatus where it is packaged into secretory vesicles, and where it is processed by a series of proteases to form mature insulin. Mature insulin has 35 fewer amino acids; 4 are removed altogether, and the remaining 31 form the C-peptide. The C-peptide is abstracted from the center of the proinsulin sequence; the two other ends (the B chain and A chain) remain connected by disulfide bonds.
The post translational modification of proinsulin to mature insulin only occurs in the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans. When proinsulin is transported through the Golgi apparatus the C-peptide is cleaved. This cleavage occurs with the aid of two endoproteases. Type I endoproteases, PC1 and PC3, disrupt the C peptide-B chain connection. PC2, a type II endoprotease, cleaves the C peptide-A chain bond. The resulting molecule, now mature insulin, is stored as a hexamer in secretory vesicles and is stabilized with ions until it is secreted.
Immunogenicity
When insulin was originally purified from bovine or porcine pancreata, all the proinsulin was not fully removed. When some people used these insulins, the proinsulin may have caused the body to react with a rash, to resist the insulin, or even to make dents or lumps in the skin at the place where the insulin was injected. This can be described as an iatrogenic injury due to slight differences between the proinsulin of different species. Since the late 1970s, when highly purified porcine insulin was introduced, and the level of insulin purity reached 99%, this ceased to be a significant clinical issue. With respect to their influence on insulin pharmacokinetics, moderate concentrations of certain insulin antibodies may be of positive advantage to all diabetics without endogenous insulin secretion (e.g. people with type 1 diabetes) because insulin binding antibodies effectively increase the insulin's clearance rate and distribution space and help to prolong its pharmacological and biological half lives.
Medical Relevance
Historically, the focus of many insulin related metabolic diseases has focused on mature insulin. However, in recent years the importance of studying the structure and function of proinsulin or proinsulin:insulin ratio in relation to these diseases has become increasingly clear.
Diabetes Mellitus
Increased levels of proinsulin in the circulatory system relative to mature insulin concentrations can indicate impending insulin resistance and the development of type 2 diabetes. Additional problems with proinsulin that can lead to diabetes include mutations in the number of cysteines present, which could affect correct folding. If the mutation causes only a mild change it could simply stress the endoplasmic reticulum’s ability to properly fold the protein. This stress, after a while, would lead to a decrease in the number of β-cells producing mature insulin, and would then lead to diabetes mellitus.
Neonatal Diabetes Mellitus
Postnatal proinsulin is crucial for metabolic regulation. However, proinsulin in neonates is important for normal development of the nerves of the eye, development of the heart, and general survival of embryonic cells. Regulation of the concentration of proinsulin during embryonic development is crucial, as too much or too little of the peptide can cause defects and death of the fetus. Thus far in the study of neonatal diabetes mellitus, only amino acid change mutations found in the B domain lead to the disease.
See also
insulin
preproinsulin
signal peptide
signal peptide peptidase
proprotein convertase 1 (PC1)
proprotein convertase 2 (PC2)
References
Peptides
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249972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20North | Peter North | Peter North may refer to:
Sir Peter North (legal scholar) (born 1936), English legal scholar
Peter North (actor) (born 1957), Canadian pornographic actor, director, and producer
Peter North (politician) (born 1960), Canadian politician | [
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